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[ [ "Episome" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''episome''' is a special type of plasmid, which remains as a part of the eukaryotic genome without integration.", "Episomes manage this by replicating together with the rest of the genome and subsequently associating with metaphase chromosomes during mitosis.", "Episomes do not degrade, unlike standard plasmids, and can be designed so that they are not epigenetically silenced inside the eukaryotic cell nucleus.", "Episomes can be observed in nature in certain types of long-term infection by adeno-associated virus or Epstein-Barr virus.", "In 2004, it was proposed that non-viral episomes might be used in genetic therapy for long-term change in gene expression.As of 1999, there were many known sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that allow a standard plasmid to become episomally retained.", "One example is the S/MAR sequence.The length of episomal retention is fairly variable between different genetic constructs and there are many known features in the sequence of an episome which will affect the length and stability of genetic expression of the carried transgene.", "Among these features is the number of CpG sites which contribute to epigenetic silencing of the transgene carried by the episome." ], [ "Mechanism of episomal retention", "The mechanism behind episomal retention in the case of S/MAR episomes is generally still uncertain.", "As of 1985, in the case of latent Epstein-Barr virus infection, episomes seemed to be associated with nuclear proteins of the host cell through a set of viral proteins." ], [ "Episomes in prokaryotes", "Episomes in prokaryotes are special sequences which can divide either separate from or integrated into the prokaryotic chromosome." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EasyWriter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''EasyWriter''' was a word processor first written for the Apple II series computer in 1979, the first word processor for that platform." ], [ "History", "Published by Information Unlimited Software (IUS), it was written by John Draper's Cap'n Software, which also produced a version of Forth, which EasyWriter was developed in.", "Draper developed EasyWriter while serving nights in the Alameda County Jail under a work furlough program.It was later ported to the IBM PC and released with the new computer in August 1981 as a launch title.", "Many criticized EasyWriter 1.0, distributed by IBM, for being buggy and hard to use; ''PC Magazine'' told the company as early as December 1981 that subscribers \"wish IBM had provided better word processing\".", "The company quickly persuaded IUS to develop a new version.", "(When founder William Baker later sent \"I Survived EasyWriter\" T-shirts, IBM returned them stating that it did not accept gifts.)", "IBM offered a free upgrade to version 1.10 to version 1.0 owners, but EasyWriter's poor quality had caused others to quickly provide alternatives, such as Camilo Wilson's Volkswriter.IUS released a separate application, EasyWriter II.", "Completely rewritten by Basic Software Group, IUS emphasized that II—developed with C instead of Forth—\"is not an updated version of the original IBM selection or its upgrade\"." ], [ "Reception", "''BYTE'' in 1981 reviewed EasyWriter and EasyWriter Professional for the Apple II, stating that \"editing is a pleasure with either version\", and approving of their features, user interface, and documentation.", "In an early review of the IBM PC, however, the magazine in 1982 stated that EasyWriter for it or the Apple II \"didn't seem to be of the same caliber as, say, VisiCalc or the Peachtree business packages\", citing the lack of ease of use and slow scrolling as flaws, and advised those who planned to use the IBM PC primarily for word processing to buy another computer until alternative software became available.", "Andrew Fluegelman wrote in ''PC Magazine'' that although EasyWriter 1.0 appeared to be an easy-to-use word processor for casual users, it \"contains a few very annoying inconveniences and some very serious traps\".", "He cited several bugs, slow performance, and user-interface issues, and later called it \"pretty much a lemon\".IBM's Don Estridge admitted in 1983 that he \"tried to use EasyWriter 1.0 and had the same experience everybody else had\".", "EasyWriter 1.10 resolved most of Fluegelman's complaints.", "He reported that it \"performs smoothly, will handle most any routine writing and printing job, and is easy to learn and operate\", and that if IBM had released 1.10 first EasyWriter would likely have become the standard PC word processor.", "''BYTE'' criticized EasyWriter II for running as a booter instead of using DOS, requiring specially formatted disks for storage and a utility to convert to DOS-formatted disks, not being compatible with double-sided drives, and using a heavily modal editing interface." ], [ "See also", "*List of word processors" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ed Sullivan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Vincent Sullivan''' (September 28, 1901 – October 13, 1974) was an American television host, impresario, sports and entertainment reporter, and syndicated columnist for the ''New York Daily News'' and the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate.", "He was the creator and host of the television variety program ''The Toast of the Town'', which in 1955 was renamed ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.", "Broadcast from 1948 to 1971, it set a record as the longest-running variety show in U.S. broadcast history.", "\"It was, by almost any measure, the last great American TV show\", said television critic David Hinckley.", "\"It's one of our fondest, dearest pop culture memories.", "\"Sullivan was a broadcasting pioneer during the early years of American television.", "As critic David Bianculli wrote, \"Before MTV, Sullivan presented rock acts.", "Before Bravo, he presented jazz and classical music and theater.", "Before the Comedy Channel, even before there was ''The Tonight Show'', Sullivan discovered, anointed and popularized young comedians.", "Before there were 500 channels, before there was cable, Ed Sullivan was where the choice was.", "From the start, he was indeed 'the Toast of the Town'.\"", "In 1996, Sullivan was ranked number 50 on ''TV Guide'''s \"50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time\"." ], [ "Early life and career", "Sullivan was born on September 28, 1901, in Harlem, New York City, to Elizabeth F. (née Smith) and Peter Arthur Sullivan, a customs house employee.", "His twin brother Daniel was sickly and lived only a few months.", "Sullivan was raised in Port Chester, New York, where the family lived in a small red brick home at 53 Washington Street.", "He was of Irish descent.", "The family loved music, frequently playing the piano, singing and playing phonograph records.", "Sullivan was a gifted athlete in high school, earning 12 athletic letters at Port Chester High School.", "He played football as a halfback, basketball as a guard and track as a sprinter.", "With the baseball team, Sullivan was a catcher and the team's captain, leading the team to several championships.", "Sullivan noted that, in the state of New York, integration was taken for granted in high-school sports: \"When we went up into Connecticut, we ran into clubs that had Negro players.", "In those days this was accepted as commonplace; and so, my instinctive antagonism years later to any theory that a Negro wasn't a worthy opponent or was an inferior person.", "It was just as simple as that.", "\"Sullivan landed his first job at ''The Port Chester Daily Item'', a local newspaper for which he had written sports news while in high school and which he joined full-time after graduation.", "In 1919, he joined ''The Hartford Post'', but the newspaper folded in his first week there.", "He next worked for ''The New York Evening Mail'' as a sports reporter.", "After the newspaper closed in 1923, he bounced through a series of news jobs with the Associated Press, the ''Philadelphia Bulletin'', ''The Morning World'', ''The Morning Telegraph'', ''The New York Bulletin'' and ''The Leader''.", "In 1927, Sullivan joined The ''New York Evening Graphic'', first as a sports writer and then as a sports editor.In 1929, when Walter Winchell moved to ''The Daily Mirror'', Sullivan was named the ''New York Evening Graphic'''s Broadway columnist.", "He left the paper for the city's largest tabloid, the ''New York Daily News''.", "His column, \"Little Old New York\", concentrated on Broadway shows and gossip, and Sullivan also delivered showbusiness news broadcasts on radio.", "In 1933, Sullivan wrote and starred in the film ''Mr.", "Broadway'', in which he guided the audience around New York nightspots to meet entertainers and celebrities.", "Sullivan soon became a powerful force in the entertainment world and one of Winchell's main rivals, setting the El Morocco nightclub in New York as his unofficial headquarters against Winchell's seat of power at the nearby Stork Club.", "Sullivan continued writing for the ''New York Daily News'' throughout his broadcasting career, and his popularity long outlived that of Winchell.", "In the late 1960s, Sullivan praised Winchell's legacy in a magazine interview, leading to a major reconciliation between the longtime adversaries.Throughout his career as a columnist, Sullivan had dabbled in entertainment, producing vaudeville shows with which he appeared as master of ceremonies in the 1920s and 1930s, directing a radio program over the original WABC and organizing benefit reviews for various causes." ], [ "Radio", "In 1941, Sullivan became host of the ''Summer Silver Theater'', a variety program on CBS, with Will Bradley as bandleader and a guest star featured each week." ], [ "Television", "Sullivan with Cole Porter on ''Toast of the Town'', 1952In 1948, producer Marlo Lewis convinced CBS to hire Sullivan to host a weekly Sunday-night television variety show, ''Toast of the Town'', which later became ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.", "Debuting in June 1948, the show was originally broadcast from Maxine Elliott's Theatre on West 39th Street in New York.", "In January 1953, it moved to CBS-TV Studio 50 at 1697 Broadway, a former CBS Radio playhouse that in 1967 was renamed the Ed Sullivan Theater (and was later the home of the ''Late Show with David Letterman'' and ''The Late Show with Stephen Colbert'').Television critics gave the new show and its host poor reviews.", "Harriet Van Horne alleged that \"he got where he is not by having a personality, but by having ''no'' personality.\"", "(The host wrote to the critic, \"Dear Miss Van Horne: You bitch.", "Sincerely, Ed Sullivan.\")", "Sullivan had little acting ability; in 1967, 20 years after his show's debut, ''Time'' magazine asked, \"What exactly is Ed Sullivan's talent?\"", "His mannerisms on camera were so awkward that some viewers believed the host suffered from Bell's palsy.", "''Time'' in 1955 stated that Sullivan resembledCarmen Miranda on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'', 1953\"Yet,\" the magazine concluded, \"instead of frightening children, Ed Sullivan charms the whole family.\"", "Sullivan appeared to the audience as an average guy who brought the great acts of show business to their home televisions.", "\"Ed Sullivan will last\", comedian Fred Allen said, \"as long as someone else has talent.\"", "Frequent guest Alan King said, \"Ed does nothing, but he does it better than anyone else in television.\"", "A typical show would feature a vaudeville act (such as acrobats, jugglers or magicians), one or two popular comedians, a singing star, a figure from the legitimate theater, an appearance by puppet Topo Gigio or a popular athlete.", "The bill was often international in scope, with many European performers appearing along with the American artists.Sullivan had a healthy sense of humor about himself and permitted and even encouraged impersonators such as John Byner, Frank Gorshin, Rich Little and especially Will Jordan to imitate him on his show.", "Johnny Carson also performed a fair impression, and even Joan Rivers imitated Sullivan's unique posture.", "The impressionists exaggerated his stiffness, raised shoulders and nasal tenor phrasing, along with some of his commonly used introductions, such as \"And now, right here on our stage...\", \"For all you youngsters out there...\" and \"a really big shew\" (his pronunciation of the word \"show\").", "The latter phrase was in fact in the exclusive domain of his impressionists, as Sullivan never actually spoke the phrase \"really big show\" during the opening introduction of any episode in the entire history of the series.", "Jordan portrayed Sullivan in the films ''I Wanna Hold Your Hand'', ''The Buddy Holly Story'', ''The Doors'', ''Mr.", "Saturday Night'', ''Down with Love'' and in the 1979 television movie ''Elvis''.Sullivan played himself, parodying his mannerisms as directed by Jerry Lewis, in Lewis' 1964 film ''The Patsy''.Sullivan inspired a song in the musical ''Bye Bye Birdie'' and in 1963 appeared as himself in the film.In 1954, Sullivan appeared as a cohost on the television musical special ''General Foods 25th Anniversary Show: A Salute to Rodgers and Hammerstein''." ], [ "Legacy", "Sullivan congratulates 13-year-old Itzhak Perlman after a concert in Tel Aviv, 1958.Sullivan was quoted as saying: \"In the conduct of my own show, I've never asked a performer his religion, his race or his politics.", "Performers are engaged on the basis of their abilities.", "I believe that this is another quality of our show that has helped win it a wide and loyal audience.\"", "Although Sullivan was wary of Elvis Presley's image and initially said that he would never book him, Presley became too big a name to ignore; in 1956, Sullivan signed him for three appearances.", "Six weeks earlier in August 1956, Sullivan and his son-in-law, the producer of the show, Robert Precht, were in a near fatal car accident near Sullivan's Connecticut country home in Southbury, Connecticut, and missed Presley's first appearance on September 9, when Charles Laughton introduced Presley.", "After Sullivan came to know Presley personally, he made amends by telling his audience, \"This is a real decent, fine boy.", "\"Sullivan with The Beatles, 1964Sullivan's failure to scoop the TV industry with Presley made him determined to book the next big sensation first.", "In November 1963, while at Heathrow Airport, Sullivan witnessed the Beatlemania spectacle as the band returned from Sweden and the terminal was overrun by screaming teens.", "At first Sullivan was reluctant to book the Beatles because the band did not yet have a commercially successful single in the U.S., but at the behest of his friend Sid Bernstein, Sullivan signed the group.", "Their initial Sullivan show appearance on February 9, 1964, was the most-watched program in TV history to that point.", "The Beatles appeared three more times in person and submitted filmed performances afterwards.", "The Dave Clark Five, who claimed a \"cleaner\" image than the Beatles, made 13 appearances on the show, more than any other UK group.Unlike many shows of the time, Sullivan asked that most musical acts perform their music live, rather than lip-synching to their recordings.", "However, exceptions were made, such as when a microphone could not be placed close enough to a performer for technical reasons.", "An example was B.J.", "Thomas' 1969 performance of \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\", in which water was sprinkled on him as a special effect.", "In 1969, Sullivan presented the Jackson 5 with their first single \"I Want You Back\", which ousted Thomas' song from the top spot of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.Sullivan, in full clown regalia, hosting the 1972 special ''Clownaround''Sullivan had an appreciation for black entertainers.", "According to biographer Gerald Nachman, \"Most TV variety shows welcomed 'acceptable' black superstars like Louis Armstrong, Pearl Bailey and Sammy Davis Jr. ... but in the early 1950s, long before it was fashionable, Sullivan was presenting the much more obscure black entertainers he had enjoyed in Harlem on his uptown rounds — legends like Peg Leg Bates, Pigmeat Markham and Tim Moore ... strangers to white America.\"", "He hosted pioneering TV appearances by Bo Diddley, the Platters, Brook Benton, Jackie Wilson, Fats Domino and numerous Motown acts including the Supremes, who appeared 17 times.", "As the critic John Leonard wrote, \"There wasn't an important black artist who didn't appear on Ed's show.", "\"Sullivan defied pressure to exclude black entertainers or to avoid interacting with them on screen.", "\"Sullivan had to fend off his hard-won sponsor, Ford's Lincoln dealers, after kissing Pearl Bailey on the cheek and daring to shake Nat King Cole's hand,\" Nachman wrote.", "According to biographer Jerry Bowles, \"Sullivan once had a Ford executive thrown out of the theatre when he suggested that Sullivan stop booking so many black acts.", "And a dealer in Cleveland told him 'We realize that you got to have niggers on your show.", "But do you have to put your arm around Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson at the end of his dance?'", "Sullivan had to be physically restrained from beating the man to a pulp.\"", "Sullivan later raised money to help pay for Robinson's funeral.", "He said: \"As a Catholic, it was inevitable that I would despise intolerance, because Catholics suffered more than their share of it.", "As I grew up, the causes of minorities were part and parcel of me.", "Negroes and Jews were the minority causes closest at hand.", "I need no urging to take a plunge in and help.", "\"At a time when television had not yet embraced country and western music, Sullivan featured Nashville performers on his program.", "This in turn paved the way for shows such as ''Hee Haw'' and variety shows hosted by Johnny Cash, Glen Campbell and other country singers.The Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster made the most appearances of any act throughout the show's run with 67 appearances between 1958 and 1969.Sullivan appeared as himself on other television programs, including an April 1958 episode of the Howard Duff and Ida Lupino CBS situation comedy ''Mr.", "Adams and Eve''.", "On September 14, 1958, Sullivan appeared on ''What's My Line?''", "as a mystery guest.", "In 1961, Sullivan substituted for Red Skelton on ''The Red Skelton Show''.", "Sullivan took Skelton's roles in the various comedy sketches, with Skelton's hobo character Freddie the Freeloader renamed Eddie the Freeloader." ], [ "Personality", "Sullivan was quick to take offense if he felt that he had been crossed, and he could hold a grudge for a long time.", "As he told biographer Gerald Nachman, \"I'm a pop-off.", "I flare up, then I go around apologizing.\"", "\"Armed with an Irish temper and thin skin,\" wrote Nachman, \"Ed brought to his feuds a hunger for combat fed by his coverage of, and devotion to, boxing.\"", "Bo Diddley, Buddy Holly, Jackie Mason, and Jim Morrison were parties to some of Sullivan's most storied conflicts.For his second Sullivan appearance in 1955, Bo Diddley planned to sing his namesake hit, \"Bo Diddley\", but Sullivan told him to perform Tennessee Ernie Ford's song \"Sixteen Tons\".", "\"That would have been the end of my career right there,\" Diddley told his biographer, so he sang \"Bo Diddley\" anyway.", "Sullivan was enraged: \"You're the first black boy that ever double-crossed me on the show,\" Diddley quoted him as saying.", "\"We didn't have much to do with each other after that.\"", "Later, Diddley resented that Elvis Presley, whom he accused of copying his revolutionary style and beat, received the attention and accolades on Sullivan's show that he felt were rightfully his.", "\"I am owed,\" he said, \"and I never got paid.\"", "\"He might have,\" wrote Nachman, \"had things gone smoother with Sullivan.", "\"Buddy Holly and the Crickets first appeared on the Sullivan show in 1957 to an enthusiastic response.", "For their second appearance in January 1958, Sullivan considered the lyrics of their chosen number \"Oh, Boy!\"", "too suggestive, and ordered Holly to substitute another song.", "Holly responded that he had already told his hometown friends in Texas that he would be singing \"Oh, Boy!\"", "for them.", "Sullivan, unaccustomed to having his instructions questioned, angrily repeated them, but Holly refused to back down.", "Later, when the band was slow to respond to a summons to the rehearsal stage, Sullivan commented, \"I guess the Crickets are not too excited to be on ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.\"", "Holly, still annoyed by Sullivan's attitude, replied, \"I hope they're damn more excited than I am.\"", "Sullivan retaliated by cutting them from two numbers to one, then mispronounced Holly's name during the introduction.", "He also saw to it that Holly's guitar amplifier volume was barely audible, except during his guitar solo.", "Nevertheless, the band was so well-received that Sullivan was forced to invite them back; Holly responded that Sullivan did not have enough money.", "Archival photographs taken during the appearance show Holly smirking and ignoring a visibly angry Sullivan.During Jackie Mason's October 1964 performance on a show that had been shortened by ten minutes due to an address by President Lyndon Johnson, Sullivan—on-stage but off-camera—signaled Mason that he had two minutes left by holding up two fingers.", "Sullivan's signal distracted the studio audience, and to television viewers unaware of the circumstances, it seemed as though Mason's jokes were falling flat.", "Mason, in a bid to regain the audience's attention, cried, \"I'm getting fingers here!\"", "and made his own frantic hand gesture: \"Here's a finger for you!\"", "Videotapes of the incident are inconclusive as to whether Mason's upswept hand (which was just off-camera) was intended to be an indecent gesture, but Sullivan was convinced that it was, and banned Mason from future appearances on the program.", "Mason later insisted that he did not know what the \"middle finger\" meant, and that he did not make the gesture anyway.", "In September 1965, Sullivan—who, according to Mason, was \"deeply apologetic\"—brought Mason on the show for a \"surprise grand reunion\".", "\"He said they were old pals,\" Nachman wrote, \"news to Mason, who never got a repeat invitation.\"", "Mason added that his earning power \"...was cut right in half after that.", "I never really worked my way back until I opened on Broadway in 1986.", "\"When the Byrds performed on December 12, 1965, David Crosby got into a shouting match with the show's director.", "They were never asked to return.Sullivan decided that \"Girl, we couldn't get much higher\", from the Doors' signature song \"Light My Fire\", was too overt a reference to drug use, and directed that the lyric be changed to \"Girl, we couldn't get much better\" for the group's September 1967 appearance.", "The band members \"nodded their assent\", according to Doors biographer Ben Fong-Torres, then sang the song as written.", "After the broadcast, producer Bob Precht told the group, \"Mr. Sullivan wanted you for six more shows, but you'll never work the ''Ed Sullivan Show'' again.\"", "Jim Morrison replied, \"Hey, man, we just ''did'' the ''Ed Sullivan Show''.", "\"The Rolling Stones famously capitulated during their fifth appearance on the show, in 1967, when Mick Jagger was told to change the titular lyric of \"Let's Spend the Night Together\" to \"Let's spend some time together\".", "\"But Jagger prevailed,\" wrote Nachman, by deliberately calling attention to the censorship, rolling his eyes, mugging, and drawing out the word \"t-i-i-i-me\" as he sang the revised lyric.", "Sullivan was angered by the insubordination, but the Stones did make one additional appearance on the show, in 1969.Moe Howard of the Three Stooges recalled in 1975 that Sullivan had a memory problem of sorts: \"Ed was a very nice man, but for a showman, quite forgetful.", "On our first appearance, he introduced us as the Three Ritz Brothers.", "He got out of it by adding, 'who look more like the Three Stooges to me'.\"", "Joe DeRita, who worked with the Stooges after 1959, had commented that Sullivan had a personality \"like the bottom of a bird cage.", "\"Diana Ross, who was very fond of Sullivan, later recalled Sullivan's forgetfulness during the many occasions the Supremes performed on his show.", "In a 1995 appearance on the ''Late Show with David Letterman'' (taped in the Ed Sullivan Theater), Ross stated, \"he could never remember our names.", "He called us 'the girls'.", "\"In a 1990 press conference, Paul McCartney recalled meeting Sullivan again in the early 1970s.", "Sullivan apparently had no idea who McCartney was.", "McCartney tried to remind Sullivan that he was one of the Beatles, but Sullivan obviously could not remember, and nodding and smiling, simply shook McCartney's hand and left.", "In an interview with Howard Stern around 2012, Joan Rivers said that Sullivan had been suffering from dementia toward the end of his life." ], [ "Politics", "Sullivan, like many American entertainers, was pulled into the Cold War anticommunism of the late 1940s and 1950s.", "Tap dancer Paul Draper's scheduled January 1950 appearance on ''Toast of the Town'' met with opposition from Hester McCullough, an activist in the hunt for \"subversives\".", "Branding Draper a Communist Party \"sympathizer\", she demanded that Sullivan's lead sponsor, the Ford Motor Company, cancel Draper's appearance.", "Draper denied the charge, and appeared on the show as scheduled.", "Ford received over a thousand angry letters and telegrams, and Sullivan was obliged to promise Ford's advertising agency, Kenyon & Eckhardt, that he would avoid controversial guests going forward.", "Draper was forced to move to Europe to earn a living.After the Draper incident, Sullivan began to work closely with Theodore Kirkpatrick of the anti-Communist ''Counterattack'' newsletter.", "He would consult Kirkpatrick if any questions came up regarding a potential guest's political leanings.", "Sullivan wrote in his June 21, 1950, ''Daily News'' column that \"Kirkpatrick has sat in my living room on several occasions and listened attentively to performers eager to secure a certification of loyalty.", "\"Cold War repercussions manifested in a different way when Bob Dylan was booked to appear in May 1963.His chosen song was \"Talkin' John Birch Paranoid Blues\", which poked fun at the ultraconservative John Birch Society and its tendency to see Communist conspiracies in many situations.", "No concern was voiced by anyone, including Sullivan, during rehearsals; but on the day of the broadcast, CBS's Standards and Practices department rejected the song, fearing that lyrics equating the Society's views with those of Adolf Hitler might trigger a defamation lawsuit.", "Dylan was offered the opportunity to perform a different song, but he responded that if he could not sing the number of his choice, he would rather not appear at all.", "The story generated widespread media attention in the days that followed; Sullivan denounced the network's decision in published interviews.Sullivan butted heads with Standards and Practices on other occasions, as well.", "In 1956, Ingrid Bergman—who had been living in \"exile\" in Europe since 1950 in the wake of her scandalous love affair with director Roberto Rossellini while they were both married—was planning a return to Hollywood as the star of ''Anastasia''.", "Sullivan, confident that the American public would welcome her back, invited her to appear on his show and flew to Europe to film an interview with Bergman, Yul Brynner, and Helen Hayes on the ''Anastasia'' set.", "When he arrived back in New York, Standards and Practices informed Sullivan that under no circumstances would Bergman be permitted to appear on the show, either live or on film.", "Sullivan's prediction later proved correct, as Bergman won her second Academy Award for her portrayal, as well as the forgiveness of her fans." ], [ "Personal life", "Sullivan with his wife Sylvia during his convalescence at Griffin Hospital, 1956Sullivan was engaged to champion swimmer Sybil Bauer, but she died of cancer in 1927 at the age of 23.In 1926, Sullivan met and began dating Sylvia Weinstein.", "Initially she told her family that she was dating a Jewish man named Ed Solomon, but her brother discovered it was Sullivan, who was Catholic.", "Both their families were strongly opposed to interfaith marriage, which resulted in a discontinuous relationship for the next three years.", "They were finally married on April 28, 1930, in a City Hall ceremony.", "Eight months later Sylvia gave birth to Elizabeth (\"Betty\"), named after Sullivan's mother, who had died that year.", "In 1952, Betty Sullivan married the ''Ed Sullivan Show'''s producer, Bob Precht.The Sullivans rented a suite of rooms at the Hotel Delmonico in 1944 after living at the Hotel Astor on Times Square for many years.", "Sullivan rented a suite next door to the family suite, which he used as an office until ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' was canceled in 1971.Sullivan habitually called his wife after every program to get her critique.The Sullivans regularly dined and socialized at New York City's best-known clubs and restaurants including the Stork Club, Danny's Hide-A-Way, and Jimmy Kelly's.", "His friends included celebrities and U.S. presidents.", "He also received audiences with popes.Sylvia Sullivan was a financial advisor for her husband.", "She died on March 16, 1973, at Mount Sinai Hospital from a ruptured aorta." ], [ "Later years and death", "Sullivan's star on the Hollywood Walk of FameIn the fall of 1965, CBS began televising its weekly programs in color.", "Although the Sullivan show was seen live in the Central and Eastern time zones, it was taped for airing in the Pacific and Mountain time zones.", "Excerpts have been released on home video, and posted on the official Ed Sullivan Show YouTube Channel.By 1971, the show's ratings had plummeted.", "In an effort to refresh the CBS lineup, CBS cancelled the program in March 1971, along with some of its other long-running shows throughout the 1970–1971 season (later known as the rural purge).", "Angered, Sullivan refused to host three more months of scheduled shows.", "They were replaced by reruns, and a final program without him aired in June.", "He remained with the network in various other capacities and hosted a 25th anniversary special in June 1973.In early September 1974, Sullivan was diagnosed with an advanced stage of esophageal cancer.", "Doctors gave him very little time to live, and the family chose to keep the diagnosis secret from him.", "Sullivan, a lifelong smoker, believed his ailment to be yet another complication from a long-standing battle with gastric ulcers.", "Sullivan died on October 13, 1974, at New York's Lenox Hill Hospital.", "His funeral was attended by 2,000 people at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, on a cold, rainy day.", "Sullivan is interred in a crypt at the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.Sullivan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6101 Hollywood Blvd.", "In 1985, Sullivan was welcomed to the Television Academy Hall of Fame." ], [ "References", "===Cited sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Leonard, John, ''The Ed Sullivan Age'', ''American Heritage'', May/June 1997, Volume 48, Issue 3* Nachman, Gerald, ''Ed Sullivan'', December 18, 2006.", "* Barthelme, Donald, \"And Now Let's Hear It for the Ed Sullivan Show!\"", "in ''Guilty Pleasures'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974" ], [ "External links", "* * Ed Sullivan Papers at the Wisconsin Historical Society Archives* Ed Sullivan documentary* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun''' (; 16 April 1755 – 30 March 1842), also known as '''Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun''' or simply as '''Madame Le Brun''', was a French painter who mostly specialized in portrait painting, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Her artistic style is generally considered part of the aftermath of Rococo with elements of an adopted Neoclassical style.", "Her subject matter and color palette can be classified as Rococo, but her style is aligned with the emergence of Neoclassicism.", "Vigée Le Brun created a name for herself in Ancien Régime society by serving as the portrait painter to Marie Antoinette.", "She enjoyed the patronage of European aristocrats, actors, and writers, and was elected to art academies in ten cities.", "Some famous contemporary artists, such as Joshua Reynolds, viewed her as one of the greatest portraitists of her time, comparing her with the old Dutch masters.Vigée Le Brun created 660 portraits and 200 landscapes.", "In addition to many works in private collections, her paintings are owned by major museums, such as the Louvre in Paris, Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, National Gallery in London, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and many other collections in Europe and the United States.", "Her personal habitus was characterized by a high sensitivity to sound, sight and smell.Between 1835 and 1837, when Vigée Le Brun was in her eighties, with the help of her nieces Caroline Rivière and Eugénie Tripier Le Franc:fr: Eugénie Tripier Le Franc|fr, she published her memoirs in three volumes (''Souvenirs''), some of which are in epistolary format.", "They also contain many pen portraits as well as advice for young portraitists." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Born in Paris on 16 April 1755, Élisabeth Louise Vigée was the daughter of Jeanne (; 1728–1800), a hairdresser from a peasant background, and Louis Vigée, a portraitist, pastellist and member of the Académie de Saint-Luc, who mostly specialized in painting with oils.", "Élisabeth exhibited artistic inclinations from her childhood, making a sketch of a bearded man at the age of seven or eight; when he first saw her sketches her father was jubilant and exclaimed that \"You will be a painter my child, if there ever was one\", and started to give her lessons in art In 1760, at the age of five, she had entered a convent, where she remained until 1766.She then worked as an assistant to her father's friend, the painter and poet Pierre Davesne, with whom she learned more about painting.", "Her father died when she was 12 years old, from infections after several surgical operations.", "In 1768, her mother married a wealthy but mean jeweller, Jacques-François Le Sèvre, and shortly after, the family moved to the Rue Saint-Honoré, close to the Palais Royal.", "In her memoir, Vigée Le Brun directly stated her feelings about her stepfather: \"I hated this man; even more so since he made use of my father's personal possessions.", "He wore his clothes, just as they were, without altering them to fit his figure.\"", "During this period, Élisabeth benefited from the advice of Gabriel François Doyen, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, and Joseph Vernet, whose influence is evident in her portrait of her younger brother, playwright and poet Étienne Vigée.", "After her father's death, her mother sought to raise her spirits by taking her to the Palais de Luxembourg's art gallery; seeing the works of Peter Paul Rubens and other old masters left a great impression on her.", "She also visited numerous private galleries, including those of Rendon de Boisset, the Duc de Praslin:fr:Antoine-César_de_Choiseul-Praslin|fr, and the Marquis de Levis; the artist took notes and copied the works of old masters such as Van Dyke, Rubens and Rembrandt to improve her art.At an early age, she reversed the order of her given names, and was known among her inner circle as 'Louise'.", "For most of her life, she signed her paintings, documents and letters as \"Louise élisabeth Vigee Le Brun\", although she acknowledged later in life that the correct baptismal order would be Élisabeth Louise.", "''Self-portrait at age sixteen'', 1771, pastel.By the time she was in her early teens, Élisabeth was painting portraits professionally.", "She greatly disliked the contemporary High Rococo fashion, and often solicited her sitters to allow her to alter their apparel.", "Inspired by Raphael and Domenichino, she often draped her subjects in shawls and long scarves; these styles would later become ubiquitous in her portraiture.", "After her studio was seized for her practicing without a license, she applied to the Académie de Saint-Luc, which unwittingly exhibited her works in its Salon.", "In 1774, she was made a member of the Académie.", "Her studio's reputation saw a meteoric rise, and her renown spread outside France.", "By 1774, she had painted portraits which included those of the Comte Orloff, Comte Pierre Chouvaloff:ru:Шувалов,_Пётр_Иванович|ru (one of Empress Elizabeth's favorites), the Comtesse de Brionne:fr:Louise-Julie-Constance de Brionne|fr, the Duchess of Orléans (future mother of King Louis Philippe), the Marquis de Choiseul, and the Chancellor de Aguesseau, among many others.", "In 1776, she received her first royal commission, to paint the portrait of the Comte de Provence (the future King Louis XVIII).After her stepfather retired from his business, he moved his family to the Hôtel de Lubert in Paris where she met Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Le Brun, a painter, art dealer and relation of the painter Charles Le Brun, on the Rue de Cléry where they lodged.", "Élisabeth visited M. Le Brun's apartments frequently to view his private collection of paintings, which included examples from many different schools.", "He agreed to her request to borrow some of the paintings in order to copy them and improve her skills, which she saw as one of the greatest boons of artistic instruction she had received.", "After residing in the Hôtel de Lubert for six months, M. Le Brun asked for the artist's hand in marriage.", "Élisabeth was in a dilemma as to whether to agree or refuse the offer; she had a steady source of income from her rising career as an artist and her future was secure; as such, she wrote, she had never contemplated marriage.", "On her mother's urging and goaded by her desire to be separated from her stepfather's worsening temperament, Élisabeth agreed, though her doubts were such that she was still hesitant on her wedding day on 11 January 1776; she was twenty years old.", "The wedding took place in great privacy in the Saint-Eustache church, with only two banns being read, and was kept secret for some time at the request of her husband, who was officially engaged to another woman at the time in an attempt to secure a lucrative art deal with a Dutch art dealer.", "Élisabeth acceded to his request as she was reluctant to give up her now famous maiden name.", "In 1778, she and her husband contracted to purchase the Hôtel de Lubert.", "In this same year she became the official painter to the Queen.During the two weeks after the wedding had taken place in secret, the artist was visited by a stream of people giving her ominous news regarding her husband, these people believing that she had still not agreed to his proposal.", "These visitors started with the court jeweller, followed by the Duchesse de Arenberg and Mme.", "de Souza, the Portuguese ambassadress, who passed stories of M. Le Brun's habits as a spendthrift and womanizer.", "Élisabeth would later regret this match as she found these rumors to be true, though she wrote that in spite of his faults he was still an agreeable and obliging man with a sweet nature.", "However, she frequently condemned his gambling and adulterous habits in her memoirs, as these left her in a financially critical position at the time of her flight from France.", "Her relationship with him deteriorated later so much that she demanded the refund of her dowry from M. Le Brun in 1802.Vigée Le Brun began exhibiting her work at their home, and the salons she held there supplied her with many new and important contacts.", "Her husband's great-great-uncle was Charles Le Brun, the first director of the French Academy under Louis XIV.", "Her husband appropriated most of her income and pressed her to also take on the role of a private tutor to increase his income from her.", "The artist found tutoring to be frustrating due to her inability to assert authority over her pupils, most of whom were older than her, and found the distraction from her work irritating; she renounced tutoring soon after she had begun.====Daughter Julie====''Self-portrait with her Daughter Julie'', 1786.252x252pxAfter two years of marriage, Vigée Le Brun became pregnant, and on 12 February 1780, she gave birth to a daughter, Jeanne Lucie Louise, whom she called Julie and nicknamed \"Brunette\".", "In 1784, she gave birth to a second child who died in infancy.In 1781, she and her husband toured Flanders, Brussels and the Netherlands, where seeing the works of the Flemish masters inspired her to try new techniques.", "Her ''Self-portrait in a Straw Hat'' (1782) was a \"free imitation\" of Rubens's ''Le Chapeau de Paille''.", "Dutch and Flemish influences have also been noted in ''The Comte d'Espagnac'' (1786) and ''Madame Perregaux'' (1789).", "It was also in Brussels that she met a longtime friend, the Prince de Ligne.In yet another of the series of scandals that marked her early career, her 1785 portrait of Louis XVI's minister of finance, M. de Calonne, was the target of a public scandal after it was exhibited in the Salon of 1785.Rumors circulated that the minister had paid the artist a very large sum of money, while other rumors circulated that she had had an affair with de Calonne.", "The famous Paris Opera soprano Mlle.", "de de Arnould commented on the portrait \"Madame Le Brun had cut off his legs so he could not escape\".", "More rumors and scandals followed soon after as, to the painter's dismay, M. Le Brun began building a mansion on the Rue de-Gros-Chenet, with the public claiming that de Calonne was financing the new home - although her husband did not finish constructing the house until 1801, shortly before her return to France after her long exile.", "She was also rumored to have had another affair, with the Comte de Vaudreuil, who was one of her most devoted patrons.", "Their correspondence published later strongly affirmed the status of this affair.", "These rumors spiraled into an extensive defamation campaign targeting the painter throughout 1785.In 1787, she caused a minor public scandal when her ''Self-portrait with her Daughter Julie'' was exhibited at that year's Salon showing her smiling and open-mouthed, which was in direct contravention of traditional painting conventions going back to antiquity.", "The court gossip-sheet ''Mémoires secrets'' commented: \"An affectation which artists, art-lovers and persons of taste have been united in condemning, and which finds no precedent among the Ancients, is that in smiling, Madame Vigée LeBrun shows her teeth.\"", "In light of this and her other ''Self-portrait with her Daughter Julie'' (1789), Simone de Beauvoir dismissed Vigée Le Brun as narcissistic in ''The Second Sex'' (1949): \"Madame Vigée-Lebrun never wearied of putting her smiling maternity on her canvases.", "\"In 1788, Vigée Le Brun was impressed with the faces of the Mysorean ambassadors of Tipu-Sultan, and solicited their approval to take their portraits.", "The ambassador responded by saying he would only agree if the request came from the King, which Vigée Le Brun procured, and she proceeded to paint the portrait of Dervish Khan, followed by a group portrait of the ambassador and his son.", "After finishing the portraits and leaving them with the ambassadors to dry, Vigée Le Brun sought their return in order to exhibit them in the Salon; one of the ambassadors refused the request, stating that a painting \"needs a soul\", and hid the paintings behind his bed.", "Vigée Le Brun managed to secure the portraits through the ambassador's valet, which enraged the ambassador to the point that he wished to kill his valet, but he was dissuaded from doing so as \"it was not custom in Paris to kill one's valet\".", "She falsely convinced the ambassador that the King wanted the portraits, and they were exhibited in the Salon of 1789.Unknown to the artist, these ambassadors were later executed upon their return to Mysore for failing in their mission to forge a military alliance with Louis XVI.", "After her husband's death, the paintings were sold along with the remnants of his estate, and Vigée Le Brun did not know who possessed them at the time she wrote her memoirs.===Marie Antoinette===''Marie Antoinette with a Rose'', 1783.Palace of Versailles.Marie-Antoinette en gaulle'', 1783.The criticism for this portrait's casual spontaneity had been so intense that Vigée Le Brun had it removed only a few days after it was displayed in the Salon of 1783, and quickly made a copy of it with the Queen wearing a blue silk dress, which was displayed instead.As her career blossomed, Vigée Le Brun was granted patronage by Marie Antoinette.", "She painted more than 30 portraits of the Queen and her family, leading to the common perception that she was the official portraitist of Marie Antoinette.", "At the Salon of 1783, Vigée Le Brun exhibited ''Marie-Antoinette in a Muslin Dress'' (1783), sometimes called ''Marie-Antoinette en gaulle'', in which the Queen chose to be shown in a simple, informal cotton muslin dress, worn as an undergarment.", "The resulting scandal was prompted by both the informality of the attire and the Queen's decision to be shown in that way.", "Vigée Le Brun immediately had the portrait removed from the Salon and quickly repainted it, this time with the Queen in more formal attire.", "After this scandal, the prices of Vigée Le Brun's paintings soared.====Marie Antoinette and her Children 1787====Marie Antoinette and her Children'', 1787.Palace of Versailles.During the Napoleonic regime, this portrait was taken down by order of Napoleon, who had become concerned about the number of people who visited the gallery to see it.", "Instead of removing it from the gallery, the guards placed it in a dark corner, and visitors paid a small sum of money to see it.", "Vigée Le Brun was pleased to see it again there after her return from exile, and later still to see it displayed normally after the Bourbon restoration.Vigée Le Brun's later ''Marie Antoinette and her Children'' (1787) was evidently an attempt to improve the Queen's image by making her more relatable to the public, in the hopes of countering the bad press and negative judgments that Marie Antoinette had recently received.", "The portrait shows the Queen at home in the Palace of Versailles, engaged in her official function as the mother of the King's children, but also suggests Marie Antoinette's uneasy identity as a foreign-born queen whose maternal role was her only true function under Salic law.", "The child, Louis Joseph, on the right is pointing to an empty cradle, which signified the Queen's recent loss of a child, further emphasizing Marie Antoinette's role as a mother.", "Vigée Le Brun was initially afraid of displaying this portrait due to the Queen's unpopularity and fear of another negative reaction to it, to such a degree that she locked herself in at home and prayed incessantly for its success.", "However, she was soon greatly pleased at the positive reception for this group portrait, which was presented to the King by M. de Angevilliers, Louis XVI's minister of arts.", "Vigée Le Brun herself was also presented to the King, who praised the painting and told her \"I know nothing about painting, but I grow to love it through you\".", "The portrait was hung in the halls of Versailles, so that Marie Antoinette passed it on her way to mass, but it was taken down after the Dauphin's death in 1789.Later on, during the First Empire, she painted a posthumous portrait of the Queen ascending to heaven with two angels, alluding to the two children she had lost, and Louis XVI seated on two clouds.", "This painting was titled ''The Apotheosis of the Queen''.", "It was displayed in the chapel of the Infirmerie Marie-Thérèse, rue Denfert-Rochereau, but vanished at some point in the 20th century.", "She also painted numerous other posthumous portraits of the Queen, and of King Louis XVI.===Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture===''Peace bringing back abundance'', 1783.223x223pxOn 31 May 1783, Vigée Le Brun was received as a member of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture.", "She was one of only 15 women to be granted full membership in the Académie between 1648 and 1793.Her rival, Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, was admitted on the same day.", "Vigée Le Brun was initially refused on the grounds that her husband was an art dealer, but eventually the Académie was overruled by an order from Louis XVI because Marie Antoinette put considerable pressure on the King on behalf of her portraitist.", "As her reception piece, Vigée Le Brun submitted an allegorical painting, ''Peace Bringing Back Abundance'' (''La Paix ramenant l'Abondance''), instead of a portrait, even though she was not asked for a reception piece.", "As a consequence, the Académie did not place her work within a standard category of painting—either history or portraiture.", "Vigée Le Brun's membership in the Académie was dissolved after the French Revolution because the category of female academicians was abolished.=== Flight from France ===''Madame Perregaux'', 1789.", "(née Adélaïde Harenc de Praël), the illegitimate daughter of Nicolas Beaujon, banker to Louis XV.", "Wallace Collection.", "Vigée Le Brun witnessed many of the events that accelerated the already rapid deterioration of the Ancien Régime.", "While travelling to Romainville to visit the Maréchal de Ségur in July 1788, the artist experienced the massive hailstorm that swept the country, and observed the resultant devastation of crops.", "As the turmoil of the French Revolution grew, the artist's house on the Rue de-Gros-Chenet was harassed by Sans-culottes due to her association with Marie Antoinette.", "Stricken with an intense anxiety, Vigée Le Brun's health deteriorated.", "M. and Mme.", "Brongniart pleaded with her to live with them to convalesce and recover her health, to which she agreed and spent several days in their apartment at Les Invalides.", "Later in her life, in a letter to the Princess Kourakin, the artist wrote:As the situation in Paris and France continued to deteriorate with the rising tide of the revolution, the artist decided to leave Paris, and obtained passports for herself, her daughter and their governess.", "The very next day a large band of national guards entered her house and ordered her not to leave or else face punishment.", "Two sympathetic national guards from her neighborhood later returned to her house, and advised her to leave the city as fast as possible, but to take the stagecoach instead of her carriage.", "Vigée Le Brun then ordered three places on the stagecoach out of Paris, but had to wait two weeks to obtain seats as there were many people departing the city.", "Vigée Le Brun visited her mother before leaving.", "On 5 October 1789, the King and Queen were driven from Versailles to the Tuilleries by a large crowd of Parisians – mostly women.", "Vigée Le Brun's stagecoach departed at midnight of the same day, with her brother and husband accompanying them to the Barrière du Trône.", "She, her daughter and governess dressed shabbily to avoid attracting attention.", "Vigée Le Brun travelled to Lyon where she stayed for three days with acquaintances (Mme.", "and M. de Artaut), where she was barely recognized due to her changed features and shabby clothes, and then continued her journey across the Beauvoisin bridge, she was relieved to be finally out of France, although throughout her journey she was accompanied by Jacobin spies who tracked her movement.", "Her husband, who remained in Paris, claimed that Vigée Le Brun went to Italy \"to instruct and improve herself\", but she feared for her own safety.", "In her 12-year absence from France, she lived and worked in Italy (1789–1792), Austria (1792–1795), Russia (1795–1801) and Germany (1801), and remained a committed royalist throughout her life.Lady Hamilton as the Cumaean Sybil'', 1792.Metropolitan Museum of Art.", "This was widely considered to be one of Vigée Le Brun's greatest works, and was greatly received wherever it was displayed.====Italy====The artist arrived in Turin after crossing the Savoyard alps.", "In Turin she met the famous engraver Porporati, who was now a professor in the city's academy.", "Porporati and his daughter received the artist for five or six days until she resumed her journey southwards to Parma, where she met the Comte de Flavigny:fr:Louis-Agathon_de_Flavigny_de_Renansart|fr (then minister plenipotentiary of Louis XVI) who generously accommodated her during her stay there.", "While staying in Parma, she sought out churches and galleries that possessed works of the old master Correggio, whose painting ''The Manger,'' or ''Nativity'' had captivated her when she first saw it in the Louvre.", "She visited the church of San Giovanni to observe the ceilings and alcoves painting by Correggio, and then the church of San Antonio.", "She also visited the library of Parma where she found ancient artifacts and sculptures.", "The Comte de Flavigny then introduced Vigée Le Brun to Marie Antoinette's older sister, the bereaved Infanta and Duchess of Parma, Maria Amalia, while she was in mourning for her recently deceased brother Emperor Joseph II.", "The artist regarded her as lacking in Marie Antoinette's beauty and grace, and being as pallid as a ghost, and criticized her way of life as being \"like that of a man\", although she praised the warm welcome the Infanta had given her.", "Vigée Le Brun did not stay long in Parma, wishing to cross the mountains southwards before the seasons changed.", "De Flavigny postponed Vigée Le Brun's departure from Parma by two days so that she and her daughter could be escorted by one of his trusted men, the Vicomte de Lespignière, whose carriage accompanied her all the way to Rome.She first arrived in Modena, where she visited the local Palazzo, and saw several old master paintings by Raphael, Romano and Titian.", "She also visited the library and the theater there.", "From Modena, she departed for Bologna.", "The journey over the mountains was tortuous enough that she walked part of the way, and arrived in Bologna very tired.", "She wished to stay there at least one week to visit the local galleries and the Bologna arts school, which hosted some of the finest collections of old master paintings, but the innkeeper where she was residing had noticed her unloading her luggage, and informed her that her efforts were in vain, as French citizens were \"allowed to reside in that city for only one night\".", "Vigée Le Brun despaired at this news, and was fearful when a man clad in black arrived at the inn whom she recognized as a papal messenger, and assumed he was delivering an order to leave within the next twenty-four hours, She was surprised and elated when she realized that the missive he carried was permission for her to stay in Bologna as long as she pleased.", "At this juncture, Vigée Le Brun became aware that the Papal government was informed of all French travelers who entered Italy.", "She visited the church of Sant'Agnese, of which she wrote: I went immediately to the church of Sant'Agnese, where this saint's martyrdom is represented in a painting by Domenichino.", "The youth and innocence of Saint Agnes is so well captured on her beautiful face and the features of the torturer striking her with his sword form such a cruel contrast to her divine nature, that I was overwhelmed with pious admiration.As I knelt before the masterpiece, someone played the overture to Iphigenia on the organ.", "The involuntary link that I made between the young pagan victim of that story and the young Christian victim, the memory of the peaceful, happy time when I had last listened to that piece of music, and the sad thought of all the evils pressing upon my unhappy country, weighed down my heart to the point where I began to cry bitterly and to pray to God on behalf of France.", "Fortunately I was alone in the church and I was able to remain there for some time, giving vent to those painful emotions which took control of my soul.She then visited several Palazzi, where she viewed some of the finest examples of the Bologna art school.", "She also visited the Palazzo Caprara, the Palazzo Bonfigliola and the Palazzo Sampierei, perusing arts and paintings by many old masters.", "Within three days of her arrival in Bologna, on 3 November 1789, she was received as a member of the academy and the institute of Bologna, with the academy director M. Bequetti personally delivering the letters of admission to her.", "Soon after, she crossed the Apennines and arrived in the Tuscan countryside, and from there to Florence.", "The artist was initially disappointed with its position at the bottom of a wide valley, having preference for elevated views, but was soon charmed by the city's beauty.", "She lodged herself in a hotel recommended to her.", "While in Florence, she visited the famous Medici gallery, where she saw the widely-celebrated and famous Venus de' Medici and the room of the Niobids.", "She then visited the Pitti palace where she was enamored of several paintings by old masters, including Raphael's ''Madonna della Sedia'', Titian's portrait of Paul III, Rembrandt's ''Portrait of a Philosopher'', Carracci's ''The'' ''Holy Family'' and many others''.''", "She then visited the town's most beautiful landmarks, including the Florence Baptistery, where she saw the Gates of Paradise by Ghiberti, the Church of San Lorenzo, and Michelangelo's mausoleum at the Santa Croce.", "She also visited the Santissima Annunziata, where she entered the cloister and was enthralled by Andrea del Sarto's ''Madonna del Sacco,'' comparing it to Raphael's paintings, but also lamented the state of neglect of the lunettes.", "She also visited the Palazzo Altoviti, where she saw the self-portrait of Raphael, praising his countenance and expression as that of a \"man who was obviously a keen observer of life\", but also stated that the painting's protective glass had made its shadows darker.", "She then visited the Medici library, and later a gallery containing numerous self-portraits by famous artists, where she was asked to present her own self-portrait to the collection, promised to do so as soon as she reached Rome.", "During her stay in Florence, Vigée Le Brun made the acquaintance of another French lady, the Marquise de Venturi, who took her on excursions along the Arno.", "She soon left Florence and departed for Rome, arriving there in late November 1789.As she arrived in Rome, she was surprised by how filthy the famous Tiber was.", "She headed to the French Academy in the Via del Corso where the director of the academy, M. de Ménageot, went down to receive her.", "She requested lodging of him, and he quickly furnished her, her daughter and her governess a nearby apartment.", "He took her to see Saint Peter's on the very same day, where she was underwhelmed by its size; not matching the lavish descriptions she had heard of it, although its vastness became apparent to her upon walking around the structure.", "She stated to de Ménageot that she would have preferred for it to be supported by columns instead of enormous pillars, to which he replied that it was originally planned as such but it was found not feasible, later showing her some of the original plans for the Basilica.", "She climbed the Sistine chapel later on to see Raphael's much criticized ''The Last Supper'', for which she expressed great praise, writing in a letter to the painter Robert: I also climbed the steps to the Sistine chapel, to admire the dome with a fresco by Michelangelo as well as his painting of The Last Supper.", "Despite all the criticisms of this painting, I thought it a masterpiece of the first order for the expression and the boldness of the foreshortened figures.", "There is a sublime quality in both the composition and in the execution.", "As for the general air of chaos, I believe it to be totally justified by the subject matter.", "On the next day, she visited the Vatican museum; of her visit, she wrote to Robert: The following day I went to the Vatican Meusum.", "There is really nothing to compare with the classical masterpieces either in shape, style or execution.", "The Greeks, in particular, created a complete and perfect unison between truth and beauty.", "Looking at their work, there is no doubt that they possessed exceptional models, or that the men and women of Greece discovered an ideal of beauty long, long ago.", "As yet I have made only a superficial study of the museum's contents, but the Apollo, The Dying Gladiator , The Laocoon, the magnificent altars, the splendid candelabras, indeed all the beautiful things that I saw have left a permanent impression on my memory.On the same day, she was summoned by the members of the Academy of Painting, including Girodet: they presented her with the palette of the greatly talented deceased painter Jean Germain Drouais, In exchange, they asked her for her own palette, which she obliged.", "She later visited the Flavian Amphitheater, where she saw the cross placed on one of its high points by Robert.", "While in Rome, she was very keen to seek out the famous female painter Angelica Kaufmann, with whom she spent two evenings.", "Kaufmann showed Vigée Le Brun her gallery and sketches, and they engaged in long conversations.", "Vigée Le Brun praised her wit and intellect, although Vigée Le Brun found little inspirations in these evenings, citing Kaufmann's lack of enthusiasm and Vigée Le Brun's own dearth of knowledge.", "For the first three days of her stay in Rome, she visited the home of Cardinal Bernis, who was a gracious host to her.Vigée Le Brun was very sensitive to sound while sleeping; this was a lifetime burden for her, and when traveling to new locations or cities, frequent moving of lodgings was customary until she found a suitably quiet residence.", "Due to the racket of coachmen and horses near her apartment in the French Academy and the nightly music of the Calabrians to a nearby Madonna, she searched for other lodgings, which she found in the home of the painter Simon Denis in the Piazza di Spagna, but soon afterwards left this apartment due to the nightly habits of young men and women of singing in the streets at the night.", "She departed and found a third home, which she carefully scrutinized, then paid one month's worth of rent in advance.", "On her first night there, she was awoken by a loud noise behind her bed caused by water being pumped through pipes to wash the laundry; a nightly occurrence.", "She quickly left this home as well to continue her search for quiet lodgings.", "After a painstaking search, she found a private mansion where she was told she might be able to rent an apartment.", "She lodged herself there but found it completely unsavory due to the filthiness of its rooms, its poor insulation and a rat infestation in the wooden paneling.", "Finding herself at her wit's end, she was forced to stay there for six weeks before seeking a new home suitable to her needs.", "She eventually found a house which seemed perfect, but she refused to pay rent until she had spent a night there; she was immediately woken up by noise caused by a worm infestation in the joists of her room.", "She left this house as well, later writing; \"''regretfully I had to abandon the idea of living there.", "No-one, I am sure, could have changed lodgings as often as I did during my various visits to the capital; I remain convinced that the most difficult thing to find in Rome is a place to live''.", "\"Soon after her arrival in Rome, she dispatched the promised self-portrait to Florence.", "In this portrait, she depicted herself in the act of painting, with the Queen's face on her canvas.", "She made numerous copies of this portrait later on.", "The Rome Academy also requested her self-portrait, which she presented them with.", "She attended the pope's blessing, delivered by Pope Pius IV during Easter Day in Saint Peter's, while in Rome.", "Vigée Le Brun found his features stunning, describing them as \"not showing any signs of age\".She worked hard during her three-year residency in Rome, painting numerous subjects including Miss Pitt, Lord Bristol, Countess Potocka, Lady Hamilton, Mme.", "Roland and many others.", "She toured Rome's landmarks extensively, visiting the San Pietro in Vincoli, the San Lorenzo Fuori le Mura, the St. John Lateran, and the San Paolo la Fuori le Mura, which she found to be, architecturally, the most beautiful church in Rome.", "She also visited the Santa Maria della Vittoria, where she saw Bernini's notorious ''Ecstasy of Saint Teresa,'' writing of it \"...whose scandalous expression defies description\".Apart from her fellow female artist Kaufmann, Vigée Le Brun found company in the Duchesse de Fleury, with whom she became close friends.", "She also found herself in the social circles of exiled French aristocracy who came to Rome, embedding herself there like most exiled French had done, instead of congregating with Italian aristocracy.", "She spent many evenings hosted by de Ménageot or the Prince Camille de Rohan, ambassador to Malta., who hosted many other exiled French aristocrats.", "Many of these she attended with her close friend the Duchesse de Fleury, on whom she greatly doted.", "She soon found one of her oldest friends, M. d'Agincourt, who had lent her art pieces from his gallery to copy when she was very young.", "She had last met him fourteen years previously in Paris, before he departed from there.", "She also met the Abbe Maury before he became Cardinal, who informed her that the pope wished her to paint his portrait.", "She was greatly flattered by the offer, but politely declined; fearing that she would fumble the portrait as she would be forced to wear a veil while painting the pope.", "Soon afterwards she was taken by de Ménageot, along with the painter Denis, for an excursion to Tivoli.", "There she visited the Temple of the Sibyl, and then Neptune's Grotto.", "De Ménageot also took her to see the Villa Aldobrandini, and the ancient ruins of the Roman town of Tusculum, which \"evoked many sad thoughts\".", "The entourage continued to Monte Cavo, seeking out the Temple of Jupiter built there.", "She visited numerous villas, including the Villa Conti, the Villa Palavicina and the ruins of Hadrian's Villa.", "She also made frequent excursions to the summit of Monte Mario to enjoy the view it offered of the Apennines, and visited the Villa Mellini there.", "In the summer months, she and the Duchesse de Fleury rented an apartment in the home of the painter Carlo Maratta in the Genazzano countryside.", "She and the Duchess toured the countryside there regularly, visiting Nemi and Albano among others.", "One of these excursions around Ariccia caused an incident in which she and the Duchess fled for their lives from what they suspected was a rogue following them, of which she wrote \"I have never discovered whether the man who caused our exhaustion was a real villain or the most innocent man in the world\".After a residency of eight months in Rome, the painter planned to follow most of French polite society as it moved to Naples.", "She informed Cardinal Bernis, who approved of her decision to go, but told her to not travel alone; to that end, he referred her to M. Duvivier, the husband of Mme.", "Mignot, widow of the painter Denis and Voltaire's niece.", "She traveled in his spacious carriage to Naples, stopping at an inn in Terracina on the way.", "As she arrived in Naples she was captivated by the view of the city, the distant plumes of smoke from Mount Vesuvius, the rolling hills of the countryside, and its citizens, writing \"...even the people, so lively, so boisterous, so different from the people of Rome, that one would think a thousand leagues lay between the two cities\".", "Her first residency in Naples lasted for six months, although originally planned to be six weeks.She initially lodged in Chiaia, in the Hotel de Maroc.", "Her neighbor, the ailing Count Scavronsky, Russian Minister Plenipotentiary to Naples, sent a missive to inquire of her shortly after her arrival, and sent her a lavish dinner.", "She visited him and his wife, Countess Catherine Skavronskaïa, the same night in their mansion, where she found amiable company with the couple, who invited her again on many evenings.", "The Count made Vigée Le Brun promise to paint his wife before anyone else in Naples, and she set to painting her portrait two days after her arrival.", "Soon afterwards, Sir William Hamilton, the English envoy extraordinary to the Kingdom of Naples, visited Vigée Le Brun while the Countess was sitting for her, requesting that the artist paint his mistress, Emma Hart, as her first portrait in the city, it being unknown to him that she had already promised Count Scavronsky that she would paint his wife.", "She later painted Emma Hart as a bacchante, and was captivated by her beauty and long chestnut hair.", "Sir William also commissioned a portrait of himself, which she completed later.", "The artist noticed that Sir William had a mercantile inclination towards art, frequently selling paintings and portraits he commissioned for profit.", "On her future visit to England, she found that he had sold her portrait of him for 300 guineas.", "She also met Lord Bristol again and painted a second portrait of him.", "While in Naples, she also painted portraits of the Queen of Naples, Maria Carolina of Austria (sister of Marie Antoinette) and her four eldest living children: Maria Teresa, Francesco, Luisa and Maria Cristina.", "She later recalled that Luisa \"was extremely ugly, and pulled such faces that I was most reluctant to finish her portrait.", "\"She visited the French ambassador to Naples, the Baron de Talleyrand, and while being hosted by him she met Mme.", "Silva, a Portuguese woman.", "Vigée Le Brun then decided to visit the island of Capri to see the palatial Roman ruins there.", "Her entourage included Mme.", "Silva, the Comte de la Roche-Aymon:fr: Antoine_Charles_Étienne_Paul_de_La_Roche-Aymon|fr and the young son of Baron de Talleyrand.", "The voyage to the island was turbulent due to rough waters.", "Soon afterwards, she made multiple trips to the summit of Vesuvius.", "Her entourage included Mme.", "Silva and Abbé Bertrand on the first journey, which was hampered by severe rain.", "On the next day, with clear weather, she climbed the volcano again, with M. de la Chesnaye joining.", "The party observed the erupting volcano, with plumes of smoke and ash rising from it.Of her visit to Mt.", "Vesuvius, she wrote in a letter to the architect Brongniart: We also went up to the mountain refuge.", "The sun set and we watched its rays disappear behind the islands of Ischia and Procida: what a view!", "Eventually night fell, and the smoke turned into flames, the most magnificent I have ever seen in my life.", "Great jets of fire shot up from the craters in quick succession, throwing red hot rocks noisily on all sides.", "At the same time a cascade of fire ran down front the summit, covering an area of four to five miles.", "Another lower mouth of the volcano was also alight; this crater churned out a red and gold smoke, rounding off the frightening but wonderful spectacle.", "The thunderous noise that seemed to come from deep inside the volcano echoed around us, and the ground shook beneath our feet.", "I was quite frightened, but tried to hide my fear for the sake of my poor little daughter who was crying, `Maman, should I be afraid?'.", "But there was so much to admire that I soon forgot my fear.", "Imagine looking down over countless furnaces, whole fields swallowed by the blaze that followed in the wake of the lava.", "I saw bushes, trees, vines, consumed by this terrible rolling fire; I saw the fire rise up and die out, and I heard it eat its way through the surrounding undergrowth.", "This powerful scene of destruction is both painful and impressive, and stirs deep feelings within one's soul; I could not speak for a while on my return to Naples; on the road, I kept turning around to see the sparks and that river of fire once more.", "I was sad to leave such a spectacle; but I have the memory still, and every day I think on different aspects of what I saw.", "I have four drawings which I shall bring to Paris to show you.", "Two have already been mounted; we are very happy here.She returned to the volcano several times, visiting it with the painter Lethière, former director of the French Academy of painting in Rome.", "Soon afterwards, she was invited by Sir William to visit the Islands of Ischia and Procida.", "This voyage included his mistress Emma Hart and her mother.", "Vigée Le Brun was instantly mesmerized by the island and its inhabitants, writing of its women \"I was instantly struck by the beauty of the women we encountered on the road.", "They were nearly all tall and statuesque, their costume as well as their build reminding me of the ancient women of Greece\".The party departed from Procida on the same way, bound for Ischia.", "They arrived there in the late evening.", "On the next day, they were taken by General Baron de Salis with a party of twenty to visit the summit of Monte San Nicola.", "The journey was perilous, and Vigée Le Brun was separated from the party due to dense fog, but soon afterwards found her way to the refuge at the summit of the mountain.", "After returning to Naples, the artist visited the ancient ruins of Paestum, Herculaneum, Pompeii and the museum at Portici.", "Shortly before the new year, she moved to another home due to problems with her previous residence.", "It was there that she also met the famous composer Paëisiello and painted his portrait while he was in the process of composition.", "She frequented Mt.", "Posillipo during her stay in Naples, including the ancient ruins there and Virgil's grave, and it became one of her favorite landmarks.", "She returned to Rome afterwards, just in time to find the Queen of Naples arriving from her visit to Austria.", "The Queen espied the artist in a large crowd, went to her and impressed her to return to Naples to paint her portrait; Le Brun agreed to the prospect.", "Upon her return to Naples, she was taken by Sir William to the widely popular local festival of Madonna di Piedigrotta, the festival of Madonna dell'Arco.", "She also visited the Solfatara volcano with M. Amaury Duval and Sacaut.", "While in Naples, the artist was also fascinated by the local culture of the Lazzaroni.", "Upon finishing her portrait of the Queen, she was offered her summerhouse near the coast to entice her to spend more time in Naples, but Le Brun insisted on leaving.", "Before departing, the Queen gave her a luxurious lacquered box containing her monogram surrounded by fine gems.", "She returned to Rome once again, undertaking many commissions there, including those of Louis XVI's aunts, mesdames Victoire and Adélaïde.", "She left Rome on 14 April 1792 for Venice, writing later that she wept bitterly as she left Rome, having grown very attached to that city.", "She was accompanied by M. Auguste Rivière, occasional diplomat and painter and the brother of Le Brun's sister-in-law.", "He would be the artist's travelling companion for 9 years, often copying her portraits.", "Le Brun spent the first night on the road at Civita Castellana, then continued her journey through precipitous and craggy roads, describing the landscape there as gloomy and 'the saddest in the world'.", "She then arrived in Narni, where she was charmed by the countryside.", "From there she continued on to Terni where she toured the countryside and hiked up local mountains.", "She resumed her journey over Monte Somma across the Apennines then to Spoleto.", "In this town, she witnessed Raphael's partially completed Adoration of the Magi, from which she gained valuable information on his painting techniques, observing that he painted hands and faces first, and experimented frequently with different tints during the early drafting process.", "While in Spoleto she also visited the Temple of Concord in the mountains, and the ruins of the ancient town there.", "She continued to Venice, passing Trevi, Cetri and Foligno.", "In the latter town she found Raphael's ''Madonna di Foligno,'' which gained the complete admiration of Le Brun.", "She continued to Perugia, passing by Lake Trasimene and hen on to Lise, Combuccia, Arezzo, Levana and Pietre-Fonte, finally arriving in Florence, where she had resided for a short while after her flight from France.", "Upon her arrival in Florence, she had a memorable meeting with the Abbé Fontana, then a renowned anatomist.", "Fontana showed Le Brun his study, filled with wax figures of human organs.", "The intricacy of the details on some of the replicas had made the artist feel that only divine power could have created the human body.", "Fontana then showed Le Brun a life-sized figure of a human female, with an exposed cutaway of the intestines.", "Vigée Le Brun was nearly sick at this sight, and was haunted by it for a long time, later writing to Fontana for advice on relieving herself from the stress and consequences of having seen the internal anatomy of the human body, to which he replied to her; \"''That which you describe as a weakness and a misfortune, is in fact the source of your strength and talent; moreover, if you wish to diminish the inconvenience caused by this sensitivity, then stop painting''\".", "After departing Florence she travelled to Siena where she remained for a few days, excursing frequently in its countryside and visiting local churches and galleries.", "From Siena she left for Parma, where she was welcomed as a member of the Academy of Fine Arts of Parma, and donated a portrait of her daughter.", "During her stay there, she was visited by a small group of art students from the academy who wished to acquaint themselves with her work;I was told that there were seven or eight art students downstairs who wished to see me.", "They were ushered into the room where I had placed my ''Sibyl'' and a few minutes later I went to receive them.", "Having spoken of their desire to meet me, they continued by saying that they would very much like to see one of my paintings.", "'Here is one I have recently completed,' I replied, pointing to the ''Sibyl''.", "At first their surprise held them silent: I considered this far more flattering than the most fulsome praise: several then said that they had thought the painting the work of one of the masters of their school: one actually threw himself at my feet, his eyes full of tears.", "I was even more moved, even more delighted with their admiration since the ''Sibyl'' had always been one of my favourite works.", "After a few days in Parma, during which she revisited numerous churches and local landmarks & galleries, she finally departed Parma in July 1792, visiting Mantua on her way to Venice.", "In Mantua she visited the local Cathedral, the ducal palace, the house of Giulio Romano, the Church of Sant'Andrea, the Palazzo del Te and numerous other local landmarks.She arrived in Venice on the eve of Ascension day.", "She was surprised by the city's partially submerged aspect, and it was some time before she became accustomed to the modes of transportation in the city's canals.", "She was received by M. Denon, a fellow artist whom she knew from Paris, who acted as her cicerone, touring the city's landmarks with her.", "She subsequently witnessed the marriage of Venice and the Sea ceremony.", "During the celebrations, she met the Prince Augustus of England, and the Princess de Monaco, whom she found to have been pining to return to France to see her children; this was to be her last meeting with the princess, who had been later executed during Reign of Terror.", "While in Venice, she visited the churches of Santi Giovanni e Paolo, the Church of Saint Mark and the square there, and the local cemetery.", "While residing in Venice, she often engaged the company of the Spanish ambassadress, with whom she attended Paccherotti's last concert.", "She soon departed Venice for Milan, stopping at Vicenza, touring its palaces and landmarks, where she was also received lavishly.", "She then visited Padua, where she visited Church of the Eremitani, praising the church's frescos that were made by Mantegna, and also visited the Basilica del Santo and the church of St. John the Baptist.", "After departing Padua, she visited Verona, where she spent a week, touring the ruins of the Amphitheatre, the San Giorgio in Braida, the Church of Sant'Anastasia and the Church of San Zeno.", "After spending a week in Verona she left the city, hoping to return to France by way of Turin.", "In Turin she referred herself to the Queen of Sardinia, having been given letters of introduction by her aunts, the Mesdames of France whom she had painted in Rome; requesting the artist to paint their niece on her way to France.", "When she presented this to the bereaved Queen, she politely refused the request, stating that she has given up all worldly matters and had taken up an austere life, which the painter had confirmed from the Queen's disheveled appearance.", "She also made acquaintance of her husband, the King of Sardinia, while visiting the Queen, finding that had become increasingly reclusive and very thin, and delegated most of his duties to the Queen.", "After meeting the Queen of Sardinia, Le Brun visited Madame, the wife of the Comte de Provence, future king Louis XVIII (future queen of France in-exile).", "She excursed frequently to the countryside with her and her lady in waiting, Mme.", "de Gourbillon.", "She soon met the engraver Porporati again, who recommended her to lodge in a quiet inn in the countryside, she travelled there and was greatly pleased by the quietude and charming views it offered.", "not long afterwards Vigée Le Brun received news of the storming of the Tuileries in 10th August.", "Beset with despair, she set back for Turin, where she found the town filled with French refugees as turmoil intensified during the French revolution, setting a cruel spectacle for the artist.", "She subsequently rented a small home on the Moncalieri hillside, overlooking the Po river with M. de Rivière, who had arrived recently and narrowly escaped revolutionary violence as it swept the countryside, in solitude.", "Soon after she was frequently visited there by the Prince Ysoupoff.", "She soon decided to leave for Milan, but not before repaying the kindness Porporati had extended to her by painting his daughter's portrait, with which he was greatly pleased and made several engravings of the painting, sending several of them to Le Brun.", "During her stay in Venice she lost yet another fortune, amounting to 35,000 francs, most of which she had accumulated from her commissions in Italy - which she had deposited in the bank of Venice, when French troops, campaigning under the command of the rising general Napoleon Buonaparte, captured the city shortly after she had left it.", "Le Brun had been repeatedly warned by M. Sacaut, the embassy secretary, to withdraw her money from the bank, foreseeing that French Republican troops might attack the city.", "The artist dismissed his warnings as 'a republic would never attack another republic'; nevertheless Napoleon later issued an ultimatum to the city to submit, and French troops entered the city.", "As Venice was looted, General Buonaparte had instructed the banker to spare Le Brun's deposit and afford her an annuity, but the orders were not carried out in the chaotic predicament of the city, and all that reached Vigée Le Brun were two hundred and fifty francs out of an original deposit of 40,000.During her travels in Italy, her name was added to the list of émigrés, losing her French citizenship and having her property scheduled for confiscation.", "M. Le Brun attempted to have his wife's name struck from the list of émigrés at this juncture by appealing to the Assemblée législative to no avail, and he along with Etienne, Vigée Le Brun's brother, were both briefly incarcerated in 1793, shortly before the terror began.", "Soon after, M. Le Brun attempted to protect himself and their properties from confiscation and began suing for divorce from his wife.", "The decree of divorce was issued on 3 June 1793.Halfway through her journey to Milan, she was detained for two days due to her nationality.", "She sent a letter to Count Wilsheck, the Austrian embassador in the town, who secured her release.", "The count convinced Vigée Le Brun to travel to Vienna, and she decided to go there after her visit to Milan.", "The artist received a warm welcome in Milan, with many young men and women from noble families serenading her outside her window, which persuaded the artist to extend her stay in Milan by a few days.", "It was during this time that she visited the Santa Maria delle Grazie and saw Leonardo Da Vinci's famous ''Last Supper.''", "Writing of it;I visited the refectory of the monastery known as Santa Maria delle Grazie with its famous Last Supper fresco by Leonardo da Vinci.", "It is one of the great masterpieces of the Italian school: yet in admiring this nobly portrayed Christ and all the other characters painted with such truth and such feeling, I groaned to see the extent to which this superb painting had been defaced: to begin with it had been covered with plaster, and then repainted in several parts.", "Nevertheless it was possible to judge what this beautiful work had been like prior to these disasters.", "for the effect, when viewed from a little distance, was still admirable.", "Since then I have learnt of a completely different cause of its poor condition.", "I was told that during the wars with Bonaparte in Italy, the soldiers would amuse themselves by firing musket balls at Leonardo's Last Supper!", "May these Barbarians be cursed!", "She also saw various cartoons of Raphael's ''School of Athens'', and various other drawings and sketches by Raphael, Da Vinci and numerous other artists at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.", "She visited the Madonna del Monte, enjoying its commanding view, and sketched the countryside frequently.", "She later visited Lake Maggiore and resided on one of the two islands in the lake, the Isola Bella, being granted permission by the Prince Borromeo to lodge on the estate there.", "She soon attempted to visit the other isle, Isola Madre, but stormy weather affected her journey and she returned.", "It was during this period that she met the Countess Bistri, who would become one of her close friends.", "She informed the countess of her desire to travel to Vienna, and the countess replied that she and her husband were travelling there soon.", "Wishing to accompany the artist on her travel, the count and countess brought forward their date of departure to accomplish this.", "Vigée Le Brun praised the great care they took of her, and she finally left Milan for Austria.", "Vigée Le Brun would later describe Milan as being very similar to Paris.While in Italy, Vigée Le Brun was elected to the Academy in Parma (1789) and the Accademia di San Luca in Rome (1790).", "Vigée Le Brun also painted allegorical portraits of Emma Hamilton as Ariadne (1790) and as a Bacchante (1792).", "Lady Hamilton was similarly the model for Vigée Le Brun's ''Sibyl'' (1792), which was inspired by the painted sibyls of Domenichino.", "The painting represents the Cumaean Sibyl, as indicated by the Greek inscription on the figure's scroll, which is taken from Virgil's fourth Eclogue.", "The ''Sibyl'' was Vigée Le Brun's favorite work; it is mentioned in her memoir more than any other work.", "She displayed it while in Venice (1792), Vienna (1792), Dresden (1794) and Saint Petersburg (1795); she also sent it to be shown at the Salon of 1798.It was perhaps her most successful painting, and had always garnered the most praise and attracted many viewers wherever it was displayed.", "Like her reception piece, ''Peace Bringing Back Abundance'', Vigée Le Brun regarded her ''Sibyl'' as a history painting, the most elevated category in the Académie's hierarchy.====Austria====''Princess von Esterhazy as Ariadne'', 1793.Princely Collections, House of Liechtenstein.As well as the Countess Bistri and her husband she travelled to Vienna with two other French refugees of poorer origin whom they had taken on.", "The artist found their company priceless and lodged herself with them in Vienna, with some difficulty in procuring residence due to the travelling party's composition.", "This would be the beginning of two and a half years of her residency in Austria.", "Upon lodging herself there, she finished her painting of the countess Bistri, praising her as a \"truly beautiful woman\", then she presented herself to the Countess Thoun, armed with letters of introduction given to her by Count Wilsheck.", "The artist found a large number of elegant ladies in the countess' salon, and while there, met the Countess Kinska, of whom Vigée Le Brun was completely enraptured with her beauty.", "Vigée Le Brun proceeded to tour the city's galleries as was her custom when visiting new cities.", "She first paid a visit to the gallery of the famous painter of battles, Casanova.", "She found him in the middle of undertaking several paintings, and found him to be quite active despite being about sixty and \"having the habit of wearing two or three spectacles, atop one another\", and commented on his 'unusual and sharp mind' and his rich imagination when retelling stories or recounting past events during the dinners they had spent with the Prince Kaunitz.", "Vigée Le Brun praised his composition, though commented that numerous of his works that she witnessed were still not finished.", "After meeting Casanova, she presented herself to the aging Prince Kaunitz, at his palace.", "She found dinners hosted by the prince to be uncomfortable due to the late time in which he dined and the large number of people often present at his table, and subsequently decided to dine at home most days.", "On days when she would accept his invitations, she would dine at home before leaving, and ate very little at his table.", "The prince noticed this and was offended by this and her frequent refusal of his invitations, leading to a short quarrel between the two, but they were soon reconciled.", "The Prince continued to host the artist and exhibited her ''Sibyl'' in his gallery, and she praised the kindness and sweetness he had extended her during her stay.", "When the Prince died shortly after, Vigée Le Brun was upset by the indifference the city's residents and aristocracy showed, and was further shocked when she visited the wax museum and found the Prince lying in state, his hair and clothes dressed exactly as they had always been.", "This sight had made a sorrowful impression on her.While in Vienna, Vigée Le Brun was commissioned to paint Princess Maria Josepha Hermengilde Esterházy as Ariadne and Princess Karoline von Liechtenstein as Iris among many others, the latter portrait causing a minor scandal among the Princess's relatives.", "The portraits depict the Liechtenstein sisters-in-law in unornamented Roman-inspired garments that show the influence of Neoclassicism, and which may have been a reference to the virtuous republican Roman matron Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi.", "The artist met for the second time in Vienna one of her greatest friends, the Prince de Ligne, whom she had first met in Brussels in 1781.It was at his urging that Vigée Le Brun wished so much to meet the Russian sovereign Catherine the Great and to visit Russia.", "The Prince de Ligne urged her to stay at his former convent atop Kahlenberg, with its commanding view of the countryside, to which she agreed.", "During Vigée Le Brun's stay in Kahlenberg, de Ligne wrote a passionate poem about her.", "After two and half years in Vienna, the artist departed for Saint Petersburg on 19 April 1795, via Prague.", "She also visited Dresden on her way, and the Königsberg fortress, where she made the acquaintance of Prince Henry, who was very hospitable to the artist.", "While visiting Dresden on her way to Russia, Vigée Le Brun visited the famous Dresden gallery, writing that it was without doubt the most extensive one in all of Europe.", "It was there that she saw Raphael's ''Madonna di San Sisto.''", "She was completely enamored of the painting, and wrote:====Russia====''Alexandra and Elena Pavlovna'', 1795–1797.Hermitage Museum.In Russia, where she stayed from 1795 until 1801, she was well-received by the nobility and painted numerous aristocrats, including the former King of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski, whom she became well acquainted with, and other members of the family of Catherine the Great.", "Vigée Le Brun painted Catherine's granddaughters (daughters of Paul I), Elena and Alexandra Pavlovna, in Grecian tunics with exposed arms.", "The Empress's favorite, Platon Zubov, commented to Vigée Le Brun that the painting had scandalized the Empress due to the amount of bare skin the short sleeves revealed.", "Vigée Le Brun was greatly worried by this and considered it a hurtful remark and replaced the tunics with the muslin dresses the princesses wore, and added long sleeves (called Amadis in Russia).", "Vigée Le Brun was later reassured in a conversation with Catherine that she made no such remark, but by then the damage had already been done.", "When Paul later became Emperor, he expressed having been upset with the alterations Vigée Le Brun made to the painting.", "When Vigée Le Brun told him what Zubov told her, he shrugged and said \"They played a joke on you\".Elizabeth Alexeievna with Roses'', 1795.Hermitage Museum.Vigée Le Brun painted many other people during her stay in Russia, including the emperor Paul and his consort.Catherine herself also agreed to sit for Vigée Le Brun, but she died the very next day, which was when she had promised to sit for the artist.", "While in Russia, Vigée Le Brun was made a member of the Academy of Fine Arts of Saint Petersburg.", "Much to her dismay, her daughter Julie married Gaétan Bernard Nigris, secretary to the Director of the Imperial Theaters of Saint Petersburg.", "Vigée Le Brun attempted everything in her power to prevent this match, and viewed it as a scheme concocted by her enemies and her governess to separate her from her daughter.However, as Julie's remonstrations and pressure on her mother grew, Vigée Le Brun relented and gave her approval for the wedding, though she was greatly distressed at the prospect, and soon found her stay in Russia, hitherto so enjoyable, had become suffocating and decided to return to Paris.", "She wrote;Before departing for France, Vigée Le Brun decided to visit Moscow.", "Halfway through her journey to the city, news of the assassination of Paul I reached her.", "The journey was extremely difficult due to the melting snow, and the carriage often got stuck in the infamous Russian mud, and her journey was further delayed when most horses were taken by couriers spreading the news of the death of Paul and the coronation of Alexander.", "Vigée Le Brun enjoyed her stay in Moscow, and painted many portraits during her stay.", "Upon her return to Saint Petersburg she met the newly crowned Emperor Alexander I and Empress Louise, who urged her to stay in Saint Petersburg.", "Upon telling the Emperor of her poor health and prescription by a physician to take the waters near Karlsbad to cure her internal obstruction, the Emperor replied \"Do not go there, there is no need to go so far to find a remedy; I shall give you the Empress's horse, a few rides will have you cured\".", "Vigée Le Brun was touched by this, but replied to the Emperor that she did not know how to ride, to which the Emperor said \"Well, I will give you a riding instructor, he will teach you\".", "The artist was still adamant about leaving Russia, despite her closest friends, the Count Stroganoff, M. de Rivière and the princesses Dologruky and Kourakin and others attempting all they could to make her stay in Saint Petersburg, she left after residing there for six years.", "Julie predeceased her mother in 1819, by which time they had reconciled.It was in Russia that Vigée Le Brun formed several of her longest lasting and most intimate friendships, with the Princesses Dologruky and Kourakin, and the Count Stroganoff.==== Prussia ====After her departure from Saint Petersburg, Vigée Le Brun travelled – with some difficulty – through Prussia, visiting Berlin after an exhausting journey.", "The Queen of Prussia invited Vigée Le Brun to Potsdam to meet her; the Queen then commissioned a portrait of herself.", "The Queen invited the artist to reside in the Potsdam palace until she finished her portrait, but Vigée Le Brun, not wishing to intrude on the Queen's ladies-in-waiting, chose to reside in a nearby hotel, where her stay was uncomfortable.The pair soon became friends.", "During a conversation, Vigée Le Brun complemented the Queen on her bracelets with an antique design, which the Queen then took off and put around Vigée Le Brun's arms.", "Vigée Le Brun considered this gift one of her most valued possessions for the rest of her life, and wore it almost everywhere.", "At the Queen's urging, Vigée Le Brun visited the Queen's Peacock Island, where the artist enjoyed the countryside.Aside from two pastel portraits commissioned by the Queen, Vigée Le Brun also painted other pastel portraits of Prince Ferdinand's family.During her stay in Berlin, she met with the General Plenipotentiary Bournonville, hoping to procure a passport to return to France.", "The general encouraged Vigée Le Brun to return and assured her that order and safety had been restored.", "Her brother and husband had already struck her name from the list of émigrés with ease, and had her French status restored.", "Shortly before her departure from Berlin, the General Director of the Academy of Painting visited her, bringing her the diploma for her admission to that academy.", "After her departure from Berlin, she visited Dresden and painted several copies of Emperor Alexander, which she had promised earlier, and also visited Brunswick where she resided for six days with the Rivière family, and was sought out by the Duke of Brunswick who wished to make her acquaintance.", "She also passed through Weimar and Frankfurt on her way.", "''Danaë'', after Titian Madame de Staël as Corinne at Cape Miseno'', 1807–1809.Musée d'Art et d'Histoire (Geneva).==== Return to France and stay at Paris ====After a sustained campaign by her ex-husband and other family members to have her name removed from the list of counter-revolutionary émigrés, Vigée Le Brun was finally able to return to France in January 1802.The artist received a rapturous welcome in her home at Rue de-Gros-Chenet and was greatly hailed by the press.", "Three days after her arrival, a letter arrived for her from the Comédie-Française, containing a decree reinstating her as a member of the theater.", "The leading members of the theater also wished to enact a comedy at her house to celebrate her return, which she politely refused.", "Soon afterwards, the artist was taken to witness the first consul's routine military ceremony at the Tuileries where she saw Napoleon Bonaparte for the first time, from a window inside the Louvre.", "The artist found it difficult to recognize the short figure as the man she had heard so much about; as with Catherine the Great, she had imagined a tall figure.", "A few days later, Bonaparte's brothers visited her gallery to view her works, with Lucien Bonaparte greatly complimenting her famous ''Sibyl''.", "During her stay, Vigée Le Brun was surprised and dismayed by the greatly changed social customs of Parisian society upon her return there.", "She soon visited the famous painter M. Vien, who was the former ''Premier peintre du Roi''; then 82 years old and a senator, he gave Vigée Le Brun an enthusiastic welcome and showed her some of his newest sketches.", "She met her friend from Saint Petersburg, Princess Dolgorouky, and saw her almost daily.", "In 1802, she demanded the refund of her dowry from her husband, whose gambling habits had dissipated a significant portion of the wealth she had accumulated in her early career as a portraitist.", "The artist soon felt mentally tormented in Paris, mainly due to memories of the early days of the revolution, and decided to move to a secluded house in Meudon forest.", "She was visited there by her neighbors, the famous dissident pair and Directory period ''Merveilleuses'' the Duchesse de Fleury, whom she met there for the first time since their friendship in Rome, and Adèle de Bellegarde; time spent with the pair restored her spirits.", "Shortly thereafter, Vigée Le Brun decided to travel to England, and departed from Paris on 15 April 1802.==== England ====Vigée Le Brun arrived at Dover, where she took the stagecoach to London, accompanied by the woman who would become her lifetime friend and chambermaid, Mme.", "Adélaïde, who later married M. Contat, Vigée Le Brun's accountant.", "Vigée Le Brun was confused by the large crowd at the quays, but was reassured that it was common for crowds of curious people to observe disembarking travelers in England.", "She had been told that highwaymen were common in England, and so hid her diamonds in her stocking.", "During her ride to London she was greatly frightened by two riders who approached the stagecoach whom she thought were bandits, but nothing came of it.Upon her arrival at London she lodged at the Brunet hotel in Leicester Square.", "She could not sleep during her first night due to noise from her upstairs neighbor, who she found next morning was none other than the poet M. François-Auguste Parseval-Grandmaison, whom she had known from Paris.", "He always paced while reading or reciting his poetry.", "He promised her to take care not to interrupt her sleep, and she was able to rest well for the next night.Wishing to find a more permanent lodging, a compatriot named Charmilly directed her to a house in Beck street, which overlooked the Royal Guards barracks.", "Vigée Le Brun terminated her residence there because of the noise from the barracks; in her words, \"...every morning between three and four o'clock there was a trumpet blast so loud that it could have served for the day of judgement.", "The noise of the trumpet, together with that of the horses whose stables lay directly beneath my window, prevented me from catching any sleep at all.", "In the daytime there was a constant din made by the neighbor's children...\".", "Vigée Le Brun then moved to a beautiful house in Portman Square.", "Upon closely scrutinizing the house's surroundings for any acoustic nuisance, she took up lodging there, only to be awakened at daybreak by a great screeching from a large bird owned by her neighbor.", "Later on, she also discovered that the former residents had buried two of their slaves in the cellar, where their bodies remained, and once again she decided to move, this time to a very damp building in Maddox Street.", "Although this was far from perfect, the artist was exhausted from constant moving, and decided to remain there, though the dampness of the house, combined with London's humid weather – greatly disliked by the artist – hindered her painting process.", "Vigée Le Brun found London lacking in inspiration for an artist due to its lack of public galleries at that time.", "She visited monuments, including Westminster Abbey, where she was greatly affected by the tomb of Mary, Queen of Scots, and visited the sarcophagi of the poets Shakespeare, Chatterton and Pope.", "She also visited St. Paul's Cathedral, the Tower of London and the London Museum.", "She greatly disliked the austere social customs of the English, particularly how quiet and empty the city was on Sundays, when all shops were closed and no social gatherings took place; the only pastime was the city's long walks.", "The artist also did not enjoy the local soiree equivalent – known as Routs (or rout-parties), describing them as stuffy and dour.", "The artist sought out the tree under which the famous poet Milton was said to have composed ''Paradise Lost'', but was surprised to find that it had been cut down.The artist visited the galleries of several prominent artists while in London, starting with the studio of artist Benjamin West.", "She also viewed some works by Joshua Reynolds.", "Vigée Le Brun was surprised to find that it was customary in England for visitors to the studios of artists to pay a small fee to the artist.", "Vigée Le Brun did not adhere to this local custom, and allowed her servant to pocket this toll.", "She was greatly pleased to meet one of the most famous actress and tragediennes of her era, Sarah Siddons, who visited Vigée Le Brun's studio in Maddox Street.", "During her stay in London, the English portraitist John Hoppner published a speech that viciously criticized her, her art and French artists in general, to which she made a scathing reply by letter which she published later in her life as part of her memoirs.Vigée Le Brun continued to hold soirées and receptions in her house, which although damp, was beautiful.", "She received many people, including the Prince of Wales, Lady Hertford and Lord Borington and the famous actress Mme.", "Grassini among others.", "Vigée Le Brun sought out other compatriots during her stay in England, and cultivated a social circle of émigrés that included the Comte d'Artois (future King Charles X) and his son the Duc de Berri, the Duc de Serant and the Duc de Rivière.Shortly after her arrival in London, the Treaty of Amiens was abrogated, and hostilities between France and the United Kingdom resumed.", "The British Government ordered all French people who had not resided more than a year in the UK to depart immediately.", "The Prince of Wales reassured Vigée Le Brun that this would not affect her, and she might reside in England however long she pleased.", "This permit from the King was difficult to procure, but the Prince of Wales personally delivered the permit to Vigée Le Brun.Vigée Le Brun toured the countryside during her stay in England.", "She started with a visit to Margaret Chinnery at Gilwell Hall, where she received a \"charming welcome\" and met the famous musician Viotti, who composed a song for her which was sung by Mrs. Chinnery's daughter.", "She painted Mrs. Chinnery and her children whilst there, departing for Windsor after staying at Gilwell for a fortnight.", "She also visited Windsor Park and Hampton Court on the outskirts of London before leaving to visit Bath, where she greatly enjoyed the picturesque architecture of the city, its rolling hills and the countryside; but much like London, she found its society and weather dreary.", "She found some of her Russian friends from Saint Petersburg there, and went to visit the astronomer siblings William Herschel and Caroline Herschel.", "William Herschel showed Vigée Le Brun detailed maps of the moon, among other things.The artist greatly enjoyed the English countryside, describing Matlock as being as picturesque as the Swiss countryside.", "Vigée Le Brun also visited the Duchess of Dorset at Knole House in Kent, which had once been owned by Elizabeth I.", "She returned to London, where she found the Comte de Vaudreuil, and then went to Twickenham where she visited Mme.", "la Comtesse de Vaudreuil and the Duc de Montpensier, with whom Vigée Le Brun became well acquainted; they enjoyed painting the countryside together.", "She was subsequently received by the Duc d'Orléans (the future King Louis Philippe).", "She then visited the Margravine of Brandenburg-Ansbach, the Baroness Craven, whom she painted and came to greatly enjoy her company, spending three weeks at her estate.", "Together, they visited the Isle of Wight, where Vigée Le Brun was mesmerized by the beauty of the countryside and the amiability of its inhabitants, writing later that along with the Isle of Ischia (near Naples), these were the only two places where she would happily spend her entire life.She visited Mary Elizabeth Grenville, Marchioness of Buckingham, at Stowe.", "She also went to the home of Lord Moira and his sister Charlotte Adelaide Constantia Rawdon, where Vigée Le Brun further experienced the stern social milieu of English aristocracy; she spent some of the winter there.", "She then departed for Warwick Castle, eager to see this after hearing it praised so much.", "Vigée Le Brun attempted to visit the area incognito to avoid any awkwardness with Lord Warwick, as he would receive foreigners only if he knew their name.", "When he became aware that Vigée Le Brun was visiting, he went to her in person and gave her a decorous reception.", "After introducing the artist to his wife, he took her on a tour around the castle, looking over the lavish art collection there.", "He presented her with two drawings which she had sketched in Sir William Hamilton's summerhouse during her stay in Italy, telling her that he had paid a high price to buy them from his nephew.", "Vigée Le Brun later wrote that she had never sold them to Sir William to begin with.", "He also presented to her the famous Warwick vase, which he had purchased from Sir William as well.", "Vigée Le Brun then ended her tour by visiting Blenheim Palace before returning to London, and preparing to depart for France after staying in England for nearly three years.", "Upon her imminent departure becoming known, many of her acquaintances attempted to extend her residence with them, but to no avail as Vigée Le Brun wanted to see her daughter, who was in Paris at the time.", "As she prepared to leave London, Mme.", "Grassini arrived and then accompanied her, staying with her until her ship departed for Rotterdam, ending a trip that was originally intended to last only five months.==== Return to France from England ====Her ship arrived in Rotterdam, where she first visited François de Beauharnais, the prefect of Rotterdam and brother in law to the Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais (brother to the late Alexandre de Beauharnais, who had been executed during The Terror).", "The artist was ordered to reside for eight to ten days in Rotterdam, as she has arrived from hostile soil, and was ordered to appear before General Oudinot, who was hospitable to her.", "After residing in Rotterdam for ten days, she received her passport and started for Paris.", "She visited Antwerp on her way to Paris and was received by its prefect, the Comte d'Hédouville:fr:Charles Théodore Ernest de Hédouville|fr, and toured the city with him and his wife, and visited a sick young painter who wished to make her acquaintance.", "''Juno Borrowing the Belt of Venus'', 1781.Private Collection.She arrived in Paris and rejoiced to find her brother and her husband there, who was charged with recruiting artists for Saint Petersburg.", "He departed a few months later for Saint Petersburg, but Julie remained due to their failing union, though her relationship with her daughter continued to be a torment to her.", "She made the acquaintance of one of the most famous singers of her time, Angelica Catalani.", "She painted her and kept her portrait along with that of Mme.", "Grassini for the rest of her life, and continued to host soirées in her home as she had always had, to which Mme.", "Catalani was a regular.Shortly after her arrival in Paris, Vigée Le Brun was commissioned by the court painter, Denon, to paint a portrait of the Emperor's sister Caroline Bonaparte, though she had heard that her journey to England had displeased Napoleon, who had allegedly said \"Madame Le Brun has gone to England to see her ''friends''.\"", "Vigée Le Brun accepted the commission despite the fact that she was paid 1800 Francs, less than half the customary asking price, and later also included Mme.", "Murat's daughter in the portrait without raising the fee.", "She later described this commission as \"torture\", and wrote in her memoirs:It would be impossible to describe all the vexations and torment I had to suffer while painting this portrait.", "First of all Mme Murat arrived with two ladies in waiting who proceeded to dress her hair as I tried to paint her.", "When I observed that it would be impossible to capture a likeness if I allowed them to continue, she eventually agreed to send the two women away.", "Added to this inconvenience, she almost always broke our appointments, which meant my staying in Paris for the whole summer waiting, usually in vain, for her to appear, for I was eager to finish the painting; I cannot tell you how this woman tried my patience.", "Moreover the gap between sittings was so long, that each time she did appear, her hair was dressed differently.", "At the beginning, for example, she had curls falling onto her cheek and I painted them accordingly; but a little later this style had gone out of fashion and she returned with a completely different one; I then had to rub out the curls as well as the pearls on her bandeau and replace them with cameos.", "The same thing happened with the dresses.", "The first dress I painted was rather open, as was the fashion then, and had a great deal of bold embroidery; when the fashion changed and the embroidery became more delicate, I had to enlarge the dress in order not to lose the detail.", "Eventually all these irritations reached a pitch, and I became very bad tempered as a result; one day she happened to be in my studio and I said to M. Denon, in a voice loud enough for her to overhear: 'When I painted real princesses they never gave me any trouble and never kept me waiting.'", "Of course Mme Murat did not know that punctuality is the politeness of kings, as Louis XIV quite rightly remarked and he, at least, was no upstart.The portrait was exhibited in the Salon of 1807, and was the only portrait the imperial government commissioned from her.==== Switzerland in 1807 ====In July 1807, the artist crossed to Switzerland, arriving first at the town of Basel, where she was received by M. Ethinger, a local banker, who threw a banquet to welcome the artist.", "She proceeded to Biel on the advice of Ethinger, but the roads there were so hazardous that part of the journey had to be made on foot.", "After recuperating in Biel for a single day, she proceeded to the tiny Île Saint-Pierre to visit the home of Rousseau, which she found, to her great surprise and dismay, had become a tavern.", "Vigée Le Brun praised the picturesque countryside repeatedly in her letters to Countess Vincent Potocka.", "After departing the island to return to Biel, she went on to Berne, where she was received by the wife of the ''Landamann'' (magistrate), Mme.", "de Watteville, and the General Ambassador Honoré Vial.", "She also met the seven-months pregnant Mme.", "de Brac, who accompanied her to Thun, and then to the Lauterbrunnen Valley, which she found dark and grim due to its being hidden from sunlight on both sides by steep mountains.", "On her descent, she and her company encountered a group of local shepherdesses; the beauty and naivete of the local people and the wilderness where the encounter took place made her liken the experience to something out of ''Arabian Nights''.", "She went on to visit the Staubbach Falls in the valley.After traversing the rugged trails of the valley, she returned to Berne via Brientz, and then arrived at Schaffhausen where she was received by the local Burgomeister, who took her to see the Rhine Falls.", "After departing from Schaffhausen, she visited the city of Zürich, where she enjoyed the hospitality of General Baron de Salis.", "''Innocence takes refuge in the arms of Justice'', 1779, Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Angers.", "exhibited in 1783 at the Salon de la CorrespondanceAfter taking the young daughter-in-law of de Salis with her, she departed for the small island of Ufenau in Lake Zurich, then visited Rappercheld where she continued to be mesmerized by the beauty of the countryside and the \"native innocence\" of the locals.", "After a hazardous boat ride destined for Walenstadt, the entourage turned back to Rappercheld and then visited the valley of Glarus.", "The artist then continued to the village of Soleure, on the Jura mountains.", "Seeing a solitary chalet perched atop Mount Wunchenstein , her curiosity was excited by who would live so far and high, and she made a trek up the mountain after being assured that the conditions of the road would support her carriage.", "After slightly less than an hour, the road became very rugged and far too steep, prompting her to dismount and continue the journey on foot.", "The trek lasted about five and a half hours, though she wrote in a letter to Countess Potocka that the view made it completely worth it:to tell the truth, the view completely eliminated my fatigue.", "Five or six vast forests, piled one upon the other, fell away beneath my eyes; the canton of Soleure seemed no more than a plain, the town and the villages, tiny specks; the fine line of glaciers which fringed the horizon became redder and redder as the sun sank: the other mountains between them formed a complete color spectrum; gold rays stretched across the mountain to my left, each carrying a rainbow in its arc; the sun set behind the peak; red-violet mountains grew imperceptibly fainter and fainter in the distance, stretching away to the lake of Biel and the far edge of Lake Neuchatel., they stood so far apart that you could only distinguish them by two gold lines.", "heavy with translucent mist; I was still overlooking the deep ravines and mountains covered with thick foliage; at my feet lay wild valleys surrounded by black pine forests.", "As the sun set, I watched the shadows change; different points took on a more sinister character, partly because of their shape and partly because of that long silence which slips harmoniously into the day's demise.", "All I can tell you is that my soul gloried in such a solemn and melancholy vision.She returned to Soleure the next day, and then departed for Vevey, which she described as \"the land of my dreams\".", "She rented a house on the banks of Lake Geneva and toured the countryside and mountains around Vevey.", "She walked up Mount Blonay where the Messieurs de Blonay hosted her at Blonay castle.", "After descending the mountain, the artist hired the innkeeper where she was lodged to row her out on the lake at night.", "She was enthralled by the charming beauty and silence of the lake, and wrote of the journey later \"He was not Saint Preux and I was not Julie, but I was no less happy\".", "Vigée Le Brun then departed for Coppet, where she met the famous dissident socialite and woman of letters Madame de Staël, who was exiled by the Napoleonic regime.", "She stayed at Coppet with Madame de Staël, whom she painted as Corinne, a character from Mme.", "de Staël's most recent novel, ''Corinne ou l'Italie'' (1807).After returning from Coppet to Geneva, where she was made an honorary member of the Société pour l'Avancement des Beaux-Arts, she departed in a group with the de Brac family for Chamonix, intending to visit the Sallanches mountains, the Aiguille du Goûter, and Mont Blanc.", "The journey was perilous.", "The entourage visited the Bossons Glacier.", "On the way upwards, M. de Brac fell ill with catalepsy, and was slowly nursed back to health in a nearby inn, where Vigée Le Brun, the pregnant Mme.", "de Brac and her son were distraught and worried about his condition, but he recuperated slowly over the course of a week.", "After eleven days in Chamonix, the artist departed alone without the de Brac family, writing that nothing would bring her to visit the \"melancholic\"' Chamonix again.", "She then left Switzerland and returned to Paris.==== Switzerland in 1808 ====''Lake of Challes and Mont Blanc'', painted during her travels to Switzerland.", "Minneapolis institute of Art.With her desire for travel still not sated, Vigée Le Brun re-entered Switzerland in 1808 via Neuchâtel, and then visited Lucerne, where she was enchanted by the picturesque and wild town.", "The artist also visited Brown and the market town of Schwyz, then Zug, where she crossed Lake Zug.", "She visited an inn where she wanted to visit the infamous landslide of Goldau.", "The artist visited the valley, once populated with several villages, now buried under rocks.", "Heavy with sorrow, she contemplated the remains of the villages for a long time before departing for Arth.", "Vigée Le Brun then climbed Kussnacht, intending to visit the spot where the legendary William Tell was said to have killed Gessler; at the time a chapel had been constructed on the location.", "There, the artist observed a shepherd and shepherdess singing to each other across the valley, a local courting custom, although the two stopped singing when they noticed her.", "The \"communication of love through melody\" presented her with a delightful scene, which she would describe as an eclogue in action.The artist then visited Untersee, where she was fortunate to arrive in time to witness the Shepherd's festival at Unspunnen castle, which took place once every century.", "She was hosted by M. and Mme.", "Konig, who hosted all notable people who came to visit the festivals.", "Vigée Le Brun went to the château du Bailli to witness the start of the festival, which had been postponed a few days due to incessant rain, and was captivated by the festival's solemn pastoral chants and fireworks at night.", "The next day, she returned to see the festival taking place at half past ten in the morning; she joined the celebrations and dancing, before sitting back and watching the contests between the shepherds and shepherdesses.", "Vigée Le Brun recorded that she was frequently moved to tears by the enchanting atmosphere of the festival.Coincidentally, she found Madame de Staël at the festival, and joined her in the procession that followed the Bailli and his magistrates, which was joined by people from the neighboring valleys, dressed in their local costume and carrying flags representing each canton or valley.=== Return to Paris and later life ======= New home at Louveciennes, the abdications of Napoleon and Bourbon restorations ====After returning to Paris from her second visit to Switzerland, Vigée Le Brun purchased a house in Louveciennes, Île-de-France near the Seine, and invited her niece (daughter of her brother Etienne) Caroline Rivière and her husband to live with her.", "She doted on the newlywed couple and formed a close bond with them, and occasionally visited Paris.", "She had Mme.", "Pourat and the talented actress Comtesse de Hocquart as neighbors.", "She visited Madame du Barry's home, the Pavillon de Louveciennes, which she found had been looted and stripped clean of its furniture and contents.", "On 31 March 1814, her house was raided by Prussian troops who were advancing towards Paris in the final stages of the war of the Sixth Coalition.", "As she prepared to go to bed after eleven o'clock, with no knowledge of the proximity of the allied troops, they entered her home, while she lay in her bed.", "They entered her bedchamber and proceeded to loot her home.", "Her German-speaking Swiss servant Joseph screamed at the soldiers to spare her person until his voice was hoarse.", "After the looting, the soldiers left her home.", "She left as well, initially intending to head to St. Germain before learning that the road there was unsafe.", "Instead she decided to take refuge in a room above the pumping machine at Marly aqueduct, near Du Barry's pavilion, with many other people, having entrusted her house to Joseph.", "As fighting nearby intensified, Vigée Le Brun attempted to take refuge in cave, but gave up after injuring her leg.", "There, she observed how most of the merchants taking refuge were, like her, pining for the restoration of the Bourbons.She departed for Paris as soon as she received the news, and communicated by letter with Joseph about the condition of her Louveciennes home, which had been ransacked and its garden destroyed by the Prussian troops.", "Her servant wrote to her: \"I beg them to be less greedy, to content themselves with whatever I give them, they reply: \"The French have done far worse things in our country\".", "Vigée Le Brun wrote in her memoirs \"The Prussians are right; poor Joseph and I had to answer for that.", "\"Vigée Le Brun was exultant at the entry of the Comte d'Artois to Paris on 12 April, shortly after Napoleon had agreed to abdicate.", "She wrote to him about the King, to which he replied: \"His legs are still bad, but his mind is in excellent form.", "We will march for him, and he will think for us\".", "She attended the euphoric reception of the King in Paris on 3 May 1814, and the restoration of the monarchy.", "The King personally gave her his regards while on his way to attend the Sunday services when he spotted her in a crowd.Upon Napoleon's return from Elba, she noted the contrast between the rapturous reception the Bourbons had received the previous year and Napoleon's tepid welcome upon his return to France from his exile in Elba, after which he initiated the Hundred Days war.", "Vigée Le Brun exhibited her staunch royalist sympathies in her memoirs, writing: Without wishing to insult the memory of a great captain and many brave generals and soldiers who helped win such resounding victories, I would like nevertheless to ask where these victories led us, and whether we still own any of the land which cost us so dear?", "For my part, the bulletins from the Russian campaign both distressed and revolted me; one of the later ones spoke of the loss of thousands of French soldiers and added that the Emperor had never looked so well!", "We read this bulletin at the home of the Bellegarde ladies, and felt so angry that we threw it on to the fire.", "The fact that the people were tired of these interminable wars is easily attested by their lack of enthusiasm during the Hundred Days.", "More than once I saw Bonaparte appear at his window and then retire immediately, furious no doubt, for the acclamation of the crowd was limited to the shouts of a hundred or so boys, paid, I believe, as an act of derision to chant long live the Emperor!", "There is a sharp contrast between this indifference and the joyful enthusiasm which greeted the King on his entry into Paris on the 8th of July 1815; this joy was almost universal, for after the many misfortunes incurred by Bonaparte, Louis XVIII brought only peace.", "Her Louveciennes home was once again looted in the Hundred Days, this time by British troops.", "Among the possessions lost during this incident was a lacquer box gifted to her by the Count Stroganoff during her stay at Saint Petersburg, which she had prized immensely.Her estranged husband died in August 1813, in their old home built on the Rue de-Gros-Chenet.", "Though they had drifted apart for several years, she was nonetheless sorely affected by his death.In 1819 she sold her portrait of Lady Hamilton as the Comaean Sibyl to the Duc de Berri, despite it being her favorite, because she wished to satisfy the Duke.", "She also painted two portraits of the Duchesse de Berri, initially in the Tuileries, but then finishing their sittings in her home.", "In the same year, her daughter Julie died of syphilis, which devastated her.", "The next year, her brother Etienne died an alcoholic, leaving her niece Caroline her principal heir.", "Her friends advised the grief-stricken artist to travel to Bordeaux to occupy her mind with something else.", "She traveled first to Orléans, where she resided in the Château de Méréville, where she was mesmerized by its elegance, beauty and architecture, designed in the English Garden style; she wrote that it \"surpassed anything of its kind in England\".", "She toured the city and sampled its architecture and landmarks, including the cathedral and the ruins surrounding the city.", "She then traveled to Blois where she visited the Château de Chambord, which she described it as \"a romantic, fairy tale place\".", "She then visited the Château de Chanteloup, residence of the late Duc de Choiseul.", "Afterwards, she traveled to Tours, where the impure air forced her to quit the city after only two days.", "In Tours, she was received by the director of the academy, who offered to be her guide in the city.", "She also visited the ruins of the Marmoutier monastery.", "She then passed Poitiers and Angoulême on her way to Bordeaux.", "After arriving in Bordeaux, she stayed in the Fumel Hospice and was received there by the prefect, the Comte de Tournon-Simiane.", "She toured the countryside and visited the cemetery, which she praised for its sepulchral beauty and symmetrical layout.", "It became her second-favorite after the Père La Chaise cemetery of Paris.", "She also visited the synagogue of Bordeaux, styled after the temple of Solomon, the ruins of the ancient Roman Gallien Arena.", "After spending a week in Bordeaux, she started back for Paris, greatly satisfied with her travels.", "During her journey, it was common for her to be mistaken for a noble lady owing to her expensive carriage; she later lamented in her memoirs that this often meant she had to pay more in the inns where she resided.Her journey to Bordeaux was the last time she traveled extensively.==== Friendship with Antoine Jean-Gros ====The artist formed an intimate friendship with Antoine-Jean Gros, whom she had known since he was seven years old and had painted his portrait when he was at that age, during which she had noticed an artistic inclination in the child.", "Upon her return to France she was surprised to find Gros had become a successful and famous painter, head of his own school of art.", "Gros was socially reclusive, and often brusque to others, but he formed a close bond with Vigée Le Brun, who wrote: \"Gros was always a man of natural impulses.", "He was prone to feel the keenest sensations and would become equally passionate over a kind action or a beautiful work of art.", "He was ill at ease in society, rarely breaking the silence in a crowded place, but he listened attentively and replied with his gentle smile, or by a single word, always very apt.", "To appreciate Gros, one had to know him intimately.", "Then he would open up his heart, a kind and noble one at that; some people reproached him for having a certain brusqueness of tone, but this disappeared entirely in private.", "His conversation was even more fascinating because he never expressed himself in the same way as other men; always finding the most unusual and powerful images to convey a thought, you might almost say he painted with words.", "\"She was greatly affected by his suicide in 1835; she had met him the day before and noted him brooding over criticism he had received over one of his paintings.==== Later years ====Vigée Le Brun's grave in LouveciennesShe spent most of her time in Louveciennes, typically eight months of the year.", "She formed new friendships with people including the writer and man of letters M. de Briffaut, the playwright M. Despré, the writer M. Louis Aimé-Martin, the composer M. Désaugiers, the painter and antiquarian Comte de Forbin, and the famous painter Antoine-Jean Gros.", "She hosted these people and socialized with them regularly in her countryside home or in Paris, as well as her old friend the Princess Kourakin.", "She painted Saint Geneviève, with the face being a posthumous portrait of 12-year old Julie.", "For the local chapel, the Comtesse de Genlis graced this painting with two separate poems; one for the saint, the other for the painter.", "She spent her time with her nieces Caroline Rivière and Eugénie Tripier-Le Franc, whom she came to regard as her own children.", "She had tutored the latter in painting since childhood and was greatly pleased to see her blossom into a professional artist.", "Eugénie and Caroline would assist her in writing her memoirs, late in her life.", "She died in Paris on 30 March 1842, aged 86.She was buried at the Cimetière de Louveciennes near her old home.", "Her tombstone epitaph says \"''Ici, enfin, je repose...''\" (Here, at last, I rest...)." ], [ "Exhibitions", "During her lifetime, Vigée Le Brun's work was publicly exhibited in Paris at the Académie de Saint-Luc (1774), Salon de la Correspondance (1779, 1781, 1782, 1783) and Salon of the Académie in Paris (1783, 1785, 1787, 1789, 1791, 1798, 1802, 1817, 1824).The first retrospective exhibition of Vigée Le Brun's work was held in 1982 at the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas.", "The first major international retrospective exhibition of her art premiered at the Galeries nationales du Grand Palais in Paris (2015—2016) and was subsequently shown at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City (2016) and the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa (2016)." ], [ "Portrayal in popular culture", "The 2014 docudrama made for French television, ''Le fabuleux destin d'Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun,'' directed by Arnaud Xainte, and starring Marlène Goulard and Julie Ravix as the young and old Elisabeth respectively, is available in English as ''The Fabulous Life of Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun.", "''In the episode \"The Portrait\" from the BBC series ''Let Them Eat Cake'' (1999) written by Peter Learmouth, starring Dawn French and Jennifer Saunders, Madame Vigée Le Brun (Maggie Steed) paints a portrait of the Comtesse de Vache (Jennifer Saunders) weeping over a dead canary.Vigée Le Brun is one of only three characters in Joel Gross's ''Marie Antoinette: The Color of Flesh'' (premiered in 2007), a fictionalized historical drama about a love triangle set against the backdrop of the French Revolution.Vigée Le Brun's portrait of Marie Antoinette is featured on the cover of the 2010 album ''Nobody's Daughter'' by Hole.Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun is a dateable non-player character in the historically-based dating sim video game ''Ambition: A Minuet in Power'' published by Joy Manufacturing Co.Singer-songwriter Kelly Chase released the song \"Portrait of a Queen\" in 2021 to accompany the History Detective Podcast, Season 2, Episode 3 Marie Antionette's Portrait Artist: Vigée Le Brun." ], [ "Gallery", "===Portraits painted in France===File:Portrait Of The Artists Brother by Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun.jpg|''Étienne Vigée'', 1773.Saint Louis Art Museum.File:Self-portrait in a Straw Hat by Elisabeth-Louise Vigée-Lebrun.jpg|''Self-portrait in a Straw Hat'', National Gallery, LondonFile:Duchess of Polignac by E.Vigee-Lebrun (1787, Atheneum).jpg|''Duchesse de Polignac'', 1782 oil on canvas.", "Musée de l'Histoire de France (Versailles).File:Vigée Le Brun - Élisabeth of France, Versailles.jpg|''Élisabeth of France'', sister of Louis XVI.", "1782, Musée de l'Histoire de FranceFile:Du Barry.jpg|''Madame du Barry'', 1782.The last ''Maîtresse-en-titre'' of Louis XV of France and a victim of the Reign of Terror.\"", "One of three Vigée Le Brun portraits, including a posthumous portrait that she finished in 1805.", "(Note:Though du Barry never wore rouge, another artist added it to her cheeks.", ")File:Madame Grand (Noël Catherine Vorlée, 1761–1835) MET DP320094.jpg|''Madame Grand'', 1783.Metropolitan Museum of Art.File:Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun - Portrait of Marie Gabrielle de Gramont, Duchesse de Caderousse - Google Art Project.jpg|''Marie-Gabrielle de Gramont, Duchesse de Caderousse'', 1784.Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.File:Vigée-Lebrun, Elisabeth-Louise - Charles-Alexandre de Calonne (1734-1802) - Google Art Project.jpg|''Charles-Alexandre de Calonne'', 1784.Royal Collection.File:Vigée Le Brun Baronne de Crussol (RO 307).jpg|''Baronne de Crussol'', 1785.Musée des Augustins.File:Comtesse de la Châtre (Marie Charlotte Louise Perrette Aglaé Bontemps, 1762–1848) MET DP320086.jpg|''Comtesse de La Châtre'', 1789.Metropolitan Museum of Art.File:Self-portrait with Her Daughter by Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun.jpg|''Self-portrait with her Daughter'', 1789.Louvre.File:Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun - Madame Molé-Reymond (1786).jpg|''Madame Molé-Reymond'', actrice de la Comédie italienne, 1786.Louvre Museum.File:Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun - The Marquise de Pezay and the Marquise de Rougé with Her Sons Alexis and Adrien.jpg|''The Marquise de Pezay, and the Marquise de Rougé with her Sons Alexis and Adrien'', 1787File:Elizabeth Vigee Lebrun - Portrait of Mohammed Dervish Khan 366N10007 B3Y2Q.jpg|''Muhammad Dervish Khan'', 1788.Private collection.File:Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun - Joseph Vernet (1778).jpg|''Joseph Vernet'', 1778.Louvre Museum.File:Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun - Hubert Robert (1788).jpg|''Hubert Robert'', 1788.Exhibited in the 1779 Salon Carré.", "Louvre Museum.File:Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - selfportrait (Kimbell Art Museum, 1781-2)FXD.jpg|''Self-Portrait'', 1781.Kimbell Art Museum.File:Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun - The Vicomtesse de Vaudreuil - Google Art Project.jpg|''Vicomtesse de Vaudreuil'', 1785.Getty Center.===Portraits painted in Italy===File:Lebrun, Self-portrait.jpg|''Self-portrait, painting Marie Antoinette'', 1790.Uffizi.File:Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - Lady Hamilton as Ariadne.jpg|''Emma, Lady Hamilton as Ariadne'', 1790.Private Collection.", "Painted in Naples.File:Ritratto dell'infante Francesco di Borbone.jpg|''Francesco di Borbone'', 1790.Museo di Capodimonte.File:Luisa Maria Amelia Teresa di Borbone-Due Sicilie V2.jpg|''Luisa Maria Amelia di Borbone'', 1790.Museo di Capodimonte.File:Maria Cristina by Élisabeth Vigée.jpg|''Maria Cristina of Bourbon'', 1790.Museo di Capodimonte.File:Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - Portrait of Anna Pitt as Hebe - WGA25079.jpg|''Anne Pitt as Hebe'', 1792.Hermitage Museum.File:LadyHamilton.jpg|''Emma Hamilton as a Bacchante'', 1792.Lady Lever Art Gallery.File:Vigée-Lebrun.", "Autoportrait.jpg|Copy of her 1790 self-portrait, originally done for the accademia di St. Luca in Rome.File:Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - Portrait of Hyacinthe Gabrielle Roland (191).jpg|''Mme.", "Roland'', 1791 Rome.", "Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.File:Skawronska.jpeg|''Countess Skavronskaia'', Jacquemart-André museum.File:Anna Zetzner (1764-1814) by Vigée Le Brun.jpg|''Countess Potocka'', Private collection.File:Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun (1755-1842) - Frederick Augustus Hervey (1730–1803), 4th Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry - 851764 - National Trust.jpg|''Lord Bristol'', 1790, National Trust collection===Portraits painted in Austria===File:Marie Louise Elisabeth Vigée-Le Brun - Portrait de la comtesse Maria Theresia Bucquoi.jpg|''La Comtesse Maria Theresia Bucquoi'', 1793.Minneapolis Institute of Art.File:Theresa, Countess Kinsky by Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun.jpg|''Theresa, Countess Kinsky'', 1793.Norton Simon Museum.File:Portrait of Princess Karoline of Liechtenstein (1793) LeBrun.jpg|''Princess Karoline of Liechtenstein'', 1793.Liechtenstein Museum.File:Countess Siemontkowsky Bystry by Vigee le Brun.jpg|''Countess Siemontkowsky-Bystry'', 1793.Private collection.File:Lebrun Pelagie Sapiezyna.jpg|''Pélagie Sapieżyna-Potocka'', 1794.Royal Castle, Warsaw.File:Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun (1755-1842) - Frederick Augustus Hervey (1730–1803), 4th Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry - 851764 - National Trust.jpg|''Lord Bristol'', 1790, National Trust collection===Portraits painted in Russia===File:Vigée-Lebrun 1800.jpg|alt=Self-portrait of herself submitted for her admission to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts Now in the Hermitage Museum.", "Along with the other Uffizi portrait,these are the only surviving self-portraits by the artist showing her in the act of painting.|Self-portrait of herself painting Louise of Baden submitted for her admission to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts Now in the Hermitage Museum.", "Along with the other Uffizi portrait, are the only surviving self-portraits by the artist showing her in the act of painting.File:Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun.", "The portrait of princess Ekaterina Nikolaevna Menshikova.jpg|''Princess Ekaterina Nikolaevna Menshikova'', 1795.National Gallery of Armenia.File:Anna tolstoy Vigée-Lebrun.jpg|''Anna Ivanovna Baryatinskaya Tolstoy'', 1796.National Gallery of Canada.File:Ekaterina Dolgorukaya (Baryatinsky).jpg|''Ekaterina Feodorovna Baryatinskaya-Dolgorukova'', 1796.Yamazaki Mazak Museum of Art.File:Anna Alexandrovna Galitzin, nee Gruzinsky.jpg|''Princess Ana Gruzinsky Galitzine'', 1797.Baltimore Museum of Art.File:Maria Razumovskaya by Vigée-Lebrun.jpg|alt=Maria Grigorievna Razumovskaya|''Princess Golitsyna'', 1797.", "(Maria Razumovskaya)File:The Barber Institute of Fine Arts - Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - Portrait of Countess Golovina.jpg|''Varvara Golovina'', 1797–1800.Barber Institute of Fine Arts.File:Anna Beloselskaya-Belozerskaya by Vigée-Lebrun.jpg|''Anna Beloselskaya-Belozerskaya'', 1798.National Museum of Women in the Arts.File:Vigee-Lebrun–Julie-Lebrun-as-Flora.jpg|''Julie Le Brun as Flora'', 1799.Museum of Fine Arts (St. Petersburg, Florida).File:Vigee Stanislaw Augustus.jpg|''Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski'', former King of Poland, 1796.Versailles Collection." ], [ "See also", "* Marie-Victoire Lemoine* Women artists" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Literature and resources", "* University of Pennsylvania, '''''Memoirs of Madame Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun''''', Translated by Lionel Strachey, Copyright 1903, by Doubleday, Page & Company, Published, October, 1903" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * Katherine Baetjer: \"Vigée Le Brun: Woman Artist in Revolutionary France.", "\", ''Modern Arts Notes Podcast''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epistle to the Galatians" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Epistle to the Galatians''' is the ninth book of the New Testament.", "It is a letter from Paul the Apostle to a number of Early Christian communities in Galatia.", "Scholars have suggested that this is either the Roman province of Galatia in southern Anatolia, or a large region defined by ''Galatians,'' an ethnic group of Celtic people in central Anatolia.", "The letter was originally written in Koine Greek and later translated into other languages.In this letter, Paul is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Mosaic Law during the Apostolic Age.", "Paul argues that the Gentile Galatians do not need to adhere to the tenets of the Mosaic Law, particularly religious male circumcision, by contextualizing the role of the law in light of the revelation of Christ.", "The Epistle to the Galatians has exerted enormous influence on the history of Christianity, the development of Christian theology, and the study of the Apostle Paul.The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish or Jewish proselytes, which historians refer to as the Jewish Christians.", "Another indicator that the letter is early is that there is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large.", "This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself." ], [ "Background", "The original of the letter (autograph) is not known to survive.", "Papyrus 46, the earliest reasonably complete version available to scholars today, dates to approximately AD 200, around 150 years after the original was presumably drafted.", "This papyrus is fragmented in a few areas, causing some of the original text to be missing.", "But, as biblical scholar Bruce Metzger puts it, \"through careful research relating to paper construction, handwriting development, and the established principles of textual criticism, scholars can be rather certain about where these errors and changes appeared and what the original text probably said.", "\"=== Authorship and date ======= Authorship ====In the past, a small number of scholars have questioned Paul's authorship of Galatians, such as Bruno Bauer, Abraham Loman, C. H. Weisse, and Frank R. McGuire.", "Currently, biblical scholars agree that Galatians is a true example of Paul's writing.", "The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus.", "George S. Duncan described its authenticity as \"unquestioned.", "In every line it betrays its origin as a genuine letter of Paul.\"", "Moreover, Paul's possible description of the Council of Jerusalem gives a different point of view from the description in Acts 15:2–29, if it is, in fact, describing the Jerusalem Council.==== Date ====Papyrus 46, a manuscript of with the end of Ephesians and the beginning of Galatians (the text ΠΡΟϹ ΓⲀλⲀΤⲀϹ, ''PROS GALATAS'' is visible at centre)A majority of scholars agree that Galatians was written between the late 40s and early 50s, although some date the original composition to .", "Jon Jordan notes that an interesting point to be made in the search for the dating of Galatians concerns whether or not it is a response to the Council of Jerusalem or a factor leading up to the Council.", "He writes, \"did Paul's argument in Galatians flow out of the Jerusalem Council's decision, or did it come before the Jerusalem Council and possibly help shape that very decision?\"", "It would have been enormously helpful to Paul's argument if he could have mentioned the decision of the Council of Jerusalem that Gentiles should not be circumcised.", "The absence of this argument from Paul strongly implies Galatians was written prior to the council.", "Since the council took place in 48–49 AD, and Paul evangelized South Galatia in 47–48 AD, the most plausible date for the writing of Galatians is 48 AD.=== Audience ===Paul's letter is addressed \"to the churches of Galatia\", but the location of these churches is a matter of debate.", "Most scholars agree that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day.", "Acts records Paul traveling to the \"region of Galatia and Phrygia\", which lies immediately west of Galatia.", "Some scholars have argued that \"Galatia\" is an ethnic reference to ''Galatians,'' a Celtic people living in northern Asia Minor.The New Testament indicates that Paul spent time personally in the cities of Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe) during his missionary journeys.", "They seem to have been composed mainly of Gentile converts.", "After Paul's departure, the churches were led astray from Paul's trust/faith-centered teachings by individuals proposing \"another gospel\" (which centered on salvation through the Mosaic Law, so-called legalism), whom Paul saw as preaching a \"different gospel\" from what Paul had taught.", "The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.The identity of these \"opponents\" is disputed.", "However, the majority of modern scholars view them as Jewish Christians, who taught that in order for converts to belong to the People of God, they must be subject to some or all of the Jewish Law (i.e.", "Judaizers).", "The letter indicates controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath observance, and the Mosaic Covenant.", "It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of Abraham, who was circumcised as a mark of receiving the covenant blessings.", "They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an apostle, perhaps appealing to the greater authority of the Jerusalem church governed by James (brother of Jesus).====North Galatian view====The North Galatian view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia.", "In this view, the visit to Jerusalem, mentioned in Galatians 2:1–10, is identical with that of Acts 15, which is spoken of as a thing of the past.", "Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written after the Council of Jerusalem.", "The similarity between this epistle and the epistle to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at roughly the same time, during Paul's stay in Macedonia in roughly 56–57.This third date takes the word \"quickly\" in literally.", "John P. Meier suggests that Galatians was \"written in the middle or late 50s, only a few years after the Antiochene incident he narrates\".", "Eminent biblical scholar Helmut Koester also subscribes to the \"North Galatian Hypothesis\".", "Koester points out that the cities of Galatia in the north consist of Ankyra, Pessinus, and Gordium (of the Gordian Knot fame of Alexander the Great).====South Galatian view====The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before the First Jerusalem Council, probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his time in Tarsus (he would have traveled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian, or during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern Galatia.", "If it was written to the believers in South Galatia, it would likely have been written in 49.====Earliest epistle====A third theory is that Galatians 2:1–10 describes Paul and Barnabas' visit to Jerusalem described in Acts 11:30 and 12:25.This theory holds that the epistle was written before the Council was convened, possibly making it the earliest of Paul's epistles.", "According to this theory, the revelation mentioned (Gal.", "2:2) corresponds with the prophecy of Agabus (Acts 11:27–28).", "This view holds that the private speaking about the gospel shared among the Gentiles precludes the Acts 15 visit, but fits perfectly with Acts 11.It further holds that continuing to remember the poor (Gal.", "2:10) fits with the purpose of the Acts 11 visit, but not Acts 15.In addition, the exclusion of any mention of the letter of Acts 15 is seen to indicate that such a letter did not yet exist, since Paul would have been likely to use it against the legalism confronted in Galatians.", "Finally, this view doubts Paul's confrontation of Peter (Gal.", "2:11) would have been necessary after the events described in Acts 15.If this view is correct, the epistle should be dated somewhere around 47, depending on other difficult-to-date events, such as Paul's conversion.Kirsopp Lake found this view less likely and wondered why it would be necessary for the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15) to take place at all if the issue were settled in Acts 11:30/12:25, as this view holds.", "Defenders of the view do not think it unlikely an issue of such magnitude would need to be discussed more than once.", "Renowned New Testament scholar J.B. Lightfoot also objected to this view since it \"clearly implies that his Paul's Apostolic office and labours were well known and recognized before this conference.", "\"Defenders of this view, such as Ronald Fung, disagree with both parts of Lightfoot's statement, insisting Paul received his \"Apostolic Office\" at his conversion (Gal.", "1:15–17; Acts 9).", "Fung holds, then, that Paul's apostolic mission began almost immediately in Damascus (Acts 9:20).", "While accepting that Paul's apostolic anointing was likely only recognized by the Apostles in Jerusalem during the events described in Galatians 2/Acts 11:30, Fung does not see this as a problem for this theory.=== Paul's opponents ===Scholars have debated whether it is possible to reconstruct the arguments against which Paul is arguing.", "Though these opponents have traditionally been designated as Judaizers, this classification has fallen out of favor in contemporary scholarship.", "Some instead refer to them as Agitators.", "While many scholars have claimed that Paul's opponents were circumcisionist Jewish followers of Jesus, the ability to make such determinations with a reasonable degree of certainty has been called into question.", "It has often been presumed that they traveled from Jerusalem, but some commentators have raised the question of whether they may have actually been insiders familiar with the dynamics of the community.", "Furthermore, some commentaries and articles pointed out the inherent problems in mirror-reading, emphasizing that there is not sufficient evidence to reconstruct the arguments of Paul's opponents.", "It is not enough to simply reverse his denials and assertions as it not result in a coherent argument nor can it possibly reflect the thought processes of his opponents accurately.", "It is nearly impossible to reconstruct the opponents from Paul's text because their representation is necessarily polemical.", "All that can be said with any certainty is that they supported a different position of Gentile relations with Jews than Paul did." ], [ "Outline", "Valentin de Boulogne's depiction of \"Saint Paul Writing His Epistles\", 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).", "Lightfoot notes with respect to verse 6:11 that at this point \"the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand\".=== Introduction: The Cross and the Preeminence of the Gospel (1:1–10) ===# Prescript (1:1–5)# Rebuke: The Occasion of the Letter (1:6–10)=== The Truth of the Gospel (1:11–2:21) ===# How Paul Received and Defended the Gospel: Paul and the \"Pillars\" (1:11–2:14)# The Truth of the Gospel Defined (2:15–21)=== The Defense of the Gospel (3:1–5:12) ===# Rebuke and Reminder: Faith, Spirit, and Righteousness (3:1–6)# Argument: Abraham's Children through Incorporation into Christ by Faith (3:7–4:7)# Appeal (4:8–31)# Exhortation and Warning: Faith, Spirit, and Righteousness (5:1–12)=== The Life of the Gospel (5:13–6:10) ===# The Basic Pattern of the New Life: Serving One Another in Love (5:13–15)# Implementing the New Life: Walking by the Spirit (5:16–24)# Some Specific Parameters of the New Life (5:25–6:6)# The Urgency of Living the New Life (6:7–10)=== Closing: Cross and New Creation (6:11–18) ===This outline is provided by Douglas J. Moo." ], [ "Contents", "This epistle addresses the question of whether the Gentiles in Galatia were obligated to follow Mosaic Law to be part of the Christ community.", "After an introductory address, the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle.In the first two chapters, Paul discusses his life before Christ and his early ministry, including interactions with other apostles in Jerusalem.", "This is the most extended discussion of Paul's past that we find in the Pauline letters (cf.", "Philippians 3:1–7).", "Some have read this autobiographical narrative as Paul's defense of his apostolic authority.", "Others, however, see Paul's telling of the narrative as making an argument to the Galatians about the nature of the gospel and the Galatians' own situation.Chapter 3 exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus.", "Paul engages in an exegetical argument, drawing upon the figure of Abraham and the priority of his faith to the covenant of circumcision.", "Paul explains that the law was introduced as a temporary measure, one that is no longer efficacious now that the seed of Abraham, Christ, has come.", "Chapter 4 then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed and with the benediction, followed by 5:1–6:10 teaching about the right use of their Christian freedom.In the conclusion of the epistle, Paul wrote, \"See with what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand.\"", "(Galatians 6:11, ESV) Regarding this conclusion, Lightfoot, in his Commentary on the epistle, says:Some commentators have postulated that Paul's large letters are owed to his poor eyesight, his deformed hands, or to other physical, mental, or psychological afflictions.", "Other commentators have attributed Paul's large letters to his poor education, his attempt to assert his authority, or his effort to emphasize his final words.", "Classics scholar Steve Reece has compared similar autographic subscriptions in thousands of Greek, Roman, and Jewish letters of this period and observes that large letters are a normal feature when senders of letters, regardless of their education, take the pen from their amanuensis and add a few words of greeting in their own hands.Galatians also contains a catalogue of vices and virtues, a popular formulation of ancient Christian ethics.Probably the most famous single statement made in the Epistle, by Paul, is in chapter 3, verse 28: \"There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.\"", "The debate surrounding that verse is legend and the two schools of thought are (1) this only applies to the spiritual standing of people in the eyes of God, it does not implicate social distinctions and gender roles on earth; and (2) this is not just about our spiritual standing but is also about how we relate to each other and treat each other in the here and now.Position (1) emphasises the immediate context of the verse and notes that it is embedded in a discussion about justification: our relationship with God.", "Position (2) reminds its critics that the \"whole letter context\" is very much about how people got on in the here and now together, and in fact the discussion about justification came out of an actual example of people treating other people differently (2:11ff)." ], [ "Major issues", "=== Paul and the law ===Much variety exists in discussions of Paul's view of the Law in Galatians.", "Nicole Chibici-Revneanu noticed a difference in Paul's treatment of the Law in Galatians and Romans.", "In Galatians the law is described as the \"oppressor\" whereas in Romans Paul describes that the Law was as being just as much in need of the Spirit to set it free from sin as humans do.", "Peter Oakes argues that Galatians cannot be construed as depicting the law positively because the Law played the role it was meant to play in the scope of human history.", "Wolfgang Reinbold argues that, contrary to the popular reading of Paul, the Law was possible to keep.=== Under law and works of law ===Regarding \"under the law\" (Gal.", "3:23; 4:4, 5, 21; 5:18), Todd Wilson argues that \"under the law\" in Galatians was a \"rhetorical abbreviation for 'under the curse of the law.", "Regarding \"works of the law\" (Gal.", "2:16), Robert Keith Rapa argues Paul is speaking of viewing Torah-observances as the means of salvation which he is seeking to combat in the Galatian congregation.", "Jacqueline de Roo noticed a similar phrase in the works found at Qumran and argues that \"works of the law\" is speaking of obedience to the Torah acting as a way of being atoned for.", "Michael Bachmann argues that this phrase is a mention of certain actions taken by Jewish people to distinguish themselves and perpetuate separation between themselves and Gentiles.=== Law of Christ ===Much debate surrounds what Paul means by \"law of Christ\" in Galatians 6:2, a phrase that occurs only once in all of Paul's letters.", "As Schreiner explains, some scholars think that the \"law of Christ\" is the sum of Jesus's words, functioning as a \"new Torah for believers\".", "Others argue that the \"genitive in the 'law of Christ' 'should be understood as explanatory, i.e.", "the law which is Christ.", "Some focus on the relationship between the law of Christ and the Old Testament Decalogue.", "Still other scholars argue that whereas the \"Mosaic law is abolished\", the new \"law of Christ fits with the Zion Torah\", which \"hails from Zion ... and is eschatological\".", "Schreiner himself believes that the law of Christ is equivalent to Galatians 5:13–14's \"law of love\".", "According to Schreiner, when believers love others, \"they behave as Christ did and fulfill his law\".=== Antioch incident ===As Thomas Schreiner explains, there is significant debate over the meaning of Peter's eating with the Gentiles—specifically, why might the eating have been considered wrong?", "E. P. Sanders argues that though Jews could eat in the same location with Gentiles, Jews did not want to consume food from the same vessels used by Gentiles.", "As Sanders explains, Galatia's Jews and Gentiles might have had to share the same cup and loaf (i.e.", "food from the same vessels).", "Other scholars such as James Dunn argue that Cephas was \"already observing the basic food laws of the Torah\" and then \"men from James advocated an even stricter observance\".", "Schreiner himself argues that Peter \"actually ate unclean food—food prohibited by the OT law—before the men from James came\".", "Depending on how one construes \"eating with the Gentiles\" in Galatians 2:12, one may reach different conclusions as to why Paul was so angry with Peter in Antioch.=== ===There is debate about the meaning of the phrase in Galatians 2:16.Grammatically, this phrase can be interpreted either as an objective genitive \"through faith in Jesus Christ\" or as a subjective genitive \"through the faith of Jesus Christ\".", "There are theological ramifications to each position, but given the corpus of the Pauline literature, the majority of scholars have treated as an objective genitive, translating it as \"faith in Jesus Christ\".", "Daniel Harrington writes, \"the subjective genitive does not oppose or do away with the concept of faith in Christ.", "Rather, it reestablishes priorities.", "One is justified by the faith of Jesus Christ manifested in his obedience to God by his death upon the cross.", "It is on the basis of that faith that one believes in Christ\".=== Sexuality and gender ===Galatians 3:28 says, \"There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus.\"", "According to Norbert Baumert, Galatians 3:28 is Paul's declaration that one can be in relationship with Jesus no matter their gender.", "Judith Gundry-Volf argues for a more general approach, stating that one's gender does not provide any benefit or burden.", "Pamela Eisenbaum argues that Paul was exhorting his readers to be mindful in changing conduct in relationships that involved people of different status.", "Ben Witherington argues that Paul is combatting the position espoused by opponents who were attempting to influence Paul's community to return to the patriarchal standards held by the majority culture.There are two different interpretations within the modern scholarship regarding the meaning and function of Paul's statement that \"there is no longer male and female\".", "The first interpretation states that Paul's words eliminate the biological differences between males and females and thus calls gender roles into question.", "Nancy Bedford says that this does not mean that there is no distinction between males and females; instead, it means that there is no room for gender hierarchy in the gospel.", "The second interpretation states that one must recognize the historical background of Paul's time.", "Jeremy Punt argues that although many scholars want to say that this verse signifies changing gender norms, it actually reflects on the patriarchal structure of Paul's time.", "In Paul's time, females and males were considered one sex, and the female was understood to be the inferior version of the male.", "It is under this one sex understanding that Paul says that \"there is no longer male and female\", and it therefore does not show an abolition of the boundary between genders because that boundary did not exist in Paul's time.", "\"There is no longer Jew or Greek, slave or free, male or female\" refers to the universality of salvation through Christ which does not discriminate ethnicity, social status or gender.", "At the same time, the women in Paul's time would also not necessarily have heard an ideology of gender equality from the message of Galatians 3:28 because of their subordinated status in society at that time.", "Punt argues that in Galatians 3:28, Paul's intention was to fix social conflicts rather than to alter gender norms.", "By stating the importance of becoming one in Christ, Paul tries to give his society a new identity, which is the identity in Christ, and he believes that this will fix the social conflicts.=== Meaning of \"Israel of God\" ===Many scholars debate the meaning of the phrase \"Israel of God\" in Galatians 6:16, wherein Paul wishes for \"peace and mercy\" to be \"even upon the Israel of God\".", "As Schreiner explains, scholars debate whether \"Israel of God\" refers to ethnically Jewish believers \"within the church of Jesus Christ\", or to the church of Christ as a whole (Jewish and Gentiles all included).", "Those who believe that \"Israel of God\" only refers to ethnically Jewish believers, argue that had Paul meant the entire church, he would use the word \"mercy\" before \"peace\", because Paul \"sees peace as the petition for the church, while mercy is the request for unredeemed Jews\".", "Other scholars, such as G. K. Beale, argue that the Old Testament backdrop of Galatians 6:16—e.g.", "a verse such as Isaiah 54:10 wherein God promises mercy and peace to Israel—suggests that \"the Israel of God\" refers to a portion of the new, eschatological Israel \"composed of Jews and Gentiles\".", "Schreiner himself is sympathetic to this view, believing that treating the \"Israel of God\" as the church of Christ fits with the whole of Galatians, since Galatians pronounces \"believers in Christ\" as \"the true sons of Abraham\"." ], [ "Significance and reception", "=== Luther's theology and antisemitism ===Luther's fundamental belief in justification by faith was formed in large part by his interpretation of Galatians.", "Masaki claims This development led to some schools of thought, such as Canadian religious historian Barrie Wilson who points out in ''How Jesus Became Christian,'' how Paul's Letter to the Galatians represents a sweeping rejection of Jewish Law (Torah).", "In so doing, Paul clearly takes his Christ movement out of the orbit of Judaism and into an entirely different milieu.", "Paul's stance constitutes a major contrast to the position of James, brother of Jesus, whose group in Jerusalem adhered to the observance of Torah.=== Gender, sexuality, and modern scholarship ===Galatians 3:28 is one of the most controversial and influential verses in Galatians.", "There are three different pairs that Paul uses to elaborate his ideology.", "The first one is \"Jew or Greek\", the second one is \"slave or free\", and the third one is \"male and female\", Paul states that in Jesus Christ there is no longer a distinction between them.", "However, the meaning of this verse is not expounded upon further by Paul.", "In modern politics, the debate about the meaning of Galatians 3:28 is significant, as it is used by different people and scholars in order to make normative claims about sexuality, gender, and even marriage.", "The ongoing nature of this debate reveals that scholars still have not come to a unified conclusion regarding Paul's theology." ], [ "See also", "* Paul the Apostle and Judaism* Prayer of St. John Gabriel Perboyre to Jesus* Textual variants in the Epistle to the Galatians" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Cited works", "* .", "* .", "* .", "*" ], [ "External links", "Online translations of the Epistle to Galatians:* ''Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions'' at GospelCom.net* ''Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions'' at Biola University* Galatians – King James Bible* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org* Various versionsRelated articles:* A Brief Introduction to Galatians * Galatians, Paul, The Torah-Law & Legalism * John Chrysostom's Commentary on Galatians* An alternative commentary on Galatians* A Secular Site on Galatians* Jewish messianic Commentary on Galatians (Jerusalem)*" ] ]
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[ [ "Epistle to the Philippians" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Epistle to the Philippians''' is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible.", "The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and Timothy is named with him as co-author or co-sender.", "The letter is addressed to the Christian church in Philippi.", "Paul, Timothy, Silas (and perhaps Luke) first visited Philippi in Greece (Macedonia) during Paul's second missionary journey from Antioch, which occurred between approximately 49 and 51 AD.", "In the account of his visit in the Acts of the Apostles, Paul and Silas are accused of \"disturbing the city\".There is a general consensus that Philippians consists of authentically Pauline material, and that the epistle is a composite of multiple letter fragments from Paul to the church in Philippi.", "These letters could have been written from Ephesus in 52–55 AD or Caesarea Maritima in 57–59, but the most likely city of provenance is Rome, around 62 AD, or about 10 years after Paul's first visit to Philippi." ], [ "Composition", "Ruins of Philippi, a city in Thrace (northeast Greece)Starting in the 1960s, a general consensus has emerged among biblical scholars that Philippians was not written as one unified letter, but is rather a compilation of fragments from three separate letters from Paul to the church in Philippi.", "According to Philip Sellew, Philippians contains the following letter fragments:* '''Letter A''' consists of Philippians 4:10–20.It is a short thank-you note from Paul to the Philippian church, regarding gifts they had sent him.", "* '''Letter B''' consists of Philippians 1:1–3:1, and may also include 4:4–9 and 4:21–23.", "* '''Letter C''' consists of Philippians 3:2–4:1, and may also include 4:2–3.It is a testament to Paul's rejection of all worldly things for the sake of the gospel of Jesus.In support of the idea that Philippians is a composite work, scholars point to the abrupt shifts in tone and topic within the text.", "There also seem to be chronological inconsistencies from one chapter to the next concerning Paul's associate Epaphroditus:These letter fragments likely would have been edited into a single document by the first collector of the Pauline corpus, although there is no clear consensus among scholars regarding who this initial collector may have been, or when the first collection of Pauline epistles may have been published.Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1009, containing part of Philippians (3rd century AD)Today, a number of scholars believe that Philippians is a composite of multiple letter fragments.", "According to the theologian G. Walter Hansen, \"The traditional view that Philippians was composed as one letter in the form presented in the NT ''New Testament'' can no longer claim widespread support.\"", "Nevertheless, many scholars continue to argue for the unity of Philippians.Regardless of the literary unity of the letter, scholars agree that the material that was compiled into the Epistle to the Philippians was originally composed in Greek, sometime during the 50s or early 60s AD.===Place of writing===It is uncertain where Paul was when he wrote the letter(s) that make up Philippians.", "Internal evidence in the letter itself points clearly to it being composed while Paul was in custody, but it is unclear ''which'' period of imprisonment the letter refers to.", "If the testimony of the Acts of the Apostles is to be trusted, candidates would include the Roman imprisonment at the end of Acts, and the earlier Caesarean imprisonment.", "Any identification of the place of writing of Philippians is complicated by the fact that some scholars view Acts as being an unreliable source of information about the early Church.Jim Reiher has suggested that the letters could stem from the second period of Roman imprisonment attested by early church fathers.", "The main reasons suggested for a later date include:# The letter's highly developed Ecclesiology# An impending sense of death permeating the letter# The absence of any mention of Luke in a letter to Luke's home church (when the narrative in Acts clearly suggests that Luke was with Paul in his first Roman imprisonment)# A harsher imprisonment than the open house arrest of his first Roman imprisonment# A similar unique expression that is shared only with 2 Timothy# A similar disappointment with co-workers shared only with 2 Timothy" ], [ "Contents", "In Chapters 1 and 2 of Philippians ('''Letter B'''), Paul sends word to the Philippians of his upcoming sentence in Rome and of his optimism in the face of death, along with exhortations to imitate his capacity to rejoice in the Lord despite one's circumstances.", "Paul assures the Philippians that his imprisonment is actually helping to spread the Christian message, rather than hindering it.", "He also expresses gratitude for the devotion and heroism of Epaphroditus, who the Philippian church had sent to visit Paul and bring him gifts.", "Some time during his visit with Paul, Epaphroditus apparently contracted some life-threatening debilitating illness.", "But he recovers before being sent back to the Philippians.In Chapter 3 ('''Letter C'''), Paul warns the Philippians about those Christians who insist that circumcision is necessary for salvation.", "He testifies that while he once was a devout Pharisee and follower of the Jewish law, he now considers these things to be worthless and worldly compared to the gospel of Jesus.In Chapter 4, Paul urges the Philippians to resolve conflicts within their fellowship.", "In the latter part of the chapter ('''Letter A'''), Paul expresses his gratitude for the gifts that the Philippians had sent him, and assures them that God will reward them for their generosity.Throughout the epistle there is a sense of optimism.", "Paul is hopeful that he will be released, and on this basis he promises to send Timothy to the Philippians for ministry, and also expects to pay them a personal visit." ], [ "Christ poem", "Chapter 2 of the epistle contains a famous poem describing the nature of Christ and his act of redemption:Due to its unique poetic style, Bart D. Ehrman suggests that this passage constitutes an early Christian poem that was composed by someone else prior to Paul's writings, as early as the mid-late 30s AD and was later used by Paul in his epistle.", "While the passage is often called a \"hymn\", some scholars believe this to be an inappropriate name since it does not have a rhythmic or metrical structure in the original Greek.=== Incarnation Christology ===The Christ poem is significant because it strongly suggests that there were very early Christians who understood Jesus to be a pre-existent celestial being, who chose to take on human form, rather than a human who was later exalted to a divine status.Importantly, while the author of the poem did believe that Jesus existed in heaven before his physical incarnation, this does not necessarily mean that he was believed to be ''equal'' to God the Father prior to his death and resurrection.", "This largely depends on how the Greek word ''harpagmon'' (, accusative form of ) is translated in verse 6 (\"Something to be grasped after / exploited\").", "If ''harpagmon'' is rendered as \"something to be exploited,\" as it is in many Christian Bible translations, then the implication is that Christ was already equal to God prior to his incarnation.", "But Bart Ehrman and others have argued that the correct translation is in fact \"something to be grasped after,\" implying that Jesus was ''not'' equal to God before his resurrection.", "Outside of this passage, ''harpagmon'' and related words were almost always used to refer to something that a person doesn't yet possess but tries to acquire.It is widely agreed by interpreters, however, that the Christ poem depicts Jesus as equal to God ''after'' his resurrection.", "This is because the last two stanzas quote Isaiah 45:22–23: (\"Every knee shall bow, every tongue confess\"), which in the original context clearly refers to God the Father." ], [ "Outline", ":I.", "Preface (1:1–11):::A. Salutation (1:1–2)::::B. Thanksgiving for the Philippians’ Participation in the Gospel (1:3–8)::::C. Prayer for the Philippians’ Discerning Love to Increase until the Day of Christ (1:9–11)::II.", "Paul’s Present Circumstances (1:12–26):::A. Paul’s Imprisonment (1:12–13)::::B.", "The Brothers’ Response (1:14–17)::::C. Paul’s Attitude (1:18–26)::III.", "Practical Instructions in Sanctification (1:27–2:30):::A.", "Living Boldly as Citizens of Heaven (1:27–1:30)::::B.", "Living Humbly as Servants of Christ (2:1–11):::::1.The Motivation to Live Humbly (2:1–4)::::::2.The Model of Living Humbly (2:5–11)::::::a. Christ’s Emptying (2:5–8)::::::::b. Christ’s Exaltation (2:9–11)::::C. Living Obediently as Children of God (2:12–18):::::1.The Energizing of God (2:12–13)::::::2.The Effect on the Saints (2:14–18)::::D. Examples of Humble Servants (2:19–30):::::1.The Example of Timothy (2:19–24)::::::2.The Example of Epaphroditus (2:25–30):::IV.", "Polemical Doctrinal Issues (3:1–4:1):::A.", "The Judaizers Basis: The Flesh (3:1–6)::::B. Paul’s Goal: The Resurrection (3:7–11)::::C. Perfection and Humility (3:12–16)::::D. Paul as an Example of Conduct and Watchfulness (3:17–4:1)::V. Postlude (4:2–23):::A. Exhortations (4:2–9):::::1.Being United (4:2–3)::::::2.Rejoicing without Anxiety (4:4–7)::::::3.Thinking and Acting Purely (4:8–9)::::B.", "A Note of Thanks (4:10–20):::::1.Paul’s Contentment (4:10–13)::::::2.The Philippians’ Gift (4:14–18)::::::3.God’s Provision (4:19–20)::::C. Final Greetings (4:21–23)" ], [ "See also", "* Textual variants in the Epistle to the Philippians* ''Cupio dissolvi''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Barclay, William.", "1975.", "''The Letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalonians''.", "Rev.", "ed.", "Daily Bible Study Series.", "Louisville, Ky.: Westminster.", "* Barnes, Albert.", "1949.", "''Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians''.", "Enlarged type edition.", "Edited by Robert Frew.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker.", "* Black, David A.", "1995.", "\"The Discourse Structure of Philippians: A Study in Textlinquistics.\"", "''Novum Testamentum'' 37.1 (Jan.): 16–49* Blevins, James L.", "1980.", "\"Introduction to Philippians.\"", "''Review and Expositor'' 77 (Sum.", "): 311–325.", "* Brooks, James A.", "1980.", "\"Introduction to Philippians.\"", "''Southwestern Journal of Theology'' 23.1 (Fall): 7–54.", "* Bruce, Frederick F.", "1989.''Philippians''.", "New International Biblical Commentary.", "New Testament Series.", "Edited by W. Ward Gasque.", "Peabody, Mass.", ": Hendrickson, 2002.", "* Burton, Ernest De Witt.", "1896.", "\"The Epistles of the Imprisonment.\"", "''Biblical World'' 7.1: 46–56.", "* Elkins, Garland.", "1976.", "\"The Living Message of Philippians.\"", "pp.", "171–180 in ''The Living Messages of the Books of the New Testament''.", "Edited by Garland Elkins and Thomas B. Warren.", "Jonesboro, Ark.", ": National Christian.", "* Garland, David E.", "1985.", "\"The Composition and Unity of Philippians: Some Neglected Literary Factors.\"", "''Novum Testamentum'' 27.2 (April): 141–173.", "* Hagelberg, Dave.", "2007.", "''Philippians: An Ancient Thank You Letter – A Study of Paul and His Ministry Partners' Relationship''.", "English ed.", "Metro Manila: Philippine Challenge.", "* Hawthorne, Gerald F.", "1983.''Philippians''.", "Word Biblical Commentary 43.Edited by Bruce Metzger.", "Nashville, Tenn.: Nelson.", "* Herrick, Greg.", "\"Introduction, Background, and Outline to Philippians.\"", "''Bible.org''.", "* Jackson, Wayne.", "1987.", "''The Book of Philippians: A Grammatical and Practical Study''.", "Abilene, Tex.", ": Quality.", "* Kennedy, H. A.", "A.", "1900.", "\"The Epistle to the Philippians.\"", "''Expositor's Greek Testament''.", "Vol.", "3.Edited by W. Robertson Nicoll.", "New York, NY: Doran.", "* Lenski, Richard C. H.", "1937.", "''The Interpretation of St. Paul's Epistles to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, and to the Philippians''.", "Repr.", "Peabody, Mass.", ": Hendrickson, 2001.", "* Lipscomb, David and J.W.", "Shepherd.", "1968.", "''Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians''.", "Rev.", "ed.", "Edited by J.W.", "Shepherd.", "Gospel Advocated Commentary.", "Nashville, Tenn.: Gospel Advocate.", "* Llewelyn, Stephen R.", "1995.", "\"Sending Letters in the Ancient World: Paul and the Philippians.\"", "''Tyndale Bulletin'' 46.2: 337–356.", "* Mackay, B. S.", "1961.", "\"Further Thoughts on Philippians.\"", "''New Testament Studies'' 7.2 (Jan.): 161–170.", "* Martin, Ralph P.", "1959.", "''The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians''.", "Tyndale New Testament Commentaries.", "Ed.", "By R.V.G.", "Tasker.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1977.", "* Martin, Ralph P.", "1976.''Philippians''.", "New Century Bible Commentary.", "New Testament.", "Edited by Matthew Black.", "Repr.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans.", "* McAlister, Bryan.", "2011.", "\"Introduction to Philippians: Mindful of How We Fill Our Minds.\"", "''Gospel Advocate'' 153.9 (Sept.): 12–13* Mule, D. S. M. (1981).", "The Letter to the Philippians.", "Cook Book House.", "* Müller, Jacobus J.", "1955.", "''The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians''.", "New International Commentary on the New Testament.", "Ed.", "By Frederick F. Bruce.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1991.", "* Pelaez, I. N. (1970).", "Epistle on the Philippians.", "Angel & Water;reprint, Angels new books, ed.", "Michael Angelo.", "(1987).", "Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.", "* ''Dictionary of Paul and His Letters'', s.v.", "\"Philippians, Letter to the\"* Reicke, Bo.", "1970.", "\"Caesarea, Rome, and the Captivity Epistles.\"", "pp.", "277–286 in ''Apostolic History and the Gospel: Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F. F. Bruce''.", "Edited by W. Ward Gasque and Ralph P. Martin.", "Exeter: Paternoster Press.", "* Roper, David.", "2003.", "\"Philippians: Rejoicing in Christ.\"", "''BibleCourses.com''.", "Accessed: 3 Sept.", "2011.", "* Russell, Ronald.", "1982.", "\"Pauline Letter Structure in Philippians.\"", "''Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society'' 25.3 (Sept.): 295–306.", "* Sanders, Ed.", "1987.\"Philippians.\"", "pp.", "331–339 in ''New Testament Survey''.", "Edited by Don Shackelford.", "Searcy, Ark.", ": Harding University.", "* Sergio Rosell Nebreda, ''Christ Identity: A Social-Scientific Reading of Philippians 2.5–11'' (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011) (Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments, 240).", "* Swift, Robert C.", "1984.", "\"The Theme and Structure of Philippians.\"", "''Bibliotheca Sacra'' 141 (July): 234–254.", "* Synge, F.C.", "1951.", "''Philippians and Colossians''.", "Torch Bible Commentaries.", "Edited by John Marsh, David M. Paton, and Alan Richardson.", "London: SCM, 1958.", "* Thielman, Frank.", "1995.''Philippians''.", "NIV Application Commentary.", "General Editor.", "Terry Muck.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan.", "* Vincent, Marvin R.", "1897.", "''The Epistle to the Philippians and to Philemon''.", "International Critical Commentary.", "Ed.", "By Samuel R. Driver, Alfred Plummer, Charles A. Briggs.", "Edinburgh: Clark, 1902.", "* Vincent, Marvin R. ''Vincent's Word Studies in the New Testament''.", "4 vols.", "Peabody, Mass.", ": Hendrickson, n.d.* Wallace, Daniel B.", "\"Philippians: Introductions, Argument, and Outline.\"", "''Bible.org''.", "* Walvoord, John F.", "1971.", "''Philippians: Triumph in Christ''.", "Everyman's Bible Commentary.", "Chicago, Ill.: Moody." ], [ "External links", "Online translations of the Epistle to the Philippians:* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org* Various versionsOnline Study of Philippians:* Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room: Commentaries and other resources (Tyndale Seminary)* Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room: Commentaries and other resources (BiblicalStudies.org.uk)* Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room : Commentaries and other resources (NTGateway.com)* Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room: Commentaries and other resources (TextWeek.com)Related articles:* Bible.org introduction to Philippians* Sermons on Philippians* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Epistle to the Colossians" ], [ "Introduction", "The first page of Colossians in Minuscule 321 gives its title as '''προς κολασσαείς''', \"to the Colossians\".", "British Library, London.The '''Epistle to the Colossians''' is the twelfth book of the New Testament.", "It was written, according to the text, by Paul the Apostle and Timothy, and addressed to the church in Colossae, a small Phrygian city near Laodicea and approximately from Ephesus in Asia Minor.Some scholars have increasingly questioned Paul's authorship and attributed the letter to an early follower instead, but others still defend it as authentic.", "If Paul was the author, he probably used an amanuensis, or secretary, in writing the letter (Col 4:18), possibly Timothy." ], [ "Composition", "During the first generation after Jesus, Paul's epistles to various churches helped establish early Christian theology.", "According to Bruce Metzger, it was written in the 60s while Paul was in prison.", "Colossians is similar to Ephesians, also written at this time.", "Some critical scholars have ascribed the epistle to an early follower of Paul, writing as Paul.", "The epistle's description of Christ as pre-eminent over creation marks it, for some scholars, as representing an advanced christology not present during Paul's lifetime.", "Defenders of Pauline authorship cite the work's similarities to the letter to Philemon, which is broadly accepted as authentic.=== Authorship ===The letter's authors claim to be Paul and Timothy, but authorship began to be authoritatively questioned during the 19th century.", "Pauline authorship was held to by many of the early church's prominent theologians, such as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen of Alexandria and Eusebius.However, as with several epistles attributed to Paul, critical scholarship disputes this claim.", "One ground is that the epistle's language doesn't seem to match Paul's, with 48 words appearing in Colossians that are found nowhere else in his writings and 33 of which occur nowhere else in the New Testament.", "A second ground is that the epistle features a strong use of liturgical-hymnic style which appears nowhere else in Paul's work to the same extent.", "A third is that the epistle's themes related to Christ, eschatology and the church seem to have no parallel in Paul's undisputed works.Advocates of Pauline authorship defend the differences that there are between elements in this letter and those commonly considered the genuine work of Paul (e.g.", "1 Thessalonians).", "It is argued that these differences can come by human variability, such as by growth in theological knowledge over time, different occasion for writing, as well as use of different secretaries (or amanuenses) in composition.", "As it is usually pointed out by the same authors who note the differences in language and style, the number of words foreign to the New Testament and Paul is no greater in Colossians than in the undisputed Pauline letters (Galatians, of similar length, has 35 hapax legomena).", "In regard to the style, as Norman Perrin, who argues for pseudonymity, notes, \"The letter does employ a great deal of traditional material and it can be argued that this accounts for the non-Pauline language and style.", "If this is the case, the non-Pauline language and style are not indications of pseudonymity.\"", "Not only that, but it has been noted that Colossians has indisputably Pauline stylistic characteristics, found nowhere else in the New Testament.", "Advocates of Pauline authorship also argue that the differences between Colossians and the rest of the New Testament are not as great as they are purported to be.The connection between Colossians and to Philemon, an undisputed epistle, (Philemon 2, Colossians 4:17), the greetings of both epistles bear similar names (Philemon 23–24, Colossians 4:10–14) is used as evidence by those who advocate Pauline authorship.As theologian Stephen D. Morrison points out in context, \"Biblical scholars are divided over the authorship of Ephesians and Colossians.\"", "He provides as an example the reflection of theologian Karl Barth on the question.", "While acknowledging the validity of many questions regarding Pauline authorship, Barth was inclined to defend it.", "Nevertheless, he concluded that it didn't much matter one way or the other to him.", "It was more important to focus on \"Quid scriptum est\" (What is written) than \"Quis scripseris\" (Who wrote it).", "\"It is enough to know that someone, at any rate, wrote Ephesians (why not Paul?", "), 30 to 60 years after Christ’s death (hardly any later than that, since it is attested by Ignatius, Polycarp, and Justin), someone who understood Paul well and developed the apostle’s ideas with conspicuous loyalty as well as originality.”===Date===If the text was written by Paul, it could have been written at Rome during his first imprisonment.", "Paul would likely have composed it at roughly the same time that he wrote Philemon and Ephesians, as all three letters were sent with Tychicus and Onesimus.", "A date of 62 AD assumes that the imprisonment Paul speaks of is his Roman imprisonment that followed his voyage to Rome.Other scholars have suggested that it was written from Caesarea or Ephesus.If the letter is not considered to be an authentic part of the Pauline corpus, then it might be dated during the late 1st century, possibly as late as AD 90." ], [ "Surviving manuscripts", "The original manuscript is lost, as are many early copies.", "The text of surviving copies varies.", "The oldest manuscripts transcribing some or all of this letter include:*Papyrus 46 (c. AD 200)*Codex Vaticanus (325–350)*Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)*Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)*Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450)*Codex Freerianus (c. 450)*Codex Claromontanus (c. 550; in Greek and Latin)*Codex Coislinianus (c. 550)" ], [ "Content", "The last page of Colossians in the Codex Claromontanus in the Bibliothèque nationale de FranceRuined building in ColossaeSchematic of Colossians, William Brooks Taylor (1910)Colossae is in the same region as the seven churches of the Book of Revelation.", "In Colossians there is mention of local brethren in Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis.", "Colossae was approximately from Laodicea and from Hierapolis.References to \"the elements\" and the only mention of the word \"philosophy\" in the New Testament have led scholar Norman DeWitt to conclude that early Christians at Colossae must have been under the influence of Epicurean philosophy, which taught atomism.", "The Epistle to the Colossians proclaimed Christ to be the supreme power over the entire universe, and urged Christians to lead godly lives.", "The letter consists of two parts: first a doctrinal section, then a second regarding conduct.", "Those who believe that the motivation of the letter was a growing heresy in the church see both sections of the letter as opposing false teachers who have been spreading error in the congregation.", "Others see both sections of the letter as primarily encouragement and edification for a developing church.===Outline===I.", "Introduction (1:1–14)* A. Greetings (1:1–2)* B. Thanksgiving (1:3–8)* C. Prayer (1:9–14)II.", "The Supremacy of Christ (1:15–23)III.", "Paul's Labor for the Church (1:24–2:7)* A.", "A Ministry for the Sake of the Church (1:24–2:7)* B.", "A Concern for the Spiritual Welfare of His Readers (2:1–7)IV.", "Freedom from Human Regulations through Life with Christ (2:8–23)* A.", "Warning to Guard against the False Teachers (2:8–15)* B.", "Pleas to Reject the False Teachers (2:16–19)* C. An Analysis of the Heresy (2:20–23)V. Rules for Holy Living (3:1–4:6)* A.", "The Old Self and the New Self (3:1–17)* B.", "Rules for Christian Households (3:18–4:1)* C. Further Instructions (4:2–6)VI.", "Final Greetings (4:7–18)===Doctrinal sections===The doctrinal part of the letter is found in the first two chapters.", "The main theme is developed in chapter 2, with a warning against being drawn away from him in whom dwelt all the fullness of the deity, and who was the head of all spiritual powers.", "offers firstly a \"general warning\" against accepting a purely human philosophy, and then a \"more specific warning against false teachers\".In these doctrinal sections, the letter proclaims that Christ is supreme over all that has been created.", "All things were created through him and for him, and the universe is sustained by him.", "God had chosen for his complete being to dwell in Christ.", "The \"cosmic powers\" revered by the false teachers had been \"discarded\" and \"led captive\" at Christ's death.", "Christ is the master of all angelic forces and the head of the church.", "Christ is the only mediator between God and humanity, the unique agent of cosmic reconciliation.", "It is the Father in Colossians who is said to have delivered us from the domain of darkness and transferred us to the kingdom of His beloved Son.", "The Son is the agent of reconciliation and salvation not merely of the church, but in some sense redeems the rest of creation as well (\"all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven\").Colossians praises the spiritual growth of its recipients because of their love for all the set-apart ones in Christ.", "It calls them to grow in wisdom and knowledge that their love might be principled love and not sentimentality.", "\"Christ in you is your hope of glory!\".", "'''\"Christ in you, the hope of Glory\"'''One of the themes of the doctrinal section of Colossians is promise of union with Christ through the indwelling life of God the Holy Spirit.", "For example, Colossians 1:27, \"To them God has chosen to make known among the Gentiles the glorious riches of this mystery, which is Christ in you, the hope of glory.\"", "The Apostle Paul wrote to remind them of this promise and guard them against moving their ongoing trust from Christ to other philosophies and traditions which did not depend on Christ.=== Conduct ===The practical part of the Epistle, enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded.", "They are exhorted to mind things that are above Colossians 3:1–4, to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man.", "Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character.", "The letter ends with customary prayer, instruction, and greetings.=== The prison epistles ===Colossians is often categorized as one of the \"prison epistles\", along with Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon.", "Colossians has some close parallels with the letter to Philemon: names of some of the same people (e.g., Timothy, Aristarchus, Archippus, Mark, Epaphras, Luke, Onesimus, and Demas) appear in both epistles, and both are claimed to be written by Paul." ], [ "See also", "* Textual variants in the Epistle to the Colossians" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* R. McL.", "Wilson, ''Colossians and Philemon'' (International Critical Commentary; London: T&T Clark, 2005)* Jerry Sumney, ''Colossians'' (New Testament Library; Louisville; Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 2008)* TIB = The Interpreter's Bible, The Holy Scriptures in the King James and Revised Standard versions with general articles and introduction, exegesis, and exposition for each book of the Bible in twelve volumes, George Arthur Buttrick, Commentary Editor, Walter Russell Bowie, Associate Editor of Exposition, Paul Scherer, Associate Editor of Exposition, John Knox Associate Editor of New Testament Introduction and Exegesis, Samuel Terrien, Associate Editor of Old Testament Introduction and Exegesis, Nolan B. Harmon Editor, Abingdon Press, copyright 1955 by Pierce and Washabaugh, set up printed, and bound by the Parthenon Press, at Nashville, Tennessee, Volume XI, Philippians, Colossians Introduction and Exegesis by Francis W. Beare, Exposition by G. Preston MacLeod, Thessalonians, Pastoral Epistles The First and Second Epistles to Timothy, and the Epistle to Titus, Philemon, Hebrews* TNJBC = The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Union Theological Seminary, New York; NY, Maurya P. Horgan Colossians; Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm.", "(emeritus) The Divinity School, Duke University, Durham, NC, with a foreword by His Eminence Carlo Maria Cardinal Martini, S.J.", "; Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990" ], [ "External links", "Online translations of the Epistle to the Colossians:* Collection of translations and commentary on Colossians* Various versions including Greek Translation" ] ]
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[ [ "First Epistle to the Thessalonians" ], [ "Introduction", "Fragments showing 1 Thessalonians 1:3–2:1 and 2:6–13 on Papyrus 65, from the third century.The '''First Epistle to the Thessalonians''' is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible.", "The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle, and is addressed to the church in Thessalonica, in modern-day Greece.", "It is likely among the first of Paul's letters, probably written by the end of AD 52, in the reign of Claudius although some scholars believe the Epistle to the Galatians may have been written by AD 48.The original language is Koine Greek." ], [ "Background and audience", "Thessalonica is a city on the Thermaic Gulf, which at the time of Paul was within the Roman Empire.", "Paul visited Thessalonica and preached to the local population, winning converts who became a Christian community.", "There is debate as to whether or not Paul's converts were originally Jewish.", "The Acts of the Apostles describes Paul preaching in a Jewish synagogue and persuading people who were already Jewish that Jesus was the Messiah, but in 1 Thessalonians itself Paul says that the converts had turned from idols, suggesting that they were not Jewish before Paul arrived.Most New Testament scholars believe Paul wrote this letter from Corinth only months after he left Thessalonica, although information appended to this work in many early manuscripts (e.g., Codices Alexandrinus, Mosquensis, and Angelicus) state that Paul wrote it in Athens after Timothy had returned from Macedonia with news of the state of the church in Thessalonica." ], [ "Oldest surviving manuscripts", "The original manuscript of this letter is lost, as are over a century of copies.", "The text of the surviving manuscripts varies.", "The oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this book include:* Papyrus 46 (c. AD 200)* Papyrus 65 (3rd century)* Codex Vaticanus (325–350)* Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)* Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)* Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450)* Codex Freerianus (c. 450)* Codex Claromontanus (c. 550)" ], [ "Composition", "===Date===It is widely agreed that 1 Thessalonians is one of the first books of the New Testament to be written, and the earliest extant Christian text.", "A majority of modern New Testament scholars date 1 Thessalonians to 49–51 AD, during Paul's 18-month stay in Corinth coinciding with his second missionary journey.", "A minority of scholars who do not recognize the historicity of Acts date it in the early 40s AD.", "The Delphi Inscription dates Gallio's proconsulship of Achaia to 51-52 AD, and Acts 18:12-17 mentions Gallio, toward the end of Paul's stay in Corinth.1 Thessalonians does not focus on justification by faith or questions of Jewish–Gentile relations, themes that are covered in all other letters.", "Because of this, some scholars see this as an indication that this letter was written before the Epistle to the Galatians, where Paul's positions on these matters were formed and elucidated.===Authenticity===The first page of the epistle in Minuscule 699 gives its title as προς θεσσαλονικεις, \"To the Thessalonians.", "\"The majority of New Testament scholars hold 1 Thessalonians to be authentic, although a number of scholars in the mid-19th century contested its authenticity, most notably Clement Schrader and F.C.", "Baur.", "1 Thessalonians matches other accepted Pauline letters, both in style and in content, and its authorship is also affirmed by 2 Thessalonians.===Integrity===The authenticity of 1 Thessalonians 2:13–16 has been disputed by some.", "The following arguments are made against its authenticity based on its content:* It is perceived to be theologically incompatible with Paul's other epistles: elsewhere Paul attributed Jesus's death to the \"rulers of this age\" rather than to the Jews, and elsewhere Paul writes that the Jews have not been abandoned by God, for \"all Israel will be saved\".", "According to 1 Thes 1:10, the wrath of God is still to come; it is not something that has already shown itself.", "* There were no extensive historical persecutions of Christians by Jews in Palestine prior to the first Jewish war.", "* The use of the concept of imitation in 1 Thes.", "2.14 is singular.", "* The aorist ''eftasen'' (\"has overtaken\") refers to the destruction of Jerusalem.", "* The syntax of these verses deviates from that of the surrounding context.Various scholars have since defended the authenticity of these passages.It is also sometimes suggested that 1 Thessalonians 5:1–11 is a post-Pauline insertion that has many features of Lukan language and theology that serves as an apologetic correction to Paul's imminent expectation of the Second Coming in 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18.Some scholars, such as Schmithals, Eckhart, Demke and Munro, have developed complicated theories involving redaction and interpolation in 1 and 2 Thessalonians." ], [ "Contents", "===Outline===# Salutation and thanksgiving# Past interactions with the church# Regarding Timothy's visit# Specific issues within the church## Relationships among Christians## Mourning those who have died## Preparing for God's arrival## How Christians should behave# Closing salutation===Text===Paul, speaking for himself, Silas, and Timothy, gives thanks for the news about their faith and love; he reminds them of the kind of life he had lived while he was with them.", "Paul stresses how honorably he conducted himself, reminding them that he had worked to earn his keep, taking great pains not to burden anyone.", "He did this, he says, even though he could have used his status as an apostle to impose upon them.Paul goes on to explain that the dead will be resurrected prior to those still living, and both groups will greet the Lord in the air." ], [ "See also", "* Authorship of the Pauline epistles* Imitation of Christ* Second Epistle to the Thessalonians" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate* Multiple bible versions at ''Bible Gateway'' (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.", ")* Epistles to the Thessalonians entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org* Various versions" ] ]
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[ [ "Epistle to Titus" ], [ "Introduction", " Papyrus 32 (), with some text from Titus 1 The '''Epistle to Titus''' is one of the three pastoral epistles (along with 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy) in the New Testament, historically attributed to Paul the Apostle.", "It is addressed to Saint Titus and describes the requirements and duties of presbyters/bishops." ], [ "Text", "The epistle is divided into three chapters, 46 verses in total." ], [ "Recipient", "Not mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Titus was noted in Galatians (cf.", "Galatians 2:1, 3) where Paul wrote of journeying to Jerusalem with Barnabas, accompanied by Titus.", "He was then dispatched to Corinth, Greece, where he successfully reconciled the Christian community there with Paul, its founder.", "Titus was later left on the island of Crete to help organize the Church there, and later met back with the Apostle Paul in Nicopolis.", "He soon went to Dalmatia (now Croatia).", "According to Eusebius of Caesarea in the ''Ecclesiastical History'', he served as the first bishop of Crete.", "He was buried in Cortyna (Gortyna), Crete; his head was later removed to Venice during the invasion of Crete by the Saracens in 832 and was enshrined in St Mark's Basilica, Venice, Italy." ], [ "Authenticity", "According to Clare Drury, the claim that Paul himself wrote this letter and those to Timothy \"seems at first sight obvious and incontrovertible.", "All threebegin with a greeting from the apostle and contain personal notes and asides\", but in reality \"things are not so straightforward: signs of the latedate of the letters proliferate\".", "There has therefore been some debate regarding the authenticity of the letter.===Opposition to Pauline authenticity===Titus, along with the two other pastoral epistles (1 Timothy and 2 Timothy), is regarded by some scholars as being pseudepigraphical.", "On the basis of the language and content of the pastoral epistles, these scholars reject that they were written by Paul and believe that they were written by an anonymous forger after his death.", "Critics claim the vocabulary and style of the Pauline letters could not have been written by Paul according to available biographical information and reflect the views of the emerging Church rather than the apostle's.", "These scholars date the epistle from the 80s CE up to the end of the 2nd century, though most would place it sometime between 80 and 100 CE.", "The Church of England's Common Worship Lectionary Scripture Commentary concurs with this view: \"the proportioning of the theological and practical themes is one factor that leads us to think of these writings as coming from the post-Pauline church world of the late first or early second century\".Titus has a very close affinity with 1 Timothy, sharing similar phrases and expressions and similar subject matter.", "This has led many scholars to believe that it was written by the same author who wrote 1 and 2 Timothy: their author is sometimes referred to as \"the Pastor\".The gnostic writer Basilides rejected the epistle.===Traditional view: Pauline authenticity===Other scholars who do believe that Paul wrote Titus date its composition from the circumstance that it was written after Paul's visit to Crete (Titus 1:5).", "This visit could not be the one referred to in the Acts of the Apostles 27:7, when Paul was on his voyage to Rome as a prisoner, and where he continued a prisoner for two years.", "Thus traditional exegesis supposes that after his release Paul sailed from Rome into Asia, passing Crete by the way, and that there he left Titus \"to set in order the things that were wanting\".", "Thence he would have gone to Ephesus, where he left Timothy, and from Ephesus to Macedonia, where he wrote the First Epistle to Timothy, and thence, according to the subscription of this epistle, to \"Nicopolis of Macedonia\", from which place he wrote to Titus, about 66 or 67.The first page of the epistle in Minuscule 699 gives its title as , 'To Titus.", "'Recent scholarship has revived the theory that Paul used an amanuensis, or secretaries, in writing his letters (e.g.", "Romans 16:22), but possibly Luke for the pastorals.", "This was a common practice in ancient letter writing, even for the biblical writers." ], [ "Epimenides paradox", "One of the secular peculiarities of the Epistle to Titus is the reference to the Epimenides paradox: \"One of the Cretans, a prophet of their own, said, 'Cretans are always liars'.\"" ], [ "See also", "*Titus 1, the first chapter of the Epistle to Titus* Textual variants in the Epistle to Titus* Authorship of the Pauline epistles* Faithful saying" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Attribution" ], [ "External links", "Online translations of the Epistle to Titus:* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org* Early Christian Writings: ''Titus''* Titus – King James Version* Various versions\tExegetical papers on Titus:* An Exegesis of Titus Chapter Two by David Moore* Chapter Three Exegesis by Snowden G. Sims" ] ]
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[ [ "Eurovision Song Contest" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eurovision Song Contest''' (), often known simply as '''Eurovision''' or by its initialism '''ESC''', is an international song competition organised annually by the European Broadcasting Union.", "Each participating country submits an original song to be performed live and transmitted to national broadcasters via the Eurovision and Euroradio networks, with competing countries then casting votes for the other countries' songs to determine a winner.The contest was inspired by and based on Italy's national Sanremo Music Festival, held in the Italian Riviera since 1951.Eurovision has been held annually since 1956 (apart from ), making it the longest-running international music competition on TV and one of the world's longest-running television programmes.", "Active members of the EBU and invited associate members are eligible to compete; 52 countries have participated at least once.", "Each participating broadcaster sends one original song of three minutes duration or less to be performed live by a singer or group of up to six people aged 16 or older.", "Each country awards 1–8, 10 and 12 points to their ten favourite songs, based on the views of an assembled group of music professionals and the country's viewing public, with the song receiving the most points declared the winner.", "Other performances feature alongside the competition, including a specially-commissioned opening and interval act and guest performances by musicians and other personalities, with past acts including Cirque du Soleil, Madonna, Justin Timberlake, Mika, Rita Ora and the first performance of ''Riverdance''.", "Originally consisting of a single evening event, the contest has expanded as new countries joined (including countries outside of Europe, such as and ), leading to the introduction of relegation procedures in the 1990s, before the creation of semi-finals in the 2000s.", "has competed more times than any other country, having participated in all but one edition, while and both hold the record for the most victories, with seven wins each in total.Traditionally held in the country which won the preceding year's event, the contest provides an opportunity to promote the host country and city as a tourist destination.", "Thousands of spectators attend each year, along with journalists who cover all aspects of the contest, including rehearsals in venue, press conferences with the competing acts, in addition to other related events and performances in the host city.", "Alongside the generic Eurovision logo, a unique theme is typically developed for each event.", "The contest has aired in countries across all continents; it has been available online via the official Eurovision website since 2001.Eurovision ranks among the world's most watched non-sporting events every year, with hundreds of millions of viewers globally.", "Performing at the contest has often provided artists with a local career boost and in some cases long-lasting international success.", "Several of the best-selling music artists in the world have competed in past editions, including ABBA, Celine Dion, Julio Iglesias, Cliff Richard and Olivia Newton-John; some of the world's best-selling singles have received their first international performance on the Eurovision stage.While having gained popularity with the viewing public in both participating and non-participating countries, the contest has also been the subject of criticism for its artistic quality as well as a perceived political aspect to the event.", "Concerns have been raised regarding political friendships and rivalries between countries potentially having an impact on the results.", "Controversial moments have included participating countries withdrawing at a late stage, censorship of broadcast segments by broadcasters, as well as political events impacting participation.", "Likewise, the contest has also been criticised for an over-abundance of elaborate stage shows at the cost of artistic merit.", "Eurovision has, however, gained popularity for its kitsch appeal, its musical span of ethnic and international styles, as well as emergence as part of LGBT culture, resulting in a large, active fanbase and an influence on popular culture.", "The popularity of the contest has led to the creation of several similar events, either organised by the EBU or created by external organisations; several special events have been organised by the EBU to celebrate select anniversaries or as a replacement due to cancellation." ], [ "Origins and history", "Lys Assia (1924–2018), the winner of the first Eurovision Song Contest in , performing at the The Eurovision Song Contest was developed by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) as an experiment in live television broadcasting and a way to produce cheaper programming for national broadcasting organisations.", "The word \"Eurovision\" was first used by British journalist George Campey in the ''London Evening Standard'' in 1951, when he referred to a BBC programme being relayed by Dutch television.", "Following several events broadcast internationally via the Eurovision transmission network in the early 1950s, including the coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953, an EBU committee, headed by Marcel Bezençon, was formed in January 1955 to investigate new initiatives for cooperation between broadcasters, which approved for further study a European song competition from an idea initially proposed by RAI manager Sergio Pugliese.", "The EBU's general assembly agreed to the organising of the song contest in October 1955, under the initial title of the ''European Grand Prix'', and accepted a proposal by the Swiss delegation to host the event in Lugano in the spring of 1956.The Italian Sanremo Music Festival, held since 1951, was used as a basis for the initial planning of the contest, with several amendments and additions given its international nature.Seven countries participated in the , with each country represented by two songs; the only time in which multiple entries per country were permitted.", "The winning song was \"Refrain\", representing the host country Switzerland and performed by Lys Assia.", "Voting during the first contest was held behind closed doors, with only the winner being announced on stage; the use of a scoreboard and public announcement of the voting, inspired by the BBC's ''Festival of British Popular Songs'', has been used since 1957.The tradition of the winning country hosting the following year's contest, which has since become a standard feature of the event, began in 1958.Technological developments have transformed the contest: colour broadcasts began in ; satellite broadcasts in ; and streaming in .", "Broadcasts in widescreen began in 2005 and in high-definition since 2007, with ultra-high-definition tested for the first time in 2022.By the 1960s, between 16 and 18 countries were regularly competing each year.", "Countries from outside the traditional boundaries of Europe began entering the contest, and countries in Western Asia and North Africa started competing in the 1970s and 1980s.", "Changes in Europe following the end of the Cold War saw an influx of new countries from Central and Eastern Europe applying for the first time.", "The included a separate pre-qualifying round for seven of these new countries, and from relegation systems were introduced to manage the number of competing entries, with the poorest performing countries barred from entering the following year's contest.", "From 2004 the contest expanded to become a multi-programme event, with a semi-final at the allowing all interested countries to compete each year; a second semi-final was added to each edition from 2008.There have been 67 contests as of 2023, making Eurovision the longest-running annual international televised music competition as determined by ''Guinness World Records''.", "The contest has been listed as one of the longest-running television programmes in the world and among the world's most watched non-sporting events.", "A total of 52 countries have taken part in at least one edition, with a record 43 countries participating in a single contest, first in and subsequently in and .", "Australia became the first non-EBU member country to compete following an invitation by the EBU ahead of the contest's in 2015; initially announced as a \"one-off\" for the anniversary edition, the country was invited back the following year and has subsequently participated every year since.Eurovision had been held every year until 2020, when was cancelled in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "No competitive event was able to take place due to uncertainty caused by the spread of the virus in Europe and the various restrictions imposed by the governments of the participating countries.", "In its place a special broadcast, ''Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light'', was produced by the organisers, which honoured the songs and artists that would have competed in 2020 in a non-competitive format.=== Naming ===Over the years the name used to describe the contest, and used on the official logo for each edition, has evolved.", "The first contests were produced under the name of in French and as the ''Eurovision Song Contest Grand Prix'' in English, with similar variations used in the languages of each of the broadcasting countries.", "From 1968, the English name dropped the 'Grand Prix' from the name, with the French name being aligned as the , first used in 1973.The contest's official brand guidance specifies that translations of the name may be used depending on national tradition and brand recognition in the competing countries, but that the official name ''Eurovision Song Contest'' is always preferred; the contest is commonly referred to in English by the abbreviation \"Eurovision\", and in internal documents by the acronym \"ESC\".On only four occasions has the name used for the official logo of the contest not been in English or French: the Italian names and were used when Italy hosted the and contests respectively; and the Dutch name was used when the Netherlands hosted in and ." ], [ "Format", "Original songs representing participating countries are performed in a live television programme broadcast via the Eurovision and Euroradio networks simultaneously to all countries.", "A \"country\" as a participant is represented by one television broadcaster from that country, a member of the European Broadcasting Union, and is typically that country's national public broadcasting organisation.", "The programme is staged by one of the participant countries and is broadcast from an auditorium in the selected host city.", "Since 2008, each contest is typically formed of three live television shows held over one week: two semi-finals are held on the Tuesday and Thursday, followed by a final on the Saturday.", "All participating countries compete in one of the two semi-finals, except for the host country of that year's contest and the contest's biggest financial contributors known as the \"Big Five\"—, , , and the .", "The remaining countries are split between the two semi-finals, and the 10 highest-scoring entries in each qualify to produce 26 countries competing in the final.The opening act during the final of the in Düsseldorf, GermanyEach show typically begins with an opening act consisting of music and/or dance performances by invited artists, which contributes to a unique theme and identity created for that year's event; since 2013, the opening of the contest's final has included a \"Flag Parade\", with competing artists entering the stage behind their country's flag in a similar manner to the procession of competing athletes at the Olympic Games opening ceremony.", "Viewers are welcomed by one or more presenters who provide key updates during the show, conduct interviews with competing acts from the green room, and guide the voting procedure in English and French.", "Competing acts perform sequentially, and after all songs have been performed, viewers are invited to vote for their favourite performances—except for the performance of their own country—via telephone, SMS and the official Eurovision app.", "The public vote comprises 50% of the final result alongside the views of a jury of music industry professionals from each country.", "An interval act is invariably featured during this voting period, which on several occasions has included a well-known personality from the host country or an internationally recognised figure.", "The results of the voting are subsequently announced; in the semi-finals, the 10 highest-ranked countries are announced in a random order, with the full results undisclosed until after the final.", "In the final, the presenters call upon a representative spokesperson for each country in turn who announces their jury's points, while the results of the public vote are subsequently announced by the presenters.", "In recent years, it has been tradition that the first country to announce its jury points is the previous host, whereas the last country is the current host (with the exception of , when the United Kingdom hosted the contest on behalf of Ukraine, who went first).", "The winning delegation is invited back on stage, where a trophy is awarded to the winning performers and songwriters by the previous year's winner, followed by a reprise of the winning song.", "The full results of the competition, including detailed results of the jury and public vote, are released online shortly after the final, and the participating broadcaster of the winning entry is traditionally given the honour of organising the following year's event.===Selection===Each participating broadcaster has sole discretion over the process it may employ to select its entry for the contest.", "Typical methods in which participants are selected include a televised national final using a public vote; an internal selection by a committee appointed by the broadcaster; and through a mixed format where some decisions are made internally and the public are engaged in others.", "Among the most successful televised selection shows is Sweden's , first established in 1959 and now one of Sweden's most watched television shows each year." ], [ "Participation", "The European Broadcasting Area, shown in redParticipation since 1956: Participants in the Eurovision Song Contest, coloured by decade of debutActive members (as opposed to associate members) of the European Broadcasting Union are eligible to participate; active members are those who are located in states that fall within the European Broadcasting Area, or are member states of the Council of Europe.", "Active members include media organisations whose broadcasts are often made available to at least 98% of households in their own country which are equipped to receive such transmissions.", "Associate member broadcasters may be eligible to compete, dependent on approval by the contest's Reference Group.The European Broadcasting Area is defined by the International Telecommunication Union as encompassing the geographical area between the boundary of ITU Region 1 in the west, the meridian 40° East of Greenwich in the east, and parallel 30° North in the south.", "Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Ukraine, Iraq, Jordan and Syria lying outside these limits are included in the European Broadcasting Area.Eligibility to participate in the contest is therefore not limited to countries in Europe, as several states geographically outside the boundaries of the continent or which span more than one continent are included in the Broadcasting Area.", "Countries from these groups have taken part in past editions, including countries in Western Asia such as Israel and Cyprus, countries which span Europe and Asia like Russia and Turkey, and North African countries such as Morocco.", "Australia became the first country to participate from outside the European Broadcasting Area in 2015, following an invitation by the contest's Reference Group.EBU members who wish to participate must fulfil conditions as laid down in the rules of the contest, a separate copy of which is drafted annually.", "A maximum of 44 countries can take part in any one contest.", "Broadcasters must have paid the EBU a participation fee in advance to the deadline specified in the rules for the year in which they wish to participate; this fee is different for each country based on its size and viewership.Fifty-two countries have participated at least once.", "These are listed here alongside the year in which they made their debut: Year Country making its debut entry Year Country making its debut entry Year Country making its debut entry" ], [ "Hosting", "Countries which have hosted the Eurovision Song Contest The winning country traditionally hosts the following year's event, with some exceptions since .", "Hosting the contest can be seen as a unique opportunity for promoting the host country as a tourist destination and can provide benefits to the local economy and tourism sectors of the host city.", "Preparations for each year's contest typically begin at the conclusion of the previous year's contest, with the winning country's head of delegation receiving a welcome package of information related to hosting the contest at the winner's press conference.", "Eurovision is a non-profit event, and financing is typically achieved through a fee from each participating broadcaster, contributions from the host broadcaster and the host city, and commercial revenues from sponsorships, ticket sales, televoting and merchandise.The host broadcaster will subsequently select a host city, typically a national or regional capital city, which must meet certain criteria set out in the contest's rules.", "The host venue must be able to accommodate at least 10,000 spectators, a press centre for 1,500 journalists, should be within easy reach of an international airport and with hotel accommodation available for at least 2,000 delegates, journalists and spectators.", "A variety of different venues have been used for past editions, from small theatres and television studios to large arenas and stadiums.", "The largest host venue is Parken Stadium in Copenhagen, which was attended by almost 38,000 spectators in .", "With a population of 1,500 at the time of the , Millstreet, Ireland remains the smallest hosting settlement, although its Green Glens Arena is capable of hosting up to 8,000 spectators.=== Eurovision logo and theme ===Logo used from 2004 to 2014Until 2004, each edition of the contest used its own logo and visual identity as determined by the respective host broadcaster.", "To create a consistent visual identity, a generic logo was introduced ahead of the .", "This is typically accompanied by a unique theme artwork designed for each individual contest by the host broadcaster, with the flag of the host country placed prominently in the centre of the Eurovision heart.", "The original logo was designed by the London-based agency JM International, and received a revamp in 2014 by the Amsterdam-based Cityzen Agency for the contest's .An individual theme is utilised by contest producers when constructing the visual identity of each edition of the contest, including the stage design, the opening and interval acts, and the \"postcards\".", "The short video postcards are interspersed between the entries and were first introduced in 1970, initially as an attempt to \"bulk up\" the contest after a number of countries decided not to compete, but has since become a regular part of the show and usually highlight the host country and introduce the competing acts.", "A unique slogan for each edition, first introduced in , was also an integral part of each contest's visual identity, which was replaced by a permanent slogan from onwards.", "The permanent slogan, \"United by Music\", had previously served as the slogan for the before being retained for all future editions as part of the contest's global brand strategy.=== Preparations ===Press conference with the Israeli delegation following their win at the The EuroClub at the in Baku, AzerbaijanPreparations in the host venue typically begin approximately six weeks before the final, to accommodate building works and technical rehearsals before the arrival of the competing artists.", "Delegations will typically arrive in the host city two to three weeks before the live show, and each participating broadcaster nominates a head of delegation, responsible for coordinating the movements of their delegation and being that country's representative to the EBU.", "Members of each country's delegation include performers, composers, lyricists, members of the press, and—in the years where a live orchestra was present—a conductor.", "Present if desired is a commentator, who provides commentary of the event for their country's radio and/or television feed in their country's own language in dedicated booths situated around the back of the arena behind the audience.Each country conducts two individual rehearsals behind closed doors, the first for 30 minutes and the second for 20 minutes.", "Individual rehearsals for the semi-finalists commence the week before the live shows, with countries typically rehearsing in the order in which they will perform during the contest; rehearsals for the host country and the \"Big Five\" automatic finalists are held towards the end of the week.", "Following rehearsals, delegations meet with the show's production team to review footage of the rehearsal and raise any special requirements or changes.", "\"Meet and greet\" sessions with accredited fans and press are held during these rehearsal weeks.", "Each live show is preceded by three dress rehearsals, where the whole show is run in the same way as it will be presented on TV.", "The second dress rehearsal, alternatively called the \"jury show\" or \"evening preview show\" and held the night before the broadcast, is used as a recorded back-up in case of technological failure, and performances during this show are used by each country's professional jury to determine their votes.", "The delegations from the qualifying countries in each semi-final attend a qualifiers' press conference after their respective semi-final, and the winning delegation attends a winners' press conference following the final.A welcome reception is typically held at a venue in the host city on the Sunday preceding the live shows, which includes a red carpet ceremony for all the participating countries and is usually broadcast online.", "Accredited delegates, press and fans have access to an official nightclub, the \"EuroClub\", and some delegations will hold their own parties.", "The \"Eurovision Village\" is an official fan zone open to the public free of charge, with live performances by the contest's artists and screenings of the live shows on big screens." ], [ "Rules", "Martin Österdahl, the contest's Executive Supervisor since The contest is organised annually by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), together with the participating broadcaster of the host country.", "The event is monitored by an Executive Supervisor appointed by the EBU, and by the Reference Group which represents all participating broadcasters, who are each represented by a nominated Head of Delegation.", "The current Executive Supervisor is Martin Österdahl, who took over the role from Jon Ola Sand in May 2020.A detailed set of rules is written by the EBU for each contest and approved by the Reference Group.", "These rules have changed over time, and typically outline, among other points, the eligibility of the competing songs, the format of the contest, and the voting system to be used to determine the winner and how the results will be presented.=== Song eligibility and languages ===All competing songs must have a duration of three minutes or less.", "This rule applies only to the version performed during the live shows.", "In order to be considered eligible, competing songs in a given year's contest must not have been released commercially before the first day of September of the previous year.", "All competing entries must include vocals and lyrics of some kind, a cappella songs and purely instrumental pieces are not allowed.", "Competing entries may be performed in any language, be that natural or constructed, and participating broadcasters are free to decide the language in which their entry may be performed.Rules specifying in which language a song may be performed have changed over time.", "No restrictions were originally enacted when the contest was first founded, however following criticism over the being performed in English, a new rule was introduced for the restricting songs to be performed only in an official language of the country it represented.", "This rule was first abolished in , and subsequently reinstated for most countries in , with only and permitted freedom of language as their selection processes for that year's contest had already commenced.", "The language rule was once again abolished ahead of the .=== Artist eligibility and performances ===The orchestra was an integral part of the contest until 1998 (Domenico Modugno performing at the )The rules for the first contest specified that only solo performers were permitted to enter; this criterion was changed the following year to permit duos to compete, and groups were subsequently permitted for the first time in .", "Currently the number of people permitted on stage during competing performances is limited to a maximum of six, and no live animals are allowed.", "Since , all contestants must be aged 16 or over on the day of the live show in which they perform.", "Sandra Kim, the winner in at the age of 13, shall remain the contest's youngest winner while this rule remains in place.", "There is no limit on the nationality or country of birth of the competing artists, and participating broadcasters are free to select an artist from any country; several winning artists have subsequently held a different nationality or were born in a different country to that which they represented.", "No performer may compete for more than one country in a given year.The orchestra was a prominent aspect of the contest from 1956 to 1998.Pre-recorded backing tracks were first allowed for competing acts in 1973, but any pre-recorded instruments were required to be seen being \"performed\" on stage; in 1997, all instrumental music was allowed to be pre-recorded, however the host country was still required to provide an orchestra.", "In 1999, the rules were changed again, making the orchestra an optional requirement; the host broadcaster of , Israel's IBA, subsequently decided not to provide an orchestra, resulting in all entries using backing tracks for the first time.", "Currently all instrumental music for competing entries must now be pre-recorded, and no live instrumentation is allowed during performances.The main vocals of competing songs must be performed live during the contest.", "Previously live backing vocals were also required; since these may optionally be pre-recordedthis change has been implemented in an effort to introduce flexibility following the cancellation of the 2020 edition and to facilitate modernisation.=== Running order ===Since , the order in which the competing countries perform has been determined by the contest's producers, and submitted to the EBU Executive Supervisor and Reference Group for approval before public announcement.", "This was changed from a random draw used in previous years in order to provide a better experience for television viewers and ensure all countries stand out by avoiding instances where songs of a similar style or tempo are performed in sequence.Since the creation of a second semi-final in , a semi-final allocation draw is held each year.", "Countries are placed into pots based on their geographical location and voting history in recent contests, and are assigned to compete in one of the two semi-finals through a random draw.", "Countries are then randomly assigned to compete in either the first or second half of their respective semi-final, and once all competing songs have been selected the producers then determine the running order for the semi-finals.", "The automatic qualifiers are assigned at random to a semi-final for the purposes of voting rights.Semi-final qualifiers make a draw at random during the winners' press conference to determine whether they will perform during the first or second half of the final; the automatic finalists then randomly draw their competing half in the run-up to the final, except for the host country, whose exact performance position is determined in a separate draw.", "The running order for the final is then decided following the second semi-final by the producers.", "The running orders are decided with the competing songs' musical qualities, stage performance, prop and lighting set-up, and other production considerations taken into account.=== Voting ===Johnny Logan announcing the votes from IrelandSince 2023, the voting system used to determine the results of the contest works on the basis of positional voting.", "Each country awards 1–8, 10 and 12 points to the ten favourite songs as voted for by that country's general public or assembled jury, with the most preferred song receiving 12 points.", "In the semi-finals, each country awards one set of points based primarily on the votes cast by that country's viewing public via telephone, SMS or the official Eurovision app, while in the final, each country awards two sets of points, with one set awarded by the viewers and another awarded by a jury panel comprising five music professionals from that country.", "Since 2023, viewers in non-participating countries are also able to vote during the contest, with those viewers able to cast votes via an online platform, which are then aggregated and awarded as one set of points from an \"extra country\" for the overall public vote.", "This system is a modification of that used since 1975, when the \"12 points\" system was first introduced but with one set of points per country, and a similar system used since 2016 where two sets of points were awarded in both the semi-finals and final.", "National juries and the public in each country are not allowed to vote for their own country, a rule first introduced in 1957.Historically, each country's points were determined by a jury, consisting at various times of members of the public, music professionals, or both in combination.", "With advances in telecommunication technology, televoting was first introduced to the contest in on a trial basis, with broadcasters in five countries allowing the viewing public to determine their votes for the first time.", "From , televoting was extended to almost all competing countries, and subsequently became mandatory from .", "A jury was reintroduced for the final in , with each country's points comprising both the votes of the jury and public in an equal split; this mix of jury and public voting was expanded into the semi-finals from 2010, and was used until 2023, when full public voting was reintroduced to determine the results of the semi-finals.", "The mix of jury and public voting continues to be used in the final.Should two or more countries finish with the same number of points, a tie-break procedure is employed to determine the final placings.", "a combined national televoting and jury result is calculated for each country, and the country which has obtained more points from the public voting following this calculation is deemed to have placed higher.==== Presentation of the votes ====The scoreboard at the Since 1957, each country's votes have been announced during a special voting segment as part of the contest's broadcast, with a selected spokesperson assigned to announce the results of their country's vote.", "This spokesperson is typically well known in their country; previous spokespersons have included former Eurovision artists and presenters.", "Historically, the announcements were made through telephone lines from the countries of origin, with satellite links employed for the first time in , allowing the spokespersons to be seen visually by the audience and TV spectators.Scoring is done by both a national jury and a national televote.", "Each country's jury votes are consecutively added to the totals scoreboard as they are called upon by the contest presenter(s).", "The scoreboard was historically placed at the side of the stage and updated manually as each country gave their votes; in a computer graphics scoreboard was introduced.", "The jury points from 1–8 and 10 are displayed on screen and added automatically to the scoreboard, then the country's spokesperson announces which country will receive the 12 points.", "Once jury points from all countries have been announced, the presenter(s) announce the total public points received for each finalist, with the votes for each country being consolidated and announced as a single value.", "Since , the public points have been revealed in ascending order based on the jury vote, with the country that received the fewest points from the jury being the first to receive their public points.", "A full breakdown of the results across all shows is published on the official Eurovision website after the final, including each country's televoting ranking and the votes of its jury and individual jury members.", "Each country's individual televoting points in the final are typically displayed on-screen by that country's broadcaster following the announcement of the winner.=== Broadcasting ===Participating broadcasters are required to air live the semi-final in which they compete, or in the case of the automatic finalists the semi-final in which they are required to vote, and the final, in its entirety; this includes all competing songs, the voting recap containing short clips of the performances, the voting procedure or semi-final qualification reveal, and the reprise of the winning song in the final.", "Since 1999, broadcasters who wished to do so were given the opportunity to provide advertising during short, non-essential hiatuses in the show's schedule.", "In exceptional circumstances, such as due to developing emergency situations, participating broadcasters may delay or postpone broadcast of the event.", "Should a broadcaster fail to air a show as expected in any other scenario they may be subject to sanctions by the EBU.", "Several broadcasters in countries that are unable to compete have previously aired the contest in their markets.As national broadcasters join and leave the Eurovision feed transmitted by the EBU, the EBU/Eurovision network logo ident (not to be confused with the logo of the song contest itself) is displayed.", "The accompanying music (used on other Eurovision broadcasts) is the Prelude ''(Marche en rondeau)'' to Marc-Antoine Charpentier's ''Te Deum''.", "Originally, the same logo was used for both the Eurovision network and the European Broadcasting Union, however, they now have two different logos; the latest Eurovision network logo was introduced in 2012, and when the ident is transmitted at the start and end of programmes it is this Eurovision network logo that appears.The EBU now holds the recordings of all but two editions of the contest in its archives, following a project initiated in 2011 to collate footage and related materials of all editions ahead of the event's 60th edition in 2015.Although cameras were present to practice pan-European broadcasting for the first contest in 1956 to the few Europeans who had television sets, its audience was primarily over the radio.", "The only footage available is a Kinescope recording of Lys Assia's reprise of her winning song.", "No full recording of the exists, with conflicting reports of the fate of any copies that may have survived.", "Audio recordings of both contests do however exist, and some short pieces of footage from both events have survived." ], [ "Expansion of the contest", "From the original seven countries which entered the first contest in 1956, the number of competing countries has steadily grown over time.", "18 countries participated in the contest's tenth edition in 1965, and by 1990, 22 countries were regularly competing each year.Besides slight modifications to the voting system and other contest rules, no fundamental changes to the contest's format were introduced until the early 1990s, when events in Europe in the late 1980s and early 1990s resulted in a growing interest from new countries in the former Eastern Bloc, particularly following the merger of the Eastern European rival OIRT network with the EBU in 1993.=== Pre-selections and relegation ===29 countries registered to take part in the 1993 contest, a figure the EBU considered unable to fit reasonably into a single TV show.", "A pre-selection method was subsequently introduced for the first time in order to reduce the number of competing entries, with seven countries in Central and Eastern Europe participating in ''Kvalifikacija za Millstreet'', held in Ljubljana, Slovenia one month before the event.", "Following a vote among the seven competing countries, , and were chosen to head to the contest in Millstreet, Ireland, and , , and were forced to wait another year before being allowed to compete.", "A new relegation system was introduced for entry into the 1994 contest, with the lowest-placed countries being forced to sit out the following year's event to be replaced by countries which had not competed in the previous contest.", "The bottom seven countries in 1993 were required to miss the following year's contest, and were replaced by the four unsuccessful countries in ''Kvalifikacija za Millstreet'' and new entries from , and .This system was used again in 1994 for qualification for the , but a new system was introduced for the , when an audio-only qualification round held in the months before the contest in Oslo, Norway; this system was primarily introduced in an attempt to appease Germany, one of Eurovision's biggest markets and financial contributors, which would have otherwise been relegated under the previous system.", "29 countries competed for 22 places in the main contest alongside the automatically qualified Norwegian hosts, however Germany would ultimately still miss out, and joined Hungary, Romania, Russia, , , and as one of the seven countries to be absent from the Oslo contest.", "For the , a similar relegation system to that used between 1993 and 1995 was introduced, with each country's average scores in the preceding five contests being used as a measure to determine which countries would be relegated.", "This was subsequently changed again in 2001, back to the same system used between 1993 and 1995 where only the results from that year's contest would count towards relegation.=== The \"Big Four\" and \"Big Five\" ===In 1999, an exemption from relegation was introduced for France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom, giving them an automatic right to compete in the 2000 contest and in all subsequent editions.", "This group, as the highest-paying EBU members which significantly fund the contest each year, subsequently became known as the \"Big Four\" countries.", "This group was expanded in 2011 when Italy began competing again, becoming the \"Big Five\".", "Originally brought in to ensure that the financial contributions of the contest's biggest financial backers would not be missed, since the introduction of the semi-finals in 2004, the \"Big Five\" now instead automatically qualify for the final along with the host country.There remains debate on whether this status prejudices the countries' results, based on reported antipathy over their automatic qualification and the potential disadvantage of having spent less time on stage through not competing in the semi-finals, however this status appears to be more complex given that the results of the \"Big Five\" countries can vary widely.", "This status has caused consternation from other competing countries, and was cited, among other aspects, as a reason why had ceased participating after .=== Introduction of semi-finals ===Qualification rates per country (2004–2023; automatic qualifications not included)An influx of new countries applying for the resulted in the introduction of a semi-final from 2004, with the contest becoming a two-day event.", "The top 10 countries in each year's final would qualify automatically to the following year's final, alongside the \"Big Four\", meaning all other countries would compete in the semi-final to compete for 10 qualification spots.", "The in Istanbul, Turkey saw a record 36 countries competing, with new entries from , , and and the return of previously relegated countries.", "The format of this semi-final remained similar to the final proper, taking place a few days before the final; following the performances and the voting window, the names of the 10 countries with the highest number of points, which would therefore qualify for the final, were announced at the end of the show, revealed in a random order by the contest's presenters.The single semi-final continued to be held between 2005 and 2007; however, with 42 countries competing in the in Helsinki, Finland, the semi-final had 28 entries competing for 10 spots in the final.", "Following criticism over the mainly Central and Eastern European qualifiers at the 2007 event and the poor performance of entries from Western European countries, a second semi-final was subsequently introduced for the in Belgrade, Serbia, with all countries now competing in one of the two semi-finals, with only the host country and the \"Big Four\", and subsequently the \"Big Five\" from 2011, qualifying automatically.", "10 qualification spots would be available in each of the semi-finals, and a new system to split the competing countries between the two semi-finals was introduced based on their geographic location and previous voting patterns, in an attempt to reduce the impact of bloc voting and to make the outcome less predictable." ], [ "Entries and participants", "Loreen is the most recent winner of the contest, and the first female artist to win the contest twice, having done so in and , the latter victory helping Sweden equal Ireland's record of seven wins in the contest.Waterloo\", the Swedish pop group ABBA became one of the most commercially successful acts in the history of pop music.Johnny Logan is the first performer to have won the contest twice, in ''(pictured)'' and ; he also wrote the winning song in .", "The contest has been used as a launching point for artists who went on to achieve worldwide fame, and several of the world's best-selling artists are counted among past Eurovision Song Contest participants and winning artists.", "ABBA, the winners for Sweden, have sold an estimated 380 million albums and singles since their contest win brought them to worldwide attention, with their winning song \"Waterloo\" selling over five million records.", "Celine Dion's win for Switzerland in helped launch her international career, particularly in the anglophone market, and she would go on to sell an estimated 200 million records worldwide.", "Julio Iglesias was relatively unknown when he represented Spain in and placed fourth, but worldwide success followed his Eurovision appearance, with an estimated 100 million records sold during his career.", "Australian-British singer Olivia Newton-John represented the United Kingdom in 1974, placing fourth behind ABBA, but went on to sell an estimated 100 million records, win four Grammy Awards, and star in the critically and commercially successful musical film ''Grease''.A number of performers have competed in the contest after having already achieved considerable success.", "These include winning artists Lulu, Toto Cutugno, and Katrina and the Waves, and acts that failed to win such as Nana Mouskouri, Cliff Richard, Baccara, Umberto Tozzi, Plastic Bertrand, t.A.T.u., Las Ketchup, Patricia Kaas, Engelbert Humperdinck, Bonnie Tyler, and Flo Rida.", "Many well-known composers and lyricists have penned entries of varying success over the years, including Serge Gainsbourg, Goran Bregović, Diane Warren, Andrew Lloyd Webber, Pete Waterman, and Tony Iommi, as well as producers Timbaland and Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo.Past participants have contributed to other fields in addition to their music careers.", "The Netherlands' Annie Schmidt, lyricist of the first entry performed at Eurovision, has gained a worldwide reputation for her stories and earned the Hans Christian Andersen Award for children's literature.", "French \"yé-yé girls\" Françoise Hardy and contest winner France Gall are household names of 1960s pop culture, with Hardy also being a pioneer of street style fashion trends and an inspiration for the global youthquake movement.", "Figures who carved a career in politics and gained international acclaim for humanitarian achievements include contest winner Dana as a two-time Irish presidential candidate and Member of the European Parliament (MEP); Nana Mouskouri as Greek MEP and a UNICEF international goodwill ambassador; contest winner Ruslana as member of Verkhovna Rada, Ukraine's parliament and a figure of the Orange Revolution and Euromaidan protests, who gained global honours for leadership and courage; and North Macedonia's Esma Redžepova as member of political parties and a two-time Nobel Peace Prize nominee.Competing songs have occasionally gone on to become successes for their original performers and other artists, and some of the best-selling singles globally received their first international performances at Eurovision.", "\"Save Your Kisses for Me\", the winning song in for the United Kingdom's Brotherhood of Man, went on to sell over six million singles, more than any other winning song.", "\"Nel blu, dipinto di blu\", also known as \"Volare\", Italy's third-placed song in performed by Domenico Modugno, is the only Eurovision entry to win a Grammy Award.", "It was the first Grammy winner for both Record of the Year and Song of the Year and it has since been recorded by various artists, topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in the United States and achieved combined sales of over 22 million copies worldwide.", "\"Eres tú\", performed by Spain's Mocedades and runner-up in , became the first Spanish-language song to reach the top 10 of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and the Grammy-nominated \"Ooh Aah... Just a Little Bit\", which came eighth in for the United Kingdom's Gina G, sold 790,000 records and achieved success across Europe and the US, reaching #1 on the UK Singles Chart and peaking at #12 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.The turn of the century has also seen numerous competing songs becoming successes.", "\"Euphoria\", Loreen's winning song for Sweden in , achieved Europe-wide success, reaching number one in several countries and by 2014 had become the most downloaded Eurovision song to date.", "The video for \"Occidentali's Karma\" by Francesco Gabbani, which placed sixth for Italy in , became the first Eurovision song to reach more than 200 million views on YouTube, while \"Soldi\" by Mahmood, the Italian runner-up in , was the most-streamed Eurovision song on Spotify until it was overtaken by that year's winner for the Netherlands, \"Arcade\" by Duncan Laurence, following viral success on TikTok in late 2020 and early 2021; \"Arcade\" later became the first Eurovision song since \"Ooh Aah... Just a Little Bit\" and the first Eurovision winning song since \"Save Your Kisses for Me\" to chart on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, eventually peaking at #30.The saw the next major breakthrough success from Eurovision, with Måneskin, that year's winners for Italy with \"\", attracting worldwide attention across their repertoire immediately following their victory.Johnny Logan was the first artist to have won multiple contests as a performer, winning for Ireland in with \"What's Another Year\", written by Shay Healy, and in with the self-penned \"Hold Me Now\".", "Logan was also the winning songwriter in for the Irish winner, \"Why Me?\"", "performed by Linda Martin, and has therefore achieved three contest victories as either a performer or writer.", "Four further songwriters have each written two contest-winning songs: Willy van Hemert, Yves Dessca, Rolf Løvland, and Brendan Graham.", "Following their introduction in , Alexander Rybak became the first artist to win multiple Eurovision semi-finals, finishing in first at the second semi-finals in and ; he remains the only entrant to have done so to date.=== Winners ===Each country's win record in the contest 70 songs from 27 countries have won the Eurovision Song Contest and have recorded the most wins with seven each, followed by , , the and the with five each.", "Of the 52 countries to have taken part, 25 have yet to win.", "On only one occasion have multiple winners been declared in a single contest: in , four countries finished the contest with an equal number of votes and due to the lack of a tie-break rule at the time, all four countries were declared winners.", "A majority of winning songs have been performed in English, particularly since the language rule was abolished in 1999.Since that contest, seven winning songs have been performed either fully or partially in a language other than English.Two countries have won the contest on their first appearance: , by virtue of being declared the winner of the first contest in 1956; and , which won in 2007 in its first participation as an independent country, following entries in previous editions as part of the now-defunct and then .", "Other countries have had relatively short waits before winning their first contest, with victorious on its second contest appearance in and winning with its third entry in .", "Conversely, some countries have competed for many years before recording their first win: recorded its first win in , 31 years after its first appearance, while ended a 45-year losing streak in .", "waited the longest, recording its first win in , 53 years after its first participation.", "Countries have in the past had to wait many years to win again: Switzerland went 32 years between winning in 1956 and ; held a 37-year gap between wins in and ; the Netherlands waited 44 years to win again in , its most recent win having been in ; and won its second contest in , 48 years after its first win in .The United Kingdom holds the record for the highest number of second-place finishes, having finished runner-up sixteen times.", "Meanwhile, has come last more than any other country, appearing at the bottom of the scoreboard on eleven occasions, including scoring ''nul points'' four times.", "A country has recorded back-to-back wins on four occasions: recorded consecutive wins in and 1969; Luxembourg did likewise in and ; Israel won the contest four times in , , and ; and Ireland became the first country to win three consecutive titles, winning in , and .", "Ireland's winning streak in the 1990s includes the , giving it a record four wins in five years.Replica of the Eurovision trophy in Växjö, SwedenThe winning artists and songwriters receive a trophy, which since 2008 has followed a standard design: a handmade piece of sandblasted glass with painted details in the shape of a 1950s-style microphone, designed by Kjell Engman of the Swedish-based glassworks Kosta Boda.", "The trophy is typically presented by the previous year's winner; others who have handed out the award in the past include representatives from the host broadcaster or the EBU, and politicians; in 2007, the fictional character Joulupukki (original Santa Claus from Finland) presented the award to the winner Marija Šerifović." ], [ "Interval acts and guest appearances", "''Riverdance'' (cast pictured at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin in 2019) was the interval act at the 1994 contest.Alongside the song contest and appearances from local and international personalities, performances from non-competing artists and musicians have been included since the first edition, and have become a staple of the live show.", "These performances have varied widely, previously featuring music, art, dance and circus performances, and past participants are regularly invited to perform, with the reigning champion traditionally returning each year to perform the previous year's winning song.The contest's opening performance and the main interval act, held following the final competing song and before the announcement of the voting results, has become a memorable part of the contest and has included both internationally known artists and local stars.", "Contest organisers have previously used these performances as a way to explore their country's culture and history, such as in \"4,000 Years of Greek Song\" at the held in Greece; other performances have been more comedic in nature, featuring parody and humour, as was the case with \"Love Love Peace Peace\" in , a humorous ode to the history and spectacle of the contest itself.", "''Riverdance'', which later became one of the most successful dance productions in the world, first began as the interval performance at the 1994 contest in Ireland; the seven-minute performance of traditional Irish music and dance was later expanded into a full stage show that has been seen by over 25 million people worldwide and provided a launchpad for its lead dancers Michael Flatley and Jean Butler.Among other artists who have performed in a non-competitive manner are Danish Europop group Aqua in , Russian pop duo t.A.T.u.", "in , and American entertainers Justin Timberlake and Madonna in and respectively.", "Other notable artists, including Cirque du Soleil (), Alexandrov Ensemble (), Vienna Boys' Choir ( and ) and Fire of Anatolia (), also performed on the Eurovision stage, and there have been guest appearances from well-known faces from outside the world of music, including actors, athletes, and serving astronauts and cosmonauts.", "Guest performances have been used as a channel in response to global events happening concurrently with the contest.", "The in Israel closed with all competing acts performing a rendition of Israel's winning song \"Hallelujah\" as a tribute to the victims of the war in the Balkans, a dance performance entitled \"The Grey People\" in 2016's first semi-final was devoted to the European migrant crisis, the featured known anti-war songs \"Fragile\", \"People Have the Power\" and \"Give Peace a Chance\" in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine that same year, and an interval act in 's first semi-final alluded to the refugee crisis caused by the aforementioned invasion." ], [ "Criticism and controversy", "The contest has been the subject of considerable criticism regarding both its musical content and what has been reported to be a political element to the event, and several controversial moments have been witnessed over the course of its history.=== Musical style and presentation ===Criticism has been levied against the musical quality of past competing entries, with a perception that certain music styles seen as being presented more often than others in an attempt to appeal to as many potential voters as possible among the international audience.", "Power ballads, folk rhythms and bubblegum pop have been considered staples of the contest in recent years, leading to allegations that the event has become formulaic.", "Other traits in past competing entries which have regularly been mocked by media and viewers include an abundance of key changes and lyrics about love and/or peace, as well as the pronunciation of English by non-native users of the language.", "Given Eurovision is principally a television show, over the years competing performances have attempted to attract the viewers' attention through means other than music, and elaborate lighting displays, pyrotechnics, and extravagant on-stage theatrics and costumes having become a common sight at recent contests; criticism of these tactics have been levied as being a method of distracting the viewer from the weak musical quality of some of the competing entries.While many of these traits are ridiculed in the media and elsewhere, for others these traits are celebrated and considered an integral part of what makes the contest appealing.", "Although many of the competing acts each year will fall into some of the categories above, the contest has seen a diverse range of musical styles in its history, including rock, heavy metal, jazz, country, electronic, R&B, hip hop and avant-garde.=== Political controversies ===A mural in Girona promoting a boycott of the in IsraelAs artists and songs ultimately represent a country, the contest has seen several controversial moments where political tensions between competing countries as a result of frozen conflicts, and in some cases open warfare, are reflected in the performances and voting.The continuing conflict between and has affected the contest on numerous occasions.", "Conflicts between the two countries at Eurovision escalated quickly since both countries began competing in the late 2000s, resulting in fines and disciplinary action for both countries' broadcasters over political stunts, and a forced change of title for one competing song due to allegations of political subtext.", "Interactions between and in the contest had originally been positive, however as political relations soured between the two countries so too have relations at Eurovision become more complex.", "Complaints were levied against 's winning song in , \"1944\", whose lyrics referenced the deportation of the Crimean Tatars, but which the claimed had a greater political meaning in light of Russia's annexation of Crimea.", "As prepared to host the , Russia's selected representative, Yuliya Samoylova, was barred from entering the country due to having previously entered Crimea illegally according to Ukrainian law.", "Russia eventually pulled out of the contest after offers for Samoylova to perform remotely were refused by Russia's broadcaster, Channel One Russia, resulting in the EBU reprimanding the Ukrainian broadcaster, UA:PBC.", "In the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine and subsequent protests from other participating countries, was barred from competing in the , where went on to win.", "'s planned entry for the in Moscow, Russia, \"We Don't Wanna Put In\", caused controversy as the lyrics appeared to criticise Vladimir Putin, in a move seen as opposition to the then-Russian prime minister in the aftermath of the Russo-Georgian War.", "After requests by the EBU for changes to the lyrics were refused, Georgia's broadcaster GPB subsequently withdrew from the event. '", "planned entry in , \"Ya nauchu tebya (I'll Teach You)\", also caused controversy in the wake of demonstrations against disputed election results, resulting in the country's disqualification when the aforementioned song and another potential song were deemed to breach the contest's rules on neutrality and politicisation.", "'s participation in the contest has resulted in several controversial moments in the past, with the country's first appearance in , less than a year after the Munich massacre, resulting in an increased security presence at the venue in Luxembourg City.", "'s first win in proved controversial for Arab states broadcasting the contest which would typically cut to advertisements when Israel performed due to a lack of recognition of the country, and when it became apparent Israel would win many of these broadcasters cut the feed before the end of the voting.", "Arab states which are eligible to compete have declined to participate due to Israel's presence, with the only Arab state to have entered Eurovision, competing for the first, and the only time, in when Israel was absent.", "Israeli participation has been criticised by those who oppose current government policies in the state, with calls raised by various political groups for a boycott ahead of the in Tel Aviv, including proponents of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) movement in response to the country's policies towards Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, as well as groups who take issue with perceived pinkwashing in Israel.", "Others campaigned against a boycott, asserting that any cultural boycott would be antithetical to advancing peace in the region.=== Political and geographical voting ===The contest has been described as containing political elements in its voting process, a perception that countries will give votes more frequently and in higher quantities to other countries based on political relationships, rather than the musical merits of the songs themselves.", "Numerous studies and academic papers have been written on this subject, which have corroborated that certain countries form \"clusters\" or \"cliques\" by frequently voting in the same way; one study concludes that voting blocs can play a crucial role in deciding the winner of the contest, with evidence that on at least two occasions bloc voting was a pivotal factor in the vote for the winning song.", "Other views on these \"blocs\" argue that certain countries will allocate high points to others based on similar musical tastes, shared cultural links and a high degree of similarity and mutual intelligibility between languages, and are therefore more likely to appreciate and vote for the competing songs from these countries based on these factors, rather than political relationships specifically.", "Analysis on other voting patterns have revealed examples which indicate voting preferences among countries based on shared religion, as well as \"patriotic voting\", particularly since the introduction of televoting in , where foreign nationals vote for their country of origin.Voting patterns in the contest have been reported by news publishers, including ''The Economist'' and ''BBC News''.", "Criticism of the voting system was at its highest in the mid-2000s, resulting in a number of calls for countries to boycott the contest over reported voting biases, particularly following the where Eastern European countries occupied the top 15 places in the final and dominated the qualifying spaces.", "The poor performance of the entries from more traditional Eurovision countries had subsequently been discussed in European national parliaments, and the developments in the voting was cited as among the reasons for the resignation of Terry Wogan as commentator for the UK, a role he had performed at every contest from .", "In response to this criticism, the EBU introduced a second semi-final in , with countries split based on geographic proximity and voting history, and juries of music professionals were reintroduced in , in an effort to reduce the impacts of bloc voting.=== LGBT visibility ===Dana International, the contest's first trans participant, and winner of the 1998 contest for IsraelEurovision has had a long-held fan base in the LGBT community, and contest organisers have actively worked to include these fans in the event since the 1990s.", "Paul Oscar became the contest's first openly gay artist to compete when he represented in .", "'s Dana International, the contest's first trans performer, became the first LGBT artist to win in .", "In , Nikkie de Jager became the first trans person to host the contest.Several open members of the LGBT community have since gone on to compete and win: Conchita Wurst, the drag persona of openly gay Thomas Neuwirth, won the for ; openly bisexual performer Duncan Laurence was the winner of the 2019 contest for the ; and rock band Måneskin, winners of the 2021 contest for , features openly bisexual Victoria De Angelis as its bassist.", "Marija Šerifović, who won the 2007 contest for , subsequently came out publicly as a lesbian in 2013.Past competing songs and performances have included references and allusions to same-sex relationships; \"Nous les amoureux\", the winning song, contained references to the difficulties faced by a homosexual relationship; Krista Siegfrids' performance of \"Marry Me\" at the included a same-sex kiss with one of her female backing dancers; and the stage show of 's Ryan O'Shaughnessy's \"Together\" in had two male dancers portraying a same-sex relationship.", "Drag performers, such as 's Verka Serduchka, 's DQ and 's Sestre, have appeared, including Wurst winning in 2014.In recent years, various political ideologies across Europe have clashed in the Eurovision setting, particularly on LGBT rights.", "Dana International's selection for the 1998 contest in Birmingham was marked by objections and death threats from orthodox religious sections of Israeli society, and at the contest her accommodation was reportedly in the only hotel in Birmingham with bulletproof windows.", ", once a regular participant and a one-time winner, first pulled out of the contest in , citing dissatisfaction in the voting rules and more recently Turkish broadcaster TRT have cited LGBT performances as another reason for their continued boycott, refusing to broadcast the 2013 event over 's same sex kiss.", "LGBT visibility in the contest has been cited as a deciding factor for 's non-participation since , although no official reason was given by the Hungarian broadcaster MTVA.", "The rise of anti-LGBT sentiment in Europe has led to a marked increase in booing from contest audiences, particularly since the introduction of a \"gay propaganda\" law in Russia in 2013.Conchita Wurst's win was met with criticism on the Russian political stage, with several conservative politicians voicing displeasure in the result.", "Clashes on LGBT visibility in the contest have occurred in countries which do not compete, such as in , where broadcasting rights were terminated during the 2018 contest due to censorship of \"abnormal sexual relationships and behaviours\" that went against Chinese broadcasting guidelines." ], [ "Cultural influence", "The Eurovision Song Contest has amassed a global following and sees annual audience figures of between 100 and 600 million.", "The contest has become a cultural influence worldwide since its first years, is regularly described as having kitsch appeal, and is included as a topic of parody in television sketches and in stage performances at the Edinburgh Fringe and Melbourne Comedy festivals amongst others.", "Several films have been created which celebrate the contest, including Eytan Fox's 2013 Israeli comedy ''Cupcakes'', and the Netflix 2020 musical comedy, ''Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga'', produced with backing from the EBU and starring Will Ferrell and Rachel McAdams.Eurovision has a large online following and multiple independent websites, news blogs and fan clubs are dedicated to the event.", "One of the oldest and largest Eurovision fan clubs is OGAE, founded in 1984 in Finland and currently a network of over 40 national branches across the world.", "National branches regularly host events to promote and celebrate Eurovision, and several participating broadcasters work closely with these branches when preparing their entries.In the run-up to each year's contest, several countries regularly host smaller events between the conclusion of the national selection shows in March and the contest proper in May, known as the \"pre-parties\".", "These events typically feature the artists which will go on to compete at that year's contest, and consist of performances at a venue and meet-and-greets with fans and the press.", "''Eurovision in Concert'', held annually in Amsterdam, was one of the first of these events to be created, holding its first edition in 2008.Other events held regularly include the ''London Eurovision Party'', ''PrePartyES'' in Madrid, and ''Israel Calling'' in Tel Aviv.", "Several community events have been held virtually, particularly since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe in 2020, among these ''EurovisionAgain'', an initiative where fans watched and discussed past contests in sync on YouTube and other social media platforms.", "Launched during the first COVID-19 lockdowns, the event subsequently became a top trend on Twitter across Europe and facilitated over in donations for UK-based LGBTQ+ charities." ], [ "Special events and related competitions", "Destiny Chukunyere won the 2015 edition of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest for MaltaHosts Graham Norton and Petra Mede during ''Eurovision Song Contest's Greatest Hits'', a special event marking the contest's 60th anniversarySeveral anniversary events, and related contests under the \"Eurovision Live Events\" brand, have been organised by the EBU with its member broadcasters.", "In addition, participating broadcasters have occasionally commissioned special Eurovision programmes for their home audiences, and a number of other imitator contests have been developed outside of the EBU framework, on both a national and international level.The EBU has held several events to mark selected anniversaries in the contest's history: ''Songs of Europe'', held in 1981 to celebrate its twenty-fifth anniversary, had live performances and video recordings of all Eurovision Song Contest winners up to 1981; ''Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest'' was organised in 2005 to celebrate the event's fiftieth anniversary, and featured a contest to determine the most popular song from among 14 selected entries from the contest's first 50 years; and in 2015 the event's sixtieth anniversary was marked by ''Eurovision Song Contest's Greatest Hits'', a concert of performances by past Eurovision artists and video montages of performances and footage from previous contests.", "Following the cancellation of the due to Covid, the EBU organised a special non-competitive broadcast, ''Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light'', which provided a showcase for the songs that would have taken part in the competition.Other contests organised by the EBU include Eurovision Young Musicians, a classical music competition for European musicians between the ages of 12 and 21; Eurovision Young Dancers, a dance competition for non-professional performers between the ages of 16 and 21; Eurovision Choir, a choral competition for non-professional European choirs produced in partnership with the and modelled after the World Choir Games; and the Junior Eurovision Song Contest, a similar song contest for singers aged between 9 and 14 representing primarily European countries.", "The Eurovision Dance Contest was an event featuring pairs of dancers performing ballroom and Latin dancing, which took place for two editions, in 2007 and 2008.Similar international music competitions have been organised externally to the EBU.", "The Sopot International Song Festival has been held annually since 1961; between 1977 and 1980, under the patronage of the International Radio and Television Organisation (OIRT), an Eastern European broadcasting network similar to the EBU, it was rebranded as the Intervision Song Contest.", "An Ibero-American contest, the OTI Festival, was previously held among hispanophone and lusophone countries in Europe, North America and South America; and a contest for countries and autonomous regions with Turkic links, the Turkvision Song Contest, has been organised since 2013.Similarly, an adaption of the contest for artists in the United States, the ''American Song Contest'', was held in 2022 and featured songs representing U.S. states and territories.", "Adaptions of the contest for artists in Canada and Latin America are in development, though development on the former has been halted." ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Nitrox" ], [ "Introduction", "One type of nitrox cylinder identification label'''Nitrox''' refers to any gas mixture composed (excepting trace gases) of nitrogen and oxygen.", "This includes atmospheric air, which is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases, primarily argon.", "In the usual application, underwater diving, nitrox is normally distinguished from air and handled differently.", "The most common use of nitrox mixtures containing oxygen in higher proportions than atmospheric air is in scuba diving, where the reduced partial pressure of nitrogen is advantageous in reducing nitrogen uptake in the body's tissues, thereby extending the practicable underwater dive time by reducing the decompression requirement, or reducing the risk of decompression sickness (also known as ''the bends'').Nitrox is used to a lesser extent in surface-supplied diving, as these advantages are reduced by the more complex logistical requirements for nitrox compared to the use of simple low-pressure compressors for breathing gas supply.", "Nitrox can also be used in hyperbaric treatment of decompression illness, usually at pressures where pure oxygen would be hazardous.", "Nitrox is not a safer gas than compressed air in all respects; although its use can reduce the risk of decompression sickness, it increases the risks of oxygen toxicity and fire.Though not generally referred to as nitrox, an oxygen-enriched air mixture is routinely provided at normal surface ambient pressure as oxygen therapy to patients with compromised respiration and circulation." ], [ "Physiological effects under pressure", "===Decompression benefits===Reducing the proportion of nitrogen by increasing the proportion of oxygen reduces the risk of decompression sickness for the same dive profile, or allows extended dive times without increasing the need for decompression stops for the same risk.", "The significant aspect of extended no-stop time when using nitrox mixtures is reduced risk in a situation where breathing gas supply is compromised, as the diver can make a direct ascent to the surface with an acceptably low risk of decompression sickness.", "The exact values of the extended no-stop times vary depending on the decompression model used to derive the tables, but as an approximation, it is based on the partial pressure of nitrogen at the dive depth.", "This principle can be used to calculate an equivalent air depth (EAD) with the same partial pressure of nitrogen as the mix to be used, and this depth is less than the actual dive depth for oxygen enriched mixtures.", "The equivalent air depth is used with air decompression tables to calculate decompression obligation and no-stop times.", "The Goldman decompression model predicts a significant risk reduction by using nitrox (more so than the PADI tables suggest).===Nitrogen narcosis===Controlled tests have not shown breathing nitrox to reduce the effects of nitrogen narcosis, as oxygen seems to have similarly narcotic properties under pressure to nitrogen; thus one should not expect a reduction in narcotic effects due only to the use of nitrox.", "Nonetheless, there are people in the diving community who insist that they feel reduced narcotic effects at depths breathing nitrox.", "This may be due to a dissociation of the subjective and behavioural effects of narcosis.", "Although oxygen appears chemically more narcotic at the surface, relative narcotic effects at depth have never been studied in detail, but it is known that different gases produce different narcotic effects as depth increases.", "Helium has no narcotic effect, but results in HPNS when breathed at high pressures, which does not happen with gases that have greater narcotic potency.", "However, because of risks associated with oxygen toxicity, divers do not usually use nitrox at greater depths where more pronounced narcosis symptoms are more likely to occur.", "For deep diving, trimix or heliox gases are typically used; these gases contain helium to reduce the amount of narcotic gases in the mixture.===Oxygen toxicity===Diving with and handling nitrox raise a number of potentially fatal dangers due to the high partial pressure of oxygen (ppO2).", "Nitrox is not a deep-diving gas mixture owing to the increased proportion of oxygen, which becomes toxic when breathed at high pressure.", "For example, the maximum operating depth of nitrox with 36% oxygen, a popular recreational diving mix, is to ensure a maximum ppO2 of no more than .", "The exact value of the maximum allowed ppO2 and maximum operating depth varies depending on factors such as the training agency, the type of dive, the breathing equipment and the level of surface support, with professional divers sometimes being allowed to breathe higher ppO2 than those recommended to recreational divers.To dive safely with nitrox, the diver must learn good buoyancy control, a vital part of scuba diving in its own right, and a disciplined approach to preparing, planning and executing a dive to ensure that the ppO2 is known, and the maximum operating depth is not exceeded.", "Many dive shops, dive operators, and gas blenders (individuals trained to blend gases) require the diver to present a nitrox certification card before selling nitrox to divers.Some training agencies, such as PADI and Technical Diving International, teach the use of two depth limits to protect against oxygen toxicity.", "The shallower depth is called the \"maximum operating depth\" and is reached when the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas reaches .", "The deeper depth, called the \"contingency depth\", is reached when the partial pressure reaches .", "Diving at or beyond this level exposes the diver to a greater risk of central nervous system (CNS) oxygen toxicity.", "This can be extremely dangerous since its onset is often without warning and can lead to drowning, as the regulator may be spat out during convulsions, which occur in conjunction with sudden unconsciousness (general seizure induced by oxygen toxicity).Divers trained to use nitrox may memorise the acronym VENTID-C or sometimes ConVENTID, (which stands for '''V'''ision (blurriness), '''E'''ars (ringing sound), '''N'''ausea, '''T'''witching, '''I'''rritability, '''D'''izziness, and '''C'''onvulsions).", "However, evidence from non-fatal oxygen convulsions indicates that most convulsions are not preceded by any warning symptoms at all.", "Further, many of the suggested warning signs are also symptoms of nitrogen narcosis, and so may lead to misdiagnosis by a diver.", "A solution to either is to ascend to a shallower depth.===Carbon dioxide retention===Use of nitrox may cause a reduced ventilatory response, and when breathing dense gas at the deeper limits of the usable range, this may result in carbon dioxide retention when exercise levels are high, with an increased risk of loss of consciousness.===Other effects===There is anecdotal evidence that the use of nitrox reduces post-dive fatigue, particularly in older and or obese divers; however a double-blind study to test this found no statistically significant reduction in reported fatigue.", "There was, however, some suggestion that post-dive fatigue is due to sub-clinical decompression sickness (DCS) (i.e.", "micro bubbles in the blood insufficient to cause symptoms of DCS); the fact that the study mentioned was conducted in a dry chamber with an ideal decompression profile may have been sufficient to reduce sub-clinical DCS and prevent fatigue in both nitrox and air divers.", "In 2008, a study was published using wet divers at the same depth no statistically significant reduction in reported fatigue was seen.Further studies with a number of different dive profiles, and also different levels of exertion, would be necessary to fully investigate this issue.", "For example, there is much better scientific evidence that breathing high-oxygen gases increases exercise tolerance, during aerobic exertion.", "Though even moderate exertion while breathing from the regulator is a relatively uncommon occurrence in recreational scuba, as divers usually try to minimize it in order to conserve gas, episodes of exertion while regulator-breathing do occasionally occur in recreational diving.", "Examples are surface-swimming a distance to a boat or beach after surfacing, where residual \"safety\" cylinder gas is often used freely, since the remainder will be wasted anyway when the dive is completed, and unplanned contingencies due to currents or buoyancy problems.", "It is possible that these so-far un-studied situations have contributed to some of the positive reputation of nitrox.A 2010 study using critical flicker fusion frequency and perceived fatigue criteria found that diver alertness after a dive on nitrox was significantly better than after an air dive." ], [ "Uses", "Enriched Air Nitrox diving tables, showing adjusted no-decompression times.===Underwater diving===Enriched Air Nitrox, nitrox with an oxygen content above 21%, is mainly used in scuba diving to reduce the proportion of nitrogen in the breathing gas mixture.", "The main benefit is reduced decompression risk.", "To a considerably lesser extent it is also used in surface supplied diving, where the logistics are relatively complex, similar to the use of other diving gas mixtures like heliox and trimix.===Therapeutic recompression===Nitrox50 is used as one of the options in the first stages of therapeutic recompression using the Comewrap|x CX 30 tab}}le for treatment of vestibular or general decompression sickness.", "Nitrox is breathed at 30 msw and 24 msw and the ascents from these depths to the next stop.", "At 18 m the gas is switched to oxygen for the rest of the treatment.===Medicine, mountaineering and unpressurised aircraft===The use of oxygen at high altitudes or as oxygen therapy may be as supplementary oxygen, added to the inspired air, which would technically be a use of nitrox, blended on site, but this is not normally referred to as such, as the gas provided for the purpose is oxygen." ], [ "Terminology", "Nitrox is known by many names: Enriched Air Nitrox, Oxygen Enriched Air, Nitrox, EANx or Safe Air.", "Since the word is a compound contraction or coined word and not an acronym, it should not be written in all upper case characters as \"NITROX\", but may be initially capitalized when referring to specific mixtures such as Nitrox32, which contains 68% nitrogen and 32% oxygen.", "When one figure is stated, it refers to the oxygen percentage, not the nitrogen percentage.", "The original convention, Nitrox68/32 became shortened as the first figure is redundant.The term \"nitrox\" was originally used to refer to the breathing gas in a seafloor habitat where the oxygen has to be kept to a lower fraction than in air to avoid long term oxygen toxicity problems.", "It was later used by Dr Morgan Wells of NOAA for mixtures with an oxygen fraction higher than air, and has become a generic term for binary mixtures of nitrogen and oxygen with any oxygen fraction, and in the context of recreational and technical diving, now usually refers to a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen with more than 21% oxygen.", "\"Enriched Air Nitrox\" or \"EAN\", and \"Oxygen Enriched Air\" are used to emphasize richer than air mixtures.", "In \"EANx\", the \"x\" was originally the x of nitrox, but has come to indicate the percentage of oxygen in the mix and is replaced by a number when the percentage is known; for example, a 40% oxygen mix is called EAN40.The two most popular blends are EAN32 and EAN36, developed by NOAA for scientific diving, and also named Nitrox I and Nitrox II, respectively, or Nitrox68/32 and Nitrox64/36.These two mixtures were first utilized to the depth and oxygen limits for scientific diving designated by NOAA at the time.The term Oxygen Enriched Air (OEN) was accepted by the (American) scientific diving community, but although it is probably the most unambiguous and simply descriptive term yet proposed, it was resisted by the recreational diving community, sometimes in favour of less appropriate terminology.In its early days of introduction to non-technical divers, nitrox has occasionally also been known by detractors by less complimentary terms, such as \"devil gas\" or \"voodoo gas\" (a term now sometimes used with pride).American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI) uses the term \"SafeAir\", which they define as any oxygen-enriched air mixture with O2 concentrations between 22% and 50% that meet their gas quality and handling specifications, and specifically claim that these mixtures are safer than normally produced breathing air for the end user not envolved to the mix production which.", "Considering the complexities and hazards of mixing, handling, analyzing, and using oxygen-enriched air, this name is considered inappropriate by those who consider that it is not inherently \"safe\", but merely has decompression advantages.The constituent gas percentages are what the gas blender aims for, but the final actual mix may vary from the specification, and so a small flow of gas from the cylinder must be measured with an oxygen analyzer, before the cylinder is used underwater.===MOD===Maximum Operating Depth (MOD) is the maximum safe depth at which a given nitrox mixture can be used.", "MOD depends on the allowed partial pressure of oxygen, which is related to exposure time and the acceptable risk assumed for central nervous system oxygen toxicity.", "Acceptable maximum ppO2 varies depending on the application:* 1.2 is often used in closed circuit rebreathers.", "* 1.4 is recommended by several recreational training agencies for ordinary scuba diving.", "* 1.5 is allowed for commercial diving in some jurisdictions.", "* 1.6 is allowed for technical diving decompression stops, and is the recommended maximum according to NOAAHigher values are used by commercial and military divers in special circumstances, often when the diver uses surface supplied breathing apparatus, or for treatment in a chamber, where the airway is relatively secure." ], [ "Equipment" ], [ "Choice of mixture", "Technical divers preparing for a mixed-gas decompression dive in Bohol, Philippines.", "Note the backplate and wing setup with side mounted stage tanks containing EAN50 (left side) and pure oxygen (right side).The two most common recreational diving nitrox mixes contain 32% and 36% oxygen, which have maximum operating depths (MODs) of and respectively when limited to a maximum partial pressure of oxygen of .", "Divers may calculate an equivalent air depth to determine their decompression requirements or may use nitrox tables or a nitrox-capable dive computer.Nitrox with more than 40% oxygen is uncommon within recreational diving.", "There are two main reasons for this: the first is that all pieces of diving equipment that come into contact with mixes containing higher proportions of oxygen, particularly at high pressure, need special cleaning and servicing to reduce the risk of fire.", "The second reason is that richer mixes extend the time the diver can stay underwater without needing decompression stops far further than the duration permitted by the capacity of typical diving cylinders.", "For example, based on the PADI nitrox recommendations, the maximum operating depth for EAN45 would be and the maximum dive time available at this depth even with EAN36 is nearly 1 hour 15 minutes: a diver with a breathing rate of 20 litres per minute using twin 10-litre, 230-bar (about double 85 cu.", "ft.) cylinders would have completely emptied the cylinders after 1 hour 14 minutes at this depth.Use of nitrox mixtures containing 50% to 80% oxygen is common in technical diving as decompression gas, which by virtue of its lower partial pressure of inert gases such as nitrogen and helium, allows for more efficient (faster) elimination of these gases from the tissues than leaner oxygen mixtures.In deep open circuit technical diving, where hypoxic gases are breathed during the bottom portion of the dive, a Nitrox mix with 50% or less oxygen called a \"travel mix\" is sometimes breathed during the beginning of the descent in order to avoid hypoxia.", "Normally, however, the most oxygen-lean of the diver's decompression gases would be used for this purpose, since descent time spent reaching a depth where bottom mix is no longer hypoxic is normally small, and the distance between this depth and the MOD of any nitrox decompression gas is likely to be very short, if it occurs at all.===Best mix===The composition of a nitrox mix can be optimized for a given planned dive profile.", "This is termed \"Best mix\", for the dive, and provides the maximum no-decompression time compatible with acceptable oxygen exposure.", "An acceptable maximum partial pressure of oxygen is selected based on depth and planned bottom time, and this value is used to calculate the oxygen content of the best mix for the dive::" ], [ "Production", "There are several methods of production:* Mixing by partial pressure: a measured pressure of oxygen is decanted into the cylinder and cylinder is \"topped up\" with air from the diving air compressor.", "This method is very versatile and requires relatively little additional equipment if a suitable compressor is available, but it is labour-intensive, and high partial pressures of oxygen are relatively hazardous.", "* Pre-mix decanting: the gas supplier provides large cylinders with popular mixes such as 32% and 36%.", "These may be further diluted with air to provide a larger range of mixtures.", "* Mixing by continuous blending: measured quantities of oxygen are introduced to air and mixed with it before it reaches the compressor inlet.", "Concentration of oxygen is commonly monitored as partial pressure using an oxygen cell.", "The compressor and particularly the compressor oil, must be suitable for this service.", "If the resulting oxygen fraction is less than 40%, the cylinder and valve may not be required to be cleaned for oxygen service.", "Relatively efficient and quick compared to partial pressure blending, but requires a suitable compressor, and the range of mixes may be limited by the compressor specification.", "* Mixing by mass fraction: oxygen and air or nitrogen are added to a cylinder that is accurately weighed until the required mix is achieved.", "This method requires fairly large and highly accurate scales, otherwise it is similar to partial pressure blending, but insensitive to temperature variations.", "* Mixing by gas separation: a nitrogen permeable membrane is used to remove some of the nitrogen molecules from air until the required mix is achieved.", "The resulting low pressure nitrox is then pumped into cylinders by a compressor.", "A limited range of mixes is possible, but the equipment is quick and easy to operate and relatively safe, as there is never high partial pressure oxygen involved.", "A supply of clean low-pressure air at a constant temperature is required for consistent results.", "This may be supplied from a low pressure compressor or a regulated supply from high pressure storage or compressor.", "The air must be free of contaminants that could clog the membrane, and at a constant inlet temperature and pressure to produce a consistent delivered partial pressure of oxygen.", "The air must be of breathing quality, other contaminants must be filtered out independently.", "The input air pressure is regulated and pressure over the membrane controlled to adjust the product oxygen fraction.", "CGA Grade D or E air quality is suitable for supply gas, and is commonly heated to a constant inlet temperature.", "Heating also reduces the chance of high humidity causing wetting of the membrane.", "In a typical system supply air enters the thousands of hollow fibres of the membrane at one end, and oxygen preferentially permeates the fibre walls, leaving mostly nitrogen at the discharge end, which is vented from the system as waste.", "* Pressure swing adsorption requires relatively complex equipment, otherwise the advantages are similar to membrane separation.", "PSA is a technology used to separate gases from a mixture under pressure according to the molecular characteristics and affinity for an adsorbent material of the gases at near-ambient temperatures.", "Specific adsorbent materials are used as a trap, preferentially adsorbing the target gases at high pressure.", "The process then swings to low pressure to desorb the adsorbed material and flush the adsorbent container so that it can be reused." ], [ "Cylinder markings to identify contents", "Any diving cylinder containing a blend of gasses other than standard air is required by most diver training organizations, and some national governments, to be clearly marked to indicate the current gas mixture.", "In practice it is common to use a printed adhesive label to indicate the type of gas (in this case nitrox), and to add a temporary label to specify the analysis of the current mix.Training standards for nitrox certification suggest the composition must be verified by the diver by using an oxygen analyzer before use." ], [ "Regional standards and conventions", "===European Union===Within the EU, valves with M26x2 outlet thread are recommended for cylinders with increased oxygen content.", "Regulators for use with these cylinders require compatible connectors, and are not directly connectable with cylinders for compressed air.===Germany===A nitrox cylinder is specially cleaned and identified.", "According to EN 144-3 the cylinder colour is overall white with the letter '''N''' on opposite sides of the cylinder.", "The fraction of oxygen in the bottle is checked after filling and marked on the cylinder.===South Africa===South African National Standard 10019:2008 specifies the colour of all scuba cylinders as Golden yellow with French gray shoulder.", "This applies to all underwater breathing gases except medical oxygen, which must be carried in cylinders that are Black with a White shoulder.", "Nitrox cylinders must be identified by a transparent, self-adhesive label with green lettering, fitted below the shoulder.", "In effect this is green lettering on a yellow cylinder, with a gray shoulder.", "The composition of the gas must also be specified on the label.", "In practice this is done by a small additional self-adhesive label marked with the measured oxygen fraction, which is changed when a new mix is filled.The 2021 revision of SANS 10019 changed the colour specification to Light navy grey for the shoulder, and a different label specification which includes hazard symbols for high pressure and oxidising materials.===United States===Cylinder showing Nitrox band and sticker marked with maximum operating depth (MOD) and oxygen fraction (%O2)Every nitrox cylinder should also have a sticker stating whether or not the cylinder is ''oxygen clean'' and suitable for partial pressure blending.", "Any oxygen-clean cylinder may have any mix up to 100% oxygen inside.", "If by some accident an oxygen-clean cylinder is filled at a station that does not supply gas to oxygen-clean standards it is then considered contaminated and must be re-cleaned before a gas containing more than 40% oxygen may again be added.", "Cylinders marked as 'not oxygen clean' may only be filled with oxygen-enriched air mixtures from membrane or stick blending systems where the gas is mixed before being added to the cylinder, and to an oxygen fraction not exceeding 40% by volume." ], [ "Hazards", "Nitrox can be a hazard to the blender and to the user, for different reasons.===Fire and toxic cylinder contamination from oxygen reactions===Partial pressure blending using pure oxygen decanted into the cylinder before topping up with air may involve very high oxygen fractions and oxygen partial pressures during the decanting process, which constitute a relatively high fire hazard.", "This procedure requires care and precautions by the operator, and decanting equipment and cylinders which are clean for oxygen service, but the equipment is relatively simple and inexpensive.", "Partial pressure blending using pure oxygen is often used to provide nitrox on live-aboard dive boats, but it is also used in some dive shops and clubs.Any gas which contains a significantly larger percentage of oxygen than air is a fire hazard, and such gases can react with hydrocarbons or lubricants and sealing materials inside the filling system to produce toxic gases, even if a fire is not apparent.", "Some organisations exempt equipment from oxygen-clean standards if the oxygen fraction is limited to 40% or less.Among recreational training agencies, only ANDI subscribes to the guideline of requiring oxygen cleaning for equipment used with more than 23% oxygen fraction.", "The USCG, NOAA, U.S. Navy, OSHA, and the other recreational training agencies accept the limit as 40% as no accident or incident has been known to occur when this guideline has been properly applied.", "Tens of thousands of recreational divers are trained each year and the overwhelming majority of these divers are taught the \"over 40% rule\".", "Most nitrox fill stations which supply pre-mixed nitrox will fill cylinders with mixtures below 40% without certification of cleanliness for oxygen service.", "Luxfer cylinders specify oxygen cleaning for all mixtures exceeding 23.5% oxygen.The following references for oxygen cleaning specifically cite the \"over 40%\" guideline that has been in widespread use since the 1960s, and consensus at the 1992 Enriched Air Workshop was to accept that guideline and continue the status quo.", "* Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1910.430 (i) – Commercial Diving Operations* OSHA Oxygen Specifications 1910.420 (1)* NOAA Oxygen Specifications (appendix D)* U.S. Navy Oxygen Specifications U.S. MIL-STD-777E (SH) Note K-6-4, Cat.", "K.6* U.S. Coast Guard Oxygen Specifications Title 46: Shipping, revisions through 10-1-92.197.452 Oxygen Cleaning 46 CFR 197.451Much of the confusion appears to be a result of misapplying PVHO (pressure vessel for human occupancy) guidelines which prescribe a maximum ambient oxygen content of 25% when a human is sealed into a pressure vessel (chamber).", "The concern here is for a fire hazard to a living person who could be trapped in an oxygen-rich burning environment.Of the three commonly applied methods of producing enriched air mixes – continuous blending, partial pressure blending, and membrane separation systems – only partial pressure blending would require the valve and cylinder components to be oxygen cleaned for mixtures with less than 40% oxygen.", "The other two methods ensure that the equipment is never subjected to greater than 40% oxygen content.In a fire, the pressure in a gas cylinder rises in direct proportion to its absolute temperature.", "If the internal pressure exceeds the mechanical limitations of the cylinder and there are no means to safely vent the pressurized gas to the atmosphere, the vessel will fail mechanically.", "If the vessel contents are ignitable or a contaminant is present this event may result in a \"fireball\".===Incorrect gas mix===Use of a gas mix that differs from the planned mix introduces an increased risk of decompression sickness or an increased risk of oxygen toxicity, depending on the error.", "It may be possible to simply recalculate the dive plan or set the dive computer accordingly, but in some cases the planned dive may not be practicable.Many training agencies such as PADI, CMAS, SSI and NAUI train their divers to personally check the oxygen percentage content of each nitrox cylinder before every dive.", "If the oxygen percentage deviates by more than 1% from the planned mix, the diver must either recalculate the dive plan with the actual mix, or else abort the dive to avoid increased risk of oxygen toxicity or decompression sickness.", "Under IANTD and ANDI rules for use of nitrox, which are followed by dive resorts around the world, filled nitrox cylinders are signed out personally in a blended gas records book, which contains, for each cylinder and fill, the cylinder number, the measured oxygen fraction by percentage, the calculated maximum operating depth for that mix, and the signature of the receiving diver, who should have personally measured the oxygen fraction before taking delivery.", "All of these steps reduce risk but increase complexity of operations as each diver must use the specific cylinder they have checked out.", "In South Africa, the national standard for handling and filling portable cylinders with pressurised gases (SANS 10019) requires that the cylinder be labelled with a sticker identifying the contents as nitrox, and specifying the oxygen fraction.", "Similar requirements may apply in other countries." ], [ "History", "In 1874, Henry Fleuss made what was possibly the first Nitrox dive using a rebreather.In 1911, Draeger of Germany tested an injector operated rebreather backpack for a standard diving suit.", "This concept was produced and marketed as the DM20 oxygen rebreather system and the DM40 nitrox rebreather system, in which air from one cylinder and oxygen from a second cylinder were mixed during injection through a nozzle which circulated the breathing gas through the scrubber and the rest of the loop.", "The DM40 was rated for depths up to 40m.Christian J. Lambertsen proposed calculations for nitrogen addition to prevent oxygen toxicity in divers utilizing nitrogen–oxygen rebreather diving.In World War II or soon after, British commando frogmen and clearance divers started occasionally diving with oxygen rebreathers adapted for semi-closed-circuit nitrox (which they called \"mixture\") diving by fitting larger cylinders and carefully setting the gas flow rate using a flow meter.", "These developments were kept secret until independently duplicated by civilians in the 1960s.Lambertson published a paper on nitrox in 1947.In the 1950s, the United States Navy (USN) documented enriched oxygen gas procedures for military use of what we today call nitrox, in the US Navy Diving Manual.In 1955, E. Lanphier described the use of nitrogen–oxygen diving mixtures, and the equivalent air depth method for calculating decompression from air tables.In the 1960s, A. Galerne used on-line blending for commercial diving.In 1970, Morgan Wells, who was the first director of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Diving Center, began instituting diving procedures for oxygen-enriched air.", "He introduced the concept of Equivalent Air Depth (EAD).", "He also developed a process for mixing oxygen and air which he called a continuous blending system.", "For many years Wells' invention was the only practical alternative to partial pressure blending.", "In 1979 NOAA published Wells' procedures for the scientific use of nitrox in the NOAA Diving Manual.In 1985 Dick Rutkowski, a former NOAA diving safety officer, formed IAND (International Association of Nitrox Divers) and began teaching nitrox use for recreational diving.", "This was considered dangerous by some, and met with heavy skepticism by the diving community.In 1989, the Harbor Branch Oceanographic institution workshop addressed blending, oxygen limits and decompression issues.In 1991, Bove, Bennett and ''Skin Diver'' magazine took a stand against nitrox use for recreational diving.", "''Skin Diver'' editor Bill Gleason dubbed nitrox the \"Voodoo Gas\".", "The annual DEMA show (held in Houston, Texas that year) banned nitrox training providers from the show.", "This caused a backlash, and when DEMA relented, a number of organizations took the opportunity to present nitrox workshops outside the show.In 1992, the Scuba Diving Resources Group organised a workshop where some guidelines were established, and some misconceptions addressed.In 1992, BSAC banned its members from using nitrox during BSAC activities.", "IAND's name was changed to the International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD), the T being added when the European Association of Technical Divers (EATD) merged with IAND.", "In the early 1990s, these agencies were teaching nitrox, but the main scuba agencies were not.", "Additional new organizations, including the American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI) – which invented the term \"Safe Air\" for marketing purposes – and Technical Diving International (TDI) were begun.", "NAUI became the first existing major recreational diver training agency to sanction nitrox.In 1993, the Sub-Aqua Association was the first UK recreational diving training agency to acknowledge and endorse the Nitrox training their members had undertaken with one of the tech agencies.", "The SAA's first recreational Nitrox qualification was issued in April 1993.The SAA's first Nitrox instructor was Vic Bonfante and he was certified in September 1993.Meanwhile, diving stores were finding a purely economic reason to offer nitrox: not only was an entire new course and certification needed to use it, but instead of cheap or free tank fills with compressed air, dive shops found they could charge premium amounts of money for custom-gas blending of nitrox to their ordinary, moderately experienced divers.", "With the new dive computers which could be programmed to allow for the longer bottom-times and shorter residual nitrogen times that nitrox gave, the incentive for the sport diver to use the gas increased.In 1993, ''Skin Diver'' magazine, the leading recreational diving publication at the time, published a three-part series arguing that nitrox was unsafe for sport divers.", "DiveRite manufactured the first nitrox-compatible dive computer, called the Bridge, the aquaCorps TEK93 conference was held in San Francisco, and a practicable oil limit of 0.1 mg/m3 for oxygen compatible air was set.", "The Canadian armed forces issued EAD tables with an upper PO2 of 1.5 ATA.In 1994, John Lamb and Vandagraph launched the first oxygen analyser built specifically for Nitrox and mixed-gas divers, at the Birmingham Dive Show.In 1994, BSAC reversed its policy on Nitrox and announced BSAC nitrox training to start in 1995.In 1996, the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) announced full educational support for nitrox.", "While other mainline scuba organizations had announced their support of nitrox earlier, it was PADI's endorsement that established nitrox as a standard recreational diving option.In 1997, ProTec started with Nitrox 1 (recreational) and Nitrox 2 (technical).", "A German ProTec Nitrox manual (ref to the 6th edition) has been published.In 1999, a survey by R.W.", "Hamilton showed that over hundreds of thousands of nitrox dives, the DCS record is good.", "Nitrox had become popular with recreational divers, but not used much by commercial divers who tend to use surface supplied breathing apparatus.", "The OSHA accepted a petition for a variance from the commercial diving regulations for recreational scuba instructors.The 2001 edition of the ''NOAA Diving Manual'' included a chapter intended for Nitrox training." ], [ "In nature", "At times in the geological past, the Earth's atmosphere contained much more than 20% oxygen: e.g.", "up to 35% in the Upper Carboniferous period.", "This let animals absorb oxygen more easily and influenced their evolutionary patterns." ], [ "See also", "*Other *************Methods of ********" ], [ "References" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "External links", "* NASA – Safety Standards for Oxygen and Oxygen Handling" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erik Satie" ], [ "Introduction", "Satie in 1920 by alt=Elderly white man, balding, with neat moustache and beard, in formal daywear with wing collar and dark necktie.", "He is wearing pince-nez glasses'''Eric Alfred Leslie Satie''' (17 May 18661 July 1925), who signed his name '''Erik Satie''' after 1884, was a French composer and pianist.", "He was the son of a French father and a British mother.", "He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, but was an undistinguished student and obtained no diploma.", "In the 1880s he worked as a pianist in café-cabaret in Montmartre, Paris, and began composing works, mostly for solo piano, such as his ''Gymnopédies'' and ''Gnossiennes''.", "He also wrote music for a Rosicrucian sect to which he was briefly attached.After a spell in which he composed little, Satie entered Paris's second music academy, the Schola Cantorum, as a mature student.", "His studies there were more successful than those at the Conservatoire.", "From about 1910 he became the focus of successive groups of young composers attracted by his unconventionality and originality.", "Among them were the group known as Les Six.", "A meeting with Jean Cocteau in 1915 led to the creation of the ballet ''Parade'' (1917) for Serge Diaghilev, with music by Satie, sets and costumes by Pablo Picasso, and choreography by Léonide Massine.Satie's example guided a new generation of French composers away from post-Wagnerian impressionism towards a sparer, terser style.", "Among those influenced by him during his lifetime were Maurice Ravel, Claude Debussy, and Francis Poulenc, and he is seen as an influence on more recent, minimalist composers such as John Cage and John Adams.", "His harmony is often characterised by unresolved chords, he sometimes dispensed with bar-lines, as in his ''Gnossiennes'', and his melodies are generally simple and often reflect his love of old church music.", "He gave some of his later works absurd titles, such as ''Veritables Preludes flasques (pour un chien)'' (\"True Flabby Preludes (for a Dog)\", 1912), ''Croquis et agaceries d'un gros bonhomme en bois'' (\"Sketches and Exasperations of a Big Wooden Man\", 1913) and ''Sonatine bureaucratique'' (\"Bureaucratic Sonatina\", 1917).", "Most of his works are brief, and the majority are for solo piano.", "Exceptions include his \"symphonic drama\" ''Socrate'' (1919) and two late ballets ''Mercure'' and ''Relâche'' (1924).Satie never married, and his home for most of his adult life was a single small room, first in Montmartre and, from 1898 to his death, in Arcueil, a suburb of Paris.", "He adopted various images over the years, including a period in quasi-priestly dress, another in which he always wore identically coloured velvet suits, and is known for his last persona, in neat bourgeois costume, with bowler hat, wing collar, and umbrella.", "He was a lifelong heavy drinker, and died of cirrhosis of the liver at the age of 59." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early years===Satie's birthplace and childhood home, now a museum in Honfleur, Normandy Satie was born on 17 May 1866 in Honfleur, Normandy, the first child of Alfred Satie and his wife Jane Leslie (''née'' Anton).", "Jane Satie was an English Protestant of Scottish descent; Alfred Satie, a shipping broker, was a Roman Catholic anglophobe.", "A year later, the Saties had a daughter, Olga, and in 1869 a second son, Conrad.", "The children were baptised in the Anglican church.After the Franco-Prussian War, Alfred Satie sold his business and the family moved to Paris, where he eventually set up as a music publisher.", "In 1872 Jane Satie died and Eric and his brother were sent back to Honfleur to be brought up by Alfred's parents.", "The boys were rebaptised as Roman Catholics and educated at a local boarding school, where Satie excelled in history and Latin but nothing else.", "In 1874 he began taking music lessons with a local organist, Gustave Vinot, a former pupil of Louis Niedermeyer.", "Vinot stimulated Satie's love of old church music, and in particular Gregorian chant.In 1878 Satie's grandmother died, and the two boys returned to Paris to be informally educated by their father.", "Satie did not attend a school, but his father took him to lectures at the and engaged a tutor to teach Eric Latin and Greek.", "Before the boys returned to Paris from Honfleur, Alfred had met a piano teacher and salon composer, Eugénie Barnetche, whom he married in January 1879, to the dismay of the twelve-year-old Satie, who did not like her.Eugénie Satie resolved that her elder stepson should become a professional musician, and in November 1879 enrolled him in the preparatory piano class at the Paris Conservatoire.", "Satie strongly disliked the Conservatoire, which he described as \"a vast, very uncomfortable, and rather ugly building; a sort of district prison with no beauty on the inside – nor on the outside, for that matter\".", "He studied solfeggio with Albert Lavignac and piano with Émile Decombes, who had been a pupil of Frédéric Chopin.", "In 1880 Satie took his first examinations as a pianist: he was described as \"gifted but indolent\".", "The following year Decombes called him \"the laziest student in the Conservatoire\".", "In 1882 he was expelled from the Conservatoire for his unsatisfactory performance.", "Satie in 1884In 1884 Satie wrote his first known composition, a short Allegro for piano, written while on holiday in Honfleur.", "He signed himself \"Erik\" on this and subsequent compositions, though continuing to use \"Eric\" on other documents until 1906.In 1885, he was readmitted to the Conservatoire, in the intermediate piano class of his stepmother's former teacher, Georges Mathias.", "He made little progress: Mathias described his playing as \"Insignificant and laborious\" and Satie himself \"Worthless.", "Three months just to learn the piece.", "Cannot sight-read properly\".", "Satie became fascinated by aspects of religion.", "He spent much time in Notre-Dame de Paris contemplating the stained glass windows and in the National Library examining obscure medieval manuscripts.", "His friend Alphonse Allais later dubbed him \"Esotérik Satie\".", "From this period comes ''Ogives'', a set of four piano pieces inspired by Gregorian chant and Gothic church architecture.Keen to leave the Conservatoire, Satie volunteered for military service, and joined the 33rd Infantry Regiment in November 1886.He quickly found army life no more to his liking than the Conservatoire, and deliberately contracted acute bronchitis by standing in the open, bare-chested, on a winter night.", "After three months' convalescence he was invalided out of the army.===Montmartre===In 1887, at the age of 21, Satie moved from his father's residence to lodgings in the 9th arrondissement.", "By this time he had started what was to be an enduring friendship with the romantic poet Contamine de Latour, whose verse he set in some of his early compositions, which Satie senior published.", "His lodgings were close to the popular cabaret on the southern edge of Montmartre where he became an habitué and then a resident pianist.", "The Chat Noir was known as the \"temple de la 'convention farfelue'\" – the temple of zany convention, and as the biographer Robert Orledge puts it, Satie, \"free from his restrictive upbringing … enthusiastically embraced the reckless bohemian lifestyle and created for himself a new persona as a long-haired man-about-town in frock coat and top hat\".", "This was the first of several personas that Satie invented for himself over the years.Satie by Santiago Rusiñol, 1890sIn the late 1880s Satie styled himself on at least one occasion \"Erik Satie – gymnopédiste\", and his works from this period include the three ''Gymnopédies'' (1888) and the first ''Gnossiennes'' (1889 and 1890).", "He earned a modest living as pianist and conductor at the Chat Noir, before falling out with the proprietor and moving to become second pianist at the nearby Auberge du Clou.", "There he became a close friend of Claude Debussy, who proved a kindred spirit in his experimental approach to composition.", "Both were bohemians, enjoying the same café society and struggling to survive financially.", "At the Auberge du Clou Satie first encountered the flamboyant, self-styled \"Sâr\" Joséphin Péladan, for whose mystic sect, the Ordre de la Rose-Croix Catholique du Temple et du Graal, he was appointed composer.", "This gave him scope for experiment, and Péladan's salons at the fashionable Galerie Durand-Ruel gained Satie his first public hearings.", "Frequently short of money, Satie moved from his lodgings in the 9th arrondissement to a small room in the rue Cortot not far from Sacre-Coeur, so high up the Butte Montmartre that he said he could see from his window all the way to the Belgian border.By mid-1892, Satie had composed the first pieces in a compositional system of his own making (''''), provided incidental music to a chivalric esoteric play (two ''''), had a hoax published (announcing the premiere of his non-existent '''', an anti-Wagnerian opera), and broken away from Péladan, starting that autumn with the \"''Uspud''\" project, a \"Christian Ballet\", in collaboration with Latour.", "He challenged the musical establishment by proposing himself – unsuccessfully – for the seat in the Académie des Beaux-Arts made vacant by the death of Ernest Guiraud.", "Between 1893 and 1895, Satie, affecting a quasi-priestly dress, was the founder and only member of the Eglise Métropolitaine d'Art de Jésus Conducteur.", "From his \"''Abbatiale''\" in the rue Cortot, he published scathing attacks on his artistic enemies.Suzanne Valadon, 1885In 1893 Satie had what is believed to be his only love affair, a five-month liaison with the painter Suzanne Valadon.", "After their first night together, he proposed marriage.", "The two did not marry, but Valadon moved to a room next to Satie's at the rue Cortot.", "Satie became obsessed with her, calling her his Biqui and writing impassioned notes about \"her whole being, lovely eyes, gentle hands, and tiny feet\".", "During their relationship Satie composed the ''Danses gothiques'' as a means of calming his mind, and Valadon painted his portrait, which she gave him.", "After five months she moved away, leaving him devastated.", "He said later that he was left with \"nothing but an icy loneliness that fills the head with emptiness and the heart with sadness\".In 1895 Satie attempted to change his image once again: this time to that of \"the Velvet Gentleman\".", "From the proceeds of a small legacy he bought seven identical dun-coloured suits.", "Orledge comments that this change \"marked the end of his Rose+Croix period and the start of a long search for a new artistic direction\".===Move to Arcueil===\"Les quatre cheminées\", alt=angled apartment block at intersection of two streetsIn 1898, in search of somewhere cheaper and quieter than Montmartre, Satie moved to a room in the southern suburbs, in the commune of Arcueil-Cachan, eight kilometres (five miles) from the centre of Paris.", "This remained his home for the rest of his life.", "No visitors were ever admitted.", "He joined a radical socialist party (he later switched his membership to the Communist Party), but adopted a thoroughly bourgeois image: the biographer Pierre-Daniel Templier, writes, \"With his umbrella and bowler hat, he resembled a quiet school teacher.", "Although a Bohemian, he looked very dignified, almost ceremonious\".Satie earned a living as a cabaret pianist, adapting more than a hundred compositions of popular music for piano or piano and voice, adding some of his own.", "The most popular of these were '''', text by Henry Pacory; '''', text by Vincent Hyspa; '''', a waltz; ''La Diva de l'Empire'', text by Dominique Bonnaud/Numa Blès; '''', a march; '''', text by Contamine de Latour (lost, but the music later reappears in ''''); and others.", "In his later years Satie rejected all his cabaret music as vile and against his nature.", "Only a few compositions that he took seriously remain from this period: ''Jack in the Box'', music to a pantomime by Jules Depaquit (called a \"\" by Satie); '''', a short comic opera to a text by \"Lord Cheminot\" (Latour); '''' (''The Dreamy Fish''), piano music to accompany a lost tale by Cheminot, and a few others that were mostly incomplete.", "Few were presented, and none published at the time.Debussy, d'Indy, Roussel, Ravel|alt=head and shoulders photographs of four white men, two neatly bearded, with full heads of hair, the third bald and neatly bearded, the fourth clean shaven with full head of hairA decisive change in Satie's musical outlook came after he heard the premiere of Debussy's opera ''Pelléas et Mélisande'' in 1902.He found it \"absolutely astounding\", and he re-evaluated his own music.", "In a determined attempt to improve his technique, and against Debussy's advice, he enrolled as a mature student at Paris's second main music academy, the Schola Cantorum in October 1905, continuing his studies there until 1912.The institution was run by Vincent d'Indy, who emphasised orthodox technique rather than creative originality.", "Satie studied counterpoint with Albert Roussel and composition with d'Indy, and was a much more conscientious and successful student than he had been at the Conservatoire in his youth.It was not until 1911, when he was in his mid-forties, that Satie came to the notice of the musical public in general.", "In January of that year Maurice Ravel played some early Satie works at a concert by the Société musicale indépendante, a forward-looking group set up by Ravel and others as a rival to the conservative Société nationale de musique.", "Satie was suddenly seen as \"the precursor and apostle of the musical revolution now taking place\"; he became a focus for young composers.", "Debussy, having orchestrated the first and third ''Gymnopédies'', conducted them in concert.", "The publisher Demets asked for new works from Satie, who was finally able to give up his cabaret work and devote himself to composition.", "Works such as the cycle ''Sports et divertissements'' (1914) were published in de luxe editions.", "The press began to write about Satie's music, and a leading pianist, Ricardo Viñes, took him up, giving celebrated first performances of some Satie pieces.bowler-hatted and formally dressed===Last years===Satie became the focus of successive groups of young composers, whom he first encouraged and then distanced himself from, sometimes rancorously, when their popularity threatened to eclipse his or they otherwise displeased him.", "First were the \"jeunes\" – those associated with Ravel – and then a group known at first as the \"nouveaux jeunes\", later called Les Six, including Georges Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, and Germaine Tailleferre, joined later by Francis Poulenc and Darius Milhaud.", "Satie dissociated himself from the second group in 1918, and in the 1920s he became the focal point of another set of young composers including Henri Cliquet-Pleyel, Roger Désormière, Maxime Jacob and Henri Sauguet, who became known as the \"Arcueil School\".", "In addition to turning against Ravel, Auric and Poulenc in particular, Satie quarrelled with his old friend Debussy in 1917, resentful of the latter's failure to appreciate the more recent Satie compositions.", "The rupture lasted for the remaining months of Debussy's life, and when he died the following year, Satie refused to attend the funeral.", "A few of his protégés escaped his displeasure, and Milhaud and Désormière were among those who remained friends with him to the last.Parade'', 1917 – music by Satie, décor by Picasso|alt=stage costume design in absurdist style, with dancer almost invisible under costume representing a deputy managerThe First World War restricted concert-giving to some extent, but Orledge comments that the war years brought \"Satie's second lucky break\", when Jean Cocteau heard Viñes and Satie perform the ''Trois morceaux'' in 1916.This led to the commissioning of the ballet ''Parade'', premiered in 1917 by Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, with music by Satie, sets and costumes by Pablo Picasso, and choreography by Léonide Massine.", "This was a ''succès de scandale'', with jazz rhythms and instrumentation including parts for typewriter, steamship whistle and siren.", "It firmly established Satie's name before the public, and thereafter his career centred on the theatre, writing mainly to commission.In October 1916 Satie received a commission from the Princesse de Polignac that resulted in what Orledge rates as the composer's masterpiece, ''Socrate'', two years later.", "Satie set translations from Plato's Dialogues as a \"symphonic drama\".", "Its composition was interrupted in 1917 by a libel suit brought against him by a music critic, Jean Poueigh, which nearly resulted in a jail sentence for Satie.", "When ''Socrate'' was premiered, Satie called it \"a return to classical simplicity with a modern sensibility\", and among those who admired the work was Igor Stravinsky, a composer whom Satie regarded with awe.In his later years Satie became known for his prose.", "He was in demand as a journalist, making contributions to the ''Revue musicale'', ''Action'', ''L'Esprit nouveau'', the ''Paris-Journal'' and other publications from the Dadaist ''391'' to the English-language magazines ''Vanity Fair'' and ''The Transatlantic Review''.", "As he contributed anonymously or under pen names to some publications it is not certain how many titles he wrote for, but ''Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians'' lists 25.Satie's habit of embellishing the scores of his compositions with all kinds of written remarks became so established that he had to insist that they must not be read out during performances.In 1920 there was a festival of Satie's music at the Salle Erard in Paris.", "In 1924 the ballets ''Mercure'' (with choreography by Massine and décor by Picasso) and ''Relâche'' (\"Cancelled\") (in collaboration with Francis Picabia and René Clair), both provoked headlines with their first night scandals.", "alt=older version of Satie images reproduced aboveDespite being a musical iconoclast, and encourager of modernism, Satie was uninterested to the point of antipathy about innovations such as the telephone, the gramophone and the radio.", "He made no recordings, and as far as is known heard only a single radio broadcast (of Milhaud's music) and made only one telephone call.", "Although his personal appearance was customarily immaculate, his room at Arcueil was in Orledge's word \"squalid\", and after his death the scores of several important works believed lost were found among the accumulated rubbish.", "He was incompetent with money.", "Having depended to a considerable extent on the generosity of friends in his early years, he was little better off when he began to earn a good income from his compositions, as he spent or gave away money as soon as he received it.", "He liked children, and they liked him, but his relations with adults were seldom straightforward.", "One of his last collaborators, Picabia, said of him:Throughout his adult life Satie was a heavy drinker, and in 1925 his health collapsed.", "He was taken to the Hôpital Saint-Joseph in Paris, diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver.", "He died there at 8.00 p.m. on 1 July, at the age of 59.He was buried in the cemetery at Arcueil." ], [ "Works", "===Music===In the view of the ''Oxford Dictionary of Music'', Satie's importance lay in \"directing a new generation of French composers away from Wagner‐influenced impressionism towards a leaner, more epigrammatic style\".", "Debussy christened him \"the precursor\" because of his early harmonic innovations.", "Satie summed up his musical philosophy in 1917:alt=musical score with simple, slow music for solo pianoAmong his earliest compositions were sets of three ''Gymnopédies'' (1888) and his ''Gnossiennes'' (1889 onwards) for piano.", "They evoke the ancient world by what the critics Roger Nichols and Paul Griffiths describe as \"pure simplicity, monotonous repetition, and highly original modal harmonies\".It is possible that their simplicity and originality were influenced by Debussy; it is also possible that it was Satie who influenced Debussy.", "During the brief spell when Satie was composer to Péladan's sect he adopted a similarly austere manner.While Satie was earning his living as a café pianist in Montmartre he contributed songs and little waltzes.", "After moving to Arcueil he began to write works with quirky titles, such as the seven-movement suite ''Trois morceaux en forme de poire'' (\"Three Pear-shaped Pieces\") for piano four-hands (1903), simply-phrased music that Nichols and Griffiths describe as \"a résumé of his music since 1890\" – reusing some of his earlier work as well as popular songs of the time.", "He struggled to find his own musical voice.", "Orledge writes that this was partly because of his \"trying to ape his illustrious peers … we find bits of Ravel in his miniature opera ''Geneviève de Brabant'' and echoes of both Fauré and Debussy in the ''Nouvelles pièces froides'' of 1907\".After concluding his studies at the Schola Cantorum in 1912 Satie composed with greater confidence and more prolifically.", "Orchestration, despite his studies with d'Indy, was never his strongest suit, but his grasp of counterpoint is evident in the opening bars of ''Parade'', and from the outset of his composing career he had original and distinctive ideas about harmony.", "In his later years he composed sets of short instrumental works with absurd titles, including ''Veritables Preludes flasques (pour un chien)'' (\"True Flabby Preludes (for a Dog)\", 1912), ''Croquis et agaceries d'un gros bonhomme en bois'' (\"Sketches and Exasperations of a Big Wooden Man\", 1913) and ''Sonatine bureaucratique'' (\"Bureaucratic Sonata\", 1917).", "Manuscript of ''alt=neatly written manuscript of musical score, with careful, calligraphic letters in red inkIn his neat, calligraphic hand, Satie would write extensive instructions for his performers, and although his words appear at first sight to be humorous and deliberately nonsensical, Nichols and Griffiths comment, \"a sensitive pianist can make much of injunctions such as 'arm yourself with clairvoyance' and 'with the end of your thought'\".", "His ''Sonatine bureaucratique'' anticipates the neoclassicism soon adopted by Stravinsky.", "Despite his rancorous falling out with Debussy, Satie commemorated his long-time friend in 1920, two years after Debussy's death, in the anguished \"Elégie\", the first of the miniature song cycle ''Quatre petites mélodies''.", "Orledge rates the cycle as the finest, though least known, of the four sets of short songs of Satie's last decade.Satie invented what he called ''Musique d'ameublement'' – \"furniture music\" – a kind of background not to be listened to consciously.", "''Cinéma'', composed for the René Clair film ''Entr'acte'', shown between the acts of ''Relâche'' (1924), is an example of early film music designed to be unconsciously absorbed rather than carefully listened to.Satie is regarded by some writers as an influence on minimalism, which developed in the 1960s and later.", "The musicologist Mark Bennett and the composer Humphrey Searle have said that John Cage's music shows Satie's influence, and Searle and the writer Edward Strickland have used the term \"minimalism\" in connection with Satie's ''Vexations'', which the composer implied in his manuscript should be played over and over again 840 times.", "John Adams included a specific homage to Satie's music in his 1996 ''Century Rolls''.===Writings===Satie's grave bearing a white cross in Arcueil, to the south of Paris.Satie wrote extensively for the press, but unlike his professional colleagues such as Debussy and Dukas he did not write primarily as a music critic.", "Much of his writing is connected to music tangentially if at all.", "His biographer Caroline Potter describes him as \"an experimental creative writer, a ''blagueur'' who provoked, mystified and amused his readers\".", "He wrote ''jeux d'esprit'' claiming to eat dinner in four minutes with a diet of exclusively white food (including bones and fruit mould), or to drink boiled wine mixed with fuchsia juice, or to be woken by a servant hourly throughout the night to have his temperature taken; he wrote in praise of Beethoven's non-existent but \"sumptuous\" Tenth Symphony, and the family of instruments known as the cephalophones, \"which have a compass of thirty octaves and are absolutely unplayable\".Satie grouped some of these writings under the general headings ''Cahiers d'un mammifère'' (A Mammal's Notebook) and ''Mémoires d'un amnésique'' (Memoirs of an Amnesiac), indicating, as Potter comments, that \"these are not autobiographical writings in the conventional manner\".", "He claimed the major influence on his humour was Oliver Cromwell, adding \"I also owe much to Christopher Columbus, because the American spirit has occasionally tapped me on the shoulder and I have been delighted to feel its ironically glacial bite\".His published writings include:* ''A Mammal's Notebook: Collected Writings of Erik Satie'' (Serpent's Tail; Atlas Arkhive, No 5, 1997) (with introduction and notes by Ornella Volta, translations by Anthony Melville, contains several drawings by Satie)* '''' (Paris: Fayard/Imes, 2000; 1265 pages) (an almost complete edition of Satie's letters, in French)* Nigel Wilkins, ''The Writings of Erik Satie'', London, 1980." ], [ "Notes, references and sources", "===Notes======References======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * · * * ** * * * * ===Further reading===* * Revised edition of 1958 book." ], [ "External links", "* * * \"Maisons Satie\" – Satie birthplace museum, Honfleur." ] ]
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[ [ "Elliptic integral" ], [ "Introduction", "In integral calculus, an '''elliptic integral''' is one of a number of related functions defined as the value of certain integrals, which were first studied by Giulio Fagnano and Leonhard Euler ().", "Their name originates from their originally arising in connection with the problem of finding the arc length of an ellipse.Modern mathematics defines an \"elliptic integral\" as any function which can be expressed in the formwhere is a rational function of its two arguments, is a polynomial of degree 3 or 4 with no repeated roots, and is a constant.In general, integrals in this form cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions.", "Exceptions to this general rule are when has repeated roots, or when contains no odd powers of or if the integral is pseudo-elliptic.", "However, with the appropriate reduction formula, every elliptic integral can be brought into a form that involves integrals over rational functions and the three Legendre canonical forms (i.e.", "the elliptic integrals of the first, second and third kind).Besides the Legendre form given below, the elliptic integrals may also be expressed in Carlson symmetric form.", "Additional insight into the theory of the elliptic integral may be gained through the study of the Schwarz–Christoffel mapping.", "Historically, elliptic functions were discovered as inverse functions of elliptic integrals." ], [ "Argument notation", "''Incomplete elliptic integrals'' are functions of two arguments; ''complete elliptic integrals'' are functions of a single argument.", "These arguments are expressed in a variety of different but equivalent ways (they give the same elliptic integral).", "Most texts adhere to a canonical naming scheme, using the following naming conventions.For expressing one argument:* , the ''modular angle''* , the ''elliptic modulus'' or ''eccentricity''* , the ''parameter''Each of the above three quantities is completely determined by any of the others (given that they are non-negative).", "Thus, they can be used interchangeably.The other argument can likewise be expressed as , the ''amplitude'', or as or , where and is one of the Jacobian elliptic functions.Specifying the value of any one of these quantities determines the others.", "Note that also depends on .", "Some additional relationships involving includeThe latter is sometimes called the ''delta amplitude'' and written as .", "Sometimes the literature also refers to the ''complementary parameter'', the ''complementary modulus,'' or the ''complementary modular angle''.", "These are further defined in the article on quarter periods.In this notation, the use of a vertical bar as delimiter indicates that the argument following it is the \"parameter\" (as defined above), while the backslash indicates that it is the modular angle.", "The use of a semicolon implies that the argument preceding it is the sine of the amplitude:This potentially confusing use of different argument delimiters is traditional in elliptic integrals and much of the notation is compatible with that used in the reference book by Abramowitz and Stegun and that used in the integral tables by Gradshteyn and Ryzhik.There are still other conventions for the notation of elliptic integrals employed in the literature.", "The notation with interchanged arguments, , is often encountered; and similarly for the integral of the second kind.", "Abramowitz and Stegun substitute the integral of the first kind, , for the argument in their definition of the integrals of the second and third kinds, unless this argument is followed by a vertical bar: i.e.", "for .", "Moreover, their complete integrals employ the ''parameter'' as argument in place of the modulus , i.e.", "rather than .", "And the integral of the third kind defined by Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, , puts the amplitude first and not the \"characteristic\" .Thus one must be careful with the notation when using these functions, because various reputable references and software packages use different conventions in the definitions of the elliptic functions.", "For example, Wolfram's Mathematica software and Wolfram Alpha define the complete elliptic integral of the first kind in terms of the parameter , instead of the elliptic modulus ." ], [ "Incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind", "The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind''' is defined asThis is the trigonometric form of the integral; substituting and , one obtains the Legendre normal form:Equivalently, in terms of the amplitude and modular angle one has:With one has:demonstrating that this Jacobian elliptic function is a simple inverse of the incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind.The incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind has following addition theorem:The elliptic modulus can be transformed that way:" ], [ "Incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind", "The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind''' in trigonometric form isSubstituting and , one obtains the Legendre normal form:Equivalently, in terms of the amplitude and modular angle:Relations with the Jacobi elliptic functions includeThe meridian arc length from the equator to latitude is written in terms of :where is the semi-major axis, and is the eccentricity.The incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind has following addition theorem:The elliptic modulus can be transformed that way:" ], [ "Incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind", "The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind''' is orThe number is called the '''characteristic''' and can take on any value, independently of the other arguments.", "Note though that the value is infinite, for any .A relation with the Jacobian elliptic functions isThe meridian arc length from the equator to latitude is also related to a special case of :" ], [ "Complete elliptic integral of the first kind", "Plot of the complete elliptic integral of the first kind Elliptic Integrals are said to be 'complete' when the amplitude and therefore .", "The '''complete elliptic integral of the first kind''' may thus be defined asor more compactly in terms of the incomplete integral of the first kind asIt can be expressed as a power serieswhere is the Legendre polynomials, which is equivalent towhere denotes the double factorial.", "In terms of the Gauss hypergeometric function, the complete elliptic integral of the first kind can be expressed asThe complete elliptic integral of the first kind is sometimes called the quarter period.", "It can be computed very efficiently in terms of the arithmetic–geometric mean:Therefore the modulus can be transformed as:This expression is valid for all and :===Relation to the gamma function===If and (where is the modular lambda function), then is expressible in closed form in terms of the gamma function.", "For example, , and give, respectively,andandMore generally, the condition thatbe in an imaginary quadratic field is sufficient.", "For instance, if , then and===Relation to Jacobi theta function===The relation to Jacobi's theta function is given by where the nome is===Asymptotic expressions===This approximation has a relative precision better than for .", "Keeping only the first two terms is correct to 0.01 precision for .===Differential equation===The differential equation for the elliptic integral of the first kind isA second solution to this equation is .", "This solution satisfies the relation===Continued fraction===A continued fraction expansion is: where the nome is in its definition." ], [ "Complete elliptic integral of the second kind", "Plot of the complete elliptic integral of the second kind The '''complete elliptic integral of the second kind''' is defined asor more compactly in terms of the incomplete integral of the second kind asFor an ellipse with semi-major axis and semi-minor axis and eccentricity , the complete elliptic integral of the second kind is equal to one quarter of the circumference of the ellipse measured in units of the semi-major axis .", "In other words:The complete elliptic integral of the second kind can be expressed as a power serieswhich is equivalent toIn terms of the Gauss hypergeometric function, the complete elliptic integral of the second kind can be expressed asThe modulus can be transformed that way:===Computation===Like the integral of the first kind, the complete elliptic integral of the second kind can be computed very efficiently using the arithmetic–geometric mean.Define sequences and , where , and the recurrence relations , hold.", "Furthermore, defineBy definition,AlsoThenIn practice, the arithmetic-geometric mean would simply be computed up to some limit.", "This formula converges quadratically for all .", "To speed up computation further, the relation can be used.Furthermore, if and (where is the modular lambda function), then is expressible in closed form in terms ofand hence can be computed without the need for the infinite summation term.", "For example, , and give, respectively,andand===Derivative and differential equation===A second solution to this equation is ." ], [ "Complete elliptic integral of the third kind", "Plot of the complete elliptic integral of the third kind with several fixed values of The '''complete elliptic integral of the third kind''' can be defined asNote that sometimes the elliptic integral of the third kind is defined with an inverse sign for the ''characteristic'' ,Just like the complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind, the complete elliptic integral of the third kind can be computed very efficiently using the arithmetic-geometric mean.===Partial derivatives===" ], [ "Jacobi zeta function", "In 1829, Jacobi defined the '''Jacobi zeta function''':It is periodic in with minimal period .", "It is related to the Jacobi zn function by .", "In the literature (e.g.", "Whittaker and Watson (1927)), sometimes means Wikipedia's .", "Some authors (e.g.", "King (1924)) use for both Wikipedia's and ." ], [ "Legendre's relation", "The Legendre's relation or ''Legendre Identity'' shows the relation of the integrals K and E of an elliptic modulus and its anti-related counterpart in an integral equation of second degree:For two modules that are Pythagorean counterparts to each other, this relation is valid:For example:: And for two modules that are tangential counterparts to each other, the following relationship is valid:: For example:: The Legendre's relation for tangential modular counterparts results directly from the Legendre's identity for Pythagorean modular counterparts by using the Landen modular transformation on the Pythagorean counter modulus.=== Special identity for the lemniscatic case ===For the lemniscatic case, the elliptic modulus or specific eccentricity ε is equal to half the square root of two.", "Legendre's identity for the lemniscatic case can be proved as follows:According to the Chain rule these derivatives hold:: : By using the Fundamental theorem of calculus these formulas can be generated:: : The Linear combination of the two now mentioned integrals leads to the following formula:: : By forming the original antiderivative related to x from the function now shown using the Product rule this formula results:: : If the value is inserted in this integral identity, then the following identity emerges:: : This is how this lemniscatic excerpt from Legendre's identity appears:: === Generalization for the overall case ===Now the modular general case is worked out.", "For this purpose, the derivatives of the complete elliptic integrals are derived after the modulus and then they are combined.", "And then the Legendre's identity balance is determined.Because the derivative of the ''circle function'' is the negative product of the ''identical mapping function'' and the reciprocal of the circle function:: These are the derivatives of K and E shown in this article in the sections above:: : In combination with the derivative of the circle function these derivatives are valid then:: : Legendre's identity includes products of any two complete elliptic integrals.", "For the derivation of the function side from the equation scale of Legendre's identity, the Product rule is now applied in the following:: : : Of these three equations, adding the top two equations and subtracting the bottom equation gives this result:: In relation to the the equation balance constantly gives the value zero.The previously determined result shall be combined with the Legendre equation to the modulus that is worked out in the section before:: The combination of the last two formulas gives the following result:: Because if the derivative of a continuous function constantly takes the value zero, then the concerned function is a constant function.", "This means that this function results in the same function value for each abscissa value and the associated function graph is therefore a horizontal straight line." ], [ "See also", "* Elliptic curve* Schwarz–Christoffel mapping* Carlson symmetric form* Jacobi's elliptic functions* Weierstrass's elliptic functions* Jacobi theta function* Ramanujan theta function* Arithmetic–geometric mean* Pendulum period* Meridian arc" ], [ "References", "===Notes======References======Sources===******* ***" ], [ "External links", "** Eric W. Weisstein, \"Elliptic Integral\" (Mathworld)* Matlab code for elliptic integrals evaluation by elliptic project* Rational Approximations for Complete Elliptic Integrals (Exstrom Laboratories)* A Brief History of Elliptic Integral Addition Theorems" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epistle to the Romans" ], [ "Introduction", "Romans 4:23–5:3 on uncial 0220 (''recto''; )The '''Epistle to the Romans''' is the sixth book in the New Testament, and the longest of the thirteen Pauline epistles.", "Biblical scholars agree that it was composed by Paul the Apostle to explain that salvation is offered through the gospel of Jesus Christ.Romans was likely written while Paul was staying in the house of Gaius in Corinth.", "The epistle was probably transcribed by Paul's amanuensis Tertius and is dated AD late 55 to early 57.Consisting of 16 chapters, versions with only the first 14 or 15 chapters circulated early.", "Some of these recensions lacked all reference to the original audience of Christians in Rome making it very general in nature.", "Other textual variants include subscripts explicitly mentioning Corinth as the place of composition and name Phoebe, a deacon of the church in Cenchreae, as the messenger who took the epistle to Rome.Prior to composing the epistle, Paul had evangelized the areas surrounding the Aegean Sea and was eager to take the gospel farther to Spain, a journey that would allow him to visit Rome on the way.", "The epistle can consequentially be understood as a document outlining his reasons for the trip and preparing the church in Rome for his visit.", "Christians in Rome would have been of both Jewish and Gentile background and it is possible that the church suffered from internal strife between these two groups.", "Paul – a Hellenistic Jew and former Pharisee – shifts his argument to cater to both audiences and the church as a whole.", "Because the work contains material intended both for specific recipients as well as the general Christian public in Rome, scholars have had difficulty categorizing it as either a private letter or a public epistle.Although sometimes considered a treatise of (systematic) theology, Romans remains silent on many issues that Paul addresses elsewhere, but is nonetheless generally considered substantial, especially on justification and salvation.", "Proponents of both ''sola fide'' and the Roman Catholic position of the necessity of both faith and works find support in Romans.", "Martin Luther in his translation of the Bible controversially added the word \"alone\" ( in German) to Romans so that it read: \"thus, we hold, then, that man is justified without doing the works of the law, through faith\"." ], [ "General presentation", "In the opinion of Jesuit biblical scholar Joseph Fitzmyer, the book \"overwhelms the reader by the density and sublimity of the topic with which it deals, the gospel of the justification and salvation of Jew and Greek alike by the grace of God through faith in Jesus Christ, revealing the uprightness and love of God the Father.", "\"Anglican bishop N. T. Wright notes that Romans is:" ], [ "Authorship and dating", "The scholarly consensus is that Paul wrote the Epistle to the Romans.", "C. E. B. Cranfield, in the introduction to his commentary on Romans, says:A 17th-century depiction of Paul writing his epistles.", "Romans 16:22 indicates that Tertius acted as his amanuensis.", "The letter was most probably written while Paul was in Corinth, probably while he was staying in the house of Gaius, and transcribed by Tertius, his amanuensis.", "There are a number of reasons why Corinth is considered most plausible.", "Paul was about to travel to Jerusalem on writing the letter, which matches Acts where it is reported that Paul stayed for three months in Greece.", "This probably implies Corinth as it was the location of Paul's greatest missionary success in Greece.", "Additionally, Phoebe was a deacon of the church in Cenchreae, a port to the east of Corinth, and would have been able to convey the letter to Rome after passing through Corinth and taking a ship from Corinth's west port.", "Erastus, mentioned in Romans 16:23, also lived in Corinth, being the city's commissioner for public works and city treasurer at various times, again indicating that the letter was written in Corinth.The precise time at which it was written is not mentioned in the epistle, but it was obviously written when the collection for Jerusalem had been assembled and Paul was about to \"go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the saints\", that is, at the close of his second visit to Greece, during the winter preceding his last visit to that city.", "The majority of scholars writing on Romans propose the letter was written in late 55/early 56 or late 56/early 57.Early 55 and early 58 both have some support, while German New Testament scholar Gerd Lüdemann argues for a date as early as 51/52 (or 54/55), following on from Knox, who proposed 53/54.Lüdemann is the only serious challenge to the consensus of mid to late 50s." ], [ "Textual variants", "=== Fourteen-chapter form ===There is strong, albeit indirect, evidence that a recension of Romans that lacked chapters 15 and 16 was widely used in the western half of the Roman Empire until the mid-4th century.", "This conclusion is partially based on the fact that a variety of Church Fathers, such as Origen and Tertullian, refer to a fourteen-chapter edition of Romans, either directly or indirectly.", "The fact that Paul's doxology is placed in various different places in different manuscripts of Romans only strengthens the case for an early fourteen-chapter recension.", "While there is some uncertainty, Harry Gamble concludes that the canonical sixteen-chapter recension is likely the earlier version of the text.The Codex Boernerianus lacks the explicit references to the Roman church as the audience of the epistle found in Romans 1:7 and 1:15.There is evidence from patristic commentaries indicating that Boernarianus is not unique in this regard; many early, no longer extant manuscripts also lacked an explicit Roman addressee in chapter 1.It is notable that, when this textual variant is combined with the omission of chapters 15 and 16, there is no longer any clear reference to the Roman church throughout the entire epistle.", "Harry Gamble speculates that 1:7, 1:15, and chapters 15 and 16 may have been removed by a scribe in order to make the epistle more suitable for a \"general\" audience.=== Fifteen-chapter form ===It is quite possible that a fifteen-chapter form of Romans, omitting chapter 16, may have existed at an early date.", "Several scholars have argued, largely on the basis of internal evidence, that Chapter 16 represents a separate letter of Paul – possibly addressed to Ephesus – that was later appended to Romans.There are a few different arguments for this conclusion.", "First of all, there is a concluding peace benediction at 15:33, which reads like the other Pauline benedictions that conclude their respective letters.", "Secondly, Paul greets a large number of people and families in chapter 16, in a way that suggests he was already familiar with them, whereas the material of chapters 1–15 presupposes that Paul has never met anyone from the Roman church.", "The fact that Papyrus 46 places Paul's doxology at the end of chapter 15 can also be interpreted as evidence for the existence of a fifteen-chapter recension of the epistle.=== Subscript ===Some manuscripts have a subscript at the end of the Epistle:* (\"to the Romans\") is found in these manuscripts: Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus, Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Claromontanus;* (\"to the Romans it was written from Corinth\"): B, D (P);* (\"to the Romans it was written from Corinth by Phoebus the deacon\"): 42, 90, 216, 339, 462, 466*, 642;* (\"the epistle to the Romans was written by Tertius and was sent by Phoebus from the Corinthians of the church in Cenchreae\"): only in 337;* (\"to the Romans it was written from Corinth by Phoebus the deacon of the church in Cenchreae\"): 101, 241, 460, 466, 469, 602, 603, 605, 618, 1923, 1924, 1927, 1932, followed by Textus Receptus." ], [ "Paul's life in relation to his epistle", "Saint Paul arrested by the RomansFor ten years before writing the letter ( AD), Paul had traveled around the territories bordering the Aegean Sea evangelizing.", "Churches had been planted in the Roman provinces of Galatia, Macedonia, Achaia and Asia.", "Paul, considering his task complete, wanted to preach the gospel in Spain, where he would not \"build upon another man's foundation\".", "This allowed him to visit Rome on the way, a long-time ambition of his.", "The letter to the Romans, in part, prepares them and gives reasons for his visit.In addition to Paul's geographic location, his religious views are important.", "First, Paul was a Hellenistic Jew with a Pharisaic background (see Gamaliel), integral to his identity (see Paul the Apostle and Judaism).", "His concern for his people is one part of the dialogue and runs throughout the letter.", "Second, the other side of the dialogue is Paul's conversion and calling to follow Christ in the early 30s." ], [ "The churches in Rome", "Papyrus, Oxyrhynchus, Egypt: 6th century – Epistle to the Romans 1:1–16The most probable ancient account of the beginning of Christianity in Rome is given by a 4th-century writer known as Ambrosiaster:From Adam Clarke:At this time, the Jews made up a substantial number in Rome, and their synagogues, frequented by many, enabled the Gentiles to become acquainted with the story of Jesus of Nazareth.", "Consequently, churches composed of both Jews and Gentiles were formed at Rome.", "According to Irenaeus, a 2nd-century Church Father, the church at Rome was founded directly by the apostles Peter and Paul.", "However, many modern scholars disagree with Irenaeus, holding that while little is known of the circumstances of the church's founding, it was not founded by Paul:The large number of names in Romans 16:3–15 of those then in Rome, and verses 5, 15 and 16, indicate there was more than one church assembly or company of believers in Rome.", "Verse 5 mentions a church that met in the house of Aquila and Priscilla.", "Verses 14 and 15 each mention groupings of believers and saints.Jews were expelled from Rome because of disturbances around AD 49 by the edict of Claudius.", "Fitzmyer claims that both Jews and Jewish Christians were expelled as a result of their infighting.", "Claudius died around the year AD 54, and his successor, Emperor Nero, allowed the Jews back into Rome, but then, after the Great Fire of Rome of 64, Christians were persecuted.", "Fitzmyer argues that with the return of the Jews to Rome in 54 new conflict arose between the Gentile Christians and the Jewish Christians who had formerly been expelled.", "He also argues that this may be what Paul is referring to when he talks about the \"strong\" and the \"weak\" in Romans 15; this theory was originally put forth by W. Marxsen in ''Introduction to the New Testament: An Approach to its problems'' (1968) but is critiqued and modified by Fitzmyer.", "Fitzmyer's main contention is that Paul seems to be purposefully vague.", "Paul could have been more specific if he wanted to address this problem specifically.", "Keck thinks Gentile Christians may have developed a dislike of or looked down on Jews (see also Antisemitism and Responsibility for the death of Jesus), because they theologically rationalized that Jews were no longer God's people." ], [ "Style", "Scholars often have difficulty assessing whether Romans is a letter or an epistle, a relevant distinction in form-critical analysis:Joseph Fitzmyer argues, from evidence put forth by Stirewalt, that the style of Romans is an \"essay-letter.\"", "Philip Melanchthon, a writer during the Reformation, suggested that Romans was (\"a summary of all Christian doctrine\").", "While some scholars suggest, like Melanchthon, that it is a type of theological treatise, this view largely ignores chapters 14 and 15 of Romans.", "There are also many \"noteworthy elements\" missing from Romans that are included in other areas of the Pauline corpus.", "The breakdown of Romans as a treatise began with F.C.", "Baur in 1836 when he suggested \"this letter had to be interpreted according to the historical circumstances in which Paul wrote it.", "\"Paul sometimes uses a style of writing common in his time called a diatribe.", "He appears to be responding to a critic (probably an imaginary one based on Paul's encounters with real objections in his previous preaching), and the letter is structured as a series of arguments.", "In the flow of the letter, Paul shifts his arguments, sometimes addressing the Jewish members of the church, sometimes the Gentile membership and sometimes the church as a whole." ], [ "Purposes of writing", "To review the current scholarly viewpoints on the purpose of Romans, along with a bibliography, see ''Dictionary of Paul and His Letters''.", "For a 16th-century \"Lollard\" reformer view, see the work of William Tyndale.", "In his prologue to his translation of Romans, which was largely taken from the prologue of German Reformer Martin Luther, Tyndale writes that:" ], [ "Contents", "The beginning of the Epistle in Codex Alexandrinus=== Prologue (1:1–15) =======Greeting (1:1–7)====The introduction provides some general notes about Paul.", "He introduces his apostleship here and introductory notes about the gospel he wishes to preach to the church at Rome.", "Jesus' human line stems from David.", "Paul, however, does not limit his ministry to Jews.", "Paul's goal is that the Gentiles would also hear the gospel.====Prayer of Thanksgiving (1:8–15)====He commends the Romans for faith.", "Paul also speaks of the past obstacles that have blocked his coming to Rome earlier.=== Salvation in the Christ (1:16–8:39) =======Righteousness of God (1:16–17)====Paul announces that he is not \"ashamed\" () of his gospel because it holds power ().", "These two verses form a backdrop of themes for the rest of the book; first, that Paul is unashamed of his love for this gospel that he preaches about Jesus Christ.", "He also notes that he is speaking to the \"Jew first.\"", "There is significance to this, but much of it is scholarly conjecture as the relationship between Paul and Judaism is still debated, and scholars are hard-pressed to find an answer to such a question without knowing more about the audience in question.", "Wayne Brindle argues, based on Paul's former writings against the Judaizers in Galatians and 2 Corinthians, that rumors had probably spread about Paul totally negating the Jewish existence in a Christian world (see also Antinomianism in the New Testament and Supersessionism).", "Paul may have used the \"Jew first\" approach to counter such a view.====Condemnation: The Universal corruption of Gentiles and Jews (1:18–3:20)========= The judgment of God (1:18–32) =====Paul begins with a summary of Hellenistic Jewish apologist discourse.", "His summary begins by suggesting that humans have taken up ungodliness and wickedness for which there already is wrath from God.", "People have taken God's invisible image and made him into an idol.", "Paul draws heavily here from the Wisdom of Solomon.", "This summary condemns \"unnatural sexual behavior\" and warns that such behavior has already resulted in a depraved body and mind (\"reprobate mind\" in the King James Version) and says that people who do such things (including murder and wickedness ) are worthy of death.", "Paul stands firmly against the idol worship system which was common in Rome.", "Several scholars believe the passage is a non-Pauline interpolation.===== Paul's warning of hypocrites (2:1–4) =====On the traditional Protestant interpretation, Paul here calls out Jews who are condemning others for not following the law when they themselves are also not following the law.", "Stanley Stowers, however, has argued on rhetorical grounds that Paul is in these verses not addressing a Jew at all but rather an easily recognizable caricature of the typical boastful person ().", "Stowers writes, \"There is absolutely no justification for reading as Paul's attack on 'the hypocrisy of the Jew.'", "No one in the first century would have identified with Judaism.", "That popular interpretation depends upon anachronistically reading later Christian characterizations of Jews as 'hypocritical Pharisees.", "(See also Anti-Judaism).==== Justification: The Gift of Grace and Forgiveness through Faith (3:21–5:11) ====Paul says that a righteousness from God has made itself known apart from the law, to which the law and prophets testify, and this righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus to all who believe.", "He describes justification – legally clearing the believer of the guilt and penalty of sin – as a gift of God, and not the work of man (lest he might boast), but by faith.==== Assurance of salvation (5–11) ====In chapters five through eight, Paul argues that believers can be assured of their hope in salvation, having been freed from the bondage of sin.", "Paul teaches that through faith, the faithful have been joined with Jesus and freed from sin.", "Believers should celebrate in the assurance of salvation and be certain that no external force or party can take their salvation away from them.", "This promise is open to everyone since everyone has sinned, save the one who paid for all of them.In , Paul says that humans are under the law while they live: \"Know ye not ... that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth?\"", "However, Jesus' death on the cross makes believers dead to the law (, \"Wherefore, my brethren, ye are also become dead to the law by the body of Christ\"), according to an antinomistic interpretation.In Paul addresses the faithfulness of God to the Israelites, where he says that God has been faithful to his promise.", "Paul hopes that all Israelites will come to realize the truth, stating that \"Not as though the word of God hath taken none effect.", "For they are not all Israel, which are of Israel: Neither, because they are the seed of Abraham, are they all children: but, In Isaac shall thy seed be called.\"", "Paul affirms that he himself is also an Israelite, and had in the past been a persecutor of Early Christians.", "In Paul talks about how the nation of Israel has not been cast away, and the conditions under which Israel will be God's chosen nation again: when Israel returns to its faith, sets aside its unbelief.===Transformation of believers (12–15:13)===From chapter 12 through the first part of chapter 15, Paul outlines how the gospel transforms believers and the behaviour that results from such a transformation.", "This transformation is described as a \"renewing of your mind\" (12:2), a transformation that Douglas J. Moo characterizes as \"the heart of the matter.\"", "It is a transformation so radical that it amounts to \"a transfiguration of your brain,\" a \"metanoia\", a \"mental revolution.", "\"Paul goes on to describe how believers should live.", "Christians are no longer under the law, that is, no longer bound by the law of Moses, but under the grace of God (see Law and grace).", "Christians do not need to live under the law because to the extent that their minds have been renewed, they will know \"almost instinctively\" what God wants of them.", "The law then provides an \"objective standard\" for judging progress in the \"lifelong process\" of their mind's renewal.To the extent they have been set free from sin by renewed minds (Romans 6:18), believers are no longer bound to sin.", "Believers are free to live in obedience to God and love everybody.", "As Paul says in Romans 13:10, \"love () worketh no ill to his neighbor: therefore love is the fulfilling of law\".==== Obedience to earthly powers (13:1–7) ====The fragment in Romans 13:1–7 dealing with obedience to earthly powers is considered by some, for example James Kallas, to be an interpolation.", "(See also the Great Commandment and Christianity and politics).", "Paul Tillich accepts the historical authenticity of Romans 13:1–7, but claims it has been misinterpreted by churches with an anti-revolutionary bias:===Epilogue (15:1–16:23)===* Admonition (15:1–7)* Summary of the Epistle (15:8)====Paul's ministry and travel plans (16:14–27)====The concluding verses contain a description of his travel plans, personal greetings and salutations.", "One-third of the twenty-one Christians identified in the greetings are women.", "Additionally, none of these Christians answer to the name Peter, although according to the Catholic tradition, he had been ruling as Pope in Rome for about 25 years.", "Possibly related was the Incident at Antioch between Paul and Cephas.", "* Personal greetings (16:1–23 24)* Closing doxology (16:25–27)" ], [ "Hermeneutics", "=== Catholic interpretation ===Roman Catholics accept the necessity of faith for salvation but point to for the necessity of living a virtuous life as well:Catholics would also look to the passage in Romans 8:13 for evidence that justification by faith is only valid so long as it is combined with obedient cooperation with The Holy Spirit, and the passage in Romans 11:22 to show that the Christian can lose their justification if they turn away from cooperating with The Holy Spirit and reject Christ through mortal sin.=== Protestant interpretation ===In the Protestant interpretation, the New Testament epistles (including Romans) describe salvation as coming from faith and not from righteous actions.", "For example, Romans (underlining added):In the Protestant interpretation it is considered significant that in Romans , Paul says that God will reward those who follow the law and then goes on to say that follows the law perfectly (see also Sermon on the Mount: Interpretation) Romans :Romans has been at the forefront of several major movements in Protestantism.", "Martin Luther's lectures on Romans in 1515–1516 probably coincided with the development of his criticism of Roman Catholicism which led to the ''95 Theses'' of 1517.In the preface to his German translation of Romans, Luther described Paul's letter to the Romans as \"the most important piece in the New Testament.", "It is purest Gospel.", "It is well worth a Christian's while not only to memorize it word for word but also to occupy himself with it daily, as though it were the daily bread of the soul\".", "In 1738, while hearing Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans read at St. Botolph Church on Aldersgate Street in London, John Wesley famously felt his heart \"strangely warmed\", a conversion experience which is often seen as the beginning of Methodism.Luther controversially added the word \"alone\" ( in German) to Romans so that it read: \"thus, we hold, then, that man is justified without doing the works of the law, through faith\".", "The word \"alone\" does not appear in the original Greek text, but Luther defended his translation by maintaining that the adverb \"alone\" was required both by idiomatic German and Paul's intended meaning.", "This is a ''\"literalist view\"'' rather than a literal view of the Bible.The ''Romans Road'' (or ''Roman Road'') refers to a set of scriptures from Romans that Christian evangelists use to present a clear and simple case for personal salvation to each person, as all the verses are contained in one single book, making it easier for evangelism without going back and forth through the entire New Testament.", "The core verses used by nearly all groups using ''Romans Road'' are: Romans , , , , and ." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Epistle to the Romans'' (Barth)* Loci Communes* New Perspective on Paul* Paul the Apostle and Judaism* Rudyard Kipling 1919 poem \"The Gods of the Copybook Headings\" \"The Wages of Sin is Death.\"", "Romans 6:23* The Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners, sermon on Romans 3:19* Textual variants in the Epistle to the Romans" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Limited preview of the 2018 version available at Google books.", "* * * * * * Rutherford, Graeme (1993).", "''The Heart of Christianity: Romans chapters 1 to 8''.", "Second ed.", "Oxford, Eng.", ": Bible Reading Fellowship.", "248 p. *" ], [ "External links", "* Romans at BibleGateway.", "More than 200 different translations in over 70 languages available.", "* A Brief Introduction to Romans* Understanding Romans 7 – www.christians.eu* A Wesleyan Interpretation of Romans 5–8 – Jerry McCant* Epistle to the Romans – Catholic Encyclopedia* John Calvin on Romans* Easton's Bible Dictionary on Romans, Epistle to the on BibleStudyTools.com* Matthew Henry on Romans* Romans Overview, by Mark Dever* Reading Through Romans, by Michael Morrison* Romans the Greatest Letter Ever Written: John Piper* Book by Book: Romans, by WELS–WhatAboutJesus.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eleanor of Aquitaine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eleanor of Aquitaine''' (, , , ; – 1 April 1204) was Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right from 1137 to 1204, Queen of France from 1137 to 1152 as the wife of King Louis VII, and Queen of England from 1154 to 1189 as the wife of King Henry II.", "As the heiress of the House of Poitiers, which controlled much of southwestern France, she was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Western Europe during the High Middle Ages.", "Militarily, she was a key leading figure in the Second Crusade, and in a revolt in favour of her son.", "Culturally, she was a patron of poets such as Wace, Benoît de Sainte-Maure, and Bernart de Ventadorn, and of the arts of the High Middle Ages.Eleanor was the eldest child of William X, Duke of Aquitaine, and Aénor de Châtellerault.", "She became duchess upon her father's death in April 1137, and three months later she married Louis, son of her guardian King Louis VI of France.", "Shortly afterwards, Louis VI died and Eleanor's husband ascended the throne, making Eleanor queen consort.", "The couple had two daughters, Marie and Alix.", "Eleanor sought an annulment of her marriage, but her request was rejected by Pope Eugene III.", "Eventually, Louis agreed to an annulment, as fifteen years of marriage had not produced a son.", "The marriage was annulled on 21 March 1152 on the grounds of consanguinity within the fourth degree.", "Their daughters were declared legitimate, custody was awarded to Louis, and Eleanor's lands were restored to her.As soon as the annulment was granted, Eleanor became engaged to her third cousin Henry, Duke of Normandy.", "The couple married on Whitsun, 18 May 1152 in Poitiers.", "Eleanor was crowned queen of England at Westminster Abbey in 1154, when Henry acceded to the throne.", "Henry and Eleanor had five sons and three daughters, but eventually became estranged.", "Henry imprisoned her in 1173 for supporting the revolt of their eldest son, Henry the Young King, against him.", "She was not released until 6 July 1189, when her husband died and their third son, Richard I, ascended the throne.", "As queen dowager, Eleanor acted as regent while Richard went on the Third Crusade.", "She lived well into the reign of her youngest son, John." ], [ "Early life", "Plantagenet lands|alt=map of France in 1154 with its various domains, including the Duchy of AquitaineThere is a paucity of primary sources on Eleanor's life, and in their absence myth, legend and speculation have frequently been resorted to, to fill the gaps, \"rarely in the course of historical endeavor has so much been written, over so many centuries, about one woman of whom we know so little\".Little is known of Eleanor's early life.", "Her year of birth is not known precisely, and the first mention of her occurs in July 1129.Tradition places her birth on one of her parents' visit to Bordeaux, likely at her father's nearby castle at Belin.", "Other authors suggest Poitiers, Ombrière Palace, Bordeaux, or Nieul-sur-l'Autise.", "While the date of her birth is often given as 1122 or 1124, the latter is now generally accepted.", "A late 13th-century genealogy of her family listing her as 13 years old at her father's death in the spring of 1137 provides the best evidence that Eleanor was born in 1124.Her parents are unlikely to have married before 1121.Some chronicles mention a fidelity oath of lords of Aquitaine on the occasion of Eleanor's fourteenth birthday in 1136.Her age at her death is thus also stated as either 80 or 82.Eleanor (or Aliénor) was the oldest of three children born to William X, Duke of Aquitaine, son of William IX and Philippa of Toulouse, and his wife, Aenor de Châtellerault, the daughter of Aimery I, Viscount of Châtellerault, and Dangereuse de l'Isle Bouchard.", "Dangereuse was also William IX's longtime mistress.", "Eleanor's parents' marriage had been arranged by Dangereuse and WilliamIX.", "Their other children were Aélith (1125–1151) and Aigret (1126–1130).Eleanor was named for her mother Aenor and called ''Aliénor'' from the Latin ''Alia Aenor'', which means ''the other Aenor''.", "It became ''Eléanor'' in the ''langues d'oïl'' of northern France and ''Eleanor'' in English.", "Little, if anything, is known of Eleanor's education, but it has been surmised from what is known of aristocratic households of the era.", "Eleanor's mother died in 1130, when she was only six, and her younger brother also died in that year but it is likely her father would have wanted her to have a good education.", "The only contemporary record of her education comes from Bertran de Born, the troubadour, who states that she read the poetry of her native tongue.", "Although the language of Bordeaux and Poitiers was Poitevin, a northern French (''langue d'oïl'') dialogue, she was soon exposed to Occitan (''langue d'oc''), the southern dialect and language of the poets and courtiers at the ducal court.", "She would also have been taught to read and speak Latin, and to be acquainted with literature.", "With the death of her mother and brother, Eleanor became the heir presumptive to her father's domains.", "The Duchy of Aquitaine was the largest and richest province of France, covering an area corresponding to nineteen departments of modern France and about a third of what was then considered France.", "=== Inheritance (1137) ===In 1137 Duke William X left Poitiers for Bordeaux and took his daughters with him.", "Upon reaching Bordeaux, he left them at l'Ombrière Castle in the charge of Geoffroi du Louroux, archbishop of Bordeaux, a loyal vassal.", "The duke then set out for the Shrine of Saint James of Compostela in the company of other pilgrims.", "However, he died on Good Friday of that year (9April).Eleanor, aged 13, then became the Duchess of Aquitaine, and thus one of the richest and most eligible heiresses in Europe.", "Since kidnapping an heiress was seen as a viable option for obtaining a title and lands, When William X knew that he was dying, he placed his soon to be orphaned daughter in the care of King Louis VI of France as her guardian.", "William requested of the king that he take care of both the lands and the duchess, and find her a suitable husband.", "However, until a husband was found, the king had the legal right to Eleanor's lands.", "The duke also insisted to his companions that his death be kept a secret until Louis was informed; the men were to journey from Saint James of Compostela across the Pyrenees as quickly as possible to call at Bordeaux to notify the archbishop, then to make all speed to Paris to inform the king.The king of France, known as Louis the Fat, who was in poor health, recognised an opportunity to enlarge his dominions by the acquisition of Aquitaine.", "His eldest surviving son, Louis, had originally been destined for monastic life, but had become the heir apparent when the firstborn, Philip, died in a riding accident in 1131.The death of William, one of the king's most powerful vassals, made available the most desirable duchy in France.", "While presenting a solemn and dignified face to the grieving Aquitainian messengers, Louis exulted when they departed.", "Rather than act as guardian to the duchess and duchy, he decided to marry the duchess to his 17-year-old heir and bring Aquitaine under the control of the French crown, thereby greatly increasing the power and prominence of France and its ruling family, the House of Capet.", "Within hours, the king had arranged for his son Louis to be married to Eleanor, with Abbot Suger in charge of the wedding arrangements.", "Louis was sent to Bordeaux with an escort of 500 knights, along with Abbot Suger, Theobald II, Count of Champagne, and Raoul I, Count of Vermandois." ], [ "Queen of France (1137–1152)", "Louis and Eleanor (left); Louis leaving on Crusade (right)|alt=Illustrations from the fourteenth century of the wedding of Eleanor and Louis, and Louis leaving on a crusadealt=The rock crystal vase belonged to Eleanor's grandfather, William which she gave to Louis as a wedding present, He later donated it to the Abbey of Saint-Denis.", "Later it was placed in the LouvreRelatively little is known from the time that Eleanor was Queen of France.", "On 25 July 1137, Eleanor and Louis were married in the Cathedral of Saint-André in Bordeaux by the Archbishop of Bordeaux.", "Immediately after the wedding, the couple were enthroned as Duke and Duchess of Aquitaine.", "It was agreed that the duchy would remain independent of France until Eleanor's oldest son became both king of France and duke of Aquitaine.", "Thus, her holdings would not be merged with France until the next generation.", "As a wedding present she gave Louis a rock crystal vase.Louis's tenure as Count of Poitou and Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony lasted only a few days.", "Although he had been invested as such on 8 August 1137, a messenger gave him the news that Louis VI had died of dysentery on 1 August while he and Eleanor were making a tour of the provinces.", "He and Eleanor were anointed and crowned King and Queen of France on Christmas Day of the same year.Possessing a high-spirited nature, Eleanor was not popular with the staid northerners; according to sources, Louis's mother Adelaide of Maurienne thought her flighty and a bad influence.", "She was not aided by memories of Constance of Arles, the Provençal wife of Robert II, tales of whose immodest dress and language were still told with horror.", "Eleanor's conduct was repeatedly criticised by church elders, particularly Bernard of Clairvaux and Abbot Suger, as indecorous.", "The king was madly in love with his beautiful and worldly bride, however, and granted her every whim, even though her behaviour baffled and vexed him.", "Much money went into making the austere Cité Palace in Paris more comfortable for Eleanor's sake.", "In Paris, she was joined by her sister Aélith, who became known as Petronilla.=== Conflict with church===Louis soon came into violent conflict with Pope Innocent II.", "In 1141, the Archbishopric of Bourges became vacant, and the king put forward as a candidate one of his chancellors, Cadurc, while vetoing the one suitable candidate, Pierre de la Chatre, who was promptly elected by the canons of Bourges and consecrated by the Pope.", "Louis accordingly bolted the gates of Bourges against the new bishop.", "The Pope, recalling similar attempts by William X to exile supporters of Innocent from Poitou and replace them with priests loyal to himself, blamed Eleanor, saying that Louis was only a child and should be taught manners.", "Outraged, Louis swore upon relics that so long as he lived Pierre should never enter Bourges.", "An interdict was thereupon imposed upon the king's lands, and Pierre was given refuge by Theobald II, Count of Champagne.Louis became involved in a war with Count Theobald by permitting Raoul I, Count of Vermandois and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife Eleanor of Champagne, Theobald's sister, and to marry Petronilla of Aquitaine, the Queen's sister.", "Eleanor urged Louis to support her sister's marriage to Count Raoul.", "Theobald had also offended Louis by siding with the Pope in the dispute over Bourges.", "The war lasted two years (1142–44) and ended with the occupation of Champagne by the royal army.", "Louis was personally involved in the assault and burning of the town of Vitry.", "More than a thousand people sought refuge in the town church, but the church caught fire and everyone inside was burned alive.", "Horrified, and desiring an end to the war, Louis attempted to make peace with Theobald in exchange for his support in lifting the interdict on Raoul and Petronilla.", "This was duly lifted for long enough to allow Theobald's lands to be restored; it was then lowered once more when Raoul refused to repudiate Petronilla, prompting Louis to return to Champagne and ravage it once more.In June 1144, the king and queen visited the newly built monastic church at Saint-Denis.", "While there, the queen met with Bernard of Clairvaux, asking him to use his influence with the Pope to have the excommunication of Petronilla and Raoul lifted, in exchange for which King Louis would make concessions in Champagne and recognise Pierre de la Chatre as archbishop of Bourges.", "Dismayed at her attitude, Bernard scolded Eleanor for her lack of penitence and interference in matters of state.", "In response, Eleanor broke down and meekly excused her behaviour, claiming to be bitter because of her lack of children (her only recorded pregnancy at that time was in about 1138, but she miscarried In response, Bernard became more kindly towards her: \"My child, seek those things which make for peace.", "Cease to stir up the king against the Church, and urge upon him a better course of action.", "If you will promise to do this, I in return promise to entreat the merciful Lord to grant you offspring.\"", "In a matter of weeks, peace had returned to France: Theobald's provinces were returned and Pierre de la Chatre was installed as archbishop of Bourges.", "In April 1145, Eleanor gave birth to a daughter, Marie.Louis, however, still burned with guilt over the massacre at Vitry and wished to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land to atone for his sins.", "In autumn 1145, Pope Eugene III requested that Louis lead a Crusade to the Middle East to rescue the Frankish states there from disaster.", "Accordingly, Louis declared on Christmas Day 1145 at Bourges his intention of going on a crusade.=== The Second Crusade (1145–1149) ===Eleanor of Aquitaine also formally took up the cross symbolic of the Second Crusade during a sermon preached by Bernard of Clairvaux.", "In addition, she had been corresponding with her uncle Raymond, Prince of Antioch, who was seeking further protection from the French crown against the Saracens.", "Eleanor recruited some of her royal ladies-in-waiting for the campaign as well as 300 non-noble Aquitainian vassals.", "She insisted on taking part in the Crusades as the feudal leader of the soldiers from her duchy.", "She left for the Second Crusade from Vézelay, the rumoured location of Mary Magdalene's grave, in June 1147.The Crusade itself achieved little.", "Louis was a weak and ineffectual military leader with no skill for maintaining troop discipline or morale, or of making informed and logical tactical decisions.", "In eastern Europe, the French army was at times hindered by Manuel I Comnenus, the Byzantine Emperor, who feared that the Crusade would jeopardise the tenuous safety of his empire.", "Notwithstanding, during their three-week stay at Constantinople, Louis was fêted and Eleanor was much admired.", "She was compared with Penthesilea, mythical queen of the Amazons, by the Greek historian Nicetas Choniates.", "He added that she gained the epithet ''chrysopous'' (golden-foot) from the cloth of gold that decorated and fringed her robe.", "Louis and Eleanor stayed in the Philopation palace just outside the city walls.Second Crusade council: Conrad III of Germany, Eleanor's husband Louis VII of France, and Baldwin III of JerusalemFrom the moment the Crusaders entered Asia Minor, things began to go badly.", "The king and queen were still optimistic—the Byzantine Emperor had told them that King Conrad III of Germany had won a great victory against a Turkish army when in fact the German army had been almost completely destroyed at Dorylaeum.", "However, while camping near Nicea, the remnants of the German army, including a dazed and sick Conrad III, staggered past the French camp, bringing news of their disaster.", "The French, with what remained of the Germans, then began to march in increasingly disorganised fashion towards Antioch.", "They were in high spirits on Christmas Eve, when they chose to camp in a lush valley near Ephesus.", "Here they were ambushed by a Turkish detachment, but the French proceeded to slaughter this detachment and appropriate their camp.Louis then decided to cross the Phrygian mountains directly in the hope of reaching Raymond of Poitiers in Antioch more quickly.", "As they ascended the mountains, however, the army and the king and queen were horrified to discover the unburied corpses of the Germans killed earlier.On the day set for the crossing of Mount Cadmus, Louis chose to take charge of the rear of the column, where the unarmed pilgrims and the baggage trains marched.", "The vanguard, with which Queen Eleanor marched, was commanded by her Aquitainian vassal, Geoffrey de Rancon.", "Unencumbered by baggage, they reached the summit of Cadmus, where Rancon had been ordered to make camp for the night.", "Rancon, however, chose to continue on, deciding in concert with Amadeus III, Count of Savoy, Louis's uncle, that a nearby plateau would make a better campsite.", "Such disobedience was reportedly common.Accordingly, by mid-afternoon, the rear of the column—believing the day's march to be nearly at an end—was dawdling.", "This resulted in the army becoming separated, with some having already crossed the summit and others still approaching it.", "In the ensuing Battle of Mount Cadmus, the Turks, who had been following and feinting for many days, seized their opportunity and attacked those who had not yet crossed the summit.", "The French, both soldiers and pilgrims, taken by surprise, were trapped.", "Those who tried to escape were caught and killed.", "Many men, horses, and much of the baggage were cast into the canyon below.", "The chronicler William of Tyre, writing between 1170 and 1184 and thus perhaps too long after the event to be considered historically accurate, placed the blame for this disaster firmly on the amount of baggage being carried, much of it reputedly belonging to Eleanor and her ladies, and the presence of non-combatants.The king, having scorned royal apparel in favour of a simple pilgrim's tunic, escaped notice, unlike his bodyguards, whose skulls were brutally smashed and limbs severed.", "He reportedly \"nimbly and bravely scaled a rock by making use of some tree roots which God had provided for his safety\" and managed to survive the attack.", "Others were not so fortunate: \"No aid came from Heaven, except that night fell.", "\"Official blame for the disaster was placed on Geoffrey de Rancon, who had made the decision to continue, and it was suggested that he be hanged, a suggestion which the king ignored.", "Since Geoffrey was Eleanor's vassal, many believed that it was she who had been ultimately responsible for the change in plan, and thus the massacre.", "This suspicion of responsibility did nothing for her popularity in Christendom.", "She was also blamed for the size of the baggage train and the fact that her Aquitanian soldiers had marched at the front and thus were not involved in the fight.", "Continuing on, the army became split, with the commoners marching towards Antioch and the royalty travelling by sea.", "When most of the land army arrived, the king and queen had a dispute.", "Some, such as John of Salisbury and William of Tyre, say Eleanor's reputation was sullied by rumours of an affair with her uncle Raymond.However, this rumour may have been a ruse, as Raymond, through Eleanor, had been trying to induce Louis to use his army to attack the actual Muslim encampment at nearby Beroea (modern Aleppo), gateway to retaking Edessa, which had all along, by papal decree, been the main objective of the Crusade.", "Although this was perhaps a better military plan, Louis was not keen to fight in northern Syria.", "One of Louis's avowed Crusade goals was to journey in pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and he stated his intention to continue.", "Reputedly Eleanor then requested to stay with Raymond and brought up the matter of consanguinity—the fact that she and her husband, King Louis, were perhaps too closely related.", "Consanguinity was grounds for annulment in the medieval period.", "But rather than allowing her to stay, Louis took Eleanor from Antioch against her will and continued on to Jerusalem with his dwindling army.Louis's refusal and his forcing her to accompany him humiliated Eleanor, and she maintained a low profile for the rest of the crusade.", "Louis's subsequent siege of Damascus in 1148 with his remaining army, reinforced by Conrad and Baldwin III of Jerusalem, achieved little.", "Damascus was a major wealthy trading centre and was under normal circumstances a potential threat, but the rulers of Jerusalem had recently entered into a truce with the city, which they then forswore.", "It was a gamble that did not pay off, and whether through military error or betrayal, the Damascus campaign was a failure.", "Louis's long march to Jerusalem and back north, which Eleanor was forced to join, debilitated his army and disheartened her knights; the divided Crusade armies could not overcome the Muslim forces, and the royal couple had to return home.", "The French royal family retreated to Jerusalem and then sailed to Rome and made their way back to Paris.While in the eastern Mediterranean, Eleanor learned about maritime conventions developing there, which were the beginnings of what would become admiralty law.", "She introduced those conventions in her own lands on the island of Oléron in 1160 (with the \"Rolls of Oléron\") and later in England as well.", "She was also instrumental in developing trade agreements with Constantinople and ports of trade in the Holy Land.=== Annulment (1152) ===Even before the Crusade, Eleanor and Louis were becoming estranged, and their differences were only exacerbated while they were abroad.", "Eleanor's purported relationship with her uncle Raymond, the ruler of Antioch, was a major source of discord.", "Eleanor supported her uncle's desire to re-capture the nearby County of Edessa, the objective of the Crusade.", "In addition, having been close to him in their youth, she now showed what was considered to be \"excessive affection\" towards her uncle.Home, however, was not easily reached.", "Louis and Eleanor, on separate ships due to their disagreements, were first attacked in May 1149 by Byzantine ships.", "Although they escaped this attempt unharmed, stormy weather drove Eleanor's ship far to the south to the Barbary Coast and caused her to lose track of her husband.", "Neither was heard of for over two months.", "In mid-July, Eleanor's ship finally reached Palermo in Sicily, where she discovered that she and her husband had both been given up for dead.", "She was given shelter and food by servants of King Roger II of Sicily, until the king eventually reached Calabria, and she set out to meet him there.", "Later, at King Roger's court in Potenza, she learned of the death of her uncle Raymond, who had been beheaded by Muslim forces in the Holy Land.", "This news appears to have forced a change of plans, for instead of returning to France from Marseilles, they went to see Pope Eugene III in Tusculum, where he had been driven five months before by a revolt of the Commune of Rome.Eugene did not, as Eleanor had hoped, grant an annulment.", "Instead, he attempted to reconcile Eleanor and Louis, confirming the legality of their marriage.", "He proclaimed that no word could be spoken against it, and that it might not be dissolved under any pretext.", "He even arranged for Eleanor and Louis to sleep in the same bed.", "Thus was conceived their second child—not a son, but another daughter, Alix of France.The marriage was now doomed.", "Still without a son and in danger of being left with no male heir, as well as facing substantial opposition to Eleanor from many of his barons and her own desire for annulment, Louis bowed to the inevitable.", "On 11 March 1152, they met at the royal castle of Beaugency to dissolve the marriage.", "Hugues de Toucy, archbishop of Sens, presided, and Louis and Eleanor were both present, as were the archbishop of Bordeaux and Rouen.", "Archbishop Samson of Reims acted for Eleanor.On 21 March, the four archbishops, with the approval of Pope Eugene, granted an annulment on grounds of consanguinity within the fourth degree; Eleanor was Louis' third cousin once removed, and shared common ancestry with Robert II of France (Robert the Pious) and his wife Constance of Arles.", "Their two daughters were, however, declared legitimate.", "Children born to a marriage that was later annulled were not at risk of being \"bastardised,\" because \"where the parties married in good faith, without knowledge of an impediment, the canonists held that the children of the marriage were legitimate and that the marriage itself was valid up to the day it was declared null\".", "Custody of the daughters was awarded to King Louis.", "Archbishop Samson received assurances from Louis that Eleanor's lands would be restored to her." ], [ "Queen of England (1154–1189)", "Henry II of England, drawn by Matthew ParisFrance 1154–1184 and the Angevin EmpireAs Eleanor travelled to Poitiers, Theobald V, Count of Blois and Geoffrey, Count of Nantes, tried to kidnap and marry her to claim her lands.", "This (''rapuit et abduxit'') was a common practice regarding heiresses, even in her own family.", "As soon as she arrived in Poitiers, Eleanor sent envoys to Geoffrey's brother, Henry Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou (also known as Henry Plantagenet) asking him to come at once to marry her.", "On 18 May 1152 (Whit Sunday), eight weeks after her annulment, Eleanor married Henry, nine years her junior, in a quiet private ceremony thereby transferring her Aquitaine lands from Louis to Henry.Eleanor was related to Henry even more closely than she had been to Louis: they were cousins to the third degree through their common ancestor Ermengarde of Anjou, wife of Robert I, Duke of Burgundy and Geoffrey, Count of Gâtinais, and they were also descended from King Robert II of France.", "A marriage between Henry and Eleanor's daughter Marie had earlier been declared impossible due to their status as third cousins once removed.", "It was rumoured by some that Eleanor had had an affair with Henry's own father, Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, who had advised his son to avoid any involvement with her.On 25 October 1154, Henry became king of England.", "A now heavily pregnant Eleanor was crowned queen of England by Theobald of Bec, the Archbishop of Canterbury, on 19 December 1154.She may not have been anointed on this occasion, however, because she had already been anointed in 1137.Over the next 13 years, she bore Henry five sons and three daughters: William, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, John, Matilda, Eleanor, and Joan.", "Historian John Speed, in his 1611 work ''History of Great Britain'', mentions the possibility that Eleanor had a son named Philip, who died young.", "His sources no longer exist, and he alone mentions this birth.Eleanor's marriage to Henry was reputed to be tumultuous and argumentative, although sufficiently cooperative to produce at least eight pregnancies.", "Henry was by no means faithful to his wife and had a reputation for philandering; he fathered other, illegitimate, children throughout the marriage.", "Eleanor appears to have taken an ambivalent attitude towards these affairs.", "Geoffrey of York, for example, was an illegitimate son of Henry, but acknowledged by Henry as his child and raised at Westminster in the care of the queen.During the period from Henry's accession to the birth of Eleanor's youngest son John, affairs in the kingdom were turbulent: Aquitaine, as was the norm, defied the authority of Henry as Eleanor's husband and answered only to their duchess.", "Attempts were made to claim Toulouse, the rightful inheritance of Eleanor's grandmother Philippa of Toulouse, but they ended in failure.", "A bitter feud arose between the king and Thomas Becket, initially his chancellor and closest adviser and later the archbishop of Canterbury.", "Louis of France had remarried and been widowed; he married for the third time and finally fathered a long-hoped-for son, Philip Augustus, also known as Dieudonné—God-given.", "\"Young Henry\", son of Henry and Eleanor, wed Margaret, daughter of Louis from his second marriage.", "Little is known of Eleanor's involvement in these events.", "By late 1166, Henry's affair with Rosamund Clifford had become known, and although much speculation has arisen that this precipitated a break in their relationship, the evidence does not support this.In 1167, Eleanor's third daughter, Matilda, married Henry the Lion of Saxony.", "Eleanor remained in England with her daughter for the year prior to Matilda's departure for Normandy in September.", "In December, Eleanor gathered her movable possessions in England and transported them on several ships to Argentan.", "Christmas was celebrated at the royal court there, and she appears to have agreed to a separation from Henry.", "She certainly left for her own city of Poitiers immediately after Christmas.", "Henry did not stop her; on the contrary, he and his army personally escorted her there before attacking a castle belonging to the rebellious Lusignan family.", "Henry then went about his own business outside Aquitaine, leaving the Earl of Salisbury, his regional military commander, as her protective custodian.", "When the latter was killed in a skirmish, Eleanor, who proceeded to ransom his captured nephew, the young William Marshal, was left in control of her lands.=== \"The Court of Love\" Poitiers (1168–1173) ===The Palace of Poitiers, the seat of the counts of Poitou and dukes of Aquitaine in the 10th through to the 12th centuries, where Eleanor's highly literate and artistic court inspired tales of Courts of Love.Of all her influence on culture, Eleanor's time in Poitiers between 1168 and 1173 was perhaps the most critical, yet very little is known about it.", "Henry II was elsewhere, attending to his own affairs after escorting Eleanor there.", "Some believe that Eleanor's court in Poitiers was the \"Court of Love\" where Eleanor and her daughter Marie meshed and encouraged the ideas of troubadours, chivalry, and courtly love into a single court.", "It may have been largely to teach manners, something the French courts would be known for in later generations.", "Yet the existence and reasons for this court are debated.In the 12th century ''The Art of Courtly Love'', Andreas Capellanus (Andrew the Chaplain), refers to the court of Poitiers.", "He claims that Eleanor, her daughter Marie, Ermengarde, Viscountess of Narbonne, and Isabelle of Flanders would sit and listen to the quarrels of lovers and act as a jury to the questions of the court that revolved around acts of romantic love.", "He records some twenty-one cases, the most famous of them being a problem posed to the women about whether true love can exist in marriage.", "According to Capellanus, the women decided that it was not at all likely.Some scholars believe that the \"court of love\" probably never existed since the only evidence for it is Andreas Capellanus' book.", "To strengthen their argument, they state that there is no other evidence that Marie ever stayed with her mother in Poitiers.", "Andreas wrote for the court of the king of France, where Eleanor was not held in esteem.", "Polly Schoyer Brooks, the author of a popular biography of Eleanor, suggests that the court did exist, but that it was not taken very seriously, and that acts of courtly love were just a \"parlour game\" made up by Eleanor and Marie in order to place some order over the young courtiers living there.There is no claim that Eleanor invented courtly love, for it was a concept that had begun to grow before Eleanor's court arose.", "All that can be said is that her court at Poitiers was most likely a catalyst for the increased popularity of courtly love literature in the Western European regions.", "Amy Kelly provides a plausible description of the origins of the rules of Eleanor's court: \"In the Poitevin code, man is the property, the very thing of woman; whereas a precisely contrary state of things existed in the adjacent realms of the two kings from whom the reigning duchess of Aquitaine was estranged.", "\"=== Revolt and imprisonment (1173–1189) ======= Revolt of 1173 ====In March 1173, aggrieved at his lack of power and egged on by Henry's enemies, his son by the same name, the younger Henry, launched the Revolt of 1173–1174.He fled to Paris.", "From there, \"the younger Henry, devising evil against his father from every side by the advice of the French king, went secretly into Aquitaine where his two youthful brothers, Richard and Geoffrey, were living with their mother, and with her connivance, so it is said, he incited them to join him.\"", "One source claimed that the queen sent her younger sons to France \"to join with him against their father the king.\"", "Once her sons had left for Paris, Eleanor may have encouraged the lords of the south to rise up and support them.Sometime between the end of March and the beginning of May, Eleanor left Poitiers, but was arrested and sent to the king at Rouen.", "The king did not announce the arrest publicly and for the next year the queen's whereabouts were unknown.", "On 8 July 1174, Henry and Eleanor took ship for England from Barfleur.", "As soon as they disembarked at Southampton, Eleanor was taken either to Winchester Castle or Sarum Castle and held there.==== Imprisonment (1173–1189) ====Eleanor was imprisoned for the next 16 years, much of the time in various locations in England.", "During her imprisonment, Eleanor became more and more distant from her sons, especially from Richard, who had always been her favourite.", "She did not have the opportunity to see her sons very often during her imprisonment, though she was released for special occasions such as Christmas.", "About four miles from Shrewsbury and close by Haughmond Abbey is \"Queen Eleanor's Bower\", the remains of a possible triangular timber castle which is believed to have been one of her prisons.Henry lost the woman reputed to be his great love, Rosamund Clifford, in 1176.He had met her in 1166 and had begun their liaison in 1173, supposedly contemplating divorce from Eleanor.", "This notorious affair caused a monkish scribe to transcribe Rosamund's name in Latin to \"Rosa Immundi\", or \"Rose of Unchastity\".", "The king had many mistresses, but although he treated earlier liaisons discreetly, he flaunted Rosamund.", "He may have done so to provoke Eleanor into seeking an annulment, but if so, the queen disappointed him.", "Nevertheless, rumours persisted, perhaps assisted by Henry's camp, that Eleanor had poisoned Rosamund.", "It is also speculated that Eleanor placed Rosamund in a bathtub and had an old woman cut Rosamund's arms.", "Henry donated much money to Godstow Nunnery in Oxfordshire, where Rosamund was buried.In 1183, the young King Henry tried again to force his father to hand over some of his patrimony.", "In debt and refused control of Normandy, he tried to ambush his father at Limoges.", "He was joined by troops sent by his brother Geoffrey and Philip II of France.", "Henry II's troops besieged the town, forcing his son to flee.", "After wandering aimlessly through Aquitaine, Henry the Younger caught dysentery.", "On Saturday, 11 June 1183, the young king realized he was dying and was overcome with remorse for his sins.", "When his father's ring was sent to him, he begged that his father would show mercy to his mother, and that all his companions would plead with Henry to set her free.", "Henry II sent Thomas of Earley, Archdeacon of Wells, to break the news to Eleanor at Sarum.", "Eleanor reputedly had a dream in which she foresaw her son Henry's death.", "In 1193, she would tell Pope Celestine III that she was tortured by his memory.King Philip II of France claimed that certain properties in Normandy belonged to his half-sister Margaret, widow of the young Henry, but Henry insisted that they had once belonged to Eleanor and would revert to her upon her son's death.", "For this reason Henry summoned Eleanor to Normandy in the late summer of 1183.She stayed in Normandy for six months.", "This was the beginning of a period of greater freedom for the still-supervised Eleanor.", "Eleanor went back to England probably early in 1184.Over the next few years Eleanor often travelled with her husband and was sometimes associated with him in the government of the realm, but still had a custodian so that she was not free." ], [ "Widowhood (1189–1204)", "alt=aerial view of Fontevraud AbbeyUpon the death of her husband Henry II on 6 July 1189, Richard I was the undisputed heir.", "One of his first acts as king was to send William Marshal to England with orders to release Eleanor from prison; he found upon his arrival that her custodians had already released her.", "Eleanor rode to Westminster and received the oaths of fealty from many lords and prelates on behalf of the King.", "She ruled England in Richard's name, signing herself \"Eleanor, by the grace of God, Queen of England\".", "On 13August 1189, Richard sailed from Barfleur to Portsmouth and was received with enthusiasm.", "Between 1190 and 1194, King Richard was absent from England, engaged in the Third Crusade from 1190 to 1192, and then held in captivity by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.", "During Richard's absence, royal authority in England was represented by a Council of Regency in conjunction with a succession of chief justiciars—William de Longchamp (1190–1191), Walter deCoutances (1191–1193), and Hubert Walter.", "Although Eleanor held no formal office in England during this period, she arrived in England in the company of Coutances in June 1191, and for the remainder of Richard's absence, she exercised a considerable degree of influence over the affairs of England as well as the conduct of Prince John.", "Eleanor played a key role in raising the ransom demanded from England by HenryVI and in the negotiations with the Holy Roman Emperor that eventually secured Richard's release.", "Evidence of the influence she wielded can also be found within the numerous letters she wrote to Pope Celestine III regarding Richard's captivity.", "Her letter dated 1193, presents her strong expressions of personal suffering as a result of Richard's captivity and informs the Pope that in her grief she is \"wasted away by sorrow\".Eleanor survived Richard, who died in 1199 and lived well into the reign of her youngest son, King John, whose succession she worked to ensure.", "That year, under the terms of a truce between King PhilipII and John, it was agreed that Philip's 12-year-old heir-apparent Louis would be married to one of John's nieces, daughters of his sister Eleanor of England, queen of Castile.", "John instructed his mother to travel to Castile to select one of the princesses.", "Now 77, Eleanor set out from Poitiers.", "Just outside Poitiers she was ambushed and held captive by Hugh IX of Lusignan, whose lands had been sold to HenryII by his forebears.", "Eleanor secured her freedom by agreeing to his demands.", "She continued south, crossed the Pyrenees, and travelled through the kingdoms of Navarre and Castile, arriving in Castile before the end of January 1200.Eleanor's daughter, Queen Eleanor of Castile, had two remaining unmarried daughters, Urraca and Blanche.", "Eleanor selected the younger daughter, Blanche.", "She stayed for two months at the Castilian court, then late in March journeyed with granddaughter Blanche back across the Pyrenees.", "She celebrated Easter in Bordeaux, where the famous warrior Mercadier came to her court.", "It was decided that he would escort the queen and princess north.", "\"On the second day in Easter week, he was slain in the city by a man-at-arms in the service of Brandin\", a rival mercenary captain.", "This tragedy was too much for the elderly queen, who was fatigued and unable to continue to Normandy.", "She and Blanche rode in easy stages to the valley of the Loire, and she entrusted Blanche to the archbishop of Bordeaux, who took over as her escort.", "The exhausted Eleanor went to Fontevraud, where she remained.", "In early summer, Eleanor was ill, and John visited her at Fontevraud.Tomb effigies of Eleanor and HenryII at Fontevraud Abbey in central FranceEleanor was again unwell in early 1201.When war broke out between John and Philip, Eleanor declared her support for John and set out from Fontevraud to her capital Poitiers to prevent her grandson Arthur I, Duke of Brittany, posthumous son of Eleanor's son Geoffrey and John's rival for the English throne, from taking control.", "Arthur learned of her whereabouts and besieged her in the castle of Mirebeau.", "As soon as John heard of this, he marched south, overcame the besiegers, and captured the 15-year-old Arthur, and probably his sister Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany, whom Eleanor had raised with Richard.", "Eleanor then returned to Fontevraud where she took the veil as a nun.Eleanor died on 31 March 1204 and was entombed in Fontevraud Abbey next to her husband Henry, her son Richard and daughter Joan.", "Her tomb effigy shows her reading a Bible and is decorated with representations of magnificent jewellery; such effigies were rare, and Eleanor's is one of the finest of the few that survive from this period.", "However, during the French Revolution the abbey of Fontevraud was sacked and the tombs were disturbed and vandalised – consequently the bones of Eleanor, Henry, Richard, Joanna and Isabella of Angoulême were exhumed and scattered, never to be recovered.", "By the time of her death she had outlived all of her children except for King John of England, who died in 1216, and Queen Eleanor of Castile." ], [ "Appearance", "Contemporary sources praise Eleanor's beauty.", "Even in an era when ladies of the nobility were excessively eulogised and praised, their praise of her was undoubtedly sincere, though probably based on hearsay.", "When she was young, she was described as ''perpulchra''—more than beautiful.", "When she was around 30, Bernard de Ventadour, a noted troubadour, called her \"gracious, lovely, the embodiment of charm\", extolling her \"lovely eyes and noble countenance\" and declaring that she was \"one meet to crown the state of any king\".", "William of Newburgh emphasised the charms of her person, and even in her old age Richard of Devizes described her as beautiful, while Matthew Paris, writing in the 13thcentury, recalled her \"admirable beauty\", a common practice at the time, and \"a woman of wonderful appearance, more beautiful than moral\" and a \"wonderful lady, most beautiful and astute\".", "Richard of Devizes was similarly exuberant, but not all were in agreement.", "William of Tyre dismissed her as \"''uxorem quae una erat de fatuis mulieribus''\".", "Another chronicler describes her as ''avenante, vaillante, courtoise''.In spite of all these words of praise, no one left a detailed description of Eleanor, for instance the colour of her hair and eyes are unknown.", "Such details were of little interest to contemporary chroniclers, and portraiture was not a characteristic of the time, while contemporary descriptions were largely rhetorical.", "The effigy on her tomb (almost certainly not a true portrait) shows a tall and large-boned woman with brown skin.", "Her seal of shows a woman with a slender figure, but this is probably an impersonal image.", "Images of Eleanor are common throughout history but since there are none from her lifetime, these are purely speculative.", "Some romanesque carvings, such as those at the Cloisters in New York and Chartres and Bordeaux cathedrals have been attributed to her but these cannot be substantiated." ], [ "Popular culture", "=== Art ===Many representations of Eleanor of Aquitaine, or allusions to her have appeared over the centuries.", "Examples include Frederick Sandys 1858 painting, ''Queen Eleanor'' and Judy Chicago's installation ''The Dinner Party'' (1979) featuring a place setting for Eleanor.", "She was also commemorated on a French 0.50€ postage stamp in 2004, the 800th anniversary of her death.", "=== Fiction and poetry ===There have been many fictionalised accounts of Eleanor of Aquitaine over a long period of time.", "These include Jean Plaidy's 1987 autobiographical ''The Courts of Love'' (fifth in the 'Queens of England' series).", "Norah Lofts also wrote a fictionalized biography of her in 1955, entitled in various editions ''Queen in Waiting'' or ''Eleanor the Queen'', and including some romanticized episodes—starting off with the young Eleanor planning to elope with a young knight, who is killed out of hand by her guardian, in order to facilitate her marriage to the King's son.", "Kristiana Gregory wrote a fictionalised diary, ''Eleanor: Crown Jewel of Aquitaine'' (''The Royal Diaries'' series, 2002) .", "Eleanor also features in the works of many historical novelists.", "These include ''The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood'' (1883) by Howard Pyle as Queen Catherine and F. Marion Crawford's novel of the second crusade ''Via Crucis'' (1899).", "She is the subject of ''A Proud Taste for Scarlet and Miniver'', a 1973 children's novel by E. L. Konigsburg.", "In Sharon Kay Penman's Plantagenet novels, she figures prominently in ''When Christ and His Saints Slept'' (1995), ''Time and Chance'' (2002), and ''Devil's Brood'' (2008), and also appears in ''Lionheart'' (2011) and ''A King's Ransom'' (2014), both of which focus on the reign of her son, Richard I, as King of England.", "Eleanor also appears briefly in the first novel of Penman's Welsh trilogy, ''Here Be Dragons'' (1985).", "In Penman's historical Justin de Quincy mysteries, Eleanor, as Richard's regent, sends squire Justin de Quincy on various missions, often an investigation of a situation involving Prince John.", "The four published mysteries are the ''Queen's Man'' (1996), ''Cruel as the Grave'' (1998), ''Dragon's Lair'' (2003), and ''Prince of Darkness'' (2005).", "Other novels include Elizabeth Chadwick's Eleanor trilogy ''The Summer Queen'' (2013), ''The Winter Crown'' (2014), and ''The Autumn Throne'' (2016).", "Ariana Franklin features Eleanor in her Adelia Aguilar twelfth century mysteries.", "In 2008, in ''The Serpent's Tale'' (The Death Maze), in 2010 in ''A Murderous Procession'' (The Assassin's Prayer) and 2020 in ''Death and the Maiden''.", "She is also a character in ''Matrix'' by Lauren Groff (2021).Eleanor is also an allegorical figure in Ezra Pound's ''Cantos''.=== Drama, film, radio and television ===Katharine Hepburn as Queen Eleanor in ''The Lion in Winter'' (1968)Elinor is a character in Shakespeare's ''The Life and Death of King John''.", "Una Venning played the role in the ''Sunday Night Theatre'' television version of this in (1952) and Mary Morris in the BBC Shakespeare version (1984).", "Eleanor has featured in a number of screen versions of the ''Ivanhoe'' and ''Robin Hood'' stories.", "She has been played by Martita Hunt in ''The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men'' (1952), Jill Esmond in ''The Adventures of Robin Hood'' (1955–1960), Phyllis Neilson-Terry in ''Ivanhoe'' (1958), Yvonne Mitchell in ''The Legend of Robin Hood'' (1975), Siân Phillips in ''Ivanhoe'' (1997), Tusse Silberg in ''The New Adventures of Robin Hood'' (1997), Lynda Bellingham in ''Robin Hood'' (2006) and most recently by Eileen Atkins in ''Robin Hood (2010)''.Eleanor was played by Mary Clare in ''Becket'' (1923), and by Pamela Brown in the 1964 ''Becket''.", "Henry II and Eleanor are the main characters in James Goldman's 1966 play ''The Lion in Winter'' and Katharine Hepburn played Eleanor in the 1968 film ''The Lion in Winter''.", "Glenn Close and Patrick Stewart played Eleanor and Henry in the 2003 version.Eleanor was played by Prudence Hyman in ''Richard the Lionheart'' (1962), twice by Jane Lapotaire in the ''The Devil's Crown'' (1978) and again in Mike Walker's BBC Radio 4 series ''Plantagenet'' (2010).", "In the 2014 film ''Richard the Lionheart: Rebellion'', Eleanor is played by Debbie Rochon.", "In the BBC Radio 4 ''Eleanor Rising'' Rose Basista plays Eleanor and Joel MacCormack King Louis (2020-2022).=== Music ===Eleanor of Aquitaine is thought to be the ''chunegin von Engellant'' (Queen of England) mentioned in the 12th century poem \"''Were diu werlt alle min'',\" in Carl Orff's ''Carmina Burana''.", "Queen Eleanor's Confession, a traditional 17th century Child Ballad, is a fictional account of Eleanor, Henry II and William Marshal.", "Eleanor (as Eleonora di Guienna) and Rosamund Clifford, as well as Henry IIand Rosamund's father, appear in Gaetano Donizetti's opera ''Rosmonda d'Inghilterra'' (libretto by Felice Romani) (1834).", "''Flower and Hawk'' is a monodrama for soprano and orchestra, written by American composer, Carlisle Floyd in 1972, in which Eleanor relives past memories of her time as queen, and at the end hears the bells that toll for Henry II's death, and in turn, her freedom.=== Video games ===In the 2019 video game expansion ''Civilization VI: Gathering Storm'', Eleanor is a playable leader for the English and French civilizations." ], [ "Family trees", "=== Ancestors === === Issue ===Children of Eleanor and Henry, with modern sub-titlesNameBirthDeathMarriage(s)By Louis VII of France (married 12 July 1137, annulled 21 March 1152)Marie, Countess of Champagne114511 March 1198married Henry I, Count of Champagne; had issue, including Marie, Latin EmpressAlix, Countess of Blois11501198married Theobald V, Count of Blois; had issueBy Henry II of England (married 18 May 1152, widowed 6 July 1189)William IX, Count of Poitiers17 August 1153April 1156 died in infancyHenry the Young King28 February 115511 June 1183 married Margaret of France; no surviving issue.Matilda, Duchess of Saxony and BavariaJune 115613 July 1189 married Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria; had issue, including Otto IV, Holy Roman EmperorRichard I of England8 September 11576 April 1199 married Berengaria of Navarre; no issueGeoffrey II, Duke of Brittany23 September 115819 August 1186 married Constance, Duchess of Brittany; had issueEleanor, Queen of Castile13 October 116231 October 1214 married Alfonso VIII of Castile; had issue, including Henry I, king of Castile, Berengaria, queen regnant of Castile and queen of León, Urraca, queen of Portugal, Blanche, queen of France, Eleanor, queen of AragonJoan, Queen of SicilyOctober 11654 September 1199 married 1) William II of Sicily 2) Raymond VI of Toulouse; had issueJohn, King of England24 December 116619 October 1216 married 1) Isabella, countess of Gloucester 2) Isabella, countess of Angoulême; had issue, including Henry III, King of England, Richard, king of the Romans, Joan, queen of Scotland, Isabella, Holy Roman Empress" ], [ "Legacy", "alt=Seal of Queen Eleanor with her portrait and inscribed in Latin - Eleanor by the Grace of God, Queen of England and Duchess of NormandyThe life of Eleanor of Aquitaine has inspired a large canon of literature, reflected in popular culture.", "This has varied considerably from scholarly research to romantic fictionalised history, and everything in between.", "Nicholas Vincent writes that this includes \"the very worst historical writing devoted to the European Middle Ages\" and concludes that \"the Eleanor of history has been overshadowed by an Eleanor of wishful-thinking and make-believe\".", "Legends about her started during her lifetime and rapidly grew, and much of it appears in the chronicles of the late twelfth century which constitute almost all that is known of her.", "Most of these paint her in an unfavourable light, yet none are actually first hand accounts.", "Many of the accounts of her life are composed \"so distant in time and place\" from the events as to have little credence, and chroniclers were more concerned with their messages than an accurate setting out of facts.", "Messages, that were laden with ideology.", "In Eleanoor's case the ideology was largely negative.", "The aspects of her life most valued by modern romanticisation were those her contemporary commentators found most unacceptable in her position.", "Most of these were clerics, like William of Tyre, John of Salisbury, Mathew Paris, Helinand de Froidment and Aubri des Trois Fontaines and based their assessments on \"the common talk of the day\".", "In this way, gossip and rumour, ofter prefaced by ''ut dicibatur'' (as it was said) became included in the records of the times and then into later histories and biographies.", "Among modern biographies, one of the first by Amy Kelly (1950), while relying on literary sources but not historical records is \"legend focussed\" and highly romanticised in a way that cannot be substantiated.In the absence of much reliable information about Eleanor herself, biographers have largely focused on the people around her and the political and cultural events of her time.", "Her importance lies not so much on who she was, as what she was.", "In the words of one chronicler \"wife of two kings, and mother of three\", while her longevity allowed her to be an influence on many people who had shorter life spans.It was not uncommon in contemporary literature, for authors to dedicate their works to nobility, seeking favours, but this does not imply the latter were involved with or were responsible for the work being produced.", "But this has led to much speculation as to whether allusions to Eleanor apeared in such work.", "Thus, Philippe de Thaon presented a copy of his bestiary to Eleaanor in 1154, including a dedication seeking her to use her influence on the king to advance his family interests.", "(Turner 2009) Layamon, in his translation of Wace's ''Brut'', one of many retellings of the Arthurian legend, claimed it was dedicated to Eleanor.", "(Turner 2009) Eleanor's daughter, Marie commissioned Chrétien de Troyes to produce a French version of the legend." ], [ "See also", "* House of Plantagenet* Angevin Empire* Capetians* House of Capet* Grandmother of Europe, sobriquet of Eleanor of Aquitaine and others* List of longest-reigning monarchs" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations", "=== Footnotes ====== Bibliography ======= Books ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===== Historical sources =====* * * * * * * ===== Biography (chronological) =====* * * * * ; * * * * * * * ** * * * ** ** ** ** ** * * ** * * * * ** ;Fiction* * * * * * * * * === Chapters ===* , in * , in * , in * , in ==== Articles and theses ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Theses* * * * ==== Encyclopaedias ====* * * ==== Websites ====* * * * * }* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epistle to Philemon" ], [ "Introduction", "Papyrus 87 (Gregory-Aland), recto.", "The earliest known fragment of the Epistle to Philemon, believed to date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century.The '''Epistle to Philemon''' is one of the books of the Christian New Testament.", "It is a prison letter, authored by Paul the Apostle (the opening verse also mentions Timothy), to Philemon, a leader in the Colossian church.", "It deals with the themes of forgiveness and reconciliation.", "Paul does not identify himself as an apostle with authority, but as \"a prisoner of Jesus Christ\", calling Timothy \"our brother\", and addressing Philemon as \"fellow labourer\" and \"brother\" ().", "Onesimus, a slave that had departed from his master Philemon, was returning with this epistle wherein Paul asked Philemon to receive him as a \"brother beloved\" ().Philemon was a wealthy Christian, possibly a bishop of the church that met in his home () in Colossae.", "This letter is now generally regarded as one of the undisputed works of Paul.", "It is the shortest of Paul's extant letters, consisting of only 335 words in the Greek text." ], [ "Composition", "The Epistle to Philemon was composed around AD 57–62 by Paul while in prison at Caesarea Maritima (early date) or more likely from Rome (later date) in conjunction with the composition of Colossians.===Authorship===The Epistle to Philemon is attributed to the apostle Paul, and this attribution has rarely been questioned by scholars.", "Along with six others, it is numbered among the \"undisputed letters\", which are widely considered to be authentically Pauline.", "The main challenge to the letter's authenticity came from a group of German scholars in the nineteenth century known as the Tübingen School.", "Their leader, Ferdinand Christian Baur, only accepted four New Testament epistles as genuinely written by Paul: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians and Galatians.", "Commenting on Philemon, Baur described the subject matter as \"so very singular as to arouse our suspicions\", and concluded that it is perhaps a \"Christian romance serving to convey a genuine Christian idea\".", "This view is now largely considered to be outdated and finds no support in modern scholarship.The opening verse of the salutation also names Timothy alongside Paul.", "This, however, does not mean that Timothy was the epistle's co-author.", "Rather, Paul regularly mentions others in the address if they have a particular connection with the recipient.", "In this case, Timothy may have encountered Philemon while accompanying Paul in his work in Ephesus.===Occasion===According to the majority interpretation, Paul wrote this letter on behalf of Onesimus, a runaway slave who had wronged his owner Philemon.", "The details of the offence are unstated, although it is often assumed that Onesimus had fled after stealing money, as Paul states in verse 18 that if Onesimus owes anything, Philemon should charge this to Paul's account.", "Sometime after leaving, Onesimus came into contact with Paul, although again the details are unclear.", "He may have been arrested and imprisoned alongside Paul.", "Alternatively, he may have previously heard Paul's name (as his owner was a Christian) and so travelled to him for help.", "After meeting Paul, Onesimus became a Christian believer.", "An affection grew between them, and Paul would have been glad to keep Onesimus with him.", "However, he considered it better to send him back to Philemon with an accompanying letter, which aimed to effect reconciliation between them as Christian brothers.", "The preservation of the letter suggests that Paul's request was granted.Onesimus' status as a runaway slave was challenged by Allen Dwight Callahan in an article published in the ''Harvard Theological Review'' and in a later commentary.", "Callahan argues that, beyond verse 16, \"nothing in the text conclusively indicates that Onesimus was ever the chattel of the letter's chief addressee.", "Moreover, the expectations fostered by the traditional fugitive slave hypothesis go unrealized in the letter.", "Modern commentators, even those committed to the prevailing interpretation, have tacitly admitted as much.\"", "Callahan argues that the earliest commentators on this work – the homily of Origen and the Anti-Marcion Preface – are silent about Onesimus' possible servile status, and traces the origins of this interpretation to John Chrysostom, who proposed it in his ''Homiliae in epistolam ad Philemonem'', during his ministry in Antioch, circa 386–398.In place of the traditional interpretation, Callahan suggests that Onesimus and Philemon are brothers both by blood and religion, but who have become estranged, and the intent of this letter was to reconcile the two men.", "Ben Witherington III has challenged Callahan's interpretation as a misreading of Paul's rhetoric.", "Further, Margaret M. Mitchell has demonstrated that a number of writers before Chrysostom either argue or assume that Onesimus was a runaway slave, including Athanasius, Basil of Caesarea and Ambrosiaster.The only extant information about Onesimus apart from this letter is found in Paul's epistle to the Colossians 4:7–9, where Onesimus is called \"a faithful and beloved brother\":===Recipient===The letter is addressed to Philemon, Apphia and Archippus, and the church in Philemon's house.", "Philemon is described as a \"fellow worker\" of Paul.", "It is generally assumed that he lived in Colossae; in the letter to the Colossians, Onesimus (the slave who fled from Philemon) and Archippus (whom Paul greets in the letter to Philemon) are described as members of the church there.", "Philemon may have converted to Christianity through Paul's ministry, possibly in Ephesus.", "Apphia in the salutation is probably Philemon's wife.", "Some have speculated that Archippus, described by Paul as a \"fellow soldier\", is the son of Philemon and Apphia.The Scottish Pastor John Knox proposed that Onesimus' owner was in fact Archippus, and the letter was addressed to him rather than Philemon.", "In this reconstruction, Philemon would receive the letter first and then encourage Archippus to release Onesimus so that he could work alongside Paul.", "This view, however, has not found widespread support.", "In particular, Knox's view has been challenged on the basis of the opening verses.", "According to O'Brien, the fact that Philemon's name is mentioned first, together with the use of the phrase \"in your house\" in verse 2, makes it unlikely that Archippus was the primary addressee.", "Knox further argued that the letter was intended to be read aloud in the Colossian church in order to put pressure on Archippus.", "A number of commentators, however, see this view as contradicting the tone of the letter.", "J.", "B. Lightfoot, for example, wrote: \"The tact and delicacy of the Apostle's pleading for Onesimus would be nullified at one stroke by the demand for publication.\"" ], [ "Content", "===Greeting and introduction (1–3)===The opening salutation follows a typical pattern found in other Pauline letters.", "Paul first introduces himself, with a self-designation as a \"prisoner of Jesus Christ,\" which in this case refers to a physical imprisonment.", "He also mentions his associate Timothy, as a valued colleague who was presumably known to the recipient.", "As well as addressing the letter to Philemon, Paul sends greetings to Apphia, Archippus and the church that meets in Philemon's house.", "Apphia is often presumed to be Philemon's wife and Archippus, a \"fellow labourer\", is sometimes suggested to be their son.", "Paul concludes his salutation with a prayerful wish for grace and peace.===Thanksgiving and intercession (4–7)===Before addressing the main topic of the letter, Paul continues with a paragraph of thanksgiving and intercession.", "This serves to prepare the ground for Paul's central request.", "He gives thanks to God for Philemon's love and faith and prays for his faith to be effective.", "He concludes this paragraph by describing the joy and comfort he has received from knowing how Philemon has shown love towards the Christians in Colossae.===Paul's plea for Onesimus (8–20)===As a background to his specific plea for Onesimus, Paul clarifies his intentions and circumstances.", "Although he has the boldness to command Philemon to do what would be right in the circumstances, he prefers to base his appeal on his knowledge of Philemon's love and generosity.", "He also describes the affection he has for Onesimus and the transformation that has taken place with Onesimus's conversion to the Christian faith.", "Where Onesimus was \"useless\", now he is \"useful\" – a wordplay, as Onesimus means \"useful\".", "Paul indicates that he would have been glad to keep Onesimus with him, but recognised that it was right to send him back.", "Paul's specific request is for Philemon to welcome Onesimus as he would welcome Paul, namely as a Christian brother.", "He offers to pay for any debt created by Onesimus' departure and expresses his desire that Philemon might refresh his heart in Christ.===Conclusion and greetings (21–25)===In the final section of the letter, Paul describes his confidence that Philemon would do even more than he had requested, perhaps indicating his desire for Onesimus to return to work alongside him.", "He also mentions his wish to visit and asks Philemon to prepare a guest room.", "Paul sends greetings from five of his co-workers and concludes the letter with a benediction." ], [ "Themes", "Paul uses slavery vs. freedom language more often in his writings as a metaphor.", "At this time slavery was common, and can be seen as a theme in the book of Philemon.", "Slavery was most commonly found in households.", "This letter, seemingly, provided alleviation of suffering of some slaves due to the fact that Paul placed pastoral focus on the issue.Although it is a main theme, Paul does not label slavery as negative or positive.", "Rather than deal with the morality of slavery directly, he undermines the foundation of slavery which is dehumanization of other human beings.", "Some scholars, but not Paul, see it as unthinkable in the times to even question ending slavery.", "Because slavery was so ingrained into society that the “abolitionist would have been at the same time an insurrectionist, and the political effects of such a movement would have been unthinkable.\"", "Paul viewed slavery as an example of a human institution of dehumanization, and believed that all human institutions were about to fade away.", "This may be because Paul had the perspective that Jesus would return soon.", "Paul viewed his present world as something that was swiftly passing away.", "This is a part of Pauline Christianity and theology.When it comes to Onesimus and his circumstance as a slave, Paul felt that Onesimus should return to Philemon but not as a slave; rather, under a bond of familial love.", "Paul also was not suggesting that Onesimus be punished, in spite of the fact that Roman law allowed the owner of a runaway slave nearly unlimited privileges of punishment, even execution.", "This is a concern of Paul and a reason he is writing to Philemon, asking that Philemon accept Onesimus back in a bond of friendship, forgiveness, and reconciliation.", "Paul is undermining this example of a human institution which dehumanizes people.", "Onesimus, like Philemon, belongs to Christ, and so \"Christ, and not Philemon, has a claim on Onesimus' honor and obedience.", "\"Verses 13–14 suggest that Paul wants Philemon to send Onesimus back to Paul (possibly freeing him for the purpose).", "Marshall, Travis and Paul write, \"Paul hoped that it might be possible for Onesimus to spend some time with him as a missionary colleague...", "If that is not a request for Onesimus to join Paul’s circle, I do not know what more would need to be said\"." ], [ "Significance", "Sarah Ruden, in her ''Paul Among the People'' (2010), argues that in the letter to Philemon, Paul created the Western conception of the individual human being, \"unconditionally precious to God and therefore entitled to the consideration of other human beings.\"", "Before Paul, Ruden argues, a slave was considered subhuman, and entitled to no more consideration than an animal.Diarmaid MacCulloch, in his ''A History of Christianity'', described the epistle as \"a Christian foundation document in the justification of slavery\".In order to better appreciate the Book of Philemon, it is necessary to be aware of the situation of the early Christian community in the Roman Empire; and the economic system of Classical Antiquity based on slavery.", "According to the Epistle to Diognetus: ''For the Christians are distinguished from other men neither by country, nor language, nor the customs which they observe...", "They are in the flesh, but they do not live after the flesh.", "They pass their days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven.", "They obey the prescribed laws, and at the same time surpass the laws by their lives''.Pope Benedict XVI refers to this letter in his encyclical letter, ''Spe salvi'', highlighting the power of Christianity as power of the transformation of society:" ], [ "See also", "* Textual variants in the Epistle to Philemon* Christian views on slavery* Letter 47 (Seneca)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* J. M. G. Barclay, ''Colossians and Philemon'', Sheffield Academic Press, 1997 * N. T. Wright, ''Colossians and Philemon'', Tyndale IVP, 1986" ], [ "External links", "* (full English translation, King James version)* Various versions" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elliptic-curve cryptography" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elliptic-curve cryptography''' ('''ECC''') is an approach to public-key cryptography based on the algebraic structure of elliptic curves over finite fields.", "ECC allows smaller keys compared to non-EC cryptography (based on plain Galois fields) to provide equivalent security.Elliptic curves are applicable for key agreement, digital signatures, pseudo-random generators and other tasks.", "Indirectly, they can be used for encryption by combining the key agreement with a symmetric encryption scheme.", "They are also used in several integer factorization algorithms that have applications in cryptography, such as Lenstra elliptic-curve factorization." ], [ "History", "The use of elliptic curves in cryptography was suggested independently by Neal Koblitz and Victor S. Miller in 1985.Elliptic curve cryptography algorithms entered wide use in 2004 to 2005.In 1999, NIST recommended fifteen elliptic curves.", "Specifically, FIPS 186-4 has ten recommended finite fields:* Five prime fields for certain primes ''p'' of sizes 192, 224, 256, 384, and bits.", "For each of the prime fields, one elliptic curve is recommended.", "* Five binary fields for ''m'' equal 163, 233, 283, 409, and 571.For each of the binary fields, one elliptic curve and one Koblitz curve was selected.The NIST recommendation thus contains a total of five prime curves and ten binary curves.", "The curves were chosen for optimal security and implementation efficiency.At the RSA Conference 2005, the National Security Agency (NSA) announced Suite B, which exclusively uses ECC for digital signature generation and key exchange.", "The suite is intended to protect both classified and unclassified national security systems and information.", "National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has endorsed elliptic curve cryptography in its Suite B set of recommended algorithms, specifically elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) for key exchange and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) for digital signature.", "The NSA allows their use for protecting information classified up to top secret with 384-bit keys.Recently, a large number of cryptographic primitives based on bilinear mappings on various elliptic curve groups, such as the Weil and Tate pairings, have been introduced.", "Schemes based on these primitives provide efficient identity-based encryption as well as pairing-based signatures, signcryption, key agreement, and proxy re-encryption.Elliptic curve cryptography is used successfully in numerous popular protocols, such as Transport Layer Security and Bitcoin.=== Security concerns ===In 2013, ''The New York Times'' stated that Dual Elliptic Curve Deterministic Random Bit Generation (or Dual_EC_DRBG) had been included as a NIST national standard due to the influence of NSA, which had included a deliberate weakness in the algorithm and the recommended elliptic curve.", "RSA Security in September 2013 issued an advisory recommending that its customers discontinue using any software based on Dual_EC_DRBG.", "In the wake of the exposure of Dual_EC_DRBG as \"an NSA undercover operation\", cryptography experts have also expressed concern over the security of the NIST recommended elliptic curves, suggesting a return to encryption based on non-elliptic-curve groups.Additionally, in August 2015, the NSA announced that it plans to replace Suite B with a new cipher suite due to concerns about quantum computing attacks on ECC.=== Patents ===While the RSA patent expired in 2000, there may be patents in force covering certain aspects of ECC technology, including at least one ECC scheme (ECMQV).", "However, RSA Laboratories and Daniel J. Bernstein have argued that the US government elliptic curve digital signature standard (ECDSA; NIST FIPS 186-3) and certain practical ECC-based key exchange schemes (including ECDH) can be implemented without infringing those patents." ], [ "Elliptic curve theory", "For the purposes of this article, an ''elliptic curve'' is a plane curve over a finite field (rather than the real numbers) which consists of the points satisfying the equation:: along with a distinguished point at infinity, denoted ∞.", "The coordinates here are to be chosen from a fixed finite field of characteristic not equal to 2 or 3, or the curve equation would be somewhat more complicated.This set of points, together with the group operation of elliptic curves, is an abelian group, with the point at infinity as an identity element.", "The structure of the group is inherited from the divisor group of the underlying algebraic variety:: === Application to cryptography ===Public-key cryptography is based on the intractability of certain mathematical problems.", "Early public-key systems, such as RSA's 1983 patent, based their security on the assumption that it is difficult to factor a large integer composed of two or more large prime factors.", "For later elliptic-curve-based protocols, the base assumption is that finding the discrete logarithm of a random elliptic curve element with respect to a publicly known base point is infeasible (the computational Diffie–Hellman assumption): this is the \"elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem\" (ECDLP).", "The security of elliptic curve cryptography depends on the ability to compute a point multiplication and the inability to compute the multiplicand given the original point and product point.", "The size of the elliptic curve, measured by the total number of discrete integer pairs satisfying the curve equation, determines the difficulty of the problem.The primary benefit promised by elliptic curve cryptography over alternatives such as RSA is a smaller key size, reducing storage and transmission requirements.", "For example, a 256-bit elliptic curve public key should provide comparable security to a 3072-bit RSA public key.=== Cryptographic schemes ===Several discrete logarithm-based protocols have been adapted to elliptic curves, replacing the group with an elliptic curve:* The Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) key agreement scheme is based on the Diffie–Hellman scheme,* The Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme (ECIES), also known as Elliptic Curve Augmented Encryption Scheme or simply the Elliptic Curve Encryption Scheme,* The Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) is based on the Digital Signature Algorithm,* The deformation scheme using Harrison's p-adic Manhattan metric,* The Edwards-curve Digital Signature Algorithm (EdDSA) is based on Schnorr signature and uses twisted Edwards curves,* The ECMQV key agreement scheme is based on the MQV key agreement scheme,* The ECQV implicit certificate scheme." ], [ "Implementation", "Some common implementation considerations include:=== Domain parameters ===To use ECC, all parties must agree on all the elements defining the elliptic curve, that is, the ''domain parameters'' of the scheme.", "The size of the field used is typically either prime (and denoted as p) or is a power of two (); the latter case is called ''the binary case'', and this case necessitates the choice of an auxiliary curve denoted by ''f''.", "Thus the field is defined by ''p'' in the prime case and the pair of ''m'' and ''f'' in the binary case.", "The elliptic curve is defined by the constants ''a'' and ''b'' used in its defining equation.", "Finally, the cyclic subgroup is defined by its generator (a.k.a.", "''base point'') ''G''.", "For cryptographic application, the order of ''G'', that is the smallest positive number ''n'' such that (the point at infinity of the curve, and the identity element), is normally prime.", "Since ''n'' is the size of a subgroup of it follows from Lagrange's theorem that the number is an integer.", "In cryptographic applications, this number ''h'', called the ''cofactor'', must be small () and, preferably, .", "To summarize: in the prime case, the domain parameters are ; in the binary case, they are .Unless there is an assurance that domain parameters were generated by a party trusted with respect to their use, the domain parameters ''must'' be validated before use.The generation of domain parameters is not usually done by each participant because this involves computing the number of points on a curve which is time-consuming and troublesome to implement.", "As a result, several standard bodies published domain parameters of elliptic curves for several common field sizes.", "Such domain parameters are commonly known as \"standard curves\" or \"named curves\"; a named curve can be referenced either by name or by the unique object identifier defined in the standard documents:* NIST, Recommended Elliptic Curves for Government Use* SECG, SEC 2: Recommended Elliptic Curve Domain Parameters* ECC Brainpool (), ECC Brainpool Standard Curves and Curve Generation SECG test vectors are also available.", "NIST has approved many SECG curves, so there is a significant overlap between the specifications published by NIST and SECG.", "EC domain parameters may be specified either by value or by name.If, despite the preceding admonition, one decides to construct one's own domain parameters, one should select the underlying field and then use one of the following strategies to find a curve with appropriate (i.e., near prime) number of points using one of the following methods:* Select a random curve and use a general point-counting algorithm, for example, Schoof's algorithm or the Schoof–Elkies–Atkin algorithm,* Select a random curve from a family which allows easy calculation of the number of points (e.g., Koblitz curves), or* Select the number of points and generate a curve with this number of points using the ''complex multiplication'' technique.Several classes of curves are weak and should be avoided:* Curves over with non-prime ''m'' are vulnerable to Weil descent attacks.", "* Curves such that ''n'' divides (where ''p'' is the characteristic of the field: ''q'' for a prime field, or for a binary field) for sufficiently small ''B'' are vulnerable to Menezes–Okamoto–Vanstone (MOV) attack which applies usual discrete logarithm problem (DLP) in a small-degree extension field of to solve ECDLP.", "The bound ''B'' should be chosen so that discrete logarithms in the field are at least as difficult to compute as discrete logs on the elliptic curve .", "* Curves such that are vulnerable to the attack that maps the points on the curve to the additive group of .=== Key sizes ===Because all the fastest known algorithms that allow one to solve the ECDLP (baby-step giant-step, Pollard's rho, etc.", "), need steps, it follows that the size of the underlying field should be roughly twice the security parameter.", "For example, for 128-bit security one needs a curve over , where .", "This can be contrasted with finite-field cryptography (e.g., DSA) which requires 3072-bit public keys and 256-bit private keys, and integer factorization cryptography (e.g., RSA) which requires a 3072-bit value of ''n'', where the private key should be just as large.", "However, the public key may be smaller to accommodate efficient encryption, especially when processing power is limited.The hardest ECC scheme (publicly) broken to date had a 112-bit key for the prime field case and a 109-bit key for the binary field case.", "For the prime field case, this was broken in July 2009 using a cluster of over 200 PlayStation 3 game consoles and could have been finished in 3.5 months using this cluster when running continuously.", "The binary field case was broken in April 2004 using 2600 computers over 17 months.A current project is aiming at breaking the ECC2K-130 challenge by Certicom, by using a wide range of different hardware: CPUs, GPUs, FPGA.=== Projective coordinates ===A close examination of the addition rules shows that in order to add two points, one needs not only several additions and multiplications in but also an inversion operation.", "The inversion (for given find such that ) is one to two orders of magnitude slower than multiplication.", "However, points on a curve can be represented in different coordinate systems which do not require an inversion operation to add two points.", "Several such systems were proposed: in the ''projective'' system each point is represented by three coordinates using the following relation: , ; in the ''Jacobian system'' a point is also represented with three coordinates , but a different relation is used: , ; in the ''López–Dahab system'' the relation is , ; in the ''modified Jacobian'' system the same relations are used but four coordinates are stored and used for calculations ; and in the ''Chudnovsky Jacobian'' system five coordinates are used .", "Note that there may be different naming conventions, for example, IEEE P1363-2000 standard uses \"projective coordinates\" to refer to what is commonly called Jacobian coordinates.", "An additional speed-up is possible if mixed coordinates are used.=== Fast reduction (NIST curves) ===Reduction modulo ''p'' (which is needed for addition and multiplication) can be executed much faster if the prime ''p'' is a pseudo-Mersenne prime, that is ; for example, or Compared to Barrett reduction, there can be an order of magnitude speed-up.", "The speed-up here is a practical rather than theoretical one, and derives from the fact that the moduli of numbers against numbers near powers of two can be performed efficiently by computers operating on binary numbers with bitwise operations.The curves over with pseudo-Mersenne ''p'' are recommended by NIST.", "Yet another advantage of the NIST curves is that they use ''a'' = −3, which improves addition in Jacobian coordinates.According to Bernstein and Lange, many of the efficiency-related decisions in NIST FIPS 186-2 are suboptimal.", "Other curves are more secure and run just as fast." ], [ "Security", "=== Side-channel attacks ===Unlike most other DLP systems (where it is possible to use the same procedure for squaring and multiplication), the EC addition is significantly different for doubling (''P'' = ''Q'') and general addition (''P'' ≠ ''Q'') depending on the coordinate system used.", "Consequently, it is important to counteract side-channel attacks (e.g., timing or simple/differential power analysis attacks) using, for example, fixed pattern window (a.k.a.", "comb) methods (note that this does not increase computation time).", "Alternatively one can use an Edwards curve; this is a special family of elliptic curves for which doubling and addition can be done with the same operation.", "Another concern for ECC-systems is the danger of fault attacks, especially when running on smart cards.=== Backdoors ===Cryptographic experts have expressed concerns that the National Security Agency has inserted a kleptographic backdoor into at least one elliptic curve-based pseudo random generator.", "Internal memos leaked by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden suggest that the NSA put a backdoor in the Dual EC DRBG standard.", "One analysis of the possible backdoor concluded that an adversary in possession of the algorithm's secret key could obtain encryption keys given only 32 bytes of PRNG output.The SafeCurves project has been launched in order to catalog curves that are easy to implement securely and are designed in a fully publicly verifiable way to minimize the chance of a backdoor.=== Quantum computing attack ===Shor's algorithm can be used to break elliptic curve cryptography by computing discrete logarithms on a hypothetical quantum computer.", "The latest quantum resource estimates for breaking a curve with a 256-bit modulus (128-bit security level) are 2330 qubits and 126 billion Toffoli gates.", "For the binary elliptic curve case, 906 qubits are necessary (to break 128 bits of security).", "In comparison, using Shor's algorithm to break the RSA algorithm requires 4098 qubits and 5.2 trillion Toffoli gates for a 2048-bit RSA key, suggesting that ECC is an easier target for quantum computers than RSA.", "All of these figures vastly exceed any quantum computer that has ever been built, and estimates place the creation of such computers at a decade or more away.Supersingular Isogeny Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange claimed to provide a post-quantum secure form of elliptic curve cryptography by using isogenies to implement Diffie–Hellman key exchanges.", "This key exchange uses much of the same field arithmetic as existing elliptic curve cryptography and requires computational and transmission overhead similar to many currently used public key systems.", "However, new classical attacks undermined the security of this protocol.In August 2015, the NSA announced that it planned to transition \"in the not distant future\" to a new cipher suite that is resistant to quantum attacks.", "\"Unfortunately, the growth of elliptic curve use has bumped up against the fact of continued progress in the research on quantum computing, necessitating a re-evaluation of our cryptographic strategy.", "\"=== Invalid curve attack ===When ECC is used in virtual machines, an attacker may use an invalid curve to get a complete PDH private key." ], [ "Alternative representations", "Alternative representations of elliptic curves include:* Hessian curves* Edwards curves* Twisted curves* Twisted Hessian curves* Twisted Edwards curve* Doubling-oriented Doche–Icart–Kohel curve* Tripling-oriented Doche–Icart–Kohel curve* Jacobian curve* Montgomery curves" ], [ "See also", "* Cryptocurrency* Curve25519* FourQ* DNSCurve* RSA (cryptosystem)* ECC patents* Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH)* Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA)* EdDSA* ECMQV* Elliptic curve point multiplication* Homomorphic signatures for network coding* Hyperelliptic curve cryptography* Pairing-based cryptography* Public-key cryptography* Quantum cryptography* Supersingular isogeny key exchange* BLS digital signature" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Standards for Efficient Cryptography Group (SECG), SEC 1: Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Version 1.0, September 20, 2000.", "( archived as of Nov 11, 2014)* D. Hankerson, A. Menezes, and S.A. Vanstone, ''Guide to Elliptic Curve Cryptography'', Springer-Verlag, 2004.", "* I. Blake, G. Seroussi, and N. Smart, ''Elliptic Curves in Cryptography'', London Mathematical Society 265, Cambridge University Press, 1999.", "* I. Blake, G. Seroussi, and N. Smart, editors, ''Advances in Elliptic Curve Cryptography'', London Mathematical Society 317, Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "* L. Washington, ''Elliptic Curves: Number Theory and Cryptography'', Chapman & Hall / CRC, 2003.", "* The Case for Elliptic Curve Cryptography, National Security Agency (archived January 17, 2009)* Online Elliptic Curve Cryptography Tutorial, Certicom Corp. (archived here as of March 3, 2016)* K. Malhotra, S. Gardner, and R. Patz, Implementation of Elliptic-Curve Cryptography on Mobile Healthcare Devices, Networking, Sensing and Control, 2007 IEEE International Conference on, London, 15–17 April 2007 Page(s):239–244* Saikat Basu, A New Parallel Window-Based Implementation of the Elliptic Curve Point Multiplication in Multi-Core Architectures, International Journal of Network Security, Vol.", "13, No.", "3, 2011, Page(s):234–241 (archived here as of March 4, 2016)* Christof Paar, Jan Pelzl, \"Elliptic Curve Cryptosystems\", Chapter 9 of \"Understanding Cryptography, A Textbook for Students and Practitioners\".", "(companion web site contains online cryptography course that covers elliptic curve cryptography), Springer, 2009.", "(archived here as of April 20, 2016)* Luca De Feo, David Jao, Jerome Plut, Towards quantum-resistant cryptosystems from supersingular elliptic curve isogenies, Springer 2011.", "(archived here as of May 7, 2012)* Gustavo Banegas, Daniel J. Bernstein, Iggy Van Hoof, Tanja Lange, Concrete quantum cryptanalysis of binary elliptic curves, Springer 2020.", "(archived here as of June 1, 2020)* Jacques Vélu, ''Courbes elliptiques (...)'', Société Mathématique de France, '''57''', 1-152, Paris, 1978." ], [ "External links", "* Elliptic Curves at Stanford University* Interactive introduction to elliptic curves and elliptic curve cryptography with Sage by Maike Massierer and the CrypTool team*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EDM" ], [ "Introduction", "'''EDM''' or '''E-DM''' may refer to:" ], [ "Music", "* Electronic dance music* Early Day Miners, American band" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Electric dipole moment* Electrical discharge machining* Electronic distance measurement*Entry, Descent, and landing demonstrator Module, like the Schiaparelli EDM**See also: Entry, descent and landing (EDL)===Computing===* Educational data mining* Electronic document management* Empirical dynamic modeling* Enterprise data management* Enterprise data modeling* Enterprise decision management* Entity Data Model* Euclidean distance matrix* Experiment-directed metadynamics" ], [ "Places", "* Edmonton, Alberta, Canada* Edmonds station, Edmonds, Washington, United States* Edward-Dean Museum & Gardens, Cherry Valley, California, United States" ], [ "Politics", "* Early day motion" ], [ "Other uses", "* Electronic Direct Mail.", "See Email marketing * Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines of the World Health Organization* Event-driven marketing* Master of Education (Ed.M.", ")* Electricidade de Moçambique, energy company of Mozambique* ''Einsatzstaffel der Deutschen Mannschaft'', Croatian collaborationist military unit" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eightfold path (policy analysis)" ], [ "Introduction", "__NOTOC__The '''eightfold path''' is a method of policy analysis assembled by Eugene Bardach, a professor at the Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California, Berkeley.", "It is outlined in his book ''A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem Solving'', which is now in its seventh edition.", "The book is commonly referenced in public policy and public administration scholarship.Bardach's procedure is as follows:# Define the problem# Assemble the evidence# Construct the alternatives# Select the criteria# Project the outcomes# Confront the trade-offs# Decide# Tell your storyA possible ninth step, based on Bardach's own writing, might be \"repeat steps 1–8 as necessary.", "\"The method is named after the Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path, but otherwise has no relation to it." ], [ "The New York taxi driver test", "The New York taxi driver test is a technique for evaluating the effectiveness of communication between policy makers and analysts.", "Bardach contends that policy explanations must be clear and down-to-earth enough for a taxi driver to be able to understand the premise during a trip through city streets.", "The New York taxi driver is presumed to be both a non-specialist and a tough customer." ], [ "See also", "* Policy analysis" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* WorldCat Library Catalog: ''A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eden Project" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eden Project''' () is a visitor attraction in Cornwall, England.", "The project is located in a reclaimed china clay pit, located from the town of St Blazey and from the larger town of St Austell.The complex is dominated by two huge enclosures consisting of adjoining domes that house thousands of plant species, and each enclosure emulates a natural biome.", "The biomes consist of hundreds of hexagonal and pentagonal ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) inflated cells supported by geodesic tubular steel domes.", "The larger of the two biomes simulates a rainforest environment (and is the largest indoor rainforest in the world) and the second, a Mediterranean environment.", "The attraction also has an outside botanical garden which is home to many plants and wildlife native to Cornwall and the UK in general; it also has many plants that provide an important and interesting backstory, for example, those with a prehistoric heritage.There are plans to build an Eden Project North in the seaside town of Morecambe, Lancashire, with a focus on the marine environment." ], [ "History", "Driftwood sculpture of a horse by Heather Jansch, from the main entranceEden Project sculpture Made from the detritus of modern living—the teeth are computer mice''Eve'', by Sue and Pete Hill, shaped from the soilThe clay pit in which the project is sited was in use for over 160 years.", "In 1981, the pit was used by the BBC as the planet surface of Magrathea in the TV series ''the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''.", "By the mid-1990s the pit was all but exhausted.The initial idea for the project dates back to 1996, with construction beginning in 1998.The work was hampered by torrential rain in the first few months of the project, and parts of the pit flooded as it sits below the water table.The first part of the Eden Project, the visitor centre, opened to the public in May 2000.The first plants began arriving in September of that year, and the full site opened on 17 March 2001.To counter criticism from environmental groups, the Eden Project committed to investigate a rail link to the site.", "The rail link was never built, and car parking on the site is still funded from revenue generated from general admission ticket sales.The Eden Project was used as a filming location for the 2002 James Bond film ''Die Another Day''.", "On 2 July 2005 The Eden Project hosted the \"Africa Calling\" concert of the Live 8 concert series.", "It has also provided some plants for the British Museum's Africa garden.In 2005, the Project launched \"A Time of Gifts\" for the winter months, November to February.", "This features an ice rink covering the lake, with a small café-bar attached, as well as a Christmas market.", "Cornish choirs regularly perform in the biomes.In 2007, the Eden Project campaigned unsuccessfully for £50 million in Big Lottery Fund money for a proposed desert biome.", "It received just 12.07% of the votes, the lowest for the four projects being considered.", "As part of the campaign, the Eden Project invited people all over Cornwall to try to break the world record for the biggest ever pub quiz as part of its campaign to bring £50 million of lottery funds to Cornwall.In December 2009, much of the project, including both greenhouses, became available to navigate through Google Street View.The Eden Trust revealed a trading loss of £1.3 million for 2012–13, on a turnover of £25.4 million.", "The Eden Project had posted a surplus of £136,000 for the previous year.", "In 2014 Eden accounts showed a surplus of £2 million.The World Pasty Championships, an international competition to find the best Cornish pasties and other pasty-type savoury snacks, have been held at the Eden Project since 2012.The Eden Project is said to have contributed over £1 billion to the Cornish economy.", "In 2016, Eden became home to Europe's second-largest redwood forest (after the Giants Grove at Birr Castle, Birr Castle, Ireland) when forty saplings of coast redwoods, ''Sequoia sempervirens'', which could live for 4,000 years and reach 115 metres in height, were planted there.The Eden Project received 1,010,095 visitors in 2019.In December 2020 the project was closed after heavy rain caused several landslips at the site.", "Managers at the site are assessing the damage and will announce when the project will reopen on the company's website.", "Reopening became irrelevant as Covid lockdown measures in the UK indefinitely closed the venue from early 2021, though it had reopened by May 2021 after remedial works had taken place.", "The site was used for an event during the 2021 G7 Summit, hosted by the United Kingdom." ], [ "Design and construction", "The project was conceived by Tim Smit and Jonathan Ball, and designed by Grimshaw Architects and structural engineering firm Anthony Hunt Associates (now part of Sinclair Knight Merz).", "Davis Langdon carried out the project management, Sir Robert McAlpine and Alfred McAlpine did the construction, MERO jointly designed and built the biome steel structures, the ETFE pillows that build the façade were realized by Vector Foiltec, and Arup was the services engineer, economic consultant, environmental engineer and transportation engineer.", "Land Use Consultants led the masterplan and landscape design.", "The project took 2½ years to construct and opened to the public on 17 March 2001." ], [ "Site", "Panoramic view of the geodesic biome domes at the Eden Project=== Layout ===''The Bee''Once into the attraction, there is a meandering path with views of the two biomes, planted landscapes, including vegetable gardens, and sculptures that include a giant bee and previously The WEEE Man (removed in 2016), a towering figure made from old electrical appliances and was meant to represent the average electrical waste used by one person in a lifetime.=== Biomes ===At the bottom of the pit are two covered biomes:The Rainforest Biome, covers and measures high, wide, and long.", "It is used for tropical plants, such as fruiting banana plants, coffee, rubber, and giant bamboo, and is kept at a tropical temperature and moisture level.The Rainforest BiomeThe Mediterranean Biome covers and measures high, wide, and long.", "It houses familiar warm temperate and arid plants such as olives and grape vines and various sculptures.The Outdoor Gardens represent the temperate regions of the world with plants such as tea, lavender, hops, hemp, and sunflowers, as well as local plant species.The covered biomes are constructed from a tubular steel (hex-tri-hex) with mostly hexagonal external cladding panels made from the thermoplastic ETFE.", "Glass was avoided due to its weight and potential dangers.", "The cladding panels themselves are created from several layers of thin UV-transparent ETFE film, which are sealed around their perimeter and inflated to create a large cushion.", "The resulting cushion acts as a thermal blanket to the structure.", "The ETFE material is resistant to most stains, which simply wash off in the rain.", "If required, cleaning can be performed by abseilers.", "Although the ETFE is susceptible to punctures, these can be easily fixed with ETFE tape.", "The structure is completely self-supporting, with no internal supports, and takes the form of a geodesic structure.", "The panels vary in size up to across, with the largest at the top of the structure.The ETFE technology was supplied and installed by the firm Vector Foiltec, which is also responsible for ongoing maintenance of the cladding.", "The steel spaceframe and cladding package (with Vector Foiltec as ETFE subcontractor) was designed, supplied and installed by MERO (UK) PLC, who also jointly developed the overall scheme geometry with the architect, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners.The entire build project was managed by McAlpine Joint Venture.File:Eden Project Winter 2008 showing Bruce Munro field of Light.JPG|The Biomes and Link building showing Field of Light installation by Bruce MunroFile:Eden Project - tropical canopy.jpg|Inside the Rainforest BiomeFile:The Eden Project, Cornwall.JPG|The Biomes (or eco domes) at The Eden Project in CornwallFile:EdenProjectRoof.jpg|The hexagonal structure looking from the insideFile:Eden Project from air Fossick.jpg|Aerial View=== The Core ===The CoreThe Core is the latest addition to the site and opened in September 2005.It provides the Eden Project with an education facility, incorporating classrooms and exhibition spaces designed to help communicate Eden's central message about the relationship between people and plants.", "Accordingly, the building has taken its inspiration from plants, most noticeable in the form of the soaring timber roof, which gives the building its distinctive shape.Grimshaw developed the geometry of the copper-clad roof in collaboration with a sculptor, Peter Randall-Page, and Mike Purvis of structural engineers SKM Anthony Hunts.", "It is derived from phyllotaxis, which is the mathematical basis for nearly all plant growth; the \"opposing spirals\" found in many plants such as the seeds in a sunflower's head, pine cones, and pineapples.", "The copper was obtained from traceable sources, and the Eden Project is working with Rio Tinto Group to explore the possibility of encouraging further traceable supply routes for metals, which would enable users to avoid metals mined unethically.", "The services and acoustic, mechanical, and electrical engineering design was carried out by Buro Happold.==== Art at The Core ====''Seed'' by Peter Randall-PageThe Core is also home to art exhibitions throughout the year.", "A permanent installation entitled ''Seed'', by Peter Randall-Page, occupies the anteroom.", "''Seed'' is a large, 70 tonne egg-shaped stone installation standing some tall and displaying a complex pattern of protrusions that are based upon the geometric and mathematical principles that underlie plant growth." ], [ "Environmental aspects", "The biomes provide diverse growing conditions, and many plants are on display.The Eden Project includes environmental education focusing on the interdependence of plants and people; plants are labelled with their medicinal uses.", "The massive amounts of water required to create the humid conditions of the Tropical Biome, and to serve the toilet facilities, are all sanitised rain water that would otherwise collect at the bottom of the quarry.", "The only mains water used is for hand washing and for cooking.", "The complex also uses Green Tariff Electricity – the energy comes from one of the many wind turbines in Cornwall, which were among the first in Europe.In December 2010 the Eden Project received permission to build a geothermal electricity plant which will generate approx 4MWe, enough to supply Eden and about 5000 households.", "The project will involve geothermal heating as well as geothermal electricity.", "Cornwall Council and the European Union came up with the greater part of £16.8m required to start the project.", "First a well will be sunk nearly 3 miles (4.5 km) into the granite crust underneath Eden.Eden co-founder, Sir Tim Smit said, \"Since we began, Eden has had a dream that the world should be powered by renewable energy.", "The sun can provide massive solar power and the wind has been harnessed by humankind for thousands of years, but because both are intermittent and battery technology cannot yet store all we need there is a gap.", "We believe the answer lies beneath our feet in the heat underground that can be accessed by drilling technology that pumps water towards the centre of the Earth and brings it back up superheated to provide us with heat and electricity\".Drilling began in May 2021, and it was expected the project would be completed by 2023." ], [ "Other projects", "=== Eden Project Morecambe ===In 2018, the Eden Project revealed its design for a new version of the project, located on the seafront in Morecambe, Lancashire.", "There will be biomes shaped like mussels and a focus on the marine environment.", "There will also be reimagined lidos, gardens, performance spaces, immersive experiences, and observatories.Grimshaw are the architects for the project, which is expected to cost £80 million.", "The project is a partnership with the Lancashire Enterprise Partnership, Lancaster University, Lancashire County Council, and Lancaster City Council.", "In December 2018, the four local partners agreed to provide £1 million to develop the idea, which allowed the development of an outline planning application for the project.", "It is expected that there will be 500 jobs created and 8,000 visitors a day to the site.", "Having been granted planning permission in January 2022 and with £50 million of levelling-up funding granted in January 2023, it is due to open in 2026 and predicted to benefit the North West economy by £200 million per year.===Eden Project Dundee===In May 2020, the Eden Project revealed plans to establish their first attraction in Scotland, and named Dundee as the proposed site of the location.", "The city's Camperdown Park was widely touted to be the proposed location of the new attraction however in May 2021, it was announced that the Eden Project had chosen the site of the former gasworks in Dundee as the location.", "It was planned that the new development would result in 200 new jobs and \"contribute £27m a year to the regional economy\".", "The project is in partnership with Dundee City Council, the University of Dundee and the Northwood Charitable Trust.In 2021, Eden Project announced that they would establish fourteen hectares of new wildflower habitat in areas across Dundee, including Morgan Academy and Caird Park.In July 2023, new images were released depicting what the Dundee attraction would look which accompanied the planning permission documents for the new attraction which would be submitted by autumn 2023.===South Downs===In 2020, Eastbourne Borough Council and the Eden Project announced a joint project to explore the viability of a new Eden site in the South Downs National Park.===Qingdao, China===In 2015, the Eden Project announced that it had reached an agreement to construct an Eden site in Qingdao, China.", "While the site had originally been slated to open by 2020, construction fell behind schedule due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the opening date was delayed to 2023.The new site is expected to focus on \"water\" and its central role in civilization and nature.===Eden Project New Zealand===A planned Eden Project for the New Zealand city of Christchurch, to be called Eden Project New Zealand/Eden Project Aotearoa, is expected to be inaugurated in 2025.It is to be centred close to the Avon River, on a site largely razed as a result of the 2011 Christchurch Earthquake." ], [ "Eden Sessions", "Since 2002, the Project has hosted a series of musical performances, called the Eden Sessions, usually held during the summer.", "The 2024 sessions will be headlined by Fatboy Slim, Suede, Manic Street Preachers, The National, JLS, Crowded House, Rick Astley, Tom Grennan and Paolo Nutini.=== Lineup history === Date Headliner Supporting Act(s)20025 JulyPulpChilly Gonzales and British Sea Power6 JulySpiritualizedBeth Orton and Six by Seven12 JulyDovesThe Soundtrack of Our Lives and The Rapture20031 AugustBadly Drawn BoyThe Thrills5 AugustMobyThe Orb15 AugustPJ HarveyElbow22 AugustWorld of Music, Arts and Dance200416 JulyBrian Wilson6 AugustPrimal Scream13 AugustAirSuper Furry Animals20 AugustSupergrassThe Beta Band27 AugustWorld of Music, Arts and Dance20052 JulyLive 8: Africa Calling1 AugustKeaneEditors19 AugustEmbraceHard-Fi26 AugustBasement JaxxLady Sovereign27 AugustIan BrownBadly Drawn Boy and British Sea Power200612 AugustThe Magic NumbersJosé González22 AugustMuseHey Molly and Nixon and the Burn25 AugustGoldfrappLadytron27 AugustSnow PatrolRocco DeLuca and Liam Frost200720 JunePeter Gabriel2 JulyJames Morrison10 JulyRufus WainwrightHot Chip17 JulyAmy WinehouseLeon Jean-Marie18 JulyLily AllenMark Ronson22 JulyPet Shop BoysDirty Pretty Things200827 JuneThe Verve29 JuneThe RaconteursVampire Weekend11 JulyBill Bailey15 JulyKaiser ChiefsWhite Lies and Late of the Pier25 JulyKT TunstallGuillemots and Sons and Daughters20094 JulyKasabian9 JulyRazorlightThe Maccabees10 JulyPaul WellerFlorence and the Machine14 JulyOasis18 JulyThe KooksLadyhawke201026 JuneJack JohnsonMojave 327 JuneMikaDiana Vickers2 JulyDovesMumford & Sons3 JulyCalvin HarrisAudio Bullys9 JulyAl MurrayGreg Davies and Craig Campbell13–14 JulyPaolo NutiniMartha Wainwright201123 JunePrimal ScreamThe Horrors and Seth Lakeman25 JunePendulumPretty Lights30 JuneThe Flaming LipsThe Go!", "Team and OK Go1 JulyFleet FoxesVillagers and The Bees12 JulyBrandon FlowersMystery Jets and Crowns201223 JuneTim MinchinCraig Campbell30 JuneExampleRudimental1 JulyFrank TurnerStornoway, Bellowhead, Mull Historical Society, Seth Lakeman, The Staves, and Dodgy4 JulyChase & StatusLabrinth6 JulyPlan BBebe Black8 JulyBlink-182Crowns, The Computers, Bangers, and Black Tambourines11 JulyNoah and the WhaleThe Vaccines20133 JuneEddie Izzard29 JuneKaiser ChiefsTom Tom Club and Deap Vally30 JuneSigur RósDaughter and Willy Mason2 JulyThe xxCHIC (featuring Nile Rodgers)13–14 JulyJessie JA*M*E201421 JuneDizzee RascalKaty B and Backbeat Soundsystem25 JuneSkrillex8 JulyEllie GouldingKwabs9 JulyPixiesTricot14–15 JulyElbowJimi Goodwin201512 JunePaolo NutiniThe Staves and Harry Collier16–17 JuneElton John24 JunePaloma FaithLiam Bailey27 JuneMotörheadThe Stranglers and King Creature9 JulySpandau BalletRusty Egan17 JulyBen HowardJoe Pug201614–15 JuneLionel RichieCorinne Bailey Rae22 JuneJess GlynneJay Prince26 JuneTom Jones27 JunePJ HarveyJehnny Beth9 JulyManic Street PreachersBill Ryder-Jones and The Anchoress201715 JuneBastilleRationale16 JuneMadnessBackbeat Soundsystem22 JuneRoyal BloodTurbowolf23 JuneBlondieDodgy1 JulyVan MorrisonPaul O'Brady6 JulyBryan Adams11 JulyFoalsEverything Everything20186 JuneGary BarlowJason Brock15–16 JuneMassive AttackYoung Fathers23 JuneLevellersNew Model Army and Reef30 JuneBen HowardGwenno3 JulyQueens of the Stone AgeCRX5 JulyJack JohnsonNick Mulvey7 JulyBjörkLanark Artefax and Klein201920 JuneStereophonicsSea Girls and The Wind and The Wave21 & 23 JuneNile Rodgers & CHICKokoroko, Doves, Dreadzone, Asian Dub Foundation, Bill Jefferson, and Backbeat Soundsystem26 JuneLiam GallagherFontaines D.C. and The Velvet Hands28 JuneThe Chemical BrothersJames Holroyd2–3 JulyKylie MinogueNina Nesbitt202111 September Ben HowardFemmes De La Mer12 September McFlyUltra Violets14 September Royal BloodThe Mysterines16 September Snow PatrolLucy Blue17 September The ScriptWard Thomas18 September IdlesSpectres and Black Honey202216–17 MayMy Chemical RomanceFrank Turner and LostAlone15 JuneNoel Gallagher’s High Flying BirdsConfidence Man17–18 JuneNine Inch NailsNitzer Ebb and Yves Tumor21 JuneDiana RossDJ Offline29 JuneBryan Adams5 JulyStereophonicsHimalayas20237 JuneLionel RichieGabrielle10 JuneYungbludCrawlers18 JuneThe War on DrugsBeth Orton23 JuneJack JohnsonHollie Cook24 JuneIncubusLealani and Far From Saints28 JunePet Shop BoysMike Pickering1 JulyKasabianMiles Kane7 JulyAnne-MarieRachel Chinouriri25 JulyThe WhoSimon Townshend" ], [ "In the media", "The Eden Project has appeared in various television shows and films such as the James Bond film ''Die Another Day'', ''The Bad Education Movie'', in the Netflix series ''The Last Bus'', and in the CBeebies show ''Andy's Aquatic Adventure''.A weekly radio show called ''The Eden Radio Project'' is held every Thursday afternoon on Radio St Austell Bay.On 18 November 2019, on the ''Trees A Crowd'' podcast, David Oakes would interview the Eden Project's Head of Interpretation, Dr Jo Elworthy, about the site." ], [ "See also", "* BIOS-3* Biosphere 2* Closed ecological system* IBTS Greenhouse* Montreal Biodome* Montreal Biosphère* Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory (\"The Domes\" of Milwaukee)* Ecosystem* Vivarium* The Lost Gardens of Heligan* List of topics related to Cornwall* Earthpark* Sir Richard Carew Pole* Thin-shell structure* List of thin shell structures" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Philip McMillan Browse, Louise Frost, Alistair Griffiths: ''Plants of Eden (Eden Project)''.", "Penzance 2001: Alison Hodge.", "* Richard Mabey: ''Fencing Paradise: Exploring the Gardens of Eden'' London 2005: Eden Project Books.", "* Hugh Pearman, Andrew Whalley: ''The Architecture of Eden''.", "With a foreword by Sir Nicholas Grimshaw.", "London 2003: Eden Project Books.", "* Eden Team (Ed.", "): ''Eden Project: The Guide 2008/9.''", "London 2008: Eden Project Books.", "* Tim Smit: ''Eden''.", "London 2001: Bantam Press.", "* Paul Spooner: ''The Revenge of the Green Planet: The Eden Project Book of Amazing Facts About Plants''.", "London 2003: Eden Project Books.", "* Alan Titchmarsh: ''The Eden Project''.", "United Kingdom: Acorn Media, 2006.." ], [ "External links", "* * Eden Sessions Website—Official site for live gigs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "European Commission" ], [ "Introduction", "Berlaymont building, seat of the European CommissionThe '''European Commission''' ('''EC''') is part of the executive of the European Union (EU).", "It operates as a cabinet government, with 27 members of the Commission (directorial system, informally known as \"Commissioners\") headed by a President.", "It includes an administrative body of about 32,000 European civil servants.", "The commission is divided into departments known as Directorates-General (DGs) that can be likened to departments or ministries each headed by a Director-General who is responsible to a Commissioner.There is one member per member state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.", "The Commission President (currently Ursula von der Leyen) is proposed by the European Council (the 27 heads of state/governments) and elected by the European Parliament.", "The Council of the European Union then nominates the other members of the Commission in agreement with the nominated President, and the 27 members as a team are then subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament.", "The current Commission is the Von der Leyen Commission, which took office in December 2019, following the European Parliament elections in May of the same year." ], [ "History", "The European Commission derives from one of the five key institutions created in the supranational European Community system, following the proposal of Robert Schuman, French Foreign Minister, on 9 May 1950.Originating in 1951 as the High Authority in the European Coal and Steel Community, the commission has undergone numerous changes in power and composition under various presidents, involving three Communities.===Establishment===The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member \"High Authority\" under President Jean Monnet (see Monnet Authority).", "The High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).", "It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg City.", "In 1958, the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC: the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).", "However, their executives were called \"Commissions\" rather than \"High Authorities\".", "The reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council.", "Some states, such as France, expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority and wished to limit it by giving more power to the Council rather than the new executives.Walter Hallstein, the first President of the CommissionLouis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom.", "Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse.", "It achieved agreement on a contentious cereal price accord, as well as making a positive impression upon third countries when it made its international debut at the Kennedy Round of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations.", "Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation.", "Little heed was taken of his administration at first but, with help from the European Court of Justice, his Commission stamped its authority solidly enough to allow future Commissions to be taken more seriously.", "In 1965, however, accumulating differences between the French government of Charles de Gaulle and the other member states on various subjects (British entry, direct elections to Parliament, the Fouchet Plan and the budget) triggered the \"empty chair\" crisis, ostensibly over proposals for the Common Agricultural Policy.", "Although the institutional crisis was solved the following year, it cost Étienne Hirsch his presidency of Euratom and later Walter Hallstein the EEC presidency, despite his otherwise being viewed as the most 'dynamic' leader until Jacques Delors.===Early development===The three bodies, collectively named the '''European Executives''', co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, they were combined into a single administration under President Jean Rey.", "Owing to the merger, the Rey Commission saw a temporary increase to 14 members—although subsequent Commissions were reduced back to nine, following the formula of one member for small states and two for larger states.", "The Rey Commission completed the Community's customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament.", "Despite Rey being the first President of the combined communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission.The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation and the first enlargement to the north in 1973.With that enlargement, the College of Commissioners membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission (the United Kingdom as a large member was granted two Commissioners), which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time.", "The external representation of the Community took a step forward when President Roy Jenkins, recruited to the presidency in January 1977 from his role as Home Secretary of the United Kingdom's Labour government, became the first President to attend a G8 summit on behalf of the Community.", "Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorn's Commission oversaw the Community's enlargement to the south, in addition to beginning work on the Single European Act.===Jacques Delors===Delors, one of the most notable presidents in the commission's historyThe Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism.", "Delors and his College are also considered as the \"founding fathers of the euro\".", "The ''International Herald Tribune'' noted the work of Delors at the end of his second term in 1992: \"Mr. Delors rescued the European Community from the doldrums.", "He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst.", "Although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission.", "In his first term, from 1985 to 1988, he rallied Europe to the call of the single market, and when appointed to a second term he began urging Europeans toward the far more ambitious goals of economic, monetary, and political union\".===Jacques Santer===The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer.", "As a result of a fraud and corruption scandal, the entire Santer Commission was forced by the Parliament to resign in 1999; a central role was played by Édith Cresson.", "These frauds were revealed by an internal auditor, Paul van Buitenen.That was the first time a College of Commissioners had been forced to resign ''en masse'', and represented a shift of power towards the Parliament.", "However, the Santer Commission did carry out work on the Treaty of Amsterdam and the euro.", "In response to the scandal, the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) was created.===Romano Prodi===Following Santer, Romano Prodi took office.", "The Amsterdam Treaty had increased the commission's powers and Prodi was dubbed by the press as something akin to a Prime Minister.", "Powers were strengthened again; the Treaty of Nice, signed in 2001, gave the Presidents more power over the composition of the College of Commissioners.===José Manuel Barroso===José Manuel Barroso became president in 2004: the Parliament once again asserted itself in objecting to the proposed membership of the Barroso Commission.", "Owing to this opposition, Barroso was forced to reshuffle his College before taking office.", "The Barroso Commission was also the first full Commission since the enlargement in 2004 to 25 members; hence, the number of Commissioners at the end of the Prodi Commission had reached 30.As a result of the increase in the number of states, the Amsterdam Treaty triggered a reduction in the number of Commissioners to one per state, rather than two for the larger states.Allegations of fraud and corruption were again raised in 2004 by former chief auditor Jules Muis.", "A Commission officer, Guido Strack, reported alleged fraud and abuses in his department in the years 2002–2004 to OLAF, and was fired as a result.", "In 2008, Paul van Buitenen (the former auditor known from the Santer Commission scandal) accused the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) of a lack of independence and effectiveness.Barroso's first Commission term expired on 31 October 2009.Under the Treaty of Nice, the first Commission to be appointed after the number of member states reached 27 would have to be reduced to \"less than the number of Member States\".", "The exact number of Commissioners was to be decided by a unanimous vote of the European Council, and membership would rotate equally between member states.", "Following the accession of Romania and Bulgaria in January 2007, this clause took effect for the next Commission.", "The Treaty of Lisbon, which came into force on 1 December 2009, mandated a reduction of the number of commissioners to two-thirds of member-states from 2014 unless the Council decided otherwise.", "Membership would rotate equally and no member state would have more than one Commissioner.", "However, the treaty was rejected by voters in Ireland in 2008 with one main concern being the loss of their Commissioner.", "Hence a guarantee given for a rerun of the vote was that the council would use its power to amend the number of Commissioners upwards.", "However, according to the treaties it still has to be fewer than the total number of members, thus it was proposed that the member state that does not get a Commissioner would get the post of High Representative – the so-called 26+1 formula.", "This guarantee (which may find its way into the next treaty amendment, probably in an accession treaty) contributed to the Irish approving the treaty in a second referendum in 2009.Lisbon also combined the posts of European Commissioner for External Relations with the council's High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy.", "This post, also a Vice-President of the Commission, would chair the Council of the European Union's foreign affairs meetings as well as the commission's external relations duties.", "The treaty further provides that the most recent European elections should be \"''taken into account''\" when appointing the President of the European Commission, and although they are still proposed by the European Council; the European Parliament \"''elects''\" candidates to the office, rather than \"''approves''\" them as under the Treaty of Nice.The Barroso Commission is, in reaction to Euroscepticism, said to have toned down enforcement to increase integration.===Jean-Claude Juncker===In 2014, Jean-Claude Juncker became President of the European Commission.Juncker appointed his previous campaign director and head of the transition team, Martin Selmayr, as his chief of cabinet.", "During the Juncker presidency Selmayr has been described as \"the most powerful EU chief of staff ever.", "\"===Ursula von der Leyen===President von der LeyenIn 2019, Ursula von der Leyen was appointed as President of the European Commission.", "She submitted the guidelines of her policy to the European Parliament on 16 July 2019, following her confirmation.", "She had not been considered a likely candidate (in general, the elected candidate is determined, according to the results of the European election, as winner of the internal election into the dominant European party known as \"spitzenkandidat\").", "While the European People's Party had won the European Parliament election, they had performed worse than expected and therefore nominated von der Leyen instead of Manfred Weber, their original candidate.", "On 9 September, the Council of the European Union declared a list of candidate-commissioners, which are sent to Brussels by the governments of each member state and which had to be officially approved by the parliament." ], [ "Powers and functions", "The commission was set up from the start to act as an independent supranational authority separate from governments; it has been described as \"the only body paid to think European\".", "The members are proposed by their member state governments, one from each.", "However, they are bound to act independently – free from other influences such as those governments which appointed them.", "This is in contrast to the Council of the European Union, which represents governments, the European Parliament, which represents citizens, the Economic and Social Committee, which represents organised civil society, and the Committee of the Regions, which represents local and regional authorities.Through Article 17 of the Treaty on European Union the commission has several responsibilities: to develop medium-term strategies; to draft legislation and arbitrate in the legislative process; to represent the EU in trade negotiations; to make rules and regulations, for example in competition policy; to draw up the budget of the European Union; and to scrutinise the implementation of the treaties and legislation.", "The rules of procedure of the European Commission set out the commission's operation and organisation.===Executive power===Before the Treaty of Lisbon came into force, the executive power of the EU was held by the council: it conferred on the Commission such powers for it to exercise.", "However, the council was allowed to withdraw these powers, exercise them directly, or impose conditions on their use.", "This aspect has been changed by the Treaty of Lisbon, after which the Commission exercises its powers just by virtue of the treaties.", "Powers are more restricted than most national executives, in part due to the commission's lack of power over areas like foreign policy – that power is held by the Council of the European Union and the European Council, which some analysts have described as another executive.Considering that under the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Council has become a formal institution with the power of appointing the commission, it could be said that the two bodies hold the executive power of the EU (the European Council also holds individual national executive powers).", "However, it is the Commission that currently holds most of the executive power over the European Union.===Legislative initiative===The Commission differs from the other institutions in that it alone has legislative initiative in the EU.", "Only the commission can make formal proposals for legislation: they cannot originate in the legislative branches.", "Under the Treaty of Lisbon, no legislative act is allowed in the field of the Common Foreign and Security Policy.", "In the other fields, the Council and Parliament can request legislation; in most cases the Commission initiates on the basis of these proposals.", "This monopoly is designed to ensure coordinated and coherent drafting of EU law.", "This monopoly has been challenged by some who claim the Parliament should also have the right, with most national parliaments holding the right in some respects.", "However, the Council and Parliament may request the commission to draft legislation, though the Commission does have the power to refuse to do so as it did in 2008 over transnational collective conventions.", "Under the Lisbon Treaty, EU citizens are also able to request the commission to legislate in an area via a petition carrying one million signatures, but this is not binding.The commission's powers in proposing law have usually centred on economic regulation.", "It has put forward a large number of regulations based on a \"precautionary principle\".", "This means that pre-emptive regulation takes place if there is a credible hazard to the environment or human health: for example on tackling climate change and restricting genetically modified organisms.", "The European Commission has committed EU member states to carbon neutrality by 2050.This is opposed to weighting regulations for their effect on the economy.", "Thus, the Commission often proposes stricter legislation than other countries.", "Owing to the size of the European market, this has made EU legislation an important influence in the global market.", "On February 23, 2022, the European Commission published the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive which establishes a framework of due diligence for companies to identify actual or potential risks and harm to human rights and the environment as well as establishing processes and standards to diminish these risks.", "The Directive is expected to be officially adopted in 2024 and then be incorporated into domestic laws within two years by all of the European Union member states.Recently the commission has moved into creating European criminal law.", "In 2006, a toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the commission to look into legislation against toxic waste.", "at that time did not even have a crime against shipping toxic waste; this led the Commissioners Franco Frattini and Stavros Dimas to put forward the idea of \"ecological crimes\".", "Their right to propose criminal law was challenged in the European Court of Justice but upheld.", "As of 2007, the only other criminal law proposals which have been brought forward are on the intellectual property rights directive, and on an amendment to the 2002 counter-terrorism framework decision, outlawing terrorism‑related incitement, recruitment (especially via the internet) and training.===Enforcement===Once legislation is passed by the Council and Parliament, it is the commission's responsibility to ensure it is implemented.", "It does this through the member states or through its agencies.", "In adopting the necessary technical measures, the commission is assisted by committees made up of representatives of member states and of the public and private lobbies (a process known in jargon as \"comitology\").", "Furthermore, the commission is responsible for the implementation of the EU budget, ensuring, along with the Court of Auditors, that EU funds are correctly spent.In particular the commission has a duty to ensure the treaties and law are upheld, potentially by taking member states or other institutions to the Court of Justice in a dispute.", "In this role it is known informally as the \"Guardian of the Treaties\".", "Finally, the Commission provides some external representation for the Union, alongside the member states and the Common Foreign and Security Policy, representing the Union in bodies such as the World Trade Organization.", "It is also usual for the President to attend meetings of the G7." ], [ "College", "The commission is composed of a college of \"Commissioners\" of members, including the President and vice-presidents.", "Even though each member is nominated on the basis of the suggestions made by the national governments, one per state, they do not represent their state in the commission.", "In practice, however, they do occasionally press for their national interest.", "Once proposed, the President delegates portfolios among each of the members.", "The power of a Commissioner largely depends upon their portfolio, and can vary over time.", "For example, the Education Commissioner has been growing in importance, in line with the rise in the importance of education and culture in European policy-making.", "Another example is the Competition Commissioner, who holds a highly visible position with global reach.", "Before the commission can assume office, the college as a whole must be approved by the Parliament.", "Commissioners are supported by their personal cabinet who give them political guidance, while the Civil Service (the DGs, see below) deal with technical preparation.===Appointment===Floor 13 of the Berlaymont, Commission's meeting roomThe President of the Commission is first proposed by the European Council, following a Qualified Majority Vote (QMV), taking into account the latest parliamentary elections (any person from the largest party can be picked); that candidate then faces a formal election in the European Parliament.", "Thus this serves as a form of indirect election.", "If the European Parliament fails to elect the candidate, the European Council shall propose another within one month.Following the selection of the President, and the appointment of the High Representative by the European Council, each Commissioner is nominated by their member state (except for those states who provided the President and High Representative) in consultation with the Commission President, who is responsible for the allocation of portfolios.", "The President's proposed College of Commissioners is then subject to hearings at the European Parliament which will question them and then vote on their suitability as a whole.", "If the European Parliament submits a negative opinion of a candidate, the President must either reshuffle them or request a new candidate from the member state to avoid the college's outright rejection by the European Parliament.", "Once the college is approved by parliament, it is formally appointed following a QMV vote by the European Council.Following the college's appointment, the President appoints a number of Vice-Presidents from among the commissioners.", "Vice-Presidents manage policy areas involving multiple Commissioners.", "One of these includes the High Representative, who is automatically one of the Vice-Presidents ''ex officio'' rather than by appointment and confirmation.", "Commonly referred to as the 'HR/VP' position, the High Representative also coordinates commissioners' activities involving the external relations and defence cooperation of the European Union.", "The von der Leyen Commission also created the position of more senior Executive Vice-Presidents, appointed from the three largest political groups in the European Parliament.", "Unlike the other vice-presidents, their mission is to manage the incumbent Commission's top priority policy areas, for which they receive additional support from a dedicated Directorate-General.===Dismissal===The European Parliament can dissolve the College of Commissioners as a whole following a vote of no-confidence, which requires a two-thirds vote.Only the President can request the resignation of an individual Commissioner.", "However, individual Commissioners, by request of the council or Commission, can be compelled to retire on account of a breach of obligation(s) and if so ruled by the European Court of Justice (Art.", "245 and 247, Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union).===Political styles===The Barroso Commission took office in late 2004 after being delayed by objections from the Parliament, which forced a reshuffle.", "In 2007 the Commission increased from 25 to 27 members with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria who each appointed their own Commissioners.", "With the increasing size of the commission, Barroso adopted a more presidential style of control over the college, which earned him some criticism.However, under Barroso, the commission began to lose ground to the larger member states as countries such as France, the UK and Germany sought to sideline its role.", "This has increased with the creation of the President of the European Council under the Treaty of Lisbon.", "There has also been a greater degree of politicisation within the Commission." ], [ "Administration", "Cypriot politician Androulla Vassiliou was European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth between 2010 and 2014.The commission is divided into departments known as Directorates-General (DGs) that can be likened to departments or ministries.", "Each covers a specific policy area such as agriculture or justice and citizens' rights or internal services such as human resources and translation and is headed by a director-general who is responsible to a commissioner.", "A commissioner's portfolio can be supported by numerous DGs; they prepare proposals for them and if approved by a majority of commissioners proposals go forward to the Parliament and Council for consideration.", "The Commission's civil service is headed by a Secretary General.", "The position is currently held by Ilze Juhansone.", "The rules of procedure of the European Commission set out the commission's operation and organisation.There has been criticism from a number of people that the highly fragmented DG structure wastes a considerable amount of time in turf wars as the different departments and Commissioners compete with each other.", "Furthermore, the DGs can exercise considerable control over a Commissioner with the Commissioner having little time to learn to assert control over their staff.According to figures published by the commission, 23,803 persons were employed by the commission as officials and temporary agents in September 2012.In addition to these, 9230 \"external staff\" (e.g.", "Contractual agents, detached national experts, young experts, trainees etc.)", "were employed.", "The single largest DG is the Directorate-General for Translation, with a 2309-strong staff, while the largest group by nationality is Belgian (18.7%), probably due to a majority (17,664) of staff being based in the country.===Press===Press Room in the BerlaymontCommunication with the press is handled by the Directorate-General Communication.", "The commission's chief spokesperson is Eric Mamer who holds the midday press briefings, commonly known as the \"Midday Presser\".", "It takes place every weekday in the commission's press room at the Berlaymont where journalists may ask questions to the Commission officials on any topic and legitimately expect to get an \"on the record\" answer for live TV.", "Such a situation is unique in the world.As an integral part of the Directorate-General for Communication, the Spokesperson's Service, in coordination with the Executive Communication Adviser in the President's Cabinet, supports the President and Commissioners so that they can communicate effectively.", "On political communication matters, the chief spokesperson reports directly to the President of the European Commission.It has been noted by one researcher that the press releases issued by the commission are uniquely political.", "A release often goes through several stages of drafting which emphasises the role of the commission and is used \"for justifying the EU and the Commission\" increasing their length and complexity.", "Where there are multiple departments involved a press release can also be a source of competition between areas of the Commission and Commissioners themselves.", "This also leads to an unusually high number of press releases, and is seen as a unique product of the EU's political set-up.There is a larger press corps in Brussels than Washington, D.C.; in 2020, media outlets in every Union member-state had a Brussels correspondent.", "Although there has been a worldwide cut in journalists, the considerable press releases and operations such as Europe by Satellite and EuroparlTV leads many news organisations to believe they can cover the EU from these source and news agencies.", "In the face of high-level criticism, the Commission shut down Presseurop on 20 December 2013." ], [ "Legitimacy and criticism", "As the commission is the executive branch, candidates are chosen individually by the national governments.", "Within the EU, the legitimacy of the commission is mainly drawn from the vote of approval that is required from the European Parliament, along with its power to dismiss the body.", "Eurosceptics have therefore raised the concern of the relatively low turnout (often less than 50%) in elections for the European Parliament since 1999.While that figure may be higher than that of some national elections, including the off-year elections of the United States Congress, the fact that there are no direct elections for the position of Commission President calls the position's legitimacy into question in the eyes of some Eurosceptics.", "The fact that the commission can directly decide (albeit with oversight from specially formed 'comitology committees') on the shape and character of implementing legislation further raises concerns about democratic legitimacy.Even though democratic structures and methods are changing there is not such a mirror in creating a European civil society.", "The Treaty of Lisbon may go some way to resolving the perceived deficit in creating greater democratic controls on the commission, including enshrining the procedure of linking elections to the selection of the Commission president.", "Historically, the commission had indeed been seen as a technocratic expert body which, akin with institutions such as independent central banks, deals with technical areas of policy and therefore ought to be removed from party politics.", "From this viewpoint, electoral pressures would undermine the commission's role as an independent regulator.", "Defenders of the Commission point out that legislation must be approved by the Council in all areas (the ministers of member states) and the European Parliament in most areas before it can be adopted, thus the amount of legislation which is adopted in any one country without the approval of its government is limited.In 2009 the European ombudsman published statistics of citizens' complaints against EU institutions, with most of them filed against the commission (66%) and concerning lack of transparency (36%).", "In 2010 the commission was sued for blocking access to documents on EU biofuel policy.", "This happened after media accused the Commission of blocking scientific evidence against biofuel subsidies.", "Lack of transparency, unclear lobbyist relations, conflicts of interests and excessive spending of the commission was highlighted in a number of reports by internal and independent auditing organisations.", "It has also been criticised on IT-related issues, particularly with regard to Microsoft.In September 2020, the European Commission put forward an Anti-Racism Action Plan to tackle the structural racism in the European Union, including measures to address the lack of racial diversity among the European decision makers in Brussels, as denounced by the #BrusselsSoWhite movement." ], [ "Initiatives", "===Anti-terrorism===The European Commission has an Action Plan to enhance preparedness against chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) security risks as part of its anti-terrorism package released in October 2017.In recent times Europe has seen an increased threat level of CBRN attacks.", "As such, the European Commission's preparedness plan is important, said Steven Neville Chatfield, a director for the Centre for Emergency Preparedness and Response in the United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency.", "For the first time, the European Commission proposed that medical preparedness for CBRN attack threats is a high priority.", "\"The European Commission's (EC) Action Plan to enhance preparedness against CBRN security risks is part of its anti-terrorism package released in October 2017, a strategy aimed at better protecting the more than 511 million citizens across the 27 member states of the European Union (EU).", "\"===COVID-19 response===The European Commission organized a video conference of world leaders on 4 May 2020 to raise funds for COVID-19 vaccine development.", "US$8 billion was raised.The European Commission issued a new multi-year data plan in February 2020 pushing the digitalization of all aspects of EU society for the benefit of civic and economic growth.The goal of this data strategy is to create a single market for data in which data flows across the EU and across sectors while maintaining full respect for privacy and data protection, where access rules are fair, and where the European economy benefits enormously as a global player as a result of the new data economy." ], [ "Location", "Headquarters of the European Commission in Brussels (Berlaymont building)The commission's political seat is in Brussels with the President's office and the commission's meeting room on the 13th floor of the Berlaymont building.", "The commission also operates out of numerous other buildings in Brussels and Luxembourg City.", "When the Parliament is meeting in Strasbourg, the Commissioners also meet there in the Winston Churchill building to attend the Parliament's debates.", "The Members of the Commission and their \"cabinets\" (immediate teams) are also based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels.", "Additionally, the European Commission has in-house scientific facilities that support it in: Ispra, Italy; Petten, the Netherlands; Karlsruhe, Germany; Geel, Belgium and Seville, Spain.", "In Grange, County Meath, Ireland there is a Commission site hosting part of DG Santè." ], [ "See also", "* European Free Trade Association Surveillance Authority* List of European Commissioners by nationality* EU Open Data Portal* European Data Portal" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* European Commission European Commission welcome page – Retrieved 12 May 2016.", "* Access to documents of the European Commission on EUR-Lex* Documents of the European Commission are consultable at the Historical Archives of the EU in Florence.", "* European Commissions on CVCE website – Multimedia website with historical information on the European integration Studies.", "No such material is found on the page.", "This page contains a legal Notice and warning about copyrighted material.", "Retrieved 18 April 2013.", "* Statue of Europe.", "Retrieved 10 October 2012.", "* Spokesperson's Service.", "Retrieved 16 September 2023." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Linear filter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Linear filters''' process time-varying input signals to produce output signals, subject to the constraint of linearity.", "In most cases these linear filters are also time invariant (or shift invariant) in which case they can be analyzed exactly using LTI (\"linear time-invariant\") system theory revealing their transfer functions in the frequency domain and their impulse responses in the time domain.", "Real-time implementations of such linear signal processing filters in the time domain are inevitably causal, an additional constraint on their transfer functions.", "An analog electronic circuit consisting only of linear components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, and linear amplifiers) will necessarily fall in this category, as will comparable mechanical systems or digital signal processing systems containing only linear elements.", "Since linear time-invariant filters can be completely characterized by their response to sinusoids of different frequencies (their frequency response), they are sometimes known as frequency filters.Non real-time implementations of linear time-invariant filters need not be causal.", "Filters of more than one dimension are also used such as in image processing.", "The general concept of linear filtering also extends into other fields and technologies such as statistics, data analysis, and mechanical engineering." ], [ "Impulse response and transfer function", "A linear time-invariant (LTI) filter can be uniquely specified by its impulse response ''h'', and the output of any filter is mathematically expressed as the convolution of the input with that impulse response.", "The frequency response, given by the filter's transfer function , is an alternative characterization of the filter.", "Typical filter design goals are to realize a particular frequency response, that is, the magnitude of the transfer function ; the importance of the phase of the transfer function varies according to the application, inasmuch as the shape of a waveform can be distorted to a greater or lesser extent in the process of achieving a desired (amplitude) response in the frequency domain.", "The frequency response may be tailored to, for instance, eliminate unwanted frequency components from an input signal, or to limit an amplifier to signals within a particular band of frequencies.The impulse response ''h'' of a linear time-invariant causal filter specifies the output that the filter would produce if it were to receive an input consisting of a single impulse at time 0.An \"impulse\" in a continuous time filter means a Dirac delta function; in a discrete time filter the Kronecker delta function would apply.", "The impulse response completely characterizes the response of any such filter, inasmuch as any possible input signal can be expressed as a (possibly infinite) combination of weighted delta functions.", "Multiplying the impulse response shifted in time according to the arrival of each of these delta functions by the amplitude of each delta function, and summing these responses together (according to the superposition principle, applicable to all linear systems) yields the output waveform.Mathematically this is described as the convolution of a time-varying input signal ''x(t)'' with the filter's impulse response ''h'', defined as:: or:.The first form is the continuous-time form, which describes mechanical and analog electronic systems, for instance.", "The second equation is a discrete-time version used, for example, by digital filters implemented in software, so-called ''digital signal processing''.", "The impulse response ''h'' completely characterizes any linear time-invariant (or shift-invariant in the discrete-time case) filter.", "The input ''x'' is said to be \"convolved\" with the impulse response ''h'' having a (possibly infinite) duration of time ''T'' (or of ''N'' sampling periods).Filter design consists of finding a possible transfer function that can be implemented within certain practical constraints dictated by the technology or desired complexity of the system, followed by a practical design that realizes that transfer function using the chosen technology.", "The complexity of a filter may be specified according to the order of the filter.Among the time-domain filters we here consider, there are two general classes of filter transfer functions that can approximate a desired frequency response.", "Very different mathematical treatments apply to the design of filters termed infinite impulse response (IIR) filters, characteristic of mechanical and analog electronics systems, and finite impulse response (FIR) filters, which can be implemented by discrete time systems such as computers (then termed ''digital signal processing'').===Infinite impulse response filters ===Consider a physical system that acts as a linear filter, such as a system of springs and masses, or an analog electronic circuit that includes capacitors and/or inductors (along with other linear components such as resistors and amplifiers).", "When such a system is subject to an impulse (or any signal of finite duration) it responds with an output waveform that lasts past the duration of the input, eventually decaying exponentially in one or another manner, but never completely settling to zero (mathematically speaking).", "Such a system is said to have an infinite impulse response (IIR).", "The convolution integral (or summation) above extends over all time: T (or N) must be set to infinity.For instance, consider a damped harmonic oscillator such as a pendulum, or a resonant L-C tank circuit.", "If the pendulum has been at rest and we were to strike it with a hammer (the \"impulse\"), setting it in motion, it would swing back and forth (\"resonate\"), say, with an amplitude of 10 cm.", "After 10 minutes, say, the pendulum would still be swinging but the amplitude would have decreased to 5 cm, half of its original amplitude.", "After another 10 minutes its amplitude would be only 2.5 cm, then 1.25 cm, etc.", "However it would never come to a complete rest, and we therefore call that response to the impulse (striking it with a hammer) \"infinite\" in duration.The complexity of such a system is specified by its order ''N''.", "N is often a constraint on the design of a transfer function since it specifies the number of reactive components in an analog circuit; in a digital IIR filter the number of computations required is proportional to N.===Finite impulse response filters ===A filter implemented in a computer program (or a so-called digital signal processor) is a discrete-time system; a different (but parallel) set of mathematical concepts defines the behavior of such systems.", "Although a digital filter can be an IIR filter if the algorithm implementing it includes feedback, it is also possible to easily implement a filter whose impulse truly goes to zero after N time steps; this is called a finite impulse response (FIR) filter.For instance, suppose one has a filter that, when presented with an impulse in a time series:: 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ...outputs a series that responds to that impulse at time 0 until time 4, and has no further response, such as:: 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.....Although the impulse response has lasted 4 time steps after the input, starting at time 5 it has truly gone to zero.", "The extent of the impulse response is ''finite'', and this would be classified as a fourth-order FIR filter.The convolution integral (or summation) above need only extend to the full duration of the impulse response T, or the order N in a discrete time filter.=== Implementation issues ===Classical analog filters are IIR filters, and classical filter theory centers on the determination of transfer functions given by low order rational functions, which can be synthesized using the same small number of reactive components.", "Using digital computers, on the other hand, both FIR and IIR filters are straightforward to implement in software.A digital IIR filter can generally approximate a desired filter response using less computing power than a FIR filter, however this advantage is more often unneeded given the increasing power of digital processors.", "The ease of designing and characterizing FIR filters makes them preferable to the filter designer (programmer) when ample computing power is available.", "Another advantage of FIR filters is that their impulse response can be made symmetric, which implies a response in the frequency domain that has zero phase at all frequencies (not considering a finite delay), which is absolutely impossible with any IIR filter." ], [ "Frequency response", "The frequency response or transfer function of a filter can be obtained if the impulse response is known, or directly through analysis using Laplace transforms, or in discrete-time systems the Z-transform.", "The frequency response also includes the phase as a function of frequency, however in many cases the phase response is of little or no interest.", "FIR filters can be made to have zero phase, but with IIR filters that is generally impossible.", "With most IIR transfer functions there are related transfer functions having a frequency response with the same magnitude but a different phase; in most cases the so-called minimum phase transfer function is preferred.Filters in the time domain are most often requested to follow a specified frequency response.", "Then, a mathematical procedure finds a filter transfer function that can be realized (within some constraints), and approximates the desired response to within some criterion.", "Common filter response specifications are described as follows:*A low-pass filter passes low frequencies while blocking higher frequencies.", "*A high-pass filter passes high frequencies.", "*A band-pass filter passes a band (range) of frequencies.", "*A band-stop filter passes high and low frequencies outside of a specified band.", "*A notch filter has a null response at a particular frequency.", "This function may be combined with one of the above responses.", "*An all-pass filter passes all frequencies equally well, but alters the phase relationship among them.", "*An equalization filter is not designed to fully pass or block any frequency, but instead to gradually vary the amplitude response as a function of frequency: filters used as pre-emphasis filters, equalizers, or tone controls are good examples.===FIR transfer functions===Meeting a frequency response requirement with an FIR filter uses relatively straightforward procedures.", "In the most basic form, the desired frequency response itself can be sampled with a resolution of and Fourier transformed to the time domain.", "This obtains the filter coefficients ''hi'', which implements a zero phase FIR filter that matches the frequency response at the sampled frequencies used.", "To better match a desired response, must be reduced.", "However the duration of the filter's impulse response, and the number of terms that must be summed for each output value (according to the above discrete time convolution) is given by where ''T'' is the sampling period of the discrete time system (N-1 is also termed the ''order'' of an FIR filter).", "Thus the complexity of a digital filter and the computing time involved, grows inversely with , placing a higher cost on filter functions that better approximate the desired behavior.", "For the same reason, filter functions whose critical response is at lower frequencies (compared to the sampling frequency ''1/T'') require a higher order, more computationally intensive FIR filter.", "An IIR filter can thus be much more efficient in such cases.Elsewhere the reader may find further discussion of design methods for practical FIR filter design.===IIR transfer functions===Since classical analog filters are IIR filters, there has been a long history of studying the range of possible transfer functions implementing various of the above desired filter responses in continuous time systems.", "Using transforms it is possible to convert these continuous time frequency responses to ones that are implemented in discrete time, for use in digital IIR filters.", "The complexity of any such filter is given by the ''order'' N, which describes the order of the rational function describing the frequency response.", "The order N is of particular importance in analog filters, because an Nth order electronic filter requires N reactive elements (capacitors and/or inductors) to implement.", "If a filter is implemented using, for instance, biquad stages using op-amps, N/2 stages are needed.", "In a digital implementation, the number of computations performed per sample is proportional to N. Thus the mathematical problem is to obtain the best approximation (in some sense) to the desired response using a smaller N, as we shall now illustrate.Below are the frequency responses of several standard filter functions that approximate a desired response, optimized according to some criterion.", "These are all fifth-order low-pass filters, designed for a cutoff frequency of .5 in normalized units.", "Frequency responses are shown for the Butterworth, Chebyshev, inverse Chebyshev, and elliptic filters.centerAs is clear from the image, the elliptic filter is sharper than the others, but at the expense of ripples in both its passband and stopband.", "The Butterworth filter has the poorest transition but has a more even response, avoiding ripples in either the passband or stopband.", "A Bessel filter (not shown) has an even poorer transition in the frequency domain, but maintains the best phase fidelity of a waveform.", "Different applications emphasize different design requirements, leading to different choices among these (and other) optimizations, or requiring a filter of a higher order.Low-pass filter implemented with a Sallen–Key topology" ], [ "Example implementations", "A popular circuit implementing a second order active R-C filter is the Sallen-Key design, whose schematic diagram is shown here.", "This topology can be adapted to produce low-pass, band-pass, and high pass filters.A discrete-time FIR filter of order ''N''.", "The top part is an ''N''-sample delay line; each delay step is denoted ''z''−1.An Nth order FIR filter can be implemented in a discrete time system using a computer program or specialized hardware in which the input signal is subject to N delay stages.", "The output of the filter is formed as the weighted sum of those delayed signals, as is depicted in the accompanying signal flow diagram.", "The response of the filter depends on the weighting coefficients denoted ''b0'', ''b1'', .... ''bN''.", "For instance, if all of the coefficients were equal to unity, a so-called boxcar function, then it would implement a low-pass filter with a low frequency gain of N+1 and a frequency response given by the sinc function.", "Superior shapes for the frequency response can be obtained using coefficients derived from a more sophisticated design procedure." ], [ "Mathematics of filter design", "LTI system theory describes linear ''time-invariant'' (LTI) filters of all types.", "LTI filters can be completely described by their frequency response and phase response, the specification of which uniquely defines their impulse response, and ''vice versa''.", "From a mathematical viewpoint, continuous-time IIR LTI filters may be described in terms of linear differential equations, and their impulse responses considered as Green's functions of the equation.", "Continuous-time LTI filters may also be described in terms of the Laplace transform of their impulse response, which allows all of the characteristics of the filter to be analyzed by considering the pattern of zeros and poles of their Laplace transform in the complex plane.", "Similarly, discrete-time LTI filters may be analyzed via the Z-transform of their impulse response.Before the advent of computer filter synthesis tools, graphical tools such as Bode plots and Nyquist plots were extensively used as design tools.", "Even today, they are invaluable tools to understanding filter behavior.", "Reference books had extensive plots of frequency response, phase response, group delay, and impulse response for various types of filters, of various orders.", "They also contained tables of values showing how to implement such filters as RLC ladders - very useful when amplifying elements were expensive compared to passive components.", "Such a ladder can also be designed to have minimal sensitivity to component variation a property hard to evaluate without computer tools.Many different analog filter designs have been developed, each trying to optimise some feature of the system response.", "For practical filters, a custom design is sometimes desirable, that can offer the best tradeoff between different design criteria, which may include component count and cost, as well as filter response characteristics.These descriptions refer to the ''mathematical'' properties of the filter (that is, the frequency and phase response).", "These can be ''implemented'' as analog circuits (for instance, using a Sallen Key filter topology, a type of active filter), or as algorithms in digital signal processing systems.Digital filters are much more flexible to synthesize and use than analog filters, where the constraints of the design permits their use.", "Notably, there is no need to consider component tolerances, and very high Q levels may be obtained.FIR digital filters may be implemented by the direct convolution of the desired impulse response with the input signal.They can easily be designed to give a matched filter for any arbitrary pulse shape.IIR digital filters are often more difficult to design, due to problems including dynamic range issues, quantization noise and instability.Typically digital IIR filters are designed as a series of digital biquad filters.All low-pass second-order continuous-time filters have a transfer function given by: All band-pass second-order continuous-time filters have a transfer function given by: where* ''K'' is the gain (low-pass DC gain, or band-pass mid-band gain) (''K'' is 1 for passive filters)* ''Q'' is the Q factor* is the center frequency* is the complex frequency" ], [ "See also", "* Filter design* Laplace transform* Green's function* Prototype filter* Z-transform* System theory** LTI system theory* Nonlinear filter* Wiener filter* Gabor filter* Leapfrog filter" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* * National Semiconductor AN-779 application note describing analog filter theory* Lattice AN6017 application note comparing and contrasting filters (in order of damping coefficient, from lower to higher values): Gaussian, Bessel, linear phase, Butterworth, Chebyshev, Legendre, elliptic.", "(with graphs).", "* USING THE ANALOG DEVICES ACTIVE FILTER DESIGN TOOL: a similar application note from Analog Devices with extensive graphs, active RC filter topologies, and tables for practical design.", "* \"Design and Analysis of Analog Filters: A Signal Processing Perspective\" by L. D. Paarmann" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ergative case" ], [ "Introduction", "Cuneiform inscription ''Lugal Kiengi Kiuri'' , \"King of Sumer and Akkad\", on a seal of Sumerian king Shulgi (r. c. 2094–2047 BCE).", "The final ''ke4'' is the composite of -k (genitive case) and -e (ergative case).In grammar, the '''ergative case''' (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that identifies a nominal phrase as the agent of a transitive verb in ergative–absolutive languages." ], [ "Characteristics", "In such languages, the ergative case is typically marked (most salient), while the absolutive case is unmarked.", "Recent work in case theory has vigorously supported the idea that the ergative case identifies the agent (the intentful performer of an action) of a verb.In Kalaallisut (Greenlandic) for example, the ergative case is used to mark subjects of transitive verbs and possessors of nouns.", "This syncretism with the genitive is commonly referred to as the ''relative'' case.Nez Perce has a three-way nominal case system with both ergative (''-nim'') and accusative (''-ne'') plus an absolute (unmarked) case for intransitive subjects: ''hipáayna qíiwn'' ‘the old man arrived’; ''hipáayna wewúkiye'' ‘the elk arrived’; ''wewúkiyene péexne qíiwnim'' ‘the old man saw an elk’.Sahaptin has an ergative noun case (with suffix ''-nɨm'') that is limited to transitive constructions only when the direct object is 1st or 2nd person: ''iwapáatayaaš łmámanɨm'' ‘the old woman helped me’; ''paanáy iwapáataya łmáma'' ‘the old woman helped him/her’ (direct); ''páwapaataya łmámayin'' ‘the old woman helped him/her’ (inverse).In languages with an optional ergative, the choice between marking the ergative case or not depends on semantic or pragmatics aspects such as marking focus on the argument.Other languages that use the ergative case are Georgian, Chechen, and other Caucasian languages, Mayan languages, Mixe–Zoque languages, Wagiman and other Australian Aboriginal languages as well as Basque, Burushaski and Tibetan.", "Among all Indo-European languages only, Yaghnobi, Kurdish language varieties (including Kurmanji, Zazaki and Sorani) and Pashto from Iranian languages and Hindi/Urdu, along with some other Indo-Aryan languages are ergative.The ergative case is also a feature of some constructed languages such as Na'vi, Ithkuil and Black Speech." ], [ "See also", "* Antipassive voice* Ergative-absolutive language* Morphosyntactic alignment* Volition (linguistics)" ], [ "Citations" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ewe" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''ewe''' is a female sheep.", "'''Ewe''' or '''EWE''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Culture", "* Ewe people, an ethnic group in the Eastern parts of Ghana, Benin and Togo* Ewe language* Ewe music" ], [ "Geography", "* Isle of Ewe, an island off the west coast of Scotland* Loch Ewe, a sea loch in Scotland* St Ewe, a village in Cornwall" ], [ "People", "* David Ewe, New Zealand rugby player* Donna Ewe (born 1964), New Zealand rugby union player" ], [ "Transportation", "* Eurowings Europe, an Austrian airline* Ewell East railway station in Surrey, England* Ewer Airport, in Indonesia" ], [ "Other uses", "* Ecopath with Ecosim, an ecological computer modelling system for fisheries* EWE Baskets Oldenburg, a German basketball team* Large EWE Arena in Oldenburg, Germany* Small EWE Arena in Oldenburg, Germany" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Essenes" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Essenes''' (; Hebrew: , ''Isiyim''; Greek: Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, ''Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi'') were a mystic Jewish sect during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE.The Essene movement likely originated as a distinct group among Jews during Jonathan Apphus' time, driven by disputes over Jewish law and the belief that Jonathan's high priesthood was illegitimate.", "Most scholars think the Essenes seceded from the Zadokite priests.", "They saw themselves as the genuine remnant of Israel, upholding the true covenant with God, and attributed their interpretation of the Torah to their early leader, the Teacher of Righteousness, possibly a legitimate high priest.", "Embracing a conservative approach to Jewish law, they observed a strict hierarchy favoring priests (the Sons of Zadok) over laypeople, emphasized ritual purity, and held a dualistic worldview.According to Jewish writers Josephus and Philo, the Essenes numbered around four thousand, and resided in various settlements throughout Judaea.", "Conversely, Roman writer Pliny the Elder positioned them somewhere above Ein Gedi, on the west side of the Dead Sea.", "Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes possess no money, had existed for thousands of generations, and that their priestly class (\"contemplatives\") did not marry.", "Josephus gave a detailed account of the Essenes in ''The Jewish War'' (), with a shorter description in ''Antiquities of the Jews'' () and ''The Life of Flavius Josephus'' ().", "Claiming firsthand knowledge, he lists the ''Essenoi'' as one of the three sects of Jewish philosophy alongside the Pharisees and Sadducees.", "He relates the same information concerning piety, celibacy; the absence of personal property and of money; the belief in communality; and commitment to a strict observance of Sabbath.", "He further adds that the Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning (a practice similar to the use of the mikveh for daily immersion found among some contemporary Hasidim), ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred writings.The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library.", "The scrolls were found at Qumran, an archaeological site situated along the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, believed to have been the dwelling place of an Essene community.", "These documents preserve multiple copies of parts of the Hebrew Bible along with deuterocanonical and sectarian manuscripts, including writings such as the Community Rule, the Damascus Document, and the War Scroll, which provide valuable insights into the communal life, ideology and theology of the Essenes.According to the conventional view, the Essenes disappeared after the First Jewish–Roman War, which also witnessed the destruction of the settlement at Qumran.", "Scholars have noted the absence of direct sources supporting this claim, raising the possibility of their endurance or the survival of related groups in the following centuries.", "Some researchers suggest that Essene teachings could have influenced other religious traditions, such as Early Christianity and Mandaeism." ], [ "Etymology", "Josephus uses the name ''Essenes'' in his two main accounts, ''The Jewish War'' 2.119, 158, 160 and ''Antiquities of the Jews'', 13.171–2, but some manuscripts read here ''Essaion'' (\"holding the Essenes in honour\"; \"a certain Essene named Manaemus\"; \"to hold all Essenes in honor\"; \"the Essenes\").In several places, however, Josephus has ''Essaios'', which is usually assumed to mean ''Essene'' (\"Judas of the ''Essaios'' race\"; \"Simon of the ''Essaios'' race\"; \"John the ''Essaios''\"; \"those who are called by us ''Essaioi''\"; \"Simon a man of the ''Essaios'' race\").", "Josephus identified the Essenes as one of the three major Jewish sects of that period.Philo's usage is ''Essaioi'', although he admits this Greek form of the original name, that according to his etymology signifies \"holiness\", to be inexact.", "Pliny's Latin text has ''Esseni''.Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within Judea that also included the Qumran community.It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered that the name came into several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self-designation later found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, ''ʻosey haTorah'', \"'doers' or 'makers' of Torah\".", "Although dozens of etymology suggestions have been published, this is the only etymology published before 1947 that was confirmed by Qumran text self-designation references, and it is gaining acceptance among scholars.", "It is recognized as the etymology of the form ''Ossaioi'' (and note that Philo also offered an O spelling) and ''Essaioi'' and ''Esseni'' spelling variations have been discussed by VanderKam, Goranson, and others.", "In medieval Hebrew (e.g.", "''Sefer Yosippon'') ''Hassidim'' \"the Pious\" replaces \"Essenes\".", "While this Hebrew name is not the etymology of ''Essaioi''/''Esseni'', the Aramaic equivalent ''Hesi'im'' known from Eastern Aramaic texts has been suggested.", "Others suggest that Essene is a transliteration of the Hebrew word ''ḥiṣonim'' (''ḥiṣon'' \"outside\"), which the Mishnah (e.g.", "Megillah 4:8) uses to describe various sectarian groups.", "Another theory is that the name was borrowed from a cult of devotees to Artemis in Anatolia, whose demeanor and dress somewhat resembled those of the group in Judea.Flavius Josephus in Chapter 8 of \"The Jewish War\" states:" ], [ "Location", "Remains of part of the main building at Qumran.According to Josephus, the Essenes had settled \"not in one city\" but \"in large numbers in every town\".", "Philo speaks of \"more than four thousand\" ''Essaioi'' living in \"Palestine and Syria\", more precisely, \"in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members\".Pliny locates them \"on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast... above the town of Engeda\".Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls are the product of the Essenes.", "This theory, though not yet conclusively proven, has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes." ], [ "Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs", "The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes led a strictly communal life—often compared to later Christian monasticism.", "Many of the Essene groups appear to have been celibate, but Josephus speaks also of another \"''order'' of Essenes\" that observed the practice of being engaged for three years and then becoming married.", "According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership, electing a leader to attend to the interests of the group, and obedience to the orders from their leader.", "Also, they were forbidden from swearing oaths and from sacrificing animals.", "They controlled their tempers and served as channels of peace, carrying weapons only for protection against robbers.", "The Essenes chose not to possess slaves but served each other and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading.", "Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals, and religious celebrations.", "This communal living has led some scholars to view the Essenes as a group practicing social and material egalitarianism.Despite their prohibition on swearing oaths, after a three-year probationary period, new members would take an oath that included a commitment to practice piety to God and righteousness toward humanity; maintain a pure lifestyle; abstain from criminal and immoral activities; transmit their rules uncorrupted; and preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the angels.", "Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death.", "Part of their activities included purification by water rituals which was supported by rainwater catchment and storage.", "According to the Community Rule, repentance was a prerequisite to water purification.Ritual purification was a common practice among the peoples of Judea during this period and was thus not specific to the Essenes.", "A ritual bath or mikveh was found near many synagogues of the period continuing into modern times.", "Purity and cleanliness was considered so important to the Essenes that they would refrain from defecation on the Sabbath.According to Joseph Lightfoot, the Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the 4th century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes: \"Of those that came before his Elxai, an Ossaean prophet time and during it, the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans.\"", "Part 18 Epiphanius describes each group as following:We do not know much about the canon of the Essenes, and what their attitude was towards the apocryphal writings, however the Essenes perhaps did not esteem the book of Esther highly as manuscripts of Esther are completely absent in Qumran, likely because of their opposition to mixed marriages and the use of different calendars.The Essenes were unique for their time for being against the practice of slave-ownership, and slavery, which they regarded as unjust and ungodly, regarding all men as having been born equal.===Calendar===''The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered'', a translation by Robert Eisenman and Michael Wise, reveals the Essene calendar as celebrating the Sabbath commencing on the 4th day of Abib (Nisan) page 192 3 days after the new moon of the Passover month then celebrated on the 11th, 18th and 25th.", "The second Essene month reveals a Sabbath on the second day exactly 7 days from the 25th of Abib Sabbath witnessing a solar calendar continuation.", "Page 193 of the same translation reveals a second recalibration commencing at the 2nd equinox where at the beginning of the 7th Month of The Feast of Trumpets the Sabbath commences again on the 4th day 3 days after the New Moon.", "The Essenes did it this way because in Genesis it reads God made the moon on the 4th day and rested 3 days later.", "The New Moon is the first day of the Hebrew month." ], [ "Scholarly discussion", "Josephus and Philo discuss the Essenes in detail.", "Most scholars believe that the community at Qumran that most likely produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes.", "However, this theory has been disputed by some; for example, Norman Golb argues that the primary research on the Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland de Vaux, from the ''École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem'') lacked scientific method, and drew wrong conclusions that comfortably entered the academic canon.", "For Golb, the number of documents is too extensive and includes many different writing styles and calligraphies; the ruins seem to have been a fortress, used as a military base for a very long period of time—including the 1st century—so they therefore could not have been inhabited by the Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in 1870, just east of the Qumran ruins, was made of over 1200 tombs that included many women and children; Pliny clearly wrote that the Essenes who lived near the Dead Sea \"had not one woman, had renounced all pleasure... and no one was born in their race\".", "Golb's book presents observations about de Vaux's premature conclusions and their uncontroverted acceptance by the general academic community.", "He states that the documents probably stemmed from various libraries in Jerusalem, kept safe in the desert from the Roman invasions.", "Other scholars refute these arguments—particularly since Josephus describes some Essenes as allowing marriage.Another issue is the relationship between the ''Essaioi'' and Philo's ''Therapeutae'' and ''Therapeutrides''.", "He regarded the ''Therapeutae'' as a contemplative branch of the ''Essaioi'' who, he said, pursued an active life.One theory on the formation of the Essenes suggests that the movement was founded by a Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness, whose office had been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not of Zadokite lineage), labeled the \"man of lies\" or \"false priest\".", "Others follow this line and a few argue that the Teacher of Righteousness was not only the leader of the Essenes at Qumran, but was also identical to the original Messianic figure about 150 years before the time of the Gospels.", "Fred Gladstone Bratton notes that Lawrence Schiffman has argued that the Qumran community may be called Sadducean, and not Essene, since their legal positions retain a link with Sadducean tradition." ], [ "Connection to other religious traditions", "=== Christianity ===190x190pxRituals of the Essenes and Christianity have much in common; the Dead Sea Scrolls describe a meal of bread and wine that will be instituted by the messiah, both the Essenes and Christians were eschatological communities, where judgement on the world would come at any time.", "The New Testament also possibly quotes writings used by the Qumran community.", "Luke 1:31-35 states ''\" And now you will conceive in your womb and bear a son and you will name him Jesus.", "He will be great and will be called the son of the Most High...the son of God\"'' which seems to echo 4Q 246, stating: ''\"He will be called great and he will be called Son of God, and they will call him Son of the Most High...He will judge the earth in righteousness...and every nation will bow down to him\".", "''Other similarities include high devotion to the faith even to the point of martyrdom, communal prayer, self denial and a belief in a captivity in a sinful world.John the Baptist has also been argued to have been an Essene, as there are numerous parallels between John's mission and the Essenes, which suggests he perhaps was trained by the Essene community.In the early church a book called the Odes of Solomon was written.", "The writer was likely a very early convert from the Essene community into Christianity.", "The book reflects a mixture of mystical ideas of the Essene community with Christian concepts.Both the Essenes and Christians practiced voluntary celibacy and prohibited divorce.", "Both also used concepts of \"light\" and \"darkness\" for good and evil.A few have argued that the Essenes had an idea of a pierced Messiah based on 4Q285; however, the interpretation of the text is ambiguous.", "Some scholars interpreted it as the Messiah being killed himself, while modern scholars mostly interpret it as the Messiah executing the enemies of Israel in an eschatological war.Both the Essenes and Christians practiced a ritual of immersion by water, however the Essenes had it as a regular practice instead of a one time event.=== Mandaeism ===The Genesis Apocryphon, part of the Dead Sea ScrollsThe Haran Gawaita uses the name Nasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.", "Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski and Ethel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot.", "Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Jesus.", "That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and ''Yardena'' (Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.", "One of the names for the Mandaean God ''Hayyi Rabbi'', ''Mara d-Rabuta'' (Lord of Greatness) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4.Another early self-appellation is ''bhiri zidqa'' meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4.As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of ''bnai nhura'' meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes.", "Mandaean scripture affirms that the Mandaeans descend directly from John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.", "Similar to the Essenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile.", "Essene graves are oriented north–south and a Mandaean's grave must also be in the north–south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north.", "Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian and also similar to the Essenes, they are pacifists.The ''beit manda'' (beth manda) is described as ''biniana rab ḏ-srara'' (\"the Great building of Truth\") and ''bit tušlima'' (\"house of Perfection\") in Mandaean texts such as the ''Qolasta'', ''Ginza Rabba'', and the ''Mandaean Book of John''.", "The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the ''Community Rule'', which has similar phrases such as the \"house of Perfection and Truth in Israel\" (''Community Rule'' 1QS VIII 9) and \"house of Truth in Israel.", "\"===Magarites===The Magharians or Magarites (, 'people of the caves') were, according to Jacob Qirqisani, a Jewish sect founded in the 1st century BCE.Abraham Harkavy and others identify the Magharians with the Essenes, and their author referred to as the \"Alexandrinian\" with Philo (whose affinity for the Essenes is well-known), based on the following evidence:* The sect's name, which, in his view, does not refer to its books but to its followers who lived in caves or desert areas—an established Essene lifestyle;* The sect's founding date coinciding with that of the Essenes;* The theory that God interacts with humans through an angel aligning with Essene beliefs, as well as Philo's concept of the ''Logos'';* Qirqisani's omission of the Essenes from his list of Jewish sects, which can be explained if he considered the Magharians to be synonymous with the Essenes." ], [ "See also", "* Hellenistic Judaism* Jewish vegetarianism* Sacred Mysteries* Sons of Zadok" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Vermes, Geza; Goodman, Martin.", "The Essenes According to the Classical Sources.", "JSOT on behalf of the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies: Sheffield, 1989." ], [ "External links", "* Catholic Encyclopedia: Essenes* Jewish Encyclopedia: Essenes* Essenes and Others: argues that the Hebrew original form of the name later spelled \"Essenes\" is in some Qumran scrolls as a self-designation.", "* \"Jannaeus, His Brother Absalom, and Judah the Essene\" Stephen Goranson, identities of Wicked Priest and Teacher of Righteousness, relevant to history of the Essenes* Thematically compiled comparison of the parallels in the ancient sources* The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls/ Essenes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eyes Wide Shut" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Eyes Wide Shut''''' is a 1999 erotic mystery psychological drama film directed, produced, and co-written by Stanley Kubrick.", "It is based on the 1926 novella ''Traumnovelle'' (''Dream Story'') by Arthur Schnitzler, transferring the story's setting from early twentieth-century Vienna to 1990s New York City.", "The plot centers on a physician (Tom Cruise) who is shocked when his wife (Nicole Kidman) reveals that she had contemplated having an affair 12 months earlier.", "He then embarks on a night-long adventure, during which he infiltrates a masked orgy of an unnamed secret society.Kubrick obtained the filming rights for ''Dream Story'' in the 1960s, considering it a perfect text for a film adaptation about sexual relations.", "He revived the project in the 1990s when he hired writer Frederic Raphael to help him with the adaptation.", "The film, which was mostly shot in England, apart from some exterior establishing shots, includes a detailed recreation of exterior Greenwich Village street scenes made at Pinewood Studios.", "The film's production, at 400 days, holds the Guinness World Record for the longest continuous film shoot.Kubrick died of a heart attack six days after showing the final cut of ''Eyes Wide Shut'' to Warner Bros., making it the final film he directed.", "He reportedly considered it his \"greatest contribution to the art of cinema\".", "In order to ensure a theatrical R rating in the United States, Warner Bros. digitally altered several sexually explicit scenes during post-production.", "This version was premiered on July 13, 1999, before being released on July 16, to generally positive reviews from critics.", "Box office receipts for the film worldwide were about $162 million, making it Kubrick's highest-grossing film.", "The uncut version has since been released in DVD, HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc formats.", "''Eyes Wide Shut'' has been included in several lists of the greatest films of the 1990s." ], [ "Plot", "Dr. William \"Bill\" Harford and his wife Alice live in New York City with their daughter Helena.", "At a Christmas party hosted by patient Victor Ziegler, Bill reunites with old medical school classmate Nick Nightingale, who now plays piano professionally.", "An older Hungarian guest attempts to seduce Alice, while two young models try to seduce Bill.", "Host Victor interrupts with news of an overdose by Mandy, a young woman Victor was having sex with.", "Bill aids in Mandy's recovery.The next night, while smoking marijuana, Alice and Bill discuss their unfulfilled temptations.", "Bill is not jealous of other men's attraction to Alice, believing women to be naturally faithful.", "Alice admits to fantasizing about a naval officer she met on vacation and considered leaving Bill and Helena.", "Bill is disturbed before being called to a patient's house.", "The patient's daughter, Marion, tries to seduce Bill, but he resists.After leaving Marion's, Bill meets a prostitute named Domino.", "When Alice calls, he pays Domino for a non-sexual encounter and meets Nick at a jazz club.", "Nick describes a masked orgy in a mansion outside New York City at which he will play piano blindfolded, and gives Bill the password to enter the party.", "Bill goes to a costume store owned by a patient of his in order to buy an outfit to fit in at the masked orgy.", "Finding the costume store now owned by a man named Milich, he offers money to rent a costume from the shop, where he and Milich find Milich's young daughter with two men.Bill goes to the mansion and gives the password, discovering a sexual ritual in progress.", "A masked woman warns him he is in danger.", "He is brought before the master of ceremonies who demands to know a second password for the house, revealing that the password Bill has is only to enter the grounds.", "Bill removes his mask at the demand of the master of ceremonies, but the woman who warned him intervenes.", "She insists on redeeming him, at a personal cost.", "Bill is let off with a warning to keep quiet.Bill comes home feeling guilty and confused, only to find Alice laughing in her sleep.", "He wakes her up and she tearfully tells him about a dream where she was having sex with the naval officer and many other men, and laughing at the idea of Bill watching.", "The next day, Bill goes to Nick's hotel, but the desk clerk tells him that Nick left with two dangerous-looking men.", "Bill returns the costume, but realizes he has misplaced the mask, and learns that Milich has sold his teenage daughter into sex slavery.", "Milich implies that Bill can pay to have sex with his daughter if he likes.In the afternoon, consumed by thoughts of his wife's infidelity, Bill leaves work early and returns to the site of the orgy.", "At the front gate, he is handed an envelope with a warning to stay away.", "That evening, Bill tries to call Marion, but hangs up when her fiancé answers.", "He decides to go to Domino's apartment to consummate their affair, but is met by her roommate, Sally.", "Although there is sexual tension between them, Sally informs Bill that Domino has just received news that she is HIV-positive.", "Bill leaves.After leaving the apartment, Bill is followed by a mysterious figure.", "He discovers that an ex-beauty queen has died from an overdose and identifies her as Mandy at the morgue.", "Later, Ziegler summons him and admits to being a guest at the orgy.", "Ziegler reveals that there was no second password at all, and failing to know this is what outed Bill as an outsider.", "Ziegler assures Bill that the secret society only aims to intimidate him into silence but implies that they are capable of taking action if necessary.", "Bill is concerned about Nick's disappearance and Mandy's death, whom he correctly identifies as the masked orgy participant who sacrificed herself for him.", "Ziegler claims Nick is safe and that Mandy died from an accidental overdose due to drug addiction.Bill returns home to find the rented mask on his pillow and confesses to Alice about the past two days.", "The next day they go Christmas shopping with their daughter and Bill apologizes to Alice.", "She suggests they do something \"as soon as possible,\" to which Bill asks what she means and Alice simply responds with one word: \"Fuck.\"" ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Development===''Eyes Wide Shut'' was developed after Stanley Kubrick read Arthur Schnitzler's ''Dream Story'' in 1968, when Kubrick was looking for a project to follow ''2001: A Space Odyssey''.", "Kubrick was interested in adapting the story, and with the help of journalist Jay Cocks, bought the filming rights to the novel.", "For the following decade, Kubrick considered making the ''Dream Story'' adaptation a sex comedy \"with a wild and somber streak running through it\", starring Steve Martin or Woody Allen in the main role.", "Kubrick also considered Tom Hanks, Bill Murray, Dustin Hoffman, Warren Beatty, Albert Brooks, Alan Alda and Sam Shepard for the lead in the 80s.", "The project was revived in 1994 when Kubrick hired Frederic Raphael to work on the script, updating the setting from early 20th century Vienna to late 20th century New York City.", "Kubrick invited his friend Michael Herr, who helped write ''Full Metal Jacket'', to make revisions, but Herr declined for fear he would be underpaid and have to commit to a long production.===Adaptation===Arthur Schnitzler's 1926 novella ''Dream Story'' is set around Vienna after the turn of the century.", "The main characters are a couple named Fridolin and Albertina.", "The couple's home is a typical suburban middle-class home.", "Like the protagonist of the novel, Schnitzler was Jewish, lived in Vienna, and was a doctor, although he left medicine to write.Kubrick frequently removed references to the Jewishness of characters in the novels he adapted.", "In ''Eyes Wide Shut'', Frederic Raphael, who is Jewish, wanted to keep the Jewish background of the protagonists, but Kubrick disagreed and removed details that would identify characters as Jewish.", "Kubrick determined Bill should be a \"Harrison Ford-ish goy\" and created the surname of Harford as an allusion to the actor.", "In the film, Bill is taunted with homophobic slurs.", "In the novella, the taunters are members of an anti-Semitic college fraternity.", "In an introduction to a Penguin Classics edition of ''Dream Story'', Raphael wrote that \"Fridolin is not declared to be a Jew, but his feelings of cowardice, for failing to challenge his aggressor, echo the uneasiness of Austrian Jews in the face of Gentile provocation.", "\"The novella is set during the Carnival, when people often wear masks to parties.", "The party that both husband and wife attend at the opening of the story is a Carnival Masquerade ball, whereas the film's story begins at Christmas time.In the novella, the party (which is sparsely attended) uses \"Denmark\" as the password for entrance; that is significant in that Albertina had her infatuation with her soldier in Denmark; the film's password is \"Fidelio\".", "In early drafts of the screenplay, the password was \"Fidelio Rainbow\".", "Jonathan Rosenbaum noted that both passwords echo elements of one member of the couple's behaviour, though in opposite ways.", "The party in the novella consists mostly of nude ballroom dancing.In the novella, the woman who \"redeems\" Fridolin at the party, saving him from punishment, is costumed as a nun, and most of the characters at the party are dressed as nuns or monks; Fridolin himself used a monk costume.", "This aspect was retained in the film's original screenplay, but was deleted in the filmed version.The novella makes it clear that Fridolin at this point hates Albertina more than ever, thinking they are now lying together \"like mortal enemies\".", "It has been argued that the dramatic climax of the novella is actually Albertina's dream, and the film has shifted the focus to Bill's visit to the secret society's orgy, whose content is more shocking in the film.The adaptation created a character with no counterpart in the novella: Ziegler, who represents both the high wealth and prestige to which Bill Harford aspires, and a connection between Bill's two worlds (his regular life, and the secret society organizing the ball).", "Critic Randy Rasmussen interprets Ziegler as representing Bill's worst self, much as in other Kubrick films; the title character in ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' represents the worst of the American national security establishment, Charles Grady represents the worst of Jack Torrance in ''The Shining'', and Clare Quilty represents the worst of Humbert Humbert in ''Lolita''.More significantly, in the film, Ziegler gives a commentary on the whole story to Bill, including an explanation that the party incident, where Bill is apprehended, threatened, and ultimately redeemed by the woman's sacrifice, was staged.", "Whether this is to be believed or not, it is an exposition of Ziegler's view of the ways of the world as a member of the power elite.===Casting===When Warner Bros. president Terry Semel approved production, he asked Kubrick to cast a movie star as \"you haven't done that since Jack Nicholson in ''The Shining''\".", "Kubrick considered casting Alec Baldwin and Kim Basinger as Bill and Alice Harford.", "Cruise was in England because his wife Nicole Kidman was there filming ''The Portrait of a Lady'' (1996), and the pair eventually decided to visit Kubrick's estate.", "After that meeting, the director awarded them the roles.", "Kubrick also managed to make both not commit to other projects until ''Eyes Wide Shut'' was completed.", "Jennifer Jason Leigh and Harvey Keitel each were cast in supporting roles and filmed by Kubrick.", "Reportedly due to scheduling conflicts, both had to drop out – first Keitel with ''Finding Graceland'', then Leigh with ''eXistenZ'' – and they were replaced by Sydney Pollack and Marie Richardson in the final cut.", "Keitel also quit after doing 68 takes for a scene of his character walking through the door.", "Kubrick offered Eva Herzigová a role in the film, but she declined.In 2019, it was revealed that Cate Blanchett had provided the voice of the mysterious masked woman at the orgy party.", "Actress Abigail Good could not do a convincing American accent, and Cruise and Kidman ended up suggesting Blanchett for the dubbing, which occurred after Kubrick's death.===Filming===alt=A mansion with four towers.Principal photography began in November 1996.Kubrick's perfectionism led to script pages being rewritten on the set with most scenes requiring numerous takes.", "The shoot went on for much longer than expected; the actress Vinessa Shaw was initially contracted for two weeks but ended up working for two months while the actor Alan Cumming, who appears in one scene as a hotel clerk, auditioned six times before the filming process.", "Due to the relentless nature of the production, the crew became exhausted and were reported to have been impacted by low morale.", "Filming finally wrapped in June 1998.The ''Guinness World Records'' recognized ''Eyes Wide Shut'' as the longest constant movie shoot that ran \"...for over 15 months, a period that included an unbroken shoot of 46 weeks\".Given Kubrick's fear of flying, the entire film was shot in England.", "Sound-stage works were completed at London's Pinewood Studios which included a detailed recreation of Greenwich Village.", "Kubrick's perfectionism went as far as sending workmen to Manhattan to measure street widths and note newspaper vending machine locations.", "Real New York footage was also shot to be rear projected behind Cruise.", "Production was followed by a strong campaign of secrecy helped by Kubrick always working with a short team on set.", "Outdoor locations included Hatton Garden for a Greenwich Village street, Hamleys for the toy store from the film's ending, and Mentmore Towers and Elveden Hall in Elveden, Suffolk, England for the mansion.", "Larry Smith, who had first served as a gaffer on both ''Barry Lyndon'' and ''The Shining'', was chosen by Kubrick to be the film's cinematographer.", "Wherever possible, Smith made use of available light sources visible in the shots such as lamps and Christmas tree lights, but when this was insufficient he used Chinese paper ball lamps to softly brighten the scene and/or other types of film lighting.", "The color was enhanced by push processing the film reels (emulsion) which helped bring out the intensity of the color and emphasize highlights.", "This effect is evident in the Christmas party scene at Ziegler's house, with Smith noting that the push processing \"made the lights appear to be much brighter than they were\" and created a \"wonderful warm glow.", "\"Kubrick's perfectionism led him to oversee every visual element that would appear in a given frame, from props and furniture to the color of walls and other objects.", "One such element were the masks used in the orgy which were inspired by the masked carnival balls visited by the protagonists in the novel.", "Costume designer Marit Allen explained that Kubrick felt they fit in that scene for being part of the imaginary world and ended up \"creating the impression of menace, but without exaggeration\".", "As many masks as were used in the Venetian carnival were sent to London and Kubrick chose who would wear each piece.", "The paintings of Kubrick's wife Christiane and his daughter Katherina are featured as decorations.Nicole Kidman revealed that her explicit scenes with the naval officer, played by Gary Goba, were filmed over three days and that Kubrick wanted them to be 'almost pornographic'.After shooting had been completed, Kubrick entered a prolonged post-production process and on March 1, 1999, Kubrick showed a cut to Cruise, Kidman and the Warner Bros. executives.", "The director died six days later." ], [ "Music", "Jocelyn Pook wrote the original music for ''Eyes Wide Shut'' but, like other Kubrick movies, the film was noted for its use of classical music.", "The opening title music is Shostakovich's Waltz No.", "2 from \"Suite for Variety Stage Orchestra\", misidentified as \"Jazz Suite No.", "2\".", "One recurring piece is the second movement of György Ligeti's piano cycle \"Musica ricercata\".", "Kubrick originally intended to feature \"Im Treibhaus\" from Wagner's ''Wesendonck Lieder'', but the director eventually replaced it with Ligeti's tune feeling Wagner's song was \"too beautiful\".", "In the morgue scene, Franz Liszt's late solo piano piece, \"Nuages Gris\" (\"Grey Clouds\") (1881), is heard.", "\"Rex tremendae\" from Mozart's ''Requiem'' plays as Bill walks into the café and reads of Mandy's death.Pook was hired after choreographer Yolande Snaith rehearsed the masked ball orgy scene using Pook's composition \"Backwards Priests\" – which features a Romanian Orthodox Divine Liturgy recorded in a church in Baia Mare, played backwards – as a reference track.", "Kubrick then called the composer and asked if she had anything else \"weird\" like that song, which was reworked for the final cut of the scene, with the title \"Masked Ball\".", "Pook ended up composing and recording four pieces of music, many times based on her previous work, totaling 24 minutes.", "The composer's work ended up having mostly string instruments – including a viola played by Pook herself – with no brass or woodwinds as Pook \"just couldn't justify these other textures\", particularly as she wanted the tracks played on dialogue-heavy scenes to be \"subliminal\" and felt such instruments would be intrusive.Another track in the orgy, \"Migrations\", features a Tamil song sung by Manickam Yogeswaran, a Carnatic singer.", "The original cut featured a scriptural recitation from the ''Bhagavad Gita'', which Pook took from a previous Yogeswaran recording.", "South African Hindu Mahasabha, a Hindu group, protested against the scripture being used, Warner Bros. issued a public apology, and hired the singer to record a similar track to replace the chant.The party at Ziegler's house features rearrangements of love songs such as \"When I Fall in Love\" and \"It Had to Be You\", used in increasingly ironic ways considering how Alice and Bill flirt with other people in the scene.", "As Kidman was nervous about doing nude scenes, Kubrick stated she could bring music to liven up.", "When Kidman brought a Chris Isaak CD, Kubrick approved it, and incorporated Isaak's song \"Baby Did a Bad, Bad Thing\" to both an early romantic embrace of Bill and Alice and the film's trailer." ], [ "Themes and interpretations", "===Genre===The film was described by some reviewers, and partially marketed, as an erotic thriller, a categorization disputed by others.", "It is classified as such in the book ''The Erotic Thriller in Contemporary Cinema'', by Linda Ruth Williams, and was described as such in news articles about Cruise and Kidman's lawsuit over assertions that they saw a sex therapist during filming.", "The positive review in ''Combustible Celluloid'' describes it as an erotic thriller upon first viewing, but actually a \"complex story about marriage and sexuality\".", "High-Def Digest also called it an erotic thriller.However, reviewing the film at AboutFilm.com, Carlo Cavagna regards this as a misleading classification, as does Leo Goldsmith, writing at notcoming.com, and the review on Blu-ray.com.", "Writing in ''TV Guide'', Maitland McDonagh writes \"No one familiar with the cold precision of Kubrick's work will be surprised that this isn't the steamy erotic thriller a synopsis (or the ads) might suggest.\"", "Writing in general about the genre of 'erotic thriller' for CineAction in 2001, Douglas Keesey states that \"whatever ''Eyes Wide Shut'' actual type, it was at least marketed as an erotic thriller\".", "Michael Koresky, writing in the 2006 issue of film journal ''Reverse Shot'', writes \"this director, who defies expectations at every turn and brings genre to his feet, was  ... setting out to make neither the 'erotic thriller' that the press maintained nor an easily identifiable 'Kubrick film.", "''DVD Talk'' similarly dissociates the film from this genre.===Christmas setting===In addition to relocating the story from Vienna in the 1900s to New York City in the 1990s, Kubrick changed the time-frame of Schnitzler's story from Mardi Gras to Christmas.", "Michael Koresky believed Kubrick did this because of the rejuvenating symbolism of Christmas.", "Mario Falsetto, on the other hand, notes that Christmas lights allow Kubrick to employ some of his distinct methods of shooting including using source location lighting, as he also did in ''Barry Lyndon''.", "''The New York Times'' notes that the film \"gives an otherworldly radiance and personality to Christmas lights\", and critic Randy Rasmussen notes that \"colorful Christmas lights  ... illuminate almost every location in the film.\"", "''Harper'''s film critic, Lee Siegel, believes that the film's recurring motif is the Christmas tree, because it symbolizes the way that \"Compared with the everyday reality of sex and emotion, our fantasies of gratification are  ... pompous and solemn in the extreme  ... For desire is like Christmas: it always promises more than it delivers.\"", "Author Tim Kreider notes that the \"Satanic\" mansion-party at Somerton is the only set in the film without a Christmas tree, stating that \"Almost every set is suffused with the dreamlike, hazy glow of colored lights and tinsel.\"", "Furthermore, he argues that \"Eyes Wide Shut, though it was released in summer, was ''the'' Christmas movie of 1999.\"", "Noting that Kubrick has shown viewers the dark side of Christmas consumerism, Louise Kaplan states that the film illustrates ways in which the \"material reality of money\" is shown replacing the spiritual values of Christmas, charity, and compassion.", "While virtually every scene has a Christmas tree, there is \"no Christmas music or cheery Christmas spirit.\"", "Critic Alonso Duralde, in his book ''Have Yourself a Movie Little Christmas'', categorized the film as a \"Christmas movie for grownups\", arguing that \"Christmas weaves its way through the film from start to finish\".===Use of Venetian masks===Historians, travel guide authors, novelists, and merchants of Venetian masks have noted that these have a long history of being worn during promiscuous activities.", "Authors Tim Kreider and Thomas Nelson have linked the film's usage of these to Venice's reputation as a center of both eroticism and mercantilism.", "Nelson notes that the sex ritual combines elements of Venetian Carnival and Catholic rites, in particular, the character of \"Red Cloak\" who simultaneously serves as Grand Inquisitor and King of Carnival.", "As such, Nelson argues that the sex ritual is a symbolic mirror of the darker truth behind the façade of Victor Ziegler's earlier Christmas party.", "Carolin Ruwe, in her book ''Symbols in Stanley Kubrick's Movie 'Eyes Wide Shut''', argues that the mask is the prime symbol of the film.", "Its symbolic meaning is represented through its connection to the characters in the film; as Tim Kreider points out, this can be seen through the masks in the prostitute's apartment and her being renamed as \"Domino\" in the film, which is a type of Venetian Mask.", "Unused early poster designs for the film by Kubrick's daughter Katharina used the motif of Venetian masks, but were rejected by the studio because they obscured the faces of the film's two stars.=== Artwork in the film ===Paintings and sculptures appear throughout the film, some historical and others painted by Kubrick's wife Christiane Kubrick and step daughter Katharina Kubrick Hobbs.", "The home of the Harford's contains the majority of the works painted by Kubrick's family members, with the exception being a painting of a nude reclining pregnant woman by Christiane Kubrick title ''Paula On Red'' that appears in Ziegler's bathroom during the overdose scene.", "In the beginning of the film, as Bill and Alice are saying goodbye to their daughter Helena and the babysitter, a painting by Christiane Kubrick titled \"View from the Mentmore\" can be seen hanging next to the Christmas tree.", "Mentmore Towers is an English country house in the south east of England that was used for filming the interior scenes of the Somerton house and the masked orgy.During Ziegler's party, Bill is summoned to the bathroom to deal with an apparent overdose, as he climbs the spiral staircase he passes Giulio Bergonzoli's sculpture ''Gli amori degli angeli'' (The Loves of Angels) which is at the foot of the staircase.", "This sculpture is said to be inspired by a poem titled ''The Loves of The Angels'' by 19th-century poet Thomas Moore, the poem itself describes the story of three angels who fall in love with mortal women and share the password to heaven with them resulting in their banishment.", "At the time of the poem's release, it was received with controversy due to the open eroticism throughout.", "During the same party sequence, Bill is talking with the two models as they walk past a small reproduction of Gian Lorenzo Bernini's sculpture ''Apollo and Daphne'' sitting on a table.When Bill enters a cafe towards the end of the film, two Pre-Raphaelite paintings can be seen hanging on parallel walls, ''Ophelia'' by John William Waterhouse and ''Astarte Syriaca'' by Dante Gabriel Rossetti.", "Waterhouse's ''Ophelia'' depicts the character by the same name in Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet moments before her death.", "''Astarte Syriaca'' depicts Astarte, the ancient Syrian goddess of love, as well as two symmetrical angels holding torches directly behind her.", "Both paintings mirror events within the film and, as Robert Wilkes writes, reflect its \"mood of sensuality, ritualism, and exoticism\".", "In the same cafe scene, a crystoleum print of Maude Goodman's ''Hush!''", "(or, ''A Moment of Idleness'') is seen behind Bill as he sits down with a newspaper, in the proceeding shot the print is replaced with what Wilkes describes as a \"more chaotic, nightmarish image\" as Bill reads about the ex-beauty queen's apparent overdose.", "When Bill is walking through a hospital hallway towards the end of the film, he walks past Jann Haworth's painting ''Aunt Gurdi Burning'' (1995).", "The painting is oil on canvas and mounted on a screen, it is in the permanent collection of the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital where the scenes were filmed." ], [ "Release", "===Marketing===Warner Bros. heavily promoted ''Eyes Wide Shut'', while following Kubrick's secrecy campaign – to the point that the film's press kits contained no production notes, not even the director's suggestions to Semel regarding the marketing campaign, given one week prior to Kubrick's death.", "The first footage was shown to theater owners attending the 1999 ShoWest convention in Las Vegas.", "TV spots featured both Isaak and Ligeti's music from the soundtrack, while revealing little about the movie's plot.", "The film also appeared on the cover of ''Time'' magazine, and on show business programs such as ''Entertainment Tonight'' and ''Access Hollywood''.===Box office===''Eyes Wide Shut'' opened on July 16, 1999, in the United States.", "The film topped the week-end box office, with $21.7 million from 2,411 screens.", "These numbers surpassed the studio's expectations of $20 million, and became both Cruise's sixth consecutive chart topper and Kubrick's highest opening week-end as well as the highest featuring Kidman and Cruise together.", "''Eyes Wide Shut'' ended up grossing a total of $55,691,208 in the US.", "The numbers put it as Kubrick's second-highest-grossing film in the country, behind ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', but both were considered a box office disappointment.Shortly after its screening at the Venice Film Festival, ''Eyes Wide Shut'' had a British premiere on September 3, 1999, at the Warner Village cinema in Leicester Square.", "The film's wide opening occurred the following week-end, and topped the U.K. charts with £1,189,672.The international performances for ''Eyes Wide Shut'' were more positive, with Kubrick's long-time assistant and brother-in-law Jan Harlan stating that \"It was badly received in the Anglo-Saxon world, but it was very well received in the Latin world and Japan.", "In Italy, it was a huge hit.\"", "Overseas earnings of over $105 million led to a $162,091,208 box office run world-wide, turning it into the highest-grossing Kubrick film.===Home media===''Eyes Wide Shut'' was first released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD on March 7, 2000.The original DVD release corrects technical gaffes, including a reflected crew member, and altering a piece of Alice Harford's dialogue.", "Most home videos remove the verse that was claimed to be cited from the sacred Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita (although it was Pook's reworking of \"Backwards Priests\" as stated above).", "In the UK, Warner Home Video's 'rated 18' no video altering 1999 DVD release was in 4:3 full frame aspect ratio, with a note at the beginning that this was as Kubrick intended it to be shown ratio as shot.", "However, the film's length on this UK DVD is only 153 minutes, as opposed to the 159 minutes of other available DVD and Blu-ray versions.", "This is due to the transfer being done at 25 frames per secondes rather than 24 as shot; no actual footage was cut.On October 23, 2007, Warner's released ''Eyes Wide Shut'' in a special edition DVD, plus the HD DVD and Blu-ray disc formats.", "This is the first home video release that presents the film in anamorphic 1.78:1 (16:9) format (the film was shown theatrically as soft matted 1.66:1 in Europe and 1.85:1 in the US and Japan).", "The previous DVD release used a 1.33:1 (4:3) aspect ratio.", "It is also the first American home video release to feature the uncut version.", "Although the earliest American DVD of the uncut version states on the cover that it includes both the R-rated and unrated editions, in actuality only the unrated edition is on the DVD." ], [ "Reception", "===Critical response===''Eyes Wide Shut'' received generally positive reviews from critics.", "On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of .", "The website's critical consensus reads, \"Kubrick's intense study of the human psyche yields an impressive cinematic work.\"", "Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 68 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".", "Over 50 critics listed the film among the best of 1999.French magazine ''Cahiers du Cinéma'' named it the best film of the year in its annual \"top ten\" list.", "However, audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"D−\" on an A+ to F scale.In the ''Chicago Tribune'', Michael Wilmington declared the film a masterpiece, lauding it as \"provocatively conceived, gorgeously shot and masterfully executed ... Kubrick's brilliantly choreographed one-take scenes create a near-hypnotic atmosphere of commingled desire and dread.\"", "Nathan Rabin of ''The A.V.", "Club'' was also highly positive, arguing that \"the film's primal, almost religious intensity and power is primarily derived from its multifaceted realization that disobeying the dictates of society and your conscience can be both terrifying and exhilarating.", "...", "The film's depiction of sexual depravity and amorality could easily venture into the realm of camp in the hands of a lesser filmmaker, but Kubrick depicts primal evil in a way that somehow makes it seem both new and deeply terrifying.", "\"Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' gave the film a score of three and a half stars out of four, writing, \"Kubrick's great achievement in the film is to find and hold an odd, unsettling, sometimes erotic tone for the doctor's strange encounters.\"", "He praised the individual dream-like atmosphere of the separate scenes, and called the choice of Christmas-themed lighting \"garish, like an urban sideshow\".Reviewer James Berardinelli stated that it was arguably one of Kubrick's best films.", "Along with considering Kidman \"consistently excellent\", he wrote that Kubrick \"has something to say about the causes and effects of depersonalized sex\", and praised the work as \"thought-provoking and unsettling\".", "Writing for ''The New York Times'', reviewer Janet Maslin commented, \"This is a dead-serious film about sexual yearnings, one that flirts with ridicule yet sustains its fundamental eeriness and gravity throughout.", "The dreamlike intensity of previous Kubrick visions is in full force here.", "\"Some reviewers were unfavorable.", "One complaint was that the movie's pacing was too slow; while this may have been intended to convey a dream state, critics objected that it made actions and decisions seem laboured.", "Another complaint was that it did not live up to the expectation of it being a \"sexy film\" which is what it had been marketed as, thus defying audiences' expectations.", "Many critics, such as Manohla Dargis of ''LA Weekly'', found the prolific orgy scene to be \"banal\" and \"surprisingly tame\".", "While Kubrick's \"pictorial talents\" were described as \"striking\" by Rod Dreher of the ''New York Post'', the pivotal scene was deemed by Stephen Hunter, writing for ''The Washington Post'', as the \"dullest orgy he'd ever seen\".", "Hunter elaborates on his criticism, and states that \"Kubrick is annoyingly offhand while at the same time grindingly pedantic; plot points are made over and over again, things are explained till the dawn threatens to break in the east, and the movie stumbles along at a glacial pace\".", "Owen Gleiberman of ''Entertainment Weekly'' complained about the inauthenticity of the New York setting, claiming that the soundstage used for the film's production didn't have \"enough bustle\" to capture the reality of New York.", "Paul Tatara of ''CNN'' described the film as a \"slow-motion morality tale full of hot female bodies and thoroughly uneventful 'mystery, while Andrew Sarris writing for ''The New York Observer'' criticised the film's \"feeble attempts at melodramatic tension and suspense\".", "David Edelstein of ''Slate'' dismissed it as \"estranged from any period I recognize.", "Who are these people played by Cruise and Kidman, who act as if no one has ever made a pass at them and are so deeply traumatized by their newfound knowledge of sexual fantasies—the kind that mainstream culture absorbed at least half a century ago?", "Who are these aristocrats whose limos take them to secret masked orgies in Long Island mansions?", "Even dream plays need some grounding in the real world.\"", "J. Hoberman wrote that the film \"feels like a rough draft at best.", "\"Lee Siegel from ''Harper's'' felt that most critics responded mainly to the marketing campaign and did not address the film on its own terms.", "Others felt that American censorship took an esoteric film and made it even harder to understand.", "In his article \"Grotesque Caricature\", published in Postmodern Culture, Stefan Mattesich praises the film's nuanced caricatured elements, and states that the film's negation of conventional narrative elements is what resulted in its subsequent negative reception.For the introduction to Michel Ciment's ''Kubrick: The Definitive Edition'', Martin Scorsese wrote: \"When ''Eyes Wide Shut'' came out a few months after Stanley Kubrick's death in 1999, it was severely misunderstood, which came as no surprise.", "If you go back and look at the contemporary reactions to any Kubrick picture (except the earliest ones), you'll see that all his films were initially misunderstood.", "Then, after five or ten years came the realization that ''2001'' or ''Barry Lyndon'' or ''The Shining'' was like nothing else before or since.\"", "In 2012, ''Slant Magazine'' ranked the film as the second greatest of the 1990s.", "British Film Institute ranked the film at No.", "19 on its list of \"90 great films of the 1990s\".", "The BBC listed it number 61 in its list of the 100 greatest American films of all time.===Awards and honors=== Award Category Recipient Result Golden Globe Awards Best Original Score Jocelyn Pook French Syndicate of Cinema Critics Best Foreign FilmStanley Kubrick Chicago Film Critics Association Best Director Best Cinematography Stanley Kubrick and Larry Smith Best Original score Jocelyn Pook Costume Designers Guild Excellence in Costume Design for Film – Contemporary Marit Allen Satellite Award Best Actress – Drama Nicole Kidman Best Cinematography Larry Smith Best Sound Paul Conway and Edward Tise César Award Best Foreign Film (Meilleur film étranger) Stanley Kubrick Online Film Critics Society Best Director Best Cinematography Larry Smith Best Original score Jocelyn Pook" ], [ "Controversies", "===Debate over the film's state of completion===Though Warner Bros. insisted that Kubrick had turned in his final cut before his death, the film was still in the final stages of post-production, which was therefore completed by the studio in collaboration with Kubrick's estate.", "Some have argued that the work that remained was minor and exclusively technical in nature, allowing the estate to faithfully complete the film based on the director's notes.", "However, decisions regarding sound mixing, scoring and color-correction would have necessarily been made without Kubrick's input.", "Furthermore, Kubrick had a history of continuing to edit his films up until the last minute, and in some cases even after initial public screenings, as had been the case with ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' and ''The Shining''.Writing for ''Vanity Fair'', Kubrick collaborator Michael Herr recalled a phone call from the director regarding the cut that would be screened for the Warner Bros. executives four days before his death:Garrett Brown, inventor of the Steadicam, has expressed that he considers ''Eyes Wide Shut'' to be an unfinished film:Nicole Kidman, one of the stars of the film, briefly wrote about the completion of the film and the release of the film being at the same time of John F. Kennedy Jr.'s death from her perspective:===Kubrick's opinion===Jan Harlan, Kubrick's brother-in-law and executive producer, reported that Kubrick was \"very happy\" with the film and considered it to be his \"greatest contribution to the art of cinema\".R.", "Lee Ermey, an actor in Kubrick's film ''Full Metal Jacket'', stated that Kubrick phoned him two weeks before his death to express his despondency over ''Eyes Wide Shut''.", "\"He told me it was a piece of shit\", Ermey said in ''Radar'' magazine, \"and that he was disgusted with it and that the critics were going to 'have him for lunch'.", "He said Cruise and Kidman had their way with him – exactly the words he used.", "\"According to Todd Field, Kubrick's friend and an actor in ''Eyes Wide Shut'', Ermey's claims do not accurately reflect Kubrick's essential attitude.", "Field's response appeared in an October 18, 2006, interview with Grouch Reviews:The polite thing would be to say 'No comment'.", "But the truth is that  ... let's put it this way, you've never seen two actors more completely subservient and prostrate themselves at the feet of a director.", "Stanley was absolutely thrilled with the film.", "He was still working on the film when he died.", "And he probably died because he finally relaxed.", "It was one of the happiest weekends of his life, right before he died, after he had shown the first cut to Terry, Tom and Nicole.", "He would have kept working on it, like he did on all of his films.", "But I know that from people around him personally, my partner who was his assistant for thirty years.", "And I thought about R. Lee Ermey for ''In the Bedroom''.", "And I talked to Stanley a lot about that film, and all I can say is Stanley was adamant that I shouldn't work with him for all kinds of reasons that I won't get into because there is no reason to do that to anyone, even if they are saying slanderous things that I know are completely untrue.===Studio censorship and classification===Citing contractual obligations to deliver an R rating, Warner Bros. digitally altered the orgy for the film's American release by blocking out graphic sexuality using additional figures to obscure the view in order to avoid an adults-only NC-17 rating that would have limited its financial viability.", "This alteration antagonized both film critics and cinephiles, who argued that Kubrick had never been shy about ratings (''A Clockwork Orange'' was originally given an X-rating).", "The unrated version of ''Eyes Wide Shut'' was released in the United States on October 23, 2007, on DVD, HD DVD and Blu-ray formats.Roger Ebert heavily criticized the technique of using digital images to mask the action.", "In his positive review of the film, he said it \"should not have been done at all\" and it is \"symbolic of the moral hypocrisy of the rating system that it would force a great director to compromise his vision, while by the same process making his adult film more accessible to young viewers.\"", "Although Ebert has been frequently cited as calling the standard North American R-rated version the \"Austin Powers\" version of ''Eyes Wide Shut'' – referring to two scenes in ''Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery'' in which, through camera angles and coincidences, full frontal nudity is blocked from view in a comical way – his review stated that this joke referred to an early rough draft of the altered scene, never publicly released." ], [ "See also", "* List of Christmas films* Snctm (club)* Stanley Kubrick filmography" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources and further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * ''Eyes Wide Shut'' at the British Film Institute*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Outline of education" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to education:'''Education''' is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, morals, beliefs, habits, and personal development." ], [ "Participants in education", "* Student* Parent (via parenting) – students' parents typically play a large role in teaching their children and overseeing their formal education, often including financing it.", "* Teacher** Teacher's assistant** Tutor** Head teacher (Principal)** Professor*** Assistant professor*** Associate professor*** Adjunct professor* Catechist* School counselor* School psychologist* Principal (academia)* Rector* Dean* Chancellor" ], [ "History of education", "* History of education* :Category:History of education by country* History of early childhood care and education* History of academia* History of higher education" ], [ "Educational philosophies", "* Idealism* Realism* Theism* Pragmatism* Existentialism* Critical theory* Perennialism* Classicism* Essentialism* Critical pedagogy* Waldorf education** Democratic education* Progressivism* Unschooling** Criticism of schooling* Contemplative education* Humanistic education* Critical thinking* Constructivism* Behaviorism* Cognitivism* Popular education* Montessori education* Compulsory education" ], [ "Educational theory and practice", "* Educational theory* Instructional theory* Learning theory=== Pedogagical and instructional approaches ===* Alternative education* Instructional design* Learning environment* Learning space* Learning community* Learning styles* Socialization==== Teaching methods ====* Collaborative learning* Context-based learning* Design-based learning* Direct instruction* Experiential education* Experiential learning* Homework* Inquiry-based learning* Kinesthetic learning* Learning by teaching* Online learning community* Open learning* Open classroom* Outdoor education* Personalized learning* Problem-based learning* Problem-posing education* Project-based learning* Service-learning* Slow education* Single-sex education* Student-centred learning* Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom's Taxonomy)=== Educational materials, tools and technologies ===* Curriculum* Educational technology (the use of electronic educational technology is also called e-learning)** Educational animation** Educational robotics** Outline of open educational resources* Instructional materials** Lesson plan** Textbook" ], [ "Types of educational goals and outcomes", "There are many types of potential educational aims and objectives, irrespective of the specific subject being learned.", "Some can cross multiple school disciplines.", "* Outline of educational aims" ], [ "Educational assessment, qualification and certification (for students)", "* Educational assessment** Educational measurement** Psychometrics* Types of test* Test by purpose** Formative assessment*** Diagnostic assessment** Assessment as learning** Summative assessment*** High-stakes testing** Accountability assessment** Research** * Standardized test* Assessment by way of comparison** Norm-referenced test** Criterion-referenced test** Ipsative test* Assessment by mode** Paper-based** Oral** Electronic** Performance** Continuous observation* Assessment by format** Essay** Multiple choice** Quiz** Portfolio** Practical considerations* Grading in education** Grading systems by country* List of primary and secondary school tests* School leaving qualification** List of secondary school leaving qualifications** List of admission tests to colleges and universities" ], [ "Educational qualifications (for teachers)", "*Teaching credential** Bachelor of Education** Master of Education** Doctor of Education" ], [ "Branches of education", "===Education by level or stage===* Early childhood education* Primary education* Secondary education* Higher education** Vocational education** Tertiary education* Academy* Adult education=== Education by funding and governance===* Public education* Private education* Homeschooling* Autodidacticism===Education by subject, specialization or department===* List of education by subject* List of academic disciplines" ], [ "Educational scholars and researchers", "* :Category:Educational personnel** :Category:Educators*** :Category:Educators by discipline** :Category:Educational administrators* :Category:Education writers** :Category:Educational theorists** List of educational psychologists** :Category:Educational psychologists** :Category:Historians of education** :Category:Philosophers of education** :Category:Educational researchers* :Category:Education activists" ], [ "Educational research", "* Educational research* List of education journals* Disciplinary approaches to educational research.", "Whereas much educational research is interdisciplinary and can focus on any topic on this page, some disciplines have long roots.", "** Anthropology** Measurement** Assessment** Comparative** Curriculum studies** Economics** Educational sciences** Gender** International education** Law and rights** Leadership** Management** Neuroscience** Policy** Politics** Process evaluation** Psychology** SociologyIn addition, research methods are drawn from many social research and psychological fields." ], [ "Educational organizations", "=== Types of educational institutions ===* School – an institution designed for the teaching of students (or \"pupils\") under the direction of teachers.", "Most countries have systems of formal education (commonly compulsory), in which students progress through a series of schools.", "The names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education.", "Non-compulsory higher education follows, and is taught in institutions called a college or university.==== Specific schools ====* List of schools* Lists of universities and colleges=== Associations ===* Students' union* Parent-Teacher Association* International Association of Universities=== Governmental organisations and agencies ===* Department of Education* Board of education* UNESCO=== Libraries ===* Library – collection, or institution that provides a collection, of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing.", "Among its purposes is to support the ongoing education of its members.=== Types of libraries ===* Academic library* Archive* Digital library* National library* Public library* Research library* Special library=== Specific libraries ===* List of libraries** List of national libraries=== Museums ===* Museum – an institution, the purpose of which is collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public.==== Types of museums ====* Archaeology museum* Art museum* Biographical museum* Children's museum* Design museum* Encyclopedic museum* Historic house museum* History museum* Living history museum* Maritime museum* Medical museum* Memorial museum* Mobile museum* Natural history museum* Open-air museum* Science museum* Virtual museum* War museum* Living museum** Zoological park** Botanic garden" ], [ "See also", "* :Category:Lists of education lists* Glossary of education-related terms* Index of education articles* Outline of second-language acquisition* Outline of academia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* international review of curriculum and assessment framework a very useful website that provides comparative information about the education system of many countries.", "* World Bank Education* UNESCO - International Institute for Educational Planning* UNESCO IBE Database: Information on almost every education system in the world* The Encyclopedia of Informal Education" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Outline of engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to engineering:'''Engineering''' is the scientific discipline and profession that applies scientific theories, mathematical methods, and empirical evidence to design, create, and analyze technological solutions cognizant of safety, human factors, physical laws, regulations, practicality, and cost." ], [ "Branches of engineering", "* Applied engineering – application of management, design, and technical skills for the design and integration of systems, the execution of new product designs, the improvement of manufacturing processes, and the management and direction of physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization.", "**Packaging engineering* Biological engineering** Agricultural engineering** Bionics** Genetic engineering** Biomedical engineering** Metabolic engineering** Neural engineering** Tissue engineering* Civil engineering** Environmental engineering** Architectural engineering** Construction engineering** Geotechnical engineering** Transportation engineering** Hydro engineering** Structural engineering** Urban engineering (municipal engineering)** Architectonics* Chemical engineering ''(outline)''** Materials engineering** Molecular engineering** Process engineering – also appears under industrial engineering* Electrical engineering ''(outline)''** Broadcast engineering** Computer engineering ''(outline)''** Power systems engineering** Telecommunications engineering** Electronic engineering (includes microelectronics engineering, microelectronics and semiconductor engineering)** Optical engineering* Electromechanical engineering** Control engineering ''(outline)''** Mechatronics** Electromechanics** Instrumentation engineering* Forensic engineering* Geological engineering* Green engineering* Industrial engineering ** Engineering psychology** Ergonomics** Facilities engineering** Logistic engineering** Performance engineering** Process engineering – also appears under chemical engineering** Quality engineering (quality assurance engineering)** Reliability engineering** Safety engineering** Security engineering** Support engineering* Information engineering* Materials engineering** Amorphous metals** Biomaterials engineering** Casting** Ceramic engineering** Composite materials** Corrosion engineering** Crystal engineering** Electronic materials** Forensic materials engineering** Metal forming** Metallurgical engineering** Nanomaterials** Plastics engineering** Surface engineering** Vitreous materials (glass)** Welding* Mechanical engineering** Acoustical engineering – includes audio engineering** Aerospace engineering – branch of engineering behind the design, construction and science of aircraft and spacecraft.", "It is broken into two major and overlapping branches:*** Aeronautical engineering – deals with craft that stay within Earth's atmosphere*** Astronautical engineering – deals with craft that operate outside of Earth's atmosphere** Automotive engineering (automotive systems engineering)** Manufacturing engineering** Marine engineering** Thermal engineering** Naval architecture** Sports engineering** Vacuum engineering* Military engineering** Combat engineering** Military technology*Petroleum engineering**Petroleum geology**Drilling engineering**Production engineering**Reservoir engineering**Well logging**Well testing* Radiation engineering** Nuclear engineering** Radiation protection engineering* Planetary engineering – planetary engineering is the application of technology for the purpose of influencing the global properties of a planet.", "The goal of this theoretical task is usually to make other worlds habitable for life.", "Perhaps the best-known type of planetary engineering is terraforming, by which a planet's surface conditions are altered to be more like those of Earth.", "** Climate engineering (geoengineering)* Software engineering** Computer-aided engineering** Knowledge engineering** Language engineering** Release engineering** Teletraffic engineering** Usability engineering* Sustainable engineering* Systems engineering – analysis, design, and control of gigantic engineering systems." ], [ "History of engineering", "History of engineering* ''Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century''* History of chemical engineering* History of electrical engineering* History of mechanical engineering* History of software engineering* History of structural engineering* Roman engineering** Roman military engineering" ], [ "Engineering concepts", "* Design (''outline'')** Drawings *** Computer-aided design (CAD) *** Drafting** Engineering design process* Earthworks* Ecological engineering methods* Engineering, procurement and construction* Engineering economics** Cost*** Manufacturing cost** Value-driven design* Engineering overhead* Engineering society* Environmental engineering science* Exploratory engineering* Fasteners* Flexibility* Freeze* Gate* Good engineering practice* Hand tools* Machine tools** Punch* Management ** Planning ** Teamwork ** Peopleware* Materials** Corrosion** Crystallization** Material science* Measurement* Model engineering* Nanotechnology (''outline'')* Non-recurring engineering* Personalization* Process* Quality ** Quality control** Validation * Reverse engineering* Risk analysis* Structural analysis** Structural element*** Beam*** Strut*** Tie* Systems engineering process* Tolerance* Traction* Yield" ], [ "Engineering education and certification", "Engineering education* Bachelor of Engineering** Bachelor of Applied Science**Bachelor of Technology** Bachelor of Biomedical Engineering** Bachelor of Computer Science** Bachelor of Electrical Engineering** Bachelor of Software Engineering* Master of Engineering** Master of Science in Engineering**Master of Technology** Diplôme d'Ingénieur** Master of Applied Science** Master of Business Engineering** Master of Engineering Management* Engineering doctorate* Engineer's degree* Engineering science and mechanicsRegulation and licensure in engineering* Certified engineering technologist* Fundamentals of Engineering exam* Principles and Practice of Engineering examination* Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering" ], [ "Engineering awards", "* Academy Scientific and Technical Award* Award of Merit in Structural Engineering* British Construction Industry Awards* British Engineering Excellence Awards* Charles Stark Draper Prize* Engineering Heritage Awards* Engineering Leadership Award* Federal Engineer of the Year Award* Gordon Prize* IEEE Control Systems Award* Louis Schwitzer Award* Mondialogo Engineering Award* NAS Award in Aeronautical Engineering* Percy Nicholls Award* Russ Prize* Seymour Cray Computer Engineering Award* Software Process Achievement Award* Technology & Engineering Emmy Award* The Science, Engineering & Technology Student of the Year Awards" ], [ "Engineering publications", "* List of engineering journals and magazines" ], [ "Persons influential in the field of engineering", "* Lists of engineers" ], [ "Indices", "* Index of aerospace engineering articles* Index of electrical engineering articles* Index of genetic engineering articles* Index of mechanical engineering articles* Index of software engineering articles" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of architecture* Outline of construction** Infrastructure* Outline of science* Outline of technology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Outline of entertainment" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to entertainment and the entertainment industry:'''Entertainment''' is any activity which provides a diversion or permits people to amuse themselves in their leisure time, and may also provide fun, enjoyment, and laughter.", "People may create their own entertainment, such as when they spontaneously invent a game; participate actively in an activity they find entertaining, such as when they play sport as a hobby; or consume an entertainment product passively, such as when they attend a performance.The '''entertainment industry''' (informally known as '''show business''' or '''show biz''') is part of the tertiary sector of the economy and includes many sub-industries devoted to entertainment.", "However, the term is often used in the mass media to describe the mass media companies that control the distribution and manufacture of mass media entertainment.", "In the popular parlance, the term ''show biz'' in particular connotes the commercially popular performing arts, especially musical theatre, vaudeville, comedy, film, fun, and music.", "It applies to every aspect of entertainment including cinema, television, radio, theatre, and music." ], [ "Types of entertainment", "=== Exhibition entertainment ===* Amusement parks* Art exhibits * Fairs* Festivals* Museums * Trade shows * Traveling carnivals* Travelling exhibition * Vivariums** Aquariums* Water parks* Wax museums* Zoos=== Live entertainment ===* Air shows* Awards ceremony* Banquet* Burlesque** American burlesque** Neo-Burlesque** Victorian burlesque* Cabaret* Circus ** Contemporary circus* Comedy clubs * Concerts ** Concert residencies** Concert tours* Ceremony* Dance * Discotheques* Drag shows* Drama *Escape Rooms* Fireworks * Fashion shows* Ice shows* Improvisational theatre* Magic * Minstrel shows* Music festivals* Music hall* Musical theatre * Nightclubs * Operas * Parades * Parties* Performance art* Performing arts** Marching arts*** Color guard*** Drum and bugle corps*** Indoor percussion ensemble*** Marching band*** Pep band*** Winter guard* Professional wrestling/Sports entertainment* Puppet shows * Raves* Revues* Sideshows* Spectator sports * Stand-up comedy * Street theatre* Strip clubs* Symphonies* Theatre * Variety show * Vaudeville* Ventriloquism* Video art* Wild West shows=== Mass media entertainment industry ===* Live entertainment** Musical theatre** Plays** Performance art** Comedy** Drama** Sports* Film** Film studios** Movie theaters / cinemas** Film score** Film production** Acting** Pornography* Broadcasting** Television** Television studio*** Television programs **** Reality television** Radio *** Radio programs *** Podcast*Animation** Animation studio* Music industry** Recording studio** Composers and songwriters** Singers and musicians** Choirs** Orchestras** Concert bands** Karaokes** Concert hall* News media** Web television** News articles* Fashion industry** Photographic studio** Modeling*Literature==== Digital Entertainment Industry ==== * Social media** Online video platform* Digital music==== Electronic entertainment ====* SMS content* Video game industry** Video games* Toys" ], [ "History of entertainment", "=== Entertainment by historical period ===* Entertainment in the 16th century* Entertainment during the Great Depression=== History by entertainment type ======= History of exhibition entertainment ====* History of amusement parks* History of art exhibitions* History of fairs* History of museums* History of theme parks* History of trade shows* History of wax museums==== History of live entertainment ====* History of busking* History of the circus* History of comedy* History of comedy clubs* History of concerts* History of dance* History of fireworks* History of musical theatre* History of nightclubs* History of discotheques* History of opera* History of parades* History of performance art* History of plays* History of magic* History of sports* History of striptease* History of lap dancing* History of strip clubs* History of theatre* History of variety shows* History of vaudeville==== History of mass media entertainment ====* History of animation* History of film* History of literature* History of magazines* History of the music industry* History of new media* History of radio* History of radio programming* History of sound recording* History of television* History of television programs* History of video games" ], [ "Entertainment law", "* Entertainment law** Copyright Term Extension Act" ], [ "General concepts", "* Acrobatics * Aerial acts * Animal training * Applause * Beauty pageant * Celebrity * Chinese yo-yo * Circus * Circus skills* Clown * Comedian * Comedy * Contact juggling * Contemporary circus * Contortion * Corde lisse * Cyr wheel* Devil sticks * Diabolo * Equilibristics * Fire breathing * Fire eating * Geisha * German wheel * Hand-to-hand balancing * Hula hoop * Human cannonball * Humor * Horse riding * Internet humor * Ice skating * Impalement arts * Juggling * Knife throwing * List of beauty contests * List of persons who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy, and Tony Awards * Magic * Mime * New media * Old time radio * Performing arts * Plate spinning * Radio * Radio programming * Rock opera * Rodeo clown * Roller skating * Sex industry * Show business * Showstopper * Sideshow * Spanish web * Stiltwalking * Sword swallowing * Show jumping * Teen idol * Tightrope walking * Trapeze * Unicycle * Ventriloquism" ], [ "Notable entertainers", "* List of circuses and circus owners* List of clowns* List of comedians* List of film and television directors* List of film score composers* List of magicians* List of professional wrestlers* List of theatre directors* Lists of actors* Lists of entertainers* Lists of musicians* Lists of sportspeople* List of entertainment industry dynasties" ], [ "See also", "* Drama* Performance* Television* Theatre* Outline of dance* Outline of film* Outline of literature* Outline of music* Outline of performing arts* Outline of sports* Outline of theatre* Media of New York City* List of movie-related topics* Gambling* Cinema of the United States" ], [ "External links", "* DMOZ Open Directory Project - listing for Entertainment" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of contemporary ethnic groups" ], [ "Introduction", "The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''.", "There has been constant debate over the classification of ethnic groups.", "Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared ancestry, history, homeland, language or dialect and cultural heritage; where the term \"culture\" specifically includes aspects such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing (clothing) style and other factors.By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "The following groups are commonly identified as \"ethnic groups\", as opposed to ethno-linguistic phyla, national groups, racial groups or similar.+ Ethnicity Language & Origin Primary homeland Subgroups, tribes & castes Religion(s) ǃKung Kxʼa → ǃKung Namibia (Kalahari Desert) Animism Abagusii Niger–Congo → Bantu → Gusii Kenya (Kisii County) Christianity, Traditional African religion Abazins Northwest Caucasian → Abazgi → Abaza Russia (Abazinia) Significant populations in Turkey, Egypt, and Russia Islam → Sunni Islam Abelam Sepik → Ndu → Abelam Papua New Guinea (East Sepik) Christianity Abenaki Algic → Algonquian → Western Abenaki, formerly Algic → Algonquian → Eastern Abenaki Canada (Quebec), United States (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont) Abenaki religion Abkhazians Northwest Caucasian → Abazgi → Abkhaz Georgia (Abkhazia) Sadz, Afro-Abkhazians Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam → Sunni Islam Acehnese Austronesian → Chamic → Acehnese Indonesia (Aceh) Significant populations in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the United States Islam → Sunni Islam Achagua Arawakan → Upper Amazon Arawakan → Achagua Colombia (Meta), Venezuela Traditional religion, Christianity → Catholicism Acholi Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Acholi South Sudan, Uganda (Acholiland) Christianity Adjoukrou Niger–Congo → Kwa → Adjukru Ivory Coast (Dabou) Christianity Afar Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Afar Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia (Afaria) Islam Afemai Niger–Congo → Edoid → Afenmai Nigeria (Edo State) Christianity Afghan Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Tatar → Afghan Tatar; Indo-European → Iranian → Dari, Pashto; Turkic → Karluk → Uzbek; Turkic → Oghuz → Turkmen Afghanistan (Afghan Turkestan) Islam → Sunni Islam → Hanafi African-Americans Indo-European → Germanic → English; Indo-European → French Creole → Louisiana Creole; Indo-European → English Creole → Gullah, Afro-Seminole Creole; Francosign → ASLic → American Sign → Black American Sign United States, Mexico (Coahuila) Black Southerners, Creoles of color, Freedmen (including Black Seminoles (including Mascogos), Cherokee Freedmen, Choctaw Freedmen, Creek Freedmen), Gullah, Samaná Americans, along with significant populations in France, Africa (including Ghana), Israel, and Canada Christianity → Protestantism → Black church, Hoodoo Afrikaners Indo-European → Germanic → Afrikaans South Africa Boers, Afrikaner-Jews Christianity → Protestantism → Calvinism Afro-Argentines Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Argentinian Spanish Argentina Christianity → Catholicism Afro-Brazilians Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese, Indo-European → Romance → Cafundo Brazil Zambo Christianity → Catholicism Afro-Turks Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish Turkey Islam Agaw Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Agaw Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea) Bilen, Ximre, Awi, Qemant Christianity → Oriental Orthodoxy Aghuls Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Aghul Russia (Dagestan) Islam → Sunni Islam Ahiarmiut Eskaleut → Inuit → Inuktitut → Ahiarmiut Canada (Kivalliq Region) Ahom Kra–Dai → Tai → Ahom India (Assam) Hinduism Aikana Aikana language Brazil (Rondonia) Aimaq Indo-European → Iranian → Persian → Aimaq Afghanistan Aimaq Hazara, Firozkohi, Jamshidi, Aimaq Kipchaks, Timuri, Taymani Islam → Sunni Islam Ainus Ainu → Hokkaido Ainu; formerly Ainu → Sakhalin Ainu, Kuril Ainu Japan (Hokkaido, Tōhoku region), Russia (Sakhalin, Kamchatka Peninsula, Khabarovsk Krai), Kuril Islands (Russia or Japan) Hokkaido Ainu (including Ishikari Ainu, Menasunkur Ainu, and Sumunkur Ainu), Tokyo Ainu, Sakhalin Ainu, and Russian Ainu Animism → Ainu folk religion, Buddhism → Nichiren Shōshū, Shinto, Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy Aja Niger–Congo → Kwa → Adja Benin, Togo West African Vodun Aka Niger–Congo → Bantu → Aka Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo Traditional Aka religion Akans Niger–Congo → Kwa → Central Tano, Niger–Congo → Kwa → Avikam–Alladian, Niger–Congo → Kwa → Potou, Niger–Congo → Kwa → Abé, Niger–Congo → Kwa → Abidji, Niger–Congo → Kwa → Attie, Niger–Congo → Kwa → Ega Francosign → American Sign → Ghanaian Sign, Adamorobe Sign, Nanabin Sign Ghana (Gold Coast) Abbé, Abidji, Ahafo, Ahanta, Akuapem, Akwamu, Akyem, Alladian, Anyi, Ashanti, Assin, Attie, Avikam, Baoulé, Bonos, Chakosi, Egas, Evalue, Fante, M'Bato, Nzema, Sefwi (including House of Israel), Tchaman, Wasa Christianity Akha Sino-Tibetan → Loloish → Akha China (Pu'er and Xishuangbanna) Akeu Animism Akhvakhs Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Akhvakh Russia (Dagestan) Akie Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Akie, Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Maasai Tanzania (Manyara Region) Traditional Akie religion Alabamas Muskogean → Alabama–Koasati → Alabama United States (Alabama–Quassarte Tribal Town, Alabama–Coushatta Reservation) Alaskan Creoles Indo-European → Slavic → Russian → Alaskan Russian, formerly Indo-European and Eskaleut → Russian and Aleut → Mednyj Aleut United States (Alaska) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy Alavi Bohras Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Gujarati → Lisan ud-Dawat India (Gujarat) Islam → Shia Islam → Isma'ilism Albanians Indo-European → Paleo-Balkan → Albanian Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia (Ilirida), Greece (Chameria), Serbia (Preševo Valley) Ghegs (including Arbanasi and Kosovars), Tosks (including Arbereshe, Cham Albanians, Arvanites), along with significant populations in Turkey, Egypt, Syria, France, the United Kingdom Italy, Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Nordic countries, Switzerland, Greece (including Western Thrace), Ukraine, Romania, Hungary, Croatia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Australia, Canada, and the United States Islam → Sunni Islam, Islam → Sufism → Bektashism, Christianity Aleuts Eskaleut → Aleut United States (Aleutian Islands) Agdaagux Tribe Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Alexandrian Greek Christians Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Egyptian Arabic, historically Indo-European → Hellenic Egypt Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Greek Orthodoxy → Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Catholicism → Melkite Catholicism Altaians Turkic → Kipchak → Southern Altai, Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Northern Altai Russia (Altai Republic and Altai Krai), Mongolia (Altai Mountains), China (Altay Prefecture) Altai faith Alur Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Alur Uganda (West Nile sub-region), Democratic Republic of the Congo (Ituri Province) Christianity Alutiiq Eskaleut → Eskimo → Alutiiq United States (Alaska) Chugach Christianity Alyutors Chukotko-Kamchatkan → Chukotkan → Alyutor Russia (Koryak Okrug) Shamanism, Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Ambonese Austronesian → Malayic → Ambonese Malay Indonesia (Ambon Island) Christianity → Protestantism → Calvinism Ambundu Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kimbundu Angola Christianity, Traditional African religions Americo-Liberians Indo-European → Germanic → English, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Merico, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Liberian Kreyol Liberia Christianity → Protestantism Amhara Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Ethiopic → Amharic Ethiopia (Amharia) Christianity → Oriental Orthodoxy Amis Austronesian → Formosan → Amis Taiwan (Taitung and Hualien Counties) Animism, Christianity Amish Indo-European → Germanic → Pennsylvania Dutch, Indo-European → Germanic → Alemannic German → Alsatian United States (Pennsylvania) Old Order Amish (including Swiss Amish, Nebraska Amish, Swartzentruber Amish, Buchanan Amish, Andy Weaver Amish, Troyer Amish, Byler Amish, Renno Amish, Holmes Old Order Amish, Elkhart-LaGrange Amish, Lancaster Amish, and Tobe Amish), New Order Amish, Christianity → Anabaptism Amung Trans-New Guinea → Amung Indonesia (Mimika, Puncak) Christianity Andalusians Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Andalusian Spanish Spain (Andalusia) Christianity → Catholicism Andis Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Andi Russia (Dagestan) Aneuk Jamee Austronesian → Malayic → Minangkabau → Aneuk Jamee Indonesia (Aceh) Anglo Afro-Caribbean Indo-European → Germanic → English → Caribbean English → English-based creoles Anguila, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, San Andres y Providencia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands and U.S. Virgin Islands Afro-Antiguans and Barbudans, Afro-Bahamians, Afro-Barbadians, Afro-Bermudians, Afro-Dominicans, Afro-Grenadians, Afro-Guyanese, Afro-Jamaicans, Afro-Kittitians and Nevisians, Afro-Saint Lucians, Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians, Afro-Vincentians, Belizean Creole, Raizal Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism, Methodism, Calvinism, Baptist; CatholicismAnglo-AmericansIndo-European → Germanic → English → United States EnglishUnited States of AmericaNew England Americans, Middle Atlantic Americans, Midwestern Americans, Southern Americans, Western AmericansChristianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism, Methodism, Calvinism; Catholicism Anglo-Burmese Indo-European → Germanic → English, Sino-Tibetan → Lolo-Burmese → Burmese Myanmar Christianity, Buddhism Anglo-Canadians Indo-European → Germanic → English → Canadian English, Francosign → American Sign Canada Ontarian, Anglo-Quebecers, Nova Scotians, New Brunswickers, Manitoban, British Columbians, Prince Edward Islanders, Saskatchewanians, Albertans, Newfoundlanders, Labradorians, Northwest Territorians, Yukoners, Anglo-Nunavummiut Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism, Methodism, Calvinism; Catholicism Anglo-Celtic Australians Indo-European → Germanic → English → Australian English Australia Christianity Anglo-Indians Indo-Europeans → Germanic → English India Significant populations in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Bangladesh Christianity Anglo-Irish Indo-European → Germanic → English → Hiberno-English, Francosign → Irish Sign, BANZSL → British Sign, BANZSL → British Sign → Northern Ireland Sign Ireland Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism Anglo-New Zealanders Indo-European → Germanic → English → New Zealand English New Zealand Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism Angu Trans-New Guinea → Angan Papua New Guinea (Kratke Range) Animism Antiochian Greek Christians Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Levantine Arabic, historically Indo-European → Hellenic Levant (Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan, Turkey) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Greek Orthodoxy → Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, Catholicism → Melkite Catholicism Anuak Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Anuak Ethiopia (Anuakia), South Sudan (lanBoma) Christianity Apache Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Apachean United States (Apacheria) Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Salinero, Plains Apache, Western Apache Native American religions → Native American Church Apanyekra Macro-Je → Je → Canela Brazil (Northeast Region) Apinajé Macro-Je → Je → Apinayé Brazil (Tocantins) Animism Arabs Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Arabic, Arab Sign, Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign, formerly Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Siculo-Arabic and Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Shirvani Arabic Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert Bedouins (including Al-Sayyid Bedouins, Palestinian Bedouins (including Jahalin Bedouins), Negev Bedouins, and Galilee Bedouins), Israeli-Arabs, Palestinians (including Palestinian Bedouins (including Jahalin Bedouins), Palestinian Metawalis, and Afro-Palestinians), Egyptian Arabs, Maghrebi Arabs, Iranian Arabs (including Khuzestani Arabs, Khorasani Arabs, Huwalas, and Khamseh Arabs), Sudanese Arabs, Marsh Arabs, Arab Christians (including Antiochians, Jerusalemites, and Alexandrians), Alawites, Druze, Hadharem, Mhallami, Rashaida, Baggara Arabs, Abbala Arabs, Azawagh Arabs, Diffa Arabs, Manga Arabs, Ababda, Arab-Persians, Arab-Berbers, with diaspora populations (including the Palestinian diaspora) in Europe (including the United Kingdom, the Caucasus, Sweden, Spain), Turkey, Pakistan (including Palestinians), India, Colombia, Chile (including Palestinians), Nicaragua, Brazil (including Palestinians), Mexico (including Palestinians), Venezuela, the United States (including Palestinians), Canada, Haiti (including Palestinians), Cuba, El Salvador (including Palestinians), Australia (including Palestinians), New Zealand, Singapore Islam → Sunni Islam, Sufism, Shia Islam → Twelver Shi'ism, Isma'ilism → Tayyibi Isma'ilism → Sulaymani, Zaydism, Ibadism Aragonese Indo-European → Romance → Aragonese, Indo-European → Romance → Spanish Spain (Aragon) Christianity → Catholicism Arameans Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Neo-Aramaic Israel Christianity → Eastern Christianity → Syriac Christianity Arapaho Algic → Algonquian → Arapahoan → Arapaho United States (Colorado, Wyoming) Christianity, Native American Church Arará Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Cuban Spanish Cuba Arará Argobba Afro-Asiatic → Ethiopic → Argobba Ethiopia (Afar, Harari, Amhara, and Oromia Regions) Islam → Sunni Islam Armenians Indo-European → Armenian, Northwest Caucasian → Circassian, Armenian Sign language, formerly Harsneren language, Turkic → Kipchak → Armeno-Kipchak Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey Turkish Armenians (including Armenians in Istanbul, Hemshin, and Hidden Armenians), Cherkesogai, Armeno-Tats, Zoks, Hayhurum, Karabakhis and historically Udis and Turkic peoples who adhered to the Armenian Apostolic Church, along with significant populations in Russia, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Serbia, Poland, Greece, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Ukraine (including Crimea), Cyprus, the United States, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, France, Spain, the United Kingdom Sweden, Switzerland, Italy, Malta, Georgia (including Samtskhe–Javakheti, Abkhazia, and Tbilisi), Azerbaijan, (including Baku), Egypt, Lebanon, Pakistan, Iran, Qatar, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, Israel, Jordan, Ethiopia, China, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Singapore, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Israel, Palestine, the Netherlands, and Germany Christianity → Oriental Orthodoxy, Catholicism → Eastern Catholicism → Armenian Catholicism Aromanians Indo-European → Romance → Aromanian Balkans (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania) Significant populations in Greece, Albania, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, and North Macedonia, along with diaspora populations Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Arrernte Pama-Nyungan → Arandic → Arrernte Australia (Arrernte Land) Alcheringa Ashkali Indo-European → Albanian Kosovo Islam → Sunni Islam Asmat Trans–New Guinea → Asmat–Kamrau → Asmat South Papua Christianity Assiniboine Siouan → Western Siouan → Assiniboine Canada (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta), United States (North Dakota, Montana) Bizebina, Insaombi, Wokpanbi Traditional Assiniboine religion Assyrians Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Neo-Aramaic Assyria (Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey) Iraqi Assyrians, Turkish Assyrians, Syrian Assyrians and Iranian Assyrians.", "Groupings include Chaldean Assyrians from Nineveh and Bohtan, Syriac Assyrians from Tur Abdin, Hakkari and Urmia tribes including; Tyari, Jilu, Baz, Tkhuma, Nochiya.", "Majority in diaspora Christianity → Eastern Christianity → Syriac Christianity Asturians Indo-European → Romance → Asturleonese → Asturian, Indo-European → Romance → Galician and Asturleonese → Eonavian Spain (Asturias) Eonavians Christianity → Catholicism Atacama Kunza Chile (Atacama Desert, Altiplano), Argentina (Altiplano), Bolivia (Antofagasta Region) Inca Religion Atayals Austronesian → Formosan → Atayal Taiwan Animism, Christianity Ati Ati language Western Visayas Animism, Christianity Atikamekw Algic → Algonquian → Atikamekw Canada (Nitaskinan) Atoni Austronesian → Timoric → Uab Meto Indonesia (West Timor), East Timor (Oecusse) Amarasi Christianity Atyap Niger–Congo → Plateau → Atyap Nigeria (Kaduna State) Christianity Austral Islanders Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Polynesian → Austral France (Austral Islands) Christianity Austrians Indo-European → Germanic → Bavarian, Francosign → Austro-Hungarian Sign → Austrian Sign Austria Christianity → Catholicism Avars Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Avar, Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Archi Russia (Dagestan) Archis Islam → Sunni Islam Awa Barbacoan → Awan → Awa Colombia (Narino), Ecuador (Carchi) Christianity Awadhis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Awadhi India (Awadh) Barhai Hinduism Aymara Aymaran → Aymara Bolivia, Peru, Chile Christianity → Catholicism Aynu Turkic and Indo-European → Karluk and Iranian → Uyghur and Persian → Aynu, Turkic → Karluk → Uyghur China (Xinjiang) Islam → Sunni Islam → Alevism Azerbaijanis Turkic → Oghuz → Azeri Azerbaijan, Iran (Iranian Azerbaijan) Ayrums, Baharlu, Bayat, Karadaghis, Qajars, Kuresunni, Padar, Qarapapaqs, Shahsevan, Terekeme, Yeraz, Afshar (including Javanshir Qizilbash), Iranian Azeris, along with significant populations in Georgia, Russia, and historically Armenia Islam → Shia Islam Babur and Bura Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Bura Nigeria (Borno State and Adamawa State) Babur, Bura Bagvalals Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Bagvalal Russia (Dagestan) Islam → Sunni Islam Baining East New Britain → Baining Papua New Guinea (Gazelle Peninsula) Christianity, Pomio Kivung Baharna Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Bahrani Arabic Bahrain Significant population in Kuwait Islam → Shia Islam Bahnar Austroasiatic → Bahnaric → Bahnar Vietnam (Central Highlands) Animism Bai Sino-Tibetan → Macro-Bai → Bai China (Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, Bijie, Sangzhi County) Buddhism, Benzhuism, Daoism Bakarwal Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Gujari → Bakarwal India or Pakistan (Kashmir) Bakossi Niger–Congo → Bantu → Akoose Cameroon (Bakossi Mountains) Christianity → Catholicism Balanta Niger–Congo → West Atlantic → Senegambian → Balanta Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, The Gambia Traditional African religions Balinese Austronesian → Balinese Indonesia (Bali) Bali Aga Hinduism → Balinese Hinduism Balkars Turkic → Kipchak → Balkar Russia (Kabardino-Balkaria) Islam → Sunni Islam Balochs Indo-European → Iranian → Balochi Balochistan (Pakistan (Balochistan), Iran (Sistan and Baluchestan), Afghanistan) (Balochistan) Askani, Bajkani, Bangulzai, Barazani, Bhurgari, Bugti, Buledi, Chandio, Darzada, Dehwar, Dodai, Dombki, Gabol, Ghazini, Jamali, Jatoi, Kalmati, Khetran, Kunara, Langhani, Lango, Lashkrani, Loharani, Lund, Marri, Mazari, Mengal, Mirali, Mugheri, Muhammad Shahi, Mullazai, Nothazai, Pitafi, Qaisrani, Rind, Sadozai, Sethwi, Shaikhzadah, Talpur, Tauki, Umrani, Yarahmadzai, Zardari, Makrani, along with significant populations in the United Arab Emirates (including Al Balushi) and Turkmenistan Islam → Sunni Islam Balondo-ba-Konja Niger–Congo → Bantu → Londo Cameroon Creationism → Balondo-ba-Konja religion Balti Sino-Tibetan → Tibetic → Balti Pakistan (Gilgit-Baltistan) Islam → Shia Islam Bamars Sino-Tibetan → Burmese Myanmar Taungyo, Yaw, Intha, Danu, Anglo-Burmese Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism, Burmese folk religion Bambara Niger–Congo → Mande → Manding → Bambara Mali Islam Bamileke Niger–Congo → Grassfields → Bamileke Cameroon (West and Northwest regions) Mengaka, Ngiemboon, Ngombale, Ngomba, Ngwe, Yemba, Fe'fe', Ghomala', Kwaʼ, Nda'nda', Medumba Christianity Bamum Niger–Congo → Grassfields → Bamum Cameroon (West Region) Islam Banda Niger–Congo → Ubangian → Banda Central African Republic, South Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo Central Banda, South Banda, West Banda Christianity Bangweulu Twa Niger–Congo → Bantu → Bemba Zambia (Bangweulu Wetlands) Traditional African Religion Baniwa Arawakan → Upper Amazon Arawakan → Karu Brazil (Amazonas), Colombia (Amazonas), Venezuela (Amazonas) Traditional religionChristianity → Catholicism Banjara Indo-European → Rajasthani → Lambadi India (Mewar) Banjarese Austronesian → Malayic → Malay → Banjarese Indonesia (South Kalimantan) Islam → Sunni Islam Barak Turkmens Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish Turkey, Syria Islam → Sunni Islam Bari Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Bari South Sudan (Central Equatoria), Uganda Pojulu, Kakwa, Nyangwara, Mandari, Kuku Christianity Bariba Niger–Congo → Gur → Bariba Borgu (Benin, Nigeria) Islam Bashkirs Turkic → Kipchak → Bashkir Russia (Bashkortostan) Islam → Sunni Islam Basques Basque Basque Country (Spain, France) Navarreans, Alavans, Biscayans, Gipuzkoans, Northern Basques, along with significant populations in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, the United States, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, and Uruguay Christianity → Catholicism Bassa Niger–Congo → Kru → Bassa Liberia (Bassaland) Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism Basters Indo-European → Germanic → Afrikaans Namibia Christianity → Protestantism Batak Austronesian → Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands → Batak Indonesia (North Sumatra) Angkola, Karo, Mandailing, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Alas, Kluet, Singkil Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Bateri Indo-European → Dardic → Bateri Pakistan (Kohistan) Islam → Sunni Islam Batwa Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kirundi, Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kiga African Great Lakes Traditional African religion Bauzi East Geelvink Bay → Bauzi Indonesia (Papua) Animism Bazigar Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bazigar India (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan), Pakistan (Punjab) Beja Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Beja Sudan, Egypt, Eritrea Bishari, Hadendoa, Hedareb, Amarar, Beni-Amer Islam → Sunni Islam Belarusians Indo-European → Slavic → Belarusian, Indo-European → Slavic → Trasianka Belarus Significant populations in the United States, Ukraine, and Russia Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Belizean Creoles Indo-European → Germanic → English → Belizean Creole Belize Christianity → Protestantism, Rastafari Bemba Niger–Congo → Bantu → Bemba Zambia (Northern, Luapula, and Copperbelt Provinces), Democratic Republic of the Congo (Katanga Province) Christianity → Protestantism Bembe Niger–Congo → Bantu → Bembe Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania Christianity → Protestantism, Traditional African religions Bena Niger–Congo → Bantu → Bena Tanzania (Njombe Region) Bengalis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bengali, Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Sylheti, Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Hindustani → Dhakaiya Urdu Bengal (Bangladesh, India (West Bengal)) Bengali Muslims, Bengali Hindus, Bengali Buddhists, Bengali Christians, along with the Bengali Hindu diaspora, (British Bangladeshis, Middle Eastern Bangladeshis, Malaysian Bangladeshis, Bangladeshi Canadians, Italo-Bangladeshis, Polish Bangladeshis, Bangladeshi New Zealanders, Bangladeshi Australians, Maldivian Bangladeshis, Japanese Bangladeshis, Bengali Americans and Bangladeshi Americans), Bangals, Ghotis, Dhakaiyas, Mahifarash, Shershabadia, Mahimal, and Sylhetis Islam → Sunni Islam, Hinduism Berbers Afro-Asiatic → Berber, Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Arabic, Songhay → Northern Songhay → Tagdal Maghreb Central Atlas Berbers, Chaouis, Kabyle, Kountas, Chenouas, Ghomaras, Godala, Hawwara, Matmatas, Mozabite, Nafusis, Rifians, Shilha, Siwi, Tuaregs, Awjila, Arab-Berbers, Sanhaja Berbers, Jerba, Zayanes, Igdalen, with significant populations in Belgium, France, Canada, the Netherlands, the United States, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Burkina Faso (including Tuaregs), Niger (including Tuaregs), and Mali Islam → Sunni Islam, Ibadism Berom Niger–Congo → Plateau → Berom Niger (Plateau State) Christianity Berta Nilo-Saharan → Berta Ethiopia (Benishangul-Gumuz Region), South Sudan Islam Betawis Austronesian → Malayic → Malay → Betawian Indonesia (Jakarta) Islam → Sunni Islam Beti Niger–Congo → Bantu → Ewondo, Niger–Congo → Bantu → Eton Cameroon Ewondo, Eton Christianity Bezhta Northeast Caucasian → Tsezic → Bezhta Russia (Tsuntinsky District) Islam → Sunni Islam Bhils Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bhil India (Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra) Barda, Bhagalia, Bhilala, Bhil Gametia, Bhil Garasia, Bhil Kataria, Bhil Mama, Bhil Mavchi, Dholi Bhil, Dungri Bhil, Damor, Dungri Garasia, Mewasi Bhil, Nirdhi Bhil, Rawal Bhil, Tadvi Bhil, Vasava, Bhil Meena, Chaudhri, Bagdi Hinduism Bhojpuris Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bihari → Bhojpuri India, Nepal Paswan, Teli Hinduism, Jainism Bhumijs Austroasiatic → Munda → Bhumij India (West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand) Sarnaism Bicolanos Austronesian → Philippine → Bikol Philippines (Bicol Region) Central Bikol, Sorsoganons, Catandunganons, Rinconada, Albayanon Christianity → Catholicism Bidayuh Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Land Dayak Malaysia (Sarawak) Kendayan, Selako, Bakatiʼ, Sara Bakati', Laraʼ, Bukar–Sadong, Biatah, Tringgus, Jagoi, Jangkang, Kembayan, Semandang, Ribun, Nyaduʼ, Sanggau Christianity Bilala Nilo-Saharan → Central Sudanic → Naba Chad (Lake Fitri) Islam Bimanese Austronesian → Malayo-Polyneisan → Bima Indonesia (Sumbawa Island) Islam Bishnupriya Manipuris Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bishnupriya Manipuri India (Manipur), Bangladesh Hinduism → Vaishnavism Bissa Niger–Congo → Mande → Bissa Burkina Faso Islam Blaan Austronesian → Philippine → Blaan Philippines (Soccsksargen) Anitism Black Nova Scotians Indo-European → Germanic → English Canada (Nova Scotia) Christianity → Protestantism → Baptist Blackfoot Algic → Algonquian → Blackfoot Canada (Alberta), United States (Montana) Kainai Nation, Piegan Blackfeet, Piikani Nation, Siksika Nation Native American Church, Christianity Boa Niger–Congo → Bantu → Boa Democratic Republic of the Congo (Bas-Uele) Christianity Bodo Sino-Tibetan → Sal → Bodo India (Bodoland) Mech, Kachari Bathouism, Hinduism Bokota Chibchan → Buglere Panama (Bocas del Toro) Native American religion Bondei Niger–Congo → Bantu → Sueta → Bondei Tanzania (Pangani District) Islam, Traditional African religions Bororo Macro-Je → Bororoan → Bororo Brazil (Mato Grosso) Animism Bosniaks Indo-European → Slavic → Shtokavian → Bosnian Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sandžak (Serbia, Montenegro) Significant populations in Serbia, Turkey, Austria, Germany and the United States Islam → Sunni Islam Botlikhs Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Botlikh Russia (Dagestan) Islam → Sunni Islam Bouyei Kra–Dai → Tai → Bouyei China (Guizhou) Giay Moism Bozo Niger–Congo → Mande → Bozo Mali Islam Brahuis Dravidian → Northern Dravidian → Brahui Pakistan (Balochistan) Raisani, Jhalawan, Sarawan, Mengal (including Zagar and Zakria Zae), Sasoli Islam → Sunni Islam → Hanafi Bretons Indo-European → Celtic → Breton France (Brittany) Significant populations in Canada and the United States Christianity → Catholicism Bribri Chibchan → Talamanca → Bribri, Bribri Sign language Costa Rica (Cordillera de Talamanca) Talamancan mythology Bru Austroasiatic → Katuic → Bru Laos (Savannakhet province), Vietnam (Quảng Binh and Quảng Trị provinces) Satsana Phi, Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Bruneian Austronesian → Bruneian Brunei Kedayan Bruneian Sunni Islam Bubi Niger–Congo → Bantu → Bube Equatorial Guinea (Bioko) Christianity → Catholicism Budu Niger–Congo → Bantu → Budu Democratic Republic of the Congo (Wamba Territory) Christianity Budukhs Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Budukh Azerbaijan (Buduq) Islam → Sunni Islam Buduma Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Yedina Lake Chad (Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon) Islam Buginese Austronesian → South Sulawesi → Buginese Indonesia (South Sulawesi) Islam, Christianity, folk religion Bulgarians Indo-European → Slavic → Bulgarian, Francosign → Bulgarian Sign Bulgaria Pomaks, Paulicians, Macedonian Bulgarians, Bessarabian Bulgarians, Dobrujan Bulgarians, Thracian Bulgarians, along with significant populations in Turkey, Ukraine and Moldova, Romania and Serbia, Croatia, Germany, Spain, and the United States Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Bunak Trans–New Guinea → Timor–Alor–Pantar → Bunak Indonesia (West Timor), East Timor Christianity → Roman Catholicism Bunun Austronesian → Formosan → Bunun Taiwan (Nantou) Animism, Christianity Burghers Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Sinhala, Indo-European → Germanic → English, Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese → Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole Sri Lanka Dutch Burghers, Portuguese Burghers Christianity Burushos Burushaski Pakistan (Gilgit-Baltistan) Islam → Shia Islam → Isma'ilism Buryats Mongolic → Central Mongolic → Buryat; Mongolic → Central Mongolic → Khalkha → Sartul, Tsongol Russia (Buryatia) Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism, Shamanism → Mongolian shamanism, Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Butonese Austronesian → Celebic → Butonese Indonesia (Buton) Islam Bwa Niger–Congo → Gur → Bwa Burkina Faso, Mali Traditional African religions Bwatiye Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Bacama Nigeria (Adamawa State) Cabiyari Arawakan → Upper Amazon Arawakan → Cabiyari Colombia (Vaupes) Caddo Caddoan → Caddo United States (Oklahoma) Cahuilla Uto-Aztecan → Cupan → Cahuilla United States (California) Pass Cahuilla (including Agua Caliente Cahuilla, Morongo Cahuilla), Mountain Cahuilla (including Cahuilla Band of Indians, Los Coyotes Cahuilla, Ramona Cahuilla, Santa Rosa Cahuilla), Desert Cahuilla (including Augustine Cahuilla, Cabazon Cahuillla, Torres Martinez Desert Cahuilla) Caldoche Indo-European → Romance → French, Francosign → French Sign France (New Caledonia) Christianity → Catholicism Camminanti Indo-European → Romance → Sicilian → Baccagghiu Italy (Sicily) Christianity → Catholicism Canary Islanders Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Canarian Spanish, Silbo Gomero, Isleño Spanish Spain (Canary Islands) Isleños (including Louisiana Isleños) Christianity → Catholicism Cape Coloureds Indo-European → Germanic → Afrikaans, Indo-European → Germanic → Kaaps, Indo-European → Germanic → English South Africa (Western Cape) Christianity Cape Malays Indo-European → Germanic → Afrikaans, Indo-European → Germanic → Kaaps, Indo-European → Germanic → English South Africa (Western Cape) Islam Cape Verdeans Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese → Cape Verdean Creole Cabo Verde Christianity → Catholicism Carolinians Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Oceanic → Micronesian → Carolinian United States (Northern Mariana Islands) Christianity → Catholicism Catalans Indo-European → Romance → Catalan, LSCic → Catalan Sign Catalan Countries (Spain, France, Andorra, Italy) Balears, Algherese, Andorrans, Roussillonese with significant populations in the United States Christianity → Catholicism Cayuga Iroquoian → Northern Iroquoian → Cayuga Canada (Ontario), United States (New York, Oklahoma) Longhouse Religion Chaga Niger–Congo → Bantu → Chaga Tanzania Christianity, Islam, Traditional African religions Chagossians Indo-European → Bourbonnais Creole → Chagossian Creole Chagos Archipelago Christianity, Rastafari Chaharmahali Turks Turkic → Oghuz → Chaharmahali Turkic Iran (Chaharmahal) Islam → Shia Islam → Twelver Shi'ism Chakmas Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Chakma Bangladesh (Chittagong Hill Tracts) Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Chamalals Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Chamalal Russia (Tsumadinsky District) Chamorro Austronesian → Chamorro United States (Mariana Islands) Christianity → Catholicism Chams Austronesian → Chamic → Cham Champa (Cambodia, Vietnam), China (Hainan) Churu, Jarai, Rade, Raglai, Utsuls Islam → Sunni Islam, Shia Islam → Bani Islam, Hinduism Chaoui Afro-Asiatic → Berber → Shawiya Algeria (Aurès) Charrúa Charruan languages Uruguay Chaná Animism Chechens Northeast Caucasian → Nakh → Chechen Russia (Chechnya, Aukh), Georgia (Pankisi) Kists, Chechen Kurds, Aukhs, with significant populations in Austria, France, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, and the United States Islam → Sunni Islam Chehalis Formerly Salishan → Coast Salish → Lower Chehalis, Salishan → Coast Salish → Upper Chehalis United States (Washington) Lower Chehalis, Upper Chehalis Chelkans Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Northern Altai → Chelkan Russia (Altai Republic, Kemerovo Oblast) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Burkhanism, Shamanism Chepang Sino-Tibetan → Chepangic → Chepang Nepal Hinduism Chenouas Afro-Asiatic → Berber → Chenouas Algeria (Mount Chenoua) Islam → Sunni Islam Cherokee Iroquoian → Southern Iroquoian → Cherokee United States (North Carolina, Tennessee) Cherokee Nation, Eastern Band, United Keetoowah Band, Cherokee Freedmen Christianity, Four Mothers Society Chewa Niger–Congo → Bantu → Chewa Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique Christianity, Traditional African religions Cheyennes Algic → Algonquian → Cheyenne, Plains Indian Sign Language United States (Montana, Oklahoma) Native American religion, Native American Church, Christianity Chickasaw Muskogean → Western Muskogean → Chickasaw United States (Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee) Chinese Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Tatar, Sino-Tibetan → Chinese → Mandarin China (Xinjiang) Islam → Sunni Islam Choctaw Muskogean → Choctaw United States (Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana) Choctaw Freedmen Christianity, Choctaw religion Chokwe Niger–Congo → Bantu → Chokwe Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia Christianity Cholanaikkans Dravidian → South Dravidian I → Cholanaikkan India (Kerala) Cho Ro Austroasiatic → Bahnaric → Chrau Vietnam, (Dong Nai, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc, Ba Ria-Vung Tau) Animism, Theravada Chuanqing Sino-Tibetan → Sinitic → Mandarin Chinese → Southwestern Mandarin China (Guizhou) Ethnic religion Chukchis Chukotko-Kamchatkan → Chukotkan → Chukchi Chukchia Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy, Shamanism Chulyms Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Chulym Russia (Tomsk Oblast, Krasnoyarsk Krai) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy Chumash Chumashan languages United States (California) Christianity, Native American religion Chutiya Sino-Tibetan → Sal → Deori India (Assam) Deori Ekasarana Dharma Chuukese Austronesian → Micronesian → Chuukese Federated States of Micronesia (Chuuk Lagoon) Christianity → Catholicism Chuvans Indo-European → Slavic → Russian, Chukotko-Kamchatkan → Chukotkan → Chukchi, formerly Yukaghir → Chuvan Russia (Chukotka) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy Chuvash Turkic → Oghur → Chuvash Russia (Chuvashia) Virjal, Anatri Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Cinta Larga Tupian → Monde → Cinta Larga Brazil (Amazon rainforest) Indigenous religion, Santo Daime Circassians Northwest Caucasian → Circassian Russia (Circassia) Abzakhs, Adygeans, Besleneys, Bzhedugs, Chemirgoys, Cherkess, Kabardians, Natukhajs, Shapsugs, Ubykhs, Makhosh, and Hatuqways, with significant populations in Turkey, Israel, Syria, Jordan, Iran, Germany, Iraq, Bulgaria, the United States, Egypt, Libya, and Saudi Arabia Islam → Sunni Islam → Hanafi, Sufism → Naqshbandi Cirebonese Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Cirebonese Indonesia (Cirebon) Islam\t Clatsop Chinookan, Wakashan, and Indo-European → Lower Chinook, Nootka Jargon, Germanic, and Italic → Chinook Jargon; formerly Chinookan → Lower Chinook → Clatsop United States (Oregon) Cocopah Yuman → Cocopah Mexico (Baja California, Sonora), United States (Arizona) Native American religion Cocos Malays Malay creoles → Cocos Malay Australia (Cocos (Keeling) Islands) significant populations in Malaysia Islam → Sunni Islam Cofan Cofan language Ecuador (Sucumbios), Colombia (Putumayo) Animism Cook Islanders Austronesian → Polynesian → Cook Islands Māori, Austronesian → Polynesian → Penrhyn, Austronesian → Polynesian → Rakahanga-Manihiki, Austronesian → Polynesian → Pukapukan Cook Islands Christianity → Protestantism Comanche Uto-Aztecan → Numic → Comanche, Indo-European → Germanic → English United States (Comancheria) Native American Church, Christianity Comorians Niger–Congo → Bantu → Comorian Comoros, France (Mayotte) Grande Comorians, Anjouans, Mohélians, Maorais, Significant population in Metropolitan France Islam → Sunni Islam Conch Indo-European → Germanic → English, English creole → Bahamian Creole Bahamas Christianity Confederados Indo-European → Germanic → English → American English Brazil (Santa Barbara d'Oeste, Americana) Christianity → Protestantism Copts Afro-Asiatic → Coptic, Egyptian Sign Egypt Sudan and Libya along with the Coptic diaspora Christianity → Coptic Orthodoxy Cornish Indo-European → Celtic → Cornish, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Cornish English, BANZSL → British Sign United Kingdom (Cornwall) Significant populations in the United States and Australia Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism, Methodism Corsicans Indo-European → Romance → Corsican France (Corsica) Corsican Americans (including Corsican Puerto Ricans) Christianity → Catholicism Coushatta Muskogean → Alabama–Koasati → Koasati United States (Coushatta Indian Reservation, Alabama–Coushatta Reservation, Alabama–Quassarte Tribal Town) Christianity Cree Algic → Algonquian → Cree Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador) James Bay Cree, Moose Cree, Swampy Cree, Woodland Cree, Papaschase Christianity Crimean Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Crimean Tatar Ukraine (Crimea) Steppe, Mountain, and Southcoast tribes, Crimean Roma, along with Significant populations in Turkey, Romania, and Uzbekistan.", "Islam → Sunni Islam Croats Indo-European → Slavic → Shtokavian, Chakavian, Kajkavian, Torlakian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slavomolisano; Francosign → Austro-Hungarian Sign → Yugoslav Sign Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) Bunjevci, Krashovani, Janjevci, Šokci, Bosnian Croats, Croat Muslims, along with significant populations in Italy (including Molise Croats), Austria, United States, Chile, Argentina, Germany, Australia and Canada Christianity → Catholicism Crow Siouan → Western Siouan → Crow United States (Montana) Christianity, Crow religion Czechoslovaks Indo-European → Slavic → Czech, Indo-European → Slavic → Slovak Czech Republic, Slovakia Significant populations in Canada and the United States Czechs Indo-European → Slavic → Czech Czech Republic Bohemians, Chodové, along with significant populations in United States and Canada Christianity → Catholicism Dagaaba Niger–Congo → Gur → Dagaare Ghana, Burkina Faso Christianity, Traditional African religions Dagombas Niger–Congo → Gur → Dagbani Ghana (Kingdom of Dagbon) Islam → Sunni Islam Damara Khoe → Khoekhoe Namibia (Damaraland) Christianity Damia Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Dameli Pakistan (Chitral District) Danes Indo-European → Germanic → Danish, Indo-European → Germanic → East Danish, Indo-European → Germanic → Jutish, Francosign → DTSic → Danish Sign Danish Realm (Denmark) Significant populations in the United States, Canada, Greenland, and Germany.", "Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Dani Trans-New Guinea → West Papuan Highlands → Dani Indonesia (Baliem Valley) Dargins Northeast Caucasian → Dargin Russia (Dagestan) Kaitags, Kubachis, Itsaris, Chirags Islam → Sunni Islam Daurs Mongolic → Dagur China (Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Xinjiang) Shamanism Dawoodi Bohra Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Gujarati → Lisan ud-Dawat India, Pakistan Islam → Shia → Isma'ilism → Tayyibi Isma'ilism Deccani Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Hindustani → Deccani India (Deccan) Hyderabadi Islam → Sunni Islam, Sufism, Shia Islam → Isma'ilism → Nizari Isma'ilism Deg Xitʼan Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Deg Xinag United States (Alaska) Denaʼina Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Denaʼina United States (Alaska) Dhimal Sino-Tibetan → Dhimalish → Dhimal Nepal Dinka Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Dinka South Sudan Christianity, Dinka religion Dobruja Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Crimean, Indo-European → Romance → Romanian Romania (Constanța County) Islam → Sunni Islam Dogon Niger–Congo → Dogon, Bangime, Tebul Sign Mali (Bandiagara Escarpment) Ampari Dogon (including Nyamboli), Tebul U, Mombo Dogon, Escarpment Dogon (including Tommo So), Jamsai Dogon, Nanga Dogon, Yanda Dogon, Walo, Beente, Duleri Dogon, Pinia, Bondum Dogon, Dogul Dogon, Budu, Western Plains Dogon, Toro-tegu Dogon, Bangande Traditional African religions Dogras Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Dogri India (Jammu Division) Hinduism Dolgans Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Dolgan Russia (Krasnoyarsk Krai) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy, Shamanism Doms Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Domari, Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Garachi Azerbaijan, Middle East, North Africa Garachi, with significant populations in Egypt, Israel, Libya, Sudan, Syria, and Tunisia Islam, Judaism Dongxiangs Mongolic → Shirongolic → Santa China, (Gansu) Sunni Islam Doukhobors Indo-European → Slavic → Russian Russia Christianity → Spiritual Christianity Druze Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Levantine Arabic, DGSic → Israeli Sign Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan) Lebanese Druze, Syrian Druze, Israeli Druze, Jordanian Druze Druzism Dubla Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bhil → Dubli Gujarat (India) Hinduism Dukha Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Taiga Sayan Turkic → Dukhan Mongolia (Khövsgöl Province) Shamanism → Dukha indigenous religion Dutch Indo-European → Germanic → Dutch, Francosign → Dutch Sign Netherlands Christianity Dutch Afro-Caribbean Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese and Spanish-based creoles → Papiamento Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten Christianity → Catholicism Dwe'e Niger–Congo → Bantu → Nzime Cameroon Christianity Dyula Niger–Congo → Mande → Manding → Dyula Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Mali Islam → Sunni Islam East Indian Catholics Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → East Indian Mahratti India (Seven Islands of Bombay) Christianity → Catholicism Ebira Niger–Congo → Nupoid → Ebira Nigeria (Kogi State) Islam Edo Niger–Congo → Edoid → Edo Nigeria (Edo State) Ika, Emai Christianity Efik Niger–Congo → Cross River → Ibibio-Efik → Efik Nigeria (Cross River State) Christianity, Efik religion Egyptians Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Egyptian Arabic, Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Sa'idi Arabic, Egyptian Sign, formerly Afro-Asiatic → Egyptian → Ancient Egyptian Egypt Sa'idi Islam → Sunni Islam Ekari Trans-New Guinea → Ekari Indonesia (Wissel Lakes) Christianity Ekoi Niger–Congo → Bantoid → Jagham Nigeria, Cameroon Christianity, Ekoi religion Elbegli Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish Turkey (Kilis, Gaziantep, Sivas), Syria (Aleppo), Iran (South Azerbaijan) Islam → Sunni Islam Embera Choco → Embera Colombia (Choco Department), Panama (Darien, Embera) Shamanism Enets Uralic → Samoyedic → Enets Russia (Krasnoyarsk Krai) English Indo-European → Germanic → English, BANZSL → British Sign United Kingdom (England) New Forest commoners, Berwickers Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism Erzyas Uralic → Mordvinic → Erzya Russia (Mordovia) Shoksha Esan Niger–Congo → Edoid → Esan Nigeria (Esanland) Christianity Estonians Uralic → Finnic → Estonian, Uralic → Finnic → South Estonian, Francosign → RSLic → Estonian Sign Estonia, Setomaa (Estonia and Russia), Latvia (Ludza, Gauja) Setos, Võros, Hiiumaans, Saaremaans, Ludza Estonians, Gauja Estonians, with significant populations in Argentina, Australia, Canada, Finland, Georgia (including Abkhazia), the United States Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Eurasian Singaporeans Indo-European → Germanic → English Singapore Christianity Evenks Tungusic → Northern Tungusic → Evenki, Tungusic → Northern Tungusic → Negidal Russia, China Negidals Shamanism Evens Tungusic → Northern Tungusic → Even, Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Yakut Russia (Kamchatka Krai, Magadan Oblast, Sakha) Shamanism Ewe Niger–Congo → Kwa → Gbe → Ewe Togo, Ghana Anlo Ewe, Waci Christianity, West African Vodun Falkland Islanders Indo-European → Germanic → English → Falkland Islands English British Overseas Territories (Falkland Islands) Christianity Fang Niger–Congo → Bantu → Fang Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon Christianity Faroe Islanders Indo-European → Germanic → Faroese, Indo-European → Germanic → Danish → Gøtudanskt Danish Realm (Faroe Islands) Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Fijians Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Fijian Fiji Fijian Americans, Fijian Australians, Fijian British Christianity → Protestantism → Methodism Finnish Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Tatar → Mishar Tatar, Indo-European → Slavic → Russian Finland Islam → Sunni Islam Finns Uralic → Finnic → Finnish, Uralic → Finnic → Meänkieli, Uralic → Finnic → Siberian Ingrian Finnish, Indo-European → Germanic → Finland Swedish, SSLic → FSLic Finland, Russia (Ingria, Siberia), Sweden, Norway Forest Finns, Tornedalians, Ingrian Finns (including Siberian Finns (including Korlaks), Savonians, Tavastians, Finns proper, Ostrobothnians, Finnish Karelians, Finland Swedes, Kainuu, and Murmansk Finns, along with significant populations in Sweden, Switzerland, Australia, United States (including Findians), Argentina, and Canada (including Findians).", "Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Fipa Niger–Congo → Bantu (Zone M) → Fipa, Niger–Congo → Bantu → Mambwe-Lungu Rukwa Region, Tanzania (Sumbawanga Rural District, Nkasi District) Christianity → Catholicism Flemings Indo-European → Germanic → Dutch → Flemish, Indo-European → Germanic → West Flemish, Indo-European → Germanic → Zeelandic, Francosign → Belgian Sign → Flemish Sign Belgium (Flanders, Brussels), France (French Flanders), Netherlands (Zeelandic Flanders) Christianity → Catholicism Fon Niger–Congo → Kwa → Gbe → Fon Dahomey (Benin) Christianity → Catholicism, West African Vodun French Indo-European → Romance → French, Francosign → French Sign France Christianity → Catholicism French Afro-Caribbean Indo-European → Romance → French → Antillean Creole France (French West Indies), Dominica, Haiti, Saint Lucia Guadeloupeans, Martinicans, Saint-Martinois, Barthelemois, Afro-French Guianans, Dominicans, Haitians, Saint Lucians Christianity → Catholicism, Haitian Vodou French Canadians Indo-European → Romance → French → Canadian French, Francosign → French Sign and American Sign → Quebec Sign Canada Quebecois, Acadians (including Chiac), Franco-Terreneuvians, Franco-Ontariens, Franco-Manitobains, Fransaskois, Franco-Albertains, Franco-Colombiens, Franco-Yukonnais, Franco-Tenois, Franco-Nunavois, Brayons, Muskrat French, French-Canadian Americans Christianity → Catholicism French Louisianians Indo-European → French Creole → Louisiana Creole, Indo-European → Romance → Louisiana French, Indo-European → Romance → French → Missouri French, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Cajun English, formerly Indo-European → French Creole → Alabama Creole United States (Louisiana, Alabama, and Missouri) Louisiana Creoles (including Louisiana Cajuns and Louisiana Creoles of color), Alabama Creoles (including Alabama Cajuns), and Missouri Creoles Christianity → Catholicism, Louisiana Voodoo Frisians Indo-European → Germanic → Frisian, Indo-European → Germanic → East Frisian Low Saxon, Indo-European → Germanic → Dutch → West Frisian Dutch Frisia (Netherlands, Germany, historically Denmark) Westlauwers Frisians, East Frisians, North Frisians, Saterland Frisians, with significant populations in the United States Christianity → Protestantism → Calvinism, Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Friulians Indo-European → Romance → Friulian Italy (Friuli) Christianity → Catholicism Fula Atlantic–Congo → Senegambian → Fula West Africa (Guinea, Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Burkina Faso, Benin, Chad) Wodaabe, Maasina Fulfulde Islam Fur Nilo-Saharan → Fur Sudan (Darfur) Islam → Sunni Islam Fuyu Kyrgyz Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Fuyu Kyrgyz Fuyu County (Qiqihar, Heilongjiang, China) Buddhism → Vajrayana → Tibetan Buddhism Ga-Adangbe Niger–Congo → Kwa → Ga–Dangme Greater Accra (Ghana) Ga, Adangbe Christianity Gabrieleños Indo-European → Germanic → English, Indo-European → Romance → Spanish, Uto-Aztecan → Takic → Gabrieleno Native American religion, Christianity Gade Niger–Congo → Nupoid → Gade Nigeria (Niger State) Gagauz Turkic → Oghuz → Gagauz Moldova (Gagauzia, Taraclia, Basarabeasca), Ukraine (Budjak) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Gajal Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish, Indo-European → Slavic → Bulgarian Bulgaria (Ludogorie), Turkey (East Thrace) Islam → Sunni Islam Galela West Papuan → North Halmahera → Galela Indonesia (North Maluku) Galicians Indo-European → Romance → Galician, Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Castrapo Spain (Galicia) Couto Mistans Christianity → Catholicism Gamilaraay Pama-Nyungan → Wiradhuric → Gamilaraay Australia (New South Wales, Queensland) Alcheringa Ganda Niger–Congo → Bantu → Great Lakes → Luganda Uganda (Buganda) Abayudaya Christianity Garhwalis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Garhwali India (Uttarakhand) Hinduism Garifunas Arawakan → Ta-Arawakan → Garifuna Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Significant populations in the United States Christianity → Catholicism Garos Sino-Tibetan → Sal → Garo India (Garo Hills) Christianity, Songsarek Gaviao (Je) Macro-Je → Je → Para Gaviao → Parkateje, Macro-Je → Je → Para Gaviao → Pykobje Brazil (Pará, Maranhao) Parkateje, Pykobje Gaviao (Rondonia) Tupian → Monde → Gaviao of Jiparana Brazil (Rondonia) Gayonese Austronesian → Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands → Gayo Indonesia (Bener Meriah, Central Aceh, and Gayo Lues Regencies) Islam Gbagyi Niger–Congo → Nupoid → Gwari Nigeria Traditional African religions Gbaya Niger–Congo → Ubangian → Gbaya Central African Republic, Cameroon Bokoto, Kara, Buli (including Toongo), Ali, Mandja, Gbaya-Bossangoa, Bozom, Mbodomo, Gbanu, Bangandu Islam Gedeo Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Gedeo Ethiopia (Gedeo) Christianity → Protestantism → P'ent'ay Gelao Kra–Dai → Kra → Gelao China (Guizhou) Taoism, Buddhism Georgians Kartvelian languages, Northeast Caucasian → Nakh → Bats, Georgian Sign Georgia, Azerbaijan (Saingilo) Adjarians, Mingrelians, Svans, Tushetians, Meskhetians, Imerkhevians, Ingiloys, Bats, with significant populations in Turkey (including Chveneburi, France, Belgium, Poland, Russia, Spain, Ukraine, the United States, and Iran Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Germans Indo-European → Germanic → German, DGSic → German Sign Germany Bavarians, Swabians Christianity Ghomaras Afro-Asiatic → Berber → Ghomaras Morocco (Rif) Islam → Sunni Islam Ghorbati Indo-European → Iranian → Persian, Ghorbati Central Asia Mugats Gibraltarians Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Llanito, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Gibraltarian English, BANZSL → British Sign British Overseas Territories (Gibraltar) Significant populations in the United Kingdom Christianity → Catholicism Gilaks Indo-European → Iranian → Gilaki Iran (Gilan) Islam → Twelver Shi’ism Gitxsan Tsimshianic → Nass–Gitksan → Gitxsan Canada (Skeena Country) Native American religion Goan Catholics Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Konkani → Goan Konkani India (Goa) Christianity → Catholicism Godoberis Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Godoberi Russia (Dagestan) Islam → Sunni Islam Gogo Niger–Congo → Bantu → Gogo Tanzania (Dodoma Region) Gola Niger–Congo → Gola Liberia, Sierra Leone Islam Gonds Dravidian → Gondi India (Gondwana) Godha, Madia Gonds, Muria, Koya Hinduism, Koyapunem Gorals Indo-European → Slavic → Lechitic → Gorolski Southern Poland, northern Slovakia, Cieszyn Silesia (Poland, Czech Republic) Sącz Lachs, Silesian Gorals Christianity → Catholicism, Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Gorani Indo-European → Slavic → Torlakian → Gorani Gora (Kosovo, Albania, North Macedonia) Islam → Sunni Islam Gorontalo Austronesian → Philippine → Gorontaloan Indonesia (Gorontalo) Islam → Sunni Islam Gosha Niger-Congo → Bantu → Zigula Somalia Islam Great Andamanese Great Andamanese India (Great Andaman) Animism Greeks Indo-European → Hellenic, Turkic → Kipchak → Urum, Indo-European → Romance → Aromanian, Indo-European → Romance → Megleno-Romanian, Indo-European → Albanian → Arvanitika, Indo-European → Slavic → Macedo-Bulgarian, Francosign → French Sign and American Sign → Greek Sign, Cypriot Sign Greece, Cyprus Greek Cypriots, Pontic Greeks, Cappadocian Greeks, Sarakatsani, Souliotes, Urums, Grikos, Macedonian Greeks, Anatolian Greeks, Tsakonians, Maniots, Karagounides, , Phanariots, Egyptian Greeks, Caucasus Greeks, Cretan Muslims, Sfakians, Slavophone Greeks, Corfiot Greeks, Melkites (including Antiochian Greeks, Jerusalemite Greeks, and Alexandrian Greeks) and also sizeable populations of Arvanites, Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians who identify as ethnic Greeks, along with significant populations in Albania (including Northern Epirotes), Turkey, Ukraine, Georgia, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, France, Italy (including Grikos), Malta, and Canada Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism → Greek Byzantine Catholicism, formerly Hellenism, Neoplatonism, Greco-Roman Mysteries Gros Ventre Algic → Algonquian → Gros Ventre United States (Montana) Sun Dance Guajajara Tupian → Tenetehara Brazil (Maranhao) Shamanism, Santo Daime Guan Niger–Congo → Kwa → Guang Ghana (Brong-Ahafo and Volta Regions) Gonja, Kyode, Cherepon, Efutu, Anyanga, Larteh, Chumburung, Krache, Anum-Boso Christianity Guarani Tupian → Guarani Paraguay, Argentina (Misiones), Bolivia Chiriguanos, along with Mestizos such as Paraguayans Christianity → Catholicism Gujarati Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Gujarati India (Gujarat) Koli, Bharwad, Khoja, Patidar, Sunni Bohra, Lohana, Vagri, Kharva, Charan, Baria, Momna, Ghanchi, Shenva, Bhambi Khalpa, Zarabes, Bhoi, Luso-Indians, Gujarati Americans Hinduism, Islam, Jainism Gujjar / Gurjar Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Gujari Primarily Pakistan & India, also Afghanistan at smaller numbers Khatana, Solanki, Parihar, Tanwar, Parmar, chandel, Chauhan, Bhadana, Bhatti, Kohli, Tomar, Panwar, Pawar, Bainsla, Bagri, Hans, etc.", "Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism Gumuz Nilo-Saharan → Gumuz Ethiopia (Benishangul-Gumuz Region) Traditional African religion Guna Chibchan → Kuna Panama (Guna Yala) Native American religion Gurage Afro-Asiatic → Ethiopic → Gurage, formerly Afro-Asiatic → Ethiopic → Mesmes Ethiopia (Guragia) Kistane, Zay, Inor, Mesqan, Muher Sebat Bet (including Chaha) Christianity Gurindji Pama–Nyungan → Ngumpin–Yapa → Gurindji, Pama–Nyungan and Indo-European → Gurindji and Australian Kriol → Gurindji Kriol Australia (Northern Territory) Dreamtime Gurma Niger–Congo → Gur → Gourmanche Gurmaland (Burkina Faso, Ghana) Ntcham, Bimoba Islam Gurungs Sino-Tibetan → Gurung Nepal, India (Sikkim, West Bengal) Ghale, Gurung Buddhism → Vajrayana → Tibetan Buddhism, Bon, Hinduism Gurunsi Niger–Congo → Gur → Gurunsi Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo Lukpa, Kabye, Tem, Lamba, Delo, Bago-Kusuntu, Chala, Lyele, Nuna, Kalamse, Pana, Kassena, Winye, Deg, Puguli, Paasaal, Sisaala, Chakali, Siti, Tamprusi, Vagla Traditional African religions, Islam → Sunni Islam Gwich'in Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Gwich'in Canada (Yukon Territory, Northwest Territories), United States (Alaska) Native American religion Ha Niger–Congo → Bantu → Ha Tanzania (Kigoma Region) Animism Hadiya Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Hadiyya Ethiopia (Hadiya) Islam Hadza Hadza language Tanzania (Karatu District) Hadza mythology Haida Haida languages Canada (Haida Gwaii) Haida Traditional Faith Haisla Wakashan → Haisla Canada (British Columbia) Native American religion Hän Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Han Canada (Yukon Territory), United States (Alaska) Native American religion Han Chinese Sino-Tibetan → Sinitic → Chinese, CSLic languages, JSLic → Taiwan Sign, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Manglish, Austronesian → Malayic → Malay → Bazaar Malay → Baba Malay, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Hong Kong English, formerly Sino-Tibetan → Chinese → Ba–Shu China, Taiwan, Singapore, Myanmar (Kokang) Subei, Yue (including Cantonese, Punti, Taishanese (including Taishanese Hongkongers), Hongkongers (including Punti), Macau, and Namshun), Tankas (including Fuzhou Tankas), Màirén, Hui (including Panthays), Fujianese (including Fuzhounese, Hoklos, Hui'an maidens, Putianese, Fujianese Hongkongers, Fokien, and Teochew), Gaoshan Han, Gan, Tunbao, Pinghua (including Northern Pinghua and Southern Pinghua), Hakka (including Ngai (including Dan)), Hainanese, Hebei, Hunanese, Jianghuai, Shandong, Sichuanese, Wu (including Shanghainese, Ningbonese, and Wenzhounese), Kokang Chinese, Han Taiwanese (including Hoklo Taiwanese and Benshengren), Sino-Singaporeans (including Straits Chinese), Chin Haw, Hwagyo, along with significant populations in the United States (including Hoklos, Hongkongers, Fuzhounese Americans, and Hakkas), Mongolia, Malaysia (including Penangite Chinese, Straits Chinese, and Peranakans (including Baba-Nyonya and Kiau–Seng)), Thailand, Indonesia (including Benteng), Myanmar, Canada (including Hongkongers), the Philippines (including Sangleys), Peru, Australia (including Hong Kong Australians), Vietnam (including Chinese Nùng and Ngai (including Dan)), Japan, Russia, France (including Chinois and Wenzhounese French), the United Kingdom (including Hong Kong Britons), South Africa, Italy, Bulgaria, Germany, Korea (including North Korea and South Korea), Fiji, Finland, Spain, India, Laos, Brazil, the Netherlands (including Hongkongers), Argentina, Panama, Madagascar, Mauritius (including Namshun, Fokien, Hakka, and Sino-creoles), Seychelles, Venezuela, Cambodia (including Teochew, Cantonese Cambodians, Hainanese Cambodians, Hoklos, and Hakkas), Belgium, Denmark, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Czech Republic, Chinese Bangladeshis, the Caribbean (including Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, Belize, Suriname, and Guyana), Chile, Costa Rica, Brazil, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Portugal, Mozambique, Romania, Samoa, Serbia, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Cape Verde, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Libya, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, the Republic of Congo, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and New Zealand Chinese folk religion, Buddhism → Chinese Buddhism, Taoism, Irreligion (see also Religion in China and Religion in Taiwan) Hangaza Niger–Congo → Bantu → Hangaza Tanzania (Kagera Region) Hani Sino-Tibetan → Loloish → Hani China (Yunnan) Animism Harari Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Ethiopic → Harari Ethiopia (Hararia) Islam → Sunni Islam Haratins Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Maghrebi Arabic, Afro-Asiatic → Berber Mauritania Islam → Sunni Islam Hausa Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Hausa Hausaland (Niger, Nigeria, Ghana) Islam → Sunni Islam Hawaiians Austronesian → Polynesian → Hawaiian, Indo-European → Germanic → English Creole → Hawaiian Pidgin, Hawaiʻi Sign, Hawaiʻi Sign and American Sign → Creole Hawaiʻi Sign United States (Hawaii) Christianity, Hawaiian religion Haya Niger–Congo → Bantu → Haya Tanzania (Kagera Region) Christianity, Ruhanga Hazaras Karluks → Indo-European → Persian → Hazaragi Afghanistan (Hazarajat) Islam → Shia and Sunni Hehe Niger–Congo → Bantu → Hehe Tanzania (Iringa Region) Heiltsuk Wakashan → Northern Wakashan → Heiltsuk-Oowekyala → Heiltsuk Canada (Central Coast Regional District) Native American religion Helong Austronesian → Timoric → Helong Indonesia (Kupang Regency, Semau Island, Flores Island) Christianity Herero Niger–Congo → Bantu → Herero Namibia (Hereroland), Angola OvaHimba, Ovambanderu Christianity Highland Travellers Indo-European → Celtic → Scottish Gaelic → Beurla Reagaird United Kingdom (Scottish Highlands) Hinukh Northeast Caucasian → Tsezic → Hinuq Russia (Tsuntinsky and Kizlyarsky districts) Islam → Sunni Islam Hispanic Americans Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → American Spanish Hispanic America (Mexico, Colombia, Argentina, Peru, Venezuela, Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Bolivia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Paraguay, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama, Uruguay), United States (Puerto Rico, Texas, New Mexico, California, Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Louisiana), Belize Mexican (Northeastern Mexican, Northwestern Mexican, Baja Californian, Western Mexican, Abajeno, Central Mexican, Southern Mexican, Coastal Mexican, Chiapaneco, Yucateco, Basque-Mexican, Mexican-American), Colombian (Cundinamarqués, Bogotan, Boyacense, Santandereano, Huilense, Tolimense, Paisa, Caucano, Pastuso, Valluno, Llanero, Amazonian Colombian, Guajiro, Sabanero, Samario, Vallenato, Chochoano, Tumaqueño, Basque-Colombian, Colombian-American), Argentinian (North Argentinian, Guaranitic, Cuyano, Cordobes, Puntano, Litoraleno, Porteno, Patagonian, Basque-Argentinian, Argentinian-American), Peruvian (Ecuatorial Peruvian, Coastal Peruvian, Andean Peruvian, Amazonian Peruvian, Peruvian-American), Venezuelan (Amazonian Venezuelan, Llanero, Andean Venezuelan, Western Venezuelan, Eastern Venezuelan, Island Venezuelan, Caraqueno, Zuliano, Central Venezuelan, Venezuelan-American, Venezuelan-Colombian), Chilean (Chilean-American), Ecuadorian (Quiteno, Riobambeno, Cuencano, Lojano, Esmeraldeno, Manabita, Guayaco, Amazonian Ecuadorian, Ecuadorian-American), Guatemalan (Guatemalan-American), Bolivian (Bolivian-American), Cuban (Cuban-American), Dominican (Dominican-American), Honduran (Honduran-American), Paraguayan (Paraguayan-American), Nicaraguan (Nicaraguan-American), Salvadoran (Caliche, Lenca, Salvadoran-American), Costa Rican (Costa Rican-American), Panamanian (Panamanian-American), Uruguayan (Uruguayan-American), Islenos, Hispanic-Belizean, Puerto Rican, Hispanic Americans in the United States (Chicano, Nuyorican), colonial-era Hispanos in the USA and their modern descendants (Tejanos, Californios, Neomexicanos, Floridanos, Isleños, Louisiana Spanish-Creoles), Spanish Americans (Asturian-American, Basque Americans, Catalan Americans, Canarian Americans, Galician Americans), along with significant populations in the United States, Spain, France, Canada, Italy, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Portugal, Australia and Sweden Christianity → Catholicism Hispanic Afro-Caribbeans Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → American SpanishIndo-European → Romance → Spanish-based creoles → Palenquero Hispanic Caribbean (Mexico, Caribbean Colombia, Venezuela, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Panama, Puerto Rico) Afro-Mexican, Caribbean Afro-Colombian (Palenquero), Afro-Venezuelan, Afro-Cuban (Ganga-Longoba), Afro-Dominican, Afro-Panamanian, Afro-Puerto Rican Christianity → Catholicism, Santeria, Orisha, Yoruba, Vodou, Traditional African religion Hmong Hmong–Mien → Hmongic China (Guizhou) A-Hmao, Gha-Mu, Xong, Pa-Hng, Hmong Americans Hmong folk religion Hopi Uto-Aztecan → Hopi United States (Hopi Reservation) Christianity, Native American Church Huli Trans–New Guinea → Engan → Huli Papua New Guinea (Southern Highlands Province) Christianity, Papuan religion Hungarians Uralic → Ugric → Hungarian, Francosign → Austro-Hungarian Sign → Hungarian Sign Hungary, Romania (Szekely Land), Slovakia (Felvidek) Palóc, Matyó, Magyarabs, Hungarian Cumans, Jasz, along with significant populations in Romania (including Szekelys (including Bukovina Szekelys) and Csangos), Slovakia, Serbia, Ukraine, Croatia, Slovenia, Germany, the United States, and Canada Christianity → Catholicism, Eastern Catholicism → Hungarian Greek Catholicism, Hungarian Unitarianism Hunzibs Northeast Caucasian → Tsezic → Hunzib Russia (Tsuntinsky District) Islam → Sunni Islam Hutterites Indo-European → Germanic → Hutterite German Great Plains Schmiedeleut, Lehrerleut, Dariusleut Christianity → Anabaptism Hutu Niger–Congo → Bantu → Great Lakes → Rwanda-Rundi Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kivu) Christianity Iatmul Sepik → Iatmul Papua New Guinea (East Sepik Province) Iban Austronesian → Malayic → Iban Malaysia (Sarawak) Mualang Christianity Ibanag Austronesian → Philippine → Cordilleran → Ibanag Philippines (Isabela, Cagayan) Christianity → Catholicism Ibibio Niger–Congo → Cross River → Ibibio, Niger–Congo → Cross River → Anaang, Niger–Congo → Cross River → Eket, Nigeria (Akwa Ibom State) Eket, Anaang, Oron Christianity Icelanders Indo-European → Germanic → Icelandic, Francosign → DTSic → Icelandic Sign Iceland Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism, Asartu Idoma Niger–Congo → Idomoid → Idoma Nigeria (Benue State) Agatu, Alago, Yala Christianity Igbo Niger–Congo → Igbo Nigeria (Igboland) Anioma, Aro, Edda, Ekpeye, Etche, Ezaa, Ika, Ikwerre, Ikwo, Isu, Izzi, Mbaise, Mgbo, Ngwa, Nri-Igbo, Ogba, Ohafia, Ohuhu, Onitsha-Ado, Ukwuani, Waawa, Igbo Jews Christianity, Odinala Igede Niger–Congo → Idomoid → Igede Nigeria (Benue State) Christianity Igorot Austronesian → Philippine → Cordilleran Philippines (Cordillera Administrative Region) Balangao, Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao (including Kalanguya), Isnag, Kalinga, Kankanaey Anitism Ijaw Niger–Congo → Ijaw Nigeria (Rivers, Bayelsa, and Delta States) Bille, Engenni, Ibani, Kalabari, Kula, Nkoro, Nkoroo, Obolo Christianity Ili Turks Turkic → Karluk → Ili Turki China (Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture), Kazakhstan Islam → Sunni Islam Ilocano Austronesian → Philippine → Cordilleran → Ilocano Philippines (Ilocos Region) Christianity → Catholicism Imraguen Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Hassaniya Arabic → Imraguen Mauritania, Western Sahara Indo Indo-European → Germanic → Dutch, Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Malay → Indonesian Indonesia Christianity Indo-Caribbean Indo-European → Germanic → English → English Creole, Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Caribbean Spanish, Indo-European → Romance → French → French Creole, Indo-European → Germanic → Dutch → Surinamese Dutch, Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese → Papiamento, Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Hindustani → Caribbean Hindustani, Dravidian → Tamil–Kannada → Tamil Caribbean Indo-Barbadian, Indo-Dominican, Indo-Grenadians, Indo-Guadeloupeans, Indo-Haitians, Indo-Jamaicans, Indo-Martiniquais, Indo-Kittitians and Indo-Nevisians, Indo-Saint Lucian, Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian, Indo-Vincentian, Indo-Belizeans, Indo-Guyanese, Indo-Surinamese Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Baháʼí Indo-Fijians Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Hindustani → Fiji Hindi, Indo-European → Germanic → English, Dravidian → Tamil–Kannada → Tamil, Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Oceanic → Fijian Fiji Significant populations in Australia, New Zealand, United States, Canada, and United Kingdom Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism Indo-Mauritians Indo-European → Romance → French → Mauritian Creole, Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bhojpuri, Dravidian → Tamil Mauritius Hinduism, Islam Indus Kohistanis Indo-European → Dardic → Indus Kohistani Pakistan (Kohistan) Islam → Sunni Islam Ingushes Northeast Caucasian → Nakh → Ingush Russia (Ingushetia) Islam → Sunni Islam → Shafi'i Innu Algic → Algonquian → Innu-aimun, Algic → Algonquian → Naskapi Canada (Labrador, Quebec) Naskapi Inuit Eskaleut → Inuit, Inuit Sign language Danish Realm (Greenland), Canada (Nunavut, Nunatsiavut, Nunavik, NunatuKavut), United States (Alaska) Greenlandics (including Kalaallit, Tunumiit, Inughuit and Greenlandic Danes), Inupiat (including Nunamiut), Inuktitut, Inuvialuit, Iglulik Inuit (including Aivilingmiut) Christianity, Inuit religion Iranis Indo-European → Iranian → Zoroastrian Dari India Zoroastrianism Iranun Austronesian → Philippine → Iranun Philippines (Mindanao) Islam → Sunni Islam Iraqi Turkmen Turkic → Oghuz → Iraqi Turkmen Iraq Islam → Sunni Islam, Shia Islam Iraqw Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Iraqw Tanzania Christianity Irish Indo-European → Celtic → Irish, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Hiberno-English, Francosign → Irish Sign, BANZSL → British Sign → Northern Ireland Sign Ireland Irish Catholics, Significant populations of Irish diaspora around the World such as in United States (including Scotch-Irish Americans), United Kingdom (including Ulster Scots people) Canada (including Scotch-Irish Canadians), Australia, New Zealand, Mainland Europe, Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, and India Christianity → Catholicism and Protestantism Irish Travellers Indo-European → Irish and English → Shelta, Francosign → Irish Sign Ireland Significant populations in the United Kingdom, and the United States Christianity → Catholicism Isan Kra–Dai → Tai → Lao → Isan Thailand (Isan) Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Isoko Niger–Congo → Edoid → Isoko Nigeria (Isoko region) Christianity Istro-Romanians Indo-European → Romance → Istro-Romanian Croatia (Istria) Christianity → Catholicism Italians Indo-European → Romance → Italian, Indo-European → Slavic → Slavomolisano, Indo-European → Romance → Istriot, Indo-European → Romance → Ligurian, Francosign → LISic → Italian Sign, formerly Indo-European → Romance → Dalmatian Italy Molise Croats, Dalmatian Italians, Istrian Italians, Niçard Italians Christianity → Catholicism Itawes Austronesian → Philippine → Cordilleran → Itawis Philippines (Cagayan Valley) Christianity → Catholicism Itelmens Chukotko-Kamchatkan → Kamchatkan → Itelmen Russia (Kamchatka Peninsula) Shamanism Izhorians Uralic → Finnic → Ingrian Russia (Ingria) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Jamaican Maroons Indo-European → Germanic → English → Jamaican Patois, Jamaican Maroon Creole Jamaica Kumfu Jambian Austronesian → Jambian Indonesia (Jambia) Batin Sunni Islam Japanese/Yamato Japonic → Japanese, Japonic → Hachijō, JSLic → Japanese Sign, Miyakubo Sign Japan Kantō, Kansai, Hokkaido, Tōhoku, Hōnichi, Satsugū, Chūgoku, Echigo, Tōkai, Shinshuu, Hokuriku, Hachijō, Miyakubo, Tsugaru, and Nikkei Brazilians in Japan, along with significant populations in Brazil, the United States (including Hawaii), Canada, the Caribbean (including Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica), Mexico, Argentina, Uruguay, Venezuela, France, Germany, Russia, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, China (including Hong Kong), Belgium (including Brussels), Spain, Turkey, Bolivia, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru, Chile, Egypt, India, Indonesia, North Korea, South Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, New Zealand, Australia, Pakistan, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, South Africa, Singapore, the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Palau, Thailand, Papua New Guinea, the United Arab Emirates, and the Philippines.", "Shinto, Tenrikyo, Buddhism Jarai Austronesian → Chamic → Jarai Vietnam (Central Highlands) Animism Jarawas Ongan → Jarawa India (South Andaman, Middle Andaman) Animism Javanese Austronesian → Javanesic Indonesia (Java) Osing, Tenggerese, Boyanese, Banyumasan, along with significant populations in Malaysia, Suriname, China, Sri Lanka, French Guiana, New Caledonia, and Saudi Arabia Islam → Sunni Islam Jeks Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Jek Azerbaijan (Mount Shahdagh) Islam → Sunni Islam Channel Islanders Indo-European → Romance → Norman, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Channel Island English British Crown Dependencies (Channel Islands) Jèrriais (including Sercquiais), Guernésiais, Auregnais Jerusalemite Greek Christians Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Levantine Arabic, historically Indo-European → Hellenic Israel, Palestine, Jordan Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Greek Orthodoxy → Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, Catholicism → Melkite Catholicism Jews Afro-Asiatic → Canaanite → Hebrew → Modern Hebrew, Jewish languages, DGSic → Israeli Sign, formerly Indo-European → Romance → Zarphatic, Indo-European → Romance → Judaeo-Portuguese, Indo-European → Slavic → Knaanic Israel Ashkenazim (including Galitzianers, Yekkes, Unterlander Jews, Oberlander Jews, Litvaks, Afrikaner-Jews, Udmurt and Tatar Jews), Sephardim (including Eastern Sephardim, North African Sephardim, Maroka'im, Algerian Jews, Tunisian Jews, Libyan Jews, Amazonian Jews, Iberian Jews, Sephardic Bnei Anusim, Xuetes, and Toshavim), Mizrahim (including Bukharim, Juhurim, Kurdish Jews, Syrian Jews, Arab Jews, Afghan Jews, Baghdadi Jews, Teimanim, Sharʿabi Jews, Habbanim, Banu al-Harith, Adeni Jews, Persian Jews, Mashhadi Jews, and Kaifeng Jews), Astrakhan Jews, Beta Israel (including Beta Abraham and Falash Mura), Italkim (including San Nicandro Jews and Italian Rite Jews), Rusape Jews, Romaniotes, Constantinopolitan Karaites, Bavlim, Crimean Karaites, Krymchaks, Gruzim, Benei Sion, Bene Israel, Banu Israil, Kochinim, Paradesi, Lishanid Noshan, Israeli Jews, B'nai Moshe, Bnei Menashe, Urfalim, Meshuchrarim, Abayudaya, Shaposhniki, Karaimites, African-American Jews, Desi Jews, Igbo Jews, and Bene Ephraim, along with significant populations in the United States (including Syrian Jews and Puerto Rican Jews), Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Russia, Belarus, the Czech lands, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Austria, Italy, Greece, Switzerland, Belgium, Iraq, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, Monaco, the United Kingdom, Peru, South Africa, Australia, India (including Sephardim) and New Zealand Judaism Jingpo Sino-Tibetan → Sal → Jingpho China (Yunnan), India (Northeast India), Myanmar (Kachin State) Animism Jita Tanzania (Mara Region) Jola Niger–Congo → West Atlantic → Senegambian → Jola Senegal (Jolaland) Banjaal, Bayot, Gusilay, Fogni, Karon, Kasa, Kuwaataay, Mlomp Traditional African religions Jukun Niger–Congo → Jukun Takum Nigeria (Wukari) Wannu Traditional African religions Kabyle Afro-Asiatic → Berber → Kabyle Algeria (Kabylia) Islam → Sunni Islam Kadazan-Dusun Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Dusunic Malaysia (Sabah) Kadazan, Dusun, Dumpas, Ida'an, Kwijau, Lotud, Mangka'ak, Maragang, Minokok, Orang Sungai, Rumanau, Rungus, Tambanuo Christianity, Momolianism Kafwe Twa Niger–Congo → Bantu → Tonga Zambia (Kafue Flats) Traditional African religion Kaguru Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kagulu Tanzania (Ukaguru Mountains) Kaingang Macro-Je → Je → Kaingang Brazil (Parana, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Sao Paulo) Shamanism Kalanga Niger–Congo → Bantu → Shona → Kalanga Zimbabwe, Botswana Nambya Christianity Kalash Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Kalasha Pakistan (Chitral District) Kalasha Kalenjin Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Kalenjin Kenya (Rift Valley Province) Keiyo, Tugen, Marakwet, Nandi, Kipsigis, Sabaot, Pokoot, Terik Christianity Kalinago Indo-European → Germanic → English, Arawakan → Ta-Arawakan → Kalinago → Garifuna, Vincentian Creole Lesser Antilles Christianity → Catholicism Kalmyks Mongolic → Central Mongolic → Oirat → Kalmyk Oirat, Sart Kalmyk Russia (Kalmykia), Kyrgyzstan (Issyk-Kul Region) Sart Kalmyks Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism Kaluli Trans-New Guinea → Kaluli Papua New Guinea (Great Papuan Plateau) Papuan religion Kamba Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kamba Kenya (Ukambani) Christianity Kamentsa Camsa language Colombia (Putumayo) Christianity Kanaks Austronesian → Kanak France (Kanakia) Haveke, Ajie, Arha, Xaragure, Haeke Christianity → Catholicism Kannadigas Dravidian → Tamil–Kannada → Kannada India (Karnataka) Vokkaliga Hinduism, Jainism Kanuri Nilo-Saharan → Saharan → Kanuri Kanuriland (Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Cameroon) Kanembu, Yerwa Kanuri Islam West Papuan → North Halmahera → Kao, West Papuan → North Halmahera → Modole Indonesia () Pagu, , Boeng, Towiliko Christianity, Islam, Animism Kapampangans Austronesian → Philippine → Kapampangan Philippines (Pampanga) Christianity → Catholicism, Iglesia ni Cristo, Anitism Kapsiki Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Kapsiki Mandara Mountains (Nigeria, Cameroon) Islam Karamanlides Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish → Karamanli Turkish Turkey (Karaman Province, Cappadocia) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Greek Orthodoxy → Turkish Orthodox Church Karachays Turkic → Kipchak → Karachay Russia (Karachay-Cherkessia) Islam → Sunni Islam Karakalpaks Turkic → Kipchak → Karakalpak Uzbekistan (Karakalpakstan) Qon'ırat, On To'rt Urıw Islam → Sunni Islam Karatas Northeast Caucasian → Avar–Andic → Karata Russia (Dagestan) Islam → Sunni Islam Karategin Uzbeks Turkic → Karluk → Southern Uzbek Afghanistan Islam → Sunni Islam Karbi Sino-Tibetan → Kuki-Chin–Naga → Karbic India (Karbi Anglong district) Amri Hinduism, Animism Karelians Uralic → Finnic → Karelian, Uralic → Finnic → Ludic, Uralic → Finnic → Livvi-Karelian Karelia (Finland, Russia) Tver Karelians, Olonets Karelians Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Karen Sino-Tibetan → Karenic Myanmar (Karen State, Kayah State, Pa'O Self-Administered Zone), Thailand S'gaw Karen, Pwo Karen, Karenni (including Kayan), Pa'O Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Karuk Karuk language United States (California) Christianity Kashmiris Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Dardic → Kashmiri Kashmir (India, Pakistan) Kashmiri Hindus (including Kashmiri Pandits), Kashmiris in Punjab Islam → Sunni Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism Kashubians Indo-European → Slavic → Kashubian, formerly Indo-European → Slavic → Slovincian Poland (Kashubia) Krubans, Slovincians, and Gochans, along with significant populations in the United States Christianity → Catholicism Kaska Dena Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Kaska Canada (British Columbia, Yukon Territory) Native American religion Kawesqar Alacalufan → Kawesqar Chile (Chilean Patagonia, Wellington Island) Christianity → Protestantism Kayapo Macro-Je → Je → Kayapo Brazil (Pará, Mato Grosso) Kazakhs Turkic → Kipchak → Kazakh Kazakhstan Uly juz, Orta juz, Kishi juz.", "Significant populations in China, Iran, Canada, the United States, and Russia Islam → Sunni Islam Kemak Austronesian → Timoric → Kemak Indonesia (West Timor), East Timor Folk religion, Christianity Kereks Chukotko-Kamchatkan → Chukotkan → Kerek Russia (Chukotka) Shamanism Keres Keresan languages, Keresan Sign Language United States (Sandoval County and Cibola County, New Mexico) Eastern Keres (including Dámáyámʾé, Dîiwʾamʾé, Katishtya, Kʾúutìimʾé, Tsʾíiyʾamʾé) Western Keres (including Áakʾùumʾé, Kʾáwáigamʾé) Kerewe Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kerewe Tanzania (Ukerewe Island) Kerincian Austronesian → Kerincian Indonesia (Kerincia) Sunni Islam Ket Yeniseian → Northern Yeniseian → Ket Russia (Krasnoyarsk Krai) Shamanism Khakas Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Khakas Russia (Khakassia) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy, Shamanism → Tengrism Khalaj Turkic → Common Turkic → Khalaj Iran Khanty Uralic → Ugric → Khanty Russia (Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug) Khas Nepal, India (Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal) Chhetri, Thakuri, Rana, Vaisya, Kami, Damai, Sarki, Sunar, Gandarbha Hinduism Khasi Austroasiatic → Khasi–Palaungic → Khasic India (Meghalaya) Pnar Christianity Khinalugs Northeast Caucasian → Khinalug Azerbaijan (Khinalug) Islam → Sunni Islam Khmer Austroasiatic → Khmer Cambodia, Mekong Delta, Isan Northern Khmer people, Khmer Krom and Significant populations in the United States Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Khoja Significant population in East Africa Islam → Shia Islam → Ismaili'sm → Nizari Isma'ilism Khonds Dravidian → Kui India (Kandhamal) Hinduism Khorasani Turks Turkic → Oghuz → Khorasani Turkic Iran (Khorasan) Islam → Shia Islam Khwarshi Northeast Caucasian → Tsezic → Khwarshi Russia (Tsumadinsky District) Islam → Sunni Islam Kickapoo Algic → Algonquian → Kickapoo United States (Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas), Mexico (Coahuila, Sonora, Durango) Tribu Kikapú, Kickapoo Tribe in Kansas, Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma Kiga Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kiga Uganda, Rwanda Christianity → Catholicism, Christianity → Protestantism Kikuyu Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kikuyu Kenya (Central Province) Christianity Kilba Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Huba Nigeria (Hong) Christianity Kinga Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kinga Tanzania (Kipengere Range) Christianity, Traditional African religion Kiowa Tanoan → Kiowa United States (Oklahoma) Christianity, Native American Church Kirantis Sino-Tibetan → Kiranti Nepal (Eastern Region) Limbu, Sunuwar, Yakkha (including Athpare), Rai (including Kulung, Bantawa, and Bahing) Kirat Mundhum Kiribati Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Oceanic → Micronesian → Gilbertese Gilbert Islands (Kiribati) Christianity, Baha'i Faith Kissi Niger–Congo → West Atlantic → Mel → Kissi Guinea, Sierra Leone Christianity Klallam Salishan → Coast Salish → Klallam United States (Olympic Peninsula, Kitsap Peninsula), Canada (Vancouver Island) Lower Elwha Klallam, Jamestown S'Klallam, Port Gamble S'Klallam, Scia'new Klallam Kodava Dravidian → Tamil–Kannada → Kodava India (Kodagu, Bangalore, Mysore) Hinduism Kofyar Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Kofyar Nigeria (Plateau State) Traditional African religions Komi Uralic → Permic → Komi Russia (Komi Republic, Permyakia) Komi-Zyrians, Komi-Permyaks, Izhma Komi Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Konda Reddis Dravidian → South-Central Dravidian → Telugu India (Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu) Kongo Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kongo Kongoland (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Angola) Lari, Vili, Yombe, Suundi, Dondo, Hangala, Kugni, Manyanga, Beembe Christianity, Kongo religion Konjo Niger–Congo → Bantu → Konjo Rwenzori Mountains (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda) Nande Christianity Konkani Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Konkani India (Konkan) Luso-Indians Hinduism Konso Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Konso Ethiopia (Konso) Traditional African religions Koreans Koreanic languages, JSLic → Korean Sign Korea (North Korea, South Korea), China (Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Changbai Korean Autonomous County) North Koreans (including in South Korea), South Koreans, Jeju Islanders, Koryo-saram, Sakhalin Koreans, Zainichi Koreans, Chaoxianzu (including in Japan and Korea) and along with significant populations in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Cuba, Guatemala, Russia (including North Koreans, Koryo-saram, and Sakhalin Koreans), China, Japan (including Zainichi Koreans), Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore, the Philippines, Indonesia, Mongolia, Iran, Nepal, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, India, the Arab world, Africa (including South Africa), Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Venezuela, Australia, Ukraine, New Zealand, Micronesia, Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic Christianity → Protestantism and Catholicism, Buddhism → Mahayana Buddhism → Korean Buddhism, Korean shamanism, Cheondoism, Unification Church Koryaks Chukotko-Kamchatkan → Chukotkan → Koryak Russia (Koryak Okrug) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Shamanism Kosraeans Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Oceanic → Micronesian → Kosraean Juche (Kosrae) Christianity Koyukon Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Koyukon United States (Alaska) Kpelle Niger–Congo → Mande → Kpelle Liberia, Guinea Traditional African religions Kposo Niger–Congo → Kwa → Ghana–Togo Mountain → Kposo Togo (Plateaux), Ghana Christianity → Catholicism Kraho Macro-Je → Je → Kraho Brazil (Terra Indigena Kraolandia) Kristang Indo-European → Portuguese-based creoles → Kristang Malaysia, Singapore Christianity → Catholicism Kru Niger–Congo → Kru Liberia (Grand Kru and Maryland Counties) Aizi, Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Krahn (including Sapo), Kuwaa Christianity Kryts Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Kryts Azerbaijan Islam → Sunni Islam Kulin Pama-Nyungan → Kulinic → Kulin Australia (Victoria) Alcheringa Kumandins Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Northern Altai → Kumandy Russia (Altai Krai, Altai Republic) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy Kumyks Turkic → Kipchak → Kumyk Russia (Kumykia) Islam → Sunni Islam Kumzari Indo-European → Iranian → Kumzari Oman (Kumzar) Islam → Ibadi Islam, Sunni Islam Kunama Nilo-Saharan → Kunama Eritrea, Ethiopia Christianity → Oriental Orthodoxy Kurds Indo-European → Iranian → Kurdish, Indo-European → Indo-Iranian → Zaza–Gorani, Kurdish Sign language Kurdistan (Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey, Armenia) Bajalan, Zazas, Feylis, Iranian Laks, Yazidis, Shabak, Sheylanli, Chalabianlu, Muzuri, along with significant populations in France, Palestine, and Germany Islam → Sunni Islam → Sufism → Naqshbandi, Qadiriyya, Kurdish Alevism, Yazidism, Yarsanism, Zoroastrianism Kuria Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kuria Kenya, Tanzania Traditional African religions, Christianity Kurukh Dravidian → Kurukh India (Chota Nagpur Plateau) Kisan Sarnaism, Christianity, Hinduism Kuteb Niger–Congo → Jukunoid → Kuteb Nigeria (Taraba State) Christianity Kuwarranyji Pama–Nyungan → Ngumpin–Yapa → Mudburra → Kuwarranyji Australia (Northern Territory) Kvens Uralic → Finnic → Kven Norway (Northern Norway) Kwakwaka'wakw Wakashan → Northern Wakashan → Kwak'wala Canada (British Columbia) Native American religion Kwaya Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kwaya Tanzania (Mara Region) Kwere Niger–Congo → Bantu → Kwere Tanzania (Bagamoyo District) Kwinti Indo-European → Germanic → English → Kwinti Suriname Christianity → Moravian Church Kyrgyz Turkic → Kipchak → Kyrgyz, Mongolic → Central Mongolic → Oirat → Sart Kalmyk Kyrgyzstan Sart Kalmyks, significant populations in Turkey Islam → Sunni Islam → Hanafi, Tengrism Ladins Indo-European → Romance → Ladin Italy (Ladinia) Laks Northeast Caucasian → Lak Russia (Lakia) Islam → Sunni Islam Lamaholot Austronesian → Flores–Lembata → Lamaholot Indonesia (Solor) Christianity → Catholicism Lampungs Austronesian → Lampung Indonesia (Lampung) Islam Lani Trans-New Guinea → Western Dani Indonesia (Central Papua, Highland Papua) Christianity, Animism Lao Kra–Dai → Tai → Lao Laos Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism, Satsana Phi Larrakia Larrakia Australia (Northern Territory) Alcheringa Latvians Indo-European → Baltic → Latvian, Indo-European → Baltic → Latgalian Latvia Latgalians, Kursenieki, Selonians Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Laz Kartvelian → Laz Lazistan (Turkey, Georgia) Turkish Laz, Georgian Laz Islam → Sunni Islam Lega Niger–Congo → Bantu → Lega Democratic Republic of the Congo Traditional African religions Lemba Niger–Congo → Bantu → Venda, Niger–Congo → Bantu → Shona Zimbabwe, South Africa, Malawi, Mozambique Christianity, Islam, Judaism Lenape Algic → Algonquian → Munsee, formerly Algic → Algonquian → Unami United States, Canada Munsee (including Christian Munsee (including Delaware Nation at Moraviantown), Stockbridge Munsee, Munsee-Delaware Nation), Delaware Nation, Delaware Tribe of Indians, Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware, Delaware of Six Nations, Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape, Ramapough Mountain Indians Traditional Lenape religion Lenca Macro-Chibchan → Lencan, Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Honduran Spanish, Salvadoran Spanish Honduras, El Salvador Christianity → Catholicism, Sovereign Tribal Custom Lezgins Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Lezgian Lezgistan (Russia, Azerbaijan) Islam → Sunni Islam Lhoba Adi, Bokar, Idu Mishmi China (Tibet), India (Arunachal Pradesh) Nishi, Na, Galo, Mishmi people, Tagin, Adi Animism, Buddhism Lhotshampa Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Nepali Bhutan Hinduism, Buddhism Li Kra–Dai → Hlai China (Hainan) Islam → Sunni Islam Limba Niger–Congo → Limba Sierra Leone (Bombali and Koinadugu Districts) Christianity Lipka Tatars Indo-European → Slavic → Belarusian, Polish, Indo-European → Baltic → Lithuanian Belarus, Poland, Lithuania Islam → Sunni Islam Lisu Sino-Tibetan → Loloish → Lisu China, Myanmar Lipo Christianity → Protestantism → Lisu Christianity Lithuanians Indo-European → Baltic → Lithuanian, Lithuanian Sign Lithuania Samogitians, Aukstaitians, Lietuvninkai, along with significant populations in the United States, Canada, Brazil, Poland and the United Kingdom Christianity → Catholicism Livonians Uralic → Finnic → Livonian Latvia, Estonia Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Lom Indo-European → Armenian and Indo-Aryan → Lomavren, Indo-European → Armenian Armenia, Georgia, Turkey Loloda West Papuan → North Halmahera → Loloda Indonesia () Lombards Indo-European → Romance → Italian, Indo-European → Romance → Lombard, Indo-European → Romance → Gallo-Italic of Sicily Italy (Lombardy, Sicily) Lombards of Sicily Lori Balochistan Lower Cowlitz Formerly Salishan → Coast Salish → Cowlitz United States (Cowlitz Reservation, Quinault Reservation, Chehalis Reservation) Luba Niger–Congo → Bantu → Luban Democratic Republic of the Congo (Lubaland) Luba-Kasai, Luba-Katanga, Hemba (including Bangubangu), Songe, Lulua Christianity Lubu Austronesian → Malayic → Lubu Indonesia (Sumatra) Luhya Niger–Congo → Bantu → Luhya Kenya (Western Province) Bukusu, Idakho, Isukha, Kabras, Khayo, Kisa, Marachi, Maragoli, Marama, Nyole, Samia, Tachoni, Tiriki, Tsotso, Wanga, Christianity Lumbee Indo-European → Germanic → English → American Indian English → Lumbee English United States (North Carolina) Christianity Luo Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Dholuo Kenya Christianity Lurs Indo-European → Iranian → Luri Iran (Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Khuzestan, Bushehr, and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Provinces) Bakhtiari, Iranian Laks Islam → Shia Islam, Yarsanism Luritja Pama-Nyungan → Wati → Luritja Australia (Northern Territory) Alcheringa Luxembourgers Indo-European → Germanic → Moselle Franconian → Luxembourgish Luxembourg, Belgium (Arelerland) Significant populations in Brazil and the United States Christianity → Catholicism Maasai Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Maasai Maasailand (Tanzania, Kenya) Samburu, Arusha, Kwavi Traditional African religions Macanese Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese → Macanese Patois, Sino-Tibetan → Sinitic → Cantonese China (Macau) Christianity → Catholicism Macedonians Indo-European → Slavic → Macedonian North Macedonia Torbesh, Mijaks, Brsjaks, along with significant populations in Australia, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Greece Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Macushi Cariban → Macushi Guyana (Rupununi), Brazil (Roraima) Shamanism Madi Nilo-Saharan → Central Sudanic → Ma'di Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan, Uganda Christianity Madurese Austronesian → Madurese Indonesia (Madura) Boyanese Islam → Sunni Islam → Shafi'i Mafa Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Mafa Cameroon Christianity Magahi Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bihari → Magahi India (Magadha) Hinduism Magars Sino-Tibetan → Magar Nepal Ale, Gharti, Chantayal, Saru, Pun Hinduism, Buddhism Maguindanao Austronesian → Philippine → Maguindanao Philippines (Maguindanao) Islam Mahar Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Marathi India (Maharashtra) Buddhism → Navayana Buddhism Maithils Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bihari → Maithili Mithila (India, Nepal) Karan Kayastha, Brahmin, Chhetri, Vaisya Hinduism Makaa Niger–Congo → Bantu → Makaa, Niger–Congo → Bantu → Byep Cameroon (East Region, Centre Region) South Makaa, North Makaa Makah Wakashan → Southern Wakashan → Makah United States (Washington) Native American religion Makassarese Austronesian → South Sulawesi → Makassarese Indonesia (South Sulawesi) Islam → Sunni Islam West Papuan → North Halmahera → Moi, Austronesian → South Halmahera → Taba, Indonesia (Makian) Tabayama, Jitinee Islam → Sunni Islam, Animism Makonde Niger–Congo → Bantu → Makonde Tanzania, Mozambique (Mueda Plateau) Machinga Islam Makua Niger–Congo → Bantu → Makhuwa Mozambique Lomwe, Chuwabu, Moniga, Koti, Nathembo Traditional African religions Malagasy Austronesian → Malagasy Madagascar, Comoros, Mayotte, Réunion, Mauritius Merina, Sihanaka, Betsileo, Zafimaniry, Antaifasy, Antemoro, Antaisaka, Antambahoaka, Tandroy, Antankarana, Antanosy, Bara, Betsimisaraka, Bezanozano, Mahafaly, Makoa, Mikea, Sakalava, Tanala, Tsimihety, Vezo Christianity, Malagasy religion Malayali Dravidian → Malayalamoid → Malayalam India (Kerala) Ambalavasi, Dheevara, Nair, Paravar, Mappilas, Ezhava, Latheen Mappilas, St. Thomas Christians along with significant populations in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait and Bahrain Hinduism, Islam, Christianity Malays Austronesian → Malayic → Malay, Austronesian → Malayic → Brunei Malay Austronesian → Malayic → Jambi Malay, Austronesian → Malayic → Pahang Malay, Austronesian → Malayic → Terengganu Malay, Austronesian → Malayic → Kelantan-Pattani Malay, Austronesian → Malayic → Kedah Malay, Austronesian → Malayic → Reman Malay, Francosign → ASLic → Malaysian Sign, Austronesian → Malayic → Malay → Sri Lanka Malay Malay world (Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei) Kedahans, Pattani, Pahang, Pontianaks, Terengganuarians, Kelantanese, Perakians, Berau, Loloan Malays, Proto-Malay (including Orang Kuala, Jakun, Orang Rimba, Orang Seletar, and Temuan) Cape Malays, Cocos Malays, Bangka Malays, Thai Malays, Burmese Malays Islam → Sunni Islam Maldivians Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Maldivian Maldives, India (Minicoy) Mahls Islam → Sunni Islam Maltese Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Maltese Malta Gozitans, with significant populations in Greece (including Corfu) Christianity → Catholicism Mambai Austronesian → Timoric → Mambai East Timor (Dili District) Christianity → Catholicism Mambila Niger–Congo → Mambila Mambilla Plateau (Nigeria, Cameroon) Somyev Traditional African religions Manavs Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish Turkey (East Marmara Region, Marmara Region, Aegean Region) Islam → Sunni Islam → Hanafi Manchus Tungusic → Southern Tungusic → Manchu Manchuria (China, Russia) Significant populations in Taiwan Shamanism Mandaeans Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Aramaic → Mandaic Southern Mesopotamia Iraq, Iran Mandaeism Mandarese Austronesian → South Sulawesi → Mandar Indonesia (West Sulawesi) Islam Mandinka Niger–Congo → Mande → Manding Mali, The Gambia, Guinea, Senegal Bolon Islam Mangalorean Catholics Indo-European languages → Indo-Aryan → Konkani India (Karnataka) Christianity → Roman Catholicism Manggarai Austronesian → Sumba–Flores → Manggarai Indonesia (Manggarai) Christianity Manjak Niger–Congo → West Atlantic → Senegambian → Manjak Guinea-Bissau, Senegal Traditional African religions Mansi Uralic → Ugric → Mansi Russia (Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug) Manx Indo-European → Celtic → Manx, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Manx English Isle of Man (Crown Dependency) Significant populations in the United States Christianity → Protestantism Māori Austronesian → Polynesian → New Zealand Māori, New Zealand Māori Indians, with significant populations in the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States Christianity Mappila Muslims Dravidian → Arabi Malayalam India (Kerala, Lakshadweep) Islam → Sunni Islam Mapuche Araucanian languages Chile (Araucania), Argentina Huilliche, Moluche, Pehuenche, along with Mestizos such as Chileans Christianity, Mapuche religion Maranao Austronesian → Philippine → Maranao Philippines (Lanao) Islam Marathi Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Marathi India (Maharashtra) Mahar, Maratha, Kunbi, Dhangar, Bhoi Hinduism, Jainism Maris Uralic → Mari Russia (Mari El) Meadow Mari, Hill Mari, Northwestern Mari, Eastern Mari, Mountain Mari Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Mari Native Religion Maronites Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Western Aramaic, Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Cypriot Arabic Lebanon Significant populations in Syria, Cyprus and Israel along with the greater Lebanese diaspora Christianity → Maronite Catholicism Marquesas Islanders Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesians → Polynesian → Marquesan France (Marquesas Islands) Christianity Marshallese Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Oceanic → Micronesian → Marshallese Marshall Islands Christianity → Protestantism Masa Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Masana Cameroon, Chad Christianity, Islam Masalit Nilo-Saharan → Masalit Sudan, Chad Islam → Sunni Islam Matagi Japan (Ani, Shirakami-Sanchi) Matawai Indo-European → Germanic → English → Saramaccan Suriname Christianity → Moravian Church Mauritian Creoles Indo-European → Romance → French → Mauritian Creole Mauritius Christianity → Catholicism, Rastafari Maya Mayan, Mayan Sign Guatemala, Belize, Mexico (Yucatan, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Chiapas) Maya, Achi, Chuj, Chʼortiʼ, Itza, Kʼicheʼ, Qʼeqchiʼ, Xinca, Tektitek, Huastecan, Mopan, Lacandon, Chontal, Akatek, Jakaltek, Qʼanjobʼal, Tzeltal, Mochoʼ, Tojolab'al, Mam, Ixil, Tzotzil, Poqomam, Yucatecan Maya, Motozintlecos, Awakatek, Kaqchikel, Sakapultek, Sipakapense, Uspantek, Chʼol, and Tzʼutujil Christianity → Catholicism, Maya religion Mazahua Oto-Manguean → Oto-Pamean → Mazahua Mexico (State of Mexico) Christianity → Catholicism Mazandaranis Indo-European → Iranian → Western Iranian → Mazanderani Iran (Mazandaran) Islam → Shia Islam Mazatec Oto-Manguean → Popolocan → Mazatecan Mexico (Oaxaca) Ayautla Christianity → Catholicism Mbaka Niger–Congo → Ubangian → Mbaka Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo Christianity → Catholicism Mbugu Niger–Congo → Bantu → Mbugu, Niger–Congo and Afro-Asiatic → Bantu and Cushitic → Maʼa, Niger–Congo → Bantu → Pare Tanzania (Usambara Mountains) Megleno-Romanians Indo-European → Romance → Megleno-Romanian Greece (Almopia) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam → Sunni Islam Mehri Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Mehri Oman (Dhofar Governorate), Yemen (Al Mahrah Governorate, Socotra) Islam Meitei Sino-Tibetan → Kuki-Chin–Naga → Meitei India (Manipur) Loi Hinduism → Vaishnavism Melanau Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Melanau Malaysia (Sarawak) Islam Melungeons Indo-European → Germanic → English → Appalachian English United States (Appalachia) Carmel Indians Christianity → Protestantism → Baptists Mende Niger–Congo → Mande → Mende Sierra Leone (Southern and Eastern Provinces) Islam Mennonites Russian Mennonites, Old Order Mennonites, Old Colony Mennonites, with significant populations in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay Christianity → Anabaptism → Mennonitism Métis Indo-European and Algic → Romance and Algonquian → French and Plains Cree → Michif, Indo-European → Romance → French → Metis French, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Bungi Canada (Canadian Prairies) Anglo-Metis Christianity Miami Algic → Algonquian → Miami United States (Illinois) Christianity, Native American religion Miccosukee Muskogean → Mikasuki United States (Miccosukee Indian Reservation) Mien Hmong–Mien → Mienic China (Hunan, Guizhou), Vietnam Iu Mien, Kim Mun, Dzao Min, Biao Min, Bunu, Lakkia, Biao Mon, San Diu Yao folk religion Mijikenda Niger–Congo → Bantu → Mijikenda Kenya (Coast Province) Chonyi, Giriama, Digo, Segeju, Rabai Christianity Minahasan Austronesian → Philippine → Minahasan, Austronesian → Malayic → Malay-based creole → Manado Malay Indonesia (Minahasa Peninsula) Tonsawang, Tontemboan, Tondano, Tombulu, Tonsea Christianity → Protestantism Minangkabau Austronesian → Malayic → Minangkabau, Austronesian → Malayic → Negeri Sembilan Malay Indonesia (Minangkabau Highlands), Malaysia (Negeri Sembilan) Overseas Minangkabau Islam → Sunni Islam Misak Barbacoan → Northern Barbacoan → Coconucan → Nam Trik Colombia (Cauca) Traditional religion, Christianity → Catholicism Mishar Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Tatar → Mishar Tatar, Indo-European → Slavic → Russian Russia (Penza Oblast, Mordovia, Ulyanovsk Oblast, Chuvashia, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Tatarstan, Samara Oblast, Saratov Oblast, Volgograd Oblast, Orenburg Oblast, Bashkortostan) Islam → Sunni Islam Mising Sino-Tibetan → Tani → Mising India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh) Donyi-Polo, Ekasarana Dharma Miskito Misumalpan → Miskito Mosquito Coast (Nicaragua, Honduras) Miskito Sambu Christianity → Protestantism → Moravian Church Mixe Mixe–Zoque → Mixe Mexico (Oaxaca) Christianity → Catholicism Mixtec Oto-Manguean → Mixtecan → Mixtec Mexico (La Mixteca) Triqui, Cuicatecs, Amoltepec Christianity → Catholicism Mi'kmaq Algic → Algonquian → Mi'kmaq Canada (Mi'kma'ki), United States (Maine) Mi'kmaq Nation Christianity → Catholicism Moghols Indo-European → Iranian → Dari, formerly Mongolic → Moghol Afghanistan Islam → Sunni Islam Mohawk Iroquoian → Northern Iroquoian → Mohawk Canada (Quebec, Ontario), United States (New York) Animism, Christianity Moken Austronesian → Moken Thailand, Myanmar (Mergui Archipelago, Surin Islands) Buddhism Mokshas Uralic → Mordvinic → Moksha Russia (Mordovia) Moldovans Indo-European → Romance → Romanian → Moldovan, Francosign → Austro-Hungarian Sign → Moldova Sign Moldova Significant populations in Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Italy and the United States Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Molokans Indo-European → Slavic → Russian Russia Christianity → Spiritual Christianity Mon Austroasiatic → Mon Myanmar (Mon State) Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Monacans Formerly Siouan → Ohio Valley Siouan → Tutelo Monegasques Indo-European → Romance → Ligurian → Monegasque Monaco Christianity → Catholicism Mongo Niger–Congo → Bantu → Mongo Democratic Republic of the Congo (Equateur, Tshuapa, Mongala, Nord-Ubangi, Sud-Ubangi) Bolia, Ntomba, Ngando, Iyaelima, Mbole, Mpama, Nkutu, Sengele, Hendo, Dengese, Tetela Christianity Mongols Mongolic languages, Francosign → Austro-Hungarian Sign → Mongolian Sign China (Inner Mongolia, Dorbetia, Bayingolin, Dzungaria, Subei-Mongolia, Santania, Kharchinia), Mongolia Khalkha, Oirats (including Manchurian Öelets), Hamnigan, Tsagaan, Yugur, Khatso, Bonan, Sichuan Mongols, Sogwo Arig, Altai Uriankhai, Ordos, Kanja, Sogwo Arig, Mughals, Santa, Naimans, Dariganga, Khorchin, Kharchin, Koke Nuur, Chaharian, Jalairs, Gorlos, Sartuul, Myangad, Tubalar, Uzemchin, Uradian, Tumed, Baarins, Zakhchin, Hishigten, Dorbet, Muumyangan, Jalaids, Abaganar, Chantuu, Olot, Sunud, Eastern Dorbet, Aohans, Onnigud, Khoshut, Abagas, Khotons, Alasha, Khoid, Eljigin, Choros, Qaidam, Fujin Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism, Tengrism Mongondow Austronesian → Philippine → Mongondow Indonesia (Mongondowia) Islam → Sunni Islam Montenegrins Indo-European → Slavic → Shtokavian → Montenegrin Montenegro Significant populations in Serbia and the United States Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Moravians Indo-European → Slavic → Czech → Moravian Czech Republic (Moravia) Christianity → Catholicism Moriori Austronesian → Polynesian → Moriori, Indo-European → Germanic → English New Zealand (Chatham Islands) Christianity including Rātana Mormon Indo-European → Germanic → English United States (Mountain States) Mormonism Mossi Niger–Congo → Gur → Mossi Burkina Faso (Mossiland) Islam Mosuo Sino-Tibetan → Naish → Na China (Sichuan and Yunnan) Daba, Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism Motu Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Motu Papua New Guinea (Central Province) Christianity, Shamanism Mudburra Pama–Nyungan → Ngumpin–Yapa → Mudburra Australia (Northern Territory) Mughal Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Hindustani, formerly Indo-European → Iranian → Persian India, Pakistan, Bangladesh Islam Muhajir Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Urdu Pakistan Islam → Sunni Islam Mumuye Niger–Congo → Adamawa → Mumuye Nigeria (Taraba State) Traditional African religions Munanese Austronesian → Celebic → Munanese Indonesia (Muna) Islam Mundas Austroasiatic → Munda → Mundari India (Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal) Sabar, Mahali Sarnaism Murut Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Murutic Malaysia (Murutia) Okolod, Keningau, Tagal, Paluan, Selungai, Timugon, Serudung, Sembakung, Tidong, Kalabakan, Bulungan, Bookan Christianity → Catholicism Muscogee Muskogean → Muscogee, Muskogean → Eastern Muskogean → Mikasuki United States (Alabama, Tennessee, Georgia) Thlopthlocco, Kialegee, Muscogee Nation, Poarch Band, Lower Muskogee Creek Tribe, Creek Freedmen Native American religion → Creek mythology, Four Mothers Society Musgum Afro-Asiatic → Chadic → Musgu Cameroon (Far North Region), Chad (Chari-Baguirmi, Mayo-Kebbi Est) Islam Muslimani Indo-European → Slavic → Serbo-Croatian Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, North Macedonia Islam Mwera Niger–Congo → Bantu → Mwera Tanzania (Mtwara and Ruvuma Regions) Islam Nagas Sino-Tibetan → Tibeto-Burman → Kuki-Chin–Naga India (Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam), Myanmar (Naga Self-Administered Zone) Angami, Ao, Chakhesang (including Chokri and Khezha), Chang, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Lotha, Mao, Maram, Maring, Nocte, Phom, Pochury, Poumai, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Tangkhul, Tangsa, Tikhir, Wancho, Yimkhiung, Zeliangrong (Zemi, Liangmei, Rongmei/Kabui), Lamkang Naga Christianity → Protestantism → Baptists, Nagpuri Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Bihari → Sadri India (Chota Nagpur Plateau) Chik Baraik Hinduism Nahuas Uto-Aztecan → Nahuan → Nahuatl Mexico Huasteca Nahuas, Mexicaneros, Sierra Puebla Nahuas, Guerrero Nahuas, Orizaba Nahuas, Southeastern Puebla Nahuas, Central Nahuas, Pipil, along with Mestizos such as Mexicans Christianity → Catholicism, Aztec religion Nakoda Siouan → Western Siouan → Stoney Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan) Wood Stoney, Mountain Stoney Nama Khoe → Khoekhoe Namibia (Namaland), South Africa Oorlams Christianity Nanai Tungusic → Nanai, Tungusic → Kili Russia, China Shamanism, Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism Naso Chibchan → Talamanca → Teribe Panama (Bocas del Toro) Native American religion Natchez Natchez language United States (Oklahoma, South Carolina) Eastern Band Nauruans Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Nauruan Nauru Christianity → Protestantism Navajo Na-Dene → Apachean → Navajo, Navajo Family Sign United States (Navajo Nation) Christianity → Catholicism, Native American Church Ndendeule Niger-Congo languages → Bantu languages → Ndendeule Tanzania Nenets Uralic → Samoyedic → Nenets Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug Forest Nenets, Tundra Nenets Shamanism, Animism Newars Sino-Tibetan → Newar Nepal (Kathmandu Valley) Rajupadhaya, Rajbhandari, Pradhan, Malla, Shrestha, Shakya, Chitrakar Hinduism, Buddhism → Vajrayana → Newar Buddhism Nez Perce Plateau Penutian → Sahaptian → Nez Perce, Indo-European → Germanic → English United States (Idaho, Washington) Waashat Religion, Christianity Ngabe Chibchan → Guaymi Panama (Ngabe-Bugle Comarca) Christianity → Catholicism Ngaju Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Barito → Ngaju Indonesia (Central Kalimantan) Bakumpai, Meratus Kaharingan Ngalop Sino-Tibetan → Tibetic → Dzongkha Bhutan Kheng, Bumthang Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism, Bon Nganasans Uralic → Samoyedic → Nganasan Russia (Taymyr Autonomous Okrug) Animism, Shamanism, Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Ngbandi Niger–Congo → Ubangian → Ngbandi Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic Yakoma Christianity Ngoni Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Zambia Nias Austronesian → Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands → Nias Indonesia (Nias) Christianity Nicobarese Austroasiatic → Nicobarese India (Nicobar Islands) Christianity, Animism Nipmucs Formerly Algic → Algonquian → Loup A, Algic → Algonquian → Massachusett United States (Chaubunagungamaug Reservation, Hassanamisco Reservation) Chaubunagungamaug Nipmuck, Hassanamisco Nipmuc, Nipmuc Nation Niueans Austronesian → Malayo-Polyesian → Polynesian → Niuean New Zealand (Niue) Christianity → Protestantism → Calvinism Nivkhs Nivkh languages Russia (Khabarovsk Krai, Sakhalin Oblast) Shamanism Nkole Niger–Congo → Bantu → Nkore-Kiga → Nkore Uganda (Ankole) Christianity, Ruhanga Nogais Turkic → Kipchak → Nogai Russia (North Caucasus) Ak Nogai, Karagash Islam → Sunni Islam Norfolk Islanders Indo-European → Germanic → English, Indo-European → Germanic → English Creole → Pitcairn–Norfolk → Norfuk Australia (Norfolk Island) Irreligion, Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism Norwegians Indo-European → Germanic → Norwegian; Indo-European → Germanic → Dano-Norwegian → Urban East Norwegian, Bokmål, Riksmål; Francosign → DTSic → Norwegian Sign Norway Kola Norwegians, Svalbarders, along with Significant populations in the United States, and Norwegian Canadians Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Nubis Afro-Asiatic → Arabic creoles → Nubi Uganda, Kenya Ugandan Nubis, Kenyan Nubis Nubians Nilo-Saharan → Nubian Nubia (Egypt, Sudan) Nobiin, Mattokki, Dongolawi, Midob, Birgid, Hill Nubians (including Dilling, Debri, Ghulfan, Kadaru, Karko, and Wali) Islam → Sunni Islam Nuer Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Nuer South Sudan (Nuerland) Traditional African religions Nùng Kra–Dai → Tai → Nùng Vietnam, China (Guangxi) Moism Nuristanis Indo-European → Indo-Iranian → Nuristani Afghanistan (Nuristan) Safed-Posh Kaffirs (including Askunis), Kamkata-viris (including Kata and Kom) Islam → Sunni Islam Nuu-chah-nulth Wakashan → Nuu-chah-nulth Canada (British Columbia) Native American religion Nuxalk Salishan → Nuxalk Canada (British Columbia) Native American religion Nyambo Niger–Congo → Bantu → Nyambo Tanzania (Karagwe District, Kagera Region) Nyishi Sino-Tibetan → Tani → Nishi India (Arunachal Pradesh) Christianity Ōbeikei Islanders Indo-European → English Creole → Bonin English Japan (Bonin Islands) Christianity, Buddhism, Shinto Occitans Indo-European → Romance → Occitan, Indo-European → Romance → Gardiol Occitania (France, Italy, Spain) Aranese, Auvergnats, Provencals, Languedociens, Gascons, Nicois, Guardiota, Monégasque Occitans Christianity Odawa Algic → Algonquian → Ottawa Canada (Ontario), United States (Oklahoma, Michigan) Odia Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Odia India (Odisha) Utkala Brahmins, Khandayat, Bonaz, Badu; Bairagi (Oriya); Barika; Chaikwa; Chatarkheya; Dhobi, Oriya; Ganrar; Ghantarghada; Girigiria; Gond (Oriya); Haddi; Jhodia; Kobari; Koraga; Kuliya; Lohar, Oriya; Mali, Oriya; Malia; Panka (Oriya); Paroja; Patra; Radhi; Sannyasi; Teli, Oriya; Thanapati; Thoria Hinduism Ogiek Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Ogiek Kenya (Mau Forest, Mount Elgon) Christianity, Traditional Ogiek religion Ogoni Niger–Congo → Cross River → Ogoni Nigeria (Ogoniland) Baan, Eleme, Gokana, Tẹẹ Christianity Ogu Niger–Congo → Kwa → Gbe → Gun Nigeria (Lagos, Ogun State), Benin Oji-Cree Algic → Algonquian → Oji-Cree Canada (Ontario, Manitoba) Ojibwe Algic → Algonquian → Ojibwe Anishinaabeland (Canada, United States) Mississaugas, Saulteaux, Findians Midewiwin Oku Indo-European → Germanic → English Creole → Krio, Indo-European → Germanic → English Sierra Leone, The Gambia Islam Oneida Iroquoian → Northern Iroquoian → Oneida Canada (Ontario), United States (New York, Wisconsin) Longhouse Religion Onge Ongan → Onge India (Little Andaman Island) Animism Onondaga Iroquoian → Northern Iroquoian → Onondaga Canada (Ontario), United States (New York) Orcadians Indo-European → Germanic → Scots → Orcadian, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Scottish English, BANZSL → British Sign, formerly Indo-European → Germanic → Norn United Kingdom (Orkney) Ormurs Indo-European → Indo-Iranian → Iranian → Eastern Iranian → Ormuri Afghanistan (Logar Province), Pakistan (South Waziristan) Islam Orochs Tungusic → Udegheic → Oroch Russia (Khabarovsk Krai, Magadan Oblast, Sakhalin Oblast, Primorsky Krai) Oromo Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Oromo Ethiopia (Oromia), Kenya Boorana, Barento, Salale, Machaa, Arsi, Wollo Islam → Sunni Islam Oroqens Tungusic → Northern Tungusic → Oroqen China (Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia) Ossetians Indo-European → Iranian → Ossetian Ossetia (Russia, Georgia) Iron, Digor, Kudar, Trialeti Ossetians Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Ot Danum Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Ot Danum Indonesia (West and Central Kalimantan) Lawangan, Ma'anyan Kaharingan Otomi Oto-Manguean → Otomian → Otomi Mexico (Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz, State of Mexico, Queretaro) Christianity → Catholicism Ovambo Niger–Congo → Bantu → Ovambo Namibia (Ovamboland), Angola Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Ovimbundu Niger–Congo → Bantu → Umbundu Angola Christianity Palau Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Palauan, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Palauan English Palau Christianity, Modekngei Palawa Indo-European → Germanic → English, Palawa kani, formerly Tasmanian languages Australia (Tasmania) Alcheringa Palembangese Austronesian → Malayic → Palembang Indonesia (South Sumatra) Palula Indo-European → Dardic → Palula Pakistan (Chitral District) Pamiris Indo-European → Iranian → Pamir Pamir Mountains (Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China) Shughni, Sarikoli (including Tajiks of Xinjiang), Yazghulami, Munji, Yidgha, Sanglechi, Ishkashimi Islam → Shia Islam → Isma'ilism Pangasinese Austronesian → Philippine → Pangasinan Philippines (Pangasinan) Christianity → Catholicism Papel Niger–Congo → Atlantic → Senegambian → Papel Guinea-Bissau (Biombo Region) Christianity → Catholicism Parachis Indo-European → Indo-Iranian → Iranian → Eastern Iranian → Parachi Afghanistan (Nijrab District, Kabul) Islam Paramaccan Indo-European → Germanic → English → Ndyuka Suriname (Pamacca) Winti Pardo Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese Brazil Christianity → Catholicism Pare Niger–Congo → Bantu → Pare Tanzania (Pare Mountains) Islam Parsis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Gujaratic → Gujarati Indian subcontinent Zoroastrianism Pashayi Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Dardic → Pashayi Afghanistan (Laghman, Kapisa and Nangarhar Provinces) Islam → Sunni Islam, Islam → Shi'ism → Isma'ilism → Nizari Isma'ilism Pashtuns Indo-European → Iranian → Pashto Pashtunistan (Afghanistan, Pakistan) Kakar, Ghilji (including Lodi (including Niazi, Hotak (including Babai), and Lohani (including Marwat))), Punjabi Pathans (including Malerkotla Pathans and Multani Pathans), Tareen, Bettani (including Shirani), Afridi, Bangash, Durrani, with significant populations in the United States, India, Sri Lanka, Islam → Sunni Islam → Hanafi, Sikhism Pataxo Maxakalian → Pataxo Brazil (Bahia) Shamanism Pedi Niger–Congo → Bantu → Sotho–Tswana → Sepedi South Africa (Limpopo) Christianity Pende Niger–Congo → Bantu → Pende Democratic Republic of the Congo Christianity Pennsylvania Dutch Indo-European → Germanic → Pennsylvania Dutch, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Pennsylvania Dutch English United States (Pennsylvania) Schwenkfelders, River Brethren (including Yorker Brethren) Christianity → Protestantism Persians Indo-European → Iranian → Persian, Indo-European → Iranian → Achomi Iran Arab-Persians, Achomi, Sistanis, Dezfulis, Shushtaris, along with significant populations in the United States, the United Arab Emirates, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, Israel, Bahrain, Australia, and Sweden Islam → Shia Islam → Twelver Shi'ism, Islam → Sufism → Ni'matullāhī, Safaviyya, Zoroastrianism, Baha'i Piapoco Arawakan → Upper Amazon Arawakan → Piapoco Colombia (Meta), Venezuela Traditional religion, Christianity → Catholicism Pied-Noir Indo-European → Romance → French Algeria Christianity Pitcairn Islanders Indo-European → Germanic → English, Indo-European → Germanic → English Creole → Pitcairn-Norfolk → Pitkern British Overseas Territories (Pitcairn Islands) Significant population in Norfolk Island, along with a diaspora in Australia, and New Zealand Christianity → Protestantism → Seventh-day Adventism Pitjantjara Pama-Nyungan → Wati → Pitjantjara Australia (Central Australia) Alcheringa Podlashuks Indo-European → Slavic → Ukrainian or Belarusian → Podlachian Poland (Podlachia) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Christianity → Catholicism Pohnpeian Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Oceanic → Micronesian → Pohnpeian Federated States of Micronesia (Pohnpei) Christianity Poles Indo-European → Slavic → Polish Poland Podlachians, Masurians, Masovians, Łowiczans, Greater Polish (including Kaliszans, Kuyavians, Kuyavian Borowiaks, and Taśtaks), Lesser Polish (including Cracovians, Lasovians, Lublinians, and Sandomierzans), Poborzans, Kurpie, Bug River Poles, Bambers, Kociewians, Łęczycans, Polish Uplanders, Sieradzans, and Warmians, as well as Significant populations in the United States, Brazil, Germany, Canada, Iceland, Sweden, France, the United Kingdom, Argentina, Belarus, Russia, Australia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Ireland, and Norway Christianity → Catholicism Poleshuks Indo-European → Slavic → Belarusian or Ukrainian → West Polesian Polesia (Belarus, Poland, Russia, Ukraine) Portuguese Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese, Indo-European → Romance → Minderico, Indo-European → Romance → Barranquenho, SSLic → Portuguese Sign Portugal Alentejans, Algarveans, Azoreans, Barranquenhos, Beiroes, Madeirans, Mindericos, Minhotos, Ribatejanos, Transmontanos, with significant populations in Africa (including Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, South Africa), Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela Christianity → Catholicism Potawatomi Algic → Algonquian → Potawatomi Canada (Ontario), United States (Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Oklahoma, Wisconsin) Potiguara Tupian → Potiguara, Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese Brazil (Paraiba) Shamanism Punjabis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Punjabi Punjab (Pakistan (Punjab), India (Punjab)) Arain, Awan, Gujjars, Jat, Khatris, Punjabi Rajputs, Sikhs, along with significant populations in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.", "Islam → Sunni Islam, Islam → Sunni Islam → Ahmadiyya, Hinduism, Sikhism Punjabi Mexican Americans United States (California) Purepecha Purepecha Mexico (Michoacan) Christianity → Catholicism Qarai Turks Turkic, Indo-European → Iranian → Persian Iran (Kerman Province) Islam → Shia Islam Qaratays Turkic → Kipchak → Tatar → Qataray Russia (Kamsko-Ustyinsky District) Qashqai Turkic → Oghuz → Qashqai Iran (Fars Province) Islam → Shia Islam Qiang Sino-Tibetan → Qiangic China (Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture) Qiang folk religion Quechan Yuman → Quechan United States (Arizona, California) Native American religion, Christianity Quechua Quechuan Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Argentina Ayacucho, Cajamarca–Canaris, Central, Chachapoyas, Cusco, Inga, Kichwa, Lamas, North Bolivian, Pacaraos, Puno, Santiagueno, South Bolivian Christianity → Catholicism, Inca religion Quileute Chimakuan → Quileute United States (Washington) Native American religion Rabari India (Kutch District) Hinduism Qulla Quechuan → Southern Quechua Argentina, Bolivia, Chile Christianity → Catholicism Rade Austronesian → Chamic → Rade Central Highlands, Vietnam Christianity Raizal Indo-European → Germanic → English → San Andres-Providencia Creole Colombia (Archipelago of San Andres, Providencia, and Santa Catalina) Christianity Rajasthanis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Rajasthani India (Rajasthan) Charan, Kachhi, Marwari, Meena, Rajputs (including Chandels, Mahyavanshi, and Molesalam) Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism Rajbongshi Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Kamtapuri India (Assam, West Bengal), Bangladesh Hinduism Rakhine Sino-Tibetan → Burmese → Arakanese Myanmar (Rakhine State) Marma Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Ramkokamekra Macro-Je → Je → Canela Brazil (Northeast Region) Ranquel Araucanian → Mapudungun → Ranquel Argentina (La Pampa Province) Rapa Nui Austronesian → Polynesian → Rapa Nui Chile (Easter Island) Christianity → Catholicism Redbones United States (Louisiana) Christianity Reisende Norway Christianity Rejangese Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Rejang Indonesia (Rejang Lebong Regency) Islam → Sunni Islam Rendille Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Rendille Kenya (Eastern Province) Waaq Resians Indo-European → Slavic → Slovene → Resian Italy (Resia, Friuli) Rhodesians Indo-European → Germanic → English → Zimbabwean English Zimbabwe Significant populations in the United Kingdom Christianity Rifians Afro-Asiatic → Berber → Tarifit Morocco Islam → Sunni Islam Rohingyas Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Rohingya Myanmar (Rakhine State) Islam Roma Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Romani, Para-Romani, Indo-European → Romance → Romanian → Boyash Europe, Turkey, Cyprus, Caucasus Kalderash, Iberian Cales (including Spanish Cales, Portuguese Cales, Brazilian Cales), Erromintxela, Finnish Kale, Welsh Kale, Romanichal (including Scottish Romanichal Travellers), Lowland Scottish Travellers, Sinti (including Manouches), Belaruska Roma, Litovska Roma, Lotfitka Roma, Ruska Roma, Crimean Roma, Gurbeti, Xoraxane Roma (including Turkish Roma, Zargari, and Arlije), Romanisal, Bergitka Roma, Polska Roma, Cascarots, Ursari, Romanlar (including Turkish Roma, Sepetçi, Ayjides, Yerli, and Çerge), Wallachian Roma, Servitka Roma, Lovari, Boyash, along with significant populations in Albania, Algeria (including Beni Ades), Australia, Austria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Mexico, Montenegro, Morocco, the Netherlands, North Macedonia, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay Christianity, Islam Romanians Indo-European → Romance → Romanian Romania, Moldova Wallachians (including Oltenians and Muntenians), Moldavians, along with significant populations in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Romansh Indo-European → Romance → Romansh Switzerland (Grisons) Christianity Rotenese Austronesian → Timoric → Rotenese Indonesia (Rote Island) Dela, Oenale Christianity Russians Indo-European → Slavic → Russian, Francosign → Russian Sign Russia Caucasus Russians, Cossacks (including Kuban Cossacks and Nekrasov Cossacks), Pomors, Lipovans, Subbotniks, Molokans (including Subbotnik Molokans) along with significant populations in Azerbaijan, Belarus, Brazil, Canada, China (including Hong Kong), Estonia, France, Germany, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Taiwan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, the United States, Uzbekistan Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Rusyns Indo-European → Slavic → Rusyn Carpathian Ruthenia (Ukraine, Slovakia, Poland), Pannonian Plain (Croatia, Serbia) Pannonian Rusyns, Lemkos, Hutsuls, Boykos Christianity → Eastern Catholicism Rutuls Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Rutul Russia (Dagestan), Azerbaijan Ryukyuans Japonic → Ryukyuan; Japonic → Japanese → Okinawan Japanese, Amami Japanese; Koniya Sign Japan (Ryukyu Islands) Amami (including Kikai, Amami Ōshima (including Setouchi), Tokunoshima, Okinoerabu, and Yoron), Okinawans (including Kunigami) Miyakoans, Tarama, Yaeyama, Yonaguni, with significant populations in , Brazil, and the United States (including Hawaii) Ryukyuan religion Saho Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Saho Eritrea, Ethiopia Islam → Sunni Islam Sahrawis Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Hassaniya Arabic Western Sahara Reguibat, Oulad Delim, Oulad Tidrarin, Laaroussien, Tekna, Tajakant, Aït Oussa Islam → Sunni Islam Sahtu Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Slavey Northwest Territories (Canada) Christianity, Animism Saint Helenians Indo-European → Germanic → English Saint Helena Christianity → Anglicanism Saint Thomas Christians Dravidian → Malayalam India (Kerala) Knanayas Christianity → Saint Thomas Christianity Sakizaya Austronesian → East Formosan → Sakizaya Hualien County (Taiwan) Animism, Christianity Salar Turkic → Oghuz → Salar China (Qinghai, Gansu) Islam → Sunni Islam Salinan Hokan → Salinan United States (California) Native American religion Sama-Bajau Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Barito → Sama–Bajaw Maritime Southeast Asia (Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei) Sama (including Banguingui), Bajaw, Abaknon Islam → Sunni Islam Samana Americans Indo-European → Germanic → English → Samana English Dominican Republic (Samana Province) Christianity → Protestantism → Methodism Samaritans Afro-Asiatic → Canaanite → Hebrew → Modern Hebrew, Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → South Levantine Arabic → Palestinian Arabic, formerly Afro-Asiatic → Canaanite → Samaritan Hebrew, Afro-Asiatic → Aramaic → Samaritan Aramaic Israel Samaritanism Sambal Austronesian → Philippine → Sambalic Philippines (Zambales) Bolinao, Botolan (including Banguingui) Christianity → Catholicism Sámi Uralic → Sámi, formerly Uralic → Sámi → Akkala Sámi, Uralic → Sámi → Kemi Sámi, Kainuu Sámi Sapmi (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia) Inari Sámi, Kildin Sámi, Lule Sámi, Northern Sámi, Pite Sámi, Skolt Sámi, Southern Sámi, Ter Sámi, Ume Sámi, Akkala Sámi Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Sammarinese Indo-European → Romance → Romagnol → Sammarinese, Indo-European → Romance → Italian San Marino Christianity → Catholicism Samoans Austronesian → Polynesian → Samoan Samoan Islands (Samoa, American Samoa) American Samoans Christianity Sandawe Sandawe Tanzania (Chemba District) Traditional African Religion, Islam Sangirese Austronesian → Philippine → Sangirese Indonesia (Sangihe Islands), Philippines (Mindanao) Christianity → Protestantism Santal Austroasiatic → Munda → Santali India (West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha) Christianity → Catholicism Sara Nilo-Saharan → Central Sudanic → Sara Chad, Central African Republic Ngambay, Doba, Laka, Kabba, Sar, Mbay, Ngam, Dagba, Gulay Traditional African religions Saramaka Indo-European → Germanic → English → Saramaccan Suriname Winti, Christianity → Moravian Church Sardinians Indo-European → Romance → Sardinian, Indo-European → Romance → Sassarese, Indo-European → Romance → Gallurese Italy (Sardinia) Logudorese, Campidanese, Sassarese, Gallurese Christianity → Catholicism Sasak Austronesian → Sasak Indonesia (Lombok) Islam Saurashtras Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Saurashtra India (South India) Hinduism → Vaishnavism, Hinduism → Shaivism Savu Austronesian → Sumba–Flores → Sumba → Hawu India (Savu) Christianity → Protestantism Scots Indo-European → Germanic → English → Scottish English, Indo-European → Germanic → Scots, Indo-European → Celtic → Scottish Gaelic, BANZSL → British Sign United Kingdom (Scotland) Ulster Scots, Shetlanders, Highlanders, Lowlanders, Berwickers, along with significant populations in the United States (including Scotch-Irish Americans), Canada (including Scotch-Irish Canadians), Australia, Argentina, Russia, and the Bahamas Christianity → Protestantism → Calvinism Selkups Uralic → Samoyedic → Selkup Russia (Tomsk Oblast, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Tyumen Oblast) Shamanism, Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Seminoles Muskogean → Muscogee → Seminole, Muskogean → Mikasuki, Afro-Seminole Creole United States (Oklahoma, Florida), Mexico (Coahuila) Oklahoma Seminoles, Black Seminoles (including Mascogos), Florida Seminoles Semnanis Indo-European → Iranian → Semnani Iran (Semnan) Biyabunakis, Sangsaris, Sorkheis, Aftaris, Lasgerdis Islam → Shia Islam → Twelver Shi'ism Seneca Iroquoian → Northern Iroquoian → Seneca Canada (Ontario), United States (New York, Oklahoma) Sentinelese Sentinelese India (North Sentinel Island) Senufo Niger–Congo → Senufo Mali, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso Nafana, Minyanka Traditional African religions Serbs Indo-European → Slavic → Shtokavian → Serbian Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Republika Srpska), Montenegro, Croatia, Romania, Hungary, Albania, Bulgaria, Slovenia Kosovo Serbs, Montenegrin Serbs, Croatian Serbs, Bosnian Serbs, Macedonian Serbs, Romanian Serbs, Hungarian Serbs, Albanian Serbs, Bulgarian Serbs, Slovenian Serbs, Vojvodinian Serbs, Triestine Serbs, Serb Muslims, along with significant populations in Germany, Austria, France, Slovakia, and Sweden Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Serer Niger–Congo → West Atlantic → Senegambian → Serer Senegal Laalaa, Ndut, Niominka, Serer-Noon, Palor, Saafi Islam, Serer religion Seychellois Creoles Indo-European → Romance → French → Seychellois Creole Seychelles Christianity → Catholicism Shan Kra–Dai → Tai → Shan Myanmar (Shan State) Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Sharchops Sino-Tibetan → Tibeto-Kanauri → Tshangla Bhutan (Lhuntse, Mongar, Pemagatshel, Samdrup Jongkhar, Trashigang, and Trashiyangtse Districts) Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism, Bon Shawnee Algic → Algonquian → Shawnee United States (Oklahoma, formerly Ohio) Absentee Shawnee, Eastern Shawnee, Piqua Shawnee, Shawnee Tribe Sherbro Niger–Congo → Atlantic → Mel → Sherbro Sierra Leone (Sherbro Island) Traditional African religions Shilha Afro-Asiatic → Berber → Shilha Morocco Islam → Sunni Islam Shilluk Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Shilluk South Sudan Gule Christianity → Catholicism Shina Indo-European → Dardic → Shina, Indo-European → Dardic → Kohistani Shina Pakistan (Gilgit-Baltistan) Kohistani Shina Islam Shirazi Niger–Congo → Atlantic-Congo → Bantu → Swahili Tanzania (Swahili Coast), Kenya, Mozambique, Comoros Zanzibaris, and Maore Islam → Sunni Islam Shiriana Arawakan → Shiriana, Arutani language Brazil (Amazonas, Amazon rainforest), Venezuela (Amazon rainforest) Auake Shompen Shompen India (Great Nicobar Island) Animism Shona Niger–Congo → Bantu → Shona Zimbabwe (Mashonaland) Manyika, Ndau Christianity Shopi Indo-European → Slavic → Bulgarian Shopluk (Bulgaria, Serbia, North Macedonia) Shors Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Shor Russia (Kemerovo Oblast) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy, Shamanism → Shor Shamanism Shoshone Uto-Aztecan → Numic → Shoshoni Wyoming, Idaho, Nevada, Utah (United States) Eastern Shoshone, Northern Shoshone, Western Shoshone, Goshute Native American Church, Christianity Sibe Tungusic → Xibe China (Liaoning, Jilin, Xinjiang) Shamanism Siberian Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Siberian Tatar Russia (Western Siberia) Baraba Tatars, Chats, Eushta Tatars, Kalmak Tatars, Zabolotnie Tatars Islam → Sunni Islam Siberian Yupik Eskaleut → Eskimo → Siberian Yupik, Eskaleut → Eskimo → Naukan Russia (Chukchi Peninsula), United States (St. Lawrence Island) Naukan Shamanism Sicilians Indo-European → Romance → Sicilian, formerly Afro-Asiatic → Arabic → Siculo-Arabic Italy (Sicily) Significant populations in the United States Christianity → Catholicism Sidama Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Sidaama Ethiopia (Sidamia) Christianity Siddi Niger–Congo → Bantu → Swahili → Sidi Pakistan (Baluchistan, Sindh), India (Karnataka, Gujarat, Hyderabad) Islam Sierra Leone Creoles Indo-European → Germanic → English → Krio, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Pichinglis Sierra Leone Gambian Creoles, Saros, Krio Fernandinos, with significant populations in the United States Christianity Sika Austronesian → Flores–Lembata → Sika Indonesia (Sikka Regency) Christianity → Catholicism Silesians Indo-European → Slavic → Silesian, Indo-European → Germanic → High German → Silesian German Silesia (Poland, Germany, Czech Republic) Cieszyn Vlachs, along with significant populations in the United States (including Texas) Christianity → Catholicism, Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Siltʼe Afro-Asiatic → Semitic → Ethiopic → Gurage → Siltʼe Ethiopia (Siltia) Islam Sindhis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Sindhi Pakistan (Sindh) Jat, Memon, Arain, Indian Sindhis Islam → Sunni Islam → Hanafi, Hinduism Sinhalese Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Sinhala Sri Lanka Dewa, British Sri Lankans, Burghers (including Portuguese Burghers and Dutch Burghers) Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Siona Tucanoan → Western Tucanoan → Siona Ecuador (Sucumbios), Colombia (Putumayo) Animism Sioux Siouan → Western Siouan → Sioux United States (Lakotah) Lakota (including Brulé, Oglala, Sans Arc, Hunkpapa, Miniconjou, and Sihasapa) and Dakota (including Mdewakanton) Native American religion Sirenik Eskaleut → Eskimo → Siberian Yupik, formerly Eskaleut → Eskimo → Sirenik Russia (Sireniki) Skokomish Salishan → Coast Salish → Twana United States (Skokomish Indian Reservation) Slovaks Indo-European → Slavic → Slovak Slovakia significant populations in Czech Republic, Serbia, Hungary, United States and Canada Christianity → Catholicism Slovenes Indo-European → Slavic → Slovene Slovenia Significant populations in the United States, Canada, Australia, Carinthia, Hungary, Uruguay, Venezuela, Argentina, Croatia, and Italy Christianity → Catholicism Soga Niger–Congo → Bantu → Soga Uganda (Busoga) Christianity, Traditional African religions Somalis Afro-Asiatic → Cushitic → Somali Greater Somalia (Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya) Hawiye, Darod (including Majeerteen), Isaaq, Dir, Rahanweyn, Madhiban, Yibir, Ajuran along with significant populations in the United States, the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Canada Islam → Sunni Islam → Shafi'i Songhai Songhay languages West Africa Songhai proper, Zarma, Wogo, Kurtey, Ingalkoyyu, Arma, Belbali, Dendi Islam Soninke Niger–Congo → Mande → Soninke Mali Islam → Sunni Islam → Maliki Sonsorolese Austronesian → Micronesian → Sonsorolese Palau (Sonsorol) Christianity Soqotris Afro-Asiatic → Modern South Arabian → Soqotri Yemen (Socotra) Islam Sorbs Indo-European → Slavic → Sorbian Lusatia (Germany, Poland) Upper Sorbs, Lower Sorbs, with significant populations in the United States (including Texas) Christianity → Catholicism Sotho Niger–Congo → Bantu → Sotho South Africa (Free State), Lesotho Christianity South Carolina Turks Indo-European → Germanic → English United States (Dalzell, Sumter County, South Carolina) Islam South Sea Islanders Indo-European → Germanic → English → Australian English Australia (Queensland) Soyots Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Taiga Sayan Turkic → Soyot Russia (Okinsky District) Shamanism Spaniards Indo-European → Romance → Spanish, Indo-European → Romance → Extremaduran, Indo-European → Romance → Asturleonese, Indo-European → Romance → Barranquenho, Spanish Sign language Spain, Portugal (Barrancos) Barranquenhos, Castilians, Leonese, Cantabrians, Extremadurans, Mercheros Christianity → Catholicism Sri Lankan Chetties Dravidian → Tamil–Kannada → Tamil, Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Sinhala Sri Lanka Christianity → Catholicism, Christianity → Protestantism → Anglicanism, Christianity → Protestantism → Calvinism Sri Lanka Kaffirs Indo-European → Romance → Portuguese Creole → Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole Christianity → Catholicism, Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Sri Lanka Malays Austronesian → Malay creoles → Sri Lankan Malay Sri Lanka Islam → Sunni Islam Sri Lankan Moors Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Tamil → Sri Lankan Muslim Tamil Sri Lanka Islam → Sunni Islam Sui Kra–Dai → Kam–Sui → Sui China (Sandu Shui Autonomous County) Animism Sukuma Niger–Congo → Bantu → Sukuma Tanzania Christianity → Catholicism Austronesian → Central Maluku → Sula Indonesia (Sula Islands Regency) , Falahu, Fatcei, Mangon Islam → Sunni Islam, Animism Sumba Austronesian → Sumba–Flores → Sumba Indonesia (Sumba) Anakalangu, East Sumbanese, Kodi, Lamboya, West Sumbanese, Mamboru, Wanukaka Christianity → Protestantism Sumbawa Austronesian → Sumbawa Indonesia (Sumbawa) Islam Sundanese Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Sundanese-Baduy Indonesia (Java) Bantenese, Baduy, Ciptagelar Islam → Sunni Islam Surma Nilo-Saharan → Surmic Ethiopia, South Sudan Me'en, Mursi, Kichepo Traditional African religions Susu Niger–Congo → Mande → Susu Guinea, Sierra Leone (Kambia) Islam Swahili Niger–Congo → Bantu → Swahili Swahili coast (Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Comoros) Islam Swazi Niger–Congo → Bantu → Swazi South Africa (Mpumalanga), Eswatini Christianity → African Zionism Swedes Indo-European → Germanic → Swedish, Indo-European → Germanic → Dalecarlian, Indo-European → Germanic → East Danish → Scanian, Indo-European → Germanic → Gutnish, Indo-European → Germanic → Norrlandic, Indo-European → Germanic → Jamtska, SSLic → Swedish Sign Sweden, Estonia (Aiboland) Scanians, Jamtish, Gutnish, Dalecarlians, Estonian Swedes along with significant populations in the United States, Canada, Argentina, and the United Kingdom Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Sylhetis Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Sylheti Bangladesh (Sylhet Division), India (Barak Valley) Islam → Sunni Islam Syrian Turkmen Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish → Syrian Turkmen Syria Islam → Sunni Islam, Alevism West Papuan → North Halmahera → Tabaru Indonesia (Jailolo) Animism Tabasaran Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Tabasaran Russia (Dagestan (Tabasaransky District)) Islam → Sunni Islam Tagalogs Austronesian → Philippine → Tagalog Philippines Christianity → Catholicism Tagish Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Tagish Canada (Yukon) Tahitians Austronesian → Polynesian → Tahitian France (Tahiti) Christianity Tahltan Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Tahltan Canada (Northern British Columbia) Tahtacı Turkey (Aegean Region, Mediterranean Region) Islam and Shamanism → Shia Islam and Shamanism → Alevism and Shamanism Taidnapam Formerly Plateau Penutian → Sahaptian → Northwest Sahaptin → Upper Cowlitz; Chinookan, Wakashan, and Indo-European → Lower Chinook, Nootka Jargon, Germanic, and Italic → Chinook Jargon United States (Yakama Indian Reservation) Upper Cowlitz, Lewis River Cowlitz Taino Arawakan → Taino Greater Antilles Native American religion Tajiks Indo-European → Iranian → Persian → Tajik, Francosign → Austro-Hungarian Sign → Russian Sign → Tajik Sign Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan Kharduri; Pamiris sometines considered Tajik Islam → Sunni Islam Talysh Indo-European → Iranian → Talysh Azerbaijan, Iran Islam → Shia Islam Tama Nilo-Saharan → Tama Chad, Sudan Islam Tamangs Sino-Tibetan → Tamang Nepal, India (Sikkim) Waiba, Lopchan, Thokar, Lama Hinduism, Buddhism Tamils Dravidian → Tamil–Kannada → Tamil, Austronesian → Malayic → Malay → Malay Chetty India (Tamil Nadu), Sri Lanka (Northern and Eastern Provinces) Indian Tamils (including Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka), Sri Lankan Tamils (including Negombo Tamils), Chitty, Giraavaru, along with significant populations in Malaysia, South Africa, the United States, Singapore, Canada, the United Kingdom, and France (including Malbars) Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism Tampuans Austroasiatic → Bahnaric → Tampuan Cambodia (Ratanakiri) Animism Tanana Athabaskans Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Upper Tanana, Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Lower Tanana, Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Tanacross United States (Interior Alaska), Canada (Western Yukon) Lower Tanana, Middle Tanana, Tanacross, Upper Tanana Tao Malayo-Polynesian → Philippine → Batanic →Yami-Itbayat Taiwan (Orchid Island) Christianity, Anitism Taos Tanoan → Tiwa → Taos United States (Taos Pueblo) Native American religion, Native American Church, Christianity Tarok Niger–Congo → Plateau → Tarok Nigeria (Plateau State) Christianity Tausūg Austronesian → Philippine → Bisayan → Tausug Philippines (Sulu Archipelago) Islam → Sunni Islam Tboli Austronesian → Philippine → Tboli Philippines (South Cotabato) Anitism Tehuelche Araucanian → Mapudungun, Indo-European → Romance → Spanish Teke Niger–Congo → Bantu → Teke Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo Telengits Turkic → Kipchak → Southern Altai → Telengit Russia (Altai Republic) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Shamanism, Burkhanism Telugu Dravidian → South-Central Dravidian → Telugu India (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana) Kamma, Reddy, Velama, Kapu, Raju, Madiga, Mala, Kaikalas Hinduism, Islam, Christianity Temne Niger–Congo → West Atlantic → Mel → Temne Sierra Leone (Northern Sierra Leone) Islam Terena Arawakan → Terena, Brazilian Sign language, Terena Sign language Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul) Shamanism West Papuan → North Halmahera → Ternate Indonesia (Ternate) Tubo, Tobona, Tabanga, Toboleu, Ibu, Jailolo, Ternate-Portuguese Islam → Sunni Islam, Animism Thais Kra–Dai → Tai → Thai Thailand Southern Thai, Khorat, Lanna, Tai Lue, Thai Americans Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Tharus Indo-European → Indo-Aryan → Tharu Terai (Nepal, India) Kathariya, Danuwar, Lampucchwa, Kochila, Sonha, Dangaura, Rana Hinduism, Buddhism Tibetans Sino-Tibetan → Tibeto-Kanauri → Tibetic, Sino-Tibetan → Tibeto-Kanauri → Tshangla → Pemako Tshangla, Tibetan Sign China (Tibet), Nepal, Bhutan Amdolese (including Golok and Tebbu), Khams, U-Tsang (including Ngari and Walung), Pemakopas, Changpa, Baima, Kachee Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism, Bon Ticuna Ticuna–Yuri → Ticuna Brazil (Amazonas) Shamanism Tidore West Papuan → North Halmahera → Tidore Indonesia (Tidore) Islam Tigrayans Afro-Asiatic → Ethiopic → Tigrinya Eritrea (Eritrean Highlands), Ethiopia (Tigrayia) Christianity → Oriental Orthodoxy Tigre Afro-Asiatic → Ethiopic → Tigre Eritrea Islam Tiv Niger–Congo → Tiv Nigeria (Benue State) Christianity Tiwa Sino-Tibetan → Sal → Tiwa India (Assam, Meghalaya) Hinduism Tiwi Tiwi Australia (Tiwi Islands) Alcheringa Tlapanec Oto-Manguean → Tlapanec Mexico (Guerrero) Christianity → Catholicism Tlingit Na-Dene → Tlingit Canada (British Columbia, Yukon Territory), United States (Alaska, Washington) Alaska Native religion Tobelo West Papuan → North Halmahera → Tobelo Indonesia (North Halmahera) Christianity → Protestantism, Animism, Islam → Sunni Islam Tofalars Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Tofa Russia (Tofalariya) Christianity Tokelauans Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Tokelauan Tokelau Christianity → Congregationalism Tongans Austronesian → Polynesian → Tongan Tonga Tongan Hawaiians Christianity Tooro Niger–Congo → Bantu → Tooro Uganda (Tooro Kingdom) Abagweri, Abasingo, Abahinda, Ababiito, Abasumbi, Abayaga, Ababwiju, Abasiita, Abasambo, Ababoopi, Ababwooro, Abagaya, Abalebeki, Abango, Abagimu, Abarungu, Abanyakyoozi, Abasoigi Christianity, Ruhanga Toraja Austronesian → South Sulawesi → Toraja Indonesia (Tana Toraja) Christianity → Protestantism Torres Strait Islanders Pama-Nyungan → Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Eastern Trans-Fly → Meriam, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Torres Strait Creole Australia (Torres Strait Islands) Toubou Nilo-Saharan → Saharan → Tebu Toubouland (Chad, Niger, Sudan, Libya) Daza, Teda Islam → Sunni Islam Toucouleur Atlantic–Congo → Senegambian → Pulaar Senegal (Futa Tooro) Islam Trawara Indo-European → Dardic → Mankiyali Pakistan (Danna, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) Tripuri Sino-Tibetan → Sal → Kokborok India (Tripura) Jamatia, Murasing Hinduism Trumai Trumai Brazil (Mato Grosso) Animism Tsakhurs Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Tsakhur Russia (Rutulsky District), Azerbaijan (Zagatala and Qakh districts) Islam → Sunni Islam Tsez Northeast Caucasian → Tsezic → Tsez Russia (Tsuntinsky District) Islam → Sunni Islam Tsimshian Tsimshianic → Maritime Tsimshianic Canada (British Columbia), United States (Alaska) Kitasoo, Gitga'ata, Kitkatla, Kitsumkalum, Kitselas, Ginadoiks, Ginaxangiik, Gispaxlo'ots, Gitando, Gitlaan, Gits'iis, Gitwilgyoots, Gitzaxłaał, Giluts'aaw Alaskan Native religion Tsonga Niger–Congo → Bantu → Tsonga Mozambique (Maputo City and Maputo Province, Gaza Province), South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga) Christianity → Catholicism Tswana Niger–Congo → Bantu → Tswana Botswana, South Africa (South Tswanaland) Balete, Mangwato, Bangwaketse, Bakwena, Batlokwa, Bahurutshe, Bakgatla, Rolong Christianity Tuamotuans Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Polynesian → Tuamotuan France (Tuamotus) Christianity Tujia Sino-Tibetan → Tujia China (Wuling Mountains) Nuo folk religion Tuluvas Tulu India (Karnataka) Hinduism Tunica-Biloxi Indo-European → Germanic → English, Indo-European → Romance → French, Tunica language, Formerly Siouan → Ohio Valley Siouan → Biloxi United States (Tunica-Biloxi Indian Reservation) Biloxi, Tunica Tupuri Niger–Congo → Adamawa → Tupuri Cameroon (Far North Region), Chad (Mayo-Kebbi) Christianity Turkana Nilo-Saharan → Nilotic → Turkana Kenya (Turkanaland) Christianity → Catholicism Turkmens Turkic → Oghuz → Turkmen Turkmenistan, Iran (Turkmen Sahra), Afghanistan Teke, Yomut, Bayandur, Afshar, Ersari, Chowdur, Saryk, Iranian Turkmens, Afghan Turkmens, with significant populations in Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom Islam → Sunni Islam Turks Turkic → Oghuz → Turkish, Turkish Sign Turkey, Northern Cyprus Turkish Cypriots, Meskhetian Turks, Yoruks, Amuca, along with significant populations in Bulgaria, Greece, North Macedonia, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Sweden, the United States, Syria, and Palestine Islam → Sunni Islam, Alevism Tuscarora Iroquoian → Northern Iroquoian → Tuscarora Canada (Ontario), United States (New York, North Carolina) Tutchones Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Tutchone Canada (Yukon Territory) Northern Tutchones, Southern Tutchones Native American religion Tutejszy Indo-European → Slavic → Polish, Indo-European → Slavic → East Slavic, Indo-European → Baltic → Eastern Baltic Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia Christianity → Roman Catholicism, Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Tutsi Niger–Congo → Bantu → Great Lakes → Rwanda-Rundi Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kivu) Banyamulenge Christianity, Islam Tuvaluans Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Polynesian → Tuvaluan Tuvalu Christianity Tuvans Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Steppe Sayan Turkic → Tuvan; Turkic → Siberian Turkic → Taiga Sayan Turkic → Tozhu Tuvan, Tere-Khöl Tuvan Russia (Tuva), Mongolia (Khovsgol Province) Tozhu Tuvans Buddhism → Tibetan Buddhism Udis Northeast Caucasian → Lezgic → Udi Azerbaijan, Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine Christianity → Oriental Orthodoxy Udmurts Uralic → Permic → Udmurt Russia (Udmurtia) Besermyan Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Ukrainians Indo-European → Slavic → Ukrainian, Indo-European → Slavic → Surzhyk, Francosign → Austro-Hungarian Sign → Ukrainian Sign Ukraine Cossacks, Litvins, Pinchuks along with significant populations in the United States, Brazil, Kazakhstan, Germany, Canada, Italy, Argentina, the Czech Republic, and Romania Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Christianity → Catholicism → Ukrainian Greek Catholicism Ulchi Tungusic → Southern Tungusic → Ulch Russia (Ulchsky District) Ulster Protestants Indo-European → Germanic → Scots → Ulster Scots, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Ulster English, BANZSL → British Sign Ulster (United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland) Christianity → Protestantism Umatilla Plateau Penutian → Sahaptian → Umatilla United States (Oregon) Native American religion Upper Kuskokwim Na-Dene → Athabaskan → Upper Kuskokwim United States (Interior Alaska) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy → Russian Orthodoxy Urak Lawoi Austronesian → Malayic → Urak Lawoi Thailand (Phuket) Buddhism → Theravada Buddhism Urhobos Niger–Congo → Edoid → Urhobo Nigeria (Delta State) Christianity Ute Uto-Aztecan → Numic → Colorado River Numic → Ute United States (Colorado, Utah) Native American Church, Christianity Uyghurs Turkic → Karluk → Uyghur, Turkic → Karluk → Tor Uyghur China (Uyghuristan) Kashgartsy and Tor Uyghurs, with significant populations in Kazakhstan Islam → Sunni Islam Uzbeks Turkic → Karluk → Uzbek Uzbekistan Includes Ming, Yuzi and Kyrk tribes.", "Significant populations in Russia, Pakistan, Canada, the United States, and Turkey Islam → Sunni Islam Valencians Indo-European → Romance → Catalan → Valencian, LSCic → Valencian Sign Spain (Valencian Community, Carche) Christianity → Catholicism Vaqueiros de alzada Indo-European → Romance → Asturleonese Spain (Asturias, Province of Leon) Christianity and traditional folk religion → Roman Catholicism and traditional folk religion → Vaqueiro religion Vedda Sinhala creoles → Vedda language Sri Lanka Coast Veddas, Anuradhapura Veddas, Bintenne Veddas Animism Venda Niger–Congo → Bantu → Tshivenda South Africa (Vendaland) Christianity, Traditional African religions Vepsians Uralic → Finnic → Veps Russia (Former Veps National Volost; Vytegorsky, Babayevsky, Podporozhsky, Lodeynopolsky, Tikhvinsky, and Boksitogorsky districts) Vietnamese Austroasiatic → Vietic → Vietnamese Vietnam Muong, Gin, Phen, Chứt, Thổ, Nung, Giay, along with significant populations in the United States, Cambodia, France, Australia, Canada, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Germany, Hong Kong, and Laos Buddhism → Mahayana, Vietnamese folk religion, Caodaism, Hoa Hao Vilamovians Indo-European → Germanic → Wymysorys Poland (Wilamowice) Visayans Austronesian → Philippine → Visayan Philippines (Visayas) Aklanon, Butuanon, Cebuano (including Boholano and Eskaya), Caluyanon, Capiznon, Cuyunon, Hiligaynon, Karay-a, Masbatenos, Negrenses, Porohanon, Romblomanon (including Bantoanons), Waray Christianity → Catholicism Volga Tatars Turkic → Kipchak → Tatar Russia (Tatarstan) Astrakhan Tatars, Kasimov Tatars, Kazan Tatars (main and largest subgroup), Kryashens, Nagaybaks, Nukrat Tatars, Perm Tatars, Teptyars Islam → Sunni Islam Votians Uralic → Finnic → Votic Russia (Ingria) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy, Christianity → Protestantism → Lutheranism Wa Austroasiatic → Palaungic → Wa Myanmar (Wa State) Buddhism, Animism Wakhi Indo-European → Iranian → Wakhi Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, China Islam → Shia Islam → Isma'ilism → Nizari Isma'ilism Walla Walla Plateau Penutian → Sahaptin → Walla Walla United States (Oregon, Washington) Waashat Religion Walloons Indo-European → Romance → Walloon, Indo-European → Romance → Picard, Indo-European → Romance → French → Belgian French, Francosign → Belgian Sign → French Belgian Sign Belgium (Wallonia) Significant populations in the United States (including Wisconsin) and the Netherlands Christianity → Catholicism Warlpiris Pama–Nyungan → Ngumpin–Yapa → Warlpiri, Indo-European and Pama–Nyungan → Warlpiri and Australian Kriol → Light Warlpiri Australia (Northern Territory) Dreamtime Waropen Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Waropen Indonesia (Waropen Regency) Christianity Wassamasaw United States (Berkeley County, South Carolina) Waxiang Sino-Tibetan → Sinitic → Waxiang Chinese China (Hunan) Chinese folk religion Wayuu Arawakan → Wayuunaiki Colombia (La Guajira), Venezuela Ethnic religion, Christianity → Catholicism Welayta Afro-Asiatic → Omotic → Wolaitta Ethiopia (Wolayitia) Christianity → Protestantism → P'ent'ay Welsh Indo-European → Celtic → Welsh, Indo-European → Germanic → English → Welsh English, BANZSL → British Sign United Kingdom (Wales) Significant populations in Argentina, the United States, Canada, and Australia.", "Christianity → Protestantism Wolane Afro-Asiatic → Ethiopic → Wolane Ethiopia (Gurage) Wolof Niger–Congo → Atlantic → Senegambian → Wolof Senegambia (Senegal, The Gambia) Lebu Islam → Sunni Islam → Sufism → Mouride Wuikinuxv Wakashan → Northern Wakashan → Heiltsuk-Oowekyala → Oowekyala Canada (British Columbia) Native American religion Xavante Macro-Je → Je → Xavante Brazil (Mato Grosso) Shamanism Xerente Macro-Je → Je → Xerente Brazil (Tocantins) Xhosa Niger–Congo → Bantu → Nguni → Xhosa South Africa (Xhosaland) Christianity Xokleng Macro-Je → Je → Xokleng Brazil (Santa Catarina) Yaghnobis Indo-European → Iranian → Yaghnobi, Indo-European → Iranian → Tajik Tajikistan (Sughd Region) Islam → Sunni Islam Yahgan Yahgan, Indo-European → Romance → Spanish Tierra del Fuego (Argentina, Chile) Christianity → Protestantism Yakan Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Barito → Sama–Bajaw → Yakan Philippines (Basilan) Islam → Sunni Islam Yako Niger–Congo → Cross River → Yako Nigeria (Yakurr Local Government) Christianity Yakuts Turkic → Siberian → Yakut Russia (Yakutia) Christianity → Eastern Orthodoxy Yali Trans-New Guinea → Yali Indonesia (Baliem Valley) Christianity, Animism Yanomami Yanomaman Southeastern Venezuela, and northern Brazil Shamanism Yao Niger–Congo → Bantu → Yao Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania (Ruvuma and Mtwara Regions) Islam and Animism → Yao Folk Islam Yapese Austronesian → Malayo-Polynesian → Oceanic → Yapese Federated States of Micronesia (Yap) Christianity Yenish Indo-European → Germanic → Yenish Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium, and France Yerukala Dravidian → South Dravidian I → Yerukala India (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana) Yi Sino-Tibetan → Loloish China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi) Phu La, Azha Bimoism Yoa-Lokpa Niger–Congo → Gur → Oti–Volta → Yom, Niger–Congo → Gur → Gurunsi → Lukpa Benin (Donga Department) Yoruba Niger–Congo → Yoruba, Yoruba Sign Yorubaland (Nigeria, Benin, Togo) Ijesha, Egba, Yewa, Igbomina, Awori, Akoko, Okun, Ana, Ekiti, Ilaje, Ijebu, Oyo, Ondo, Ife, Nagos, with significant populations in the United States and Canada Islam, Christianity, Yoruba religion Yuchi Yuchi language United States (Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina) Yugambeh Pama-Nyungan → Bandjalangic → Yugambeh Australia (Queensland) Alcheringa Yugoslavs Indo-European → Slavic → Serbo-Croatian, Indo-European → Slavic → Macedonian, Indo-European → Slavic → Slovene Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, North Macedonia, Croatia Significant populations in Serbia, Canada, and the United States Yukaghir Yukaghir languages Russia (Yakutia) Shamanism Yup'ik Eskaleut → Eskimo → Yup'ik United States (Alaska) Nunivak Cupʼig, Chevak Cupʼik Christianity, Shamanism Zaghawa Nilo-Saharan → Saharan → Zaghawa Chad, Sudan Islam → Sunni Islam Zamboanguenos Indo-European → Romance → Spanish → Chavacano Philippines (Zamboanga City) Christianity → Catholicism Zande Niger–Congo → Zande Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, South Sudan Barambu Christianity Zapotecs Oto-Manguean → Zapotec Mexico (Oaxaca) Ixtlan Christianity → Catholicism Zhuang Kra–Dai → Tai → Zhuang China (Zhuangia) Moism Zomi Sino-Tibetan → Tibeto-Burman → Kuki-Chin–Naga, Sino-Tibetan → Mruic Zogam (Myanmar, Bangladesh, India) Thadou, Paite, Zou, Kom, Koireng, Mizo (including Khiangte, Hmar (including Saihriem and Zote), Renthlei, Chawngthu, Miu-Khumi, and Ralte), Aimol, Sukte, Bawm, Lai, Biate, Chin (including Asho, Mro-Khimi, Mru (including Anok, Tshungma, Domrong, Dopteng, and Rumma), Anu, Chho, Cumtu Chin, and Hkongso (including Kasang, Htey, Kamu, Ngan, Gwa, Hteikloeh, Ngai, Rahnam, Kapu, Kasah, Namte, Krawktu, and Namluek)), Kuki (including Vaiphei, Khelma, Halam (including Korbong), Mate, and Simte) Gangte, and Bnei Menashe Christianity Zonians Indo-European → Germanic → English → American English Panama (Panama Canal Zone) Christianity Zulu Niger–Congo → Bantu → Nguni → Zulu South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) Northern Ndebele Christianity Zuni Zuni language" ], [ "Lists of ethnic groups", ";* List of Indigenous peoples* List of diasporas* List of stateless nations;* Ethnic groups in Asia** Ethnic groups in Northern Asia*** List of ethnic groups in Russia** List of ethnic groups in East Asia*** List of ethnic groups in China*** List of ethnic groups in Japan*** List of ethnic groups in North Korea*** List of ethnic groups in South Korea*** List of ethnic groups in Taiwan** List of indigenous peoples of Taiwan* South Asian ethnic groups** Ethnic groups in Nepal** Ethnic groups in Pakistan*** Demographics of Sindh** List of ethnic groups in Laos** Ethnic groups in Malaysia** List of ethnic groups in Vietnam** List of ethnic groups in Burma** Ethnic groups in the Middle East* African people** Indigenous people of Africa** Ethnic groups in Algeria** Ethnic groups in Botswana** Ethnic groups in Burundi** Ethnic groups in Chad** List of ethno-linguistic groups in Eritrea** List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia** List of ethnic groups in Nigeria** List of ethnic groups in Rivers State** Ethnic groups in Rwanda** List of ethnic groups in Tanzania** Ethnic groups in Senegal** Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone** List of ethnic groups in South Sudan** List of ethnic groups in Zambia* European people** Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina* Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas* List of Indigenous Australian group names* Ethnoreligious group* Ethnic groups by country" ], [ "See also", "* List of languages by number of native speakers* List of language families* Lists of people by nationality* Lists of active separatist movements* Uncontacted peoples* Ethnic flag* Race (human categorization)* List of Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edda" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Edda'''\" (; Old Norse ''Edda'', plural ''Eddur'') is an Old Norse term that has been applied by modern scholars to the collective of two Medieval Icelandic literary works: what is now known as the ''Prose Edda'' and an older collection of poems (without an original title) now known as the ''Poetic Edda''.", "The term historically referred only to the ''Prose Edda'', but this usage has fallen out of favour because of confusion with the other work.", "Both works were written down in Iceland during the 13th century in Icelandic, although they contain material from earlier traditional sources, reaching back into the Viking Age.", "The books provide the main sources for medieval skaldic tradition in Iceland and for Norse mythology.The Edda has been criticized for imposing Snorri Sturluson’s own Christian views on Norse mythology.", "In particular the clean-cut explanation of what happens to a soul after death as understood in the Edda contradicts other sources on death in Norse mythology." ], [ "Etymology", "At least five hypotheses have been suggested for the origins of the word ''edda'':* One hypothesis holds that it is identical to a word that means \"great-grandmother\" appearing in the Eddic poem ''Rígsþula.''", "The word could stem from the Sanskrit term (\"knowledge\").", "* Another hypothesis holds that ''edda'' derives from Old Norse ''óðr'', \"poetry\".", "* A third, proposed in 1895 by Eiríkr Magnússon, is that it derives from the Icelandic place name ''Oddi'', site of the church and school where students, including Snorri Sturluson, were educated.", "* A fourth hypothesis—the derivation of the word ''Edda'' as the name of Snorri Sturluson's treatise on poetry from the Latin ''edo'', \"I compose (poetry)\", by analogy with ''kredda'', \"superstition\", from Latin ''credo'', \"creed\"—is now widely accepted, although this acceptance might stem from its agreement with modern usage rather than historical accuracy.", "* The fifth hypothesis is based on the past fashion of giving Icelandic manuscripts bird titles.", "Such are the legal codes ''Grágás'' 'grey goose', ''Gullfjǫðr'' 'gold feather (quill?", ")', and ''Hryggjar-stykki'' 'a kind of duck'.", "Perhaps ''Edda'' was also one of such titles: ''Edda'' would be an appropriate 'pet name' of ''æðr'' (pronounced as æ:ðr f.) 'eider duck'.", "Then, ''Edda'' meant 'little eider duck' (an analog of ''Grágás'')." ], [ "The ''Poetic Edda''", "The Poetic Edda titled, The Tree of Yggdrasil.The ''Poetic Edda'', also known as ''Sæmundar Edda'' or the ''Elder Edda'', is a collection of Old Norse poems from the Icelandic medieval manuscript Codex Regius (\"Royal Book\").", "Along with the ''Prose Edda'', the ''Poetic Edda'' is the most expansive source on Norse mythology.", "The first part of the Codex Regius preserves poems that narrate the creation and foretold destruction and rebirth of the Old Norse mythological world as well as individual myths about gods concerning Norse deities.", "The poems in the second part narrate legends about Norse heroes and heroines, such as Sigurd, Brynhildr and Gunnar.It consists of two parts.", "The first part has 10 songs about gods, and the second one has 19 songs about heroes.The Codex Regius was written in the 13th century, but nothing is known of its whereabouts until 1643, when it came into the possession of Brynjólfur Sveinsson, then the Church of Iceland's Bishop of Skálholt.", "At that time, versions of the ''Prose Edda'' were well known in Iceland, but scholars speculated that there once was another ''Edda''—an ''Elder Edda''—which contained the pagan poems Snorri quotes in his book.", "When the Codex Regius was discovered, it seemed that this speculation had proven correct.", "Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to Sæmundr the Learned, a larger-than-life 12th century Icelandic priest.", "While this attribution is rejected by modern scholars, the name ''Sæmundar Edda'' is still sometimes encountered.Bishop Brynjólfur sent the ''Codex Regius'' as a present to King Christian IV of Denmark, hence the name ''Codex Regius''.", "For centuries it was stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen but in 1971 it was returned to Iceland." ], [ "The ''Prose Edda''", " Manuscript of the Prose EddaThe ''Prose Edda'', sometimes referred to as the ''Younger Edda'' or ''Snorri's Edda'', is an Icelandic manual of poetics which also contains many mythological stories.", "Its purpose was to enable Icelandic poets and readers to understand the subtleties of alliterative verse, and to grasp the mythological allusions behind the many kennings that were used in skaldic poetry.It was written by the Icelandic scholar and historian Snorri Sturluson around 1220.It survives in four known manuscripts and three fragments, written down from about 1300 to about 1600.The ''Prose Edda'' consists of a Prologue and three separate books: ''Gylfaginning'', concerning the creation and foretold destruction and rebirth of the Norse mythical world; ''Skáldskaparmál'', a dialogue between Ægir, a Norse god connected with the sea, and Bragi, the skaldic god of poetry; and ''Háttatal'', a demonstration of verse forms used in Norse mythology." ], [ "See also", "* ''Gesta Danorum''* ''Heimskringla''* Laufás-Edda* Saga" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ephemeris time" ], [ "Introduction", "The term '''ephemeris time''' (often abbreviated '''ET''') can in principle refer to time in association with any ephemeris (itinerary of the trajectory of an astronomical object).", "In practice it has been used more specifically to refer to:# a former standard astronomical time scale adopted in 1952 by the IAU, and superseded during the 1970s.", "This time scale was proposed in 1948, to overcome the disadvantages of irregularly fluctuating mean solar time.", "The intent was to define a uniform time (as far as was then feasible) based on Newtonian theory (see below: Definition of ephemeris time (1952)).", "Ephemeris time was a first application of the concept of a dynamical time scale, in which the time and time scale are defined implicitly, inferred from the observed position of an astronomical object via the dynamical theory of its motion.# a modern relativistic coordinate time scale, implemented by the JPL ephemeris time argument Teph, in a series of numerically integrated Development Ephemerides.", "Among them is the DE405 ephemeris in widespread current use.", "The time scale represented by Teph is closely related to, but distinct (by an offset and constant rate) from, the TCB time scale currently adopted as a standard by the IAU (see below: JPL ephemeris time argument Teph).Most of the following sections relate to the ephemeris time of the 1952 standard.An impression has sometimes arisen that ephemeris time was in use from 1900: this probably arose because ET, though proposed and adopted in the period 1948–1952, was defined in detail using formulae that made retrospective use of the epoch date of 1900 January 0 and of Newcomb's ''Tables of the Sun''.The ephemeris time of the 1952 standard leaves a continuing legacy, through its historical unit '''ephemeris second''' which became closely duplicated in the length of the current standard SI second (see below: Redefinition of the second)." ], [ "History (1952 standard)", "'''Ephemeris time''' ('''ET'''), adopted as standard in 1952, was originally designed as an approach to a uniform time scale, to be freed from the effects of irregularity in the rotation of the Earth, \"for the convenience of astronomers and other scientists\", for example for use in ephemerides of the Sun (as observed from the Earth), the Moon, and the planets.", "It was proposed in 1948 by G M Clemence.From the time of John Flamsteed (1646–1719) it had been believed that the Earth's daily rotation was uniform.", "But in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with increasing precision of astronomical measurements, it began to be suspected, and was eventually established, that the rotation of the Earth (''i.e.''", "the length of the day) showed irregularities on short time scales, and was slowing down on longer time scales.", "The evidence was compiled by W de Sitter (1927) who wrote \"If we accept this hypothesis, then the 'astronomical time', given by the Earth's rotation, and used in all practical astronomical computations, differs from the 'uniform' or 'Newtonian' time, which is defined as the independent variable of the equations of celestial mechanics\".", "De Sitter offered a correction to be applied to the mean solar time given by the Earth's rotation to get uniform time.Other astronomers of the period also made suggestions for obtaining uniform time, including A Danjon (1929), who suggested in effect that observed positions of the Moon, Sun and planets, when compared with their well-established gravitational ephemerides, could better and more uniformly define and determine time.Thus the aim developed, to provide a new time scale for astronomical and scientific purposes, to avoid the unpredictable irregularities of the mean solar time scale, and to replace for these purposes Universal Time (UT) and any other time scale based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis, such as sidereal time.The American astronomer G M Clemence (1948) made a detailed proposal of this type based on the results of the English Astronomer Royal H Spencer Jones (1939).", "Clemence (1948) made it clear that his proposal was intended \"for the convenience of astronomers and other scientists only\" and that it was \"logical to continue the use of mean solar time for civil purposes\".De Sitter and Clemence both referred to the proposal as 'Newtonian' or 'uniform' time.", "D Brouwer suggested the name 'ephemeris time'.Following this, an astronomical conference held in Paris in 1950 recommended \"that in all cases where the mean solar second is unsatisfactory as a unit of time by reason of its variability, the unit adopted should be the sidereal year at 1900.0, that the time reckoned in this unit be designated ''ephemeris time''\", and gave Clemence's formula (see Definition of ephemeris time (1952)) for translating mean solar time to ephemeris time.The International Astronomical Union approved this recommendation at its 1952 general assembly.", "Practical introduction took some time (see Use of ephemeris time in official almanacs and ephemerides); ephemeris time (ET) remained a standard until superseded in the 1970s by further time scales (see Revision).During the currency of ephemeris time as a standard, the details were revised a little.", "The unit was redefined in terms of the tropical year at 1900.0 instead of the sidereal year; and the standard second was defined first as 1/31556925.975 of the tropical year at 1900.0, and then as the slightly modified fraction 1/31556925.9747 instead, finally being redefined in 1967/8 in terms of the cesium atomic clock standard (see below).Although ET is no longer directly in use, it leaves a continuing legacy.", "Its successor time scales, such as TDT, as well as the atomic time scale IAT (TAI), were designed with a relationship that \"provides continuity with ephemeris time\".", "ET was used for the calibration of atomic clocks in the 1950s.", "Close equality between the ET second with the later SI second (as defined with reference to the cesium atomic clock) has been verified to within 1 part in 1010.In this way, decisions made by the original designers of ephemeris time influenced the length of today's standard SI second, and in turn, this has a continuing influence on the number of leap seconds which have been needed for insertion into current broadcast time scales, to keep them approximately in step with mean solar time." ], [ "Definition (1952)", "Ephemeris time was defined in principle by the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun (but its practical implementation was usually achieved in another way, see below).", "Its detailed definition was based on Simon Newcomb's ''Tables of the Sun'' (1895), implemented in a new way to accommodate certain observed discrepancies:In the introduction to ''Tables of the Sun,'' the basis of the tables (p. 9) includes a formula for the Sun's mean longitude at a time, indicated by interval T (in units of Julian centuries of 36525 mean solar days), reckoned from Greenwich Mean Noon on 0 January 1900:: Ls = 279° 41' 48\".04 + 129,602,768\".13T +1\".089T2 .", ".", ".", ".", ".", "(1)Spencer Jones' work of 1939 showed that differences between the observed positions of the Sun and the predicted positions given by Newcomb's formula demonstrated the need for the following correction to the formula:: ΔLs = + 1\".00 + 2\".97T + 1\".23T2 + 0.0748Bwhere \"the times of observation are in Universal time, not corrected to Newtonian time,\" and 0.0748B represents an irregular fluctuation calculated from lunar observations.Thus, a conventionally corrected form of Newcomb's formula, incorporating the corrections on the basis of mean solar time, would be the sum of the two preceding expressions:: Ls =\t279° 41' 49\".04 + 129,602,771\".10T +2\".32T2 +0.0748B .", ".", ".", ".", ".", "(2)Clemence's 1948 proposal, however, did not adopt such a correction of mean solar time.", "Instead, the same numbers were used as in Newcomb's original uncorrected formula (1), but now applied somewhat prescriptively, to define a new time and time scale implicitly, based on the real position of the Sun:: Ls =\t279° 41' 48\".04 + 129,602,768\".13E +1\".089E2 .", ".", ".", ".", ".", "(3)With this reapplication, the time variable, now given as E, represents time in ephemeris centuries of 36525 '''ephemeris days''' of 86400 '''ephemeris seconds''' each.", "The 1961 official reference summarized the concept as such: \"The origin and rate of ephemeris time are defined to make the Sun's mean longitude agree with Newcomb's expression\"From the comparison of formulae (2) and (3), both of which express the same real solar motion in the same real time but defined on separate time scales, Clemence arrived at an explicit expression, estimating the difference in seconds of time between ephemeris time and mean solar time, in the sense (ET-UT): .", ".", ".", ".", ".", "(4)with the 24.349 seconds of time corresponding to the 1.00\" in ΔLs.Clemence's formula (today superseded by more modern estimations) was included in the original conference decision on ephemeris time.", "In view of the fluctuation term, practical determination of the difference between ephemeris time and UT depended on observation.", "Inspection of the formulae above shows that the (ideally constant) units of ephemeris time have been, for the whole of the twentieth century, very slightly shorter than the corresponding (but not precisely constant) units of mean solar time (which, besides their irregular fluctuations, tend to lengthen gradually).", "This finding is consistent with the modern results of Morrison and Stephenson (see article ΔT)." ], [ "Implementations", "===Secondary realizations by lunar observations===Although ephemeris time was defined in principle by the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun, it was usually measured in practice by the orbital motion of the Moon around the Earth.", "These measurements can be considered as secondary realizations (in a metrological sense) of the primary definition of ET in terms of the solar motion, after a calibration of the mean motion of the Moon with respect to the mean motion of the Sun.Reasons for the use of lunar measurements were practically based: the Moon moves against the background of stars about 13 times as fast as the Sun's corresponding rate of motion, and the accuracy of time determinations from lunar measurements is correspondingly greater.When ephemeris time was first adopted, time scales were still based on astronomical observation, as they always had been.", "The accuracy was limited by the accuracy of optical observation, and corrections of clocks and time signals were published in arrear.===Secondary realizations by atomic clocks===A few years later, with the invention of the cesium atomic clock, an alternative offered itself.", "Increasingly, after the calibration in 1958 of the cesium atomic clock by reference to ephemeris time, cesium atomic clocks running on the basis of ephemeris seconds began to be used and kept in step with ephemeris time.", "The atomic clocks offered a further secondary realization of ET, on a quasi-real time basis that soon proved to be more useful than the primary ET standard: not only more convenient, but also more precisely uniform than the primary standard itself.", "Such secondary realizations were used and described as 'ET', with an awareness that the time scales based on the atomic clocks were not identical to that defined by the primary ephemeris time standard, but rather, an improvement over it on account of their closer approximation to uniformity.", "The atomic clocks gave rise to the atomic time scale, and to what was first called Terrestrial Dynamical Time and is now Terrestrial Time, defined to provide continuity with ET.The availability of atomic clocks, together with the increasing accuracy of astronomical observations (which meant that relativistic corrections were at least in the foreseeable future no longer going to be small enough to be neglected), led to the eventual replacement of the ephemeris time standard by more refined time scales including terrestrial time and barycentric dynamical time, to which ET can be seen as an approximation." ], [ "Revision of time scales", "In 1976, the IAU resolved that the theoretical basis for its then-current (since 1952) standard of Ephemeris Time was non-relativistic, and that therefore, beginning in 1984, Ephemeris Time would be replaced by two relativistic timescales intended to constitute dynamical timescales: Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT) and Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB).", "Difficulties were recognized, which led to these, in turn, being superseded in the 1990s by time scales Terrestrial Time (TT), Geocentric Coordinate Time GCT (TCG) and Barycentric Coordinate Time BCT (TCB)." ], [ "JPL ephemeris time argument T<sub>eph</sub>", "High-precision ephemerides of sun, moon and planets were developed and calculated at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) over a long period, and the latest available were adopted for the ephemerides in the Astronomical Almanac starting in 1984.Although not an IAU standard, the ephemeris time argument Teph has been in use at that institution since the 1960s.", "The time scale represented by Teph has been characterized as a relativistic coordinate time that differs from Terrestrial Time only by small periodic terms with an amplitude not exceeding 2 milliseconds of time: it is linearly related to, but distinct (by an offset and constant rate which is of the order of 0.5 s/a) from the TCB time scale adopted in 1991 as a standard by the IAU.", "Thus for clocks on or near the geoid, Teph (within 2 milliseconds), but not so closely TCB, can be used as approximations to Terrestrial Time, and via the standard ephemerides Teph is in widespread use.Partly in acknowledgement of the widespread use of Teph via the JPL ephemerides, IAU resolution 3 of 2006 (re-)defined Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) as a current standard.", "As re-defined in 2006, TDB is a linear transformation of TCB.", "The same IAU resolution also stated (in note 4) that the \"independent time argument of the JPL ephemeris DE405, which is called Teph\" (here the IAU source cites), \"is for practical purposes the same as TDB defined in this Resolution\".", "Thus the new TDB, like Teph, is essentially a more refined continuation of the older ephemeris time ET and (apart from the periodic fluctuations) has the same mean rate as that established for ET in the 1950s." ], [ "Use in official almanacs and ephemerides", "Ephemeris time based on the standard adopted in 1952 was introduced into the Astronomical Ephemeris (UK) and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, replacing UT in the main ephemerides in the issues for 1960 and after.", "(But the ephemerides in the Nautical Almanac, by then a separate publication for the use of navigators, continued to be expressed in terms of UT.)", "The ephemerides continued on this basis through 1983 (with some changes due to adoption of improved values of astronomical constants), after which, for 1984 onwards, they adopted the JPL ephemerides.Previous to the 1960 change, the 'Improved Lunar Ephemeris' had already been made available in terms of ephemeris time for the years 1952—1959 (computed by W J Eckert from Brown's theory with modifications recommended by Clemence (1948))." ], [ "Redefinition of the second", "Successive definitions of the unit of ephemeris time are mentioned above (History).", "The value adopted for the 1956/1960 standard second::the fraction 1/31 556 925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.was obtained from the linear time-coefficient in Newcomb's expression for the solar mean longitude (above), taken and applied with the same meaning for the time as in formula (3) above.", "The relation with Newcomb's coefficient can be seen from::1/31 556 925.9747 = 129 602 768.13 / (360×60×60×36 525×86 400).Caesium atomic clocks became operational in 1955, and quickly confirmed the evidence that the rotation of the Earth fluctuated irregularly.", "This confirmed the unsuitability of the mean solar second of Universal Time as a measure of time interval for the most precise purposes.", "After three years of comparisons with lunar observations, Markowitz et al.", "(1958) determined that the ephemeris second corresponded to 9 192 631 770 ± 20 cycles of the chosen cesium resonance.Following this, in 1967/68, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) replaced the definition of the SI second by the following:The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.Although this is an independent definition that does not refer to the older basis of ephemeris time, it uses the same quantity as the value of the ephemeris second measured by the cesium clock in 1958.This SI second referred to atomic time was later verified by Markowitz (1988) to be in agreement, within 1 part in 1010, with the second of ephemeris time as determined from lunar observations.For practical purposes the length of the ephemeris second can be taken as equal to the length of the second of Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) or Terrestrial Time (TT) or its predecessor TDT.The difference between ET and UT is called ΔT; it changes irregularly, but the long-term trend is parabolic, decreasing from ancient times until the nineteenth century, and increasing since then at a rate corresponding to an increase in the solar day length of 1.7 ms per century (see leap seconds).International Atomic Time (TAI) was set equal to UT2 at 1 January 1958 0:00:00.At that time, ΔT was already about 32.18 seconds.", "The difference between Terrestrial Time (TT) (the successor to ephemeris time) and atomic time was later defined as follows::1977 January 1.000 3725 TT = 1977 January 1.000 0000 TAI, ''i.e.", "'':TT − TAI = 32.184 secondsThis difference may be assumed constant—the rates of TT and TAI are designed to be identical." ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Bibliography", " *G M Clemence, \"On the System of Astronomical Constants\", ''Astronomical Journal'', vol.", "53(6) (1948), issue #1170, pp.", "169–179.", "*G M Clemence (1971), \"The Concept of Ephemeris Time\", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'', vol.", "2 (1971), pp.", "73–79.", "*B Guinot and P K Seidelmann (1988), \"Time scales – Their history, definition and interpretation\", ''Astronomy and Astrophysics'', vol.", "194 (nos.", "1–2) (April 1988), pp.", "304–308.", "*'ESAA (1992)': P K Seidelmann (ed.", "), \"Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac\", University Science Books, CA, 1992 ; .", "*'ESAE 1961': \"Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac\" ('prepared jointly by the Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States of America', HMSO, London, 1961).", "*IAU resolutions (1976): Resolutions adopted by the IAU in 1976 at Grenoble.", "*\"Improved Lunar Ephemeris\", US Government Printing Office, 1954.", "*W Markowitz, R G Hall, S Edelson (1955), \"Ephemeris time from photographic positions of the moon\", ''Astronomical Journal'', vol.", "60 (1955), p.", "171.", "*W Markowitz, R G Hall, L Essen, J V L Parry (1958), \"Frequency of cesium in terms of ephemeris time\", Physical Review Letters, vol.", "1 (1958), 105–107.", "*W Markowitz (1959), \"Variations in the Rotation of the Earth, Results Obtained with the Dual-Rate Moon Camera and Photographic Zenith Tubes\", ''Astronomical Journal'', vol.", "64 (1959), pp.", "106–113.", "*Wm Markowitz (1988), \"Comparisons of ET(Solar), ET(Lunar), UT and TDT\", in A K Babcock & G A Wilkins (eds.", "), ''The Earth's Rotation and Reference Frames for Geodesy and Geophysics'', IAU Symposia #128 (1988), pp.", "413–418.", "*Dennis McCarthy & P. Kenneth Seidelmann (2009), ''TIME From Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, .", "*W G Melbourne, J D Mulholland, W L Sjogren, F M Sturms (1968), \" Constants and Related Information for Astrodynamic Calculations\", NASA Technical Report 32-1306, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, July 15, 1968.", "*L V Morrison, F R Stephenson (2004), \"Historical values of the Earth's clock error ΔT and the calculation of eclipses\", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'' (), vol.", "35(3) (2004), #120, pp.", "327–336 (with addendum at vol.", "36, p.", "339).", "*Simon Newcomb (1895), ''Tables of the Sun'' (\"Tables of the Motion of the Earth on its Axis and Around the Sun\", in \"Tables of the Four Inner Planets\", vol.", "6, part 1, of ''Astronomical Papers prepared for the use of the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac'' (1895), at pages 1–169).", "*W de Sitter (1927), \"On the secular accelerations and the fluctuations of the longitudes of the moon, the sun, Mercury and Venus\", ''Bull.", "Astron.", "Inst.", "Netherlands'', vol.", "4 (1927), pages 21–38.", "*H Spencer Jones, \"The Rotation of the Earth, and the Secular Accelerations of the Sun, Moon and Planets\", in ''Monthly Notes of the Royal Astronomical Society'', vol.", "99 (1939), pp.", "541–558.", "*E M Standish, \"Time scales in the JPL and CfA ephemerides\", ''Astronomy & Astrophysics'', vol.", "336 (1998), 381–384.", "*F R Stephenson, L V Morrison (1984), \"Long-term changes in the rotation of the earth – 700 B.C.", "to A.D. 1980\", (Royal Society, Discussion on Rotation in the Solar System, London, England, Mar.", "8, 9, 1984) ''Royal Society (London), Philosophical Transactions, Series A'' (), vol.", "313 (1984), #1524, pp.", "47–70.", "*F R Stephenson, L V Morrison (1995), \"Long-Term Fluctuations in the Earth's Rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990\", ''Royal Society (London), Philosophical Transactions, Series A'' (), vol.", "351 (1995), #1695, pp.", "165–202.", "*G M R Winkler and T C van Flandern (1977), \"Ephemeris Time, relativity, and the problem of uniform time in astronomy\", ''Astronomical Journal'', vol.", "82 (Jan. 1977), pp.", "84–92." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EastEnders" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''EastEnders''''' is a British television soap opera created by Julia Smith and Tony Holland which has been broadcast on BBC One since February 1985.Set in the fictional borough of Walford in the East End of London, the programme follows the stories of local residents and their families as they go about their daily lives.", "Within eight months of the show's original launch, it had reached the number one spot in BARB's television ratings, and has consistently remained among the top-rated series in Britain.", "Four ''EastEnders'' episodes are listed in the all-time top 10 most-watched programmes in the UK, including the number one spot, when over 30 million watched the 1986 Christmas Day episode.", "''EastEnders'' has been important in the history of British television drama, tackling many subjects that are considered to be controversial or taboo in British culture, and portraying a social life previously unseen on UK mainstream television.Since co-creator Holland was from a large family in the East End, a theme heavily featured in ''EastEnders'' is strong families, and each character is supposed to have their own place in the fictional community.", "The Beales, Brannings, Mitchells, Slaters and the Watts are some of the families that have been central to the soap's notable and dramatic storylines.", "''EastEnders'' has been filmed at the BBC Elstree Centre since its inception, with a set that is outdoors and open to weather.", "In 2014, the BBC announced plans to rebuild the set entirely.", "Filming commenced on the new set in January 2022, and it was first used on-screen in March 2022.Demolition on the old set commenced in November 2022.", "''EastEnders'' has received both praise and criticism for many of its storylines, which have dealt with difficult themes including violence, rape, murder and abuse.", "It has been criticised for various storylines, including the 2010 baby swap storyline, which attracted over 6,000 complaints, as well as complaints of showing too much violence and allegations of national and racial stereotypes.", "However, ''EastEnders'' has also been commended for representing real-life issues and spreading awareness on social topics.", "The cast and crew of the show have received and been nominated for various awards." ], [ "History", "=== Conception and preparations for broadcast ===In March 1983, under two years before ''EastEnders'' first episode was broadcast, the show was a vague idea in the mind of a handful of BBC executives, who decided that what BBC One needed was a popular bi-weekly drama series that would attract the kind of mass audiences that ITV were getting with ''Coronation Street''.", "The first people to whom David Reid, then head of series and serials, turned were Julia Smith and Tony Holland, a well established producer/script editor team who had first worked together on ''Z-Cars''.", "The outline that Reid presented was vague: two episodes a week, 52 weeks a year.", "After the concept was put to them on 14 March 1983, Smith and Holland then went about putting their ideas down on paper; they decided it would be set in the East End of London.", "Granada Television gave Smith unrestricted access to the ''Coronation Street'' production for a month so that she could get a sense of how a continuing drama was produced.There was anxiety at first that the viewing public would not accept a new soap set in the south of England, though research commissioned by lead figures in the BBC revealed that southerners would accept a northern soap, northerners would accept a southern soap and those from the Midlands, as Julia Smith herself pointed out, did not mind where it was set as long as it was somewhere else.", "This was the beginning of a close and continuing association between ''EastEnders'' and audience research, which, though commonplace today, was something of a revolution in practice.The show's creators were both Londoners, but when they researched Victorian squares, they found massive changes in areas they thought they knew well; however, delving further into the East End of London, they found exactly what they had been searching for: a real East End spirit, an inward-looking quality, a distrust of strangers and authority figures, a sense of territory and community that the creators summed up as \"Hurt one of us and you hurt us all\".When developing ''EastEnders'', both Smith and Holland looked at influential models like ''Coronation Street'', but they found that it offered a rather outdated and nostalgic view of working-class life.", "Only after ''EastEnders'' began, and featured the characters of Tony Carpenter and Kelvin Carpenter, did ''Coronation Street'' start to feature black characters, for example.", "They came to the conclusion that ''Coronation Street'' had grown old with its audience, and that ''EastEnders'' would have to attract a younger, more socially extensive audience, ensuring that it had the longevity to retain it for many years thereafter.", "They also looked at ''Brookside'', but found there was a lack of central meeting points for the characters, making it difficult for the writers to intertwine different storylines, so ''EastEnders'' was set in Albert Square.A previous UK soap set in an East End market was ATV's ''Market in Honey Lane''; however, between 1967 and 1969, this show, which graduated from one showing a week to two in three separate series (the latter series being shown in different time slots across the ITV network) was very different in style and approach from ''EastEnders''.", "The British Film Institute described ''Market in Honey Lane'' thus: \"It was not an earth-shaking programme, and certainly not pioneering in any revolutionary ideas in technique and production, but simply proposed itself to the casual viewer as a mildly pleasant affair.", "\"The target launch date was originally January 1985.Smith and Holland had eleven months in which to write, cast and shoot the whole thing; however, in February 1984, they did not even have a title or a place to film.", "Both Smith and Holland were unhappy about the January 1985 launch date, favouring November or even September 1984 when seasonal audiences would be higher, but the BBC stayed firm, and Smith and Holland had to concede that, with the massive task of getting the Elstree Studios operational, January was the most realistic date; however, this was later to be changed to February.The project had a number of working titles: ''Square Dance'', ''Round the Square'', ''Round the Houses'', ''London Pride'' and ''East 8''.", "It was the latter that stuck (E8 is the postcode for Hackney) in the early months of creative process; however, the show was renamed after many casting agents mistakenly thought the show was to be called ''Estate'', and the fictional postcode E20 was created, instead of using E8.Julia Smith came up with the name ''Eastenders'' after she and Holland had spent months telephoning theatrical agents and asking \"Do you have any real East Enders on your books?\"", "Smith thought \"''Eastenders''\" \"looked ugly written down\" and was \"hard to say\", so decided to capitalise the second \"e\".==== Initial character creation and casting ====After they decided on the filming location of BBC Elstree Centre in south Hertfordshire, Smith and Holland set about creating the 23 characters needed, in just 14 days.", "They took a holiday in Playa de los Pocillos, Lanzarote, and started to create the characters.", "Holland created the Beale and Fowler family, drawing on his own background.", "His mother, Ethel Holland, was one of four sisters raised in Walthamstow.", "Her eldest sister, Lou, had married a man named Albert Beale and had two children, named Peter and Pauline.", "These family members were the basis for Lou Beale, Pete Beale and Pauline Fowler.", "Holland also created Pauline's unemployed husband Arthur Fowler, their children Mark and Michelle, Pete's wife Kathy and their son Ian.", "Smith used her personal memories of East End residents she met when researching Victorian squares.", "Ethel Skinner was based on an old woman she met in a pub, with ill-fitting false teeth, and a \"face to rival a neon sign\", holding a Yorkshire Terrier in one hand and a pint of Guinness in the other.Other characters created included Jewish doctor Harold Legg, the Anglo-Cypriot Osman family (Ali, Sue and baby Hassan), black father and son Tony and Kelvin Carpenter, single mother Mary Smith and Bangladeshi couple Saeed and Naima Jeffery.", "Jack, Pearl and Tracey Watts were created to bring \"flash, trash, and melodrama\" to the Square (they were later renamed Den, Angie and Sharon).", "The characters of Andy O'Brien and Debbie Wilkins were created to show a modern couple with outwardly mobile pretensions, and Lofty Holloway to show an outsider; someone who did not fit in with other residents.", "It was decided that he would be a former soldier, as Holland's personal experiences of ex-soldiers were that they had trouble fitting into society after being in the army.", "When they compared the characters they had created, Smith and Holland realised they had created a cross-section of East End residents.", "The Beale and Fowler family represented the old families of the East End, who had always been there.", "The Osmans, Jefferys and Carpenters represented the more modern diverse ethnic community of the East End.", "Debbie, Andy and Mary represented more modern-day individuals.Once they had decided on their 23 characters, they returned to London for a meeting with the BBC.", "Everyone agreed that ''EastEnders'' would be tough, violent on occasion, funny and sharp—set in Margaret Thatcher's Britain—and it would start with a bang (namely the death of Reg Cox).", "They decided that none of their existing characters were wicked enough to have killed Reg, so a 24th character, Nick Cotton was added to the line-up.", "He was a racist thug, who often tried to lead other young characters astray.", "When all the characters had been created, Smith and Holland set about casting the actors, which also involved the input of lead director Matthew Robinson, who supervised auditions with the other directors at the outset, Vivienne Cozens and Peter Edwards.==== Final preparations ====Through the next few months, the set was growing rapidly at Elstree, and a composer and designer had been commissioned to create the title sequence.", "Simon May wrote the theme music and Alan Jeapes created the visuals.", "The visual images were taken from an aircraft flying over the East End of London at 1000 feet.", "Approximately 800 photographs were taken and pieced together to create one big image.", "The credits were later updated when the Millennium Dome was built.The launch was delayed until February 1985 due to a delay in the chat show ''Wogan'', that was to be a part of the major revamp in BBC1's schedules.", "Smith was uneasy about the late start as ''EastEnders'' no longer had the winter months to build up a loyal following before the summer ratings lull.", "The press were invited to Elstree to meet the cast and see the lot, and stories immediately started circulating about the show, about a rivalry with ITV (who were launching their own market-based soap, ''Albion Market'') and about the private lives of the cast.", "Anticipation and rumour grew in equal measure until the first transmission at 7p.m.", "on 19 February 1985.Neither Holland nor Smith could watch; they both instead returned to the place where it all began, Albertine's Wine Bar on Wood Lane.", "The next day, viewing figures were confirmed at 17million.", "The reviews were largely favourable, although, after three weeks on air, BBC1's early evening share had returned to the pre-''EastEnders'' figure of seven million, though ''EastEnders'' then climbed to highs of up to 23million later on in the year.", "Following the launch, both group discussions and telephone surveys were conducted to test audience reaction to early episodes.=== 1980s broadcast history ===Press coverage of ''EastEnders'', which was already intense, went into overdrive once the show was broadcast.", "With public interest so high, the media began investigating the private lives of the show's popular stars.", "Within days, a scandalous headline appeared – \"EASTENDERS STAR IS A KILLER\".", "This referred to Leslie Grantham, and his prison sentence for the murder of a taxi driver in an attempted robbery nearly 20 years earlier.", "This shocking tell-all style set the tone for relations between Albert Square and the press for the next 20 years.The show's first episode attracted some 17million viewers, and it continued to attract high viewing figures from then on.", "By Christmas 1985, the tabloids could not get enough of the soap.", "\"Exclusives\" about ''EastEnders'' storylines and the actors on the show became a staple of tabloid buyers' daily reading.In 1987, the show featured the first same-sex kiss on a British soap, when Colin Russell (Michael Cashman) kissed boyfriend Barry Clarke on the forehead.", "This was followed in January 1989, less than a year after legislation came into effect in the UK, prohibiting the \"promotion of homosexuality\" by local authorities, by the first on-the-mouth gay kiss in a British soap when Colin kissed a new character, Guido Smith (Nicholas Donovan), an episode that was watched by 17 million people.Writer Colin Brake suggested that 1989 was a year of big change for ''EastEnders'', both behind the cameras and in front of them.", "Original production designer Keith Harris left the show, and Holland and Smith both decided that the time had come to move on too, their final contribution coinciding with the exit of one of ''EastEnders''' most successful characters, Den Watts (Leslie Grantham).", "Producer Mike Gibbon was given the task of running the show, and he enlisted the most experienced writers to take over the storylining of the programme, including Charlie Humphreys, Jane Hollowood and Tony McHale.According to Brake, the departure of two of the soap's most popular characters, Den and Angie Watts (Anita Dobson), left a void in the programme, which needed to be filled.", "In addition, several other long-running characters left the show that year, including Sue and Ali Osman (Sandy Ratcliff and Nejdet Salih) and their family; Donna Ludlow (Matilda Ziegler); Carmel Jackson (Judith Jacob) and Colin Russell (Michael Cashman).", "Brake indicated that the production team decided that 1989 was to be a year of change in Walford, commenting, \"it was almost as if Walford itself was making a fresh start\".By the end of 1989, ''EastEnders'' had acquired a new executive producer, Michael Ferguson, who had previously been a successful producer on ITV's ''The Bill''.", "Brake suggested that Ferguson was responsible for bringing in a new sense of vitality and creating a programme that was more in touch with the real world than it had been over the previous year.=== Changes in the 1990s ===A new era began in 1990, with the introduction of Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden) and Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp)—the Mitchell brothers—successful characters who would go on to dominate the soap thereafter.", "As the new production team cleared the way for new characters and a new direction, all of the characters introduced under Gibbon were axed from the show at the start of the year.", "Ferguson introduced other characters and was responsible for storylines including HIV, Alzheimer's disease and murder.", "After a successful revamp of the soap, Ferguson decided to leave ''EastEnders'' in July 1991.Ferguson was succeeded by both Leonard Lewis and Helen Greaves, who initially shared the role as Executive Producer for ''EastEnders''.", "Lewis and Greaves formulated a new regime for ''EastEnders'', giving the writers of the serial more authority in storyline progression, with the script department providing \"guidance rather than prescriptive episode storylines\".", "By the end of 1992, Greaves had left, and Lewis became executive and series producer.", "He left ''EastEnders'' in 1994 after the BBC controllers demanded an extra episode a week, taking its weekly airtime from 60 to 90 minutes.", "Lewis felt that producing an hour of \"reasonable quality drama\" a week was the maximum that any broadcasting system could generate without loss of integrity.", "Having set up the transition to the new schedule, the first trio of episodes—dubbed The Vic siege—marked Lewis's departure from the programme.", "Barbara Emile then became the Executive Producer of ''EastEnders'', remaining with ''EastEnders'' until early 1995.She was succeeded by Corinne Hollingworth.Hollingworth's contributions to the soap were awarded in 1997 when ''EastEnders'' won the BAFTA for Best Drama Series.", "Hollingworth shared the award with the next Executive Producer, Jane Harris.", "Harris was responsible for the critically panned Ireland episodes and Cindy Beale's attempted assassination of Ian Beale, which brought in an audience of 23 million in 1996, roughly four million more than ''Coronation Street''.", "In 1998 Matthew Robinson was appointed as the Executive Producer of ''EastEnders''.", "During his reign, ''EastEnders'' won the BAFTA for \"Best Soap\" in consecutive years 1999 and 2000 and many other awards.", "Robinson also earned tabloid soubriquet \"Axeman of Albert Square\" after sacking a large number of characters in one hit, and several more thereafter.", "In their place, Robinson introduced new long-running characters including Melanie Healy, Jamie Mitchell, Lisa Shaw, Steve Owen and Billy Mitchell.=== 2000s ===John Yorke became the Executive Producer of ''EastEnders'' in 2000.Yorke was given the task of introducing the soap's fourth weekly episode.", "He axed the majority of the Di Marco family, except Beppe di Marco, and helped introduce popular characters such as the Slater family.", "As what Mal Young described as \"two of ''EastEnders''' most successful years\", Yorke was responsible for highly rated storylines such as \"Who Shot Phil?", "\", Ethel Skinner's death, Jim Branning and Dot Cotton's marriage, Trevor Morgan's domestic abuse of his wife Little Mo Morgan, and Kat Slater's revelation to her daughter Zoe Slater that she was her mother.In 2002, Louise Berridge succeeded Yorke as the Executive Producer.", "During her time at ''EastEnders'', Berridge introduced popular characters such as Alfie Moon, Dennis Rickman, Chrissie Watts, Jane Beale, Stacey Slater and the critically panned Indian Ferreira family.Berridge was responsible for some ratings success stories, such as Alfie and Kat Slater's relationship, Janine Butcher getting her comeuppance, Trevor Morgan and Jamie Mitchell's death storylines and the return of one of the greatest soap icons, Den Watts, who had been presumed dead for 14 years.", "His return in late 2003 was watched by over 16 million viewers, putting ''EastEnders'' back at number one in the rating war with the ''Coronation Street''; however, other storylines, such as one about a kidney transplant involving the Ferreiras, were not well received, and although Den Watts's return proved to be a ratings success, the British press branded the plot unrealistic and felt that it questioned the show's credibility.", "A severe press backlash followed after Den's actor, Leslie Grantham, was outed in an internet sex scandal, which coincided with a swift decline in viewer ratings.", "The scandal led to Grantham's departure from the soap, but the occasion was used to mark the 20th anniversary of ''EastEnders'', with an episode showing Den's murder at the Queen Vic pub.On 21 September 2004, Berridge quit as executive producer of ''EastEnders'' following continued criticism of the show.", "Kathleen Hutchison was swiftly appointed as the Executive Producer of ''EastEnders'', and was tasked with quickly turning the fortunes of the soap.", "During her time at the soap Hutchison axed multiple characters, and reportedly ordered the rewriting of numerous scripts.", "Newspapers reported on employee dissatisfaction with Hutchison's tenure at ''EastEnders''.", "In January 2005, Hutchison left the soap and John Yorke (who by this time, was the BBC Controller of Continuing Drama Series) took total control of the show himself and became acting Executive Producer for a short period, before appointing Kate Harwood to the role.", "Harwood stayed at ''EastEnders'' for 20 months before being promoted by the BBC.", "The highly anticipated return of Ross Kemp as Grant Mitchell in October 2005 proved to be a sudden major ratings success, with the first two episodes consolidating to ratings of 13.21 to 13.34 million viewers.", "On Friday 11 November 2005, ''EastEnders'' was the first British drama to feature a two-minute silence.", "This episode later went on to win British Soap Award for \"Best Single Episode\".", "In October 2006, Diederick Santer took over as Executive Producer of ''EastEnders''.", "He introduced several characters to the show, including ethnic minority and homosexual characters to make the show 'feel more 21st Century'.", "Santer also reintroduced past and popular characters to the programme.On 2 March 2007, BBC signed a deal with Google to put videos on YouTube.", "A behind the scenes video of ''EastEnders'', hosted by Matt Di Angelo, who played Deano Wicks on the show, was put on the site the same day, and was followed by another on 6 March 2007.In April 2007, ''EastEnders'' became available to view on mobile phones, via 3G technology, for 3, Vodafone and Orange customers.", "On 21 April 2007, the BBC launched a new advertising campaign using the slogan \"There's more to ''EastEnders''\".", "The first television advert showed Dot Branning with a refugee baby, Tomas, whom she took in under the pretence of being her grandson.", "The second and third featured Stacey Slater and Dawn Swann, respectively.", "There have also been adverts in magazines and on radio.In 2009, producers introduced a limit on the number of speaking parts in each episode due to budget cuts, with an average of 16 characters per episode.", "The decision was criticised by Martin McGrath of Equity, who said: \"Trying to produce quality TV on the cheap is doomed to fail.\"", "The BBC responded by saying they had been working that way for some time and it had not affected the quality of the show.=== 2010s ===From 4 February 2010, CGI was used in the show for the first time, with the addition of computer-generated trains.", "''EastEnders'' celebrated its 25th anniversary on 19 February 2010.Santer came up with several plans to mark the occasion, including the show's first episode to be broadcast live, the second wedding between Ricky Butcher and Bianca Jackson and the return of Bianca's relatives, mother Carol Jackson, and siblings Robbie Jackson, Sonia Fowler and Billie Jackson.", "He told entertainment website Digital Spy, \"It's really important that the feel of the week is active and exciting and not too reflective.", "There'll be those moments for some of our longer-serving characters that briefly reflect on themselves and how they've changed.", "The characters don't know that it's the 25th anniversary of anything, so it'd be absurd to contrive too many situations in which they're reflective on the past.", "The main engine of that week is great stories that'll get people talking.\"", "The live episode featured the death of Bradley Branning (Charlie Clements) at the conclusion of the \"Who Killed Archie?\"", "storyline, which saw Bradley's wife Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner) reveal that she was the murderer.", "Viewing figures peaked at 16.6 million, which was the highest viewed episode in seven years.", "Other events to mark the anniversary were a spin-off DVD, ''EastEnders: Last Tango in Walford'', and an Internet spin-off, ''EastEnders: E20''.alt=refer to captionSanter officially left ''EastEnders'' in March 2010, and was replaced by Bryan Kirkwood.", "Kirkwood's first signing was the reintroduction of characters Alfie Moon (Shane Richie) and Kat Moon (Jessie Wallace), and his first new character was Vanessa Gold, played by Zöe Lucker.", "In April and May 2010, Kirkwood axed eight characters from the show, Barbara Windsor left her role of Peggy Mitchell, which left a hole in the show, which Kirkwood decided to fill by bringing back Kat and Alfie, which he said would \"herald the new era of ''EastEnders''.\"", "''EastEnders'' started broadcasting in high definition on 25 December 2010.Old sets had to be rebuilt, so The Queen Victoria set was burnt down in a storyline (and in reality) to facilitate this.In November 2011, a storyline showed character Billy Mitchell, played by Perry Fenwick, selected to be a torch bearer for the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "In reality, Fenwick carried the torch through the setting of Albert Square, with live footage shown in the episode on 23 July 2012.This was the second live broadcast of ''EastEnders''.", "In 2012, Kirkwood chose to leave his role as executive producer and was replaced by Lorraine Newman.", "The show lost many of its significant characters during this period.", "Newman stepped down as executive producer after 16 months in the job in 2013 after the soap was criticised for its boring storylines and its lowest-ever figures pointing at around 4.8 million.", "Dominic Treadwell-Collins was appointed as the new executive producer on 19 August 2013 and was credited on 9 December.", "He axed multiple characters from the show and introduced the extended Carter family.", "He also introduced a long-running storyline, \"Who Killed Lucy Beale?", "\", which peaked during the show's 30th anniversary in 2015 with a week of live episodes.", "Treadwell-Collins announced his departure from ''EastEnders'' on 18 February 2016.Sean O'Connor, former ''EastEnders'' series story producer and then-editor on radio soap opera ''The Archers'', was announced to be taking over the role.", "Treadwell-Collins left on 6 May and O'Connor's first credited episode was broadcast on 11 July Although O'Connor's first credited episode aired in July, his own creative work was not seen onscreen until late September.", "Additionally, Oliver Kent was brought in as the Head of Continuing Drama Series for BBC Scripted Studios, meaning that Kent would oversee ''EastEnders'' along with O'Connor.", "O'Connor's approach to the show was to have a firmer focus on realism, which he said was being \"true to ''EastEnders'' DNA and finding a way of capturing what it would be like if Julia Smith and Tony Holland were making the show now.\"", "He said that \"''EastEnders'' has always had a distinctly different tone from the other soaps but over time we've diluted our unique selling point.", "I think we need to be ourselves and go back to the origins of the show and what made it successful in the first place.", "It should be entertaining but it should also be informative—that's part of our unique BBC compact with the audience.", "It shouldn't just be a distraction from your own life, it should be an exploration of the life shared by the audience and the characters.\"", "O'Connor planned to stay with ''EastEnders'' until the end of 2017, but announced his departure on 23 June 2017 with immediate effect, saying he wanted to concentrate on a career in film.", "John Yorke returned as a temporary executive consultant.", "Kent said, \"John Yorke is a Walford legend and I am thrilled that he will be joining us for a short period to oversee the show and to help us build on Sean's legacy while we recruit a long-term successor.\"", "Yorke initially returned for three months but his contract was later extended.In July 2018, a special episode was aired as part of a knife crime storyline.", "This episode, which showed the funeral of Shakil Kazemi (Shaheen Jafargholi) interspersed with real people talking about their true-life experiences of knife crime.", "On 8 August 2018, it was announced that Kate Oates, who has previously been a producer on the ITV soap operas ''Emmerdale'' and ''Coronation Street'', would become Senior Executive Producer of ''EastEnders'', as well of ''Holby City'' and ''Casualty''.", "Oates began her role in October, and continued to work with Yorke until the end of the year to \"ensure a smooth handover\".", "It was also announced that Oates was looking for an Executive Producer to work under her.", "Jon Sen was announced on 10 December 2018 to be taking on the role of executive producer.In late 2016, popularity and viewership of ''EastEnders'' began to decline, with viewers criticising the storylines during the O'Connor reign, such as the killing of the Mitchell sisters and a storyline centred around the local bin collection.", "Although, since Yorke and Oates' reigns, opinions towards the storylines have become more favourable, with storylines such as Ruby Allen's (Louisa Lytton) sexual consent, which featured a special episode which \"broke new ground\" and knife crime, both of which have created \"vital\" discussions.", "The soap won the award for Best Continuing Drama at the 2019 British Academy Television Awards; its first high-profile award since 2016; however, in June 2019, ''EastEnders'' suffered its lowest ever ratings of 2.4 million due to its airing at 7 pm because of the BBC's coverage of the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup.", "As of 2019, the soap is one of the most watched series on BBC iPlayer and averages around 5 million viewers per episode.", "The soap enjoyed a record-breaking year on the streaming platform in 2019, with viewers requesting to stream or download the show 234 million times, up 10% on 2018.The Christmas Day episode in 2019 became ''EastEnders'' biggest ever episode on BBC iPlayer, with 2.14 million viewer requests.=== 2020s ===In February 2020, ''EastEnders'' celebrated its 35th anniversary with a stunt on the River Thames leading to the death of Dennis Rickman Jr (Bleu Landau).It was announced on 18 March 2020 that production had been suspended on ''EastEnders'' and other BBC Studios continuing dramas in light of new government guidelines following the COVID-19 pandemic, and that broadcast of the show would be reduced to two 30-minute episodes per week, broadcast on Mondays and Tuesdays, respectively.", "A spokesperson confirmed that the decision was made to reduce transmission so that ''EastEnders'' could remain on-screen for longer.", "Two months later, Charlotte Moore, the director of content at the BBC, announced plans for a return to production.", "She confirmed that ''EastEnders'' would return to filming during June 2020 and that there would be a transmission break between episodes filmed before and after production paused.", "When production recommenced, social distancing measures were utilised and the show's cast were required to do their own hair and make-up, which is normally done by a make-up artist.It was announced on 3 June 2020 that ''EastEnders'' would go on a transmission break following the broadcast of episode 6124 on 16 June.", "A behind-the-scenes show, ''EastEnders: Secrets From The Square'', will air in the show's place during the transmission break and is hosted by television personality Stacey Dooley.", "The first episode of the week features exclusive interviews with the show's cast, while the second episode will be a repeat of \"iconic\" episodes of the show.", "Beginning on 22 June 2020, Dooley interviews two cast members together in the show's restaurant set while observing social distancing measures.", "Kate Phillips, the controller of BBC Entertainment, explained that ''EastEnders: Secrets From The Square'' would be the \"perfect opportunity to celebrate the show\" in the absence of the show.", "Jon Sen, the show's executive producer, expressed his excitement at the new series, dubbing it \"a unique opportunity to see from the cast themselves just what it is like to be part of ''EastEnders''\".Plans for the show's return to transmission were announced on 12 June 2020.It was confirmed that after the transmission break, the show would temporarily broadcast four 20-minute episodes per week, until it can return to its normal output.", "Sen explained that the challenges in production and filming of the show has led to the show's reduced output, but also stated that the crew had been \"trialing techniques, filming methods and new ways of working\" to prepare the show for its return.", "Filming recommenced on 29 June, with episodes airing from 7 September 2020.On 9 April 2021, following the death of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the episode of ''EastEnders'' that was due to be aired that night was postponed along with the final of ''Masterchef''.", "In May 2021, it was announced that from 14 June 2021, boxsets of episodes would be uploaded to BBC iPlayer each Monday for three weeks.", "Executive producer Sen explained that the bi-annual scheduling conflicts that the UEFA European Championship and the FIFA World Cup cause to the soap, premiering four episodes on the streaming service would be beneficial for fans of the show who want to watch at their own chosen pace.", "Sen also confirmed that the episodes will still air on BBC One throughout the week.", "The release of these boxsets was extended for a further five weeks, due to similar impacts caused by the 2020 Summer Olympics.On 12 October 2021, it was announced that ''EastEnders'' would partake in a special week-long crossover event involving multiple British soaps to promote the topic of climate change ahead of the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference.", "During the week, beginning from 1 November, a social media clip featuring Maria Connor from ''Coronation Street'' was featured on the programme while Cindy Cunningham from ''Hollyoaks'' was also referenced.", "Similar clips featuring the show's own characters (Bailey Baker and Peter Beale) were featured on ''Doctors'' and ''Emmerdale'' during the week.In November 2021, it was announced that Sen would step down from his role as executive producer, and would be succeeded by former story producer, Chris Clenshaw.", "Sen's final credited episode as executive producer was broadcast on 10 March 2022 and coincided in a week of episodes that saw the arrest of serial killer Gray Atkins (Toby-Alexander Smith).", "From the week commencing on 7 March 2022, the show has been broadcast every weekday from Monday to Thursday in a 7:30 pm slot, making it the first time in the show's history that the programme began airing permanently on Wednesdays.", "On 2 June 2022, ''EastEnders'' aired an episode celebrating the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II.", "Charles, Prince of Wales and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall guest starred in the episode; it also marked the first executive producer credit for Clenshaw.", "Clenshaw's first major decision as executive producer was the axing of five series regulars: Peter Beale (Dayle Hudson), Stuart Highway (Ricky Champ), Jada Lennox (Kelsey Calladine-Smith), Dana Monroe (Barbara Smith) and Lola Pearce (Danielle Harold).", "Viewers criticised the decision, feeling that some of the characters had potential to add to the soap.", "Clenshaw has since overseen the returns of Alfie Moon (Shane Richie) and Yolande Trueman (Angela Wynter), the recasts of Amy Mitchell (Ellie Dadd) and Ricky Branning (Frankie Day), as well as the reintroduction of Cindy Beale (Michelle Collins), who returned from the dead after 25 years.", "Public opinion on Clenshaw then changed and he has been credited for improving ratings and garnering critical acclaim for the soap, with ''EastEnders'' winning the award for Best British Soap at the 2023 British Soap Awards and the award for Serial Drama at the 28th National Television Awards under his leadership." ], [ "Setting", "alt=refer to captionThe central focus of ''EastEnders'' is the fictional Victorian square Albert Square in the fictional London Borough of Walford.", "In the show's narrative, Albert Square is a 19th-century street, named after Prince Albert (1819–1861), the husband of Queen Victoria (1819–1901, reigned 1837–1901).", "Thus, central to Albert Square is The Queen Victoria Public House (also known as The Queen Vic or The Vic).", "The show's producers based the square's design on Fassett Square in Dalston.", "There is also a market close to Fassett Square at Ridley Road.", "The postcode for the area, E8, was one of the working titles for the series.", "The name ''Walford'' is both a street in Dalston where Tony Holland lived and a blend of Walthamstow and Stratford—the areas of Greater London where the creators were born.", "Other parts of the Square and set interiors are based on other locations.", "The railway bridge is based upon one near BBC Television Centre which carries the Hammersmith & City line over Wood Lane W12, and the Queen Vic on the former College Park Hotel pub in Willesden at the end of Scrubs Lane at the junction with Harrow Road NW10 just a couple of miles from BBC Television Centre.Walford East is a fictional London Underground station for Walford, and a tube map that was first seen on air in 1996 showed Walford East between Bow Road and West Ham, in the actual location of Bromley-by-Bow on the District and Hammersmith & City lines.Walford has the postal district of E20.It was named as if Walford were part of the actual E postcode area which covers much of east London, the ''E'' standing for ''Eastern''.", "E20 was entirely fictional when it was created, as London East postal districts stopped at E18 at the time.", "The show's creators opted for E20 instead of E19 as it was thought to sound better.In March 2011, Royal Mail allocated the E20 postal district to the 2012 Olympic Park.", "In September 2011, the postcode for Albert Square was revealed in an episode as E20 6PQ." ], [ "Characters", "''EastEnders'' is built around the idea of relationships and strong families, with each character having a place in the community.", "This theme encompasses the whole Square, making the entire community a family of sorts, prey to upsets and conflict, but pulling together in times of trouble.", "Co-creator Tony Holland was from a large East End family, and such families have typified ''EastEnders''.", "The first central family was the combination of the Fowler family, consisting of Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard), her husband Arthur (Bill Treacher), and teenage children Mark (David Scarboro/Todd Carty) and Michelle (Susan Tully).", "Pauline's family, the Beales, consisted of Pauline's twin brother Pete Beale (Peter Dean), his wife Kathy (Gillian Taylforth) and their teenage son Ian (Adam Woodyatt).", "Pauline and Pete's domineering mother Lou Beale (Anna Wing) lived with Pauline and her family.", "Holland drew on the names of his own family for the characters.The Watts and Mitchell families have been central to many notable ''EastEnders'' storylines, the show having been dominated by the Watts in the 1980s, with the 1990s focusing on the Mitchells and Butchers.", "The early 2000s saw a shift in attention towards the newly introduced female Slater clan, before a renewal of emphasis upon the restored Watts family beginning in 2003.In 2006, ''EastEnders'' became largely dominated by the Mitchell, Masood and Branning families, though the early 2010s also saw a renewed focus on the Moon and Slater family, and, from 2013 onwards, the Carters.", "In 2016, the Fowlers were revived and merged with the Slaters, with Martin Fowler (James Bye) marrying Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner).", "The late 2010s saw the newly introduced Taylor family become central to the show's main storylines, and in 2019, the first Sikh family, the Panesars, were introduced.", "The early 2020s was dominated by the Mitchells, Brannings, Panesars, Slaters, as well as the newly introduced Knight family.", "Key people involved in the production of ''EastEnders'' have stressed how important the idea of strong families is to the programme.", "''EastEnders'' has an emphasis on strong family matriarchs, with examples including Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard) and Peggy Mitchell (Barbara Windsor), helping to attract a female audience.", "John Yorke, the former BBC's head of drama production, put this down to Tony Holland's \"gay sensibility, which showed a love for strong women\".", "The matriarchal role is one that has been seen in various reincarnations since the programme's inception, often depicted as the centre of the family unit.", "The original matriarch was Lou Beale (Anna Wing), though later examples include Mo Harris (Laila Morse), Pat Butcher (Pam St Clement), Zainab Masood (Nina Wadia), Cora Cross (Ann Mitchell), Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth), Jean Slater (Gillian Wright), and Suki Panesar (Balvinder Sopal).", "These characters are often seen as being loud and interfering but most importantly, responsible for the well-being of the family.The show often includes strong, brassy, long-suffering women who exhibit diva-like behaviour and stoically battle through an array of tragedy and misfortune.", "Such characters include Angie Watts (Anita Dobson), Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth), Sharon Watts (Letitia Dean), Pat Butcher (Pam St Clement), Peggy Mitchell (Barbara Windsor), Kat Slater (Jessie Wallace), Denise Fox (Diane Parish), Tanya Branning (Jo Joyner) and Linda Carter (Kellie Bright).", "Conversely there are female characters who handle tragedy less well, depicted as eternal victims and endless sufferers, who include Ronnie Mitchell (Samantha Womack), Little Mo Mitchell (Kacey Ainsworth), Laura Beale (Hannah Waterman), Sue Osman (Sandy Ratcliff), Lisa Fowler (Lucy Benjamin), Mel Owen (Tamzin Outhwaite) and Rainie Cross (Tanya Franks).", "The 'tart with a heart' is another recurring character.", "Often, their promiscuity masks a hidden vulnerability and a desire to be loved.", "Such characters have included Pat Butcher (Pam St Clement), Tiffany Mitchell (Martine McCutcheon) and Kat Slater (Jessie Wallace).A gender balance in the show is maintained via the inclusion of various \"macho\" male personalities such as Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden), Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp), Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass), and George Knight (Colin Salmon), \"bad boys\" such as Den Watts (Leslie Grantham), Sean Slater (Robert Kazinsky), Michael Moon (Steve John Shepherd), Derek Branning (Jamie Foreman), Vincent Hubbard (Richard Blackwood), and Ravi Gulati (Aaron Thiara) and \"heartthrobs\" such as Simon Wicks (Nick Berry), Joe Wicks (Paul Nicholls), Jamie Mitchell (Jack Ryder), Dennis Rickman (Nigel Harman), Joey Branning (David Witts), Kush Kazemi (Davood Ghadami) and Zack Hudson (James Farrar).", "Another recurring male character type is the smartly dressed businessman, often involved in gang culture and crime and seen as a local authority figure.", "Examples include Steve Owen (Martin Kemp), Jack Dalton (Hywel Bennett), Andy Hunter (Michael Higgs), Johnny Allen (Billy Murray), Derek Branning (Jamie Foreman), and Nish Panesar (Navin Chowdhry).", "Following criticism aimed at the show's over-emphasis on \"gangsters\" in 2005, such characters have been significantly reduced.", "Another recurring male character seen in ''EastEnders'' is the \"loser\" or \"soft touch\", males often comically under the thumb of their female counterparts, which have included Arthur Fowler (Bill Treacher), Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen), Garry Hobbs (Ricky Groves), Lofty Holloway (Tom Watt), Billy Mitchell (Perry Fenwick) and Howie Danes (Delroy Atkinson).Other recurring character types that have appeared throughout the serial are \"cheeky-chappies\" Pete Beale (Peter Dean), Alfie Moon (Shane Richie), Garry Hobbs (Ricky Groves) and Kush Kazemi (Davood Ghadami), \"lost girls\" such as Mary Smith (Linda Davidson), Donna Ludlow (Matilda Ziegler), Mandy Salter (Nicola Stapleton), Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks), Zoe Slater (Michelle Ryan), Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty), and Hayley Slater (Katie Jarvis), delinquents such as Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner), Jay Brown (Jamie Borthwick), Lola Pearce (Danielle Harold), Bobby Beale (Eliot Carrington/Clay Milner Russell) and Keegan Baker (Zack Morris), \"villains\" such as Nick Cotton (John Altman), Trevor Morgan (Alex Ferns), May Wright (Amanda Drew), Yusef Khan (Ace Bhatti), Archie Mitchell (Larry Lamb), Dean Wicks (Matt Di Angelo), Stuart Highway (Ricky Champ) and Gray Atkins (Toby-Alexander Smith), \"bitches\" such as Cindy Beale (Michelle Collins), Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks), Chrissie Watts (Tracy-Ann Oberman), Lucy Beale (Melissa Suffield/Hetti Bywater), Abi Branning (Lorna Fitzgerald), Babe Smith (Annette Badland) and Suki Panesar (Balvinder Sopal), \"brawlers\" or \"fighters\" such as Mary Smith (Linda Davidson), Bianca Jackson (Patsy Palmer), Kat Slater (Jessie Wallace), Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner), Shirley Carter (Linda Henry), Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons) and Karen Taylor (Lorraine Stanley), and cockney \"wide boys\" or \"wheeler dealers\" such as Frank Butcher (Mike Reid), Alfie Moon (Shane Richie), Kevin Wicks (Phil Daniels), Darren Miller (Charlie G. Hawkins), Fatboy (Ricky Norwood), Jay Brown (Jamie Borthwick), Kheerat Panesar (Jaz Deol) and Tom \"Rocky\" Cotton (Brian Conley).Over the years ''EastEnders'' has typically featured a number of elderly residents, who are used to show vulnerability, nostalgia, stalwart-like attributes and are sometimes used for comedic purposes.", "The original elderly residents included Lou Beale (Anna Wing), Ethel Skinner (Gretchen Franklin) and Dot Cotton (June Brown).", "Over the years they have been joined by the likes of Mo Butcher (Edna Doré), Jules Tavernier (Tommy Eytle), Marge Green (Pat Coombs), Nellie Ellis (Elizabeth Kelly), Jim Branning (John Bardon), Charlie Slater (Derek Martin), Mo Harris (Laila Morse), Patrick Trueman (Rudolph Walker), Cora Cross (Ann Mitchell), Les Coker (Roger Sloman), Rose Cotton (Polly Perkins), Pam Coker (Lin Blakley), Stan Carter (Timothy West), Babe Smith (Annette Badland), Claudette Hubbard (Ellen Thomas), Sylvie Carter (Linda Marlowe), Ted Murray (Christopher Timothy), Joyce Murray (Maggie Steed), Arshad Ahmed (Madhav Sharma), Mariam Ahmed (Indira Joshi) and Vi Highway (Gwen Taylor).", "The programme has more recently included a higher number of teenagers and successful young adults in a bid to capture the younger television audience.", "This has spurred criticism, most notably from the actress Anna Wing, who portrayed Lou Beale in the show.", "She commented, \"I don't want to be disloyal, but I think you need a few mature people in a soap because they give it backbone and body... if all the main people are young it gets a bit thin and inexperienced.", "It gets too lightweight.", "\"''EastEnders'' has been known to feature a \"comedy double-act\", originally demonstrated with the characters of Dot and Ethel, whose friendship was one of the serial's most enduring.", "Other examples include Paul Priestly (Mark Thrippleton) and Trevor Short (Phil McDermott), In 1989 especially, characters were brought in who were deliberately conceived as comic or light-hearted.", "Such characters included Julie Cooper (Louise Plowright)—a brassy maneater; Marge Green—a batty older lady played by veteran comedy actress Pat Coombs; Trevor Short (Phil McDermott)—the \"village idiot\"; his friend, northern heartbreaker Paul Priestly (Mark Thrippleton); wheeler-dealer Vince Johnson (Hepburn Graham) and Laurie Bates (Gary Powell), who became Pete Beale's (Peter Dean) sparring partner.", "The majority of ''EastEnders'' characters are working-class.", "Middle-class characters do occasionally become regulars, but have been less successful and rarely become long-term characters.", "In the main, middle-class characters exist as villains, such as James Wilmott-Brown (William Boyde), May Wright (Amanda Drew), Stella Crawford (Sophie Thompson), Yusef Khan (Ace Bhatti) and Gray Atkins (Toby-Alexander Smith) or are used to promote positive liberal influences, such as Colin Russell (Michael Cashman), Rachel Kominski (Jacquetta May) and Derek Harkinson (Ian Lavender).", "''EastEnders'' has always featured a culturally diverse cast which has included black, Asian, Turkish, Polish and Latvian characters.", "\"The expansion of minority representation signals a move away from the traditional soap opera format, providing more opportunities for audience identification with the characters and hence a wider appeal\".", "Despite this, the programme has been criticised by the Commission for Racial Equality, who argued in 2002 that ''EastEnders'' was not giving a realistic representation of the East End's \"ethnic make-up\".", "They suggested that the average proportion of visible minority faces on ''EastEnders'' was substantially lower than the actual ethnic minority population in East London boroughs, and it, therefore, reflected the East End in the 1960s, not the East End of the 2000s.", "The programme has since attempted to address these issues.", "A sari shop was opened and various characters of different ethnicities were introduced throughout 2006 and 2007, including the Fox family, the Ahmeds, and various background artists.", "This was part of producer Diederick Santer's plan to \"diversify\", to make ''EastEnders'' \"feel more 21st century\".", "''EastEnders'' has had varying success with ethnic minority characters.", "Possibly the least successful were the Indian Ferreira family, who were not well received by critics or viewers and were dismissed as unrealistic by the Asian community in the UK.", "''EastEnders'' has been praised for its portrayal of characters with disabilities, including Adam Best (David Proud) (spina bifida), Noah Chambers (Micah Thomas) and Frankie Lewis (Rose Ayling-Ellis) (deaf), Jean Slater (Gillian Wright) and her daughter Stacey (Lacey Turner) (bipolar disorder), Janet Mitchell (Grace) (Down syndrome), Jim Branning (John Bardon) (stroke) and Dinah Wilson (Anjela Lauren Smith) (multiple sclerosis).", "The show also features a large number of gay, lesbian and bisexual characters (see list of soap operas with LGBT characters), including Colin Russell (Michael Cashman), Barry Clark (Gary Hailes), Simon Raymond (Andrew Lynford), Tony Hills (Mark Homer), Sonia Fowler (Natalie Cassidy), Naomi Julien (Petra Letang), Tina Carter (Luisa Bradshaw-White), Tosh Mackintosh (Rebecca Scroggs), Christian Clarke (John Partridge), Syed Masood (Marc Elliott), Ben Mitchell (Harry Reid/Max Bowden), Paul Coker (Jonny Labey), Iqra Ahmed (Priya Davdra), Ash Panesar (Gurlaine Kaur Garcha), Bernadette Taylor (Clair Norris), Callum Highway (Tony Clay) and Eve Unwin (Heather Peace).", "Kyle Slater (Riley Carter Millington), a transgender character, was introduced in 2015.", "''EastEnders'' has a high cast turnover and characters are regularly changed to facilitate storylines or refresh the format.", "The show has also become known for the return of characters after they have left the show.", "Sharon Watts (Letitia Dean) returned in August 2012 for her third stint on the show.", "Den Watts (Leslie Grantham) returned 14 years after he was believed to have died in September 2003, a feat repeated by Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth) in 2015, and Cindy Beale (Michelle Collins) in 2023.Speaking extras, including Tracey the barmaid (Jane Slaughter) (who has been in the show since the first episode in 1985), have made appearances throughout the show's duration, without being the focus of any major storylines.", "The character of Nick Cotton (John Altman) gained a reputation for making constant exits and returns since the programme's first year until the character died in 2015., Gillian Taylforth, Letitia Dean and Adam Woodyatt are the only members of the original cast remaining in the show, in their roles of Kathy Beale, Sharon Watts and Ian Beale respectively.", "Tracey is the longest-serving female character in the show, having appeared since 1985, albeit as a minor character." ], [ "Storylines", "''EastEnders'' programme makers took the decision that the show was to be about \"everyday life\" in the inner city \"today\" and regarded it as a \"slice of life\".", "Creator/producer Julia Smith declared that \"We don't make life, we reflect it\".", "She also said, \"We decided to go for a realistic, fairly outspoken type of drama which could encompass stories about homosexuality, rape, unemployment, racial prejudice, etc., in a believable context.", "Above all, we wanted realism\".", "In 2011, the head of BBC drama, John Yorke, said that the real East End had changed significantly since ''EastEnders'' started, and the show no longer truly reflected real life, but that it had an \"emotional truthfulness\" and was partly \"true to the original vision\" and partly \"adapting to a changing world\", adding that \"If it was a show where every house cost a fortune and everyone drove a Lexus, it wouldn't be ''EastEnders''.", "You have to show shades of that change, but certain things are immutable, I would argue, like The Vic and the market.", "\"In the 1980s, ''EastEnders'' featured \"gritty\" storylines involving drugs and crime, representing the issues faced by working-class Britain under Thatcherism.", "Storylines included the cot death of 14-month-old Hassan Osman, Nick Cotton's (John Altman) homophobia, racism and murder of Reg Cox (Johnnie Clayton), Arthur Fowler's (Bill Treacher) unemployment reflecting the recession of the 1980s, the rape of Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth) in 1988 by James Willmott-Brown (William Boyde) and Michelle Fowler's (Susan Tully) teenage pregnancy.", "The show also dealt with prostitution, mixed-race relationships, shoplifting, sexism, divorce, domestic violence and mugging.", "In 1989, the programme came under criticism in the British media for being too depressing, and according to writer Colin Brake, the programme makers were determined to change this.", "In 1989, there was a deliberate attempt to increase the lighter, more comic aspects of life in Albert Square.", "This led to the introduction of some characters who were deliberately conceived as comic or light-hearted.", "Brake suggested that humour was an important element in ''EastEnders'' storylines during 1989, with a greater amount of slapstick and light comedy than before.", "He classed 1989's changes as a brave experiment, and suggested that while some found this period of ''EastEnders'' entertaining, many other viewers felt that the comedy stretched the programme's credibility.", "Although the programme still covered many issues in 1989, such as domestic violence, drugs, rape and racism, Brake reflected that the new emphasis on a more balanced mix between \"light and heavy storylines\" gave the illusion that the show had lost a \"certain edge\".As the show progressed into the 1990s, ''EastEnders'' still featured hard-hitting issues such as Mark Fowler (Todd Carty) revealing he was HIV positive in 1991, the death of his wife Gill (Susanna Dawson) from an AIDS-related illness in 1992, murder, adoption, abortion, Peggy Mitchell's (Barbara Windsor) battle with breast cancer, and Phil Mitchell's (Steve McFadden) alcoholism and violence towards wife Kathy.", "Mental health issues were confronted in 1996 when 16-year-old Joe Wicks developed schizophrenia following the off-screen death of his sister in a car crash.", "The long-running storyline of Mark Fowler's HIV was so successful in raising awareness that in 1999, a survey by the National Aids Trust found teenagers got most of their information about HIV from the soap, though one campaigner noted that in some ways the storyline was not reflective of what was happening at the time as the condition was more common among the gay community.", "Still, heterosexual Mark struggled with various issues connected to his HIV status, including public fears of contamination, a marriage breakdown connected to his inability to have children and the side effects of combination therapies.In the early 2000s, ''EastEnders'' covered the issue of euthanasia with Ethel Skinner's (Gretchen Franklin) death in a pact with her friend Dot Cotton (June Brown), the unveiling of Kat Slater's (Jessie Wallace) sexual abuse by her uncle Harry (Michael Elphick) as a child (which led to the birth of her daughter Zoe (Michelle Ryan), who had been brought up to believe that Kat was her sister), the domestic abuse of Little Mo Morgan (Kacey Ainsworth) by husband Trevor (Alex Ferns) (which involved marital rape and culminated in Trevor's death after he tried to kill Little Mo in a fire), Sonia Jackson (Natalie Cassidy) giving birth at the age of 15 and then putting her baby up for adoption, and Janine Butcher's (Charlie Brooks) prostitution, agoraphobia and drug addiction.", "The soap also tackled the issue of mental illness and carers of people who have mental conditions, illustrated with mother and daughter Jean (Gillian Wright) and Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner); Jean has bipolar disorder, and teenage daughter Stacey was her carer (this storyline won a Mental Health Media Award in September 2006).", "Stacey went on to struggle with the disorder herself.", "The issue of illiteracy was highlighted by the characters of middle-aged Keith (David Spinx) and his young son Darren (Charlie G. Hawkins).", "''EastEnders'' has also covered the issue of Down syndrome, as Billy (Perry Fenwick) and Honey Mitchell's (Emma Barton) baby, Janet Mitchell (Grace), was born with the condition in 2006.", "''EastEnders'' covered child abuse with its storyline involving Phil Mitchell's (Steve McFadden) 11-year-old son Ben (Charlie Jones) and lawyer girlfriend Stella Crawford (Sophie Thompson), and child grooming involving the characters Tony King (Chris Coghill) as the perpetrator and Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty) as the victim.Aside from this, soap opera staples of youthful romance, jealousy, domestic rivalry, gossip and extramarital affairs are regularly featured, with high-profile storylines occurring several times a year.", "Whodunits also feature regularly, including the \"Who Shot Phil?\"", "story arc in 2001 that attracted over 19 million viewers and was one of the biggest successes in British soap television; the \"Who Killed Archie?\"", "storyline, which was revealed in a special live episode of the show that drew a peak of 17 million viewers; and the \"Who Killed Lucy Beale?\"", "saga.", "The most recent whodunit happened at Christmas 2023, where The Six storyline saw Keanu Taylor (Danny Walters) be murdered by Linda Carter (Kellie Bright), and covered up by five other residents present that night." ], [ "Production", "=== Set ===alt=refer to captionThe exterior set for the fictional Albert Square is located in the permanent backlot of the BBC Elstree Centre, Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, at , and is outdoors and open to the weather.", "It was initially built in 1984 with a specification that it should last for at least 15 years at a cost of £750,000.The ''EastEnders'' lot was designed by Keith Harris, who was a senior designer within the production team together with supervising art directors Peter Findley and Gina Parr.", "The main buildings on the square consisted originally of hollow shells, constructed from marine plywood facades mounted onto steel frames.", "The lower walls, pavements, etc., were constructed of real brick and tarmac.", "The set had to be made to look as if it had been standing for years.", "This was done by a number of means, including chipping the pavements, using chemicals to crack the top layer of the paint work, using varnish to create damp patches underneath the railway bridge, and making garden walls in such a way they appeared to sag.", "The final touches were added in summer 1984, these included a telephone box, telegraph pole that was provided by British Telecom, lampposts that were provided by Hertsmere Borough Council and a number of vehicles parked on the square.", "On each set all the appliances are fully functional such as gas cookers, the laundry washing machines and The Queen Victoria beer pumps.The walls were intentionally built crooked to give them an aged appearance.", "The drains around the set are real so rainwater can naturally flow from the streets.", "The square was built in two phases with only three sides being built, plus Bridge Street, to begin with in 1984, in time to be used for the show's first episode.", "Then in 1986, Harris added an extension to the set, building the fourth side of Albert Square, and in 1987, Turpin Road began to be featured more, which included buildings such as The Dagmar.In 1993, George Street was added, and soon after Walford East Underground station was built, to create further locations when ''EastEnders'' went from two to three episodes per week.", "The set was constructed by the BBC in-house construction department under construction manager Mike Hagan.", "Most of the buildings on Albert Square have no interior filming space, with a few exceptions, and most do not have rears or gardens.", "Some interior shots are filmed in the actual buildings.In February 2008, it was reported that the set would transfer to Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, where a new set would be built as the set was looking \"shabby\", with its flaws showing up on high-definition television broadcasts; however, by April 2010 a follow-up report confirmed that Albert Square would remain at Elstree Studios for at least another four years, taking the set through its 25th anniversary.", "The set was consequently rebuilt for high definition on the same site, using mostly real brick with some areas using a new improved plastic brick.", "Throughout rebuilding filming would still take place, and so scaffolding was often seen on screen during the process, with some storylines written to accommodate the rebuilding, such as the Queen Vic fire.In 2014, then executive producer Dominic Treadwell-Collins said that he wanted Albert Square to look like a real-life east London neighbourhood so that the soap would \"better reflect the more fashionable areas of east London beloved of young professionals\" giving a flavour of the \"creeping gentrification\" of east London.", "He added: \"It should feel more like London.", "It's been frozen in aspic for too long.\"", "The BBC announced that they would rebuild the ''EastEnders'' set to secure the long-term future of the show, with completion expected to be in 2018.The set will provide a modern, upgraded exterior filming resource for ''EastEnders'', and will copy the appearance of the existing buildings; however, it will be 20 per cent bigger, in order to enable greater editorial ambition and improve working conditions for staff.", "A temporary set will be created on-site to enable filming to continue while the permanent structure is rebuilt.In May 2016 the rebuild was delayed until 2020 and forecast to cost in excess of £15 million, although the main part of the set is scheduled to be able to start filming in May 2019.In December 2018, it was revealed that the new set was now planned to cost £59 million but a National Audit Office (NAO) report stated that it would actually cost £86.7 million and be completed two-and-a-half years later than planned, in 2023; the NAO concluded that the BBC \"could not provide value for money on the project\".", "The NAO's forecast cost is more than the annual combined budget for BBC Radio 1 and Radio 2.The BBC said the new set would be more suitable for HD filming and better reflect the modern East End of London.", "In March 2019 there was criticism from a group of MPs about how the BBC handled the redevelopment of the set.", "In March 2020 during the suspension of filming, the interior sets were used for a new adaptation of ''Talking Heads''.", "This marked the first time that it had been used for anything other than ''EastEnders''.", "In January 2022 the new £86.7m exterior set of ''EastEnders'' was officially unveiled by the BBC replacing the original set built in 1984.The new scenes from the new set first appeared in episodes airing in spring.=== Filming ===The majority of ''EastEnders'' episodes are filmed at the BBC Elstree Centre in Borehamwood, Hertfordshire.", "In January 1987, ''EastEnders'' had three production teams each comprising a director, production manager, production assistant and assistant floor manager.", "Other permanent staff included the producer's office, script department and designer, meaning between 30 and 35 people would be working full-time on ''EastEnders'', rising to 60 to 70 on filming days.", "When the number of episodes was increased to four per week, more studio space was needed, so ''Top of the Pops'' was moved from its studio at Elstree to BBC Television Centre in April 2001.Episodes are produced in \"quartets\" of four episodes, each of which starts filming on a Tuesday and takes nine days to record.", "Each day, between 25 and 30 scenes are recorded.", "During the filming week, actors can film for as many as eight to twelve episodes.", "Exterior scenes are filmed on a specially constructed film lot, and interior scenes take place in six studios.", "The episodes are usually filmed about six to eight weeks in advance of broadcast.", "During the winter period, filming can take place up to twelve weeks in advance, due to less daylight for outdoor filming sessions.", "This time difference has been known to cause problems when filming outdoor scenes.", "On 8 February 2007, heavy snow fell on the set and filming had to be cancelled as the scenes due to be filmed on the day were to be transmitted in April.", "''EastEnders'' is normally recorded using four cameras.", "When a quartet is completed, it is edited by the director, videotape editor and script supervisor.", "The producer then reviews the edits and decides if anything needs to be re-edited, which the director will do.", "A week later, sound is added to the episodes and they are technically reviewed, and are ready for transmission if they are deemed of acceptable quality.Although episodes are predominantly recorded weeks before they are broadcast, occasionally, ''EastEnders'' includes current events in their episodes.", "In 1987, ''EastEnders'' covered the general election.", "Using a plan devised by co-creators Smith and Holland, five minutes of material was cut from four of the pre-recorded episodes preceding the election.", "These were replaced by specially recorded election material, including representatives from each major party, and a scene recorded on the day after the election reflecting the result, which was broadcast the following Tuesday.", "The result of the 2010 general election was referenced on 7 May 2010 episode.", "During the 2006 FIFA World Cup, actors filmed short scenes following the tournament's events that were edited into the programme in the following episode.", "Last-minute scenes have also been recorded to reference the fiftieth anniversary of the end of the Second World War in 1995, the two-minute silence on Remembrance Day 2005 (2005 also being the year for the sixtieth anniversary of the end of the Second World War and the 200th anniversary of the Battle of Trafalgar), Barack Obama's election victory in 2008, the death of Michael Jackson in 2009, the 2010 Comprehensive Spending Review, Andy Murray winning the Men's Singles at the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, the Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, the birth of Prince George of Wales, Scotland voting no against independence in 2014, and the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the Great War.", "''EastEnders'' is often filmed on location, away from the studios in Borehamwood.", "Sometimes an entire quartet is filmed on location, which has a practical function and are the result of ''EastEnders'' making a \"double bank\", when an extra week's worth of episodes are recorded at the same time as the regular schedule, enabling the production of the programme to stop for a two-week break at Christmas.", "These episodes often air in late June or early July and again in late October or early November.", "The first time this happened was in December 1985 when Pauline (Wendy Richard) and Arthur Fowler (Bill Treacher) travelled to the Southend-on-Sea to find their son Mark, who had run away from home.", "In 1986, ''EastEnders'' filmed overseas for the first time, in Venice, and this was also the first time it was not filmed on videotape, as a union rule at the time prevented producers taking a video crew abroad and a film crew had to be used instead.", "In 2011, it was reported that eight per cent of the series is filmed on location.If scenes during a normal week are to be filmed on location, this is done during the normal recording week.", "Off-set locations that have been used for filming include Clacton (1989), Devon (September 1990), Hertfordshire (used for scenes set in Gretna Green in July 1991), Portsmouth (November 1991), Milan (1997), Ireland (1997), Amsterdam (December 1999), Brighton (2001) and Portugal (2003).", "In 2003, filming took place at Loch Fyne Hotel and Leisure Club in Inveraray, The Arkinglass Estate in Cairndow and Grims Dyke Hotel, Harrow Weald, north London, for a week of episodes set in Scotland.", "The episode shown on 9 April 2007 featured scenes filmed at St Giles Church and The Blacksmiths Arms public house in Wormshill, the Ringlestone Inn, two miles away and Court Lodge Farm in Stansted, Kent.", "and the Port of Dover, Kent.", ".Other locations have included the court house, a disused office block, Evershed House, and St Peter's Church, all in St Albans, an abandoned mental facility in Worthing, and a wedding dress shop in Muswell Hill, north London.", "A week of episodes in 2011 saw filming take place on a beach in Thorpe Bay and a pier in Southend-on-Sea—during which a stuntman was injured when a gust of wind threw him off balance and he fell onto rocks— with other scenes filmed on the Essex coast.", "In 2012, filming took place in Keynsham, Somerset.", "In January 2013, on-location filming at Grahame Park in Colindale, north London, was interrupted by at least seven youths who threw a firework at the set and threatened to cut members of the crew.", "In October 2013, scenes were filmed on a road near London Southend Airport in Essex.", "''EastEnders'' has featured seven live broadcasts.", "For its 25th anniversary in February 2010, a live episode was broadcast in which Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner) was revealed as Archie Mitchell's (Larry Lamb) killer.", "Turner was told only 30 minutes before the live episode and to maintain suspense, she whispers this revelation to former lover and current father-in-law, Max Branning, in the very final moments of the live show.", "Many other cast members only found out at the same time as the public, when the episode was broadcast.", "On 23 July 2012, a segment of that evening's episode was screened live as Billy Mitchell (Perry Fenwick) carried the Olympic flame around Walford in preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "In February 2015, for the soap's 30th anniversary, five episodes in a week featured live inserts throughout them.", "Episodes airing on Tuesday 17, Wednesday 18 and Thursday 19 (which featured an hour long episode and a second episode) all featured at least one live insert.", "The show revealed that the killer of Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater) was her younger brother, Bobby (Eliot Carrington), during the second episode on Thursday, after a ten-month mystery regarding who killed her.", "In a flashback episode which revisited the night of the murder, Bobby was revealed to have killed his sister.", "The aftermath episode, which aired on Friday 20, was completely live and explained in detail Lucy's death.", "Carrington was told he was Lucy's killer on Monday 16, while Laurie Brett (who plays Bobby's adoptive mother, Jane) was informed in November, due to the character playing a huge role in the cover-up of Lucy's murder.", "Bywater only discovered Bobby was responsible for Lucy's death on the morning of Thursday, 19 February, several hours before they filmed the scenes revealing Bobby as Lucy's killer.=== Post-production ===Each episode should run for 27 minutes and 15 seconds; however, if any episode runs over or under then it is the job of post-production to cut or add scenes where appropriate.", "As noted in the 1994 behind-the-scenes book, ''EastEnders: The First 10 Years'', after filming, tapes were sent to the videotape editor, who then edited the scenes together into an episode.", "The videotape editor used the director's notes so they knew which scenes the director wanted to appear in a particular episode.", "The producer might have asked for further changes to be made.", "The episode was then copied onto D3 video.", "The final process was to add the audio which included background noise such as a train or a jukebox music and to check it met the BBC's technical standard for broadcasting.Since 2010, ''EastEnders'' no longer uses tapes in the recording or editing process.", "After footage is recorded, the material is sent digitally to the post-production team.", "The editors then assemble all the scenes recorded for the director to view and note any changes that are needed.", "The sound team also have the capability to access the edited episode, enabling them to dub the sound and create the final version.=== Budgets and costs ===According to the book ''How to Study Television'', in 1995 ''EastEnders'' cost the BBC £40,000 per episode on average.", "A 2012 agreement between the BBC, the Writers' Guild of Great Britain and the Personal Managers' Association set out the pay rate for ''EastEnders'' scripts as £137.70 per minute of transmission time (£4,131 for 30 minutes), which is 85 per cent of the rate for scripts for other BBC television series.", "The writers would be paid 75 per cent of that fee for any repeats of the episode.", "In 2011, it was reported that actors receive a per-episode fee of between £400 and £1,200, and are guaranteed a certain number of episodes per year, perhaps as few as 30 or as many as 100, therefore annual salaries could range from £12,000 to £200,000 depending on the popularity of a character.", "Some actors' salaries were leaked in 2006, revealing that Natalie Cassidy (Sonia Fowler) was paid £150,000, Cliff Parisi (Minty Peterson) received £220,000, Barbara Windsor (Peggy Mitchell) and Steve McFadden (Phil Mitchell) each received £360,000 and Wendy Richard (Pauline Fowler) had a salary of £370,000.In 2017, it was revealed that Danny Dyer (Mick Carter) and Adam Woodyatt (Ian Beale) were the highest-paid actors in ''EastEnders'', earning between £200,000 and £249,999, followed by Laurie Brett (Jane Beale), Letitia Dean (Sharon Watts), Tameka Empson (Kim Fox), Linda Henry (Shirley Carter), Scott Maslen (Jack Branning), Diane Parish (Denise Fox), Gillian Taylforth (Kathy Beale) and Lacey Turner (Stacey Slater), earning between £150,000 and £199,999.A 2011 report from the National Audit Office (NAO) showed that ''EastEnders'' had an annual budget of £29.9 million.", "Of that, £2.9 million was spent on scripts and £6.9 million went towards paying actors, extras and chaperones for child actors.", "According to the NAO, BBC executives approved £500,000 of additional funding for the 25th anniversary live episode (19 February 2010).", "With a total cost of £696,000, the difference was covered from the 2009–2010 series budget for ''EastEnders''.", "When repeats and omnibus editions are shown, the BBC pays additional fees to cast and scriptwriters and incurs additional editing costs, which in the period 2009–2010, amounted to £5.5million.", "According to a Radio Times article for 212 episodes it works out at £141,000 per episode or 3.5p per viewer hour.+Total annual costYear 2002–2003 2003–2004 2004–2005 2005–2006 2006–2007 2007–2008 2008–2009 2009–2010Cost (£millions) 35.8 36.2 34.7 34.1 33.0 33.6 31.5 29.9=== Sustainability ===In 2014, two new studios were built and they were equipped with low-energy lighting which has saved approximately 90,000 kwh per year.", "A carbon literacy course was run with Heads of Departments of ''EastEnders'' attending and as a result, representatives from each department agreed to meet quarterly to share new sustainability ideas.", "The paper usage was reduced by 50 per cent across script distribution and other weekly documents and 20 per cent across all other paper usage.", "The production team now use recycled paper and recycled stationery.Also changes to working online has also saved transportation cost of distribution 2,500 DVDs per year.", "Sets, costumes, paste pots and paint are all recycled by the design department.", "Cars used by the studio are low emission vehicles and the production team take more efficient energy efficient generators out on location.", "Caterers no longer use polystyrene cups and recycling on location must be provided.As a result of ''EastEnders'' sustainability, it was awarded albert+, an award that recognises the production's commitment to becoming a more eco-friendly television production.", "The albert+ logo was first shown at the end of the ''EastEnders'' titles for episode 5281 on 9 May 2016." ], [ "Scheduling", "=== Broadcast ===Since 1985, ''EastEnders'' has remained at the centre of BBC One's primetime schedule.", "From 2001 to 2022, it was broadcast at 7:30pm on Tuesday and Thursday, and 8pm on Monday and Friday.", "''EastEnders'' was originally broadcast twice weekly at 7:00pm on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 19 February 1985; however, in September 1985 the two episodes were moved to 7:30pm as Michael Grade did not want the soap running in direct competition with ''Emmerdale Farm'', and this remained the same until 7 April 1994.The BBC had originally planned to take advantage of the \"summer break\" that ''Emmerdale Farm'' usually took to capitalise on ratings, but ITV added extra episodes and repeats so that ''Emmerdale Farm'' was not taken off the air over the summer.", "Realising the futility of the situation, Grade decided to move the show to the later 7:30pm slot.", "''EastEnders'' output then increased to three times a week on Mondays, Tuesdays and Thursdays from 11 April 1994 until 2 August 2001.From 10 August 2001, ''EastEnders'' then added its fourth episode (shown on Fridays).", "This caused some controversy as the first Friday episode clashed with ''Coronation Street'', which was moved to 8pm to make way for an hour-long episode of rural soap ''Emmerdale''.", "In this first head-to-head battle, ''EastEnders'' claimed victory over its rival.In early 2003, viewers could watch episodes of ''EastEnders'' on digital channel BBC Three before they were broadcast on BBC One.", "This was to coincide with the relaunch of the channel and helped BBC Three break the one million viewers mark for the first time with 1.03 million who watched to see Mark Fowler's departure.", "According to the ''EastEnders'' website, there are, on average, 208 episodes outputted each year.On 21 February 2022, it was announced that from 7 March 2022, ''EastEnders'' would begin airing from Monday to Thursday at 7:30pm, therefore no longer airing on a Friday.", "This meant that ''EastEnders'' would clash with ''Emmerdale'', but the producers stated that due to the importance of online streaming figures, they were not concerned about the soaps clashing on the live television guides.=== Repeats ===The omnibus edition, a compilation of the week's episodes in a continuous sequence, originally aired on BBC One on Sunday afternoons, until 1 April 2012, when it was changed to a late Friday night or early Saturday morning slot, commencing on 6 April 2012, though the exact time differed.", "It reverted to a weekend daytime slot as from January 2013 on BBC Two.", "In 2014, the omnibus moved back to around midnight on Friday nights, and in April 2015, the omnibus was axed, following detailed audience research and the introduction of 30-day catch up on BBC iPlayer and the planning of BBC One +1.The last omnibus on the BBC was shown on 24 April 2015.While W was showing same-day repeats of ''EastEnders'', they also returned the weekend omnibus, starting on 20 February 2016.From 20 February to 26 May 1995, as part of the programme's 10th Anniversary celebrations, episodes from 1985 were repeated each weekday morning at 10am, starting from episode one.", "Four specially selected episodes from 1985, 1986 and 1987 were also repeated on BBC1 on Friday evenings at 8pm under the banner \"The Unforgettable EastEnders\".", "These included the wedding of Michelle Fowler and Lofty Holloway, the revelation of the father of Michelle's baby, a two-hander between Dot Cotton and Ethel Skinner and the 1986 Christmas episode featuring Den Watts presenting Angie Watts with divorce papers.", "''EastEnders'' was regularly repeated at 10pm on BBC Choice from the channel's launch in 1998, a practice continued by BBC Three for many years until mid-2012 with the repeat moving to 10:30pm.", "From 25 December 2010 – 29 April 2011 and 31 July 2012 – 13 August 2012 to the show was repeated on BBC HD in a Simulcast with BBC Three.", "In 2015, the BBC Three repeat moved back to 10pm.", "In February 2016, the repeat moved to W, the rebranded Watch, after BBC Three became an online-only channel.", "W stopped showing ''EastEnders'' in April 2018.Following the reinstatement of BBC Three as a linear channel in 2022, the nightly 'narrative repeat' was not reinstated; instead, the channel retransmits that week's four BBC One episodes at the weekend, airing two episodes on each of Saturday and Sunday evenings, unless live sports or music/events coverage takes precedence.", "Episodes of ''EastEnders'' were available on-demand through BBC iPlayer for 30 days after their original screening, however, starting with the episode broadcast on 4 April 2022, episodes were made available indefinitely.On 1 December 2012, the BBC uploaded the first 54 episodes of ''EastEnders'' to YouTube, and on 23 July 2013 they uploaded a further 14 episodes bringing the total to 68.These have since been taken down.", "In April 2018, it was announced that Drama would be showing repeats starting 6 August 2018 during weekdays and they are also available on-demand on the UKTV Play catch-up service for 30 days after the broadcast.", "In December 2019, Christmas episodes were added to Britbox UK.=== International ===alt=refer to caption''EastEnders'' is broadcast around the world in many English-speaking countries.", "New Zealand became the first to broadcast ''EastEnders'' overseas, the first episode being shown on 30 August 1985.This was followed by the Netherlands on 8 December 1986, Australia on 5 January 1987, Norway on 27 April, and Barcelona on 30 June (dubbed into Catalan).", "On 9 July 1987, it was announced that the show would be aired in the United States on PBS.", "BBC Worldwide licensed 200 hours of ''EastEnders'' for broadcast in Serbia on RTS (dubbed into Serbian); it began airing the first episode in December 1997.The series was broadcast in the United States until BBC America ceased broadcasts of the serial in 2003, amidst fan protests.", "In June 2004, the satellite television provider Dish Network picked up ''EastEnders'', broadcasting episodes starting at the point where BBC America had ceased broadcasting them, offering the series as a pay-per-view item.", "Episodes air two months behind the UK schedule.", "Episodes from prior years are still shown on various PBS stations in the US.", "Since 7 March 2017, ''EastEnders'' has been available in the United States on demand, 24 hours after it has aired in the United Kingdom via BritBox, a joint venture between BBC and ITV.The series was screened in Australia by ABC TV from 1987 until 1991.It is aired in Australia on Satellite & Streaming services on BBC UKTV, from Mondays to Thursdays 7:50pm–8:30pm with two advertisement breaks of five minutes each.", "Episodes are shown roughly one week after their UK broadcast.", "In New Zealand, it was shown by TVNZ on TVNZ 1 for several years, and then on Prime each weekday afternoon.", "It is shown on BBC UKTV from Mondays to Thursdays at 8pm.", "Episodes are roughly two weeks behind the UK.", "''EastEnders'' is shown on BBC Entertainment (formerly BBC Prime) in Europe and in Africa, where it is approximately six episodes behind the UK.", "It was also shown on BBC Prime in Asia, but when the channel was replaced by BBC Entertainment, it ceased broadcasting the series.", "In Canada, ''EastEnders'' was shown on BBC Canada until 2010, at which point it was picked up by VisionTV.In Ireland, ''EastEnders'' was shown on TV3 from September 1998 until March 2001, when it moved over to RTÉ One, after RTÉ lost to TV3 the rights to air rival soap ''Coronation Street''.", "Additionally, episodes of ''EastEnders'' are available on-demand through RTÉ Online for seven days after their original screening." ], [ "International versions", "In 1991 the BBC sold the programme's format rights to a Dutch production company IDTV, the programme was renamed ''Het Oude Noorden'' (Translation: Old North).", "The Dutch version was re-written from already existing ''EastEnders'' scripts.", "The schedule remained the same as ''EastEnders'' twice weekly episodes; however, some notable changes included the programme is now set in Rotterdam rather than London, characters are given Dutch names (Den and Angie became Ger and Ankie) and The Queen Victoria pub is renamed \"Cade Faas\".According to Barbara Jurgen who re-wrote the scripts for a Dutch audience he said \"The power of the show is undeniable.", "The Scripts are full of hard, sharp drama, plus great one-liners which will translate well to Holland.\"", "The Dutch version began broadcasting on VARA 13 March 1993 but was cancelled after 20 episodes." ], [ "Spin-offs and merchandise", "On 26 December 1988, the first ''EastEnders'' \"bubble\" was shown, titled \"CivvyStreet\".", "Since then, \"Return of Nick Cotton\" (2000), \"Ricky & Bianca\" (2002), \"Dot's Story\" (2003), \"Perfectly Frank\" (2003) and \"Pat and Mo\" (2004) have all been broadcast, each episode looking into lives of various characters and revealing part of their backstories or lives since leaving ''EastEnders''.", "In 1993, the two-part story \"Dimensions in Time\", a charity cross-over with ''Doctor Who'', was shown.In 1998, ''EastEnders Revealed'' was launched on BBC Choice (now BBC Three).", "The show takes a look behind the scenes of the ''EastEnders'' and investigates particular places, characters or families within ''EastEnders''.", "An episode of ''EastEnders Revealed'' that was commissioned for BBC Three attracted 611,000 viewers.", "As part of the BBC's digital push, ''EastEnders Xtra'' was introduced in 2005.The show was presented by Angellica Bell and was available to digital viewers at 8:30 pm on Monday nights.", "It was also shown after the Sunday omnibus.", "The series went behind the scenes of the show and spoke to some of the cast members.", "A new breed of behind-the-scenes programmes have been broadcast on BBC Three since 1 December 2006.These are all documentaries related to current storylines in ''EastEnders'', in a similar format to ''EastEnders Revealed'', though not using the ''EastEnders Revealed'' name.In October 2009, a 12-part Internet spin-off series entitled ''EastEnders: E20'' was announced.", "The series was conceived by executive producer Diederick Santer \"as a way of nurturing new, young talent, both on- and off-screen, and exploring the stories of the soaps' anonymous bystanders.\"", "''E20'' features a group of sixth-form characters and targets the \"''Hollyoaks'' demographic\".", "It was written by a team of young writers and was shown three times a week on the ''EastEnders'' website from 8 January 2010.A second 10-part series started in September 2010, with twice-weekly episodes available online and an omnibus on BBC Three.", "A third series of 15 episodes started in September 2011.", "''EastEnders'' and rival soap opera ''Coronation Street'' took part in a crossover episode for Children in Need on 19 November 2010 called \"East Street\".", "On 4 April 2015, ''EastEnders'' confirmed plans for a BBC One series featuring Kat and Alfie Moon.", "The six-part drama, ''Kat & Alfie: Redwater'', was created by executive producer Dominic Treadwell-Collins and his team.", "In the spin-off, the Moons visit Ireland where they \"search for answers to some very big questions\".Until its closure, BBC Store released 553 ''EastEnders'' episodes from various years, including the special episode \"CivvyStreet\", available to buy as digital downloads." ], [ "Popularity and viewership", "An example of ''EastEnders'' popularity is that after episodes, electricity use in the United Kingdom rises significantly as viewers who have waited for the show to end begin boiling water for tea, a phenomenon known as TV pickup.", "Over five minutes, power demand rises by three GW, the equivalent of 1.5 to 1.75 million kettles.", "National Grid personnel watch the show to know when closing credits begin so they can prepare for the surge, asking for additional power from France if necessary.=== Ratings ===''EastEnders'' is the BBC's most consistent programme in terms of ratings, and as of 2021, episodes typically receive between 4 and 6 million viewers.", "''EastEnders'' two biggest ratings rivals are the ITV soaps ''Coronation Street'' (produced by Granada Television in Manchester) and ''Emmerdale'' (Produced by Yorkshire Television in Leeds).The launch show in 1985 attracted 17.35 million viewers.", "25 July 1985 was the first time the show's viewership rose to first position in the weekly top 10 shows for BBC One.", "The highest rated episode of ''EastEnders'' is the Christmas Day 1986 episode, which attracted a combined 30.15 million viewers who tuned into either the original transmission or the omnibus to see Den Watts hand over divorce papers to his wife Angie.", "This remains the highest rated episode of a soap in British television history.In 2001, ''EastEnders'' clashed with ''Coronation Street'' for the first time.", "''EastEnders'' won the battle with 8.4 million viewers (41% share) whilst ''Coronation Street'' lagged behind with 7.3 million viewers (34% share).", "On 21 September 2004, Louise Berridge, the then executive producer, quit following criticism of the show.", "The following day the show received its lowest ever ratings at that time (6.2 million) when ITV scheduled an hour-long episode of ''Emmerdale'' against it.", "''Emmerdale'' was watched by 8.1 million viewers.", "The poor ratings motivated the press into reporting viewers were bored with implausible and ill-thought-out storylines.", "Under new producers, ''EastEnders'' and ''Emmerdale'' continued to clash at times, and ''Emmerdale'' tended to come out on top, giving ''EastEnders'' lower than average ratings.", "In 2006, ''EastEnders'' regularly attracted between 8 and 12 million viewers in official ratings.", "''EastEnders'' received its second lowest ratings on 17 May 2007, when 4.0 million viewers tuned in.", "This was also the lowest ever audience share, with just 19.6 per cent.", "This was attributed to a conflicting one-hour special episode of ''Emmerdale'' on ITV1; however, ratings for the 10pm ''EastEnders'' repeat on BBC Three reached an all-time high of 1.4 million; however, there have been times when ''EastEnders'' had higher ratings than ''Emmerdale'' despite the two going head-to-head.The ratings increased in 2010, thanks to the \"Who Killed Archie?\"", "storyline and second wedding of Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) and Bianca Jackson (Patsy Palmer), and the show's first live episode on 19 February 2010.The live-episode averaged 15.6 million viewers, peaking at 16.6 million in the final five minutes of broadcast.", "In January 2010, the average audience was higher than that of ''Coronation Street'' for the first time in three years.", "During the 30th anniversary week in which there were live elements and the climax of the Who Killed Lucy Beale?", "storyline, 10.84 million viewers tuned in for the 30th anniversary episode itself in an hour long special on 19 February 2015 (peaking with 11.9 million).", "Later on in the same evening, a special flashback episode averaged 10.3 million viewers, and peaked with 11.2 million.", "The following day, the anniversary week was rounded off with another fully live episode (the second after 2010) with 9.97 million viewers watching the aftermath of the reveal, the Beale family finding out the truth of Lucy's killer and deciding to keep it a secret.", "In 2013, the average audience share for an episode was around 30 per cent.Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the soap, ''EastEnders'' suffered a ratings drop after 2020.Despite once being the highest-rated soap, it dropped to third in the rankings in 2021, behind ''Coronation Street'' and ''Emmerdale'', with 4.09 million viewers.", "BBC's head of drama, Piers Wenger, explained that since the episode duration had been shortened and the airtime frequently suffered changes, it had led to the audience not knowing when to watch it.", "Digital Spy opined that the ratings drop was accredited to \"lacklustre storylines\" and thought that storylines on rival soaps were better.", "Later that year, ''EastEnders'' suffered its lowest rating ever, with 1.7 million viewers watching live.", "The ''Daily Mirror''s Jamie Roberts felt that viewers had \"turned their back\" on the soap due to its lack of interesting stories and iconic characters.", "Ratings expert Stephen Price also noted that the drop is partly due to the rise of streaming services.+Average, highest and lowest ratings for ''EastEnders'' by year Year Number of episodes Average viewers(millions) Highest rating(millions) Lowest rating(millions) 1985 91 14.37 23.55 7.75 1986 105 20.66 30.15 13.90 1987 107 21.14 28.00 13.65 1988 104 18.94 24.95 12.60 1989 104 16.99 24.08 12.83 1990 104 17.17 20.80 12.33 1991 105 17.12 22.44 13.06 1992 106 18.28 24.32 11.85 1993 105 17.90 23.21 10.47 1994 142 16.02 25.30 7.96 1995 157 14.54 22.02 7.88 1996 161 14.65 17.92 7.73 1997 162 14.23 18.06 7.13 1998 161 14.75 22.14 8.01 1999 169 15.87 20.89 10.89 2000 163 15.47 20.89 9.64 2001 179 15.92 23.18 11.27 2002 211 11.95 16.97 8.33 2003 210 12.58 16.66 8.58 2004 209 11.32 14.80 6.83 2005 209 10.19 14.34 6.76 2006 207 9.16 12.33 4.11 2007 208 8.87 14.38 4.29 2008 208 8.42 11.73 5.30 2009 209 8.43 11.67 5.02 2010 204 9.35 16.41 4.99 2011 211 9.02 11.42 5.74 2012 206 8.23 11.31 5.53 2013 212 7.72 10.03 5.42 2014 206 7.20 9.09 4.58 2015 209 7.17 11.60 5.43 2016 210 6.94 9.47 4.83 2017 209 6.68 8.41 4.19 2018 206 6.12 7.81 4.56 2019 210 5.60 7.36 4.16 2020 138 5.49 7.46 4.07 2021 209 4.36 5.59 2.54" ], [ "Criticism", "''EastEnders'' has received both praise and criticism for most of its storylines, which have dealt with difficult themes, such as violence, rape, murder and child abuse.=== Morality and violence ===Mary Whitehouse, social critic, argued at the time that ''EastEnders'' represented a violation of \"family viewing time\" and that it undermined the watershed policy.", "She regarded ''EastEnders'' as a fundamental assault on the family and morality itself.", "She made reference to representation of family life and emphasis on psychological and emotional violence within the show.", "She was also critical of language such as \"bleeding\", \"bloody hell\", \"bastard\" and \"for Christ's sake\"; however, Whitehouse also praised the programme, describing Michelle Fowler's decision not to have an abortion as a \"very positive storyline\".", "She also felt that ''EastEnders'' had been cleaned up as a result of her protests, though she later commented that ''EastEnders'' had returned to its old ways.", "Her criticisms were widely reported in the tabloid press as ammunition in its existing hostility towards the BBC.", "The stars of ''Coronation Street'' in particular aligned themselves with Mary Whitehouse, gaining headlines such as \"STREETS AHEAD!", "RIVALS LASH SEEDY EASTENDERS\" and \"CLEAN UP SOAP!", "Street Star Bill Lashes \"Steamy\" EastEnders\".", "''EastEnders'' has been criticised for being too violent, most notably during a domestic violence storyline between Little Mo Morgan (Kacey Ainsworth) and her husband Trevor Morgan (Alex Ferns).", "As ''EastEnders'' is shown pre-watershed, there were worries that some scenes in this storyline were too graphic for its audience.", "Complaints against a scene in which Little Mo's face was pushed in gravy on Christmas Day were upheld by the Broadcasting Standards Council; however, a helpline after this episode attracted over 2000 calls.", "Erin Pizzey, who became internationally famous for having started one of the first women's refuges, said that ''EastEnders'' had done more to raise the issue of violence against women in one story than she had done in 25 years.", "The character of Phil Mitchell (played by Steve McFadden since early 1990) has been criticised on several occasions for glorifying violence and proving a bad role model to children.", "On one occasion following a scene in an episode broadcast in October 2002, where Phil brutally beat his godson, Jamie Mitchell (Jack Ryder), 31 complaints came from viewers.In 2003, cast member Shaun Williamson, who was in the final months of his role of Barry Evans, said that the programme had become much grittier over the past 10 to 15 years, and found it \"frightening\" that parents let their young children watch.In 2005, the BBC was accused of anti-religious bias by a House of Lords committee, who cited ''EastEnders'' as an example.", "Indarjit Singh, editor of the Sikh Messenger and patron of the World Congress of Faiths, said: \"''EastEnders'' Dot Cotton is an example.", "She quotes endlessly from the Bible and it ridicules religion to some extent.\"", "In July 2010, complaints were received following the storyline of Christian minister Lucas Johnson (Don Gilet) committing a number of murders that he believed was his duty to God, claiming that the storyline was offensive to Christians.In 2008, ''EastEnders'', along with ''Coronation Street'', was criticised by Martin McGuinness, then Northern Ireland's deputy first minister, for \"the level of concentration around the pub\" and the \"antics portrayed in The ... Queen Vic\".In 2017, viewers complained on Twitter about scenes implying that Keanu Taylor (Danny Walters) is the father of his 15-year-old sister Bernadette Taylor's (Clair Norris) unborn baby, with the pair agreeing to keep the pregnancy secret from their mother, Karen Taylor (Lorraine Stanley); however, the baby's father is revealed as one of Bernadette's school friends.=== Allegations of national and racial stereotypes ===In 1997, several episodes were shot and set in Ireland, resulting in criticisms for portraying the Irish in a negatively stereotypical way.", "Ted Barrington, the Irish Ambassador to the UK at the time, described the portrayal of Ireland as an \"unrepresentative caricature\", stating he was worried by the negative stereotypes and the images of drunkenness, backwardness and isolation.", "Jana Bennett, the BBC's then director of production, later apologised for the episodes, stating on BBC1's news bulletin: \"It is clear that a significant number of viewers have been upset by the recent episodes of ''EastEnders'', and we are very sorry, because the production team and programme makers did not mean to cause any offence.\"", "A year later BBC chairman Christopher Bland admitted that as result of the Irish-set EastEnders episodes, the station failed in its pledge to represent all groups accurately and avoid reinforcing prejudice.In 2008, the show was criticised for stereotyping their Asian and Black characters, by having a black single mother, Denise Fox (Diane Parish), and an Asian shopkeeper, Zainab Masood (Nina Wadia).", "There has been criticism that the programme does not authentically portray the ethnic diversity of the population of East London, with the programme being \"twice as white\" as the real East End.=== Controversial storylines ===In 1992, writer David Yallop successfully sued the BBC for £68,000 after it was revealed he had been hired by producer Mike Gibbon in 1989 to pen several controversial storylines in an effort to \"slim down\" the cast; however, after Gibbon left the programme, executive producers chose not to use Yallop's storylines, which put the BBC in breach of the contract Yallop had signed with them.", "Unused storylines penned by Yallop, which were revealed in the press during the trial, included the death of Cindy Beale's (Michelle Collins) infant son Steven; Sufia Karim (Rani Singh) being killed during a shotgun raid at the corner shop; Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard) dying of undiscovered cancer; and an IRA explosion at the Walford community centre, killing Pete Beale (Peter Dean) and Diane Butcher (Sophie Lawrence), and leaving Simon Wicks (Nick Berry) paralysed below the waist.", "A suicide was also planned, but the character this storyline was assigned to was not revealed.Some storylines have provoked high levels of viewer complaints.", "In August 2006, a scene involving Carly Wicks (Kellie Shirley) and Jake Moon (Joel Beckett) having sex on the floor of Scarlet nightclub, and another scene involving Owen Turner (Lee Ross) violently attacking Denise Fox (Diane Parish), prompted 129 and 128 complaints, respectively.In March 2008, scenes showing Tanya Branning (Jo Joyner) and boyfriend, Sean Slater (Robert Kazinsky), burying Tanya's husband Max (Jake Wood) alive, attracted many complaints.", "The UK communications regulator Ofcom later found that the episodes depicting the storyline were in breach of the 2005 Broadcasting Code.", "They contravened the rules regarding protection of children by appropriate scheduling, appropriate depiction of violence before the 9 p.m. watershed and appropriate depiction of potentially offensive content.", "In September 2008, ''EastEnders'' began a grooming and paedophilia storyline involving characters Tony King (Chris Coghill), Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty), Bianca Jackson (Patsy Palmer), Lauren Branning (Madeline Duggan) and Peter Beale (Thomas Law).", "The storyline attracted over 200 complaints.In December 2010, Ronnie Branning (Samantha Womack) swapped her newborn baby, who died in cot, with Kat Moon's (Jessie Wallace) living baby.", "Around 3,400 complaints were received, with viewers branding the storyline \"insensitive\", \"irresponsible\" and \"desperate\".", "Roz Laws from the ''Sunday Mercury'' called the plot \"shocking and ridiculous\" and asked \"are we really supposed to believe that Kat won't recognise that the baby looks different?\"", "The Foundation for the Study of Infant Deaths (FSID) praised the storyline, and its director Joyce Epstein explained, \"We are very grateful to ''EastEnders'' for their accurate depiction of the devastating effect that the sudden death of an infant can have on a family.", "We hope that this story will help raise the public's awareness of cot death, which claims 300 babies' lives each year.\"", "By 7 January, that storyline had generated the most complaints in show history: the BBC received about 8,500 complaints, and media regulator Ofcom received 374; however, despite the controversy, ''EastEnders'' pulled in rating highs of 9–10 million throughout the duration of the storyline.In October 2014, the BBC defended a storyline, after receiving 278 complaints about 6 October 2014 episode where pub landlady Linda Carter (Kellie Bright) was raped by Dean Wicks (Matt Di Angelo).", "On 17 November 2014 it was announced that Ofcom will investigate over the storyline.", "On 5 January 2015, the investigation was cleared by Ofcom.", "A spokesman of Ofcom said: \"After carefully investigating complaints about this scene, Ofcom found the BBC took appropriate steps to limit offence to viewers.", "This included a warning before the episode and implying the assault, rather than depicting it.", "Ofcom also took into account the programme's role in presenting sometimes challenging or distressing social issues.", "\"In 2022, ''EastEnders'' aired their first male rape scene which saw Lewis Butler (Aidan O'Callaghan) rape Ben Mitchell (Max Bowden).", "The BBC received complaints from viewers who were unhappy with the content in the episode.", "Viewers felt that the scenes were too violent and graphic for a pre-watershed time slot.", "The BBC responded by stating: \"''EastEnders'' has been a pre-watershed BBC One staple for over 37 years and has a rich history of dealing with challenging and difficult issues and Ben's story is one of these.", "We have worked closely with organisations and experts in the field to tell this story which we hope will raise awareness of sexual assaults and the issues surrounding them.", "We are always mindful of the timeslot in which ''EastEnders'' is shown and we took great care to signpost this storyline prior to transmission, through on-air continuity and publicity as well as providing a BBC Action Line at the end of the episode which offers advice and support to those affected by the issue\".=== Portrayal of certain professions ===In 2010, ''EastEnders'' came under criticism from the police for the way that they were portrayed during the \"Who Killed Archie?\"", "storyline.", "During the storyline, DCI Jill Marsden (Sophie Stanton) and DC Wayne Hughes (Jamie Treacher) talk to locals about the case and Hughes accepts a bribe.", "The police claimed that such scenes were \"damaging\" to their reputation and added that the character DC Deanne Cunningham (Zoë Henry) was \"irritatingly inaccurate\".", "In response to the criticism, ''EastEnders'' apologised for offending real life detectives and confirmed that they use a police consultant for such storylines.In October 2012, a storyline involving Lola Pearce (Danielle Harold), forced to hand over her baby Lexi Pearce, was criticised by the charity The Who Cares?", "Trust, who called the storyline an \"unhelpful portrayal\" and said it had already received calls from members of the public who were \"distressed about the ''EastEnders'' scene where a social worker snatches a baby from its mother's arms\".", "The scenes were also condemned by the British Association of Social Workers (BASW), calling the BBC \"too lazy and arrogant\" to correctly portray the child protection process, and saying that the baby was taken \"without sufficient grounds to do so\".", "Bridget Robb, acting chief of the BASW, said the storyline provoked \"real anger among a profession well used to a less than accurate public and media perception of their jobs .. ''EastEnders'' shabby portrayal of an entire profession has made a tough job even tougher.\"" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "In popular culture", "Since its premiere in 1985, ''EastEnders'' has had a large impact on British popular culture.", "It has frequently been referred to in many different media, including songs and television programmes." ], [ "Further reading", "Many books have been written about ''EastEnders''.", "Notably, from 1985 to 1988, author and television writer Hugh Miller wrote 17 novels, detailing the lives of many of the show's original characters before 1985, when events on screen took place.Kate Lock also wrote four novels centred on more recent characters; Steve Owen (Martin Kemp), Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp), Bianca Jackson (Patsy Palmer) and Tiffany Mitchell (Martine McCutcheon).", "Lock also wrote a character guide entitled ''Who's Who in EastEnders'' () in 2000, examining main characters from the first 15 years of the show.Show creators Julia Smith and Tony Holland also wrote a book about the show in 1987, entitled ''EastEnders: The Inside Story'' (), telling the story of how the show made it to screen.", "Two special anniversary books have been written about the show; ''EastEnders: The First 10 Years: A Celebration'' () by Colin Brakein 1995 and ''EastEnders: 20 Years in Albert Square'' () by Rupert Smith in 2005." ], [ "See also", "* East End of London in popular culture* List of soap operas* List of British television programmes* List of most-watched television broadcasts* List of television programmes broadcast by the BBC* List of programmes broadcast by Telefís Éireann* List of programmes broadcast by Virgin Media Television (Ireland)* List of programs broadcast by Showcase* List of LGBT characters in soap operas* List of television shows set in London* List of television programs by episode count* List of television programs by name" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * ''EastEnders'' at BBC Studios* ''EastEnders'' at BBC Studioworks* ''EastEnders'' at the British Film Institute* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Embroidery" ], [ "Introduction", "sampler by Alice Maywood, 1826Laid threads, a surface technique in wool on linen.", "The Bayeux Tapestry, 11th century'''Embroidery''' is the art of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to apply thread or yarn.", "Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins.", "In modern days, embroidery is usually seen on caps, hats, coats, overlays, blankets, dress shirts, denim, dresses, stockings, scarfs, and golf shirts.", "Embroidery is available in a wide variety of thread or yarn colour.", "It is often used to personalize gifts or clothing items.Some of the basic techniques or stitches of the earliest embroidery are chain stitch, buttonhole or blanket stitch, running stitch, satin stitch, and cross stitch.", "Those stitches remain the fundamental techniques of hand embroidery today." ], [ "History", "Detail of embroidered silk gauze ritual garment.", "Rows of even, round chain stitch used for outline and color.", "4th century BC, Zhou tomb at Mashan, Hubei, China.=== Origins ===The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, and the decorative possibilities of sewing led to the art of embroidery.", "Indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted:The art of embroidery has been found worldwide and several early examples have been found.", "Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period (5th–3rd century BC).", "In a garment from Migration period Sweden, roughly 300–700 AD, the edges of bands of trimming are reinforced with running stitch, back stitch, stem stitch, tailor's buttonhole stitch, and Whip stitch, but it is uncertain whether this work simply reinforced the seams or should be interpreted as decorative embroidery.=== Historical applications and techniques ===bound 'lily' feetEmbroidered book cover made by Elizabeth I at the age of 11, presented to Katherine Parr19th century women's ''thobe'' from PalestineDepending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a widespread, popular technique.", "This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane.", "Examples of high status items include elaborately embroidered clothing, religious objects, and household items often were seen as a mark of wealth and status.", "In medieval England, Opus Anglicanum, a technique used by professional workshops and guilds in medieval England, was used to embellish textiles used in church rituals.", "In 16th century England, some books, usually bibles or other religious texts, had embroidered bindings.", "The Bodleian Library in Oxford contains one presented to Queen Elizabeth I in 1583.It also owns a copy of The Epistles of Saint Paul, whose cover was reputedly embroidered by the Queen.In 18th-century England and its colonies, with the rise of the merchant class and the wider availability of luxury materials, rich embroideries began to appear in a secular context.", "These embroideries took the form of items displayed private homes of well-to-do citizens, as opposed to a church or royal setting.", "Even so, the embroideries themselves may still have had religious themes.", "Samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families.", "Embroidery was a skill marking a girl's path into womanhood as well as conveying rank and social standing.Embroidery was an important art and signifier of social status in the Medieval Islamic world as well.", "The 17th-century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the \"craft of the two hands\".", "In cities such as Damascus, Cairo and Istanbul, embroidery was visible on handkerchiefs, uniforms, flags, calligraphy, shoes, robes, tunics, horse trappings, slippers, sheaths, pouches, covers, and even on leather belts.", "Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread.", "Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items.In the 16th century, in the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, his chronicler Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak wrote in the famous Ain-i-Akbari:Conversely, embroidery is also a folk art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals.", "Examples include Hardanger embroidery from Norway; Merezhka from Ukraine; Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland; Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal; Achachi from Peru; and Brazilian embroidery.", "Many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing.While historically viewed as a pastime, activity, or hobby, intended just for women, embroidery has often been used as a form of biography.", "Women who were unable to access a formal education or, at times, writing implements, were often taught embroidery and utilized it as a means of documenting their lives.", "In terms of documenting the histories of marginalized groups, especially women of color both within the United States and around the world, embroidery is a means of studying the every day lives of those whose lives largely went unstudied throughout much of history." ], [ "Classification", "Tea-cloth, leftEmbroidery can be classified according to what degree the design takes into account the nature of the base material and by the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric.", "The main categories are free or surface embroidery, counted-thread embroidery, and needlepoint or canvas work.In free or surface embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric.", "Examples include crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery.Counted-thread embroidery patterns are created by making stitches over a predetermined number of threads in the foundation fabric.", "Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an even-weave foundation fabric such as embroidery canvas, aida cloth, or specially woven cotton and linen fabrics.", "Examples include cross-stitch and some forms of blackwork embroidery.While similar to counted thread in regards to technique, in canvas work or needlepoint, threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric.", "Examples of canvas work include bargello and Berlin wool work.Embroidery can also be classified by the similarity of its appearance.", "In drawn thread work and cutwork, the foundation fabric is deformed or cut away to create holes that are then embellished with embroidery, often with thread in the same color as the foundation fabric.", "When created with white thread on white linen or cotton, this work is collectively referred to as whitework.", "However, whitework can either be counted or free.", "Hardanger embroidery is a counted embroidery and the designs are often geometric.", "Conversely, styles such as Broderie anglaise are similar to free embroidery, with floral or abstract designs that are not dependent on the weave of the fabric." ], [ "Traditional hand embroidery around the world", "Traditional embroideryOriginStitches usedmaterialsPictureAari embroideryKashmir and Kutch, Gujarat, IndiaChain stitchSilk thread, fabric, beads or sequinsArt needleworkEngland150x150pxAssisi embroideryAssisi, ItalyBackstitch, cross stitch, Holbein stitchCloth, red thread, silk, stranded perlé cotton155x155pxBalochi needleworkBalochistan, PakistanBeads, cloth, shisha, thread 150x150pxBargelloFlorence, ItalyVertical stitches (e.g.", "\"flame stitch\")Linen or cotton canvas, wool floss or yarn287x287pxBerlin wool workBerlin, GermanyCross stitch or tent stitchLinen or cotton canvas, wool floss or yarn188x188pxBlackworkEnglandBackstitch, Holbein stitch, stem stitchLinen or cotton fabric, black or red silk thread150x150pxBrazilian embroideryBrazilBullion knots, cast-on stitch, drizzle stitch, French knots, featherstitch, fly stitch, stem stitchCloth, rayon thread150x150pxBroderie anglaiseCzechiaButtonhole stitch, overcast stitch, satin stitchWhite cloth and thread150x150pxBroderie perseIndiaChintz, thread150x150pxBunka shishuJapanPunch needle techniquesRayon or silk threadCandlewickingUnited StatesKnotted stitch, satin stitchUnbleached cotton thread, unbleached muslinframelessChasuKoreaChain stitch, couching, leaf stitch, long-and-short stitch, mat stitch, outline stitch, padding stitch, satin stitches, seed stitch150x150pxChikanLucknow, IndiaBackstitches, chain stitches, shadow-workCloth, white thread200x200pxColcha embroiderySouthwestern United StatesCotton or linen cloth, wool thread150x150pxCrewelworkGreat BritainChain stitch, couched stitches, knotted stitches, satin stitch, seed stitch, split stitch, stem stitchCrewel yarn, linen twill228x228pxGoldworkChinaCouching, Holbein stitch, stem stitchCloth, metallic thread150x150pxGota pattiRajasthan, India200x200pxGu XiuShanghai, ChinaSilk cloth and thread200x200pxHardanger embroideryNorwayButtonhole stitch, cable stitch, fly stitch, knotted stitch, picot, running stitch, satin stitchWhite thread, white even-weave linen cloth199x199pxHedebo embroideryHedebo, Zealand, DenmarkWhite linen cloth and thread200x200pxKaitag textilesKaytagsky District, Dagestan, RussiaLaid-and-couched workCotton cloth, silk thread150x150pxKalagaBurma258x258pxKanthaEastern IndiaOld saris, thread203x203pxKasidakariIndiaChain stitch, darning stitch, satin stitch, stem stitchKasutiKarnataka, IndiaCross stitch, double running stitch, running stitch, zigzag running stitchCotton thread and clothMotifs of kasuti embroideryKhamakKandahar, AfghanistanSatin stitchCotton or wool fabric, silk threadKuba textilesThe CongoEmbroidery, appliqué, cut-pile embroideryRaffia cloth and thread250x250pxKutch embroideryKutch, Gujarat, IndiaCotton cloth, cotton or silk thread150x150pxLambada embroideryBanjara people150x150pxMountmellick workMountmellick, County Laois, IrelandKnotted stitches, padded stitchesWhite cotton cloth and thread200x200pxOpus anglicanumEnglandSplit stitch, surface couching, underside couchingLinen or velvet cloth, metallic thread, silk thread150x150px Opus teutonicumHoly Roman EmpireButtonhole stitch, chain stitch, goblien stitch, pulled work, satin stitch, stem stitchWhite linen cloth and thread150x150px Or nuéWestern EuropeCouchingFabric, metallic thread, silk thread150x150pxOrphrey250x250pxNeedlepointAncient EgyptCross stitch, tent stitch, brick stitchLinen or cotton canvas, wool or silk floss or yarn254x254pxPhool Patti ka KaamUttar Pradesh, IndiaPhulkariPunjabDarning stitchesHand-spun cotton cloth, silk floss200x200pxPiteadoCentral AmericaIxtle or pita thread, leather150x150pxQuillworkNorth AmericaBeads, cloth, feathers, feather quills, leather, porcupine quills150x150pxRasht embroideryRasht, Gilan Province, IranChain stitchFelt, silk thread150x150pxRedworkUnited StatesBackstitch, outline stitchRed thread, white clothRichelieuPurportedly from 16th century Italy, revival in 19th century England and FranceButtonhole stitchWhite thread, white cloth222x222pxRushnykSlavsCross stitch, Holbein stitch, satin stitchLinen or hemp cloth, thread226x226pxSashikoJapanRunning stitchIndigo-dyed cloth, white or red cotton thread150x150pxSermeh embroideryAchaemenid PersiaTermeh cloth, velvet, cotton fabrics, various threadsSewed muslinScotlandMuslin, thread275x275pxShu XiuChengdu, Sichuan, ChinaSatin, silk threadSmockingEnglandCable stitch, honeycomb stitches, knotted stitches, outline stitch, stem stitch, trellis stitch, wave stitchAny fabric supple enough to be gathered, cotton or silk thread200x200pxStumpworkEngland196x196pxSu XiuSuzhou, Jiangsu, ChinaSilk cloth and thread243x243pxSuzaniCentral AsiaButtonhole stitches, chain stitches, couching, satin stitchesCotton fabric, silk thread229x229pxTatreezPalestine, SyriaCross stitchCotton fabric, silk thread150x150pxTenango embroideryTenango de Doria, Hidalgo, Mexico275x275pxVelours du KasaïKasai, the Congo176x176pxVietnamese embroideryVietnam200x200pxXiang XiuHunan, ChinaSilk cloth, black, white, and grey silk threadYue XiuGuangdong, ChinaSilk cloth and threadZardoziIran and IndiaCloth, metallic thread150x150pxZmijanje embroideryZmijanje, Bosnia and HerzegovinaBlue thread, white cloth267x267px" ], [ "Materials", "Multi-colored crewel wool threads on a panel of linen warp and cotton weft, 18th century EnglishA needle is the main stitching tool in embroidery, and comes in various sizes and types.", "The fabrics and yarns used in traditional embroidery vary from place to place.", "Wool, linen, and silk have been in use for thousands of years for both fabric and yarn.", "Today, embroidery thread is manufactured in cotton, rayon, and novelty yarns as well as in traditional wool, linen, and silk.", "Ribbon embroidery uses narrow ribbon in silk or silk/organza blend ribbon, most commonly to create floral motifs.Surface embroidery techniques such as chain stitch and couching or laid-work are the most economical of expensive yarns; couching is generally used for goldwork.", "Canvas work techniques, in which large amounts of yarn are buried on the back of the work, use more materials but provide a sturdier and more substantial finished textile.In both canvas work and surface embroidery an embroidery hoop or frame can be used to stretch the material and ensure even stitching tension that prevents pattern distortion.", "Modern canvas work tends to follow symmetrical counted stitching patterns with designs emerging from the repetition of one or just a few similar stitches in a variety of hues.", "In contrast, many forms of surface embroidery make use of a wide range of stitching patterns in a single piece of work." ], [ "Machine embroidery", "Commercial machine embroidery in chain stitch on a voile curtain, China, early 21st centuryThe development of machine embroidery and its mass production came about in stages during the Industrial Revolution.", "The first embroidery machine was the hand embroidery machine, invented in France in 1832 by Josué Heilmann.", "The next evolutionary step was the schiffli embroidery machine.", "The latter borrowed from the sewing machine and the Jacquard loom to fully automate its operation.", "The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the latter half of the 19th century.", "Both St. Gallen, Switzerland and Plauen, Germany were important centers for machine embroidery and embroidery machine development.", "Many Swiss and Germans immigrated to Hudson county, New Jersey in the early twentieth century and developed a machine embroidery industry there.", "Shiffli machines have continued to evolve and are still used for industrial scale embroidery.Brother Innov-is V7 computerised Sewing/Quilting/Embroidery machine embroidering onto cloth held in a hoopContemporary embroidery is stitched with a computerized embroidery machine using patterns digitized with embroidery software.", "In machine embroidery, different types of \"fills\" add texture and design to the finished work.", "Machine embroidery is used to add logos and monograms to business shirts or jackets, gifts, and team apparel as well as to decorate household linens, draperies, and decorator fabrics that mimic the elaborate hand embroidery of the past.Machine embroidery is most typically done with rayon thread, although polyester thread can also be used.", "Cotton thread, on the other hand, is prone to breaking and should be avoided if under 30 wt.There has also been a development in free hand machine embroidery, new machines have been designed that allow for the user to create free-motion embroidery which has its place in textile arts, quilting, dressmaking, home furnishings and more.", "Users can use the embroidery software to digitize the digital embroidery designs.", "These digitized design are then transferred to the embroidery machine with the help of a flash drive and then the embroidery machine embroiders the selected design onto the fabric." ], [ "Resurgence of hand embroidery", "Japanese free embroidery in silk and metal threads, contemporaryHardanger, a whitework technique.", "ContemporarySince the late 2010s, there has been an exponential growth in the popularity of embroidering by hand.", "As a result of visual social media such as Pinterest and Instagram, artists are able to share their work more extensively, which has inspired younger generations to pick up needle and threads.Contemporary embroidery artists believe hand embroidery has grown in popularity as a result of an increasing need for relaxation and digitally disconnecting practices.Modern hand embroidery, as opposed to cross-stitching, is characterized by a more \"liberal\" approach, where stitches are more freely combined in unconventional ways to create various textures and designs." ], [ "In literature", "In Greek mythology the goddess Athena is said to have passed down the art of embroidery (along with weaving) to humans, leading to the famed competition between herself and the mortal Arachne." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Kazakh rug chain stitch embroidery.jpg|Traditional embroidery in chain stitch on a Kazakh rug, contemporary.File:Cover, silk embroidery on cotton.", "Iran, Caucasus; 1st half of 18th century.", "Stored at The David Collection, inventarnummer 37-1969.jpg|Caucasian embroideryFile:English cope.jpg|English cope, late 15th or early 16th century.", "Silk velvet embroidered with silk and gold threads, closely laid and couched.", "Contemporary Art Institute of Chicago textile collection.File:St. Galler Stickerei Muster c.jpg|Extremely fine underlay of St. Gallen EmbroideryFile:Turkish embroidery.jpg|Traditional Turkish embroidery.", "Izmir Ethnography Museum, Turkey.File:Croatian embroidery.jpg|Traditional Croatian embroidery.File:EMBROIDERED EGGS BY I FOROSTYUK.jpg|Decorated Easter eggs from the Luhansk region of UkraineFile:Ախալցխայի տարազ մանրամասն.jpg|Gold embroidery on a ''gognots'' (apron) of a 19th-century Armenian bridal dress from AkhaltsikheFile:Korean embroidery patterns.jpg|Brightly coloured Korean embroidery.File:Uzbekistan embroidery.jpg|Uzbekistan embroidery on a traditional women's ''parandja'' robe.File:Woman headdress Kalash.jpg|Woman wearing a traditional embroidered Kalash headdress, Pakistan.File:Bedouin bookmark.jpg|Bookmark of black fabric with multicolored Bedouin embroidery and tassel of embroidery flossFile:Woman's Robe a l'anglaise with Petticoat LACMA M.66.31a-b (4 of 6).jpg|Chain-stitch embroidery from England File:Bulgarian embrodery from Sofia and Trun.jpg|Traditional Bulgarian Floral embroidery from Sofia and Trun.File:Pedro Bruno - A Pátria.jpg|A 1919 painting depicting the Brazilian flag being embroidered by a family." ], [ "See also", "* Broderie de Fontenoy-le-Château* Chikankari* Chinese embroidery* Embroidery of India* Khamak* Mary Ann Beinecke Decorative Art Collection* Sachet (scented bag)* Sampler (needlework)* Sichuan embroidery" ], [ "Notes", "===Citations======Bibliography===*****" ], [ "Further reading", "*****Koll, Juby Aleyas (2019).", "Sarah's Hand Embroidery Tutorials.", "***" ], [ "External links", "* *The History of Embroidery" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Mitchell Bannister" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Mitchell Bannister''' (November 2, 1828January 9, 1901) was a Canadian–American oil painter of the American Barbizon school.", "Born in Canada, he spent his adult life in New England in the United States.", "There, along with his wife Christiana Carteaux, he was a prominent member of African-American cultural and political communities, such as the Boston abolition movement.", "Bannister received national recognition after he won a first prize in painting at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition.", "He was also a founding member of the Providence Art Club and the Rhode Island School of Design.Bannister's style and predominantly pastoral subject matter reflected his admiration for the French artist Jean-François Millet and the French Barbizon school.", "A lifelong sailor, he also looked to the Rhode Island seaside for inspiration.", "Bannister continually experimented, and his artwork displays his Idealist philosophy and his control of color and atmosphere.", "He began his professional practice as a photographer and portraitist before developing his better-known landscape style.Later in his life, Bannister's style of landscape painting fell out of favor.", "With decreasing painting sales, he and Christiana Carteaux moved out of College Hill in Providence to Boston and then a smaller house on Wilson Street in Providence.", "Bannister was overlooked in American art historical studies and exhibitions after his death in 1901, until institutions like the National Museum of African Art returned him to national attention in the 1960s and 1970s." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Bannister was born on November 2, 1828, in Saint Andrews, New Brunswick, near the St. Croix River.", "His father, Edward Bannister, was born in Barbados.", "His mother, Hannah Alexander, was born in Canada, according to Bannister, \"a stone’s throw of my birthplace on the banks of the St. Croix River.\"", "Her parents were probably from Barbados.", "Although both of his parents were black, Bannister was sometimes identified as “Mulatto.” At the time, this designation was based on skin color as perceived by the Census taker, and did not reflect self-identity or family history.", "Bannister's father died in 1832, so Edward and his younger brother William were raised by their mother, Hannah Alexander Bannister.", "Early on, Bannister was apprenticed to a cobbler, but his drawing skill was already noted among his friends and family.", "Bannister credited his mother with igniting his early interest in art.", "She died in 1844, after which Bannister and his brother lived on the farm of the wealthy lawyer and merchant Harris Hatch.", "There, he practiced drawing by reproducing Hatch family portraits and copying British engravings in the family library.Bannister and his brother found work aboard ships as mates and cooks for several months before immigrating to Boston, sometime in the late 1840s.", "In the 1850 US census, they are listed as living at the same boarding house, with the Revaleon family, and working as barbers.", "The brothers' role as barbers and status as mixed race gave them relatively high standing as middle-class professionals within Boston.Although he aspired to work as a painter, Bannister had difficulty finding an apprenticeship or academic programs that would accept him, due to racial prejudice.", "Boston was an abolitionist stronghold, but it was also one of the most segregated cities in the US in 1860.Bannister would later express his frustration with being blocked from artistic education: \"Whatever may be my success as an artist is due more to inherited potential than to instruction\" and \"All I would do I cannot... simply for the want of proper training.", "\"The Liberator'', 1861Bannister received his first oil painting commission, ''The Ship Outward Bound'', in 1854 from an African American doctor, John V. DeGrasse.", "Jacob R. Andrews, a gilder, painter, and member of the Histrionic Club, created the commission's gilt frame.", "DeGrasse later commissioned Bannister to paint portraits of him and his wife.", "Patronage like DeGrasse's was critical to Bannister's early career, as the African American community wanted to support and highlight its contributions to high culture.", "African Americans found portraiture an \"ideal medium\" for expressing their freedom and opportunity, which is probably why most of Bannister's earliest commissions are within that genre.Through abolitionist newspapers like ''The Anglo-African'' and ''The Liberator'' and the writings of Martin R. Delany, Bannister likely learned about other African American artists like Robert S. Duncanson, James Presley Ball, Patrick H. Reason, and David Bustill Bowser.", "Their work would have made Bannister's ambition seem all the more possible.", "Although most cultural institutions barred Black Bostonians from entrance, Bannister would have had access to several, like the Boston Athenæum library, with collections of European art sources and exhibitions of Luminist marine painters like Robert Salmon and Fitz Hugh Lane.===Boston activist, artist, and student===''Portrait of Christiana Carteaux Bannister'', Edward Mitchell Bannister, Bannister met Christiana Carteaux, a hairdresser and businesswoman born in Rhode Island to African American and Narragansett parents, in 1853 when he applied to be a barber in her salon.", "Both were members of Boston's diverse abolitionist movement, and barbershops were important meeting places for African American abolitionists.", "They married on June 10, 1857, and she became, in effect, his most important patron.", "The couple boarded for two years with Lewis Hayden and Harriet Bell Hayden at 66 Southac Street, a stop on Boston's Underground Railroad (a support network for escaped slaves).In 1855 William Cooper Nell acknowledged Bannister's rising artistic status in ''The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution'' for his ''The Ship Outward Bound''.", "Bannister also received encouragement to continue painting from artist Francis Bicknell Carpenter.", "By 1858, Bannister was listed as an artist in Boston's city directory.", "Around 1862, he spent a year training in photography in New York, likely to support his painting practice.", "He then found work as a photographer, taking solar plates and tinting photos.", "One of Bannister's earliest commissioned portraits was of Prudence Nelson Bell in 1864, which is around when he found studio space at the Studio Building in Boston.", "At the Studio Building, he came into contact with other prominent artists, like Elihu Vedder and John La Farge.", "Once Bannister was established as an artist, abolitionist William Wells Brown praised him in a 1865 book:Bannister was part of Boston's African American artistic community, which included Edmonia Lewis, William H. Simpson, and Nelson A. Primus.", "He sang as a tenor in the Crispus Attucks Choir, which performed anti-slavery songs at public events, and acted with the Histrionic Club, as well as serving as a delegate for the New England Colored Citizens Conventions in August 1859 and 1865.His name also appears on several public petitions published in ''The Liberator''.The Twelfth Baptist Church, where Bannister and Carteaux were membersBannister and Carteaux were devout members of the militant abolitionist Twelfth Baptist Church, located on Southac Street near their home at the Hayden House.", "In May 1859, Bannister served as the secretary for the church's meetings to respond to the Oberlin–Wellington Rescue of imprisoned fugitive slaves and, in 1863, to plan celebrations for the Emancipation Proclamation.During the US Civil War, Carteaux lobbied for equal pay for African American soldiers and organized the 1864 soldiers’ relief fair for the Massachusetts 54th infantry regiment, 55th infantry regiment, and 5th cavalry regiment, which had gone without pay for over a year and a half.", "Bannister donated his full-length portrait of Robert Gould Shaw, the commander of the 54th killed in action, to raise money for the cause.", "Bannister's portrait of Gould Shaw was displayed with the label \"''Our'' Martyr\", according to abolitionist Lydia Maria Child.", "The portrait was praised in the ''New York Weekly Anglo-African'' as \"a fine specimen of art\" and inspired a poem by Martha Perry Lowe entitled ''The Picture of Col. Shaw in Boston''.", "The painting was purchased by the state of Massachusetts and installed in its state house, but its current location is unknown.The Bannister portrait of Robert Gould Shaw was one of several memorials to Gould Shaw by members of Boston's African American artistic community such as Edmonia Lewis.", "These artworks, put to the practical purpose of raising money for Black soldiers, contradicted the ideals of Boston Brahmin abolitionists, such as the Gould Shaws.", "Although the Brahmins supported abolition, they saw it as an abstract good rather than a concrete cause in need of material support.", "The portrait's paternalistic praise from Lowe and Child exemplified the divide between Boston's white abolitionists and the African American community.", "Through art like the 1884 Robert Gould Shaw Memorial, the Boston Brahmins rejected the possessive \"Our Martyr\" label given to him by Black artists like Bannister and Edmonia Lewis.Bannister's activism also took other forms: on June 17, 1865, Bannister marshaled around two hundred members of the Twelfth Baptist Sunday School at a Grand Temperance Celebration on Boston Common.", "They marched under a banner reading \"Equal rights for all men\".Bannister eventually studied at the Lowell Institute with the artist William Rimmer, while Rimmer taught evening life drawing classes at the Institute between 1863 and 1865.Rimmer was known for his skill in artistic anatomy, an area Bannister knew was one of his weaknesses.", "Because of Bannister's daytime photography business, he mostly took his drawing classes at night.", "Through Rimmer and the community at the Studio Building, Bannister was inspired by the Barbizon School-influenced paintings of William Morris Hunt, who had studied in Europe and held public exhibitions in Boston around the 1860s.", "At the Lowell Institute, Bannister formed a lifelong friendship with painter John Nelson Arnold; both later became founding members of the Providence Art Club.", "Bannister also formed a temporary painting partnership with Asa R. Lewis that lasted from 1868 to 1869.During that partnership of \"Bannister & Lewis\", Bannister began to advertise himself as both a portrait and landscape painter.Despite his early commissions, Bannister still struggled to receive wider recognition for his work due to racism in the US.", "Following emancipation and the end of the US Civil War, the abolitionists began to disperse and, with them, their patronage.", "Due to increasing competition, Bannister did little to support Primus, who had come to him seeking an apprenticeship.", "An article in the ''New York Herald'' belittled both Bannister and his work: \"The negro has an appreciation for art while being manifestly unable to produce it.\"", "The article reportedly spurred his desire to achieve success as an artist.", "At the same time, Bannister had begun to receive more recognition within Boston art circles.===Providence===Painting completed around the time of ''Under the Oaks'' and thought to resemble its composition.", "''Oak Trees'', oil on canvas, 1876Facade of the Seril Dodge House at right, where the Providence Art Club was first permanently located in 1886Supported by Carteaux, Bannister became a full-time painter in 1870, shortly after they moved to Providence, Rhode Island, at the end of 1869.He first took a studio in the Mercantile National Bank Building then moved to the Woods Building in Providence, where he shared a floor with artists like Sydney Burleigh and became friends with Providence painter George William Whitaker.", "He painted more landscapes over timereceiving an 1872 award at the Rhode Island Industrial Exposition for ''Summer Afternoon''and began submitting paintings to the Boston Art Club.Bannister received national commendation for his work when he won first prize for his large oil ''Under the Oaks'' at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial.Even then, the judge wanted to rescind the award after learning his identity until other exhibition artists protested; afterwards, Bannister reflected: \"I was and am proud to know that the jury of award did not know anything about me, my antecedents, color or race.", "There was no sentimental sympathy leading to the award of the medal.\"", "Bannister had intentionally submitted his painting with only a signature attached to ensure he would be judged fairly.", "As his career matured, he received more commissions and accumulated many honors, several from the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics Association (silver medals in 1881 and 1884).", "Collectors and local notables Isaac Comstock Bates and Joseph Ely were among his patrons.He was an original board member of the Rhode Island School of Design in 1878.In 1880 Bannister joined with other professional artists, amateurs, and art collectors to found the Providence Art Club to stimulate the appreciation of art in the community.", "Their first meeting was in Bannister's studio in the Woods Building at the bottom of College Hill.", "He was the second to sign the club's charter, served on its initial executive board, and taught regular Saturday art classes.", "He continued to show paintings at Boston Art Club exhibitions, as well as in Connecticut and at New York's National Academy of Design, and exhibited ''A New England Hillside'' at the New Orleans Cotton Exposition in 1885.There, Bannister's work was segregated and ignored by the judging committees.", "With that experience in mind, Bannister decided not to submit any works to the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition since they would have to be pre-judged in Boston before they could even be sent to Chicago.In the 1880s Bannister bought a small sloop, the ''Fanchon'', and spent summers sketching, painting watercolors, and sailing Narragansett Bay and up to Bar Harbor in Maine.", "He would return with his studies and use them as the basis for winter commissions.", "He supplemented his sailing trips with journeys to exhibitions in New York, but a planned trip to Europe fell through due to lack of money.", "In 1885, with other art club members, Bannister helped found the Anne Eliza Club (or \"A&E Club\")a communal men's discussion group named after the waitress at the Providence Art Club.", "Through his teaching there and at the Providence Art Club, he became a mentor to younger Providence artists, like Charles Walter Stetson.", "Stetson often mentioned Bannister in his personal diaries and once praised him by writing, \"He is my only confidant in Art matters & I am his.\"", "Rhode Island engineer George Henry Corliss commissioned a painting from Bannister in 1886, as his reputation grew.Art historians have suggested that the figure at left might be a Bannister self-portrait.", "''People Near Boat'', Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1893, oil on canvasBannister and Carteaux were consistent members of the African American community in Providence.", "They lived for a time in the boarding house of Ransom Parker, who had participated in the Dorr Rebellion, and were friends with merchant George Henry, Reverend Mahlon Van Horne, Brown graduate John Hope, and abolitionist George T. Downing, an ally from the Bannisters' political work in Boston.", "Carteaux founded the Home for Aged Colored Women, which is known as the Bannister Center today.", "Edward exhibited his painting ''Christ Healing the Sick'' in the home in 1892 and donated his portrait of Carteaux to it as well.", "Although he was a respected member of the Providence Art Club, Bannister's abolitionism likely led to conflict with its mostly white members, who exhibited art with minstrel stereotypes by E. W. Kemble and W. L. Shephard in 1887 and 1893.Around 1890, Bannister sold the ''Fanchon'' to Judge George Newman Bliss.", "His largest exhibition of works was held in 1891, when he showed 33 works at the Spring Providence Art Club Exhibition.", "Later in the 1890s, Bannister seems to have sold fewer paintings, perhaps due to waning popularity, and exhibited less often.", "In 1898 Bannister closed his studio and the couple moved to Boston for a year before returning to a smaller home on Wilson Street, Providence, in 1900.===Death===Bannister died of a heart attack on January 9, 1901, while attending an evening prayer meeting at his church, Elmwood Avenue Free Baptist Church.", "He had experienced heart trouble for some time but had completed two paintings only the previous day.", "During the service, he offered a prayer and shortly after sat down, gasping.", "His last words were reportedly \"Jesus, help me\".After his death the Providence Art Club held a memorial exhibition in his name that focused on his artistic achievements, without mentioning his contribution to abolitionism.", "In the exhibition pamphlet, they wrote: \"His gentle disposition, his urbanity of manner, and his generous appreciation of the work of others, made him a welcome guest in all artistic circles.", "...", "He painted with profound feeling, not for pecuniary results, but to leave upon the canvas his impression of natural scenery, and to express his delight in the wondrous beauty of land and sea and sky.", "\"He is buried in the North Burial Ground in Providence, under a stone monument designed by artist Mahler B. Ryder, RISD Illustration professor, and colleagues.", "In 1975, upon finding Bannister's marker damaged beyond repair, Ryder led a fundraising and design campaign to create a new monument, which stands today.", "The original marker was placed by Bannister's friends upon his death.", "The disparity between Bannister's financial difficulties at the end of his life and the support shown by Providence's artists after his death led his friend John Nelson Arnold to say about the memorial: \"In the labor incident to this work I was constantly reminded of the remark attributed to the mother of Robert Burns on being shown the splendid monument erected to the memory of her gifted son: 'He asked for bread and they gave him a stone.", "'\".Carteaux was admitted to her Home for Aged Colored Women in September 1902; she died in 1903 in a state mental institution in Cranston.", "She and Bannister are buried together." ], [ "Artistic style", "''Approaching Storm'', Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1886, oil on canvas, 102.2 cm x 152.4 cmThe young Bannister advertised himself as a portraitist, but later became popular for his landscapes and seascapes.", "Drawing on his knowledge of poetry, classics, and English literature as an autodidact, he also painted biblical, mythological, and genre scenes.", "Much like George Inness, his work reflected the composition, mood, and influences of French Barbizon painters Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Jean-François Millet, and Charles-François Daubigny.", "Defending Millet in ''The Artist and His Critics'', Bannister saw him as the most \"spiritual artist of our time\" who voiced \"the sad, uncomplaining life he saw about himand with which he sympathized so deeply.", "\"Historian Joseph Skerrett has noted the influence of the Hudson River School on Bannister, while maintaining that he consistently experimented throughout his career: \"Bannister managed to please a conservative New England taste in art while continuing to try new methods and styles.\"", "For their mutual affinity with the Hudson River School, Bannister has been compared to his contemporary, the Ohio-based African American painter Robert S. Duncanson.", "Unlike Hudson River School artists, Bannister did not create meticulous landscapes but paid more attention to creating \"massive but revealing shapes of trees and mountains\" and works more picturesque than sublime.", "Bannister also avoided the \"nationalist grandeur\" often found in Hudson River School paintings.", "''Boston Street Scene (Boston Common)'', (1898–99).", "The Walters Art Museum.Bannister often made pencil or pastel studies in preparation for larger oil paintings.", "Several of his compositions refer to classical, mathematical methods like the Golden Ratio or \"Harmonic Grid\", and make careful use of symmetry and asymmetry.", "In other paintings, his contrast of darks and lights create dynamic diagonals or circles that divide the composition.", "His paintings are known for their delicate use of color to depict shadow and atmosphere and their loose brushwork.", "His later palette exhibited lighter, more muted colors: the Boston Common scene he painted late in his life is a notable example.", "This change in style stands in contrast to his earlier stated disapproval of Impressionist painting.Art historian Traci Lee Costa has argued that a \"reductive\" emphasis on Bannister's biography has taken attention away from scholarly analysis of his artwork.", "In the lecture ''The Artist and His Critics'' given to the Anne Eliza Club on April 15, 1886, and published afterward, Bannister spelled out his belief that making art is a highly spiritual practicethe pinnacle of human achievement.", "In its nearly religious approach and focus on subjective representations of nature, Bannister's philosophy has been compared to both German Idealism and American Transcendentalism.", "In his lecture, Bannister referenced the works of American Transcendentalist Washington Allston.", "Bannister's friend George W. Whitaker referred to him as \"The Idealist\" in a 1914 article \"Reminiscences of Providence Artists\".", "The lecture and its idealistic view are linked to Bannister's ''Approaching Storm'' (see right), which he completed in the same year.", "''Approaching Storm'' features a human figure at its center, which is nonetheless rendered small by the surrounding landscape.", "Despite the implied drama, Bannister used a cool color palette of blues and greens, with contrasting yellows that provide warmth against the darker, almost purple sky.", "The contrast of melancholy elements against more cheerful pastoral themes appears in many of Bannister's paintings.Although committed to freedom and equal rights for African Americans, Bannister did not often directly represent those issues in his paintings.", "The farms that Bannister painted were reminders of southern Rhode Island's history of chattel slavery, unlike French Barbizon scenes.", "In ''Hay Gatherers'', Bannister depicts African American field laborers in a rural landscape.", "Unlike Bannister's idyllic pastorals, ''Hay Gatherers'' represents racial oppression and labor exploitation in Rhode Island, particularly South County where most of the state's plantations were.", "The women workers are separated from the field of wildflowers at the painting's lower left and other field workers in the background by stands of trees, suggesting their closeness to freedom even while they are still within the grasp of plantation labor.", "Through the geometric composition of ''Hay Gatherers'', which divides the figures and the landscapes into triangular sections, Bannister combined his work on seemingly idealized landscapes with his earlier political art, visible in his humanist portraits such as ''Newspaper Boy''.", "Bannister's ''Fort Dumpling, Jamestown, Rhode Island'' uses a similar triangular composition, whereby people relaxing are juxtaposed against but separated from sailboats in the background, a reminder of the \"maritime legacy of slavery\".", "''Hay Gatherers'', Edward Mitchell Bannister, Bannister often conveyed political meaning in his paintings through allegory and allusion.", "One of his first commissions, ''The Ship Outward Bound'', might have been a veiled reference to the forced return of Anthony Burns to slavery and Virginia under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 in 1854.In African American culture, an image of a ship leaving harbor was a reminder of the Transatlantic Slave Trade.", "Bannister's 1885 drawing ''The Woodsman'' is thought to be Bannister's response to the murder of Amasa Sprague, an event that spurred the abolition of capital punishment in Rhode Island after the dubious conviction and hanging of John Gordon.", "Similarly, his ''Governor Sprague's White Horse'' depicted the horse that William Sprague IV rode into the First Battle of Bull Run.Bannister has been criticized for not often directly representing African Americans, outside of his early portraiture.", "He and artists like Henry Ossawa Tanner were deemed inauthentic during the Harlem Renaissance for producing works that appealed to white aesthetics.", "Many of Bannister's works were commissioned landscapes and portraits that reinforced European ideas, even though his art subtly dismantled racial stereotypes.", "In that way, Bannister has been compared to later Bostonian poet William Stanley Braithwaite, whose writing did not clearly reflect his identity.", "Bannister's work reflected his desire to excel and contribute to racial uplift, while still needing to depend on white patronage to reach a wider audience.", "Art historian Juanita Holland wrote of Bannister's dilemma: \"This was a large part of the double bind that Boston's black artists faced: they needed to both address and represent an African American identity, while finding a way for their white viewers to look past race to a perception of the work in more universal terms.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Bannister was the only major African American artist of the late nineteenth century who developed his talents without European exposure; he was well known in the artistic community of Providence and admired within the wider East Coast art world.", "After his death, he was largely forgotten by art history for almost a century, principally due to racial prejudice.", "His art was often omitted from 20th-century art histories, and his style of melancholic, serene landscapes also fell out of fashion.", "Still, he and his paintings are an indelible part of a refigured relationship between African American culture and the landscapes of Reconstruction-era America.Bannister's art continued to be supported by galleries like the Barnett-Aden Gallery and the Art Institute of Chicago.", "Following the civil rights movement in the 1960s, his work was again celebrated and widely collected.", "In collaboration with the Rhode Island School of Design and the Frederick Douglass Institute, the National Museum of African Art held an exhibition titled ''Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1828–1901: Providence Artist'' in 1973.The Rhode Island Heritage Hall of Fame inducted Bannister in 1976, and Rhode Island College created the Bannister Gallery in 1978 with an inaugural exhibition ''Four from Providence : Bannister, Prophet, Alston, Jennings''.The New York-based Kenkebala Gallery held two exhibitions of Bannister's work, one in 1992 curated by Corrinne Jennings in collaboration with the Whitney and one in 2001 on the centennial of Bannister's death.", "From June 9 to October 8, 2018, the Gilbert Stuart Museum held an exhibition honoring Bannister and Carteaux's relationship, ''\"My Greatest Successes Have Come Through Her\": The Artistic Partnership of Edward and Christiana Bannister'', as part of its Rhode Island Masters exhibition series.", "Bannister's portrait of Christiana Carteaux was the center of the exhibition.Market SquareIn September 2017, a Providence City Council committee unanimously voted to rename Magee Street (which had been named after a Rhode Island slave trader) to Bannister Street, in honor of Edward and Christiana Bannister.", "The Providence Art Club unveiled a bronze bust of Bannister made by Providence artist Gage Prentiss in May 2021.As of 2018, art historian Anne Louise Avery is compiling the first catalogue raisonné and a major biography of Bannister's work.In September 2023, a bronze sculpture of Bannister by artist Gage Prentiss was unveiled in Providence's Market Square.", "Bannister is depicted in life size, sitting on a bench." ], [ "House", "In 1884 Bannister and Carteaux moved from the boarding house of Ransom Parker to 93 Benevolent Street, and lived there until 1899.The two-and-a-half-story wooden house was built circa 1854 by engineer Charles E. Paine and is now known as \"The Vault\" or \"The Bannister House\".", "Euchlin Reeves and Louise Herreshoff purchased the house in the late 1930s and renovated it to add a brick exterior.", "The renovation was made to create consistency with their next-door property, so both houses could hold their \"little museum\" of antiques.", "Herreshoff died in 1967 and the porcelain collection filling the Bannister House was donated to Washington and Lee University.The house is now listed as contributing to College Hill's historical designation.", "Brown University bought the property in 1989 and used it to store refrigerators.", "Due to a lack of plans for its preservation and use, the Providence Preservation Society put the Bannister House on its 2001 list of most endangered buildings in Providence.", "Brown University president Ruth Simmons assured historian and former Rhode Island deputy secretary of state Ray Rickman that the house would be preserved, although the university debated whether to sell the house to a third party.Because its disrepair and long disuse made the house unsuitable for residence, Brown renovated the property in 2015 and restored it to its original appearance.", "It was sold in 2016 as part of the Brown to Brown Home Ownership Programthe program specifies that if the house is ever sold, it has to be sold back to the university." ], [ "Selected artworks", "File:Newspaper Boy 1983.95.85 1a.jpg|alt=An oil painting portrait of a young African American boy, who wears a newsboy cap and carries a newspaper in his right hand.|''Newspaper Boy'', 1869, oil on canvas, Smithsonian American Art MuseumFile:'Governor Sprague's White Horse' by Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1869.jpg|alt=Oil painting of a horse groom, with his back to the viewer, brushing a large, white horse that is pawing the ground and turning to look at the groom.|''Governor Sprague's White Horse'', 1869, oil on canvas, Rhode Island Historical SocietyFile:'Fort Dumpling, Jamestown, Rhode Island' by Edward Mitchell Bannister.jpg|alt=A seaside scene of groups of people relaxing on the side of a grassy hill.", "A round fort rises further back, with two people standing atop it.", "A two-masted boat and a small spritsail sloop are sailing past the fort in the background.|''Fort Dumpling, Jamestown, Rhode Island'', , private collectionFile:'Palmer River' by Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1885.jpg|alt=An oil painting of the woody landscape along a river.", "Large clouds fill the sky, but the light is clear and sunny.", "Little orange flowers grow in the grass that slopes down from the left side of the painting toward the river.|''Palmer River'', 1885, oil on canvas, private collectionFile:'The Woodsman' by Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1885, graphite .jpg|alt=A graphite drawing on laid paper of a man walking along a forest trail, carrying a walking stick.", "The trees loom over him, filling most of the page, but there is a small clearing in the trees visible up ahead.|''The Woodsman'', 1885, graphite, Providence Art ClubFile:Edward Mitchell Bannister - Neutakonkanut - 1983.95.10 - Smithsonian American Art Museum.jpg|alt=A bright watercolor of a thin blue river, surrounded by greenery and rocks.", "A small, twisted tree sits along the river bank.|''Neutakonkanut'', 1891, watercolor, Smithsonian American Art Museum" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", "* Edward Mitchell Bannister at American Art Gallery* Artwork by Edward Mitchell Bannister* Biographical sketch and images at World Wide Art Resources* Narratives of Art and Identity: The David C. Driskell Collection" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eiffel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eiffel''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* '''Eiffel Tower''', in Paris, France, designed by Gustave Eiffel*:* Champ de Mars – Tour Eiffel station, Metro station serving the Eiffel Tower* Eiffel Bridge, Ungheni, Moldova, designed by Gustave Eiffel* Eiffel Bridge, Láchar, Spain, built by the studio of Gustave Eiffel* Eiffel Bridge, Zrenjanin, Serbia, built by Gustave Eiffel's company* Eiffel Building, Sao Paulo, Brazil; a mixed use building* Eiffel Peak, a summit in Alberta, Canada" ], [ "Education", "* Eiffel School of Management (est.", "2007), Creteil, France* Gustave Eiffel French School of Budapest, Hungary* Gustave Eiffel University (est.", "2020), Champs-sur-Marne, Marne la Vallée, France* Lycée Gustave Eiffel (disambiguation)" ], [ "Music", "* Eiffel 65, an Italian electronic music group, originally called Eiffel* Eiffel (band), a French rock group* ''5 Eiffel'' (EP), a 1982 record by Kim Larsen* \"Alec Eiffel\", a song by the alternative rock band Pixies" ], [ "Other uses", "* Eiffel (company), successor of Gustave Eiffel's engineering company* ''Eiffel'' (film), a 2021 French film* ''Eiffel I'm in Love'', a 2003 Indonesian teen romantic comedy film directed by Nasri Cheppy.", "The film stars and Shandy Aulia as the main characters * Eiffel (programming language), developed by Bertrand Meyer** EiffelStudio, a development environment for the programming language** Visual Eiffel* Eiffel Forum License, a free software license" ], [ "People with the surname", "* Erika Eiffel, American woman who \"married\" the Eiffel Tower* Gustave Eiffel (1832–1923), engineer and designer of the Eiffel Tower and the Statue of Liberty" ], [ "See also", "* Eiffel Tower (disambiguation)* Eiffel Bridge (disambiguation)* Tour Eiffel (disambiguation)* Gustave Eiffel (disambiguation)* * Eifel, a mountain region in Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg* Jean Effel (1908–1982), French painter, caricaturist, illustrator and journalist" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emil Kraepelin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emil Wilhelm Georg Magnus Kraepelin''' (; ; 15 February 1856 – 7 October 1926) was a German psychiatrist.", "H. J. Eysenck's Encyclopedia of Psychology identifies him as the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology and psychiatric genetics.Kraepelin believed the chief origin of psychiatric disease to be biological and genetic malfunction.", "His theories dominated psychiatry at the start of the 20th century and, despite the later psychodynamic influence of Sigmund Freud and his disciples, enjoyed a revival at century's end.", "While he proclaimed his own high clinical standards of gathering information \"by means of expert analysis of individual cases\", he also drew on reported observations of officials not trained in psychiatry.His textbooks do not contain detailed case histories of individuals but mosaic-like compilations of typical statements and behaviors from patients with a specific diagnosis.", "He has been described as \"a scientific manager\" and \"a political operator\", who developed \"a large-scale, clinically oriented, epidemiological research programme\"." ], [ "Family and early life", "Kraepelin, whose father, Karl Wilhelm, was a former opera singer, music teacher, and later successful story teller, was born in 1856 in Neustrelitz, in the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in Germany.", "He was first introduced to biology by his brother Karl, 10 years older and, later, the director of the Zoological Museum of Hamburg." ], [ "Education and career", "Grave in Heidelberg (2008)Kraepelin began his medical studies in 1874 at the University of Leipzig and completed them at the University of Würzburg (1877–78).", "At Leipzig, he studied neuropathology under Paul Flechsig and experimental psychology with Wilhelm Wundt.", "Kraepelin would be a disciple of Wundt and had a lifelong interest in experimental psychology based on his theories.", "While there, Kraepelin wrote a prize-winning essay, \"The Influence of Acute Illness in the Causation of Mental Disorders\".At Würzburg he completed his ''Rigorosum'' (roughly equivalent to an MBBS viva-voce examination) in March 1878, his ''Staatsexamen'' (licensing examination) in July 1878, and his ''Approbation'' (his license to practice medicine; roughly equivalent to an MBBS) on 9 August 1878.From August 1878 to 1882, he worked with Bernhard von Gudden at the University of Munich.Returning to the University of Leipzig in February 1882, he worked in Wilhelm Heinrich Erb's neurology clinic and in Wundt's psychopharmacology laboratory.", "He completed his ''habilitation'' thesis at Leipzig; it was entitled \"The Place of Psychology in Psychiatry\".", "On 3 December 1883 he completed his ''umhabilitation'' (\"rehabilitation\" = habilitation recognition procedure) at Munich.Kraepelin's major work, ''Compendium der Psychiatrie: Zum Gebrauche für Studirende und Aerzte'' (''Compendium of Psychiatry: For the Use of Students and Physicians''), was first published in 1883 and was expanded in subsequent multivolume editions to ''Ein Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie'' (''A Textbook: Foundations of Psychiatry and Neuroscience'').", "In it, he argued that psychiatry was a branch of medical science and should be investigated by observation and experimentation like the other natural sciences.", "He called for research into the physical causes of mental illness, and started to establish the foundations of the modern classification system for mental disorders.", "Kraepelin proposed that by studying case histories and identifying specific disorders, the progression of mental illness could be predicted, after taking into account individual differences in personality and patient age at the onset of disease.In 1884, he became senior physician in the Prussian provincial town of Leubus, Silesia Province, and the following year he was appointed director of the Treatment and Nursing Institute in Dresden.", "On 1 July 1886, at the age of 30, Kraepelin was named Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Dorpat (today the University of Tartu) in what is today Tartu, Estonia (see Burgmair et al., vol.", "IV).", "Four years later, on 5 December 1890, he became department head at the University of Heidelberg, where he remained until 1904.While at Dorpat he became the director of the 80-bed University Clinic, where he began to study and record many clinical histories in detail and \"was led to consider the importance of the course of the illness with regard to the classification of mental disorders\".In 1903, Kraepelin moved to Munich to become Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the University of Munich.In 1908, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.In 1912, at the request of the DVP (Deutscher Verein für Psychiatrie; German Association for Psychiatry), of which he was the head from 1906 to 1920, he began plans to establish a centre for research.", "Following a large donation from the Jewish German-American banker James Loeb, who had at one time been a patient, and promises of support from \"patrons of science\", the German Institute for Psychiatric Research was founded in 1917 in Munich.", "Initially housed in existing hospital buildings, it was maintained by further donations from Loeb and his relatives.", "In 1924 it came under the auspices of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science.", "The German-American Rockefeller family's Rockefeller Foundation made a large donation enabling the development of a new dedicated building for the institute along Kraepelin's guidelines, which was officially opened in 1928.Kraepelin spoke out against the barbarous treatment that was prevalent in the psychiatric asylums of the time, and crusaded against alcohol, capital punishment and the imprisonment rather than treatment of the insane.", "For the sedation of agitated patients, Kraepelin recommended potassium bromide.", "He rejected psychoanalytical theories that posited innate or early sexuality as the cause of mental illness, and he rejected philosophical speculation as unscientific.", "He focused on collecting clinical data and was particularly interested in neuropathology (e.g., diseased tissue).In the later period of his career, as a convinced champion of social Darwinism, he actively promoted a policy and research agenda in racial hygiene and eugenics.Kraepelin retired from teaching at the age of 66, spending his remaining years establishing the institute.", "The ninth and final edition of his ''Textbook'' was published in 1927, shortly after his death.", "It comprised four volumes and was ten times larger than the first edition of 1883.In the last years of his life, Kraepelin was preoccupied with Buddhist teachings and was planning to visit Buddhist shrines at the time of his death, according to his daughter, Antonie Schmidt-Kraepelin." ], [ "Theories and classification schemes", "Kraepelin announced that he had found a new way of looking at mental illness, referring to the traditional view as \"symptomatic\" and to his view as \"clinical\".", "This turned out to be his paradigm-setting synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of syndrome—common ''patterns'' of symptoms over time—rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the manner of his predecessors.Kraepelin described his work in the 5th edition of his textbook as a \"decisive step from a symptomatic to a clinical view of insanity.", ".", ".", ".", "The importance of external clinical signs has .", ".", ".", "been subordinated to consideration of the conditions of origin, the course, and the terminus which result from individual disorders.", "Thus, all purely symptomatic categories have disappeared from the nosology\".=== Psychosis and mood ===Kraepelin is specifically credited with the classification of what was previously considered to be a unitary concept of psychosis, into two distinct forms (known as the Kraepelinian dichotomy):* manic depression (although commonly presented as synonym with bipolar disorder that is inaccurate; manic depressive illness encompasses a broader spectrum of mood disorders such as bipolar disorder and recurrent major depression, and* dementia praecox.Drawing on his long-term research, and using the criteria of course, outcome and prognosis, he developed the concept of dementia praecox, which he defined as the \"sub-acute development of a peculiar simple condition of mental weakness occurring at a youthful age\".", "When he first introduced this concept as a diagnostic entity in the fourth German edition of his ''Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie'' in 1893, it was placed among the degenerative disorders alongside, but separate from, catatonia and dementia paranoides.", "At that time, the concept corresponded by and large with Ewald Hecker's hebephrenia.", "In the sixth edition of the ''Lehrbuch'' in 1899 all three of these clinical types are treated as different expressions of one disease, dementia praecox.One of the cardinal principles of his method was the recognition that any given symptom may appear in virtually any one of these disorders; e.g., there is almost no single symptom occurring in dementia praecox which cannot sometimes be found in manic depression.", "What distinguishes each disease symptomatically (as opposed to the underlying pathology) is not any particular (pathognomonic) symptom or symptoms, but a specific pattern of symptoms.", "In the absence of a direct physiological or genetic test or marker for each disease, it is only possible to distinguish them by their specific pattern of symptoms.", "Thus, Kraepelin's system is a method for pattern recognition, not grouping by common symptoms.It has been claimed that Kraepelin also demonstrated specific patterns in the genetics of these disorders and patterns in their course and outcome, but no specific biomarkers have yet been identified.", "Generally speaking, there tend to be more people with schizophrenia among the relatives of schizophrenic patients than in the general population, while manic depression is more frequent in the relatives of manic depressives.", "Though, of course, this does not demonstrate genetic linkage, as this might be a socio-environmental factor as well.He also reported a pattern to the course and outcome of these conditions.", "Kraepelin believed that schizophrenia had a deteriorating course in which mental function continuously (although perhaps erratically) declines, while manic-depressive patients experienced a course of illness which was intermittent, where patients were relatively symptom-free during the intervals which separate acute episodes.", "This led Kraepelin to name what we now know as schizophrenia, dementia praecox (the dementia part signifying the irreversible mental decline).", "It later became clear that dementia praecox did not necessarily lead to mental decline and was thus renamed schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler to correct Kraepelin's misnomer.In addition, as Kraepelin accepted in 1920, \"It is becoming increasingly obvious that we cannot satisfactorily distinguish these two diseases\"; however, he maintained that \"On the one hand we find those patients with irreversible dementia and severe cortical lesions.", "On the other are those patients whose personality remains intact\".", "Nevertheless, overlap between the diagnoses and neurological abnormalities (when found) have continued, and in fact a diagnostic category of schizoaffective disorder would be brought in to cover the intermediate cases.Kraepelin devoted very few pages to his speculations about the etiology of his two major insanities, dementia praecox and manic-depressive insanity.", "However, from 1896 to his death in 1926 he held to the speculation that these insanities (particularly dementia praecox) would one day probably be found to be caused by a gradual systemic or \"whole body\" disease process, probably metabolic, which affected many of the organs and nerves in the body but affected the brain in a final, decisive cascade.=== Psychopathic personalities ===In the first through sixth edition of Kraepelin's influential psychiatry textbook, there was a section on moral insanity, which meant then a disorder of the emotions or moral sense without apparent delusions or hallucinations, and which Kraepelin defined as \"lack or weakness of those sentiments which counter the ruthless satisfaction of egotism\".", "He attributed this mainly to degeneration.", "This has been described as a psychiatric redefinition of Cesare Lombroso's theories of the \"born criminal\", conceptualised as a \"moral defect\", though Kraepelin stressed it was not yet possible to recognise them by physical characteristics.In fact from 1904 Kraepelin changed the section heading to \"The born criminal\", moving it from under \"Congenital feeble-mindedness\" to a new chapter on \"Psychopathic personalities\".", "They were treated under a theory of degeneration.", "Four types were distinguished: born criminals (inborn delinquents), pathological liars, querulous persons, and Triebmenschen (persons driven by a basic compulsion, including vagabonds, spendthrifts, and dipsomaniacs).The concept of \"psychopathic inferiorities\" had been recently popularised in Germany by Julius Ludwig August Koch, who proposed congenital and acquired types.", "Kraepelin had no evidence or explanation suggesting a congenital cause, and his assumption therefore appears to have been simple \"biologism\".", "Others, such as Gustav Aschaffenburg, argued for a varying combination of causes.", "Kraepelin's assumption of a moral defect rather than a positive drive towards crime has also been questioned, as it implies that the moral sense is somehow inborn and unvarying, yet it was known to vary by time and place, and Kraepelin never considered that the moral sense might just be different.Kurt Schneider criticized Kraepelin's nosology on topics such as Haltlose for appearing to be a list of behaviors that he considered undesirable, rather than medical conditions, though Schneider's alternative version has also been criticised on the same basis.", "Nevertheless, many essentials of these diagnostic systems were introduced into the diagnostic systems, and remarkable similarities remain in the DSM-V and ICD-10.The issues would today mainly be considered under the category of personality disorders, or in terms of Kraepelin's focus on psychopathy.Kraepelin had referred to psychopathic conditions (or \"states\") in his 1896 edition, including compulsive insanity, impulsive insanity, homosexuality, and mood disturbances.", "From 1904, however, he instead termed those \"original disease conditions, and introduced the new alternative category of psychopathic personalities.", "In the eighth edition from 1909 that category would include, in addition to a separate \"dissocial\" type, the excitable, the unstable, the Triebmenschen driven persons, eccentrics, the liars and swindlers, and the quarrelsome.", "It has been described as remarkable that Kraepelin now considered mood disturbances to be not part of the same category, but only attenuated (more mild) phases of manic depressive illness; this corresponds to current classification schemes.=== Alzheimer's disease ===Kraepelin postulated that there is a specific brain or other biological pathology underlying each of the major psychiatric disorders.", "As a colleague of Alois Alzheimer, he was a co-discoverer of Alzheimer's disease, and his laboratory discovered its pathological basis.", "Kraepelin was confident that it would someday be possible to identify the pathological basis of each of the major psychiatric disorders.=== Eugenics ===Upon moving to become Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the University of Munich in 1903, Kraepelin increasingly wrote on social policy issues.", "He was a strong and influential proponent of eugenics and racial hygiene.", "His publications included a focus on alcoholism, crime, degeneration and hysteria.Kraepelin was convinced that such institutions as the education system and the welfare state, because of their trend to break the processes of natural selection, undermined the Germans' biological \"struggle for survival\".", "He was concerned to preserve and enhance the German people, the Volk, in the sense of nation or race.", "He appears to have held Lamarckian concepts of evolution, such that cultural deterioration could be inherited.", "He was a strong ally and promoter of the work of fellow psychiatrist (and pupil and later successor as director of the clinic) Ernst Rüdin to clarify the mechanisms of genetic inheritance as to make a so-called \"empirical genetic prognosis\".Martin Brune has pointed out that Kraepelin and Rüdin also appear to have been ardent advocates of a self-domestication theory, a version of social Darwinism which held that modern culture was not allowing people to be weeded out, resulting in more mental disorder and deterioration of the gene pool.", "Kraepelin saw a number of \"symptoms\" of this, such as \"weakening of viability and resistance, decreasing fertility, proletarianisation, and moral damage due to \"penning up people\" ''Zusammenpferchung''.", "He also wrote that \"the number of idiots, epileptics, psychopaths, criminals, prostitutes, and tramps who descend from alcoholic and syphilitic parents, and who transfer their inferiority to their offspring, is incalculable\".", "He felt that \"the well-known example of the Jews, with their strong disposition towards nervous and mental disorders, teaches us that their extraordinarily advanced domestication may eventually imprint clear marks on the race\".", "Brune states that Kraepelin's nosological system \"was, to a great deal, built on the degeneration paradigm\"." ], [ "Influence", "Kraepelin's great contribution in classifying schizophrenia and manic depression remains relatively unknown to the general public, and his work, which had neither the literary quality nor paradigmatic power of Freud's, is little read outside scholarly circles.", "Kraepelin's contributions were also to a large extent marginalized throughout a good part of the 20th century during the success of Freudian etiological theories.", "However, his views now dominate many quarters of psychiatric research and academic psychiatry.", "His fundamental theories on the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders form the basis of the major diagnostic systems in use today, especially the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV and the World Health Organization's ICD system, based on the Research Diagnostic Criteria and earlier Feighner Criteria developed by espoused \"neo-Kraepelinians\", though Robert Spitzer and others in the DSM committees were keen not to include assumptions about causation as Kraepelin had.Kraepelin has been described as a \"scientific manager\" and political operator, who developed a large-scale, clinically oriented, epidemiological research programme.", "In this role he took in clinical information from a wide range of sources and networks.", "Despite proclaiming high clinical standards for himself to gather information \"by means of expert analysis of individual cases\", he would also draw on the reported observations of officials not trained in psychiatry.", "The various editions of his textbooks do not contain detailed case histories of individuals, however, but mosaiclike compilations of typical statements and behaviors from patients with a specific diagnosis.Kraepelin wrote in a ''knapp und klar'' (concise and clear) style that made his books useful tools for physicians.", "Abridged and clumsy English translations of the sixth and seventh editions of his textbook in 1902 and 1907 (respectively) by Allan Ross Diefendorf (1871–1943), an assistant physician at the Connecticut Hospital for the Insane at Middletown, inadequately conveyed the literary quality of his writings that made them so valuable to practitioners.Among the doctors trained by Alois Alzheimer and Emil Kraepelin at Munich at the beginning of the 20th century were the Spanish neuropathologists and neuropsychiatrists Nicolás Achúcarro and Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora, two distinguished disciples of Santiago Ramón y Cajal and members of the Spanish Neurological School." ], [ "Dreaming for psychiatry's sake", "In the Heidelberg and early Munich years he edited ''Psychologische Arbeiten'', a journal on experimental psychology.", "One of his own famous contributions to this journal also appeared in the form of a monograph (105 pp.)", "entitled ''Über Sprachstörungen im Traume'' (''On Language Disturbances in Dreams'').", "Kraepelin, on the basis of the dream-psychosis analogy, studied for more than 20 years language disorder in dreams in order to study indirectly schizophasia.", "The dreams Kraepelin collected are mainly his own.", "They lack extensive comment by the dreamer.", "In order to study them the full range of biographical knowledge available today on Kraepelin is necessary (see, e.g., Burgmair et al., I-IX)." ], [ "Bibliography", "*Kraepelin, E. (1906).", "''Über Sprachstörungen im Traume''.", "Leipzig: Engelmann.", "( Online.", ")*Kraepelin, E. (1987).", "''Memoirs.''", "Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag.", ".===Collected works===*Burgmair, Wolfgang & Eric J. Engstrom & Matthias Weber et al., eds.", "''Emil Kraepelin''.", "9 vols.", "Munich: belleville, 2000–2019.**Vol.", "I: Persönliches, Selbstzeugnisse (2000), **Vol.", "II: Kriminologische und forensische Schriften: Werke und Briefe (2001), **Vol.", "III: Briefe I, 1868–1886 (2002), **Vol.", "IV: Kraepelin in Dorpat, 1886–1891 (2003), **Vol.", "V: Kraepelin in Heidelberg, 1891–1903 (2005), **Vol.", "VI: Kraepelin in München I: 1903–1914 (2006), **Vol.", "VII: Kraepelin in München II: 1914–1920 (2009), **Vol.", "VIII: Kraepelin in München III: 1921–1926 (2013), **Vol.", "IX: Briefe und Dokumente II: 1876-1926 (2019)," ], [ "See also", "* Kraepelinian dichotomy* Comparison of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia* History of bipolar disorder* History of schizophrenia* Lunatic asylum* Psychiatric hospital" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Noll, Richard (2011) ''American Madness: The Rise and Fall of Dementia Praecox.''", "Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Extensive bibliography of English translations of Kraepelin's works* Extensive bibliography of works by and about Kraepelin's including those in the original German @ psych.mpg.de* International Kraepelin Society contact* Kraepelin's monograph ''Über Sprachstörungen im Traume''** For biographies of Kraepelin see:* engstrom.de/KRAEPELINBIOGRAPHY.pdf* uni-leipzig.de/~psy/eng/kraep-e.html * Burkhart Brückner, Julian Schwarz: Biography of Emil Wilhelm Georg Magnus Kraepelin in: Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY).For English translations of Kraepelin's work see:* On Uprootedness (1921)* Emil Kraepelin's Clinical Self-Assessment (1920)* Psychiatric Observations on Contemporary Issues (1919)* On the Question of Degeneration (1908)* The Directions of Psychiatric Research (1887)" ] ]
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[ [ "Evoluon" ], [ "Introduction", "Current (left) logo of the conference centre and logo (right) of the original museum.View from the southThe '''Evoluon''' is a UFO-shaped building located in Eindhoven, the Netherlands.", "It was built in 1966 as a science museum by the electronics and electrical company Philips.", "It quickly became a landmark in Eindhoven, where Philips was headquartered at the time.", "The museum closed in 1989 and the building reopened as a conference centre and exhibition venue in 1998.The building is unique due to its very futuristic design, resembling a landed flying saucer.", "It was designed by architects Leo de Bever and Louis Christiaan Kalff, while the exhibition it housed was conceived by James Gardner.", "De Bever and Kalff only got two demands for the design of the building, it had to be \"spectacular\" and it had to be possible to hold exhibitions in the building.Its concrete dome is in diameter and is held in place by of reinforcing steel bars.In the 1960s and 1970s the Evoluon attracted large numbers of visitors due to its innovative interactive exhibitions.", "When competing science museums opened in other cities, the number of visitors declined and the original museum closed down in 1989.The building was converted into a conference centre which opened in 1998.In the UK the Evoluon is chiefly remembered from Bert Haanstra's wordless short film entitled simply ''Evoluon'', commissioned by Philips to publicise the museum, and shown as a trade test colour film on BBC television from 1968 to 1972.In October 2013 the Evoluon was used to stage four 3D-concerts by the German electronic band Kraftwerk, each before an audience of 1,200 spectators.", "Key band member Ralf Hütter handpicked the venue for its retro-futuristic look.", "Bespoke 3D-visuals of the saucer section of the building descending from space were used in the live rendition of their track ''Spacelab''.On September 24, 2022, the Evoluon reopened to the public with the ''RetroFuture'' exhibition.Overzicht_voorzijde_-_Eindhoven_-_20357095_-_RCE_crop.jpg|View from the northLuchtfoto_Randweg_Eindhoven,_Strijp_crop.jpg|Aerial view in 2009Evoluon91.jpg|Night view in 1991cmglee Evoluon lounge.jpg|Entrance lobbyInterieur Evoluon.jpg|Interior in 1968cmglee_Evoluon_interior_portrait.jpg|Interior in 2016" ], [ "See also", "* List of convention centres in the Netherlands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Extensive site about the history of the Evoluon* Philips Technical Review 1970 5/6 -- article on The Evoluon at page 186" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Educational essentialism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Educational essentialism''' is an educational philosophy whose adherents believe that children should learn the traditional basic subjects thoroughly.", "In this philosophical school of thought, the aim is to instill students with the \"essentials\" of academic knowledge, enacting a back-to-basics approach.", "Essentialism ensures that the accumulated wisdom of our civilization as taught in the traditional academic disciplines is passed on from teacher to student.", "Such disciplines might include Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Mathematics, Classical Languages, Science, Art, and Music.", "Moreover, this traditional approach is meant to train the mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a common culture." ], [ "Principles of essentialism", "Essentialism is a relatively conservative stance to education that strives to teach students the knowledge of a society and civilization through a core curriculum.", "This core curriculum involves such areas that include; the study of the surrounding environment, basic natural laws, and the disciplines that promote a happier, more educated living.", "Other non-traditional areas are also integrated as well in moderation to balance the education.", "Essentialists' goals are to instill students with the \"essentials\" of academic knowledge, patriotism, and character development through traditional (or back-to-basic) approaches.", "This is to promote reasoning, train the mind, and ensure a common culture for all citizens.Essentialism is the most typically enacted philosophy in American classrooms today.", "Traces of this can be found in the organized learning centered on teachers and textbooks, in addition to the regular assignments and evaluations.===Essentialism as a teacher-centered philosophy===The role of the teacher as the leader of the classroom is a very important tenet of Educational essentialism.", "The teacher is the center of the classroom, so they should be rigid and disciplinary.", "Establishing order in the classroom is crucial for student learning; effective teaching cannot take place in a loud and disorganized environment.", "It is the teacher's responsibility to keep order in the classroom.", "The teacher must interpret essentials of the learning process, take the leadership position and set the tone of the classroom.", "These needs require an educator who is academically well-qualified with an appreciation for learning and development.", "The teacher must control the students with distributions of rewards and penalties.", "It has been argued that recent teacher education policies in some countries extend essentialism to teacher education policy frameworks." ], [ "History of essentialism", "The Essentialist movement first began in the United States in the year 1938.In Atlantic City, New Jersey, a group met for the first time called \"The Essentialist's Committee for the Advancement of Education.\"", "Their emphasis was to reform the educational system to a rationality-based system.The term essentialist first appeared in the book ''An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education'' which was written by Michael John Demiashkevich.", "In his book, Demiashkevich labels some specific educators (including William C. Bagley) as “essentialists.\"", "Demiashkevich compared the essentialists to the different viewpoints of the Progressive Education Association.", "He described how the Progressives preached a “hedonistic doctrine of change” whereas the essentialists stressed the moral responsibility of man for his actions and looked toward permanent principles of behavior (Demiashkevich likened the arguments to those between the Socratics and the Sophists in Greek philosophy).", "In 1938 Bagley and other educators met together where Bagley gave a speech detailing the main points of the essentialism movement and attacking the public education in the United States.", "One point that Bagley noted was that students in the U.S. were not getting an education on the same levels as students in Europe who were the same age.A recent branch has emerged within the essentialist school of thought called \"neoessentialism.\"", "Emerging in the eighties as a response to the essentialist ideals of the thirties as well as to the criticism of the fifties and the advocates for education in the seventies, neoessentialism was created to try to appease the problems facing the United States at the time.", "The most notable change within this school of thought is that it called for the creation of a new discipline, computer science.===Renowned essentialists===William Bagley (1874–1946) was an important historical essentialist.", "William C. Bagley completed his undergraduate degree at Michigan Agricultural College in 1895.It wasn't until after finishing his undergraduate studies that he truly wanted to be a teacher.", "Bagley did his Graduate studies at the University of Chicago and at Cornell University.", "He acquired his Ph.D. in 1900, after which he took his first school job as a Principal in a St. Louis, Missouri Elementary School.", "Bagley's devotion increased during his work at Montana State Normal School in Dillon, Montana.", "It was here where he decided to dedicate his time to the education of teachers and where he published ''The Educative Process'', launching his name across the nation.", "Throughout his career Bagley argued against the conservative position that teachers were not in need of special training for their work.", "He believed that liberal arts material was important in teacher education.", "Bagley also believed the dominant theories of education of the time were weak and lacking.In April 1938, he published the ''Essentialist's Platform'', in which he outlined three major points of essentialism.", "He described the right of students to a well-educated and culturally knowledgeable teacher.", "Secondly, he discussed the importance of teaching the ideals of community to each group of students.", "Lastly, Bagley wrote of the importance of accuracy, thoroughness and effort on the part of the student in the classroom.Another important essentialist is E. D. Hirsch (1928-).", "Hirsch was Founder and Chairman of the Core Knowledge Foundation and authored several books concerning fact-based approaches to education.", "Now retired, he spent many years teaching at the University of Virginia while also being an advocate for the \"back to basics\" movement.", "In his most popular book, ''Cultural Literacy — What Every American Needs To Know'', he offers lists, quotations, and information regarding what he believes is essential knowledge.See also Arthur Bestor." ], [ "Schools enacting an essentialist curriculum", "The Core Knowledge Schools were founded on the philosophy of essentialist E.D.", "Hirsch.", "Although it is difficult to maintain a pure and strict essentialist-only curriculum, these schools have the central aim of establishing a common knowledge base for all citizens.", "To do so, they follow a nationwide, content-specific, and teacher-centered curriculum.", "The Core Knowledge curriculum also allows for local variance above and beyond the core curriculum.", "Central curricular aims are academic excellence and the learning of knowledge, and teachers who are masters of their knowledge areas serve this aim." ], [ "Criticism of essentialism", "Because Essentialism is largely teacher-centered, the role of the student is often called into question.", "Presumably, in an essentialist classroom, the teacher is the one designing the curriculum for the students based upon the core disciplines.", "Moreover, he or she is enacting the curriculum and setting the standards which the students must meet.", "The teacher's evaluative role may undermine students' interest in study.", "As a result, the students begin to take on more of a passive role in their education as they are forced to meet and learn such standards and information.Furthermore, there is also speculation that an essentialist education helps in promoting the cultural lag.", "This philosophy of education is very traditional in the mindset of passing on the knowledge of the culture via the academic disciplines.", "Thus, students are forced to think in the mindset of the larger culture, and individual creativity, and subversive investigation are often not emphasized, or even outright discouraged." ], [ "See also", "* Educational perennialism" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Progressive education" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Progressive education''', or '''educational progressivism''', is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present.", "In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement.", "The term ''progressive'' was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the early-industrial university and strongly differentiated by social class.", "By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in modern, post-industrial experience.", "Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common: * Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary learning, experiential learning* Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units* Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking* Group work and development of social skills* Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge* Collaborative and cooperative learning projects* Education for social responsibility and democracy* Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum* Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society* De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources* Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills* Assessment by evaluation of child's projects and productions" ], [ "Educational theory", "Progressive education can be traced back to the works of John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, both of whom are known as forerunners of ideas that would be developed by theorists such as John Dewey.", "Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, Locke believed that \"truth and knowledge… arise out of observation and experience rather than manipulation of accepted or given ideas\".", "He further discussed the need for children to have concrete experiences in order to learn.", "Rousseau deepened this line of thinking in Emile, or On Education, where he argued that subordination of students to teachers and memorization of facts would not lead to an education.===Johann Bernhard Basedow===In Germany, Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) established the Philanthropinum at Dessau in 1774.He developed new teaching methods based on conversation and play with the child, and a program of physical development.", "Such was his success that he wrote a treatise on his methods, \"On the best and hitherto unknown method of teaching children of noblemen\".===Christian Gotthilf Salzmann===Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744–1811) was the founder of the Schnepfenthal institution, a school dedicated to new modes of education (derived heavily from the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau).", "He wrote ''Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children'', one of the first books translated into English by Mary Wollstonecraft.=== Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi ===Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach.", "He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education.", "His motto was \"Learning by head, hand and heart\".", "His research and theories closely resemble those outlined by Rousseau in Emile.", "He is further considered by many to be the \"father of modern educational science\" His psychological theories pertain to education as they focus on the development of object teaching, that is, he felt that individuals best learned through experiences and through a direct manipulation and experience of objects.", "He further speculated that children learn through their own internal motivation rather than through compulsion.", "(See Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation).", "A teacher's task will be to help guide their students as individuals through their learning and allow it to unfold naturally.===Friedrich Fröbel===Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (1782–1852) was a student of Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities.", "He believed in \"self-activity\" and play as essential factors in child education.", "The teacher's role was not to indoctrinate but to encourage self-expression through play, both individually and in group activities.", "He created the concept of kindergarten.===Johann Friedrich Herbart===Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) emphasized the connection between individual development and the resulting societal contribution.", "The five key ideas which composed his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense.", "According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the framework for moral and intellectual development.", "In order to develop a child to lead to a consciousness of social responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a methodology with five formal steps: \"Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson's achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living\".===John Melchior Bosco===John Melchior Bosco (1815–1888) was concerned about the education of street children who had left their villages to find work in the rapidly industrialized city of Turin, Italy.", "Exploited as cheap labor or imprisoned for unruly behavior, Bosco saw the need for creating a space where they would feel at home.", "He called it an 'Oratory' where they could play, learn, share friendships, express themselves, develop their creative talents and pick up skills for gainful self-employment.", "With those who had found work, he set up a mutual-fund society (an early version of the Grameen Bank) to teach them the benefits of saving and self-reliance.", "The principles underlying his educational method that won over the hearts and minds of thousands of youth who flocked to his oratory were: 'be reasonable', 'be kind', 'believe' and 'be generous in service'.", "Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around the world by the members of the Salesian Society he founded in 1873.===Cecil Reddie===While studying for his doctorate in Göttingen in 1882–1883, Cecil Reddie was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there.", "Reddie founded Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire, England, in 1889.Its curriculum enacted the ideas of progressive education.", "Reddie rejected rote learning, classical languages and corporal punishment.", "He combined studies in modern languages and the sciences and arts with a program of physical exercise, manual labour, recreation, crafts and arts.", "Schools modeling themselves after Abbotsholme were established throughout Europe, and the model was particularly influential in Germany.", "Reddie often engaged foreign teachers, who learned its practices, before returning home to start their own schools.", "Hermann Lietz an Abbotsholme teacher founded five schools (Landerziehungsheime für Jungen) on Abbotsholme's principles.", "Other people he influenced included Kurt Hahn, Adolphe Ferrière and Edmond Demolins.", "His ideas also reached Japan, where it turned into \"Taisho-era Free Education Movement\" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo)===John Dewey===Education according to John Dewey is the \"participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race\" (Dewey, 1897, para.", "1).", "As such, education should take into account that the student is a social being.", "The process begins at birth with the child unconsciously gaining knowledge and gradually developing their knowledge to share and partake in society.For Dewey, education, which regulates \"the process of coming to share in the social consciousness,\" is the \"only sure\" method of ensuring social progress and reform (Dewey, 1897, para.", "60).", "In this respect, Dewey foreshadows Social Reconstructionism, whereby schools are a means to reconstruct society.", "As schools become a means for social reconstruction, they must be given the proper equipment to perform this task and guide their students.===Helen Parkhurst===The American teacher Helen Parkhurst (1886–1973) developed the Dalton Plan at the beginning of the twentieth century with the goal of reforming the then current pedagogy and classroom management.", "She wanted to break the teacher-centered lockstep teaching.", "During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn more.", "In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds.", "Instead of each grade, each subject was appointed its own teacher and its own classroom.", "The subject teachers made assignments: they converted the subject matter for each grade into learning assignments.", "In this way, learning became the students' own work; they could carry out their work independently, work at their own pace and plan their work themselves.", "The classroom turned into a laboratory, a place where students are working, furnished and equipped as work spaces, tailored to meet the requirements of specific subjects.", "Useful and attractive learning materials, instruments and reference books were put within the students' reach.", "The benches were replaced by large tables to facilitate co-operation and group instruction.", "This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards.", "The only addition was the use of graphs, charts enabling students to keep track of their own progress in each subject.In the nineteen-twenties and nineteen-thirties, Dalton education spread throughout the world.", "There is no certainty regarding the exact numbers of Dalton schools, but there was Dalton education in America, Australia, England, Germany, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, India, China and Japan.===Rudolf Steiner===Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) first described the principles of what was to become Waldorf education in 1907.He established a series of schools based on these principles beginning in 1919.The focus of the education is on creating a developmentally appropriate curriculum that holistically integrates practical, artistic, social, and academic experiences.", "There are more than a thousand schools and many more early childhood centers worldwide; it has also become a popular form of homeschooling.===Maria Montessori===Maria Montessori (1870–1952) began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897.She based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them.", "She frequently referred to her work as \"scientific pedagogy\", arguing for the need to go beyond observation and measurement of students, to developing new methods to transform them.", "Although Montessori education spread to the United States in 1911 there were conflicts with the American educational establishment and was opposed by William Heard Kilpatrick.", "However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there.In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference.", "Hosted by Rev Bertram Hawker, who had set up, in partnership with his local elementary school in the Norfolk coastal village of East Runton, the first Montessori School in England.", "Pictures of this school, and its children, illustrated the 'Montessori's Own Handbook' (1914).", "Hawker had been impressed by his visit to Montessori's Casa dei Bambini in Rome, he gave numerous talks on Montessori's work after 1912, assisting in generating a national interest in her work.", "He organised the Montessori Conference 1914 in partnership with Edmond Holmes, ex-Chief Inspector of Schools, who had written a government report on Montessori.", "The conference decided that its remit was to promote the 'liberation of the child in the school', and though inspired by Montessori, would encourage, support and network teachers and educationalists who sought, through their schools and methods, that aim.", "They changed their name the following year to New Ideals in Education.", "Each subsequent conference was opened with reference to its history and origin as a Montessori Conference recognising her inspiration, reports italicized the members of the Montessori Society in the delegate lists, and numerous further events included Montessori methods and case studies.", "Montessori, through New Ideals in Education, its committee and members, events and publications, greatly influenced progressive state education in England.", "(references to be added).===Robert Baden-Powell===In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Robert Baden-Powell a copy of his book ''The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians''.", "Seton was a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States.", "They shared ideas about youth training programs.", "In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called ''Boy Patrols''.", "In the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in England.", "His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader.", "Baden Powell then wrote ''Scouting for Boys'' (London, 1908).", "The Brownsea camp and the publication of ''Scouting for Boys'' are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement which spread throughout the world.", "Baden-Powell and his sister Agnes Baden-Powell introduced the Girl Guides in 1910.===Comparison with traditional education===Traditional education uses extrinsic motivation, such as grades and prizes.", "Progressive education is more likely to use intrinsic motivation, basing activities on the interests of the child.", "Praise may be discouraged as a motivator.", "Progressive education is a response to traditional methods of teaching.", "It is defined as an educational movement which gives more value to experience than formal learning.", "It is based more on experiential learning that concentrate on the development of a child's talents.===21st century skills===21st century skills are a series of higher-order skills, abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in the rapidly changing, digital society and workplaces.", "Many of these skills are also defining qualities of ''progressive education'' as well as being associated with deeper learning, which is based on mastering skills such as analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork.", "These skills differ from traditional academic skills in that they are not primarily content knowledge-based." ], [ "In the West", "===Germany===Hermann Lietz founded three Landerziehungsheime (country boarding schools) in 1904 based on Reddie's model for boys of different ages.", "Lietz eventually succeeded in establishing five more Landerziehungsheime.", "Edith and Paul Geheeb founded Odenwaldschule in Heppenheim in the Odenwald in 1910 using their concept of progressive education, which integrated the work of the head and hand.===Poland===Janusz Korczak was one notable follower and developer of Pestalozzi's ideas.", "He wrote''The names of Pestalozzi, Froebel and Spencer shine with no less brilliance than the names of the greatest inventors of the twentieth century.", "For they discovered more than the unknown forces of nature; they discovered the unknown half of humanity: children.''", "His Orphan's Home in Warsaw became a model institution and exerted influence on the educational process in other orphanages of the same type.===Ireland===The Quaker school run in '''Ballitore''', Co Kildare in the 18th century had students from as far away as Bordeaux (where there was a substantial Irish émigré population), the Caribbean and Norway.", "Notable pupils included Edmund Burke and Napper Tandy.", "'''Sgoil Éanna''', or in English St Enda's was founded in 1908 by Pádraig Pearse on Montessori principles.", "Its former assistant headmaster Thomas MacDonagh and other teachers including Pearse; games master Con Colbert; Pearse's brother, Willie, the art teacher, and Joseph Plunkett, and occasional lecturer in English, were executed by the British after the 1916 Rising.", "Pearse and MacDonagh were two of the seven leaders who signed the Irish Declaration of Independence.", "Pearse's book ''The Murder Machine'' was a denunciation of the English school system of the time and a declaration of his own educational principles.===Sweden===In Sweden, an early proponent of progressive education was Alva Myrdal, who with her husband Gunnar co-wrote ''Kris i befolkningsfrågan'' (1934), a most influential program for the social-democratic hegemony (1932–1976) popularly known as \"Folkhemmet\".", "School reforms went through government reports in the 1940s and trials in the 1950s, resulting in the introduction in 1962 of public comprehensive schools (\"grundskola\") instead of the previously separated parallel schools for theoretical and non-theoretical education.===United Kingdom===The ideas from Reddie's Abbotsholme spread to schools such as Bedales School (1893), King Alfred School, London (1898) and St Christopher School, Letchworth (1915), as well as all the Friends' schools, Steiner Waldorf schools and those belonging to the Round Square Conference.", "The King Alfred School was radical for its time in that it provided a secular education and that boys and girls were educated together.", "Alexander Sutherland Neill believed children should achieve self-determination and should be encouraged to think critically rather than blindly obeying.", "He implemented his ideas with the founding of Summerhill School in 1921.Neill believed that children learn better when they are not compelled to attend lessons.", "The school was also managed democratically, with regular meetings to determine school rules.", "Pupils had equal voting rights with school staff.===United States=======Early practitioners====Fröbel's student Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in the United States at Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1856, and she also inspired Elizabeth Peabody, who went on to found the first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States – the language at Schurz's kindergarten had been German, to serve an immigrant community – in Boston in 1860.This paved the way for the concept's spread in the USA.", "The German émigré Adolph Douai had also founded a kindergarten in Boston in 1859, but was obliged to close it after only a year.", "By 1866, however, he was founding others in New York City.William Heard Kilpatrick (1871–1965) was a pupil of Dewey and one of the most effective practitioners of the concept as well as the more adept at proliferating the progressive education movement and spreading word of the works of Dewey.", "He is especially well known for his \"project method of teaching\".", "This developed the progressive education notion that students were to be engaged and taught so that their knowledge may be directed to society for a socially useful need.", "Like Dewey he also felt that students should be actively engaged in their learning rather than actively disengaged with the simple reading and regurgitation of material.The most famous early practitioner of progressive education was Francis Parker; its best-known spokesperson was the philosopher John Dewey.", "In 1875 Francis Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Massachusetts, after spending two years in Germany studying emerging educational trends on the continent.", "Parker was opposed to rote learning, believing that there was no value in knowledge without understanding.", "He argued instead schools should encourage and respect the child's creativity.", "Parker's Quincy System called for child-centered and experience-based learning.", "He replaced the traditional curriculum with integrated learning units based on core themes related to the knowledge of different disciplines.", "He replaced traditional readers, spellers and grammar books with children's own writing, literature, and teacher prepared materials.", "In 1883 Parker left Massachusetts to become Principal of the Cook County Normal School in Chicago, a school that also served to train teachers in Parker's methods.", "In 1894 Parker's Talks on Pedagogics, which drew heavily on the thinking of Fröbel, Pestalozzi and Herbart, became one of the first American writings on education to gain international fame.That same year, philosopher John Dewey moved from the University of Michigan to the newly established University of Chicago where he became chair of the department of philosophy, psychology and education.", "He and his wife enrolled their children in Parker's school before founding their own school two years later.Whereas Parker started with practice and then moved to theory, Dewey began with hypotheses and then devised methods and curricula to test them.", "By the time Dewey moved to Chicago at the age of thirty-five, he had already published two books on psychology and applied psychology.", "He had become dissatisfied with philosophy as pure speculation and was seeking ways to make philosophy directly relevant to practical issues.", "Moving away from an early interest in Hegel, Dewey proceeded to reject all forms of dualism and dichotomy in favor of a philosophy of experience as a series of unified wholes in which everything can be ultimately related.In 1896, John Dewey opened what he called the laboratory school to test his theories and their sociological implications.", "With Dewey as the director and his wife as principal, the University of Chicago Laboratory school, was dedicated \"to discover in administration, selection of subject-matter, methods of learning, teaching, and discipline, how a school could become a cooperative community while developing in individuals their own capacities and satisfy their own needs.\"", "(Cremin, 136) For Dewey the two key goals of developing a cooperative community and developing individuals' own capacities were not at odds; they were necessary to each other.", "This unity of purpose lies at the heart of the progressive education philosophy.", "In 1912, Dewey sent out students of his philosophy to found The Park School of Buffalo and The Park School of Baltimore to put it into practice.", "These schools operate to this day within a similar progressive approach.At Columbia, Dewey worked with other educators such as Charles Eliot and Abraham Flexner to help bring progressivism into the mainstream of American education.", "In 1917 Columbia established the Lincoln School of Teachers College \"as a laboratory for the working out of an elementary and secondary curriculum which shall eliminate obsolete material and endeavor to work up in usable form material adapted to the needs of modern living.\"", "(Cremin, 282) Based on Flexner's demand that the modern curriculum \"include nothing for which an affirmative case can not be made out\" (Cremin, 281) the new school organized its activities around four fundamental fields: science, industry, aesthetics and civics.", "The Lincoln School built its curriculum around \"units of work\" that reorganized traditional subject matter into forms embracing the development of children and the changing needs of adult life.", "The first and second grades carried on a study of community life in which they actually built a city.", "A third grade project growing out of the day-to-day life of the nearby Hudson River became one of the most celebrated units of the school, a unit on boats, which under the guidance of its legendary teacher Miss Curtis, became an entrée into history, geography, reading, writing, arithmetic, science, art and literature.", "Each of the units was broadly enough conceived so that different children could concentrate on different aspects depending on their own interests and needs.", "Each of the units called for widely diverse student activities, and each sought to deal in depth with some critical aspect of contemporary civilization.", "Finally each unit engaged children working together cooperatively and also provided opportunities for individual research and exploration.In 1924, Agnes de Lima, the lead writer on education for ''The New Republic'' and ''The Nation'', published a collection of her articles on progressive education as a book, titled ''Our Enemy the Child''.In 1918, the National Education Association, representing superintendents and administrators in smaller districts across the country, issued its report \"Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education.\"", "It emphasized the education of students in terms of health, a command of fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character.", "They emphasized life adjustment and reflected the social efficiency model of progressive education.From 1919 to 1955, the Progressive Education Association founded by Stanwood Cobb and others worked to promote a more student-centered approach to education.", "During the Great Depression the organization conducted the Eight-Year Study, evaluating the effects of progressive programs.", "More than 1500 students over four years were compared to an equal number of carefully matched students at conventional schools.", "When they reached college, the experimental students were found to equal or surpass traditionally educated students on all outcomes: grades, extracurricular participation, dropout rates, intellectual curiosity, and resourcefulness.", "Moreover, the study found that the more the school departed from the traditional college preparatory program, the better was the record of the graduates.", "(Kohn, Schools, 232)By mid-century, many public school programs had also adopted elements of progressive curriculum.", "At mid-century Dewey believed that progressive education had \"not really penetrated and permeated the foundations of the educational institution.", "\"(Kohn, Schools, 6,7) As the influence of progressive pedagogy grew broader and more diffuse, practitioners began to vary their application of progressive principles.", "As varying interpretations and practices made evaluation of progressive reforms more difficult to assess, critics began to propose alternative approaches.The seeds of the debate over progressive education can be seen in the differences of Parker and Dewey.", "These have to do with how much and by whom curriculum should be worked out from grade to grade, how much the child's emerging interests should determine classroom activities, the importance of child-centered vs. societal–centered learning, the relationship of community building to individual growth, and especially the relationship between emotion, thought and experience.In 1955, the publication of Rudolf Flesch's ''Why Johnny Can't Read'' leveled criticism of reading programs at the progressive emphasis on reading in context.", "The conservative McCarthy era raised questions about the liberal ideas at the roots of the progressive reforms.", "The launching of Sputnik in 1957 at the height of the Cold War gave rise to a number of intellectually competitive approaches to disciplinary knowledge, such as BSCS biology PSSC physics, led by university professors such as Jerome Bruner and Jerrold Zacharias.Some Cold War reforms incorporated elements of progressivism.", "For example, the work of Zacharias and Bruner was based in the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget and incorporated many of Dewey's ideas of experiential education.", "Bruner's analysis of developmental psychology became the core of a pedagogical movement known as constructivism, which argues that the child is an active participant in making meaning and must be engaged in the progress of education for learning to be effective.", "This psychological approach has deep connections to the work of both Parker and Dewey and led to a resurgence of their ideas in second half of the century.In 1965, President Johnson inaugurated the Great Society and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act suffused public school programs with funds for sweeping education reforms.", "At the same time the influx of federal funding also gave rise to demands for accountability and the behavioral objectives approach of Robert F. Mager and others foreshadowed the No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2002.Against these critics eloquent spokespersons stepped forward in defense of the progressive tradition.", "The Open Classroom movement, led by Herb Kohl and George Dennison, recalled many of Parker's child centered reforms.The late 1960s and early 1970s saw a rise and decline in the number of progressive schools.", "There were several reasons for the decline:* Demographics: As the baby boom passed, traditional classrooms were no longer as over-enrolled, reducing demand for alternatives.", "* The economy: The oil crisis and recession made shoestring schools less viable.", "* Times changed: With the ending of the Vietnam War, social activism waned.", "* Co-optation: Many schools were co-opted by people who didn't believe in the original mission.", "* Centralization: The ongoing centralization of school districts* Non-implementation: Schools failed to implement a model of shared governance* Interpersonal dynamics: Disagreement over school goals, poor group process skills, lack of critical dialogue, and fear of assertive leadershipProgressive education has been viewed as an alternative to the test-oriented instruction legislated by the No Child Left Behind educational funding act.", "Alfie Kohn has been an outspoken critic of the No Child Left Behind Act and a passionate defender of the progressive tradition." ], [ "In the East", "===India===Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was one of the most effective practitioners of the concept of progressive education.", "He expanded Santiniketan, which is a small town near Bolpur in the Birbhum district of West Bengal, India, approximately 160 km north of Kolkata.", "He de-emphasized textbook learning in favor of varied learning resources from nature.", "The emphasis here was on self-motivation rather than on discipline, and on fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence.", "There were courses on a great variety of cultures, and study programs devoted to China, Japan, and the Middle East.", "He was of the view that education should be a \"joyous exercise of our inventive and constructive energies that help us to build up character.", "\"===Japan===Seikatsu tsuzurikata is a grassroots movement in Japan that has many parallels to the progressive education movement, but it developed completely independently, beginning inthe late 1920s.", "The Japanese progressive educational movement was one of the stepping stones to the modernization of Japan and it has resonated down to the present." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bernstein, Richard J.", "\"John Dewey\", ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', New York: Macmillan, 1967, 380–385* * Bruner, Jerome.", "''The Process of Education'' (New York: Random House, 1960)* Bruner, Jerome.", "''The Relevance of Education'' (New York: Norton, 1971)* Cappel, Constance, Utopian Colleges, New York: Peter Lang, 1999.", "* Cohen, Ronald D., and Raymond A. Mohl.", "''The paradox of progressive education: The Gary Plan and urban schooling'' (1979)* Cremin, Lawrence.", "''The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876–1957'' (New York: Knopf, 1962); The standard scholarly history* * Dewey, John.", "''Dewey on Education'', edited by Martin Dworkin.", "New York: Teachers college Press, 1959* Dewey, John.", "''Democracy and Education''.", "(New York: Free Press, 1944.", ")* Dewey, John.", "''Experience and Nature''.", "(New York: Dover, 1958.", ")* Fallace, Thomas.", "''Race and the Origins of Progressive Education, 1880–1929'' (2015) * Knoester, Matthew.", "Democratic Education in Practice: Inside the Mission Hill School.", "New York: Teachers College Press, 2012.", "* Kohn, Alfie.", "''The Case Against Standardized Testing'' (Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 2000)* Kohn, Alfie.", "''The Schools Our Children Deserve'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999)* Mager, Robert F. ''Preparing Behavioral Objectives'' (Atlanta: Center for Effective Instruction, 1969)* Pratt, Caroline.", "''I Learn from Children'' (New York: HarperPerennial/HarperCollins, 1948; republished by Grove Atlantic in 2014)* Ravitch, Dianne.", "''Left Back: A Century of Battles over School Reform'' (New York, Simon and Schuster, 2000)* Snyder, Jeffrey Aaron.", "\"Progressive Education in Black and White: Rereading Carter G. Woodson's Miseducation of the Negro.\"", "''History of Education Quarterly'' 55#3 (2015): 273–293.", "* Sutinen, Ari.", "\"Social Reconstructionist Philosophy of Education and George S. Counts-observations on the ideology of indoctrination in socio-critical educational thinking.\"", "''International Journal of Progressive Education'' 10#1 (2014).===International===* Blossing, Ulf, Gunn Imsen, and Lejf Moos.", "\"Progressive Education and New Governance in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.\"", "''The Nordic Education Model'' (Springer Netherlands, 2014) pp 133–154.", "* * Christou, Theodore Michael.", "''Progressive Education: Revisioning and Reframing Ontario's Public Schools, 1919–1942'' (2013) * Hughes, John Patrick.", "\"Theory into practice in Australian progressive education: the Enmore Activity School.\"", "''History of Education Review'' 44#1 (2015).", "* Keskin, Yusuf.", "\"Progressive Education in Turkey: Reports of John Dewey and his Successors.\"", "''International Journal of Progressive Education'' 10#3 (2014).", "* Knoll, Michael.", "\"The Project Method – Its Origin and International Influence\".", "In: ''Progressive Education Across the Continents.", "A Handbook'', ed.", "Hermann Röhrs and Volker Lenhart.", "New York: Lang 1995.pp.", "307–318.===Historiography===* Graham, Patricia Albjerg.", "''Progressive Education from Arcady to Academe: A History of the Progressive Education Association, 1919–1955'' (1967)* Reese, William J.", "\"The origins of progressive education.\"", "''History of Education Quarterly'' 41#1 (2001): 1-24.", "* Wraga, William G. \"Condescension and critical sympathy: Historians of education on progressive education in the United States and England.\"", "''Paedagogica Historica'' 50#1-2 (2014): 59-75." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electronic musical instrument" ], [ "Introduction", "Robert Moog, inventor of the Moog synthesizerAn '''electronic musical instrument''' or '''electrophone''' is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronic circuitry.", "Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical, electronic or digital audio signal that ultimately is plugged into a power amplifier which drives a loudspeaker, creating the sound heard by the performer and listener.An electronic instrument might include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, or duration of each note.", "A common user interface is the musical keyboard, which functions similarly to the keyboard on an acoustic piano where the keys are each linked mechanically to swinging string hammers - whereas with an electronic keyboard, the keyboard interface is linked to a synth module, computer or other electronic or digital sound generator, which then creates a sound.", "However, it is increasingly common to separate user interface and sound-generating functions into a music controller (input device) and a music synthesizer, respectively, with the two devices communicating through a musical performance description language such as MIDI or Open Sound Control.", "The solid state nature of electronic keyboards also offers differing \"feel\" and \"response\", offering a novel experience in playing relative to operating a mechanically linked piano keyboard.All electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of audio signal processing applications.", "Simple electronic musical instruments are sometimes called sound effects; the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often unclear.In the 21st century, electronic musical instruments are now widely used in most styles of music.", "In popular music styles such as electronic dance music, almost all of the instrument sounds used in recordings are electronic instruments (e.g., bass synth, synthesizer, drum machine).", "Development of new electronic musical instruments, controllers, and synthesizers continues to be a highly active and interdisciplinary field of research.", "Specialized conferences, such as the International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, have organized to report cutting-edge work, as well as to provide a showcase for artists who perform or create music with new electronic music instruments, controllers, and synthesizers." ], [ "Classification", "In musicology, electronic musical instruments are known as electrophones.", "Electrophones are the fifth category of musical instrument under the Hornbostel-Sachs system.", "Musicologists typically only classify music as electrophones if the sound is initially produced by electricity, excluding electronically controlled acoustic instruments such as pipe organs and amplified instruments such as electric guitars.The category was added to the Hornbostel-Sachs musical instrument classification system by Sachs in 1940, in his 1940 book ''The History of Musical Instruments''; the original 1914 version of the system did not include it.", "Sachs divided electrophones into three subcategories:* 51=electrically actuated acoustic instruments (e.g., pipe organ with electronic tracker action)* 52=electrically amplified acoustic instruments (e.g., acoustic guitar with pickup)* 53=instruments which make sound primarily by way of electrically driven oscillatorsThe last category included instruments such as theremins or synthesizers, which he called radioelectric instruments.Francis William Galpin provided such a group in his own classification system, which is closer to Mahillon than Sachs-Hornbostel.", "For example, in Galpin's 1937 book ''A Textbook of European Musical Instruments'', he lists electrophones with three second-level divisions for sound generation (\"by oscillation\", \"electro-magnetic\", and \"electro-static\"), as well as third-level and fourth-level categories based on the control method.Present-day ethnomusicologists, such as Margaret Kartomi and Terry Ellingson, suggest that, in keeping with the spirit of the original Hornbostel Sachs classification scheme, if one categorizes instruments by what first produces the initial sound in the instrument, that only subcategory 53 should remain in the electrophones category.", "Thus, it has been more recently proposed, for example, that the pipe organ (even if it uses electric key action to control solenoid valves) remain in the aerophones category, and that the electric guitar remain in the chordophones category, and so on." ], [ "Early examples", "Diagram of the clavecin électriqueIn the 18th-century, musicians and composers adapted a number of acoustic instruments to exploit the novelty of electricity.", "Thus, in the broadest sense, the first electrified musical instrument was the Denis d'or keyboard, dating from 1753, followed shortly by the clavecin électrique by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste de Laborde in 1761.The Denis d'or consisted of a keyboard instrument of over 700 strings, electrified temporarily to enhance sonic qualities.", "The clavecin électrique was a keyboard instrument with plectra (picks) activated electrically.", "However, neither instrument used electricity as a sound source.The first electric synthesizer was invented in 1876 by Elisha Gray.", "The \"Musical Telegraph\" was a chance by-product of his telephone technology when Gray discovered that he could control sound from a self-vibrating electromagnetic circuit and so invented a basic oscillator.", "The Musical Telegraph used steel reeds oscillated by electromagnets and transmitted over a telephone line.", "Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, which consisted of a diaphragm vibrating in a magnetic field.A significant invention, which later had a profound effect on electronic music, was the audion in 1906.This was the first thermionic valve, or vacuum tube and which led to the generation and amplification of electrical signals, radio broadcasting, and electronic computation, among other things.", "Other early synthesizers included the Telharmonium (1897), the Theremin (1919), Jörg Mager's Spharophon (1924) and Partiturophone, Taubmann's similar Electronde (1933), Maurice Martenot's ondes Martenot (\"Martenot waves\", 1928), Trautwein's Trautonium (1930).", "The Mellertion (1933) used a non-standard scale, Bertrand's Dynaphone could produce octaves and perfect fifths, while the Emicon was an American, keyboard-controlled instrument constructed in 1930 and the German Hellertion combined four instruments to produce chords.", "Three Russian instruments also appeared, Oubouhof's Croix Sonore (1934), Ivor Darreg's microtonal 'Electronic Keyboard Oboe' (1937) and the ANS synthesizer, constructed by the Russian scientist Evgeny Murzin from 1937 to 1958.Only two models of this latter were built and the only surviving example is currently stored at the Lomonosov University in Moscow.", "It has been used in many Russian movies—like ''Solaris''—to produce unusual, \"cosmic\" sounds.Hugh Le Caine, John Hanert, Raymond Scott, composer Percy Grainger (with Burnett Cross), and others built a variety of automated electronic-music controllers during the late 1940s and 1950s.", "In 1959 Daphne Oram produced a novel method of synthesis, her \"Oramics\" technique, driven by drawings on a 35 mm film strip; it was used for a number of years at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop.", "This workshop was also responsible for the theme to the TV series ''Doctor Who'' a piece, largely created by Delia Derbyshire, that more than any other ensured the popularity of electronic music in the UK.=== Telharmonium ===Telharmonium console by Thaddeus Cahill 1897In 1897 Thaddeus Cahill patented an instrument called the Telharmonium (or Teleharmonium, also known as the Dynamaphone).", "Using tonewheels to generate musical sounds as electrical signals by additive synthesis, it was capable of producing any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level.", "This technology was later used to design the Hammond organ.", "Between 1901 and 1910 Cahill had three progressively larger and more complex versions made, the first weighing seven tons, the last in excess of 200 tons.", "Portability was managed only by rail and with the use of thirty boxcars.", "By 1912, public interest had waned, and Cahill's enterprise was bankrupt.=== Theremin ===Another development, which aroused the interest of many composers, occurred in 1919–1920.In Leningrad, Leon Theremin built and demonstrated his Etherophone, which was later renamed the Theremin.", "This led to the first compositions for electronic instruments, as opposed to noisemakers and re-purposed machines.", "The Theremin was notable for being the first musical instrument played without touching it.", "In 1929, Joseph Schillinger composed ''First Airphonic Suite for Theremin and Orchestra'', premièred with the Cleveland Orchestra with Leon Theremin as soloist.", "The next year Henry Cowell commissioned Theremin to create the first electronic rhythm machine, called the Rhythmicon.", "Cowell wrote some compositions for it, which he and Schillinger premiered in 1932.=== Ondes Martenot ===Ondes Martenot (, 7th generation model)The ondes Martenot is played with a keyboard or by moving a ring along a wire, creating \"wavering\" sounds similar to a theremin.", "It was invented in 1928 by the French cellist Maurice Martenot, who was inspired by the accidental overlaps of tones between military radio oscillators, and wanted to create an instrument with the expressiveness of the cello.The French composer Olivier Messiaen used the ondes Martenot in pieces such as his 1949 symphony ''Turangalîla-Symphonie,'' and his sister-in-law Jeanne Loriod was a celebrated player.", "It appears in numerous film and television soundtracks, particularly science fiction and horror films.", "Contemporary users of the ondes Martenot include Tom Waits, Daft Punk and the Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood.=== Trautonium ===Volks Trautonium (1933, Telefunken Ela T 42)The Trautonium was invented in 1928.It was based on the subharmonic scale, and the resulting sounds were often used to emulate bell or gong sounds, as in the 1950s Bayreuth productions of ''Parsifal''.", "In 1942, Richard Strauss used it for the bell- and gong-part in the Dresden première of his ''Japanese Festival Music''.", "This new class of instruments, microtonal by nature, was only adopted slowly by composers at first, but by the early 1930s there was a burst of new works incorporating these and other electronic instruments.=== Hammond organ and Novachord ===Hammond Novachord (1939)In 1929 Laurens Hammond established his company for the manufacture of electronic instruments.", "He went on to produce the Hammond organ, which was based on the principles of the Telharmonium, along with other developments including early reverberation units.", "The Hammond organ is an electromechanical instrument, as it used both mechanical elements and electronic parts.", "A Hammond organ used spinning metal tonewheels to produce different sounds.", "A magnetic pickup similar in design to the pickups in an electric guitar is used to transmit the pitches in the tonewheels to an amplifier and speaker enclosure.", "While the Hammond organ was designed to be a lower-cost alternative to a pipe organ for church music, musicians soon discovered that the Hammond was an excellent instrument for blues and jazz; indeed, an entire genre of music developed built around this instrument, known as the organ trio (typically Hammond organ, drums, and a third instrument, either saxophone or guitar).The first commercially manufactured synthesizer was the Novachord, built by the Hammond Organ Company from 1938 to 1942, which offered 72-note polyphony using 12 oscillators driving monostable-based divide-down circuits, basic envelope control and resonant low-pass filters.", "The instrument featured 163 vacuum tubes and weighed 500 pounds.", "The instrument's use of envelope control is significant, since this is perhaps the most significant distinction between the modern synthesizer and other electronic instruments." ], [ "Analogue synthesis 1950–1980", "The most commonly used electronic instruments are synthesizers, so-called because they artificially generate sound using a variety of techniques.", "All early circuit-based synthesis involved the use of analogue circuitry, particularly voltage controlled amplifiers, oscillators and filters.", "An important technological development was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer in 1956 by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog.", "French composer and engineer Edgard Varèse created a variety of compositions using electronic horns, whistles, and tape.", "Most notably, he wrote ''Poème électronique'' for the Phillips pavilion at the Brussels World Fair in 1958.=== Modular synthesizers ===RCA produced experimental devices to synthesize voice and music in the 1950s.", "The Mark II Music Synthesizer, housed at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in New York City.", "Designed by Herbert Belar and Harry Olson at RCA, with contributions from Vladimir Ussachevsky and Peter Mauzey, it was installed at Columbia University in 1957.Consisting of a room-sized array of interconnected sound synthesis components, it was only capable of producing music by programming, using a paper tape sequencer punched with holes to control pitch sources and filters, similar to a mechanical player piano but capable of generating a wide variety of sounds.", "The vacuum tube system had to be patched to create timbres.Robert MoogIn the 1960s synthesizers were still usually confined to studios due to their size.", "They were usually modular in design, their stand-alone signal sources and processors connected with patch cords or by other means and controlled by a common controlling device.", "Harald Bode, Don Buchla, Hugh Le Caine, Raymond Scott and Paul Ketoff were among the first to build such instruments, in the late 1950s and early 1960s.", "Buchla later produced a commercial modular synthesizer, the Buchla Music Easel.", "Robert Moog, who had been a student of Peter Mauzey and one of the RCA Mark II engineers, created a synthesizer that could reasonably be used by musicians, designing the circuits while he was at Columbia-Princeton.", "The Moog synthesizer was first displayed at the Audio Engineering Society convention in 1964.It required experience to set up sounds but was smaller and more intuitive than what had come before, less like a machine and more like a musical instrument.", "Moog established standards for control interfacing, using a logarithmic 1-volt-per-octave for pitch control and a separate triggering signal.", "This standardization allowed synthesizers from different manufacturers to operate simultaneously.", "Pitch control was usually performed either with an organ-style keyboard or a music sequencer producing a timed series of control voltages.", "During the late 1960s hundreds of popular recordings used Moog synthesizers.", "Other early commercial synthesizer manufacturers included ARP, who also started with modular synthesizers before producing all-in-one instruments, and British firm EMS.Minimoog (1970, R.A.Moog)===Integrated synthesizers===In 1970, Moog designed the Minimoog, a non-modular synthesizer with a built-in keyboard.", "The analogue circuits were interconnected with switches in a simplified arrangement called \"normalization.\"", "Though less flexible than a modular design, normalization made the instrument more portable and easier to use.", "The Minimoog sold 12,000 units.", "Further standardized the design of subsequent synthesizers with its integrated keyboard, pitch and modulation wheels and VCO->VCF->VCA signal flow.", "It has become celebrated for its \"fat\" sound—and its tuning problems.", "Miniaturized solid-state components allowed synthesizers to become self-contained, portable instruments that soon appeared in live performance and quickly became widely used in popular music and electronic art music.Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 (1977)===Polyphony===Many early analog synthesizers were monophonic, producing only one tone at a time.", "Popular monophonic synthesizers include the Moog Minimoog.", "A few, such as the Moog Sonic Six, ARP Odyssey and EML 101, could produce two different pitches at a time when two keys were pressed.", "Polyphony (multiple simultaneous tones, which enables chords) was only obtainable with electronic organ designs at first.", "Popular electronic keyboards combining organ circuits with synthesizer processing included the ARP Omni and Moog's Polymoog and Opus 3.By 1976 affordable polyphonic synthesizers began to appear, such as the Yamaha CS-50, CS-60 and CS-80, the Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 and the Oberheim Four-Voice.", "These remained complex, heavy and relatively costly.", "The recording of settings in digital memory allowed storage and recall of sounds.", "The first practical polyphonic synth, and the first to use a microprocessor as a controller, was the Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 introduced in late 1977.For the first time, musicians had a practical polyphonic synthesizer that could save all knob settings in computer memory and recall them at the touch of a button.", "The Prophet-5's design paradigm became a new standard, slowly pushing out more complex and recondite modular designs." ], [ "Tape recording", "In 1935, another significant development was made in Germany.", "Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft (AEG) demonstrated the first commercially produced magnetic tape recorder, called the ''Magnetophon''.", "Audio tape, which had the advantage of being fairly light as well as having good audio fidelity, ultimately replaced the bulkier wire recorders.The term \"electronic music\" (which first came into use during the 1930s) came to include the tape recorder as an essential element: \"electronically produced sounds recorded on tape and arranged by the composer to form a musical composition\".", "It was also indispensable to Musique concrète.Tape also gave rise to the first, analogue, sample-playback keyboards, the Chamberlin and its more famous successor the Mellotron, an electro-mechanical, polyphonic keyboard originally developed and built in Birmingham, England in the early 1960s." ], [ "Sound sequencer", "EMS Synthi Sequencer 256 (1971)During the 1940s–1960s, Raymond Scott, an American composer of electronic music, invented various kind of music sequencers for his electric compositions.", "Step sequencers played rigid patterns of notes using a grid of (usually) 16 buttons, or steps, each step being 1/16 of a measure.", "These patterns of notes were then chained together to form longer compositions.", "Software sequencers were continuously utilized since the 1950s in the context of computer music, including computer-''played'' music (software sequencer), computer-''composed'' music (music synthesis), and computer ''sound generation'' (sound synthesis)." ], [ "Digital era 1980–2000", "===Digital synthesis===The first digital synthesizers were academic experiments in sound synthesis using digital computers.", "FM synthesis was developed for this purpose; as a way of generating complex sounds digitally with the smallest number of computational operations per sound sample.", "In 1983 Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX-7.It used frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), first developed by John Chowning at Stanford University during the late sixties.", "Chowning exclusively licensed his FM synthesis patent to Yamaha in 1975.Yamaha subsequently released their first FM synthesizers, the GS-1 and GS-2, which were costly and heavy.", "There followed a pair of smaller, preset versions, the CE20 and CE25 Combo Ensembles, targeted primarily at the home organ market and featuring four-octave keyboards.", "Yamaha's third generation of digital synthesizers was a commercial success; it consisted of the DX7 and DX9 (1983).", "Both models were compact, reasonably priced, and dependent on custom digital integrated circuits to produce FM tonalities.", "The DX7 was the first mass market all-digital synthesizer.", "It became indispensable to many music artists of the 1980s, and demand soon exceeded supply.", "The DX7 sold over 200,000 units within three years.The DX series was not easy to program but offered a detailed, percussive sound that led to the demise of the electro-mechanical Rhodes piano, which was heavier and larger than a DX synth.", "Following the success of FM synthesis Yamaha signed a contract with Stanford University in 1989 to develop digital waveguide synthesis, leading to the first commercial physical modeling synthesizer, Yamaha's VL-1, in 1994.The DX-7 was affordable enough for amateurs and young bands to buy, unlike the costly synthesizers of previous generations, which were mainly used by top professionals.=== Sampling ===The Fairlight CMI (Computer Musical Instrument), the first polyphonic digital sampler, was the harbinger of sample-based synthesizers.", "Designed in 1978 by Peter Vogel and Kim Ryrie and based on a dual microprocessor computer designed by Tony Furse in Sydney, Australia, the Fairlight CMI gave musicians the ability to modify volume, attack, decay, and use special effects like vibrato.", "Sample waveforms could be displayed on-screen and modified using a light pen.", "The Synclavier from New England Digital was a similar system.", "Jon Appleton (with Jones and Alonso) invented the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer, later to become the New England Digital Corp's Synclavier.", "The Kurzweil K250, first produced in 1983, was also a successful polyphonic digital music synthesizer, noted for its ability to reproduce several instruments synchronously and having a velocity-sensitive keyboard.=== Computer music ===An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds.", "Iannis Xenakis began what is called ''musique stochastique,'' or ''stochastic music'', which is a method of composing that employs mathematical probability systems.", "Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters.", "Xenakis used graph paper and a ruler to aid in calculating the velocity trajectories of glissando for his orchestral composition ''Metastasis'' (1953–54), but later turned to the use of computers to compose pieces like ''ST/4'' for string quartet and ''ST/48'' for orchestra (both 1962).The impact of computers continued in 1956.Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Issacson composed ''Illiac Suite'' for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using algorithmic composition.In 1957, Max Mathews at Bell Lab wrote MUSIC-N series, a first computer program family for generating digital audio waveforms through direct synthesis.", "Then Barry Vercoe wrote MUSIC 11 based on MUSIC IV-BF, a next-generation music synthesis program (later evolving into csound, which is still widely used).In mid 80s, Miller Puckette at IRCAM developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called Max (after Max Mathews), and later ported it to Macintosh (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode) for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.=== MIDI ===MIDI enables connections between digital musical instrumentsIn 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface by which new instruments could communicate control instructions with other instruments and the prevalent microcomputer.", "This standard was dubbed MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface).", "A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981.Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.The advent of MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and in synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals.", "Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments." ], [ "Modern electronic musical instruments", "The increasing power and decreasing cost of sound-generating electronics (and especially of the personal computer), combined with the standardization of the MIDI and Open Sound Control musical performance description languages, has facilitated the separation of musical instruments into music controllers and music synthesizers.By far the most common musical controller is the musical keyboard.", "Other controllers include the radiodrum, Akai's EWI and Yamaha's WX wind controllers, the guitar-like SynthAxe, the BodySynth, the Buchla Thunder, the Continuum Fingerboard, the Roland Octapad, various isomorphic keyboards including the Thummer, and Kaossilator Pro, and kits like I-CubeX.===Reactable===ReactableThe Reactable is a round translucent table with a backlit interactive display.", "By placing and manipulating blocks called ''tangibles'' on the table surface, while interacting with the visual display via finger gestures, a virtual modular synthesizer is operated, creating music or sound effects.===Percussa AudioCubes===AudiocubesAudioCubes are autonomous wireless cubes powered by an internal computer system and rechargeable battery.", "They have internal RGB lighting, and are capable of detecting each other's location, orientation and distance.", "The cubes can also detect distances to the user's hands and fingers.", "Through interaction with the cubes, a variety of music and sound software can be operated.", "AudioCubes have applications in sound design, music production, DJing and live performance.===Kaossilator===Korg KaossilatorThe Kaossilator and Kaossilator Pro are compact instruments where the position of a finger on the touch pad controls two note-characteristics; usually the pitch is changed with a left-right motion and the tonal property, filter or other parameter changes with an up-down motion.", "The touch pad can be set to different musical scales and keys.", "The instrument can record a repeating loop of adjustable length, set to any tempo, and new loops of sound can be layered on top of existing ones.", "This lends itself to electronic dance-music but is more limited for controlled sequences of notes, as the pad on a regular Kaossilator is featureless.===Eigenharp===The Eigenharp is a large instrument resembling a bassoon, which can be interacted with through big buttons, a drum sequencer and a mouthpiece.", "The sound processing is done on a separate computer.===AlphaSphere===The AlphaSphere is a spherical instrument that consists of 48 tactile pads that respond to pressure as well as touch.", "Custom software allows the pads to be indefinitely programmed individually or by groups in terms of function, note, and pressure parameter among many other settings.", "The primary concept of the AlphaSphere is to increase the level of expression available to electronic musicians, by allowing for the playing style of a musical instrument." ], [ "Chip music", "Chiptune, chipmusic, or chip music is music written in sound formats where many of the sound textures are synthesized or sequenced in real time by a computer or video game console sound chip, sometimes including sample-based synthesis and low bit sample playback.", "Many chip music devices featured synthesizers in tandem with low rate sample playback." ], [ "DIY culture", "During the late 1970s and early 1980s, do-it-yourself designs were published in hobby electronics magazines (such the Formant modular synth, a DIY clone of the Moog system, published by Elektor) and kits were supplied by companies such as Paia in the US, and Maplin Electronics in the UK.===Circuit bending===Probing for \"good bends\" using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clipsIn 1966, Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach math \"circuit bending\"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by John Cage’s aleatoric music concept.Much of this manipulation of circuits directly, especially to the point of destruction, was pioneered by Louis and Bebe Barron in the early 1950s, such as their work with John Cage on the ''Williams Mix'' and especially in the soundtrack to ''Forbidden Planet''.Modern circuit bending is the creative customization of the circuits within electronic devices such as low voltage, battery-powered guitar effects, children's toys and small digital synthesizers to create new musical or visual instruments and sound generators.", "Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with noise music, though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with \"bent\" instruments.", "Circuit bending usually involves dismantling the machine and adding components such as switches and potentiometers that alter the circuit.", "With the revived interest for analogue synthesizer circuit bending became a cheap solution for many experimental musicians to create their own individual analogue sound generators.", "Nowadays many schematics can be found to build noise generators such as the Atari Punk Console or the Dub Siren as well as simple modifications for children toys such as the Speak & Spell that are often modified by circuit benders.===Modular synthesizers===The modular synthesizer is a type of synthesizer consisting of separate interchangeable modules.", "These are also available as kits for hobbyist DIY constructors.", "Many hobbyist designers also make available bare PCB boards and front panels for sale to other hobbyists." ], [ "See also", "* Experimental musical instrument* Live electronic music* Visual music* STEIM'''Technologies'''* Oscilloscope* Stereophonic sound'''Instrument families'''* Vocoder'''Individual instruments (historical)'''* Electronic sackbut'''Individual instruments (modern)'''* Kraakdoos* Metronome* Razer Hydra'''In Indian and Asian traditional music'''* Electronic tanpura* Shruti box" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===*" ], [ "External links", "* 120 Years of Electronic Music* A chronology of computer and electronic music (including instruments) * History of Electronic Music (French)* Tons of Tones : Site with technical data on Electronic Modelling of Musical Tones ===DIY===* DIY Hardware and Software Discussion forum at Electro-music.com* The Synth-DIY email list* Music From Outer Space Information and parts to self-build a synthesizer.", "* Synthesizer do it yourself a wiki about DIY electronic musical instruments=== Museums and collections ===* Horniman Museum's music gallery, London, UK.", "Has one or two synths behind glass.", "* Moogseum, Asheville, North Carolina, US* Musical Museum, Brentford, London, UK.", "Mostly electro-mechanical instruments.", "* Musical Instrument Museum, Phoenix, Arizona, US* Staatliches Institut für Musikforschung, Berlin, Germany* Swiss Museum & Center for Electronic Music Instruments* The National Music Centre Collection, Canada* Vintage Synthesizer Museum, California, US* Washington And Lee University Synthesizer Museum , Washington, US" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electrode" ], [ "Introduction", "Electrodes used in shielded metal arc weldingAn '''electrode''' is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g.", "a semiconductor, an electrolyte, a vacuum or air).", "Electrodes are essential parts of batteries that can consist of a variety of materials depending on the type of battery.The electrophore, invented by Johan Wilcke, was an early version of an electrode used to study static electricity." ], [ "Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells", "galvanic) cellElectrodes are an essential part of any battery.", "The first electrochemical battery was devised by Alessandro Volta and was aptly named the Voltaic cell.", "This battery consisted of a stack of copper and zinc electrodes separated by brine-soaked paper disks.", "Due to fluctuation in the voltage provided by the voltaic cell it wasn't very practical.", "The first practical battery was invented in 1839 and named the Daniell cell after John Frederic Daniell.", "It still made use of the zinc–copper electrode combination.", "Since then many more batteries have been developed using various materials.", "The basis of all these is still using two electrodes, anodes and cathodes.===Anode==='Anode' was coined by William Whewell at Michael Faraday's request, derived from the Greek words ἄνο (ano), 'upwards' and ὁδός (hodós), 'a way'.", "The Anode is the electrode through which the conventional current enters from the electrical circuit of an electrochemical cell (battery) into the non-metallic cell.", "The electrons then flow to the other side of the battery.", "Benjamin Franklin surmised that the electrical flow moved from positive to negative.", "The electrons flow away from the anode and the conventional current towards it.", "From both can be concluded that the charge of the anode is negative.", "The electron entering the anode comes from the oxidation reaction that takes place next to it.===Cathode===The cathode is in many ways the opposite of the anode.", "The name (also coined by Whewell) comes from the Greek words κάτω (kato), 'downwards' and ὁδός (hodós), 'a way'.", "It is the positive electrode, meaning the electrons flow from the electrical circuit through the cathode into the non-metallic part of the electrochemical cell.", "At the cathode, the reduction reaction takes place with the electrons arriving from the wire connected to the cathode and are absorbed by the oxidizing agent.=== Primary cell ===Various disposable batteries: two 9-volt, two \"AAA\", two \"AA\", and one each of \"C\", \"D\", a cordless phone battery, a camcorder battery, a 2-meter handheld ham radio battery, and a button battery.A primary cell is a battery designed to be used once and then discarded.", "This is due to the electrochemical reactions taking place at the electrodes in the cell not being reversible.", "An example of a primary cell is the discardable alkaline battery commonly used in flashlights.", "Consisting of a zinc anode and a manganese oxide cathode in which ZnO is formed.", "The half-reactions are:: Zn(s) + 2OH−(aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− E0oxidation = -1.28 V: 2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− → Mn2O3(s) + 2OH−(aq) E0reduction = +0.15 VOverall reaction:: Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s) E0total = +1.43 VThe ZnO is prone to clumping and will give less efficient discharge if recharged again.", "It is possible to recharge these batteries but is due to safety concerns advised against by the manufacturer.", "Other primary cells include zinc–carbon, zinc–chloride, and lithium iron disulfide.=== Secondary cell ===Rechargeable BatteriesElectric current and electrons directions for a secondary battery during discharge and chargeContrary to the primary cell a secondary cell can be recharged.", "The first was the lead–acid battery, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté.", "This type of battery is still the most widely used in among others automobiles.", "The cathode consists of lead dioxide (PbO2) and the anode of solid lead.", "Other commonly used rechargeable batteries are nickel–cadmium, nickel–metal hydride, and Lithium-ion.", "The last of which will be explained more thoroughly in this article due to its importance." ], [ "Marcus' theory of electron transfer", "Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by Nobel laureate Rudolph A. Marcus and explains the rate at which an electron can move from one chemical species to another, for this article this can be seen as 'jumping' from the electrode to a species in the solvent or vice versa.We can represent the problem as calculating the transfer rate for the transfer of an electron from donor to an acceptor : D + A → D+ + A−Potential energy surface for the donor and the acceptor asThe potential energy of the system is a function of the translational, rotational, and vibrational coordinates of the reacting species and the molecules of the surrounding medium, collectively called the reaction coordinates.", "The abscissa the figure to the right represents these.", "From the classical electron transfer theory, the expression of the reaction rate constant (probability of reaction) can be calculated, if a non-adiabatic process and parabolic potential energy are assumed, by finding the point of intersection (Qx).", "One important thing to note, and was noted by Marcus when he came up with the theory, the electron transfer must abide by the law of conservation of energy and the Frank-Condon principle.", "Doing this and then rearranging this leads to the expression of the free energy activation () in terms of the overall free energy of the reaction ().", "In which the is the reorganisation energy.Filling this result in the classically derived Arrhenius equationleads toWith A being the pre-exponential factor which is usually experimentally determined, although a semi classical derivation provides more information as will be explained below.This classically derived result qualitatively reproduced observations of a maximum electron transfer rate under the conditions .", "For a more extensive mathematical treatment one could read the paper by Newton.", "An interpretation of this result and what a closer look at the physical meaning of the one can read the paper by Marcus.the situation at hand can be more accurately described by using the displaced harmonic oscillator model, in this model quantum tunneling is allowed.", "This is needed in order to explain why even at near-zero Kelvin there still are electron transfers, in contradiction to the classical theory.Without going into too much detail on how the derivation is done, it rests on using Fermi's golden rule from time-dependent perturbation theory with the full Hamiltonian of the system.", "It is possible to look at the overlap in the wavefunctions of both the reactants and the products (the right and the left side of the chemical reaction) and therefore when their energies are the same and allow for electron transfer.", "As touched on before this must happen because only then conservation of energy is abided by.", "Skipping over a few mathematical steps the probability of electron transfer can be calculated (albeit quite difficult) using the following formulaWith being the electronic coupling constant describing the interaction between the two states (reactants and products) and being the line shape function.", "Taking the classical limit of this expression, meaning , and making some substitution an expression is obtained very similar to the classically derived formula, as expected.", "The main difference is now the pre-exponential factor has now been described by more physical parameters instead of the experimental factor .", "One is once again revered to the sources as listed below for a more in-depth and rigorous mathematical derivation and interpretation." ], [ "Efficiency", "The physical properties of electrodes are mainly determined by the material of the electrode and the topology of the electrode.", "The properties required depend on the application and therefore there are many kinds of electrodes in circulation.", "The defining property for a material to be used as an electrode is that it be conductive.", "Any conducting material such as metals, semiconductors, graphite or conductive polymers can therefore be used as an electrode.", "Often electrodes consist of a combination of materials, each with a specific task.", "Typical constituents are the active materials which serve as the particles which oxidate or reduct, conductive agents which improve the conductivity of the electrode and binders which are used to contain the active particles within the electrode.", "The efficiency of electrochemical cells is judged by a number of properties, important quantities are the self-discharge time, the discharge voltage and the cycle performance.", "The physical properties of the electrodes play an important role in determining these quantities.", "Important properties of the electrodes are: the electrical resistivity, the specific heat capacity (c_p), the electrode potential and the hardness.", "Of course, for technological applications, the cost of the material is also an important factor.", "The values of these properties at room temperature (T = 293 K) for some commonly used materials are listed in the table below.+ Common electrode properties Properties Lithium (Li) Manganese (Mn) Copper (Cu) Zinc (Zn) Graphite Resistivity (Ωm) 8.40e-8 1.44e-6 1.70e-8 5.92e-8 6.00e-6 Electrode potential (V) -3.02 -1.05 -0.340 -0.760 - Hardness (HV) <5 500 50 30 7-11 Specific heat capacity (J/(gK)) 2.997 0.448 0.385 0.3898 0.707" ], [ "Surface effects", "The surface topology of the electrode plays an important role in determining the efficiency of an electrode.", "The efficiency of the electrode can be reduced due to contact resistance.", "To create an efficient electrode it is therefore important to design it such that it minimizes the contact resistance." ], [ "Manufacturing", "The production of electrodes for Li-Ion batteries is done in various steps as follows:# The various constituents of the electrode are mixed into a solvent.", "This mixture is designed such that it improves the performance of the electrodes.", "Common components of this mixture are: #* The active electrode particles.#* A binder used to contain the active electrode particles.#* A conductive agent used to improve the conductivity of the electrode.#:The mixture created is known as an ‘electrode slurry’.# The electrode slurry above is coated onto a conductor which acts as the current collector in the electrochemical cell.", "Typical current collectors are copper for the cathode and aluminum for the anode.# After the slurry has been applied to the conductor it is dried and then pressed to the required thickness.===Structure of the electrode===For a given selection of constituents of the electrode, the final efficiency is determined by the internal structure of the electrode.", "The important factors in the internal structure in determining the performance of the electrode are:* Clustering of the active material and the conductive agent.", "In order for all the components of the slurry to perform their task, they should all be spread out evenly within the electrode.", "* An even distribution of the conductive agent over the active material.", "This makes sure that the conductivity of the electrode is optimal.", "* The adherence of the electrode to the current collectors.", "The adherence makes sure that the electrode does not dissolve into the electrolyte.", "* The density of the active material.", "A balance should be found between the amount of active material, the conductive agent and the binder.", "Since the active material is the important factor in the electrode, the slurry should be designed such that the density of the active material is as high as possible, without the conductive agent and the binder not functioning properly.These properties can be influenced in the production of the electrodes in a number of manners.", "The most important step in the manufacturing of the electrodes is creating the electrode slurry.", "As can be seen above, the important properties of the electrode all have to do with the even distribution of the components of the electrode.", "Therefore, it is very important that the electrode slurry be as homogeneous as possible.", "Multiple procedures have been developed to improve this mixing stage and current research is still being done." ], [ "Electrodes in lithium ion batteries", "A modern application of electrodes is in Lithium-ion batteries (li-ion batteries).", "A Li-ion battery is a kind of flow battery which can be seen in the image on the right.A typical flow battery consists of two tanks of liquids which are pumped past a membrane held between two electrodes.Furthermore, a Li-ion battery is an example of a secondary cell since it is rechargeable.", "It can both act as a galvanic or electrolytic cell.", "Li-ion batteries use lithium ions as the solute in the electrolyte which are dissolved in an organic solvent.", "Lithium electrodes were first studied by Gilbert N. Lewis and Frederick G. Keyes in 1913.In the following century these electrodes were used to create and study the first Li-ion batteries.", "Li-ion batteries are very popular due to their great performance.", "Applications include mobile phones and electric cars.", "Due to their popularity, much research is being done to reduce the cost and increase the safety of Li-ion batteries.", "An integral part of the Li-ion batteries are their anodes and cathodes, therefore much research is being done into increasing the efficiency, safety and reducing the costs of these electrodes specifically.===Cathodes===In Li-ion batteries the cathode consists of a intercalated lithium compound (a layered material consisting of layers of molecules composed of lithium and other elements).", "A common element which makes up part of the molecules in the compound is cobalt.", "Another frequently used element is manganese.", "The best choice of compound usually depends on the application of the battery.", "Advantages for cobalt-based compounds over manganese-based compounds are their high specific heat capacity, high volumetric heat capacity, low self-discharge rate, high discharge voltage and high cycle durability.", "There are however also drawbacks in using cobalt-based compounds such as their high cost and their low thermostability.", "Manganese has similar advantages and a lower cost, however there are some problems associated with using manganese.", "The main problem is that manganese tends to dissolve into the electrolyte over time.", "For this reason cobalt is still the most common element which is used in the lithium compounds.", "There is much research being done into finding new materials which can be used to create cheaper and longer lasting Li-ion batteries ===Anodes===The anodes used in mass-produced Li-ion batteries are either carbon based (usually graphite) or made out of spinel lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12).", "Graphite anodes have been successfully implemented in many modern commercially available batteries due to its cheap price, longevity and high energy density.", "However, it presents issues of dendrite growth, with risks of shorting the battery and posing a safety issue.", "Li4Ti5O12 has the second largest market share of anodes, due to its stability and good rate capability, but with challenges such as low capacity.", "During the early 2000s, silicon anode research began picking up pace, becoming one of the decade's most promising candidates for future lithium ion battery anodes.", "Silicon has one of the highest gravimetric capacities when compared to graphite and Li4Ti5O12 as well as a high volumetric one .", "Furthermore, Silicon has the advantage of operating under a reasonable open circuit voltage without parasitic lithium reactions.", "However, Silicon anodes have a major issue of volumetric expansion during lithiation of around 360%.", "This expansion may pulverize the anode, resulting in poor performance.", "To fix this problem scientists looked into varying the dimensionality of the Si.", "Many studies have been developed in Si nanowires, Si tubes as well as Si sheets.", "As a result, composite hierarchical Si anodes have become the major technology for future applications in lithium-ion batteries.", "In the early 2020s, technology is reaching commercial levels with factories being built for mass production of anodes in the United States.", "Furthermore, metallic Lithium is another possible candidate for the anode.", "It boasts a higher specific capacity than Silicon, however, does come with the drawback of working with the highly unstable metallic lithium.", "Similarly to graphite anodes, dendrite formation is another major limitation of metallic lithium, with the solid electrolyte interphase being a major design challenge.", "In the end, if stabilized, metallic lithium would be able to produce batteries that hold the most charge, while being the lightest.=== Mechanical properties ===A common failure mechanism of batteries is mechanical shock, which breaks either the electrode or the system’s container, leading to poor conductivity and electrolyte leakage.", "However, the relevance of mechanical properties of electrodes goes beyond the resistance to collisions due to its environment.", "During standard operation, the incorporation of ions into electrodes leads to a change in volume.", "This is well exemplified by Si electrodes in Lithium-ion batteries expanding around 300% during lithiation.", "Such change may lead to the deformations in the lattice and, therefore stresses in the material.", "The origin of stresses may be due to geometric constraints in the electrode or inhomogeneous plating of the ion.", "This phenomenon is very concerning as it may lead to electrode fracture and performance loss.", "Thus, mechanical properties are crucial to enable the development of new electrodes for long lasting batteries.", "A possible strategy for measuring the mechanical behavior of electrodes during operation is by using nanoindentation.", "The method is able to analyze how the stresses evolve during the electrochemical reactions, being a valuable tool in evaluating possible pathways for coupling mechanical behavior and electrochemistry.More than just affecting the electrode’s morphology, stresses are also able to impact electrochemical reactions.", "While the chemical driving forces are usually higher in magnitude than the mechanical energies, this is not true for Li-Ion Batteries.", "A study by Dr. Larché established a direct relation between the applied stress and the chemical potential of the electrode.", "Though it neglects multiple variables such as the variation of elastic constraints, it subtracts from the total chemical potential the elastic energy induced by the stress.In this equation '''μ''' represents the chemical potential, with '''μ°''' being its reference value.", "'''T''' stands for the temperature and '''k''' the Boltzmann constant.", "The term '''γ''' inside the logarithm is the activity and '''x''' is the ratio of the ion to the total composition of the electrode.", "The novel term '''Ω''' is the partial molar volume of the ion in the host and '''σ''' corresponds to the mean stress felt by the system.", "The result of this equation is that diffusion, which is dependent on chemical potential, gets impacted by the added stress and, therefore changes the battery’s performance.", "Furthermore, mechanical stresses may also impact the electrode’s solid-electrolyte-interphase layer.", "The interface which regulates the ion and charge transfer and can be degraded by stress.", "Thus, more ions in the solution will be consumed to reform it, diminishing the overall efficiency of the system." ], [ "Other anodes and cathodes", "In a vacuum tube or a semiconductor having polarity (diodes, electrolytic capacitors) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−).", "The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode.", "Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e.g., base, gate, control grid.In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode.", "The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a noble metal or graphite, to keep it from dissolving." ], [ "Welding electrodes", "In arc welding, an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together.", "Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding, or non-consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc welding.", "For a direct current system, the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes.", "For an alternating current arc welder, the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode." ], [ "Alternating current electrodes", "For electrical systems which use alternating current, the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electric current but are not designated anode or cathode because the direction of flow of the electrons changes periodically, usually many times per second." ], [ "Chemically modified electrodes", "Chemically modified electrodes are electrodes that have their surfaces chemically modified to change the electrode's physical, chemical, electrochemical, optical, electrical, and transportive properties.", "These electrodes are used for advanced purposes in research and investigation." ], [ "Uses", "Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to alter them in numerous ways and to measure conductivity for numerous purposes.", "Examples include:*Electrodes for fuel cells*Electrodes for medical purposes, such as EEG (for recording brain activity), ECG (recording heart beats), ECT (electrical brain stimulation), defibrillator (recording and delivering cardiac stimulation)*Electrodes for electrophysiology techniques in biomedical research*Electrodes for execution by the electric chair*Electrodes for electroplating*Electrodes for arc welding*Electrodes for cathodic protection*Electrodes for grounding*Electrodes for chemical analysis using electrochemical methods*Nanoelectrodes for high-precision measurements in nanoelectrochemistry*Inert electrodes for electrolysis (made of platinum)*Membrane electrode assembly*Electrodes for Taser electroshock weapon" ], [ "See also", "*Reference electrode*Gas diffusion electrode*Cellulose electrode*Anion vs. Cation*Electron versus electron hole*Electron microscope*Tafel equation*Hot cathode*Cold cathode*Reversible charge injection limit" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epistolary novel" ], [ "Introduction", "Young Werther writes a letter after deciding upon his suicide, the climax of Goethe's Sorrows of Young WertherAn '''epistolary novel''' is a novel written as a series of letters between the fictional characters of a narrative.", "The term is often extended to cover novels that intersperse documents of other kinds with the letters, most commonly diary entries and newspaper clippings, and sometimes considered to include novels composed of documents even if they do not include letters at all.", "More recently, epistolaries may include electronic documents such as recordings and radio, blog posts, and e-mails.", "The word ''epistolary'' is derived from Latin from the Greek word (), meaning a letter .", "This type of fiction is also sometimes known by the German term '''''Briefroman''''' or more generally as '''epistolary fiction'''.The epistolary form can be seen as adding greater realism to a story, due to the text existing diegetically within the lives of the characters.", "It is in particular able to demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device of an omniscient narrator.", "An important strategic device in the epistolary novel for creating the impression of authenticity of the letters is the fictional editor." ], [ "Early works", "Title page of Aphra Behn's early epistolary novel, ''Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister'' (1684)There are two theories on the genesis of the epistolary novel: The first claims that the genre is originated from novels with inserted letters, in which the portion containing the third-person narrative in between the letters was gradually reduced.", "The other theory claims that the epistolary novel arose from miscellanies of letters and poetry: some of the letters were tied together into a (mostly amorous) plot.", "There is evidence to support both claims.", "The first truly epistolary novel, the Spanish \"Prison of Love\" (''Cárcel de amor'') () by Diego de San Pedro, belongs to a tradition of novels in which a large number of inserted letters already dominated the narrative.", "Other well-known examples of early epistolary novels are closely related to the tradition of letter-books and miscellanies of letters.", "Within the successive editions of Edmé Boursault's ''Letters of Respect, Gratitude and Love'' (''Lettres de respect, d'obligation et d'amour'') (1669), a group of letters written to a girl named Babet were expanded and became more and more distinct from the other letters, until it formed a small epistolary novel entitled ''Letters to Babet'' (''Lettres à Babet'').", "The immensely famous ''Letters of a Portuguese Nun'' (''Lettres portugaises'') (1669) generally attributed to Gabriel-Joseph de La Vergne, comte de Guilleragues, though a small minority still regard Marianna Alcoforado as the author, is claimed to be intended to be part of a miscellany of Guilleragues prose and poetry.", "The founder of the epistolary novel in English is said by many to be James Howell (1594–1666) with \"Familiar Letters\" (1645–50), who writes of prison, foreign adventure, and the love of women.Perhaps first work to fully utilize the potential of an epistolary novel was ''Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister''.", "This work was published anonymously in three volumes (1684, 1685, and 1687), and has been attributed to Aphra Behn though its authorship remains disputed in the 21st century.", "The novel shows the genre's results of changing perspectives: individual points were presented by the individual characters, and the central voice of the author and moral evaluation disappeared (at least in the first volume; further volumes introduced a narrator).", "The author furthermore explored a realm of intrigue with complex scenarios such as letters that fall into the wrong hands, faked letters, or letters withheld by protagonists.The epistolary novel as a genre became popular in the 18th century in the works of such authors as Samuel Richardson, with his immensely successful novels ''Pamela'' (1740) and ''Clarissa'' (1749).", "John Cleland's early erotic novel ''Fanny Hill'' (1748) is written as a series of letters from the titular character to an unnamed recipient.", "In France, there was ''Lettres persanes'' (1721) by Montesquieu, followed by ''Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse'' (1761) by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Choderlos de Laclos' ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (1782), which used the epistolary form to great dramatic effect, because the sequence of events was not always related directly or explicitly.", "In Germany, there was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's ''The Sorrows of Young Werther'' (''Die Leiden des jungen Werther'') (1774) and Friedrich Hölderlin's ''Hyperion''.", "The first Canadian novel, ''The History of Emily Montague'' (1769) by Frances Brooke, and twenty years later the first American novel, ''The Power of Sympathy'' (1789) by William Hill Brown, were both written in epistolary form.Starting in the 18th century, the epistolary form was subject to much ridicule, resulting in a number of savage burlesques.", "The most notable example of these was Henry Fielding's ''Shamela'' (1741), written as a parody of ''Pamela''.", "In it, the female narrator can be found wielding a pen and scribbling her diary entries under the most dramatic and unlikely of circumstances.", "Oliver Goldsmith used the form to satirical effect in ''The Citizen of the World'', subtitled \"Letters from a Chinese Philosopher Residing in London to his Friends in the East\" (1760–61).", "So did the diarist Fanny Burney in a successful comic first novel, ''Evelina'' (1788).The epistolary novel slowly became less popular after 18th century.", "Although Jane Austen tried the epistolary in juvenile writings and her novella ''Lady Susan'' (1794), she abandoned this structure for her later work.", "It is thought that her lost novel ''First Impressions'', which was redrafted to become ''Pride and Prejudice'', may have been epistolary: ''Pride and Prejudice'' contains an unusual number of letters quoted in full and some play a critical role in the plot.The epistolary form nonetheless saw continued use, surviving in exceptions or in fragments in nineteenth-century novels.", "In Honoré de Balzac's novel ''Letters of Two Brides'', two women who became friends during their education at a convent correspond over a 17-year period, exchanging letters describing their lives.", "Mary Shelley employs the epistolary form in her novel ''Frankenstein'' (1818).", "Shelley uses the letters as one of a variety of framing devices, as the story is presented through the letters of a sea captain and scientific explorer attempting to reach the north pole who encounters Victor Frankenstein and records the dying man's narrative and confessions.", "Published in 1848, Anne Brontë's novel ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'' is framed as a retrospective letter from one of the main heroes to his friend and brother-in-law with the diary of the eponymous tenant inside it.", "In the late 19th century, Bram Stoker released one of the most widely recognized and successful novels in the epistolary form to date, ''Dracula''.", "Printed in 1897, the novel is compiled entirely of letters, diary entries, newspaper clippings, telegrams, doctor's notes, ship's logs, and the like." ], [ "Types", "Epistolary novels can be categorized based on the number of people whose letters are included.", "This gives three types of epistolary novels: monophonic (giving the letters of only one character, like ''Letters of a Portuguese Nun'' and ''The Sorrows of Young Werther''), dialogic (giving the letters of two characters, like Mme Marie Jeanne Riccoboni's ''Letters of Fanni Butler'' (1757), and polyphonic (with three or more letter-writing characters, such as in Bram Stoker's ''Dracula'').A crucial element in polyphonic epistolary novels like ''Clarissa'' and ''Dangerous Liaisons'' is the dramatic device of 'discrepant awareness': the simultaneous but separate correspondences of the heroines and the villains creating dramatic tension.", "They can also be classified according to their type and quantity of use of non-letter documents, though this has obvious correlations with the number of voices – for example, newspaper clippings are unlikely to feature heavily in a monophonic epistolary and considerably more likely in a polyphonic one." ], [ "Notable works", "Title page of the second edition of Samuel Richardson's epistolary novel ''Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded'' (1740), a bestselling early epistolary novelThe epistolary novel form has continued to be used after the eighteenth century.=== Eighteenth century ===* ''Lettres persanes'', a 1721 novel by Montesquieu.", "* ''Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded'', by Samuel Richardson 1740, a bestselling early epistolary novel which prompted artistic interest in the epistolary form.", "* ''Julie; or, The New Heloise'', an epistolary novel by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, published in 1761.", "* ''The Sorrows of Young Werther'' is a 1774 novel by Johann Wolfgang Goethe.", "* ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' is a 1782 French novel by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, about the Marquise de Merteuil and the Vicomte de Valmont, two narcissistic rivals (and ex-lovers) who use seduction as a weapon to socially control and exploit others, all the while enjoying their cruel games and boasting about their talent for manipulation (also seen as depicting the corruption and depravity of the French nobility shortly before the French Revolution).", "The book is composed entirely of letters written by the various characters to each other.", "* ''Cartas marruecas'' (''Moroccan Letters''), a 1789 novel by José Cadalso, Spanish author, poet, playwright and essayist.", "* Marquis de Sade's ''Aline and Valcour'' (1795).=== Nineteenth century ===* Fyodor Dostoevsky used the epistolary format for his first novel, ''Poor Folk'' (1846), as a series of letters between two friends, struggling to cope with their impoverished circumstances and life in Imperial-era Russia.", "* ''The Moonstone'' (1868) by Wilkie Collins uses a collection of various documents to construct a detective novel in English.", "In the second piece, a character explains that he is writing his portion because another had observed to him that the events surrounding the disappearance of the eponymous diamond might reflect poorly on the family, if misunderstood, and therefore he was collecting the true story.", "This is an unusual element, as most epistolary novels present the documents without questions about how they were gathered.", "He also used the form previously in ''The Woman in White'' (1859).", "* Spanish foreign minister Juan Valera's ''Pepita Jiménez'' (1874) is written in three sections, the first and third being a series of letters, the middle part narrated by an unknown observer.", "* Bram Stoker's ''Dracula'' (1897) uses not only letters and diaries, but also dictation cylinders and newspaper accounts.=== Twentieth century ===* Dorothy L. Sayers and Robert Eustace's ''The Documents in the Case'' (1930).", "* E.M. Delafield's ''Diary of a Provincial Lady'' (1930).", "* Kathrine Taylor's ''Address Unknown'' (1938) is an anti-Nazi novel in which the final letter is returned marked \"Address Unknown\", indicating the disappearance of the German character.", "* C. S. Lewis used the epistolary form for ''The Screwtape Letters'' (1942), and considered writing a companion novel from an angel's point of view – though he never did so.", "It is less generally realized that his ''Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer'' (1964) is a similar exercise, exploring theological questions through correspondence addressed to a fictional recipient, \"Malcolm\", though this work may be considered a \"novel\" only loosely in that developments in Malcolm's personal life gradually come to light and impact the discussion.", "* Thornton Wilder's fifth novel ''Ides of March'' (1948) consists of letters and documents illuminating the last days of the Roman Republic.", "* Saul Bellow's novel ''Herzog'' (1964) is largely written in letter format.", "These are both real and imagined letters, written by the protagonist Moses Herzog to family members, friends, and celebrities.", "* Shūsaku Endō's novel ''Silence'' (1966) is an example of the epistolary form, half of which consists of letters from Rodrigues, the other half either in the third person or in letters from other persons.", "* Daniel Keyes's short story and novel ''Flowers for Algernon'' (1959, 1966) takes the form of a series of lab progress reports written by the main character as his treatment progresses, with his writing style changing correspondingly.", "* ''The Anderson Tapes'' (1969, 1970) by Lawrence Sanders is a novel primarily consisting of transcripts of tape recordings.", "* Stephen King's novel ''Carrie'' (1974) is written in an epistolary structure through newspaper clippings, magazine articles, letters, and book excerpts.", "* Margaret Atwood's ''The Handmaid's Tale'', 1985, ends with an epilogue consisting of the minutes from the meeting of a historical society in the future discussing the text of the novel, revealed to have been recently transcribed from a series of cassette tape recordings made by the protagonist Offred.", "* Alice Walker employed the epistolary form in ''The Color Purple'' (1982).", "The 1985 film adaptation echoes the form by incorporating into the script some of the novel's letters, which the actors deliver as monologues.", "* John Updike's ''S.''", "(1988) is an epistolary novel consisting of the heroine's letters and transcribed audio recordings.", "* Patricia Wrede and Caroline Stevermer's ''Sorcery and Cecelia'' (1988) is an epistolary fantasy novel in a Regency setting from the first-person perspectives of cousins Kate and Cecelia, who recount their adventures in magic and polite society.", "Unusually for modern fiction, it is written using the style of the letter game.", "* Avi's young-adult novel ''Nothing but the Truth'' (1991) uses only documents, letters, and conversation transcripts.", "* ''Last Words from Montmartre'' (1995) by Qiu Miaojin is a novel written in the form of twenty letters that can be read in any order.", "* ''Last Days of Summer'' (1998) by Steve Kluger is written in a series of letters, telegrams, therapy transcripts, newspaper clippings, and baseball box scores.", "* ''The Perks of Being a Wallflower'' (1999) was written by Stephen Chbosky in the form of letters from an anonymous character to a secret role model of sorts.=== Twenty-first century ===* ''House of Leaves'' by Mark Z. Danielewski (2000) is written as a series of found footage film transcripts, essays, fictitious footnotes, and letters spread over several layers of metafiction.", "* ''Between Friends'' by Debbie Macomber (2001) tells the story of a lifelong friendship between Jillian Lawton and Lesley Adamski from the 1950s to the early 2000s, using a combination of letters (later becoming emails) and daily paraphernalia like a gas station receipt.", "* Mark Dunn's ''Ella Minnow Pea'' (2001) is a progressively lipogrammatic epistolary novel – the letters become increasingly more difficult to read as the lipogrammatic constraints are brought in, and this requires the reader to attempt to interpret what is being written.", "* ''La silla del águila'' (\"The Eagle's Throne\") by Carlos Fuentes (2003) is a political satire written as a series of letters between persons in high levels of the Mexican government in 2020.The epistolary format is treated by the author as a consequence of necessity: the United States impedes all telecommunications in Mexico as a retaliatory measure, leaving letters and smoke signals as the only possible methods of communication, particularly ironic given one character's observation that \"Mexican politicians put nothing in writing.", "\"* ''We Need to Talk About Kevin'' by Lionel Shriver (2003) is a monologic epistolary novel written as a series of letters from Eva, Kevin's mother, to her husband Franklin.", "* ''The Sluts'' (2004) by Dennis Cooper is composed of online posts, reviews and email correspondence.", "Each contributes to a central mystery, fuelled by competing narratives about an escort.", "* The 2004 novel ''Cloud Atlas'' by David Mitchell tells a story in several time periods in a nested format, with some sections told in epistolary style, including an interview, journal entries and a series of letters.", "*''March'' (2005), by Geraldine Brooks, is a novel depicting the events of the protagonist's experiences during the American Civil War in 1862 through letters.", "* ''World War Z: An Oral History of the Zombie War'' (2006), by Max Brooks, is a series of interviews from various survivors of a zombie apocalypse.", "*''Salmon Fishing in the Yemen'' (2007) by Paul Torday, is a series of letters, e-mails, interview transcripts, newspaper articles and other non-narrative media.", "* ''The White Tiger'' (2008) by Aravind Adiga, winner of the 40th Man Booker Prize in 2008, is a novel in the form of letters written by an Indian villager to the Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao.", "* ''The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society'' (2008), by Mary Ann Shaffer and Annie Barrows, is written as a series of letters and telegraphs sent and received by the protagonist.", "* ''A Visit from the Goon Squad'' (2010) by Jennifer Egan has parts which are epistolary in nature.", "One chapter is written as a report of a celebrity interview, and another as a PowerPoint presentation.", "* ''The Sacred Diary of Adrian Plass Aged 37 '' is one of a series of books written by Adrian Plass, this one consisting entirely of diary entries.", "Another consists of transcripts of tapes, yet another consists of letters.", "* ''Illuminae'', by Jay Kristoff and Amie Kaufmann, is told exclusively through a series of classified documents, censored emails, interviews, and others." ], [ "See also", "* Epistolary poem* Epistolography* Found footage (film technique)* Letter collection" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC Radio 4's 15 March 2007 edition of ''In Our Time'', \"Epistolary Literature\".", "Hosted by Melvyn Bragg." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Evidence-based medicine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Evidence-based medicine''' ('''EBM''') is \"the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.\"", "The aim of EBM is to integrate the experience of the clinician, the values of the patient, and the best available scientific information to guide decision-making about clinical management.", "The term was originally used to describe an approach to teaching the practice of medicine and improving decisions by individual physicians about individual patients.The EBM Pyramid is a tool that helps in visualizing the hierarchy of evidence in medicine, from least authoritative, like expert opinions, to most authoritative, like systematic reviews." ], [ "Background, history, and definition", "Medicine has a long history of scientific inquiry about the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human disease.", "In the 11th century AD, Avicenna, a Persian physician and philosopher, developed an approach to EBM that was mostly similar to current ideas and practises.The concept of a controlled clinical trial was first described in 1662 by Jan Baptist van Helmont in reference to the practice of bloodletting.", "Wrote Van Helmont:The first published report describing the conduct and results of a controlled clinical trial was by James Lind, a Scottish naval surgeon who conducted research on scurvy during his time aboard HMS ''Salisbury'' in the Channel Fleet, while patrolling the Bay of Biscay.", "Lind divided the sailors participating in his experiment into six groups, so that the effects of various treatments could be fairly compared.", "Lind found improvement in symptoms and signs of scurvy among the group of men treated with lemons or oranges.", "He published a treatise describing the results of this experiment in 1753.An early critique of statistical methods in medicine was published in 1835.The term 'evidence-based medicine' was introduced in 1990 by Gordon Guyatt of McMaster University.=== Clinical decision-making ===Alvan Feinstein's publication of ''Clinical Judgment'' in 1967 focused attention on the role of clinical reasoning and identified biases that can affect it.", "In 1972, Archie Cochrane published ''Effectiveness and Efficiency'', which described the lack of controlled trials supporting many practices that had previously been assumed to be effective.", "In 1973, John Wennberg began to document wide variations in how physicians practiced.", "Through the 1980s, David M. Eddy described errors in clinical reasoning and gaps in evidence.", "In the mid-1980s, Alvin Feinstein, David Sackett and others published textbooks on clinical epidemiology, which translated epidemiological methods to physician decision-making.", "Toward the end of the 1980s, a group at RAND showed that large proportions of procedures performed by physicians were considered inappropriate even by the standards of their own experts.=== Evidence-based guidelines and policies ===David M. Eddy first began to use the term 'evidence-based' in 1987 in workshops and a manual commissioned by the Council of Medical Specialty Societies to teach formal methods for designing clinical practice guidelines.", "The manual was eventually published by the American College of Physicians.", "Eddy first published the term 'evidence-based' in March 1990, in an article in the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' that laid out the principles of evidence-based guidelines and population-level policies, which Eddy described as \"explicitly describing the available evidence that pertains to a policy and tying the policy to evidence instead of standard-of-care practices or the beliefs of experts.", "The pertinent evidence must be identified, described, and analyzed.", "The policymakers must determine whether the policy is justified by the evidence.", "A rationale must be written.\"", "He discussed evidence-based policies in several other papers published in ''JAMA'' in the spring of 1990.Those papers were part of a series of 28 published in ''JAMA'' between 1990 and 1997 on formal methods for designing population-level guidelines and policies.=== Medical education ===The term 'evidence-based medicine' was introduced slightly later, in the context of medical education.", "In the autumn of 1990, Gordon Guyatt used it in an unpublished description of a program at McMaster University for prospective or new medical students.", "Guyatt and others first published the term two years later (1992) to describe a new approach to teaching the practice of medicine.In 1996, David Sackett and colleagues clarified the definition of this tributary of evidence-based medicine as \"the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.", "...", "It means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.\"", "This branch of evidence-based medicine aims to make individual decision making more structured and objective by better reflecting the evidence from research.", "Population-based data are applied to the care of an individual patient, while respecting the fact that practitioners have clinical expertise reflected in effective and efficient diagnosis and thoughtful identification and compassionate use of individual patients' predicaments, rights, and preferences.Between 1993 and 2000, the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University published the methods to a broad physician audience in a series of 25 \"Users' Guides to the Medical Literature\" in ''JAMA''.", "In 1995 Rosenberg and Donald defined individual-level, evidence-based medicine as \"the process of finding, appraising, and using contemporaneous research findings as the basis for medical decisions.\"", "In 2010, Greenhalgh used a definition that emphasized quantitative methods: \"the use of mathematical estimates of the risk of benefit and harm, derived from high-quality research on population samples, to inform clinical decision-making in the diagnosis, investigation or management of individual patients.", "\"The two original definitions highlight important differences in how evidence-based medicine is applied to populations versus individuals.", "When designing guidelines applied to large groups of people in settings with relatively little opportunity for modification by individual physicians, evidence-based policymaking emphasizes that good evidence should exist to document a test's or treatment's effectiveness.", "In the setting of individual decision-making, practitioners can be given greater latitude in how they interpret research and combine it with their clinical judgment.", "In 2005, Eddy offered an umbrella definition for the two branches of EBM: \"Evidence-based medicine is a set of principles and methods intended to ensure that to the greatest extent possible, medical decisions, guidelines, and other types of policies are based on and consistent with good evidence of effectiveness and benefit.", "\"=== Progress ===In the area of evidence-based guidelines and policies, the explicit insistence on evidence of effectiveness was introduced by the American Cancer Society in 1980.The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) began issuing guidelines for preventive interventions based on evidence-based principles in 1984.In 1985, the Blue Cross Blue Shield Association applied strict evidence-based criteria for covering new technologies.", "Beginning in 1987, specialty societies such as the American College of Physicians, and voluntary health organizations such as the American Heart Association, wrote many evidence-based guidelines.", "In 1991, Kaiser Permanente, a managed care organization in the US, began an evidence-based guidelines program.", "In 1991, Richard Smith wrote an editorial in the ''British Medical Journal'' and introduced the ideas of evidence-based policies in the UK.", "In 1993, the Cochrane Collaboration created a network of 13 countries to produce systematic reviews and guidelines.", "In 1997, the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ, then known as the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, or AHCPR) established Evidence-based Practice Centers (EPCs) to produce evidence reports and technology assessments to support the development of guidelines.", "In the same year, a National Guideline Clearinghouse that followed the principles of evidence-based policies was created by AHRQ, the AMA, and the American Association of Health Plans (now America's Health Insurance Plans).", "In 1999, the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) was created in the UK.In the area of medical education, medical schools in Canada, the US, the UK, Australia, and other countries now offer programs that teach evidence-based medicine.", "A 2009 study of UK programs found that more than half of UK medical schools offered some training in evidence-based medicine, although the methods and content varied considerably, and EBM teaching was restricted by lack of curriculum time, trained tutors and teaching materials.", "Many programs have been developed to help individual physicians gain better access to evidence.", "For example, UpToDate was created in the early 1990s.", "The Cochrane Collaboration began publishing evidence reviews in 1993.In 1995, BMJ Publishing Group launched Clinical Evidence, a 6-monthly periodical that provided brief summaries of the current state of evidence about important clinical questions for clinicians.=== Current practice ===By 2000, use of the term ''evidence-based'' had extended to other levels of the health care system.", "An example is evidence-based health services, which seek to increase the competence of health service decision makers and the practice of evidence-based medicine at the organizational or institutional level.The multiple tributaries of evidence-based medicine share an emphasis on the importance of incorporating evidence from formal research in medical policies and decisions.", "However, because they differ on the extent to which they require good evidence of effectiveness before promoting a guideline or payment policy, a distinction is sometimes made between evidence-based medicine and science-based medicine, which also takes into account factors such as prior plausibility and compatibility with established science (as when medical organizations promote controversial treatments such as acupuncture).", "Differences also exist regarding the extent to which it is feasible to incorporate individual-level information in decisions.", "Thus, evidence-based guidelines and policies may not readily \"hybridise\" with experience-based practices orientated towards ethical clinical judgement, and can lead to contradictions, contest, and unintended crises.", "The most effective \"knowledge leaders\" (managers and clinical leaders) use a broad range of management knowledge in their decision making, rather than just formal evidence.", "Evidence-based guidelines may provide the basis for governmentality in health care, and consequently play a central role in the governance of contemporary health care systems." ], [ "Methods", "=== Steps ===The steps for designing explicit, evidence-based guidelines were described in the late 1980s: formulate the question (population, intervention, comparison intervention, outcomes, time horizon, setting); search the literature to identify studies that inform the question; interpret each study to determine precisely what it says about the question; if several studies address the question, synthesize their results (meta-analysis); summarize the evidence in evidence tables; compare the benefits, harms and costs in a balance sheet; draw a conclusion about the preferred practice; write the guideline; write the rationale for the guideline; have others review each of the previous steps; implement the guideline.For the purposes of medical education and individual-level decision making, five steps of EBM in practice were described in 1992 and the experience of delegates attending the 2003 Conference of Evidence-Based Health Care Teachers and Developers was summarized into five steps and published in 2005.This five-step process can broadly be categorized as follows:# Translation of uncertainty to an answerable question; includes critical questioning, study design and levels of evidence# Systematic retrieval of the best evidence available# Critical appraisal of evidence for internal validity that can be broken down into aspects regarding:#* Systematic errors as a result of selection bias, information bias and confounding#* Quantitative aspects of diagnosis and treatment#* The effect size and aspects regarding its precision#* Clinical importance of results#* External validity or generalizability# Application of results in practice# Evaluation of performance=== Evidence reviews ===Systematic reviews of published research studies are a major part of the evaluation of particular treatments.", "The Cochrane Collaboration is one of the best-known organisations that conducts systematic reviews.", "Like other producers of systematic reviews, it requires authors to provide a detailed study protocol as well as a reproducible plan of their literature search and evaluations of the evidence.", "After the best evidence is assessed, treatment is categorized as (1) likely to be beneficial, (2) likely to be harmful, or (3) without evidence to support either benefit or harm.A 2007 analysis of 1,016 systematic reviews from all 50 Cochrane Collaboration Review Groups found that 44% of the reviews concluded that the intervention was likely to be beneficial, 7% concluded that the intervention was likely to be harmful, and 49% concluded that evidence did not support either benefit or harm.", "96% recommended further research.", "In 2017, a study assessed the role of systematic reviews produced by Cochrane Collaboration to inform US private payers' policymaking; it showed that although the medical policy documents of major US private payers were informed by Cochrane systematic reviews, there was still scope to encourage the further use.=== Assessing the quality of evidence ===Evidence-based medicine categorizes different types of clinical evidence and rates or grades them according to the strength of their freedom from the various biases that beset medical research.", "For example, the strongest evidence for therapeutic interventions is provided by systematic review of randomized, well-blinded, placebo-controlled trials with allocation concealment and complete follow-up involving a homogeneous patient population and medical condition.", "In contrast, patient testimonials, case reports, and even expert opinion have little value as proof because of the placebo effect, the biases inherent in observation and reporting of cases, and difficulties in ascertaining who is an expert (however, some critics have argued that expert opinion \"does not belong in the rankings of the quality of empirical evidence because it does not represent a form of empirical evidence\" and continue that \"expert opinion would seem to be a separate, complex type of knowledge that would not fit into hierarchies otherwise limited to empirical evidence alone.", "\").Several organizations have developed grading systems for assessing the quality of evidence.", "For example, in 1989 the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) put forth the following system:* Level I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed randomized controlled trial.", "* Level II-1: Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without randomization.", "* Level II-2: Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort studies or case-control studies, preferably from more than one center or research group.", "* Level II-3: Evidence obtained from multiple time series designs with or without the intervention.", "Dramatic results in uncontrolled trials might also be regarded as this type of evidence.", "* Level III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees.Another example are the Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence published by the Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine.", "First released in September 2000, the Levels of Evidence provide a way to rank evidence for claims about prognosis, diagnosis, treatment benefits, treatment harms, and screening, which most grading schemes do not address.", "The original CEBM Levels were Evidence-Based On Call to make the process of finding evidence feasible and its results explicit.", "In 2011, an international team redesigned the Oxford CEBM Levels to make them more understandable and to take into account recent developments in evidence ranking schemes.", "The Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence have been used by patients and clinicians, as well as by experts to develop clinical guidelines, such as recommendations for the optimal use of phototherapy and topical therapy in psoriasis and guidelines for the use of the BCLC staging system for diagnosing and monitoring hepatocellular carcinoma in Canada.In 2000, a system was developed by the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) working group.", "The GRADE system takes into account more dimensions than just the quality of medical research.", "It requires users who are performing an assessment of the quality of evidence, usually as part of a systematic review, to consider the impact of different factors on their confidence in the results.", "Authors of GRADE tables assign one of four levels to evaluate the quality of evidence, on the basis of their confidence that the observed effect (a numeric value) is close to the true effect.", "The confidence value is based on judgments assigned in five different domains in a structured manner.", "The GRADE working group defines 'quality of evidence' and 'strength of recommendations' based on the quality as two different concepts that are commonly confused with each other.Systematic reviews may include randomized controlled trials that have low risk of bias, or observational studies that have high risk of bias.", "In the case of randomized controlled trials, the quality of evidence is high but can be downgraded in five different domains.", "* Risk of bias: A judgment made on the basis of the chance that bias in included studies has influenced the estimate of effect.", "* Imprecision: A judgment made on the basis of the chance that the observed estimate of effect could change completely.", "* Indirectness: A judgment made on the basis of the differences in characteristics of how the study was conducted and how the results are actually going to be applied.", "* Inconsistency: A judgment made on the basis of the variability of results across the included studies.", "* Publication bias: A judgment made on the basis of the question whether all the research evidence has been taken to account.In the case of observational studies per GRADE, the quality of evidence starts off lower and may be upgraded in three domains in addition to being subject to downgrading.", "* Large effect: Methodologically strong studies show that the observed effect is so large that the probability of it changing completely is less likely.", "* Plausible confounding would change the effect: Despite the presence of a possible confounding factor that is expected to reduce the observed effect, the effect estimate still shows significant effect.", "* Dose response gradient: The intervention used becomes more effective with increasing dose.", "This suggests that a further increase will likely bring about more effect.Meaning of the levels of quality of evidence as per GRADE:* High Quality Evidence: The authors are very confident that the presented estimate lies very close to the true value.", "In other words, the probability is very low that further research will completely change the presented conclusions.", "* Moderate Quality Evidence: The authors are confident that the presented estimate lies close to the true value, but it is also possible that it may be substantially different.", "In other words, further research may completely change the conclusions.", "* Low Quality Evidence: The authors are not confident in the effect estimate, and the true value may be substantially different.", "In other words, further research is likely to change the presented conclusions completely.", "* Very Low Quality Evidence: The authors do not have any confidence in the estimate and it is likely that the true value is substantially different from it.", "In other words, new research will probably change the presented conclusions completely.=== Categories of recommendations ===In guidelines and other publications, recommendation for a clinical service is classified by the balance of risk versus benefit and the level of evidence on which this information is based.", "The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force uses the following system:* Level A: Good scientific evidence suggests that the benefits of the clinical service substantially outweigh the potential risks.", "Clinicians should discuss the service with eligible patients.", "* Level B: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the benefits of the clinical service outweighs the potential risks.", "Clinicians should discuss the service with eligible patients.", "* Level C: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the clinical service provides benefits, but the balance between benefits and risks is too close for general recommendations.", "Clinicians need not offer it unless individual considerations apply.", "* Level D: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the risks of the clinical service outweigh potential benefits.", "Clinicians should not routinely offer the service to asymptomatic patients.", "* Level I: Scientific evidence is lacking, of poor quality, or conflicting, such that the risk versus benefit balance cannot be assessed.", "Clinicians should help patients understand the uncertainty surrounding the clinical service.GRADE guideline panelists may make strong or weak recommendations on the basis of further criteria.", "Some of the important criteria are the balance between desirable and undesirable effects (not considering cost), the quality of the evidence, values and preferences and costs (resource utilization).Despite the differences between systems, the purposes are the same: to guide users of clinical research information on which studies are likely to be most valid.", "However, the individual studies still require careful critical appraisal.=== Statistical measures ===Evidence-based medicine attempts to express clinical benefits of tests and treatments using mathematical methods.", "Tools used by practitioners of evidence-based medicine include:* Likelihood ratio The pre-test odds of a particular diagnosis, multiplied by the likelihood ratio, determines the post-test odds.", "(Odds can be calculated from, and then converted to, the more familiar probability.)", "This reflects Bayes' theorem.", "The differences in likelihood ratio between clinical tests can be used to prioritize clinical tests according to their usefulness in a given clinical situation.", "* AUC-ROC The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) reflects the relationship between sensitivity and specificity for a given test.", "High-quality tests will have an AUC-ROC approaching 1, and high-quality publications about clinical tests will provide information about the AUC-ROC.", "Cutoff values for positive and negative tests can influence specificity and sensitivity, but they do not affect AUC-ROC.", "* Number needed to treat (NNT)/Number needed to harm (NNH).", "NNT and NNH are ways of expressing the effectiveness and safety, respectively, of interventions in a way that is clinically meaningful.", "NNT is the number of people who need to be treated in order to achieve the desired outcome (e.g.", "survival from cancer) in one patient.", "For example, if a treatment increases the chance of survival by 5%, then 20 people need to be treated in order for 1 additional patient to survive because of the treatment.", "The concept can also be applied to diagnostic tests.", "For example, if 1,339 women age 50–59 need to be invited for breast cancer screening over a ten-year period in order to prevent one woman from dying of breast cancer, then the NNT for being invited to breast cancer screening is 1339.=== Quality of clinical trials ===Evidence-based medicine attempts to objectively evaluate the quality of clinical research by critically assessing techniques reported by researchers in their publications.", "* Trial design considerations: High-quality studies have clearly defined eligibility criteria and have minimal missing data.", "* Generalizability considerations: Studies may only be applicable to narrowly defined patient populations and may not be generalizable to other clinical contexts.", "* Follow-up: Sufficient time for defined outcomes to occur can influence the prospective study outcomes and the statistical power of a study to detect differences between a treatment and control arm.", "* Power: A mathematical calculation can determine whether the number of patients is sufficient to detect a difference between treatment arms.", "A negative study may reflect a lack of benefit, or simply a lack of sufficient quantities of patients to detect a difference." ], [ "Limitations and criticism", "There are a number of limitations and criticisms of evidence-based medicine.", "Two widely cited categorization schemes for the various published critiques of EBM include the three-fold division of Straus and McAlister (\"limitations universal to the practice of medicine, limitations unique to evidence-based medicine and misperceptions of evidence-based-medicine\") and the five-point categorization of Cohen, Stavri and Hersh (EBM is a poor philosophic basis for medicine, defines evidence too narrowly, is not evidence-based, is limited in usefulness when applied to individual patients, or reduces the autonomy of the doctor/patient relationship).In no particular order, some published objections include:* Research produced by EBM, such as from randomized controlled trials (RCTs), may not be relevant for all treatment situations.", "Research tends to focus on specific populations, but individual persons can vary substantially from population norms.", "Because certain population segments have been historically under-researched (due to reasons such as race, gender, age, and co-morbid diseases), evidence from RCTs may not be generalizable to those populations.", "Thus, EBM applies to groups of people, but this should not preclude clinicians from using their personal experience in deciding how to treat each patient.", "One author advises that \"the knowledge gained from clinical research does not directly answer the primary clinical question of what is best for the patient at hand\" and suggests that evidence-based medicine should not discount the value of clinical experience.", "Another author stated that \"the practice of evidence-based medicine means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.", "\"* Use of evidence-based guidelines often fits poorly for complex, multimorbid patients.", "This is because the guidelines are usually based on clinical studies focused on single diseases.", "In reality, the recommended treatments in such circumstances may interact unfavorably with each other and often lead to polypharmacy.", "* The theoretical ideal of EBM (that every narrow clinical question, of which hundreds of thousands can exist, would be answered by meta-analysis and systematic reviews of multiple RCTs) faces the limitation that research (especially the RCTs themselves) is expensive; thus, in reality, for the foreseeable future, the demand for EBM will always be much higher than the supply, and the best humanity can do is to triage the application of scarce resources.", "* Research can be influenced by biases such as publication bias and conflict of interest in academic publishing.", "For example, studies with conflicts due to industry funding are more likely to favor their product.", "It has been argued that contemporary evidence based medicine is an illusion, since evidence based medicine has been corrupted by corporate interests, failed regulation, and commercialisation of academia.", "* Systematic Reviews methodologies are capable of bias and abuse in respect of (i) choice of inclusion criteria (ii) choice of outcome measures, comparisons and analyses (iii) the subjectivity inevitable in Risk of Bias assessments, even when codified procedures and criteria are observed.", "An example of all these problems can be seen in a Cochrane Review, as analyzed by Edmund J. Fordham, et al.", "in their relevant review.", "* A lag exists between when the RCT is conducted and when its results are published.", "* A lag exists between when results are published and when they are properly applied.", "* Hypocognition (the absence of a simple, consolidated mental framework into which new information can be placed) can hinder the application of EBM.", "* Values: while patient values are considered in the original definition of EBM, the importance of values is not commonly emphasized in EBM training, a potential problem under current study.A 2018 study, \"Why all randomised controlled trials produce biased results\", assessed the 10 most cited RCTs and argued that trials face a wide range of biases and constraints, from trials only being able to study a small set of questions amenable to randomisation and generally only being able to assess the ''average'' treatment effect of a sample, to limitations in extrapolating results to another context, among many others outlined in the study." ], [ "Application of evidence in clinical settings", "Despite the emphasis on evidence-based medicine, unsafe or ineffective medical practices continue to be applied, because of patient demand for tests or treatments, because of failure to access information about the evidence, or because of the rapid pace of change in the scientific evidence.", "For example, between 2003 and 2017, the evidence shifted on hundreds of medical practices, including whether hormone replacement therapy was safe, whether babies should be given certain vitamins, and whether antidepressant drugs are effective in people with Alzheimer's disease.", "Even when the evidence unequivocally shows that a treatment is either not safe or not effective, it may take many years for other treatments to be adopted.There are many factors that contribute to lack of uptake or implementation of evidence-based recommendations.", "These include lack of awareness at the individual clinician or patient (micro) level, lack of institutional support at the organisation level (meso) level or higher at the policy (macro) level.", "In other cases, significant change can require a generation of physicians to retire or die and be replaced by physicians who were trained with more recent evidence.Physicians may also reject evidence that conflicts with their anecdotal experience or because of cognitive biases – for example, a vivid memory of a rare but shocking outcome (the availability heuristic), such as a patient dying after refusing treatment.", "They may overtreat to \"do something\" or to address a patient's emotional needs.", "They may worry about malpractice charges based on a discrepancy between what the patient expects and what the evidence recommends.", "They may also overtreat or provide ineffective treatments because the treatment feels biologically plausible.It is the responsibility of those developing clinical guidelines to include an implementation plan to facilitate uptake.", "The implementation process will include an implementation plan, analysis of the context, identifying barriers and facilitators and designing the strategies to address them." ], [ "Education", "Training in evidence based medicine is offered across the continuum of medical education.", "Educational competencies have been created for the education of health care professionals.The Berlin questionnaire and the Fresno Test Fresno test are validated instruments for assessing the effectiveness of education in evidence-based medicine.", "These questionnaires have been used in diverse settings.A Campbell systematic review that included 24 trials examined the effectiveness of e-learning in improving evidence-based health care knowledge and practice.", "It was found that e-learning, compared to no learning, improves evidence-based health care knowledge and skills but not attitudes and behaviour.", "No difference in outcomes is present when comparing e-learning with face-to-face learning.", "Combining e-learning and face-to-face learning (blended learning) has a positive impact on evidence-based knowledge, skills, attitude and behavior.", "As a form of e-learning, some medical school students engage in editing Wikipedia to increase their EBM skills, and some students construct EBM materials to develop their skills in communicating medical knowledge." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Evidence-Based Medicine – An Oral History, ''JAMA'' and the ''BMJ'', 2014.", "* Centre for Evidence-based Medicine at the University of Oxford.", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "End zone" ], [ "Introduction", "USC college football game.The '''end zone''' is the scoring area on the field, according to gridiron-based codes of football.", "It is the area between the end line and goal line bounded by the sidelines.", "There are two end zones, each being on the opposite side of the field.", "It is bordered on all sides by a white line indicating its beginning and end points, with orange, square pylons placed at each of the four corners as a visual aid (however, prior to around the early 1970s, flags were used instead to denote the end zone).", "Canadian rule books use the terms ''goal area'' and ''dead line'' instead of ''end zone'' and ''end line'' respectively, but the latter terms are the more common in colloquial Canadian English.", "Unlike sports like association football and ice hockey which require the ball/puck to pass completely over the goal line to count as a score, both Canadian and American football merely need any part of the ball to break the vertical plane of the outer edge of the goal line.A similar concept exists in both rugby football codes, where it is known as the ''in-goal area''.", "The difference between rugby and gridiron-based codes is that in rugby, the ball must be touched to the ground in the in-goal area to count as a try (the rugby equivalent of a touchdown), whereas in the gridiron-based games, simply possessing the ball in or over the end zone is sufficient to count as a touchdown.Ultimate frisbee also uses an end zone scoring area.", "Scores in this sport are counted when a pass is received in the end zone." ], [ "History", "The end zones were invented as a result of the legalization of the forward pass in gridiron football.", "Prior to this, the goal line and end line were the same, and players scored a touchdown by leaving the field of play through that line.", "Goal posts were placed on the goal line, and any kicks that did not result in field goals but left the field through the end lines were simply recorded as touchbacks (or, in the Canadian game, singles; it was during the pre-end zone era that Hugh Gall set the record for most singles in a game, with eight).In the earliest days of the forward pass, the pass had to be caught in-bounds and could not be thrown across the goal line (as the receiver would be out of bounds).", "This also made it difficult to pass the ball when very close to one's own goal line, since merely dropping back to pass or kick would result in a safety (rules of the forward pass at the time required the passer to be five yards behind the line of scrimmage, which would make throwing the forward pass when the ball was snapped from behind one's own five-yard line illegal in itself).Thus, in 1912, the end zone was introduced in American football.", "In an era when professional football was still in its early years and college football dominated the game, the resulting enlargement of the field was constrained by fact that many college teams were already playing in well-developed stadiums, complete with stands and other structures at the ends of the fields, thereby making any substantial enlargement of the field unfeasible at many schools.", "Eventually, a compromise was reached: 12 yards of end zone were added to each end of the field, but in return, the playing field was shortened from 110 yards to 100, resulting in the physical size of the field being only slightly longer than before.", "Goal posts were originally kept on the goal lines, but after they began to interfere with play, they moved back to the end lines in 1927, where they have remained in college football ever since.", "The National Football League moved the goal posts up to the goal line again in 1933, then back again to the end line in 1974.A Canadian football field, with 20-yard-deep end zone and goal post on the goal lineAs with many other aspects of gridiron football, Canadian football adopted the forward pass and end zones much later than American football.", "The forward pass and end zones were adopted in 1929.In Canada, college football has never reached a level of prominence comparable to U.S. college football, and professional football was still in its infancy in the 1920s.", "As a result, Canadian football was still being played in rudimentary facilities in the late 1920s.", "A further consideration was that the Canadian Rugby Union (the governing body of Canadian football at the time, now known as Football Canada) wanted to reduce the prominence of single points (then called ''rouges'') in the game.", "Therefore, the CRU simply appended 25-yard end zones to the ends of the existing 110-yard field, creating a much larger field of play.", "Since moving the goal posts back 25 yards would have made the scoring of field goals excessively difficult, and since the CRU did not want to reduce the prominence of field goals, the goal posts were left on the goal line where they remain today.", "However, the rules governing the scoring of singles were changed: teams were required to either kick the ball out of bounds through the end zone or force the opposition to down a kicked ball in their own end zone in order to be awarded a point.", "By 1986, at which point CFL stadiums were becoming bigger and comparable in development to their American counterparts in an effort to stay financially competitive, the CFL reduced the depth of the end zone to 20 yards." ], [ "Scoring", "A team scores a touchdown by entering its opponent's end zone while carrying the ball or catching the ball while being within the end zone.", "If the ball is carried by a player, it is considered a score when any part of the ball is directly above or beyond any part of the goal line between the pylons.", "In addition, a two-point conversion may be scored after a touchdown by the same means.In Ultimate Frisbee, a goal is scored by completing a pass into the end zone." ], [ "Size", "The end zone in American football is 10 yards long by yards (160 feet) wide.A full-sized end zone in Canadian football is 20 yards long by 65 yards wide.", "Prior to the 1980s, the Canadian end zone was 25 yards long.", "The first stadium to use the 20-yard-long end zone was B.C.", "Place in Vancouver, which was completed in 1983.The floor of B.C.", "Place was (and is) too short to accommodate a field 160 yards in length.", "The shorter end zone proved popular enough that the CFL adopted it league-wide in 1986.At BMO Field, home to the Toronto Argonauts, the end zones are only 18 yards.", "Like their American counterparts, Canadian endzones are marked with four pylons.In Canadian football stadiums that also feature a running track, it is usually necessary to truncate the back corners of the end zones, since a rectangular field 150 yards long and 65 yards wide will not fit completely inside an oval-shaped running track.", "Such truncations are marked as straight diagonal lines, resulting in an end zone with six corners and six pylons.", "As of 2019, Montreal's Percival Molson Stadium is the only CFL stadium that has the rounded-off end zones.During the CFL's failed American expansion in the mid-1990s, several stadiums, by necessity, used 15-yard end zones (some had end zones that were even shorter than 15 yards); only Baltimore and San Antonio had the endzones at the standard 20 yards.Ultimate Frisbee uses an end zone 40 yards wide and 20 yards deep (37 m × 18 m)." ], [ "The goal post", "Goal post at one end of a college football fieldThe location and dimensions of a goal post differ from league to league, but it is usually within the boundaries of the end zone.", "In earlier football games (both professional and collegiate), the goal post began at the goal line, and was usually an H-shaped bar.", "Nowadays, for player safety reasons, almost all goal posts in the professional and collegiate levels of American football are T-shaped (resembling a slingshot), and reside just outside the rear of both end zones; these goalposts were first seen in 1966 and were invented by Jim Trimble and Joel Rottman in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.The goal posts in Canadian football still reside on the goal line instead of the back of the end zones, partly because the number of field goal attempts would dramatically decrease if the posts were moved 20 yards back in that sport, and also because the larger end zone and wider field makes the resulting interference in play by the goal post a less serious problem.At the high school level, it is not uncommon to see multi-purpose goal posts that include football goal posts at the top and a soccer net at the bottom; these are usually seen at smaller schools and in multi-purpose stadiums where facilities are used for multiple sports.", "When these or H-shaped goal posts are used in football, the lower portions of the posts are covered with several inches of heavy foam padding to protect the safety of the players." ], [ "Decoration", "XFL field, including end zone featuring the league's logoMost professional and collegiate teams have their logo, team name, or both painted on the surface of the end zone, with team colors filling the background.", "Many championship and bowl games at college and professional level are commemorated by the names of the opposing teams each being painted in one of the opposite end zones.", "In some leagues, along with bowl games, local, national, or bowl game sponsors may also have their logos placed in the end zone.", "In the CFL, fully painted end zones are nonexistent, though some feature club logos or sponsors.", "Additionally, the Canadian end zone, being a live-ball part of the field, often features yardage dashes (usually marked every five yards), not unlike the field of play itself.In many places, particularly in smaller high schools and colleges, end zones are undecorated, or have plain white diagonal stripes spaced several yards apart, in lieu of colors and decorations.", "One notable use of this design in major college football is the Notre Dame Fighting Irish, who have both end zones at Notre Dame Stadium painted with diagonal white lines.", "In professional football, since 2004, the Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL have the south end zone at Acrisure Stadium (formerly Heinz Field) painted with diagonal-lines during most of the regular season, with the north end zone featuring only the city name of Pittsburgh in yellow.", "This is done because Acrisure Stadium, which has a natural grass playing surface, is also home to the Pittsburgh Panthers of college football and the markings simplify field conversion between the two teams' respective field markings and logos, with both teams sharing a secondary yellow color, but each having different primary colors.", "After the Panthers' season is over, the Steelers logo is painted in the south end zone.Likewise, some end zones are painted in tribute to a recently deceased team figure or fan, as is done with the Steelers' AFC North rival Baltimore Ravens at M&T Bank Stadium, where the city name is painted as usual in the end zone, except for the \"MO\" portion, which is painted in gold or white in tribute to the late Mo Gaba, a young fan of both the Ravens and Orioles.One of the major quirks of the American Football League was its use of unusual patterns such as argyle in its end zones, a tradition revived in 2009 by the Denver Broncos to celebrate the team's 50th anniversary, Denver itself a former AFL team.", "The original XFL standardized its playing fields so that all eight of its teams had uniform fields with the XFL logo in each end zone and no team identification." ], [ "See also", "* List of college football venues with non-traditional field colors* Friend zone, a play on the term" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Ettore Ximenes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ettore Ximenes''' (11 April 1855 20 December 1926) was an Italian sculptor." ], [ "Biography", "Ettore Ximenes was born 11 April 1855 in Palermo, Italy.", "Son of Antonio Ximenes and Giulia Tolentino, a Sicilian noble woman, Ettore Ximenes initially embarked on literary studies but then took up sculpture and attended the courses at the Palermo Academy of Fine Arts.", "After 1872, he continued training at the Naples Academy under Domenico Morelli and Stanislao Lista.", "He also established a close relationship with Vincenzo Gemito.Ettore Ximenes with a sculpture model of opera singer Enrico Caruso.He returned to Palermo in 1874 and won a competition for a four-year grant, which enabled him to study and open a studio for sculpture in Florence.", "In 1873 at Vienna, he exhibited ''Work without Genius''.", "In 1877 at Naples, he exhibited a life-size statue titled ''The Equilibrium'' about a gymnast walking on a sphere.", "He would make copies of this work in small marble and bronze statuettes.He exhibited a stucco ''Christ and the Adultress'' and ''Il cuore del re (Heart of the King)'', the latter depicting an oft-repeated story of King Vittorio Emanuele during one of his frequent hunts, encountering and offering charity to a peasant child.", "At the 1878 Paris World Exposition he displayed: ''The Brawl'' and ''il Marmiton''.", "In Paris, he met with Auguste Rodin and Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux.In 1878, he also completed a life-size stucco of ''il Ciceruacchio'', a statue of the Italian patriot Angelo Brunetti and his thirteen-year-old son, depicting them at the moment of their execution in 1849 by Austrian troops.", "The Cicervacchio statue, with its tinge of revolutionary zeal, did not find commissions for completing the work in marble.Sculpture of Revolution.He then completed a nude statue of ''Nanà'' based on the novel by Émile Zola; the statue was exhibited at the 1879 Salon di Paris.", "The next year at the Paris Salon, he displayed ''La Pesca meravigliosa'', where a fisherman rescues a bathing maiden.", "Returning to Italy, he displayed the bust del minister Giuseppe Zanardelli.", "At the Mostra of Rome, he displayed ''The assassination of Julius Caesar''; and at the Exposition of Venice, ''Ragazzi messi in fila''.", "Ximenes' realism gave way to Symbolist and Neo-Renaissance elements.", "In addition to sculpture, he also produced illustrations for the works of Edmondo De Amicis published by the Treves publishing house.Ximenes was involved in many of the major official monumental projects in Italy from the 1880s on and devoted his energies as from 1911 primarily to commissions for important public works in São Paulo, Kyiv, New York and Buenos Aires." ], [ "Works", "===In Italy===*Bronze quadriga on Palace of Justice, Rome===In Ukraine===* Monument to Emperor Alexander II of Russia in Kyiv (1911)* Monument to Pyotr Stolypin in Kyiv (1913)Image:Alexander 2 Kyiv 02.jpg|Alexander II of Russia, 1911Image:Kyiv-stolypin-statue.jpg|Pyotr Stolypin, 1913===In the United States===* Giovanni da Verrazzano in the Battery, Manhattan, New York, 1909* Dante Alighieri in Dante Park at Lincoln Center, New York City and in Meridian Hill Park, Washington D.C. - castings of the same work, 1921Image:Ximenes Monument to Verrazzano in NY (1911).jpg|Verrazzano Monument, 1909Image:Dante (Malcolm X Park).jpg|''Dante'', Washington, D.C.'s Meridian Hill ParkFile:Artgate_Fondazione_Cariplo_-_Ximenez_Ettore,_La_Repubblica_Argentina.jpg|''La repubblica Argentina'', 1900" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Elena Lissoni, Ettore Ximenes, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo, 2010, CC BY-SA (source for biography).", "* Dianne Durante, ''Outdoor Monuments of Manhattan: A Historical Guide'' (New York University Press, 2007), with a discussion of the Verrazzano.", "*Fried, Frederick & Edmund V. Gillon Jr., ''New York Civic Sculpture'', Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1976*Goode, James M., ''The Outdoor Sculpture of Washington D.C.'', Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 1974*Lederer, Joseph & Arley Bondarin, ''All Around Town: A Walking Guide to Outdoor Sculpture in New York'', Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1975*Mackay, James,''The Dictionary of Sculptors in Bronze'', Antique Collectors Club, Woodbridge, Suffolk 1977" ], [ "External links", "* Artnet.com biography: Ettore Ximenes* Flickr.com Ettore Ximenes Group" ] ]
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[ [ "Edsger W. Dijkstra" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edsger Wybe Dijkstra''' ( ; ; 11 May 1930 – 6 August 2002) was a Dutch computer scientist, programmer, software engineer, and science essayist.Born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, Dijkstra studied mathematics and physics and then theoretical physics at the University of Leiden.", "Adriaan van Wijngaarden offered him a job as the first computer programmer in the Netherlands at the Mathematical Center in Amsterdam, where he worked from 1952 until 1962.He formulated and solved the shortest path problem in 1956, and in 1960 developed the first compiler for the programming language ALGOL 60 in conjunction with colleague Jaap A. Zonneveld.", "In 1962 he moved to Eindhoven, and later to Nuenen, where he became a professor in the Mathematics Department at the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven.", "In the late 1960s he built the THE multiprogramming system, which influenced the designs of subsequent systems through its use of software-based paged virtual memory.", "Dijkstra joined Burroughs Corporation as its sole research fellow in August 1973.The Burroughs years saw him at his most prolific in output of research articles.", "He wrote nearly 500 documents in the \"EWD\" series, most of them technical reports, for private circulation within a select group.Dijkstra accepted the Schlumberger Centennial Chair in the Computer Science Department at the University of Texas at Austin in 1984, working in Austin, Texas until his retirement in November 1999.He and his wife returned from Austin to his original house in Nuenen, where he died on 6 August 2002 after a long struggle with cancer.He received the 1972 Turing Award for fundamental contributions to developing structured programming languages.", "Shortly before his death, he received the ACM PODC Influential Paper Award in distributed computing for his work on self-stabilization of program computation.", "This annual award was renamed the Dijkstra Prize the following year, in his honor." ], [ "Life and works", "===Early years===Edsger W. Dijkstra was born in Rotterdam.", "His father was a chemist who was president of the Dutch Chemical Society; he taught chemistry at a secondary school and was later its superintendent.", "His mother was a mathematician, but never had a formal job.Dijkstra had considered a career in law and had hoped to represent the Netherlands in the United Nations.", "However, after graduating from school in 1948, at his parents' suggestion he studied mathematics and physics and then theoretical physics at the University of Leiden.In the early 1950s, electronic computers were a novelty.", "Dijkstra stumbled on his career by accident, and through his supervisor, Professor , he met Adriaan van Wijngaarden, the director of the Computation Department at the Mathematical Center in Amsterdam, who offered Dijkstra a job; he officially became the Netherlands' first \"programmer\" in March 1952.For some time Dijkstra remained committed to physics, working on it in Leiden three days out of each week.", "With increasing exposure to computing, however, his focus began to shift.", "As he recalled:When Dijkstra married Maria (Ria) C. Debets in 1957, he was required as a part of the marriage rites to state his profession.", "He stated that he was a programmer, which was unacceptable to the authorities, there being no such profession then in The Netherlands.", "In 1959, he received his PhD from the University of Amsterdam for a thesis entitled 'Communication with an Automatic Computer', devoted to a description of the assembly language designed for the first commercial computer developed in the Netherlands, the Electrologica X1.His thesis supervisor was Van Wijngaarden.===Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam===From 1952 until 1962, Dijkstra worked at the Mathematisch Centrum in Amsterdam, where he worked closely with Bram Jan Loopstra and Carel S. Scholten, who had been hired to build a computer.", "Their mode of interaction was disciplined: They would first decide upon the interface between the hardware and the software, by writing a programming manual.", "Then the hardware designers would have to be faithful to their part of the contract, while Dijkstra, the programmer, would write software for the nonexistent machine.", "Two of the lessons he learned from this experience were the importance of clear documentation, and that program debugging can be largely avoided through careful design.Dijkstra formulated and solved the shortest path problem for a demonstration at the official inauguration of the ARMAC computer in 1956.Because of the absence of journals dedicated to automatic computing, he did not publish the result until 1959.At the Mathematical Center, Dijkstra and his colleague developed the first compiler for the programming language ALGOL 60 by August 1960, more than a year before a compiler was produced by another group.", "ALGOL 60 is known as a key advance in the rise of structured programming.===Eindhoven University of Technology===The Eindhoven University of Technology, located in Eindhoven in the south of the Netherlands, where Dijkstra was a professor of mathematics from 1962 to 1984.In 1962, Dijkstra moved to Eindhoven, and later to Nuenen, in the south of the Netherlands, where he became a professor in the Mathematics Department at the Eindhoven University of Technology.", "The university did not have a separate computer science department and the culture of the mathematics department did not particularly suit him.", "Dijkstra tried to build a group of computer scientists who could collaborate on solving problems.", "This was an unusual model of research for the Mathematics Department.", "In the late 1960s, he built the THE operating system (named for the university, then known as Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven), which has influenced the designs of subsequent operating systems through its use of software-based paged virtual memory.===Burroughs Corporation===Dijkstra joined Burroughs Corporation, a company known then for producing computers based on an innovative hardware architecture, as its research fellow in August 1973.His duties consisted of visiting some of the firm's research centers a few times a year and carrying on his own research, which he did in the smallest Burroughs research facility, namely, his study on the second floor of his house in Nuenen.", "In fact, Dijkstra was the only research fellow of Burroughs and worked for it from home, occasionally travelling to its branches in the United States.", "As a result, he reduced his appointment at the university to one day a week.", "That day, Tuesday, soon became known as the day of the famous 'Tuesday Afternoon Club', a seminar during which he discussed with his colleagues scientific articles, looking at all aspects: notation, organisation, presentation, language, content, etc.", "Shortly after he moved in 1984 to the University of Texas at Austin (USA), a new 'branch' of the Tuesday Afternoon Club emerged in Austin, Texas.The Burroughs years saw him at his most prolific in output of research articles.", "He wrote nearly 500 documents in the EWD series (described below), most of them technical reports, for private circulation within a select group.===The University of Texas at Austin===The University of Texas at Austin, where Dijkstra held the Schlumberger Centennial Chair in Computer Sciences from 1984 until 1999.Dijkstra accepted the Schlumberger Centennial Chair in the Computer Science Department at the University of Texas at Austin in 1984.===Last years===Dijkstra worked in Austin until his retirement in November 1999.To mark the occasion and to celebrate his forty-plus years of seminal contributions to computing science, the Department of Computer Sciences organized a symposium, which took place on his 70th birthday in May 2000.Dijkstra and his wife returned from Austin to his original house in Nuenen (Netherlands) where he found that he had only months to live.", "He said that he wanted to retire in Austin, Texas, but to die in the Netherlands.", "Dijkstra died on 6 August 2002 after a long struggle with cancer.", "He and his wife were survived by their three children: Marcus, Femke, and the computer scientist Rutger M. Dijkstra." ], [ "Personality", "Dijkstra at the blackboard during a conference at ETH Zurich in 1994.He once remarked, \"A picture may be worth a thousand words, a formula is worth a thousand pictures.", "\"=== Character ===In the world of computing science, Dijkstra is well known as a \"character\".", "In the preface of his book ''A Discipline of Programming'' (1976) he stated the following: \"For the absence of a bibliography I offer neither explanation nor apology.\"", "In fact, most of his articles and books have no references at all.", "Dijkstra chose this way of working to preserve his self-reliance.As a university professor for much of his life, Dijkstra saw teaching not just as a required activity but as a serious research endeavour.", "His approach to teaching was unconventional.", "His lecturing style has been described as idiosyncratic.", "When lecturing, the long pauses between sentences have often been attributed to the fact that English is not Dijkstra's first language.", "However the pauses also served as a way for him to think on his feet and he was regarded as a quick and deep thinker while engaged in the act of lecturing.", "His courses for students in Austin had little to do with computer science but they dealt with the presentation of mathematical proofs.", "At the beginning of each semester, he would take a photo of each of his students in order to memorize their names.", "He never followed a textbook, with the possible exception of his own while it was under preparation.", "When lecturing, he would write proofs in chalk on a blackboard rather than using overhead foils.", "He invited the students to suggest ideas, which he then explored, or refused to explore because they violated some of his tenets.", "He assigned challenging homework problems, and would study his students' solutions thoroughly.", "He conducted his final examinations orally, over a whole week.", "Each student was examined in Dijkstra's office or home, and an exam lasted several hours.Dijkstra was also highly original in his way of assessing people's capacity for a job.", "When Vladimir Lifschitz came to Austin in 1990 for a job interview, Dijkstra gave him a puzzle.", "Lifschitz solved it and has been working in Austin since then.=== Use of technology ===He eschewed the use of computers in his own work for many decades.", "Even after he succumbed to his UT colleagues' encouragement and acquired a Macintosh computer, he used it only for e-mail and for browsing the World Wide Web.", "Dijkstra never wrote his articles using a computer.", "He preferred to rely on his typewriter and later on his Montblanc pen.", "Dijkstra's favorite writing instrument was the Montblanc Meisterstück fountain pen.He had no use for word processors, believing that one should be able to write a letter or article without rough drafts, rewriting, or any significant editing.", "He would work it all out in his head before putting pen to paper, and once mentioned that when he was a physics student he would solve his homework problems in his head while walking the streets of Leiden.Most of Dijkstra's publications were written by him alone.", "He never had a secretary and took care of all his correspondence alone.", "When colleagues prepared a Festschrift for his sixtieth birthday, published by Springer-Verlag, he took the trouble to thank each of the 61 contributors separately, in a hand-written letter.In ''The Humble Programmer'' (1972), Dijkstra wrote: \"We must not forget that it is not our computing scientists' business to make programs, it is our business to design classes of computations that will display a desired behaviour.", "\"Dijkstra also opposed the inclusion of software engineering under the umbrella of academic computer science.", "He wrote that, \"As economics is known as \"The Miserable Science\", software engineering should be known as \"The Doomed Discipline\", doomed because it cannot even approach its goal since its goal is self-contradictory.\"", "And \"software engineering has accepted as its charter 'How to program if you cannot.", "'\"=== Personal life ===Dijkstra led a modest lifestyle, to the point of being spartan.", "His and his wife's house in Nuenen was simple, small and unassuming.", "He did not own a television, a video player, or a mobile telephone, and did not go to the movies.", "He played the piano, and, while in Austin, liked to go to concerts.", "An enthusiastic listener of classical music, Dijkstra's favorite composer was Mozart." ], [ "Essays and other writing", "Throughout Dijkstra's career, his work was characterized by elegance and economy.", "A prolific writer (especially as an essayist), Dijkstra authored more than 1,300 papers, many written by hand in his precise script.", "They were essays and parables; fairy tales and warnings; comprehensive explanation and pedagogical pretext.", "Most were about mathematics and computer science; others were trip reports that are more revealing about their author than about the people and places visited.", "It was his habit to copy each paper and circulate it to a small group of colleagues who would copy and forward the papers to another limited group of scientists.=== EWDs ===Dijkstra was well known for his habit of carefully composing manuscripts with his fountain pen.", "The manuscripts are called EWDs, since Dijkstra numbered them with ''EWD'', his initials, as a prefix.", "According to Dijkstra himself, the EWDs started when he moved from the Mathematical Centre in Amsterdam to the Eindhoven University of Technology (then Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven).", "After going to Eindhoven, Dijkstra experienced a writer's block for more than a year.", "He distributed photocopies of a new EWD among his colleagues.", "Many recipients photocopied and forwarded their copies, so the EWDs spread throughout the international computer science community.", "The topics were computer science and mathematics, and included trip reports, letters, and speeches.", "These short articles span a period of 40 years.", "Almost all EWDs appearing after 1972 were hand-written.", "They are rarely longer than 15 pages and are consecutively numbered.", "The last one, No.", "1318, is from 14 April 2002.Within computer science they are known as the EWD reports, or, simply the EWDs.", "More than 1300 EWDs have been scanned, with a growing number transcribed to facilitate search, and are available online at the Dijkstra archive of the University of Texas.=== Writing style ===His interest with simplicity came at an early age and under his mother's guidance.", "He once said he had asked his mother whether trigonometry was a difficult topic.", "She replied that he must learn all the formulas and that further, if he required more than five lines to prove something, he was on the wrong track.Dijkstra was famous for his wit, eloquence, rudeness, abruptness and often cruelty to fellow professionals, and way with words, such as in his remark, \"The question of whether Machines Can Think (…) is about as relevant as the question of whether Submarines Can Swim.\"", "His advice to a promising researcher, who asked how to select a topic for research, was the phrase: \"Do only what only you can do\".", "Dijkstra was also known for his vocal criticism and absence of social skills when interacting with colleagues.", "As an outspoken and critical visionary, he strongly opposed the teaching of BASIC.=== Recurring themes ===In many of his more witty essays, Dijkstra described a fictional company of which he served as chairman.", "The company was called Mathematics, Inc., a company that he imagined having commercialized the production of mathematical theorems in the same way that software companies had commercialized the production of computer programs.", "He invented a number of activities and challenges of Mathematics Inc. and documented them in several papers in the EWD series.", "The imaginary company had produced a proof of the Riemann Hypothesis but then had great difficulties collecting royalties from mathematicians who had proved results assuming the Riemann Hypothesis.", "The proof itself was a trade secret.", "Many of the company's proofs were rushed out the door and then much of the company's effort had to be spent on maintenance.", "A more successful effort was the Standard Proof for Pythagoras' Theorem, that replaced the more than 100 incompatible existing proofs.", "Dijkstra described Mathematics Inc. as \"the most exciting and most miserable business ever conceived\".", "EWD 443 (1974) describes his fictional company as having over 75 percent of the world's market share." ], [ "Legacy", "Dijkstra won the Turing award in 1972 for his advocacy of structured programming, a programming paradigm that makes use of structured control flow as opposed to unstructured jumps to different sections in a program using Goto statements.", "His 1968 letter to the editor of ''Communications of ACM, \"''Go To statement considered harmful''\"'', caused a major debate.", "Modern programmers generally adhere to the paradigm of structured programming.Among his most famous contributions to computer science is ''shortest path algorithm'', known as ''Dijkstra's algorithm,'' widely taught in modern computer science undergraduate courses.", "His other contributions included the ''Shunting yard algorithm''; the THE multiprogramming system, an important early example of structuring a system as a set of layers; the ''Banker's algorithm''; and the semaphore construct for coordinating multiple processors and programs.", "Another concept formulated by Dijkstra in the field of distributed computing is that of self-stabilization – an alternative way to ensure the reliability of the system.", "Dijkstra's algorithm is used in SPF, Shortest Path First, which is used in the routing protocols OSPF and IS-IS." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Among Dijkstra's awards and honors are:* Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1971)* Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (1971)* The Association for Computing Machinery's A.M. Turing Award (1972)* Harry H. Goode Memorial Award from the IEEE Computer Society (1974).", "* Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1975)* Doctor of Science Honoris Causa from the Queen's University Belfast (1976)* Computer Pioneer Charter Recipient from the IEEE Computer Society (1982)* ACM/SIGCSE Award for Outstanding Contributions to Computer Science Education (1989)* Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (1994)* Honorary doctorate from the Athens University of Economics & Business, Greece (2001).In 1969, the British Computer Society (BCS) received approval for an award and fellowship, Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS), to be awarded under bylaw 7 of their royal charter.", "In 1971, the first election was made, to Dijkstra.In 1990, on occasion of Dijkstra's 60th birthday, the Department of Computer Science (UTCS) at the University of Texas at Austin organized a two-day seminar in his honor.", "Speakers came from all over the United States and Europe, and a group of computer scientists contributed research articles which were edited into a book.In 2002, the C&C Foundation of Japan recognized Dijkstra \"for his pioneering contributions to the establishment of the scientific basis for computer software through creative research in basic software theory, algorithm theory, structured programming, and semaphores.\"", "Dijkstra was alive to receive notice of the award, but it was accepted by his family in an award ceremony after his death.Shortly before his death in 2002, Dijkstra received the ACM PODC Influential-Paper Award in distributed computing for his work on self-stabilization of program computation.", "This annual award was renamed the Dijkstra Prize (Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing) the following year, in his honor.The Dijkstra Award for Outstanding Academic Achievement in Computer Science (Loyola University Chicago, Department of Computer Science) is named for Edsger W. Dijkstra.", "Beginning in 2005, this award recognizes the top academic performance by a graduating computer science major.", "Selection is based on GPA in all major courses and election by department faculty.The Department of Computer Science (UTCS) at the University of Texas at Austin hosted the inaugural Edsger W. Dijkstra Memorial Lecture on 12 October 2010.Tony Hoare, Emeritus Professor at Oxford and Principal Researcher at Microsoft Research, was the speaker for the event.", "This lecture series was made possible by a generous grant from Schlumberger to honor the memory of Dijkstra." ], [ "Selected publications", "===Books===** ****===Selected articles=== * * * Reprinted in Published as *********** **** * ** ** * ** * ***" ], [ "See also", "* ''Go To Statement Considered Harmful''* ''On the Cruelty of Really Teaching Computer Science''* List of pioneers in computer science" ], [ "References" ], [ "Citations", "*" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Educational perennialism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Educational perennialism''' is a normative educational philosophy.", "Perennialists believe that the priority of education should be to teach principles that have persisted for centuries, not facts.", "Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, rather than machines or techniques, and about liberal, rather than vocational, topics.Perennialism appears similar to essentialism but focuses first on personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills.", "Essentialist curricula tend to be more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and principle-based.", "Both philosophies are typically considered to be teacher-centered, as opposed to student-centered philosophies of education such as progressivism.", "Teachers associated with perennialism are authors of the Western masterpieces and are open to student criticism through the associated Socratic method." ], [ "Secular perennialism", "The word \"perennial\" in secular perennialism suggests something that lasts an indefinite amount of time, recurs again and again, or is self-renewing.", "Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler promoted a universal curriculum based upon the common and essential nature of all human beings and encompassing humanist and scientific traditions.", "Hutchins and Adler implemented these ideas with great success at the University of Chicago, where they still strongly influence the Undergraduate Common Core.", "Other notable figures in the movement include Stringfellow Barr and Scott Buchanan (who together initiated the Great Books program at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland), Mark Van Doren, Alexander Meiklejohn, and Sir Richard Livingstone, an English classicist with an American following.", "Inspired by Adler's lectures, Sister Miriam Joseph wrote a textbook on the scholastic trivium and taught it as the Freshman seminar at Saint Mary's College.Secular perennialists espouse the idea that education should focus on the historical development of a continually advancing common orienting base of human knowledge and art, the timeless value of classic thought on central human issues by landmark thinkers, and revolutionary ideas critical to historical paradigm shifts or changes in world view.", "A program of studies which is highly general, nonspecialized, and nonvocational is advocated.", "They firmly believe that exposure of all people to the development of thought by those most responsible for the evolution of the occidental oriented tradition is integral to the survival of the freedoms, human rights, and responsibilities inherent to a true democracy.Adler states: ... our political democracy depends upon the reconstitution of our schools.", "Our schools are not turning out young people prepared for the high office and the duties of citizenship in a democratic republic.", "Our political institutions cannot thrive, they may not even survive, if we do not produce a greater number of thinking citizens, from whom some statesmen of the type we had in the 18th century might eventually emerge.", "We are, indeed, a nation at risk, and nothing but radical reform of our schools can save us from impending disaster... Whatever the price... the price we will pay for not doing it will be much greater.Hutchins writes in the same vein: The business of saying ... that people are not capable of achieving a good education is too strongly reminiscent of the opposition of every extension of democracy.", "This opposition has always rested on the allegation that the people were incapable of exercising the power they demanded.", "Always the historic statement has been verified: you cannot expect the slave to show the virtues of the free man unless you first set him free.", "When the slave has been set free, he has, in the passage of time, become indistinguishable from those who have always been free ...", "There appears to be an innate human tendency to underestimate the capacity of those who do not belong to \"our\" group.", "Those who do not share our background cannot have our ability.", "Foreigners, people who are in a different economic status, and the young seem invariably to be regarded as intellectually backward ...As with the essentialists, perennialists are educationally conservative in the requirement of a curriculum focused upon fundamental subject areas, but they stress that the overall aim should be exposure to history's finest thinkers as models for discovery.", "The student should be taught such basic subjects as English, languages, history, mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and fine arts.", "Adler states: \"The three R's, which always signified the formal disciplines, are the essence of liberal or general education.", "\"Secular perennialists agree with progressivists that memorization of vast amounts of factual information and a focus on second-hand information in textbooks and lectures does not develop rational thought.", "They advocate learning through the development of meaningful conceptual thinking and judgement by means of a directed reading list of the profound, aesthetic, and meaningful great books of the Western canon.", "These books, secular perennialists argue, are written by the world's finest thinkers, and cumulatively comprise the \"Great Conversation\" of humanity with regard to the central human questions.", "Their basic argument for the use of original works (abridged translations being acceptable as well) is that these are the products of \"genius\".", "Hutchins remarks:Great books are great teachers; they are showing us every day what ordinary people are capable of.", "These books come out of ignorant, inquiring humanity.", "They are usually the first announcements for success in learning.", "Most of them were written for, and addressed to, ordinary people.The Great Conversation is not static but, along with the set of related great books, changes as the representative thought of man changes or progresses.", "In this way, it seeks to represent an evolution of thought not based upon the latest cultural fads.", "Hutchins clarifies this:In the course of history... new books have been written that have won their place in the list.", "Books once thought entitled to belong to it have been superseded; and this process of change will continue as long as men can think and write.", "It is the task of every generation to reassess the tradition in which it lives, to discard what it cannot use, and to bring into context with the distant and intermediate past the most recent contributions to the Great Conversation.", "...the West needs to recapture and reemphasize and bring to bear upon its present problems the wisdom that lies in the works of its greatest thinkers and in the name of lovePerennialism was proposed in response to what many considered a failing educational system.", "Again Hutchins writes:The products of American high schools are illiterate; and a degree from a famous college or university is no guarantee that the graduate is in any better case.", "One of the most remarkable features of American society is that the difference between the \"uneducated\" and the \"educated\" is so slight.In this regard John Dewey and Hutchins were in agreement.", "Hutchins's book ''The Higher Learning in America'' deplored the \"plight of higher learning\" that had turned away from cultivation of the intellect and toward anti-intellectual practicality due, in part, to a lust for money.", "In a highly negative review of the book, Dewey wrote a series of articles in ''The Social Frontier'' which began by applauding Hutchins' attack on \"the aimlessness of our present educational scheme.Perennialists believe in reading being supplemented by mutual investigations involving both teacher and student and minimally-directed discussions through the Socratic method in order to develop a historically oriented understanding of concepts.", "They argue that accurate, independent reasoning distinguishes the developed or educated mind and stress the development of this faculty.", "A skilled teacher keeps discussions on topic, corrects errors in reasoning, and accurately formulates problems within the scope of texts being studied but lets the class reach their own conclusions.", "Perennialists argue that many of the historical debates and the development of ideas presented by the great books are relevant to any society at any time, making them suitable for instructional use regardless of their age.", "They acknowledge disagreement between various great books but believe that the student must learn to recognize these disagreements, think about them, and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.", "This is a major goal of the Socratic discussions.==Religious perennialism==Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century in his work '''' (''On the Teacher'').In the nineteenth century, John Henry Newman presented a defense of religious perennialism in ''The Idea of a University''.", "Discourse 5 of that work, \"Knowledge Its Own End\", is a recent statement of a Christian educational perennialism.There are several epistemological options, which affect the pedagogical options.", "The possibilities may be surveyed by considering four extreme positions - idealistic rationalism, idealistic fideism, realistic rationalism and realistic fideism.Teaching pupils to think critically and rationally are the main objectives of perennialist educators.", "A perennialist classroom seeks to be a highly structured and disciplined setting that fosters in pupils a never-ending search for the truth." ], [ "Colleges exemplifying this philosophy", "* Reed College in Portland, Oregon is a well-known secular liberal arts college which requires a year-long humanities course covering ancient Greek and Roman literature, history, art, religion, and philosophy.", "Students may pursue an optional extension to this core curriculum in later years.", "* St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe) in Annapolis, Maryland and Santa Fe, New Mexico is a secular liberal arts college with an undergraduate program described as \"an all-required course of study based on the great books of the Western tradition\".", "* The Core Curriculum of Columbia College of Columbia University, is another well-known example of educational perennialism.", "* The University of Chicago's Common Core, established by Mortimer Adler and Robert Maynard Hutchins is another well-known example of educational perennialism.", "Similar to Columbia College of Columbia University, it is an uncommon example of an educational perennialistic college within a large research institution.", "* Integral Program at Saint Mary's College of California in is a Great Books major at the Lasallian Catholic liberal arts college in Moraga, California.", "The program was designed with the assistance of faculty from St. John's College, U.S.* Thomas Aquinas College in Santa Paula, California is a Catholic Christian college with a Great Books curriculum.", "The college was founded by a group of graduates and professors of the Integral Program at Saint Mary's College of California, who were discouraged by the liberalism that became common place among the faculty and administration on Saint Mary's campus shortly after Vatican II.", "* Gutenberg College in Eugene, Oregon provides \"a broad-based liberal arts education in a Protestant Christian environment\", with a \"great books\" curriculum emphasizing \"the development of basic learning skills (reading, writing, mathematics, and critical thinking) and the application of these skills to profound writings of the past\".", "* Shimer College in Chicago grants a Bachelor of Arts to students who complete a program composed of humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, integrative studies and a capstone senior thesis.", "* The Torrey Honors Institute at Biola University is a Christian Great Books program.", "* George Wythe University in Cedar City, Utah, is an unaccredited liberal arts school.", "* Thomas More College in Merrimack, New Hampshire is a Catholic College with an integrated Liberal Arts curriculum.", "The program includes poetry and folk, art and wood guild.", "The College also offers a Rome Semester, when students have the chance to study Ancient and Medieval Art & Architecture.", "*The Great Books Program at Benedictine College is an example of perennialism, teaching ancient, medieval, renaissance, and modern works from the Western cannon with an emphasis on Catholicism." ], [ "See also", "* Philosophy of Education* Education reform*Aristotelianism*Thomism*Paidea proposal, a reform plan initiated by Adler for public schools" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Searle, John.", "\"The Storm Over the University\".", "''The New York Review of Books''.", "December 6, 1990." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MDMA" ], [ "Introduction", "'''3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine''' ('''MDMA'''), commonly known as '''ecstasy''' (tablet form), and '''molly''' or '''mandy''' (crystal form), is a potent empathogen–entactogen with stimulant and minor psychedelic properties.", "Investigational indications include as an adjunct to psychotherapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorder.", "The purported pharmacological effects that may be prosocial include altered sensations, increased energy, empathy, and pleasure.", "When taken by mouth, effects begin in 30 to 45 minutes and last three to six hours.MDMA was first synthesized in 1912 by Merck.", "It was used to enhance psychotherapy beginning in the 1970s and became popular as a street drug in the 1980s.", "MDMA is commonly associated with dance parties, raves, and electronic dance music.", "Tablets sold as ecstasy may be mixed with other substances such as ephedrine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine.", "In 2016, about 21 million people between the ages of 15 and 64 used ecstasy (0.3% of the world population).", "This was broadly similar to the percentage of people who use cocaine or amphetamines, but lower than for cannabis or opioids.", "In the United States, as of 2017, about 7% of people have used MDMA at some point in their lives and 0.9% have used it in the last year.", "The lethal risk from one dose of MDMA is estimated to be from 1 death in 20,000 instances to 1 death in 50,000 instances.Short-term adverse effects include grinding of the teeth, blurred vision, sweating and a rapid heartbeat, and extended use can also lead to addiction, memory problems, paranoia and difficulty sleeping.", "Deaths have been reported due to increased body temperature and dehydration.", "Following use, people often feel depressed and tired, although this effect does not appear in clinical use, suggesting that it is not a direct result of MDMA administration.", "MDMA acts primarily by increasing the release of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline in parts of the brain.", "It belongs to the substituted amphetamine classes of drugs.", "MDMA is structurally similar to mescaline (a psychedelic), methamphetamine (a stimulant), as well as endogenous monoamine neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.MDMA has limited approved medical uses in a small number of countries, but is illegal in most jurisdictions.", "In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration is evaluating the drug for clinical use .", "Canada has allowed limited distribution of MDMA upon application to and approval by Health Canada.", "In Australia, it may be prescribed in the treatment of PTSD by specifically authorised psychiatrists." ], [ "Effects", "In general, MDMA users report feeling the onset of subjective effects within 30 to 60 minutes of oral consumption and reaching peak effect at 75 to 120 minutes, which then plateaus for about 3.5 hours.", "The desired short-term psychoactive effects of MDMA have been reported to include:* Euphoria – a sense of general well-being and happiness* Increased self-confidence, sociability, and perception of facilitated communication* Entactogenic effects—increased empathy or feelings of closeness with others and oneself* Dilated pupils* Relaxation and reduced anxiety* Increased emotionality* A sense of inner peace* Mild hallucination* Enhanced sensation, perception, or sexuality* Altered sense of timeThe experience elicited by MDMA depends on the dose, setting, and user.", "The variability of the induced altered state is lower compared to other psychedelics.", "For example, MDMA used at parties is associated with high motor activity, reduced sense of identity, and poor awareness of surroundings.", "Use of MDMA individually or in small groups in a quiet environment and when concentrating, is associated with increased lucidity, concentration, sensitivity to aesthetic aspects of the environment, enhanced awareness of emotions, and improved capability of communication.", "In psychotherapeutic settings, MDMA effects have been characterized by infantile ideas, mood lability, and memories and moods connected with childhood experiences.MDMA has been described as an \"empathogenic\" drug because of its empathy-producing effects.", "Results of several studies show the effects of increased empathy with others.", "When testing MDMA for medium and high doses, it showed increased hedonic and arousal continuum.", "The effect of MDMA increasing sociability is consistent, while its effects on empathy have been more mixed." ], [ "Use", "===Recreational===MDMA is often considered the drug of choice within the rave culture and is also used at clubs, festivals, and house parties.", "In the rave environment, the sensory effects of music and lighting are often highly synergistic with the drug.", "The psychedelic amphetamine quality of MDMA offers multiple appealing aspects to users in the rave setting.", "Some users enjoy the feeling of mass communion from the inhibition-reducing effects of the drug, while others use it as party fuel because of the drug's stimulatory effects.", "MDMA is used less often than other stimulants, typically less than once per week.MDMA is sometimes taken in conjunction with other psychoactive drugs such as LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, 2C-B, and ketamine.", "The combination with LSD is called \"candy-flipping\".", "MDMA is often co-administered with alcohol, methamphetamine, and prescription drugs such as SSRIs with which MDMA has several drug-drug interactions.", "Three life-threatening reports of MDMA co-administration with ritonavir have been reported; with ritonavir having severe and dangerous drug-drug interactions with a wide range of both psychoactive, anti-psychotic, and non-psychoactive drugs.", "===Medical===, MDMA has no accepted medical indications.", "Before it was widely banned, it saw limited use in psychotherapy.", "In 2017 the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved limited research on MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with some preliminary evidence that MDMA may facilitate psychotherapy efficacy for PTSD.===Other===Small doses of MDMA are used by some religious practitioners as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation.", "MDMA has been used as an adjunct to New Age spiritual practices.===Forms===MDMA has become widely known as ecstasy (shortened \"E\", \"X\", or \"XTC\"), usually referring to its tablet form, although this term may also include the presence of possible adulterants or diluents.", "The UK term \"mandy\" and the US term \"molly\" colloquially refer to MDMA in a crystalline powder form that is thought to be free of adulterants.", "MDMA is also sold in the form of the hydrochloride salt, either as loose crystals or in gelcaps.", "MDMA tablets can sometimes be found in a shaped form that may depict characters from popular culture, likely for deceptive reasons.", "These are sometimes collectively referred to as \"fun tablets\".Partly due to the global supply shortage of sassafras oil—a problem largely assuaged by use of improved or alternative modern methods of synthesis—the purity of substances sold as molly have been found to vary widely.", "Some of these substances contain methylone, ethylone, MDPV, mephedrone, or any other of the group of compounds commonly known as bath salts, in addition to, or in place of, MDMA.", "Powdered MDMA ranges from pure MDMA to crushed tablets with 30–40% purity.", "MDMA tablets typically have low purity due to bulking agents that are added to dilute the drug and increase profits (notably lactose) and binding agents.", "Tablets sold as ecstasy sometimes contain 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), other amphetamine derivatives, caffeine, opiates, or painkillers.", "Some tablets contain little or no MDMA.", "The proportion of seized ecstasy tablets with MDMA-like impurities has varied annually and by country.", "The average content of MDMA in a preparation is 70 to 120 mg with the purity having increased since the 1990s.MDMA is usually consumed by mouth.", "It is also sometimes snorted." ], [ "Adverse effects", "===Short-term===Acute adverse effects are usually the result of high or multiple doses, although single dose toxicity can occur in susceptible individuals.", "The most serious short-term physical health risks of MDMA are hyperthermia and dehydration.", "Cases of life-threatening or fatal hyponatremia (excessively low sodium concentration in the blood) have developed in MDMA users attempting to prevent dehydration by consuming excessive amounts of water without replenishing electrolytes.The immediate adverse effects of MDMA use can include:* Bruxism (grinding and clenching of the teeth)* Dehydration* Diarrhea* Erectile dysfunction* Hyperthermia* Increased wakefulness or insomnia* Increased perspiration and sweating* Increased heart rate and blood pressure* Increased psychomotor activity* Loss of appetite* Nausea and vomiting* Visual and auditory hallucinations (rarely)Other adverse effects that may occur or persist for up to a week following cessation of moderate MDMA use include:;Physiological* Insomnia* Loss of appetite* Tiredness or lethargy* Trismus (lockjaw);Psychological* Anhedonia* Anxiety or paranoia* Depression* Impulsiveness* Irritability* Memory impairment* RestlessnessAdministration of MDMA to mice causes DNA damage in their brain, especially when the mice are sleep deprived.", "Even at the very low doses that are comparable to those self-administered by humans, MDMA causes oxidative stress and both single and double-strand breaks in the DNA of the hippocampus region of the mouse brain.===Long-term===, the long-term effects of MDMA on human brain structure and function have not been fully determined.", "However, there is consistent evidence of structural and functional deficits in MDMA users with high lifetime exposure.", "These structural or functional changes appear to be dose dependent and may be less prominent in MDMA users with only a moderate (typically 2B receptors.", "MDMA induces cardiac epigenetic changes in DNA methylation, particularly hypermethylation changes.===Reinforcement disorders===Approximately 60% of MDMA users experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking MDMA.", "Some of these symptoms include fatigue, loss of appetite, depression, and trouble concentrating.", "Tolerance to some of the desired and adverse effects of MDMA is expected to occur with consistent MDMA use.", "A 2007 delphic analysis of a panel of experts in pharmacology, psychiatry, law, policing and others estimated MDMA to have a psychological dependence and physical dependence potential roughly three-fourths to four-fifths that of cannabis.Lay summary: MDMA has been shown to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens.", "Because MDMA releases dopamine in the striatum, the mechanisms by which it induces ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens are analogous to other dopaminergic psychostimulants.", "Therefore, chronic use of MDMA at high doses can result in altered brain structure and drug addiction that occur as a consequence of ΔFosB overexpression in the nucleus accumbens.", "MDMA is less addictive than other stimulants such as methamphetamine and cocaine.", "Compared with amphetamine, MDMA and its metabolite MDA are less reinforcing.One study found approximately 15% of chronic MDMA users met the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for substance dependence.", "However, there is little evidence for a specific diagnosable MDMA dependence syndrome because MDMA is typically used relatively infrequently.There are currently no medications to treat MDMA addiction.===During pregnancy===MDMA is a moderately teratogenic drug (i.e., it is toxic to the fetus).", "In utero exposure to MDMA is associated with a neuro- and cardiotoxicity and impaired motor functioning.", "Motor delays may be temporary during infancy or long-term.", "The severity of these developmental delays increases with heavier MDMA use." ], [ "Overdose", "MDMA overdose symptoms vary widely due to the involvement of multiple organ systems.", "Some of the more overt overdose symptoms are listed in the table below.", "The number of instances of fatal MDMA intoxication is low relative to its usage rates.", "In most fatalities, MDMA was not the only drug involved.", "Acute toxicity is mainly caused by serotonin syndrome and sympathomimetic effects.", "Sympathomimetic side effects can be managed with carvedilol.", "MDMA's toxicity in overdose may be exacerbated by caffeine, with which it is frequently cut in order to increase volume.", "A scheme for management of acute MDMA toxicity has been published focusing on treatment of hyperthermia, hyponatraemia, serotonin syndrome, and multiple organ failure.+ Symptoms of overdose System Minor or moderate overdose Severe overdose Cardiovascular* Disseminated intravascular coagulation* Intracranial hemorrhage* Severe hypertension or hypotension* Hypotensive bleeding Central nervoussystem* Hyperreflexia* Agitation* Mental confusion* Paranoia* Stimulant psychosis* Cognitive and memory impairment potentially to the point of retrograde or anterograde amnesia* Coma* Convulsions* Hallucinations* Loss of consciousness* Serotonin syndromeMusculoskeletal* Muscle rigidity* Rhabdomyolysis (i.e., rapid muscle breakdown) Respiratory* Acute respiratory distress syndrome Urinary* Acute kidney injury Other* Cerebral edema* Hepatitis* Hyperpyrexia (a life-threatening elevation of body temperature greater than or equal to )* Hyponatremia (Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone)" ], [ "Interactions", "A number of drug interactions can occur between MDMA and other drugs, including serotonergic drugs.", "MDMA also interacts with drugs which inhibit CYP450 enzymes, like ritonavir (Norvir), particularly CYP2D6 inhibitors.", "Life-threatening reactions and death have occurred in people who took MDMA while on ritonavir.", "Concurrent use of MDMA high dosages with another serotonergic drug can result in a life-threatening condition called serotonin syndrome.", "Severe overdose resulting in death has also been reported in people who took MDMA in combination with certain monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as phenelzine (Nardil), tranylcypromine (Parnate), or moclobemide (Aurorix, Manerix).", "Serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as citalopram (Celexa), duloxetine (Cymbalta), fluoxetine (Prozac), and paroxetine (Paxil) have been shown to block most of the subjective effects of MDMA.", "Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors such as reboxetine (Edronax) have been found to reduce emotional excitation and feelings of stimulation with MDMA but do not appear to influence its entactogenic or mood-elevating effects." ], [ "Pharmacology", "=== Pharmacodynamics ===MDMA is a substituted amphetamine structurally, and a monoamine-releasing agent mechanistically.", "Like other monoamine-releasing agents, MDMA enters monoaminergic neurons through monoamine transporters.", "MDMA has high affinity for dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin transporters, with some preference for the latter.", "The ''methylenedioxy-'' substitution provides the serotonergic activity, as most other substituted amphetamines show negligible affinity for the serotonin transporter.Neurotransmitter release induced by monoamine-releasing agents differs significantly from the regular, action potential-evoked neurotransmitter release.", "Inside the neuron, MDMA inhibits VMAT2 and activates TAAR1.TAAR1 agonism results in the phosphorylation of monoamine transporters by PKA and PKC, which either internalizes the transporter, or reverses its flux direction.", "VMAT2 inhibition prevents the packaging of the cytosolic monoamines into the synaptic vesicles, which allows them to instead be pumped out of the neuron by the phosphorylated transporters.", "The end result is that the neuron constantly \"leaks\" neurotransmitters into the synapse, regardless of any signal received.MDMA has two enantiomers, ''(S)''-MDMA and ''(R)''-MDMA.", "Recreationally used MDMA is the equimolar mixture of both.", "''(S)''-MDMA causes the entactogenic effects of the racemate, because it releases serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine much more efficiently via monoamine transporters.", "It also has higher affinity towards 5-HT2CR.", "''(R)''-MDMA has notable agonism towards 5-HT2AR, which supposedly contributes to the mild psychedelic hallucinations induced by high doses of MDMA in humans.===Pharmacokinetics===Main metabolic pathways of MDMA in humans.The MDMA concentration in the blood stream starts to rise after about 30 minutes, and reaches its maximal concentration in the blood stream between 1.5 and 3 hours after ingestion.", "It is then slowly metabolized and excreted, with levels of MDMA and its metabolites decreasing to half their peak concentration over the next several hours.", "The duration of action of MDMA is usually four to six hours, after which serotonin levels in the brain are depleted.", "Serotonin levels typically return to normal within 24–48 hours.Metabolites of MDMA that have been identified in humans include 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), 3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine (DHA) (also called alpha-methyldopamine (α-Me-DA)), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone (MDP2P), and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-hydroxyamphetamine (MDOH).", "The contributions of these metabolites to the psychoactive and toxic effects of MDMA are an area of active research.", "80% of MDMA is metabolised in the liver, and about 20% is excreted unchanged in the urine.MDMA is known to be metabolized by two main metabolic pathways: (1) ''O''-demethylenation followed by catechol-''O''-methyltransferase (COMT)-catalyzed methylation and/or glucuronide/sulfate conjugation; and (2) ''N''-dealkylation, deamination, and oxidation to the corresponding benzoic acid derivatives conjugated with glycine.", "The metabolism may be primarily by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 and COMT.", "Complex, nonlinear pharmacokinetics arise via autoinhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2D8, resulting in zeroth order kinetics at higher doses.", "It is thought that this can result in sustained and higher concentrations of MDMA if the user takes consecutive doses of the drug.MDMA and metabolites are primarily excreted as conjugates, such as sulfates and glucuronides.", "MDMA is a chiral compound and has been almost exclusively administered as a racemate.", "However, the two enantiomers have been shown to exhibit different kinetics.", "The disposition of MDMA may also be stereoselective, with the S-enantiomer having a shorter elimination half-life and greater excretion than the R-enantiomer.", "Evidence suggests that the area under the blood plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) was two to four times higher for the (''R'')-enantiomer than the (''S'')-enantiomer after a 40 mg oral dose in human volunteers.", "Likewise, the plasma half-life of (''R'')-MDMA was significantly longer than that of the (''S'')-enantiomer (5.8 ± 2.2 hours vs 3.6 ± 0.9 hours).", "However, because MDMA excretion and metabolism have nonlinear kinetics, the half-lives would be higher at more typical doses (100 mg is sometimes considered a typical dose)." ], [ "Chemistry", "MDMA is in the substituted methylenedioxyphenethylamine and substituted amphetamine classes of chemicals.", "As a free base, MDMA is a colorless oil insoluble in water.", "The most common salt of MDMA is the hydrochloride salt; pure MDMA hydrochloride is water-soluble and appears as a white or off-white powder or crystal.===Synthesis===There are numerous methods available to synthesize MDMA via different intermediates.", "The original MDMA synthesis described in Merck's patent involves brominating safrole to 1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-bromopropane and then reacting this adduct with methylamine.", "Most illicit MDMA is synthesized using MDP2P (3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone) as a precursor.", "MDP2P in turn is generally synthesized from piperonal, safrole or isosafrole.", "One method is to isomerize safrole to isosafrole in the presence of a strong base, and then oxidize isosafrole to MDP2P.", "Another method uses the Wacker process to oxidize safrole directly to the MDP2P intermediate with a palladium catalyst.", "Once the MDP2P intermediate has been prepared, a reductive amination leads to racemic MDMA (an equal parts mixture of (''R'')-MDMA and (''S'')-MDMA).", "Relatively small quantities of essential oil are required to make large amounts of MDMA.", "The essential oil of ''Ocotea cymbarum'', for example, typically contains between 80 and 94% safrole.", "This allows 500 mL of the oil to produce between 150 and 340 grams of MDMA.===Detection in body fluids===MDMA and MDA may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor for use, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or assist in the forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a sudden death.", "Some drug abuse screening programs rely on hair, saliva, or sweat as specimens.", "Most commercial amphetamine immunoassay screening tests cross-react significantly with MDMA or its major metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and separately measure each of these substances.", "The concentrations of MDA in the blood or urine of a person who has taken only MDMA are, in general, less than 10% those of the parent drug." ], [ "History", "===Early research and use===MDMA was first synthesized in 1912 by Merck chemist Anton Köllisch.", "At the time, Merck was interested in developing substances that stopped abnormal bleeding.", "Merck wanted to avoid an existing patent held by Bayer for one such compound: hydrastinine.", "Köllisch developed a preparation of a hydrastinine analogue, methylhydrastinine, at the request of fellow lab members, Walther Beckh and Otto Wolfes.", "MDMA (called methylsafrylamin, safrylmethylamin or N-Methyl-a-Methylhomopiperonylamin in Merck laboratory reports) was an intermediate compound in the synthesis of methylhydrastinine.", "Merck was not interested in MDMA itself at the time.", "On 24 December 1912, Merck filed two patent applications that described the synthesis and some chemical properties of MDMA and its subsequent conversion to methylhydrastinine.Merck records indicate its researchers returned to the compound sporadically.", "A 1920 Merck patent describes a chemical modification to MDMA.", "In 1927, Max Oberlin studied the pharmacology of MDMA while searching for substances with effects similar to adrenaline or ephedrine, the latter being structurally similar to MDMA.", "Compared to ephedrine, Oberlin observed that it had similar effects on vascular smooth muscle tissue, stronger effects at the uterus, and no \"local effect at the eye\".", "MDMA was also found to have effects on blood sugar levels comparable to high doses of ephedrine.", "Oberlin concluded that the effects of MDMA were not limited to the sympathetic nervous system.", "Research was stopped \"particularly due to a strong price increase of safrylmethylamine\", which was still used as an intermediate in methylhydrastinine synthesis.", "Albert van Schoor performed simple toxicological tests with the drug in 1952, most likely while researching new stimulants or circulatory medications.", "After pharmacological studies, research on MDMA was not continued.", "In 1959, Wolfgang Fruhstorfer synthesized MDMA for pharmacological testing while researching stimulants.", "It is unclear if Fruhstorfer investigated the effects of MDMA in humans.Outside of Merck, other researchers began to investigate MDMA.", "In 1953 and 1954, the United States Army commissioned a study of toxicity and behavioral effects in animals injected with mescaline and several analogues, including MDMA.", "Conducted at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, these investigations were declassified in October 1969 and published in 1973.A 1960 Polish paper by Biniecki and Krajewski describing the synthesis of MDMA as an intermediate was the first published scientific paper on the substance.MDMA may have been in non-medical use in the western United States in 1968.An August 1970 report at a meeting of crime laboratory chemists indicates MDMA was being used recreationally in the Chicago area by 1970.MDMA likely emerged as a substitute for its analog methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), a drug at the time popular among users of psychedelics which was made a Schedule 1 substance in the United States in 1970.=== Shulgin's research ===Alexander and Ann Shulgin in December 2011American chemist and psychopharmacologist Alexander Shulgin reported he synthesized MDMA in 1965 while researching methylenedioxy compounds at Dow Chemical Company, but did not test the psychoactivity of the compound at this time.", "Around 1970, Shulgin sent instructions for N-methylated MDA (MDMA) synthesis to the founder of a Los Angeles chemical company who had requested them.", "This individual later provided these instructions to a client in the Midwest.", "Shulgin may have suspected he played a role in the emergence of MDMA in Chicago.Shulgin first heard of the psychoactive effects of N-methylated MDA around 1975 from a young student who reported \"amphetamine-like content\".", "Around 30 May 1976, Shulgin again heard about the effects of N-methylated MDA, this time from a graduate student in a medicinal chemistry group he advised at San Francisco State University who directed him to the University of Michigan study.", "She and two close friends had consumed 100 mg of MDMA and reported positive emotional experiences.", "Following the self-trials of a colleague at the University of San Francisco, Shulgin synthesized MDMA and tried it himself in September and October 1976.Shulgin first reported on MDMA in a presentation at a conference in Bethesda, Maryland in December 1976.In 1978, he and David E. Nichols published a report on the drug's psychoactive effect in humans.", "They described MDMA as inducing \"an easily controlled altered state of consciousness with emotional and sensual overtones\" comparable \"to marijuana, to psilocybin devoid of the hallucinatory component, or to low levels of MDA\".While not finding his own experiences with MDMA particularly powerful, Shulgin was impressed with the drug's disinhibiting effects and thought it could be useful in therapy.", "Believing MDMA allowed users to strip away habits and perceive the world clearly, Shulgin called the drug ''window''.", "Shulgin occasionally used MDMA for relaxation, referring to it as \"my low-calorie martini\", and gave the drug to friends, researchers, and others who he thought could benefit from it.", "One such person was Leo Zeff, a psychotherapist who had been known to use psychedelic substances in his practice.", "When he tried the drug in 1977, Zeff was impressed with the effects of MDMA and came out of his semi-retirement to promote its use in therapy.", "Over the following years, Zeff traveled around the United States and occasionally to Europe, eventually training an estimated four thousand psychotherapists in the therapeutic use of MDMA.", "Zeff named the drug ''Adam'', believing it put users in a state of primordial innocence.Psychotherapists who used MDMA believed the drug eliminated the typical fear response and increased communication.", "Sessions were usually held in the home of the patient or the therapist.", "The role of the therapist was minimized in favor of patient self-discovery accompanied by MDMA induced feelings of empathy.", "Depression, substance use disorders, relationship problems, premenstrual syndrome, and autism were among several psychiatric disorders MDMA assisted therapy was reported to treat.", "According to psychiatrist George Greer, therapists who used MDMA in their practice were impressed by the results.", "Anecdotally, MDMA was said to greatly accelerate therapy.", "According to David Nutt, MDMA was widely used in the western US in couples counseling, and was called ''empathy''.", "Only later was the term ''ecstasy'' used for it, coinciding with rising opposition to its use.===Rising recreational use===In the late 1970s and early 1980s, \"Adam\" spread through personal networks of psychotherapists, psychiatrists, users of psychedelics, and yuppies.", "Hoping MDMA could avoid criminalization like LSD and mescaline, psychotherapists and experimenters attempted to limit the spread of MDMA and information about it while conducting informal research.", "Early MDMA distributors were deterred from large scale operations by the threat of possible legislation.", "Between the 1970s and the mid-1980s, this network of MDMA users consumed an estimated 500,000 doses.A small recreational market for MDMA developed by the late 1970s, consuming perhaps 10,000 doses in 1976.By the early 1980s MDMA was being used in Boston and New York City nightclubs such as Studio 54 and Paradise Garage.", "Into the early 1980s, as the recreational market slowly expanded, production of MDMA was dominated by a small group of therapeutically minded Boston chemists.", "Having commenced production in 1976, this \"Boston Group\" did not keep up with growing demand and shortages frequently occurred.Perceiving a business opportunity, Michael Clegg, the Southwest distributor for the Boston Group, started his own \"Texas Group\" backed financially by Texas friends.", "In 1981, Clegg had coined \"Ecstasy\" as a slang term for MDMA to increase its marketability.", "Starting in 1983, the Texas Group mass-produced MDMA in a Texas lab or imported it from California and marketed tablets using pyramid sales structures and toll-free numbers.", "MDMA could be purchased via credit card and taxes were paid on sales.", "Under the brand name \"Sassyfras\", MDMA tablets were sold in brown bottles.", "The Texas Group advertised \"Ecstasy parties\" at bars and discos, describing MDMA as a \"fun drug\" and \"good to dance to\".", "MDMA was openly distributed in Austin and Dallas–Fort Worth area bars and nightclubs, becoming popular with yuppies, college students, and gays.Recreational use also increased after several cocaine dealers switched to distributing MDMA following experiences with the drug.", "A California laboratory that analyzed confidentially submitted drug samples first detected MDMA in 1975.Over the following years the number of MDMA samples increased, eventually exceeding the number of MDA samples in the early 1980s.", "By the mid-1980s, MDMA use had spread to colleges around the United States.===Media attention and scheduling=======United States====27 July 1984 Federal Register notice of the proposed MDMA schedulingIn an early media report on MDMA published in 1982, a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) spokesman stated the agency would ban the drug if enough evidence for abuse could be found.", "By mid-1984, MDMA use was becoming more noticed.", "Bill Mandel reported on \"Adam\" in a 10 June San Francisco Chronicle article, but misidentified the drug as methyloxymethylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA).", "In the next month, the World Health Organization identified MDMA as the only substance out of twenty phenethylamines to be seized a significant number of times.After a year of planning and data collection, MDMA was proposed for scheduling by the DEA on 27 July 1984 with a request for comments and objections.", "The DEA was surprised when a number of psychiatrists, psychotherapists, and researchers objected to the proposed scheduling and requested a hearing.", "In a Newsweek article published the next year, a DEA pharmacologist stated that the agency had been unaware of its use among psychiatrists.", "An initial hearing was held on 1 February 1985 at the DEA offices in Washington, D.C., with administrative law judge Francis L. Young presiding.", "It was decided there to hold three more hearings that year: Los Angeles on 10 June, Kansas City, Missouri on 10–11 July, and Washington, D.C., on 8–11 October.Sensational media attention was given to the proposed criminalization and the reaction of MDMA proponents, effectively advertising the drug.", "In response to the proposed scheduling, the Texas Group increased production from 1985 estimates of 30,000 tablets a month to as many as 8,000 per day, potentially making two million ecstasy tablets in the months before MDMA was made illegal.", "By some estimates the Texas Group distributed 500,000 tablets per month in Dallas alone.", "According to one participant in an ethnographic study, the Texas Group produced more MDMA in eighteen months than all other distribution networks combined across their entire histories.", "By May 1985, MDMA use was widespread in California, Texas, southern Florida, and the northeastern United States.", "According to the DEA there was evidence of use in twenty-eight states and Canada.", "Urged by Senator Lloyd Bentsen, the DEA announced an emergency Schedule I classification of MDMA on 31 May 1985.The agency cited increased distribution in Texas, escalating street use, and new evidence of MDA (an analog of MDMA) neurotoxicity as reasons for the emergency measure.", "The ban took effect one month later on 1 July 1985 in the midst of Nancy Reagan's \"Just Say No\" campaign.As a result of several expert witnesses testifying that MDMA had an accepted medical usage, the administrative law judge presiding over the hearings recommended that MDMA be classified as a Schedule III substance.", "Despite this, DEA administrator John C. Lawn overruled and classified the drug as Schedule I. Harvard psychiatrist Lester Grinspoon then sued the DEA, claiming that the DEA had ignored the medical uses of MDMA, and the federal court sided with Grinspoon, calling Lawn's argument \"strained\" and \"unpersuasive\", and vacated MDMA's Schedule I status.", "Despite this, less than a month later Lawn reviewed the evidence and reclassified MDMA as Schedule I again, claiming that the expert testimony of several psychiatrists claiming over 200 cases where MDMA had been used in a therapeutic context with positive results could be dismissed because they were not published in medical journals.", "In 2017, the FDA granted breakthrough therapy designation for its use with psychotherapy for PTSD.", "However, this designation has been questioned and problematized.====United Nations====While engaged in scheduling debates in the United States, the DEA also pushed for international scheduling.", "In 1985 the World Health Organization's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that MDMA be placed in Schedule I of the 1971 United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances.", "The committee made this recommendation on the basis of the pharmacological similarity of MDMA to previously scheduled drugs, reports of illicit trafficking in Canada, drug seizures in the United States, and lack of well-defined therapeutic use.", "While intrigued by reports of psychotherapeutic uses for the drug, the committee viewed the studies as lacking appropriate methodological design and encouraged further research.", "Committee chairman Paul Grof dissented, believing international control was not warranted at the time and a recommendation should await further therapeutic data.", "The Commission on Narcotic Drugs added MDMA to Schedule I of the convention on 11 February 1986.===Post-scheduling===A 1995 Vibe Tribe rave in Erskineville, New South Wales, Australia being broken up by police.", "MDMA use spread globally along with rave culture.A 2000 United States Air Force video dramatizing the dangers of MDMA misuseThe use of MDMA in Texas clubs declined rapidly after criminalization, although by 1991 the drug remained popular among young middle-class whites and in nightclubs.", "In 1985, MDMA use became associated with acid house on the Spanish island of Ibiza.", "Thereafter in the late 1980s, the drug spread alongside rave culture to the UK and then to other European and American cities.", "Illicit MDMA use became increasingly widespread among young adults in universities and later, in high schools.", "Since the mid-1990s, MDMA has become the most widely used amphetamine-type drug by college students and teenagers.", "MDMA became one of the four most widely used illicit drugs in the US, along with cocaine, heroin, and cannabis.According to some estimates as of 2004, only marijuana attracts more first time users in the US.After MDMA was criminalized, most medical use stopped, although some therapists continued to prescribe the drug illegally.", "Later, Charles Grob initiated an ascending-dose safety study in healthy volunteers.", "Subsequent FDA-approved MDMA studies in humans have taken place in the United States in Detroit (Wayne State University), Chicago (University of Chicago), San Francisco (UCSF and California Pacific Medical Center), Baltimore (NIDA–NIH Intramural Program), and South Carolina.", "Studies have also been conducted in Switzerland (University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zürich), the Netherlands (Maastricht University), and Spain (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona).", "\"Molly\", short for 'molecule', was recognized as a slang term for crystalline or powder MDMA in the 2000s.In 2010, the BBC reported that use of MDMA had decreased in the UK in previous years.", "This may be due to increased seizures during use and decreased production of the precursor chemicals used to manufacture MDMA.", "Unwitting substitution with other drugs, such as mephedrone and methamphetamine, as well as legal alternatives to MDMA, such as BZP, MDPV, and methylone, are also thought to have contributed to its decrease in popularity.In 2017 it was found that some pills being sold as MDMA contained pentylone, which can cause very unpleasant agitation and paranoia.According to David Nutt, when safrole was restricted by the United Nations in order to reduce the supply of MDMA, producers in China began using anethole instead, but this gives para-methoxyamphetamine (PMA, also known as \"Dr Death\"), which is much more toxic than MDMA and can cause overheating, muscle spasms, seizures, unconsciousness, and death.", "People wanting MDMA are sometimes sold PMA instead." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Legal status===MDMA is legally controlled in most of the world under the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances and other international agreements, although exceptions exist for research and limited medical use.", "In general, the unlicensed use, sale or manufacture of MDMA are all criminal offences.====Australia====In Australia, MDMA was rescheduled on 1 July 2023 as a schedule 8 substance (available on prescription) when used in the treatment of PTSD, while remaining a schedule 9 substance (prohibited) for all other uses.", "For the treatment of PTSD, MDMA can only be prescribed by psychiatrists with specific training and authorisation.In 1986, MDMA was declared an illegal substance because of its allegedly harmful effects and potential for misuse.. Any non-authorised sale, use or manufacture is strictly prohibited by law.", "Permits for research uses on humans must be approved by a recognized ethics committee on human research.In Western Australia under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 4.0g of MDMA is the amount required determining a court of trial, 2.0g is considered a presumption with intent to sell or supply and 28.0g is considered trafficking under Australian law.The Australian Capital Territory has passed legislation to decriminalise the possession of small amounts of MDMA, due to take effect in October 2023.====United Kingdom====In the United Kingdom, MDMA was made illegal in 1977 by a modification order to the existing Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.Although MDMA was not named explicitly in this legislation, the order extended the definition of Class A drugs to include various ring-substituted phenethylamines.", "The drug is therefore illegal to sell, buy, or possess without a licence in the UK.", "Penalties include a maximum of seven years and/or unlimited fine for possession; life and/or unlimited fine for production or trafficking.Some researchers such as David Nutt have criticized the scheduling of MDMA, which he determined to be a relatively harmless drug.", "An editorial he wrote in the ''Journal of Psychopharmacology'', where he compared the risk of harm for horse riding (1 adverse event in 350) to that of ecstasy (1 in 10,000) resulted in his dismissal as well as the resignation of his colleagues from the ACMD.====United States====In the United States, MDMA is listed in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act.", "In a 2011 federal court hearing, the American Civil Liberties Union successfully argued that the sentencing guideline for MDMA/ecstasy is based on outdated science, leading to excessive prison sentences.", "Other courts have upheld the sentencing guidelines.", "The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee explained its ruling by noting that \"an individual federal district court judge simply cannot marshal resources akin to those available to the Commission for tackling the manifold issues involved with determining a proper drug equivalency.", "\"====Netherlands====In the Netherlands, the Expert Committee on the List (Expertcommissie Lijstensystematiek Opiumwet) issued a report in June 2011 which discussed the evidence for harm and the legal status of MDMA, arguing in favor of maintaining it on List I.====Canada====In Canada, MDMA is listed as a Schedule 1 as it is an analogue of amphetamine.", "The Controlled Drugs and Substances Act was updated as a result of the Safe Streets and Communities Act changing amphetamines from Schedule III to Schedule I in March 2012.In 2022 the federal government granted British Columbia a 3-year exemption, legalizing the possession of up to of MDMA in the province from February 2023 until February 2026.===Demographics===UNODC map showing the use of ecstasy by country in 2014 for the global population aged 15–64In 2014, 3.5% of 18 to 25 year-olds had used MDMA in the United States.", "In the European Union as of 2018, 4.1% of adults (15–64 years old) have used MDMA at least once in their life, and 0.8% had used it in the last year.", "Among young adults, 1.8% had used MDMA in the last year.In Europe, an estimated 37% of regular club-goers aged 14 to 35 used MDMA in the past year according to the 2015 European Drug report.", "The highest one-year prevalence of MDMA use in Germany in 2012 was 1.7% among people aged 25 to 29 compared with a population average of 0.4%.", "Among adolescent users in the United States between 1999 and 2008, girls were more likely to use MDMA than boys.===Economics=======Europe====In 2008 the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction noted that although there were some reports of tablets being sold for as little as €1, most countries in Europe then reported typical retail prices in the range of €3 to €9 per tablet, typically containing 25–65 mg of MDMA.", "By 2014 the EMCDDA reported that the range was more usually between €5 and €10 per tablet, typically containing 57–102 mg of MDMA, although MDMA in powder form was becoming more common.====North America====The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime stated in its 2014 World Drug Report that US ecstasy retail prices range from US$1 to $70 per pill, or from $15,000 to $32,000 per kilogram.", "A new research area named Drug Intelligence aims to automatically monitor distribution networks based on image processing and machine learning techniques, in which an Ecstasy pill picture is analyzed to detect correlations among different production batches.", "These novel techniques allow police scientists to facilitate the monitoring of illicit distribution networks., most of the MDMA in the United States is produced in British Columbia, Canada and imported by Canada-based Asian transnational criminal organizations.", "The market for MDMA in the United States is relatively small compared to methamphetamine, cocaine, and heroin.", "In the United States, about 0.9 million people used ecstasy in 2010.====Australia====MDMA is particularly expensive in Australia, costing A$15–A$30 per tablet.", "In terms of purity data for Australian MDMA, the average is around 34%, ranging from less than 1% to about 85%.", "The majority of tablets contain 70–85 mg of MDMA.", "Most MDMA enters Australia from the Netherlands, the UK, Asia, and the US.====Corporate logos on pills====A number of ecstasy manufacturers brand their pills with a logo, often being the logo of an unrelated corporation.", "Some pills depict logos of products or media popular with children, such as Shaun the Sheep." ], [ "Research", "In 2017, doctors in the UK began the first clinical study of MDMA in alcohol use disorder.The potential for MDMA to be used as a rapid-acting antidepressant has been studied in clinical trials, but as of 2017 the evidence on efficacy and safety were insufficient to reach a conclusion.", "A 2014 review of the safety and efficacy of MDMA as a treatment for various disorders, particularly PTSD, indicated that MDMA has therapeutic efficacy in some patients; however, it emphasized that issues regarding the controlability of MDMA-induced experiences and neurochemical recovery must be addressed.", "The author noted that oxytocin and -cycloserine are potentially safer co-drugs in PTSD treatment, albeit with limited evidence of efficacy.", "This review and a second corroborating review by a different author both concluded that, because of MDMA's demonstrated potential to cause lasting harm in humans (e.g., serotonergic neurotoxicity and persistent memory impairment), \"considerably more research must be performed\" on its efficacy in PTSD treatment to determine if the potential treatment benefits outweigh its potential to harm to a patient.MDMA in combination with psychotherapy has been studied as a treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder, and four clinical trials provide moderate evidence in support of this treatment.", "However, the lack of appropriate blinding of participants likely leads to overestimation of treatments effects due to high levels of response expectancy.", "In addition, there are no trials comparing MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD with existent evidence-based psychological treatments for PTSD, which seems to attain similar or better treatment effects compared with that achieved by MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.In 2018 researchers identified MDMA as a psychoplastogen which refers to a compound capable of promoting neuroplasticity and received the “breakthrough therapy” designation by the Food and Drug Administration for treating PTSD." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A Multi-Site Phase 3 Study of MDMA-Assisted Therapy for PTSD (MAPP2)* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flag of Europe" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''flag of Europe''' or '''European flag''' consists of twelve golden stars forming a circle on a blue field.", "It was designed and adopted in 1955 by the Council of Europe (CoE) as a symbol for the whole of Europe.Since 1985, the flag has also been a symbol of the European Union (EU), whose 27 member states are all also CoE members, although in that year the EU had not yet assumed its present name or constitutional form (which came in steps in 1993 and 2009).", "Adoption by the EU, or EC as it then was, reflected long-standing CoE desire to see the flag used by other European organisations.", "Official EU use widened greatly in the 1990s.", "Nevertheless the flag has to date received ''no status'' in any of the EU's treaties.", "Its adoption as an official symbol was planned as part of the 2004 European Constitution but this failed to be ratified.", "Mention of the flag was removed in 2007 from the text of the Treaty of Lisbon, which ''was'' ratified.", "On the other hand, 16 EU members that year, plus France in 2017, have officially affirmed (by Declaration No.", "5224) their attachment to the flag as an EU symbol.The flag is used by other European entities, such as unified sport teams under the rubric Team Europe." ], [ "Blazon", "The blazon given by the EU in 1996 describe the design as: \"On an azure field a circle of twelve golden mullets, their points not touching.\"" ], [ "Symbolism", "The flag used is the Flag of Europe, which consists of a circle of twelve golden stars on a blue background.", "Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present European Union, in 1986.The Council of Europe gave the flag a symbolic description in the following terms, though the official symbolic description adopted by the EU omits the reference to the \"Western world\":Other symbolic interpretations have been offered based on the account of its design by Paul M. Levy.", "The five-pointed star is used on many national flags and represents aspiration and education.", "Their golden colour is that of the sun, which is said to symbolise glory and enlightenment.Their arrangement in a circle represents the constellation of Corona Borealis and can be seen as a crown and the stability of government.", "The blue background resembles the sky and symbolises truth and the intellect.", "It is also the colour traditionally used to represent the Virgin Mary.", "In many paintings of the Virgin Mary as Stella Maris she is crowned with a circle of twelve stars.===Marian interpretation===Arms of monk and priest Prosper Guéranger (1805–1875)In 1987, following the adoption of the flag by the EC, Arsène Heitz (1908–1989), one of the designers who had submitted proposals for the flag's design, suggested a religious inspiration for it.", "He stated that the circle of stars was based on the iconographic tradition of showing the Blessed Virgin Mary as the Woman of the Apocalypse, wearing a \"crown of twelve stars\".Heitz also made a connection to the date of the flag's adoption, 8 December 1955, coinciding with the Feast of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary.Paul M. G. Lévy, then Director of Information at the Council of Europe responsible for designing the flag, in a 1989 statement maintained that he had not been aware of any religious connotations.In an interview given 26 February 1998, Lévy denied not only awareness of the Marian connection, but also denied that the final design of a circle of twelve stars was Heitz's.", "To the question \"Who really designed the flag?\"", "Lévy replied:I did, and I calculated the proportions to be used for the geometric design.", "Arsène Heitz, who was an employee in the mail service, put in all sorts of proposals, including the 15-star design.", "But he submitted too many designs.", "He wanted to do the European currencies with 15 stars in the corner.", "He wanted to do national flags incorporating the Council of Europe flag.Carlo Curti Gialdino (2005) has reconstructed the design process to the effect that Heitz's proposal contained varying numbers of stars, from which the version with twelve stars was chosen by the Committee of Ministers meeting at Deputy level in January 1955 as one out of two remaining candidate designs.Lévy's 1998 interview apparently gave rise to a new variant of the Marian anecdote.", "An article published in in August 1998 alleged that it was Lévy himself who was inspired to introduce a Marian element as he walked past a statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary.An article posted in ''La Raison'' in February 2000 further connected the donation of a stained glass window for Strasbourg Cathedral by the Council of Europe on 21 October 1956.This window, a work by Parisian master Max Ingrand, shows a blessing Madonna underneath a circle of 12 stars on dark blue ground.", "The overall design of the Madonna is inspired by the banner of the cathedral's ''Congrégation Mariale des Hommes'', and the twelve stars are found on the statue venerated by this congregation inside the cathedral (twelve is also the number of members of the congregation's council).", "The Regional Office for Cultural Affairs describe this stained glass window called \"Le vitrail de l'Europe de Max Ingrand\" (The Glass Window of Europe of Max Ingrand)." ], [ "Specifications", "Construction sheetAccording to graphical specifications published online by the Council of Europe in 2004, the flag is rectangular with 2:3 proportions: its fly (width) is one and a half times the length of its hoist (height).", "Twelve yellow stars are centred in a circle (the radius of which is a third of the length of the hoist) upon a blue background.", "All the stars are upright (one point straight up), have five points and are spaced equally, like the hour positions on the face of a clock.", "The diameter of each star is equal to one-ninth of the height of the hoist.The colours are regulated in the 1996 guide by the EC, and equivalently in the 2004 guide by the Council of Europe.", "The base colour of the flag is defined as Pantone \"Reflex Blue\", while the golden stars are portrayed in Pantone \"Yellow\": Azure Gold Pantone Reflex Blue Yellow RGB #003399 #FFCC00 CMYK 100.80.0.0 0.21.100.0The 2013 logo of the Council of Europe has the colours: Azure Gold Pantone PMS 287 PMS 116 RGB #1E448A #FDCB0B CMYK 100.67.0.40 0.20.100.0" ], [ "Adoption and usage", "The twelve-star \"flag of Europe\" was designed in 1950 and officially adopted by the Council of Europe in 1955.The same flag was adopted by the European Parliament in 1983.The European Council adopted it as an \"emblem\" for the European Communities in 1985.Its status in the European Communities was inherited by the European Union upon its formation in 1993.The proposal to adopt it as official flag of the European Union failed with the ratification of the European Constitution in 2005, and mention of all emblems suggesting statehood was removed from the Treaty of Lisbon of 2007, although sixteen member states signed a declaration supporting the continued use of the flag.", "In 2007, the European Parliament officially adopted the flag for its own use.===1950–present: Council of Europe===The flag of Europe flown alongside the Flag of France on Villa Schutzenberger, seat of the European Audiovisual Observatory, an institution within the Council of Europe (2011 photograph)The Council of Europe in 1950 appointed a committee to study the question of adopting a symbol.Numerous proposals were looked into.Among the unsuccessful proposals was the flag of Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi's International Paneuropean Union, which he had himself recently adopted for the European Parliamentary Union.The design was a blue field with a red cross inside an orange circle at the centre.", "Kalergi was very committed to defending the cross as \"the great symbol of Europe's moral unity\", the Red Cross in particular being \"recognized by the whole world, by Christian and non-Christian nations, as a symbol of international charity and of the brotherhood of man\", but the proposal was rejected by Turkey (a member of the Council of Europe since 1949) on grounds of its religious associations in spite of Kalergi's suggestion of adding a crescent alongside the cross to overcome the Muslim objections.Other proposals included the flag was the European Movement, which had a large green E on a white background,a design was based on the Olympic rings, eight golden rings on a blue background, rejected due to the rings' similarity with \"dial\", \"chain\" and \"zeros\", or a large yellow star on a blue background, rejected due to its equality with the flag of the Belgian Congo.The Consultative Assembly narrowed their choice to two designs.", "One was by Salvador de Madariaga, the founder of the College of Europe, who suggested a constellation of stars on a blue background (positioned according to capital cities, with a large star for Strasbourg, the seat of the council).", "He had circulated his flag round many European capitals and the concept had found favour.", "The second was a variant by Arsène Heitz, who worked for the council's postal service and had submitted dozens of designs, one of which was accepted by the Assembly.", "The design was similar to Salvador de Madariaga's, but rather than a constellation, the stars were arranged in a circle.", "Arsène Heitz was one of several people who proposed a circle of gold stars on a blue background.", "None of his proposals perfectly match the design that was adopted.", "Paul Levy claims that he was the one who designed the template for the flag, not Arsène Heitz.In 1987, Heitz would claim that his inspiration had been the crown of twelve stars of the Woman of the Apocalypse, often found in Marian iconography (see below).On 25 September 1953, the Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe recommended that a blue flag with fifteen gold stars be adopted as an emblem for the organisation, the number fifteen reflecting the number of states of the Council of Europe.", "West Germany objected to the fifteen-star design, as one of the members was Saar Protectorate, and to have its own star would imply sovereignty for the region.", "The Committee of Ministers (the council's main decision making body) agreed with the Assembly that the flag should be a circle of stars, but opted for a fixed number of twelve stars, \"representing perfection and entirety\".", "The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe on 25 October 1955 agreed to this.", "Paul M. G. Lévy drew up the exact design of the new flag.", "Officially adopted on 8 December 1955, the flag was unveiled at the Château de la Muette in Paris on 13 December 1955.File:Former Flag of the International Paneuropean Union.svg|Kalergi's Paneuropean Union proposalFile:Proposed flag for Europe, designed in 1954 by members of the Council of Europe.png|alt=Flag featuring 8 golden interlocked rings on a blue background.|\"Eight rings\" proposal, redolent of the Western Union StandardFile:Europe flag proposal 4.svg|\"Single-star\" proposalFile:Salvador de Madariaga Flag Proposal (01 December 1951).svg|Madariaga's \"constellation\" proposalFile:Proposed 15-star flag of Europe (1953).png|Fifteen-star proposal adopted by the Consultative Assembly in 1953For the flag of the Council of Europe, many stylistic proposals were made in regards to colours and symbolism.", "These first proposals were made 19 January 1950 by Paul Levy in a letter to the Secretary-General.", "He proposed that the flag should contain a cross for several reasons.", "Firstly, the cross symbolizes roads crossing, and also represents the east, the west, the north, and the south with its arms.", "Furthermore, the cross appears in most of the European Council members' flags, and it is the oldest and most noble symbol in Europe.", "Moreover, the cross depicted Christianity.", "As far as the colours are concerned, he proposed them to be white and green, colours of the European Movement, which was of great significance since 1947.Green also depicted hope, and the green cross over a white background was a design that had not been used yet.", "Finally, Levy proposed that the arms of Strasbourg was an important element to be added as it represented where the council would be, and being located in the heart of the cross meant that the council was the point where the European roads met.Shortly after this design considerations by Paul Levy, on 27 July 1950, Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, president of the Pan-European movement wrote a memorandum which contained some rules that a flag for such union should follow.", "The rules he stated where:* It should be a symbol of our common civilisation.", "* It should present a European emblem.", "* It should not provoke any national rivalry.", "* It should represent tradition.", "* It should be beautiful and dignified.After these statements, Coudenhove-Kalergi proposed that the Pan-European movement flag would be the perfect one to fit these criteria15 July 1951, the consultative assembly put forward a final memorandum on the European flag.", "The symbols proposed where the following* A cross: Symbol of Christianity, Europe's crossroads, reminiscent of the crusades, and present in half of the member state's flags.", "* An \"E\": Used by the European Movement.", "* A white star in a circle: Symbol used in 1944–45 by the armies of liberation.", "* Multiple stars: Each star could represent a member.", "They could be green on a white background, white stars on a red background, or silver stars for associate members, and golden stars for full members.", "* Strasbourg's Coat of Arms: To symbolize the official seat of the Council of Europe.", "* A sun: It would represent dawning hope.", "* A triangle: It would represent culture.Furthermore, several colours were also proposed:* Multi-coloured: It was proposed that the flag could contain all the colours the flags of the member states had.", "* Green and White: These were the colours of the European Movement.", "* Blue: Symbol of peace and neutrality, as other colours were already used for other movements such as black for mourning, red for bolshevism, or green for Islam.In the end, the flag of Europe was chosen to have 12 five-pointed golden stars in a circle over a blue background, probably inspired by the Pan-European flag and other designs such as Salvador de Madariaga's and Arsène Heitz's proposals.+ Alternative proposalsFlag DateDesigner DescriptionSources200x200px 1920 ''Unknown'' Obverse and reverse of the European flag proposed in an anonymous pan-European brochure from 1920.150x150px 1930 ''Unknown''Anonymous sketch flag for the United States of Europe150x150px 23 August 1949 Camille Manné Flag proposal by Camille Manné, a Strasbourg Citizen, which incorporated all the colours of the European flags, made by doing a statistical analysis of the colours of the European flags.", "Its design is in the form of four horizontal stripes, blue, green, yellow and black, and a chevron horizontally divided in red and white adjacent to the hoist.", "The chevron also has the colours of Strasbourg.150x150px 5 June 1950 Coudenhove-KalergiThe count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi proposed to Jacques-Camille Paris, Secretary General of the European Council, about using the Paneuropean movement flag.150px15 July 1951 Martin-Levy One of the curators of the Strasbourg Museum and member of the Secretariat-General, Martin-Levy, proposed a white ground with a green cross bearing in the centre the coat-of-arms of the Town of Strasbourg.", "The cross is shifted slightly towards the hoist in the manner of Scandinavian flags.Sami flag Coudenhove-Kalergi The Count Coudenhove-Kalergi proposed a white flag bearing a red symmetrical cross, also known as the flag of St. George.Sami flagPrince de SchwarzenbergThe Prince de Schwarzenberg proposed that the \"first European symbol\", the labarum of Constantine, should be adopted.", "A red flag with a yellow symmetrical cross.150x150pxLucien PhilippeFifteen five-pointed green stars in three rows on a white ground.150x150px150x150pxLouis WirionLouis Wirion, Luxembourg expert in heraldry, proposed a design based on the Martin-Levy proposal, reversing the colours and doing away with the Strasbourg coat of arms.However he agreed that the white ground should be left with a green cross provided the Strasbourg coat of arms at the centre was only used for the pennants of Council personages and flags flown on Council buildings, and omitted in all other cases.150x150pxSommier of NeuillySommier proposed a design based in the European Movement flag, with a green \"E\" detached from the hoist over a white ground.150x150pxAlwin MondonAlwin Mondon, a cartographer of Bad Godesberg, proposed a white triangle, symbol of culture, on various fields.", "(One of them shown)150x150pxMuller of WiesbadenMuller of Wiesbaden proposed a red flag bearing the word \"Europa\" in gold lettering, with a golden sun and a white hand making the sign of the oath.150x150pxHarmigniesHarmignies suggested creating a new heraldic device: a Cross of Europe.", "This cross would consist of four \"E\"s backed on to a square.", "He proposed a flag consisting of a green Cross of Europe on a white ground.150x150pxPoucherPoucher proposed a federal flag which was virtually the reverse of the flag of the United States of America, with blue bands and a red quarter in one corner.150x150pxH.C.?H.C.", "proposed a horizontally-divided blue-red flag, the upper blue and the lower red.", "This is the international code sign of the letter \"E\".", "Furthermore, these two colours also correspond to those generally adopted by the right and left wing parties respectively.150x150px26 September 1951Coudenhove-KalergiA slight variation of the Paneuropean movement flag that the count Cudenhove-Kalergi proposed but later verbally expressed his intention of withdrawing his proposal.150x150pxJ.", "E. DylanIn January 1951 J.E.Dylan proposed on a letter this and other flag with the Star of Liberation surrounded by stars (one for each union member).", "He also proposed these two designs to have a blue background.The council put forward this proposal, which had a green flag with a white and red Star of Liberation, and the Strasbourg coat of arms on the upper left-hand corner.", "The star in a circle was in 1944-5 the insignia of the armies of Liberation.150x150px''Unknown''A similar design to Louis Wirion's flag proposal, but the cross is symmetrical.", "This design was proposed by those who believed that a green cross on a white background would be too easily soiled.150x150px''Unknown''A white Cross of St. Andrew over a green ground.", "The cross represents one of the oldest and most popular European emblems which hasappeared in the case of the Cross of Burgundy, emblem of the\"Grand Duchy of the West\".150x150px15 October 1951Arsène HeitzArsène Heitz proposed a green flag, colour of Charlemagne's standard which the Pope Leo III gave to him at his coronation, and a red cross fimbriated in yellow.", "Red depicts the bloodshed in fratricidal struggles and yellow being the colour of the Pope and Christianity.150x150pxArsène HeitzSlight variation of the Cross of St.George, with the heart of the cross located closer to the hoist, in the style of the Nordic Cross.", "Probably inspired or derived from Count Coudenhove-Kalergi's proposal, so that it wasn't a replica of England's flag.150x150px1 December 1951Salvador de MadariagaSalvador de Madariaga chose to depict each capital of the member states at that time with a star.", "The bigger star depicted Strasbourg.", "Stars were chosen as they depicted the country, but without the need of frontiers.", "Furthermore, they were eight-pointed depicting the eight chief directions of the compass.150x150px5 January 1952Arsène HeitzA green standard, colour of Charlemagne's standard, with a red cross fimbriated with gold.", "Each member state, when using the flag, could insert their coat of arms in the heart of the cross.150x150px12 May 1952Paul LevyTurkey objected to the Paneuropean proposal due to the fact that there was Christian representation with the red cross, but no Islamic representation.", "Therefore, Paul Levy proposed adding a small crescent at one of the upper corners of the sun in the flag.150x150px15 November 1952Arsène HeitzSet of European flags which start to resemble more the actual flag of the EU.", "They show circles of yellow five-pointed stars on a blue field.", "Heitz, as in his previous January proposal, he suggested that each member state could add its own flag to the design.150x150px150x150px150x150px25 September 1953Members of the Council of EuropeFifteen golden five-pointed stars in a circle representing union, over a blue (azure) background.", "(on the official documents, \"sky-blue\" does not refer to the shade, but to the symbolism of the colour.", "The French translation, the heraldic description and hatching pattern, and colour illustrations make it clear that the background was azure (blue) and not light blue.", ")150x150px12 November 1954Arsène HeitzBlue flag with a yellow eight-pointed star in a red circle.", "The design is probably inspired in the Paneuropean flag, but instead of having a yellow cross, the shape of a compass rose is added to represent all of Europe.150x150px25 December 1954Blue flag with a red and white eight-pointed compass rose in the middle, probably chosen so that all member states felt represented.150x150px11 September 1955Blue flag with a star in the middle surrounded by twelve secondary stars.", "This is the most similar flag to the current one, with 12 stars instead of 15, and a star in the middle to probably represent Strasbourg or union.150x150px9 December 1955Committee of European MinistersBlue field with a five-pointed 12-star circle===1983–present: From European Communities to European Union===leftFollowing Expo 58 in Brussels, the flag caught on and the Council of Europe lobbied for other European organisations to adopt the flag as a sign of European unity.", "The European Parliament took the initiative in seeking a flag to be adopted by the European Communities.", "Shortly after the first direct elections in 1979 a draft resolution was put forward on the issue.", "The resolution proposed that the Communities' flag should be that of the Council of Europe and it was adopted by the Parliament on 11 April 1983.", "\"Flag and emblem\" for the European Communities proposed in the 1985 Adonnino ReportThe June 1984 European Council (the Communities' leaders) summit in Fontainebleau stressed the importance of promoting a European image and identity to citizens and the world.", "The European Council appointed an ''ad hoc'' committee, named \"Committee for 'a People's Europe'\" (Adonnino Committee).This committee submitted a substantial report, including wide-ranging suggestions, from organising a \"European lottery\" to campaigning for the introduction of local voting rights for foreign nationals throughout Europe.", "Under the header of \"strengthening of the Community's image and identity\", the Committee suggested the introduction of \"a flag and an emblem\", recommending a design based on the Council of Europe flag, but with the addition of \"a gold letter E\" in the center of the circle of stars.", "The European Council held in Milan on 28/29 June 1985 largely followed the recommendations of the Adonnino Committee.", "But as the adoption of a flag was strongly reminiscent of a national flag representing statehood and was extremely controversial with some member states (in particular the United Kingdom, as the proposed flag closely resembled the Queen's personal standard), the Council of Europe's \"flag of Europe\" design was adopted, without the letter E, only with the official status of a \"logo\".", "This compromise was widely disregarded from the beginning, and the \"European logo\", in spite of the explicit language of giving it the status of a \"logo\", was referred to as the \"Community flag\" or even \"European flag\" from the outset.The Communities began to use the \"emblem\" as its ''de facto'' flag from 1986, raising it outside the Berlaymont building (the seat of the European Commission) for the first time on 29 May 1986.The European Union, which was established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 to replace the European Communities and encompass its functions, has retained ''de facto'' use of the \"Community logo\" of the EC.", "Technically and officially, the \"European flag\" as used by the European Union remains not a \"flag\" but \"a Community 'logo' — or 'emblem' — ... eligible to be reproduced on rectangular pieces of fabric\".In 1997, the \"Central and Eastern Eurobarometer\" poll included a section intending to \"discover the level of public awareness of the European Union\" in what were then candidate countries in Central and Eastern Europe.", "Interviewees were shown \"a sticker of the European flag\" and asked to identify it.", "Responses considered correct were: the European Union, the European Community, the Common Market, and \"Europe in general\".", "52% of those interviewed gave one of the correct answers, 15% gave a wrong answer (naming another institution, such as NATO or the United Nations), and 35% could or would not identify it.The \"flag barcode\"In 2002, Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas designed a symbol, dubbed the \"barcode\", which displayed the colours of the national flags of the EU member states in vertical stripes.", "It was reported as a replacement for the European flag, which was not the intention.", "It was not adopted by the EU or any other organisation at the time, but an updated version was used in the visual identity of the Austrian EU Presidency in 2006.The official status of the emblem as the flag of the European Union was to be formalised as part of the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe.", "However, as the proposed treaty failed ratification, the mention of all state-like emblems, including the flag, were not included in the replacement Treaty of Lisbon, which entered into force in 2009.Instead, a separate declaration by sixteen Member States was included in the final act of the Treaty of Lisbon stating that the flag, the anthem, the motto and the currency and Europe Day \"will for them continue as symbols to express the sense of community of the people in the European Union and their allegiance to it.", "\"In reaction to the removal of the flag from the treaty, the European Parliament, which had supported the inclusion of such symbols, backed a proposal to use these symbols \"more often\" on behalf of the Parliament itself; Jo Leinen, MEP for Germany, suggested that the Parliament should take \"an ''avant-garde'' role\" in their use.In September 2008, the Parliament's Committee on Constitutional Affairs proposed a formal change in the institution's rules of procedure to make \"better use of the symbols\".", "Specifically, the flag would be present in all meeting rooms (not just the hemicycle) and at all official events.", "The proposal was passed on 8 October 2008 by 503 votes to 96 (15 abstentions).In 2015, a set of commemorative Euro coins was issued on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the adoption of the emblem by the European Communities.In April 2004, the European flag was flown on behalf of the European Space Agency, by Dutch astronaut André Kuipers while on board the International Space Station, in reference to the Framework Agreement establishing the legal basis for co-operation between the European Space Agency and the European Union.Following the 2004 Summer Olympics, President Romano Prodi expressed his hope \"to see the EU Member State teams 2008 Summer Olympics|in Beijing viz., the 2008 games carry the flag of the European Union alongside their own national flag as a symbol of our unity\".Use of the flag has also been reported as representing the European team at the Ryder Cup golf competition in the early 2000s, although most European participants preferred to use their own national flags.The flag has been widely used by advocates of European integration since the late 1990s or early 2000s.", "It is often displayed in the context of Europe Day, on 9 May.", "Outside the EU, it was used in the context of several of the \"colour revolutions\" during the 2000s.", "In Belarus, it was used on protest marches alongside the white-red-white flag and other flags of opposition movements, such as ''Zubr'', during the protests of 2004–2006.The flag was used widely in a 2007 pro-EU march in Minsk.", "Similar uses were reported from Moldova in 2009.In Georgia, the flag has been on most government buildings since the coming to power of Mikheil Saakashvili (2007), who used it during his inauguration, stating: \"the European flag is Georgia's flag as well, as far as it embodies our civilisation, our culture, the essence of our history and perspective, and our vision for the future of Georgia.", "\"It was used in 2008 by pro-western Serbian voters ahead of an election.The flag became a symbol of European integration of Ukraine in the 2010s, particularly after Euromaidan.", "Ukraine is not a part of the EU but is a member of the Council of Europe.", "The flag is used by the Cabinet of Ukraine, Prime Minister of Ukraine, and MFA UA during official meetings.", "It was flown during the 2013 Euromaidan protests in Ukraine,and in 2016 by the pro-EU faction in the EU membership referendum campaigns in the United Kingdom.The flag has also been adopted as a symbol for EU policies and expansionism by EU-sceptics.", "In an early instance, Macedonian protesters burned \"the flag of the EU\" in the context of EU involvement in the 2001 insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia.In the 2005 Islamic protests against the ''Jyllands-Posten Muhammad'' cartoons, the Danish flag was most frequently burned, but (as the cartoons were reprinted in many European countries), some protesters opted for burning \"the EU flag\" instead.Protesters during the Greek government-debt crisis of 2012 \"burned the EU flag and shouted 'EU out' \".Burning of the EU flag has been reported from other anti-EU rallies since.By the 2010s, the association of the emblem with the EU had become so strong that the Council of Europe saw it necessary to design a new logo, to \"avoid confusion\", officially adopted in 2013.The EU emblem (\"EU flag\") is depicted on the euro banknotes.", "Euro coins also display a circle of twelve stars on both the national and common sides.It is also depicted on many driving licences and vehicle registration plates issued in the Union.", "Diplomatic missions of EU member states fly the EU flag alongside their national flag.", "In October 2000, the then-new British Embassy in Berlin sparked controversy between the UK and Germany and the EU when the embassy did not have a second external flagpole for the EU flag.", "After diplomatic negotiations, it was agreed that the outside flagpole would have the diplomatic Union Flag while inside the embassy, the EU flag would accompany the UK flag.", "Some member states' national airlines such as Lufthansa have the EU flag alongside their national flags on aircraft as part of their aircraft registration codes, but this is not an EU-mandated directive.A number of logos used by EU institutions, bodies and agencies are derived from the design and colours of the EU emblem.Other emblems make reference to the European flag, such as the EU organic food label that uses the twelve stars but reorders them into the shape of a leaf on a green background.", "The original logo of the European Broadcasting Union used the twelve stars on a blue background adding ray beams to connect the countries.There was a proposal in 2003 to deface national civil ensigns with the EU emblem.", "The proposal was rejected by Parliament in 2004.The flag is usually flown by the government of the country holding the rotating presidency Council of Ministers.In 2009, Czech President Václav Klaus, a eurosceptic, refused to fly the flag from his castle.", "In response, Greenpeace projected an image of the flag onto the castle and attempted to fly the flag from the building themselves.Extraordinary flying of the flag is common on Europe Day, celebrated annually on 9 May.", "On Europe Day 2008, the flag was flown for the first time above the German Reichstag.The flag has also been displayed in the context of EU military operations (EUFOR Althea).File:KOD demonstration, Warsaw May 7 2016 21.jpg|A KOD demonstration in Warsaw, Poland against the ruling Law and Justice party, on 7 May 2016File:Euromaidan Kyiv 1-12-13 by Gnatoush 005.jpg|Ukrainian and EU flags at Euromaidan, December 2013File:Pride in London 2016 - A man in a kilt with the European flag during the parade.png|European flag upside down at the Pride in London parade, just after the Brexit referendum in June 2016File:The Europa series 100 € obverse side.jpg|Flag of the EU in the top left corner of a 100 euro banknote (second series)File:Logo European Central Bank.svg|European Central Bank logoFile:Saksen-Anhalt license plate 02.JPG|The EU uses the emblem in a number of ways, here on vehicle registration plates.", "The \"D\" in this photo indicates Germany (Deutschland).File:Mrs. Laura Bush and daughter, Barbara Bush, are greeted by Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi.jpg|In Italy the European Flag must be displayed alongside the national flag in official ceremonies and over public buildings.File:EU Flag Louvre.jpg|The European Flag is placed on numerous municipal flagpoles in Paris, on a par with the flag of France; here in front of the Louvre Palace.File:Flickr - Πρωθυπουργός της Ελλάδας - Angela Merkel - Αντώνης Σαμαράς (9).jpg|Order of precedence at the state visit of Greek prime minister Antonis Samaras in Berlin (24 August 2012): The Greek flag takes the first order of precedence, followed by the German flag on the right (seen on the left when facing the building) and the European flag in third order, on the left.File:BadElster Grenze4383.JPG|German border signSixteen out of twenty-seven member states in 2007 signed the declaration recognising \"the flag with a circle of twelve golden stars on a blue background\" as representing \"the sense of community of the people in the European Union and their allegiance to it.", "\"In 2017, president of France Emmanuel Macron signed a declaration endorsing the 2007 statement,so that, as of 2018, 17 out of 27 member states have recognised the emblem as a flag representing \"allegiance to the EU\":Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain.Italy has incorporated the EU flag into its flag code.", "According to an Italian law passed in 2000, it is mandatory for most public offices and buildings to hoist the European Flag alongside the Italian national flag (Law 22/1998 and Presidential Decree 121/2000).", "Outside official use, the flag may not be used for \"aims incompatible with European values\".The 2000 Italian flag code expressly replaces the Italian flag with the European flag in precedence when dignitaries from other EU countries visit – for example the EU flag would be in the middle of a group of three flags rather than the Italian flag.", "In Germany, the federal flag code of 1996 is only concerned with the German flag, but some of the states have legislated additional provisions for the European flag, such as Bavaria in its flag regulation of 2001, which mandates that the European flag take the third order of precedence, after the federal and state flags, except on Europe Day, where it is to take the first order of precedence.In Ireland on occasions of \"European Union Events\" (for example, at a European Council meeting), where the European flag is flown alongside all national flags of member states, the national flags are placed in alphabetical order (according to their name in the main language of that state) with the European flag either at the head, or the far-right, of the order of flags.In most member states, use of the EU flag is only ''de facto'' and not regulated by legislation, and as such subject to ''ad hoc'' revision.", "In national usage, national protocol usually demands the national flag takes precedence over the European flag (which is usually displayed to the right of the national flag from the observer's perspective).", "In November 2014, the speaker of the Hungarian Parliament László Kövér ordered the removal of the EU flag from the parliament building, following an incident in which a member of parliament had \"defenestrated\" two EU flags from a fourth story window.", "In November 2015, the newly elected Polish government under Beata Szydło removed the EU flag from government press conferences." ], [ "Derivative designs", "The design of the European flag has been used in a variation, such as that of the Council of Europe mentioned above, and also to a greater extent such as the flag of the Western European Union (WEU; now defunct), which uses the same colours and the stars but has a number of stars based on membership and in a semicircle rather than a circle.", "It is also defaced with the initials of the former Western European Union in two languages.The European Parliament used its own flag from 1973, but never formally adopted it.", "It fell out of use with the adoption of the twelve-star flag by the Parliament in 1983.The flag followed the yellow and blue colour scheme however instead of twelve stars there were the letters EP and PE (initials of the European Parliament in the six community languages at the time) surrounded by a wreath.", "Sometime later, the Parliament chose to use a logo consisting of a stylised hemicycle and the EU flag at the bottom right.The flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina, imposed by High Representative Carlos Westendorp, after the country's parliament failed to agree on a design, is reminiscent of the symbolism of the EU flag, using the same blue and yellow colours, and the stars, although of a different number and colour, are a direct reference to those of the European flag.Likewise, Kosovo uses blue, yellow and stars in its flag, which has been mocked as a \"none too subtle nod to the flag of the European Union, which is about to become Kosovo's new best friend as it takes over protector status from the United Nations\".The flag of the Brussels-Capital Region (introduced in 2016) consists of a yellow iris with a white outline upon a blue background.", "Its colours are based on the colours of the Flag of Europe, because Brussels is considered the unofficial capital of the EU.File:Flag of the Brussels-Capital Region.svg|The blue and yellow colours of the Brussels flag are those of the European Union, of which Brussels is the ''de facto'' capital city.File:Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg|alt=The flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina was partly based on the European flag|The flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina was partly based on the European flag.File:Flag of the Council of Europe.svg|Logo of the Council of EuropeFile:Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 6 Star Version.svg|Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community (1958–1972)File:Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 9 Star Version.svg|Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community (1973–1980)File:Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 10 Star Version.svg|Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community (1981–1985)File:Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 12 Star Version.svg|Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community (1986–2002)File:Flag of Kosovo.svg|The flag of Kosovo was partly based on the European flag.File:Flag of the Western European Union (1993-1995).svg|Flag of the Western European Union (1993–1995)File:Flag of the Western European Union.svg|Flag of the Western European Union (1995–2011)File:Flag of the Assembly of the Western European Union.svg|Flag of the Assembly of the Western European UnionFile:Flag of the European Parliament (1973-1983).svg|Flag of the European Parliament (1973–1983)File:Flag of the European Maritime Safety Agency.svg|Flag of the European Maritime Safety AgencyFile:Flag of EMCDDA.svg|Flag of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug AddictionFile:Organic-Logo.svg|EU emblem for certification of organic agricultural products ===Heraldry===The coat of arms of the chairman of the European Union Military Committee (CEUMC), the highest-ranking officer within the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), depicts the European emblem as a coat of arms, i.e.", "emblazoned on an escutcheon.", "In heraldic terms, this makes the European flag is the banner of arms, i.e.", "the flag form of this coat of arms.", "In English blazon, the arms is ''On an azure field a circle of 12 golden mullets, their points not touching''.Several EU publications related to the CSDP generally, and its prospective development as a defence arm, have also displayed the European emblem in this manner, albeit as a graphical design element rather than an official symbol.File:Informal meeting of defence ministers (FAC).", "Arrivals Michail Kostarakos (36892148436).jpg|Chairman Michail Kostarakos wearing the heraldic badgeFile:Coat of arms of Europe.svg|Heraldic badgeFile:EUBAM logo.svg|Moldovan and Ukrainian flags displayed as supporters, symbolising the EU's border assistance mission since 2005File:EU Roma Musei Capitolini close-up crop.jpg|The European emblem emblazoned on a chair at the occasion of the 2004 signing of the European Constitution in RomeFile:Blue Eiffel Tower 00003 (2744637971).jpg|The European emblem emblazoned on the Eiffel Tower in 2008File:European Court of Human Rights, courtroom, 2014 (cropped).JPG|The European emblem emblazoned on the carpet in the European Court of Human Rights" ], [ "Incorrect versions", "File:European flag, upside down.svg|The stars are upside down.File:European flag, incorrect star rotation.svg|The stars point outwards instead of in one direction.File:European flag, incorrect star positions.svg|The stars should be arranged like a face of a clock, which is not the case in this flag.", "File:Flag of Europe.svg|Correct flag" ], [ "See also", "* Symbols of Europe#Flag* Symbols of the European Union* European Fisheries Control Agency#Pennant; Flags of the European Union's precursors* Flag of the Western Union* Flag of the Western European Union* Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community; Flags of other European unification movements* Flag of the Paneuropean Union (adopted 1922)* Hertensteiner Cross of the federalist movements (used in 1946)* Federalist flag of the European Movement (adopted 1948); Other continental flags* Flag of the African Union* Flag of the Eurasian Economic Union" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Council of Europe on the flag** Council of Europe historical files on the flag* EU's graphical specifications for the flag* The symbols of the European Union: The flag of the Council Europe.", "Virtual Centre for Knowledge on Europe* * Memorandum on design and designer of European flag" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Anthem of Europe" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Anthem of Europe''' or '''European Anthem''', also known as '''Ode to Joy''', is a piece of instrumental music adapted from the prelude of the final movement of Beethoven's 9th Symphony composed in 1823, originally set to words adapted from Friedrich Schiller's 1785 poem \"Ode to Joy\".", "In 1972, the Council of Europe adopted it as an anthem to represent Europe, and later in 1985 it was also adopted by the European Union.Its purpose is to honour shared European values.", "The EU describes it as expressing the ideals of freedom, peace and solidarity.", "The anthem is played on official occasions such as political or civil events." ], [ "History", "Composer Ludwig van BeethovenFriedrich Schiller wrote the poem \"An die Freude\" (\"To Joy\") in 1785 as a \"celebration of the brotherhood of man\".", "In later life, the poet was contemptuous of this popularity and dismissed the poem as typical of \"the bad taste of the age\" in which it had been written.", "After Schiller's death, the poem provided the words for the choral movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's 9th Symphony.In 1971 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe decided to propose adopting the prelude to the \"Ode to Joy\" from Beethoven's 9th Symphony as the anthem, taking up a suggestion made by Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi in 1955.Beethoven was generally seen as the natural choice for a European anthem.", "The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe officially announced the European Anthem on 19 January 1972 at Strasbourg: the prelude to \"Ode to Joy\", 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's 9th symphony.Conductor Herbert von Karajan was asked to write three instrumental arrangementsfor solo piano, for wind instruments and for symphony orchestra and he conducted the performance used to make the official recording.", "Karajan decided on a decidedly slower tempo, using crotchet (quarter note) = 120 whereas Beethoven had written minim (half note) = 80.The anthem was launched via a major information campaign on Europe Day in 1972, without a public holiday, since it is close to May Day.", "In 1985, it was adopted by EU heads of state and government as the official anthem of the then European Communitysince 1993 the European Union.", "It is not intended to replace the national anthems of the member states but rather to celebrate the values they all share and their unity in diversity.", "It expresses the ideals of a united Europe: freedom, peace, and solidarity.", "A connection to the Constitution of the European Union is eagerly awaited.It was to have been included in the European Constitution along with the other European symbols; however, the treaty failed ratification and was replaced by the Treaty of Lisbon, which does not include any symbols.", "A declaration was attached to the treaty, in which sixteen member states formally recognised the proposed symbols.", "In response, the European Parliament decided that it would make greater use of the anthem, for example at official occasions.", "In October 2008, the Parliament changed its rules of procedure to have the anthem played at the opening of Parliament after elections and at formal sittings." ], [ "Usage", "\"Ode to Joy\" is the anthem of the Council of Europe (CoE) and the European Union (EU).", "In the context of the CoE, the anthem is used to represent all of Europe.", "In the context of the EU, the anthem is used to represent the union and its people.", "It is used on occasions such as Europe Day and formal events such as the signing of treaties.", "The European Parliament seeks to make greater use of the music; then-Parliament President Hans-Gert Pöttering stated he was moved when the anthem was played for him on his visit to Israel and ought to be used in Europe more often.The German public radio station Deutschlandfunk has broadcast the anthem together with the shortly before midnight since New Year's Eve 2006.The two anthems were specially recorded by the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra in versions characterized by \"modesty and intensity\".At the 2007 signing ceremony for the Treaty of Lisbon, the plenipotentiaries of the European Union's twenty-seven member states stood in attendance while the \"Ode to Joy\" was played and a choir of 26 Portuguese children sang the original German lyrics.In 2008 it was used by Kosovo as its national anthem until it adopted its own, and it was played at its declaration of independence, as a nod to the EU's role in its independence from Serbia.", "\"Ode to Joy\", automatically orchestrated in seven different styles, was used on 18 June 2015 during the ceremony celebrating the 5000th ERC grantee as anthem of the European Research Council to represent achievements of European research.", "\"Ode to Joy\" is used as the theme song to the 2016 UEFA Euro qualifying and the European qualifying of the 2018 FIFA World Cup football competition at the introduction of every match.In 2017, members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from the Scottish National Party first whistled and then sang \"Ode to Joy\" during a vote at the House of Commons to protest against Brexit.In 2018, the anthem of Japan and the anthem of the EU were performed in Tokyo during the official signing of the EU-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement.", "The European anthem is often played at the signing of official economic or political agreements with foreign governments.In 2023, it was played after the anthem of Ukraine during President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy's visit to the EU parliament." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* ''Beethoven's Ninth: A Political History'', Esteban Buch (Trans.", "Richard Miller), (University of Chicago Press)* Delegation of the European Commission (mp3 available there)* European anthem – CVCE website* The European anthem – European Commission website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Timeline of the evolutionary history of life" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''timeline of the evolutionary history of life''' represents the current scientific theory outlining the major events during the development of life on planet Earth.", "Dates in this article are consensus estimates based on scientific evidence, mainly fossils.In biology, evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations.", "Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organization, from kingdoms to species, and individual organisms and molecules, such as DNA and proteins.", "The similarities between all present day organisms imply a common ancestor from which all known species, living and extinct, have diverged.", "More than 99 percent of all species that ever lived (over five billion) are estimated to be extinct.", "Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, with about 1.2 million or 14% documented, the rest not yet described.", "However, a 2016 report estimates an additional 1 trillion microbial species, with only 0.001% described.There has been controversy between more traditional views of steadily increasing biodiversity, and a newer view of cycles of annihilation and diversification, so that certain past times, such as the Cambrian explosion, experienced maximums of diversity followed by sharp winnowing." ], [ "Extinction", "Visual representation of the history of life on Earth as a spiralSpecies go extinct constantly as environments change, as organisms compete for environmental niches, and as genetic mutation leads to the rise of new species from older ones.", "At long irregular intervals, Earth's biosphere suffers a catastrophic die-off, a mass extinction, often comprising an accumulation of smaller extinction events over a relatively brief period.The first known mass extinction was the Great Oxidation Event 2.4 billion years ago, which killed most of the planet's obligate anaerobes.", "Researchers have identified five other major extinction events in Earth's history, with estimated losses below:*End Ordovician: 440 million years ago, 86% of all species lost, including graptolites*Late Devonian: 375 million years ago, 75% of species lost, including most trilobites*End Permian, The Great Dying: 251 million years ago, 96% of species lost, including tabulate corals, and most trees and synapsids*End Triassic: 200 million years ago, 80% of species lost, including all conodonts*End Cretaceous: 66 million years ago, 76% of species lost, including all ammonites, mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, and nonavian dinosaursSmaller extinction events have occurred in the periods between, with some dividing geologic time periods and epochs.", "The Holocene extinction event is currently under way.Factors in mass extinctions include continental drift, changes in atmospheric and marine chemistry, volcanism and other aspects of mountain formation, changes in glaciation, changes in sea level, and impact events." ], [ "Detailed timeline", "In this timeline, '''Ma''' (for ''megaannum'') means \"million years ago,\" '''ka''' (for ''kiloannum'') means \"thousand years ago,\" and '''ya''' means \"years ago.", "\"=== Hadean Eon ===Moon 4540 Ma – 4000 Ma Date Event 4540 Ma Planet Earth forms from the accretion disc revolving around the young Sun, perhaps preceded by formation of organic compounds necessary for life in the surrounding protoplanetary disk of cosmic dust.", "4510 Ma According to the giant-impact hypothesis, the Moon originated when Earth and the hypothesized planet Theia collided, sending into orbit myriad moonlets which eventually coalesced into our single Moon.", "The Moon's gravitational pull stabilised Earth's fluctuating axis of rotation, setting up regular climatic conditions favoring abiogenesis.", "4404 Ma Evidence of the first liquid water on Earth which were found in the oldest known zircon crystals.", "4280–3770 Ma Earliest possible appearance of life on Earth.=== Archean Eon ===Fragment of the Acasta Gneiss exhibited at the Museum of Natural History in ViennaThe cyanobacterial-algal mat, salty lake on the White Sea seaside''Halobacterium'' sp.", "strain NRC-14000 Ma – 2500 Ma Date Event4100 MaEarliest possible preservation of biogenic carbon.", "4100–3800 Ma Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB): extended barrage by meteoroids impacting the inner planets.", "Thermal flux from widespread hydrothermal activity during the LHB may have aided abiogenesis and life's early diversification.", "Possible remains of biotic life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.", "Probable origin of life.", "4000 Ma Formation of a greenstone belt of the Acasta Gneiss of the Slave craton in northwest Canada - the oldest known rock belt.", "3900–2500 Ma Cells resembling prokaryotes appear.", "These first organisms are believed to have been chemoautotrophs, using carbon dioxide as a carbon source and oxidizing inorganic materials to extract energy.", "3800 Ma Formation of a greenstone belt of the Isua complex in western Greenland, whose isotope frequencies suggest the presence of life.", "The earliest evidence for life on Earth includes: 3.8 billion-year-old biogenic hematite in a banded iron formation of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt in Canada; graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in western Greenland; and microbial mat fossils in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia.", "3800–3500 Ma Last universal common ancestor (LUCA): split between bacteria and archaea.Bacteria develop primitive photosynthesis, which at first did not produce oxygen.", "These organisms exploit a proton gradient to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a mechanism used by virtually all subsequent organisms.", "3000 Ma Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria using water as a reducing agent and producing oxygen as a waste product.", "Free oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron ore.", "Oxygen concentration in the atmosphere slowly rises, poisoning many bacteria and eventually triggering the Great Oxygenation Event.", "2800 Ma Oldest evidence for microbial life on land in the form of organic matter-rich paleosols, ephemeral ponds and alluvial sequences, some bearing microfossils.=== Proterozoic Eon ===Detail of the eukaryote endomembrane system and its componentsDinoflagellate ''Ceratium furca''''Blepharisma japonicum'', a free-living ciliated protozoanDickinsonia costata'', an iconic Ediacaran organism, displays the characteristic quilted appearance of Ediacaran enigmata.2500 Ma – 539 Ma.", "Contains the Palaeoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic eras.", "Date Event 2500 MaGreat Oxidation Event led by cyanobacteria's oxygenic photosynthesis.", "Commencement of plate tectonics with old marine crust dense enough to subduct.2023 MaFormation of the Vredefort impact structure, one of the largest and oldest verified impact structures on Earth.", "The crater is estimated to have been between across when it first formed.", "By 1850 Ma Eukaryotic cells, containing membrane-bound organelles with diverse functions, probably derived from prokaryotes engulfing each other via phagocytosis.", "(See Symbiogenesis and Endosymbiont).", "Bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) emerge before or soon after the divergence of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic lineages.", "Red beds show an oxidising atmosphere, favouring the spread of eukaryotic life.", "1500 MaVolyn biota, a collection of exceptionally well-preserved microfossils with varying morphologies.", "1300 Ma Earliest land fungi.", "By 1200 Ma Meiosis and sexual reproduction in single-celled eukaryotes, possibly even in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes or in the RNA world.", "Sexual reproduction may have increased the rate of evolution.", "By 1000 Ma First non-marine eukaryotes move onto land.", "They were photosynthetic and multicellular, indicating that plants evolved much earlier than originally thought.", "750 Ma Beginning of animal evolution.", "720–630 Ma Possible global glaciation which increased the atmospheric oxygen and decreased carbon dioxide, and was either ''caused'' by land plant evolution or ''resulted'' in it.", "Opinion is divided on whether it increased or decreased biodiversity or the rate of evolution.", "600 Ma Accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows the formation of an ozone layer.", "Previous land-based life would probably have required other chemicals to attenuate ultraviolet radiation.", "580–542 Ma Ediacaran biota, the first large, complex aquatic multicellular organisms.", "580–500 Ma Cambrian explosion: most modern animal phyla appear.", "550–540 Ma Ctenophora (comb jellies), Porifera (sponges), Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones), ''Ikaria wariootia'' (an early Bilaterian).=== Phanerozoic Eon ===539 Ma – presentThe Phanerozoic Eon (Greek: period of well-displayed life) marks the appearance in the fossil record of abundant, shell-forming and/or trace-making organisms.", "It is subdivided into three eras, the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, with major mass extinctions at division points.==== Palaeozoic Era ====538.8 Ma – 251.9 Ma and contains the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian periods.With only a handful of species surviving today, the Nautiloids flourished during the early Paleozoic era, from the Late Cambrian, where they constituted the main predatory animals.", "''Haikouichthys'', a jawless fish, is popularized as one of the earliest fishes and probably a basal chordate or a basal craniate.", "Ferns first appear in the fossil record about 360 million years ago in the late Devonian period.Synapsids such as ''Dimetrodon'' were the largest terrestrial vertebrates in the Permian period, 299 to 251 million years ago.", "Date Event 535 Ma Major diversification of living things in the oceans: arthropods (e.g.", "trilobites, crustaceans), chordates, echinoderms, molluscs, brachiopods, foraminifers and radiolarians, etc.", "530 Ma The first known footprints on land date to 530 Ma.", "520 Ma Earliest graptolites.", "511 MaEarliest crustaceans.", "505 Ma Fossilization of the Burgess Shale 500 MaJellyfish have existed since at least this time.", "485 Ma First vertebrates with true bones (jawless fishes).", "450 Ma First complete conodonts and echinoids appear.", "440 Ma First agnathan fishes: Heterostraci, Galeaspida, and Pituriaspida.", "420 Ma Earliest ray-finned fishes, trigonotarbid arachnids, and land scorpions.", "410 Ma First signs of teeth in fish.", "Earliest Nautilida, lycophytes, and trimerophytes.", "488–400 Ma First cephalopods (nautiloids) and chitons.", "395 Ma First lichens, stoneworts.", "Earliest harvestmen, mites, hexapods (springtails) and ammonoids.", "The earliest known tracks on land named the Zachelmie trackways which are possibly related to icthyostegalians.", "375 MaTiktaalik, a lobe-finned fish with some anatomical features similar to early tetrapods.", "It has been suggested to be a transitional species between fish and tetrapods.", "365 Ma''Acanthostega'' is one of the earliest vertebrates capable of walking.", "363 Ma By the start of the Carboniferous Period, the Earth begins to resemble its present state.", "Insects roamed the land and would soon take to the skies; sharks swam the oceans as top predators, and vegetation covered the land, with seed-bearing plants and forests soon to flourish.Four-limbed tetrapods gradually gain adaptations which will help them occupy a terrestrial life-habit.", "360 Ma First crabs and ferns.", "Land flora dominated by seed ferns.", "The Xinhang forest grows around this time.", "350 Ma First large sharks, ratfishes, and hagfish; first crown tetrapods (with five digits and no fins and scales).", "350 Ma Diversification of amphibians.", "325-335 Ma First Reptiliomorpha.", "330-320 Ma First amniote vertebrates (''Paleothyris'').", "320 Ma Synapsids (precursors to mammals) separate from sauropsids (reptiles) in late Carboniferous.", "305 Ma The Carboniferous rainforest collapse occurs, causing a minor extinction event, as well as paving the way for amniotes to become dominant over amphibians and seed plants over ferns and lycophytes.First diapsid reptiles (e.g.", "''Petrolacosaurus'').", "280 Ma Earliest beetles, seed plants and conifers diversify while lepidodendrids and sphenopsids decrease.", "Terrestrial temnospondyl amphibians and pelycosaurs (e.g.", "''Dimetrodon'') diversify in species.", "275 Ma Therapsid synapsids separate from pelycosaur synapsids.", "265 MaGorgonopsians appear in the fossil record.", "251.9–251.4 Ma The Permian–Triassic extinction event eliminates over 90-95% of marine species.", "Terrestrial organisms were not as seriously affected as the marine biota.", "This \"clearing of the slate\" may have led to an ensuing diversification, but life on land took 30 million years to completely recover.==== Mesozoic Era ====''Utatsusaurus'' is the earliest-known ichthyopterygian.", "''Plateosaurus engelhardti''''Cycas circinalis''For about 150 million years, dinosaurs were the dominant land animals on Earth.From 251.9 Ma to 66 Ma and containing the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.", "Date Event250 Ma Mesozoic marine revolution begins: increasingly well adapted and diverse predators stress sessile marine groups; the \"balance of power\" in the oceans shifts dramatically as some groups of prey adapt more rapidly and effectively than others.", "250 Ma''Triadobatrachus massinoti'' is the earliest known frog.", "248 MaSturgeon and paddlefish (Acipenseridae) first appear.", "245 Ma Earliest ichthyosaurs 240 Ma Increase in diversity of cynodonts and rhynchosaurs 225 Ma Earliest dinosaurs (prosauropods), first cardiid bivalves, diversity in cycads, bennettitaleans, and conifers.", "First teleost fishes.", "First mammals (''Adelobasileus'').", "220 Ma Seed-producing Gymnosperm forests dominate the land; herbivores grow to huge sizes to accommodate the large guts necessary to digest the nutrient-poor plants.", "First flies and turtles (''Odontochelys'').", "First coelophysoid dinosaurs.", "First mammals from small-sized cynodonts, which transitioned towards a nocturnal, insectivorous, and endothermic lifestyle.205 MaMassive Triassic/Jurassic extinction.", "It wipes out all pseudosuchians except crocodylomorphs, who transitioned to an aquatic habitat, while dinosaurs took over the land and pterosaurs filled the air.", "200 Ma First accepted evidence for viruses infecting eukaryotic cells (the group Geminiviridae).", "However, viruses are still poorly understood and may have arisen before \"life\" itself, or may be a more recent phenomenon.Major extinctions in terrestrial vertebrates and large amphibians.", "Earliest examples of armoured dinosaurs.", "195 Ma First pterosaurs with specialized feeding (''Dorygnathus'').", "First sauropod dinosaurs.", "Diversification in small, ornithischian dinosaurs: heterodontosaurids, fabrosaurids, and scelidosaurids.", "190 Ma Pliosauroids appear in the fossil record.", "First lepidopteran insects (''Archaeolepis''), hermit crabs, modern starfish, irregular echinoids, corbulid bivalves, and tubulipore bryozoans.", "Extensive development of sponge reefs.", "176 Ma First Stegosaurian dinosaurs.", "170 Ma Earliest salamanders, newts, cryptoclidids, elasmosaurid plesiosaurs, and cladotherian mammals.", "Sauropod dinosaurs diversify.", "168 Ma First lizards.", "165 Ma First rays and glycymeridid bivalves.", "First vampire squids.", "163 Ma Pterodactyloid pterosaurs first appear.", "161 Ma Ceratopsian dinosaurs appear in the fossil record (''Yinlong'') and the oldest known eutherian mammal: ''Juramaia''.", "160 Ma Multituberculate mammals (genus ''Rugosodon'') appear in eastern China.", "155 Ma First blood-sucking insects (ceratopogonids), rudist bivalves, and cheilostome bryozoans.", "''Archaeopteryx'', a possible ancestor to the birds, appears in the fossil record, along with triconodontid and symmetrodont mammals.", "Diversity in stegosaurian and theropod dinosaurs.", "131 MaFirst pine trees.", "140 MaOrb-weaver spiders appear.", "135 Ma Rise of the angiosperms.", "Some of these flowering plants bear structures that attract insects and other animals to spread pollen; other angiosperms are pollinated by wind or water.", "This innovation causes a major burst of animal coevolution.", "First freshwater pelomedusid turtles.", "Earliest krill.", "120 Ma Oldest fossils of heterokonts, including both marine diatoms and silicoflagellates.", "115 Ma First monotreme mammals.", "114 Ma Earliest bees.", "112 Ma''Xiphactinus'', a large predatory fish, appears in the fossil record.", "110 Ma First hesperornithes, toothed diving birds.", "Earliest limopsid, verticordiid, and thyasirid bivalves.", "100 Ma First ants.", "100–95 Ma ''Spinosaurus'', the largest theropod dinosaur, appears in the fossil record.", "95 MaFirst crocodilians evolve.", "90 Ma Extinction of ichthyosaurs.", "Earliest snakes and nuculanid bivalves.", "Large diversification in angiosperms: magnoliids, rosids, hamamelidids, monocots, and ginger.", "Earliest examples of ticks.", "Probable origins of placental mammals (earliest undisputed fossil evidence is 66 Ma).86–76 MaDiversification of therian mammals.", "70 Ma Multituberculate mammals increase in diversity.", "First yoldiid bivalves.", "First possible ungulates (''Protungulatum'').", "68–66 Ma ''Tyrannosaurus'', the largest terrestrial predator of western North America, appears in the fossil record.", "First species of ''Triceratops.", "''==== Cenozoic Era ====66 Ma – presentMount of oxyaenid ''Patriofelis'' from the American Museum of Natural History The bat ''Icaronycteris'' appeared 52.2 million years agoGrass flowersflightless terror bird and ground sloth at the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro''Diprotodon'' went extinct about 40,000 years ago as part of the Quaternary extinction event, along with every other Australian creature over .human species coexisted on Earth including modern humans and ''Homo floresiensis'' (pictured).American lions exceeded extant lions in size and ranged over much of North America until 11,000 BP.", "Date Event 66 MaThe Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event eradicates about half of all animal species, including mosasaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ammonites, belemnites, rudist and inoceramid bivalves, most planktic foraminifers, and all of the dinosaurs excluding the birds.", "66 Ma- Rapid dominance of conifers and ginkgos in high latitudes, along with mammals becoming the dominant species.", "First psammobiid bivalves.", "Earliest rodents.", "Rapid diversification in ants.", "63 Ma Evolution of the creodonts, an important group of meat-eating (carnivorous) mammals.", "62 MaEvolution of the first penguins.", "60 Ma Diversification of large, flightless birds.", "Earliest true primates, along with the first semelid bivalves, edentate, carnivoran and lipotyphlan mammals, and owls.", "The ancestors of the carnivorous mammals (miacids) were alive.", "59 MaEarliest sailfish appear.", "56 Ma ''Gastornis'', a large flightless bird, appears in the fossil record.", "55 Ma Modern bird groups diversify (first song birds, parrots, loons, swifts, woodpeckers), first whale (''Himalayacetus''), earliest lagomorphs, armadillos, appearance of sirenian, proboscidean mammals in the fossil record.", "Flowering plants continue to diversify.", "The ancestor (according to theory) of the species in the genus ''Carcharodon'', the early mako shark ''Isurus hastalis'', is alive.", "Ungulates split into artiodactyla and perissodactyla, with some members of the former returning to the sea.", "52 Ma First bats appear (''Onychonycteris'').", "50 Ma Peak diversity of dinoflagellates and nannofossils, increase in diversity of anomalodesmatan and heteroconch bivalves, brontotheres, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and camels appear in the fossil record, diversification of primates.", "40 Ma Modern-type butterflies and moths appear.", "Extinction of ''Gastornis''.", "''Basilosaurus'', one of the first of the giant whales, appeared in the fossil record.", "38 MaEarliest bears.", "37 Ma First nimravid (\"false saber-toothed cats\") carnivores — these species are unrelated to modern-type felines.", "First alligators and ruminants.", "35 Ma Grasses diversify from among the monocot angiosperms; grasslands begin to expand.", "Slight increase in diversity of cold-tolerant ostracods and foraminifers, along with major extinctions of gastropods, reptiles, amphibians, and multituberculate mammals.", "Many modern mammal groups begin to appear: first glyptodonts, ground sloths, canids, peccaries, and the first eagles and hawks.", "Diversity in toothed and baleen whales.", "33 Ma Evolution of the thylacinid marsupials (''Badjcinus'').", "30 Ma First balanids and eucalypts, extinction of embrithopod and brontothere mammals, earliest pigs and cats.", "28 Ma ''Paraceratherium'' appears in the fossil record, the largest terrestrial mammal that ever lived.", "First pelicans.", "25 Ma ''Pelagornis sandersi'' appears in the fossil record, the largest flying bird that ever lived.", "25 Ma First deer.", "24 MaFirst pinnipeds.", "23 MaEarliest ostriches, trees representative of most major groups of oaks have appeared by now.", "20 Ma First giraffes, hyenas, and giant anteaters, increase in bird diversity.", "17 MaFirst birds of the genus Corvus (crows).", "15 Ma Genus ''Mammut'' appears in the fossil record, first bovids and kangaroos, diversity in Australian megafauna.", "10 Ma Grasslands and savannas are established, diversity in insects, especially ants and termites, horses increase in body size and develop high-crowned teeth, major diversification in grassland mammals and snakes.", "9.5 Ma Great American Interchange, where various land and freshwater faunas migrated between North and South America.", "Armadillos, opossums, hummingbirds Phorusrhacids, Ground Sloths, Glyptodonts, and Meridiungulates traveled to North America, while horses, tapirs, saber-toothed cats, jaguars, bears, coaties, ferrets, otters, skunks and deer entered South America.", "9 MaFirst platypuses.", "6.5 Ma First hominins (''Sahelanthropus'').", "6 Ma Australopithecines diversify (''Orrorin'', ''Ardipithecus'').", "5 Ma First tree sloths and hippopotami, diversification of grazing herbivores like zebras and elephants, large carnivorous mammals like lions and the genus ''Canis'', burrowing rodents, kangaroos, birds, and small carnivores, vultures increase in size, decrease in the number of perissodactyl mammals.", "Extinction of nimravid carnivores.", "First leopard seals.", "4.8 Ma Mammoths appear in the fossil record.", "4.5 MaMarine iguanas diverge from land iguanas.", "4 Ma ''Australopithecus'' evolves.", "''Stupendemys'' appears in the fossil record as the largest freshwater turtle, first modern elephants, giraffes, zebras, lions, rhinoceros and gazelles appear in the fossil record 3.6 MaBlue whales grow to modern size.", "3 MaEarliest swordfish.", "2.7 Ma ''Paranthropus evolves.''", "2.5 Ma Earliest species of ''Arctodus'' and ''Smilodon'' evolve.", "2 Ma First members of genus ''Homo'', Homo Habilis, appear in the fossil record.", "Diversification of conifers in high latitudes.", "The eventual ancestor of cattle, aurochs (''Bos primigenus''), evolves in India.", "1.7 Ma Australopithecines go extinct.", "1.2 Ma Evolution of ''Homo antecessor''.", "The last members of ''Paranthropus'' die out.", "1 MaFirst coyotes.", "810 kaFirst wolves 600 ka Evolution of ''Homo heidelbergensis.''", "400 kaFirst polar bears.", "350 ka Evolution of Neanderthals.", "300 ka ''Gigantopithecus'', a giant relative of the orangutan from Asia dies out.", "250 ka Anatomically modern humans appear in Africa.", "Around 50 ka they start colonising the other continents, replacing Neanderthals in Europe and other hominins in Asia.", "70 ka Genetic bottleneck in humans (Toba catastrophe theory).", "40 ka Last giant monitor lizards (Varanus priscus) die out.", "35-25 ka Extinction of Neanderthals.", "Domestication of dogs.", "15 ka Last woolly rhinoceros (''Coelodonta antiquitatis'') are believed to have gone extinct.", "11 ka Short-faced bears vanish from North America, with the last giant ground sloths dying out.", "All Equidae become extinct in North America.", "Domestication of various ungulates.", "10 ka Holocene epoch starts after the Last Glacial Maximum.", "Last mainland species of woolly mammoth (''Mammuthus primigenus'') die out, as does the last ''Smilodon'' species.8 ka The Giant Lemur dies out." ], [ "See also", "* Evolutionary history of plants (timeline)* Geologic time scale* History of Earth* Sociocultural evolution* Timeline of human evolution" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Explore complete phylogenetic tree interactively* * * Interactive timeline from Big Bang to present* Sequence of Plant Evolution* Sequence of Animal Evolution* * * * Art of the Nature Timelines on Wikipedia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edmund Burke" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edmund Burke''' (; 12 January NS 1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman and philosopher who spent most of his career in Great Britain.", "Born in Dublin, Burke served as a member of Parliament (MP) between 1766 and 1794 in the House of Commons of Great Britain with the Whig Party.Burke was a proponent of underpinning virtues with manners in society and of the importance of religious institutions for the moral stability and good of the state.", "These views were expressed in his ''A Vindication of Natural Society'' (1756).", "He criticised the actions of the British government towards the American colonies, including its taxation policies.", "Burke also supported the rights of the colonists to resist metropolitan authority, although he opposed the attempt to achieve independence.", "He is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, and his staunch opposition to the French Revolution.In his ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' (1790), Burke asserted that the revolution was destroying the fabric of \"good\" society and traditional institutions of state and society, and he condemned the persecution of the Catholic Church that resulted from it.", "This led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig Party which he dubbed the Old Whigs as opposed to the pro–French Revolution New Whigs led by Charles James Fox.In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals.", "Subsequently, in the 20th century, he became widely regarded, especially in the United States, as the philosophical founder of conservatism." ], [ "Early life", "Edmund BurkeBurke was born in Dublin, Ireland.", "His mother Mary, ''née'' Nagle, was a Roman Catholic who hailed from a County Cork family and a cousin of the Catholic educator Nano Nagle, whereas his father Richard, a successful solicitor, was a member of the Church of Ireland.", "It remains unclear whether this is the same Richard Burke who converted from Catholicism.", "The Burgh (Burke) dynasty descends from the Anglo-Norman knight, William de Burgh, who arrived in Ireland in 1185 following Henry II of England's 1171 invasion of Ireland and is among the \"chief Gall or Old English families that assimilated into Gaelic society\" (the surname de Burgh (Latinised as ''de Burgo'') was gaelicised in Irish as ''de Búrca'' or ''Búrc'' which over the centuries became Burke).Burke adhered to his father's faith and remained a practising Anglican throughout his life, unlike his sister Juliana who was brought up as and remained a Roman Catholic.", "Later, his political enemies repeatedly accused him of having been educated at the Jesuit College of St. Omer, near Calais, France; and of harbouring secret Catholic sympathies at a time when membership of the Catholic Church would disqualify him from public office per Penal Laws in Ireland.", "As Burke told Frances Crewe:Mr. Burke's Enemies often endeavoured to convince the World that he had been bred up in the Catholic Faith, & that his Family were of it, & that he himself had been educated at St. Omer—but this was false, as his father was a regular practitioner of the Law at Dublin, which he could not be unless of the Established Church: & it so happened that though Mr. B—was twice at Paris, he never happened to go through the Town of St. Omer.After being elected to the House of Commons, Burke took the required oath of allegiance and abjuration, the oath of supremacy and the declaration against transubstantiation.As a child, Burke sometimes spent time away from the unhealthy air of Dublin with his mother's family near Killavullen in the Blackwater Valley in County Cork.", "He received his early education at a Quaker school in Ballitore, County Kildare, some from Dublin; and possibly like his cousin Nano Nagle at a Hedge school near Killavullen.", "He remained in correspondence with his schoolmate from there, Mary Leadbeater, the daughter of the school's owner, throughout his life.In 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment which up until 1793 did not permit Catholics to take degrees.", "In 1747, he set up a debating society, Edmund Burke's Club, which in 1770 merged with TCD's Historical Club to form the College Historical Society, the oldest undergraduate society in the world.", "The minutes of the meetings of Burke's Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society.", "Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748.Burke's father wanted him to read Law and with this in mind, he went to London in 1750, where he entered the Middle Temple, before soon giving up legal study to travel in Continental Europe.", "After eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing." ], [ "Early writing", "The late Lord Bolingbroke's ''Letters on the Study and Use of History'' was published in 1752 and his collected works appeared in 1754.This provoked Burke into writing his first published work, ''A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind'', appearing in Spring 1756.Burke imitated Bolingbroke's style and ideas in a ''reductio ad absurdum'' of his arguments for deistic rationalism in order to demonstrate their absurdity.In ''A Vindication of Natural Society'', Burke argued: \"The writers against religion, whilst they oppose every system, are wisely careful never to set up any of their own.", "\"Burke claimed that Bolingbroke's arguments against revealed religion could apply to all social and civil institutions as well.", "Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warburton as well as others initially thought that the work was genuinely by Bolingbroke rather than a satire.", "All the reviews of the work were positive, with critics especially appreciative of Burke's quality of writing.", "Some reviewers failed to notice the ironic nature of the book which led to Burke stating in the preface to the second edition (1757) that it was a satire.Richard Hurd believed that Burke's imitation was near-perfect and that this defeated his purpose, arguing that an ironist \"should take care by a constant exaggeration to make the ''ridicule'' shine through the Imitation.", "Whereas this ''Vindication'' is everywhere enforc'd, not only in the language, and on the principles of L.", "Bol., but with so apparent, or rather so real an earnestness, that half his purpose is sacrificed to the other\".", "A minority of scholars have taken the position that in fact Burke did write the ''Vindication'' in earnest, later disowning it only for political reasons.In 1757, Burke published a treatise on aesthetics titled ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' that attracted the attention of prominent Continental thinkers such as Denis Diderot and Immanuel Kant.", "It was his only purely philosophical work, completed in 1753.When asked by Sir Joshua Reynolds and French Laurence to expand it thirty years later, Burke replied that he was no longer fit for abstract speculation.On 25 February 1757, Burke signed a contract with Robert Dodsley to write a \"history of England from the time of Julius Caesar to the end of the reign of Queen Anne\", its length being eighty quarto sheets (640 pages), nearly 400,000 words.", "It was to be submitted for publication by Christmas 1758.Burke completed the work to the year 1216 and stopped; it was not published until after Burke's death, in an 1812 collection of his works, ''An Essay Towards an Abridgement of the English History''.", "G. M. Young did not value Burke's history and claimed that it was \"demonstrably a translation from the French\".", "On commenting on the story that Burke stopped his history because David Hume published his, Lord Acton said \"it is ever to be regretted that the reverse did not occur\".During the year following that contract, Burke founded with Dodsley the influential ''Annual Register'', a publication in which various authors evaluated the international political events of the previous year.", "The extent to which Burke contributed to the ''Annual Register'' is unclear.", "In his biography of Burke, Robert Murray quotes the ''Register'' as evidence of Burke's opinions, yet Philip Magnus in his biography does not cite it directly as a reference.", "Burke remained the chief editor of the publication until at least 1789 and there is no evidence that any other writer contributed to it before 1766.On 12 March 1757, Burke married Jane Mary Nugent (1734–1812), daughter of Dr. Christopher Nugent, a Catholic physician who had provided him with medical treatment at Bath.", "Their son Richard was born on 9 February 1758 while an elder son, Christopher, died in infancy.", "Burke also helped raise a ward, Edmund Nagle (later Admiral Sir Edmund Nagle), the son of a maternal cousin orphaned in 1763.At about this same time, Burke was introduced to William Gerard Hamilton (known as \"Single-speech Hamilton\").", "When Hamilton was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, Burke accompanied him to Dublin as his private secretary, a position he held for three years.", "In 1765, Burke became private secretary to the liberal Whig politician Charles, Marquess of Rockingham, then Prime Minister of Great Britain, who remained Burke's close friend and associate until his death in 1782." ], [ "Member of Parliament", "In December 1765, Burke entered the House of Commons of the British Parliament as Member for Wendover in Buckinghamshire, a pocket borough in the gift of Lord Fermanagh, later 2nd Earl Verney and a close political ally of Rockingham.", "After Burke delivered his maiden speech, William Pitt the Elder said he had \"spoken in such a manner as to stop the mouths of all Europe\" and that the Commons should congratulate itself on acquiring such a Member.The first great subject Burke addressed was the controversy with the American colonies which soon developed into war and ultimate separation.", "In reply to the 1769 Grenvillite pamphlet ''The Present State of the Nation'', he published his own pamphlet titled ''Observations on a Late State of the Nation''.", "Surveying the finances of France, Burke predicts \"some extraordinary convulsion in that whole system\".During the same year, with mostly borrowed money, Burke purchased ''Gregories'', a estate near Beaconsfield.", "Although the estate included saleable assets such as art works by Titian, ''Gregories'' proved a heavy financial burden in the following decades and Burke was never able to repay its purchase price in full.", "His speeches and writings, having made him famous, led to the suggestion that he was the author of the ''Letters of Junius''.At about this time, Burke joined the circle of leading intellectuals and artists in London of whom Samuel Johnson was the central luminary.", "This circle also included David Garrick, Oliver Goldsmith and Joshua Reynolds.", "Edward Gibbon described Burke as \"the most eloquent and rational madman that I ever knew\".", "Although Johnson admired Burke's brilliance, he found him a dishonest politician.Burke took a leading role in the debate regarding the constitutional limits to the executive authority of the King.", "He argued strongly against unrestrained royal power and for the role of political parties in maintaining a principled opposition capable of preventing abuses, either by the monarch or by specific factions within the government.", "His most important publication in this regard was his ''Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents'' of 23 April 1770.Burke identified the \"discontents\" as stemming from the \"secret influence\" of a neo-Tory group he labelled as the \"king's friends\", whose system \"comprehending the exterior and interior administrations, is commonly called, in the technical language of the Court, ''Double Cabinet''\".", "Britain needed a party with \"an unshaken adherence to principle, and attachment to connexion, against every allurement of interest\".", "Party divisions, \"whether operating for good or evil, are things inseparable from free government\".The ''Gregories'' estate purchased by Burke for £20,000 in 1768During 1771, Burke wrote a bill that would have given juries the right to determine what was libel, if passed.", "Burke spoke in favour of the bill, but it was opposed by some, including Charles James Fox, not becoming law.", "When introducing his own bill in 1791 in opposition, Fox repeated almost verbatim the text of Burke's bill without acknowledgement.", "Burke was prominent in securing the right to publish debates held in Parliament.Speaking in a Parliamentary debate on the prohibition on the export of grain on 16 November 1770, Burke argued in favour of a free market in corn: \"There are no such things as a high, & a low price that is encouraging, & discouraging; there is nothing but a natural price, which grain brings at an universal market\".", "In 1772, Burke was instrumental in the passing of the Repeal of Certain Laws Act 1772 which repealed various old laws against dealers and forestallers in corn.In the ''Annual Register'' for 1772 (published in July 1773), Burke condemned the partition of Poland.", "He saw it as \"the first very great breach in the modern political system of Europe\" and as upsetting the balance of power in Europe.On 3 November 1774, Burke was elected Member for Bristol, at the time \"England's second city\" and a large constituency with a genuine electoral contest.", "At the conclusion of the poll, he made his ''Speech to the Electors of Bristol at the Conclusion of the Poll'', a remarkable disclaimer of the constituent-imperative form of democracy, for which he substituted his statement of the \"representative mandate\" form.", "He failed to win re-election for that seat in the subsequent 1780 general election.In May 1778, Burke supported a Parliamentary motion revising restrictions on Irish trade.", "His constituents, citizens of the great trading city of Bristol, urged Burke to oppose free trade with Ireland.", "Burke resisted their protestations and said: \"If, from this conduct, I shall forfeit their suffrages at an ensuing election, it will stand on record an example to future representatives of the Commons of England, that one man at least had dared to resist the desires of his constituents when his judgment assured him they were wrong\".Burke published ''Two Letters to Gentlemen of Bristol on the Bills relative to the Trade of Ireland'' in which he espoused \"some of the chief principles of commerce; such as the advantage of free intercourse between all parts of the same kingdom...the evils attending restriction and monopoly...and that the gain of others is not necessarily our loss, but on the contrary an advantage by causing a greater demand for such wares as we have for sale\".Burke also supported the attempts of Sir George Savile to repeal some of the penal laws against Catholics.", "Burke also called capital punishment \"the Butchery which we call justice\" in 1776 and in 1780 condemned the use of the pillory for two men convicted for attempting to practice sodomy.This support for unpopular causes, notably free trade with Ireland and Catholic emancipation, led to Burke losing his seat in 1780.For the remainder of his Parliamentary career, Burke represented Malton, another pocket borough under the Marquess of Rockingham's patronage." ], [ "American War of Independence", "Burke expressed his support for the grievances of the American Thirteen Colonies under the government of King George III and his appointed representatives.", "On 19 April 1774, Burke made a speech, \"On American Taxation\" (published in January 1775), on a motion to repeal the tea duty:Again and again, revert to your old principles—seek peace and ensue it; leave America, if she has taxable matter in her, to tax herself.", "I am not here going into the distinctions of rights, nor attempting to mark their boundaries.", "I do not enter into these metaphysical distinctions; I hate the very sound of them.", "Leave the Americans as they anciently stood, and these distinctions, born of our unhappy contest, will die along with it...Be content to bind America by laws of trade; you have always done it...Do not burthen them with taxes...But if intemperately, unwisely, fatally, you sophisticate and poison the very source of government by urging subtle deductions, and consequences odious to those you govern, from the unlimited and illimitable nature of supreme sovereignty, you will teach them by these means to call that sovereignty itself in question...If that sovereignty and their freedom cannot be reconciled, which will they take?", "They will cast your sovereignty in your face.", "No body of men will be argued into slavery.On 22 March 1775, Burke delivered in the House of Commons a speech (published in May 1775) on reconciliation with America.", "Burke appealed for peace as preferable to civil war and reminded the House of Commons of America's growing population, its industry and its wealth.", "He warned against the notion that the Americans would back down in the face of force since most Americans were of British descent:The people of the colonies are descendants of Englishmen...They are therefore not only devoted to liberty, but to liberty according to English ideas and on English principles.", "The people are Protestants...a persuasion not only favourable to liberty, but built upon it...My hold of the colonies is in the close affection which grows from common names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, and equal protection.", "These are ties which, though light as air, are as strong as links of iron.", "Let the colonies always keep the idea of their civil rights associated with your government—they will cling and grapple to you, and no force under heaven will be of power to tear them from their allegiance.", "But let it be once understood that your government may be one thing and their privileges another, that these two things may exist without any mutual relation—the cement is gone, the cohesion is loosened, and everything hastens to decay and dissolution.", "As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign authority of this country as the sanctuary of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated to our common faith, wherever the chosen race and sons of England worship freedom, they will turn their faces towards you.", "The more they multiply, the more friends you will have; the more ardently they love liberty, the more perfect will be their obedience.", "Slavery they can have anywhere.", "It is a weed that grows in every soil.", "They may have it from Spain, they may have it from Prussia.", "But, until you become lost to all feeling of your true interest and your natural dignity, freedom they can have from none but you.Burke prized peace with America above all else, pleading with the House of Commons to remember that the interest by way of money received from the American colonies was far more attractive than any sense of putting the colonists in their place:The proposition is peace.", "Not peace through the medium of war, not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations, not peace to arise out of universal discord...It is simple peace, sought in its natural course and in its ordinary haunts.", "It is peace sought in the spirit of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific.Burke was not merely presenting a peace agreement to Parliament, but rather he stepped forward with four reasons against using force, carefully reasoned.", "He laid out his objections in an orderly manner, focusing on one before moving to the next.", "His first concern was that the use of force would have to be temporary and that the uprisings and objections to British governance in Colonial America would not be.", "Second, Burke worried about the uncertainty surrounding whether Britain would win a conflict in America.", "\"An armament\", Burke said, \"is not a victory\".", "Third, Burke brought up the issue of impairment, stating that it would do the British government no good to engage in a scorched earth war and have the object they desired (America) become damaged or even useless.", "The American colonists could always retreat into the mountains, but the land they left behind would most likely be unusable, whether by accident or design.", "The fourth and final reason to avoid the use of force was experienced as the British had never attempted to rein in an unruly colony by force and they did not know if it could be done, let alone accomplished thousands of miles away from home.", "Not only were all of these concerns reasonable, but some turned out to be prophetic—the American colonists did not surrender, even when things looked extremely bleak and the British were ultimately unsuccessful in their attempts to win a war fought on American soil.It was not temporary force, uncertainty, impairment, or even experience that Burke cited as the primary reason for avoiding war with the American colonies.", "Rather, it was the character of the American people themselves: \"In this character of Americans, a love of freedom is the predominating feature which marks and distinguishes the whole...This fierce spirit of liberty is stronger in the English colonies, probably, than in any other people of the earth...The men are acute, inquisitive, dextrous, prompt in attack, ready in defence, full of resources\".", "Burke concludes with another plea for peace and a prayer that Britain might avoid actions which in Burke's words \"may bring on the destruction of this Empire\".Burke proposed six resolutions to settle the American conflict peacefully:# Allow the American colonists to elect their own representatives, settling the dispute about taxation without representation.# Acknowledge this wrongdoing and apologise for grievances caused.# Procure an efficient manner of choosing and sending these delegates.# Set up a General Assembly in America itself, with powers to regulate taxes.# Stop gathering taxes by imposition (or law) and start gathering them only when they are needed.# Grant needed aid to the colonies.Had they been passed, the effect of these resolutions can never be known.", "Unfortunately, Burke delivered this speech just less than a month before the explosive conflict at Concord and Lexington.", "As these resolutions were not enacted, little was done that would help to dissuade conflict.Among the reasons this speech was so greatly admired was its passage on Lord Bathurst (1684–1775) in which Burke describes an angel in 1704 prophesying to Bathurst the future greatness of England and also of America: \"Young man, There is America—which at this day serves little more than to amuse you with stories of savage men, and uncouth manners; yet shall, before you taste of death, shew itself equal to the whole of that commerce which now attracts the envy of the world\".", "Samuel Johnson was so irritated at hearing it continually praised that he made a parody of it, where the devil appears to a young Whig and predicts that in short time Whiggism will poison even the paradise of America.The administration of Lord North (1770–1782) tried to defeat the colonist rebellion by military force.", "British and American forces clashed in 1775 and in 1776 came the American Declaration of Independence.", "Burke was appalled by celebrations in Britain of the defeat of the Americans in New York and Pennsylvania.", "He claimed the English national character was being changed by this authoritarianism.", "Burke wrote: \"As to the good people of England, they seem to partake every day more and more of the Character of that administration which they have been induced to tolerate.", "I am satisfied, that within a few years there has been a great Change in the National Character.", "We seem no longer that eager, inquisitive, jealous, fiery people, which we have been formerly\".In Burke's view, the British government was fighting \"the American English\" (\"our English Brethren in the Colonies\"), with a Germanic king employing \"the hireling sword of German boors and vassals\" to destroy the English liberties of the colonists.", "On American independence, Burke wrote: \"I do not know how to wish success to those whose Victory is to separate from us a large and noble part of our Empire.", "Still less do I wish success to injustice, oppression and absurdity\".During the Gordon Riots in 1780, Burke became a target of hostility and his home was placed under armed guard by the military." ], [ "Paymaster of the Forces", "In ''Cincinnatus in Retirement'' (1782), James Gillray caricatured Burke's support of rights for CatholicsThe fall of North led to Rockingham being recalled to power in March 1782.Burke was appointed Paymaster of the Forces and a Privy Counsellor, but without a seat in Cabinet.", "Rockingham's unexpected death in July 1782 and replacement with Shelburne as Prime Minister put an end to his administration after only a few months, but Burke did manage to introduce two Acts.The Paymaster General Act 1782 ended the post as a lucrative sinecure.", "Previously, Paymasters had been able to draw on money from HM Treasury at their discretion.", "Instead, now they were required to put the money they had requested to withdraw from the Treasury into the Bank of England, from where it was to be withdrawn for specific purposes.", "The Treasury would receive monthly statements of the Paymaster's balance at the Bank.", "This Act was repealed by Shelburne's administration, but the Act that replaced it repeated verbatim almost the whole text of the Burke Act.The Civil List and Secret Service Money Act 1782 was a watered-down version of Burke's original intentions as outlined in his famous ''Speech on Economical Reform'' of 11 February 1780.However, he managed to abolish 134 offices in the royal household and civil administration.", "The third Secretary of State and the Board of Trade were abolished and pensions were limited and regulated.", "The Act was anticipated to save £72,368 a year.In February 1783, Burke resumed the post of Paymaster of the Forces when Shelburne's government fell and was replaced by a coalition headed by North that included Charles James Fox.", "That coalition fell in 1783 and was succeeded by the long Tory administration of William Pitt the Younger which lasted until 1801.Accordingly, having supported Fox and North, Burke was in opposition for the remainder of his political life." ], [ "Representative democracy", "In 1774, Burke's ''Speech to the Electors at Bristol at the Conclusion of the Poll'' was noted for its defence of the principles of representative government against the notion that those elected to assemblies like Parliament are, or should be, merely delegates:Certainly, Gentlemen, it ought to be the happiness and glory of a Representative, to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents.", "Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention.", "It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own.", "But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any sett of men living.", "These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the Law and the Constitution.", "They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable.", "Your Representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.My worthy Colleague says, his Will ought to be subservient to yours.", "If that be all, the thing is innocent.", "If Government were a matter of Will upon any side, yours, without question, ought to be superior.", "But Government and Legislation are matters of reason and judgement, and not of inclination; and, what sort of reason is that, in which the determination precedes the discussion; in which one sett of men deliberate, and another decide; and where those who form the conclusion are perhaps three hundred miles distant from those who hear the arguments?To deliver an opinion is the right of all men; that of constituents is a weighty and respectable opinion which a Representative ought always to rejoice to hear; and which he ought always most seriously to consider.", "But ''authoritative'' instructions; ''mandates'' issued, which the member is bound blindly and implicitly to obey, to vote, and to argue for, though contrary to the clearest conviction of his judgment and conscience; these are things utterly unknown to the laws of this land, and which arise from a fundamental mistake of the whole order and tenour of our constitution.Parliament is not a ''congress'' of ambassadors from different and hostile interests; which interests each must maintain, as an agent and advocate, against other agents and advocates; but Parliament is a ''deliberative'' assembly of ''one'' nation, with ''one'' interest, that of the whole; where, not local purposes, not local prejudices ought to guide, but the general good, resulting from the general reason of the whole.", "You choose a member, indeed; but when you have chosen him, he is not a member of Bristol, but he is a member of ''Parliament''.It is often forgotten in this connection that Burke, as detailed below, was an opponent of slavery, and therefore his conscience was refusing to support a trade in which many of his Bristol electors were lucratively involved.Political scientist Hanna Pitkin points out that Burke linked the interest of the district with the proper behaviour of its elected official, explaining: \"Burke conceives of broad, relatively fixed interest, few in number and clearly defined, of which any group or locality has just one.", "These interests are largely economic or associated with particular localities whose livelihood they characterize, in his over-all prosperity they involve\".Burke was a leading sceptic with respect to democracy.", "While admitting that theoretically in some cases it might be desirable, he insisted a democratic government in Britain in his day would not only be inept, but also oppressive.", "He opposed democracy for three basic reasons.", "First, government required a degree of intelligence and breadth of knowledge of the sort that occurred rarely among the common people.", "Second, he thought that if they had the vote, common people had dangerous and angry passions that could be aroused easily by demagogues, fearing that the authoritarian impulses that could be empowered by these passions would undermine cherished traditions and established religion, leading to violence and confiscation of property.", "Third, Burke warned that democracy would create a tyranny over unpopular minorities, who needed the protection of the upper classes." ], [ "Opposition to the slave trade", "Burke proposed a bill to ban slaveholders from being able to sit in the House of Commons, claiming they were a danger incompatible with traditional notions of British liberty.", "While Burke did believe that Africans were \"barbaric\" and needed to be \"civilised\" by Christianity, Gregory Collins argues that this was not an unusual attitude amongst abolitionists at the time.", "Furthermore, Burke seemed to believe that Christianity would provide a civilising benefit to any group of people, as he believed Christianity had \"tamed\" European civilisation and regarded Southern European peoples as equally savage and barbarous.", "Collins also suggests that Burke viewed the \"uncivilised\" behaviour of African slaves as being partially caused by slavery itself, as he believed that making someone a slave stripped them of any virtues and rendered them mentally deficient, regardless of race.", "Burke proposed a gradual program of emancipation called Sketch of a Negro Code, which Collins argues was quite detailed for the time.", "Collins concludes that Burke's \"gradualist\" position on the emancipation of slaves, while perhaps seeming ridiculous to some modern-day readers, was nonetheless sincere." ], [ "India and the impeachment of Warren Hastings", "For years, Burke pursued impeachment efforts against Warren Hastings, formerly Governor-General of Bengal, that resulted in the trial during 1786.His interaction with the British dominion of India began well before Hastings' impeachment trial.", "For two decades prior to the impeachment, Parliament had dealt with the Indian issue.", "This trial was the pinnacle of years of unrest and deliberation.", "In 1781, Burke was first able to delve into the issues surrounding the East India Company when he was appointed Chairman of the Commons Select Committee on East Indian Affairs—from that point until the end of the trial, India was Burke's primary concern.", "This committee was charged \"to investigate alleged injustices in Bengal, the war with Hyder Ali, and other Indian difficulties\".", "While Burke and the committee focused their attention on these matters, a second secret committee was formed to assess the same issues.", "Both committee reports were written by Burke.", "Among other purposes, the reports conveyed to the Indian princes that Britain would not wage war on them, along with demanding that the East India Company should recall Hastings.", "This was Burke's first call for substantive change regarding imperial practices.", "When addressing the whole House of Commons regarding the committee report, Burke described the Indian issue as one that \"began 'in commerce' but 'ended in empire'\".On 28 February 1785, Burke delivered a now-famous speech, ''The Nabob of Arcot's Debts'', wherein he condemned the damage to India by the East India Company.", "In the province of the Carnatic, the Indians had constructed a system of reservoirs to make the soil fertile in a naturally dry region, and centred their society on the husbandry of water:These are the monuments of real kings, who were the fathers of their people; testators to a posterity which they embraced as their own.", "These are the grand sepulchres built by ambition; but by the ambition of an insatiable benevolence, which, not contented with reigning in the dispensation of happiness during the contracted term of human life, had strained, with all the reachings and graspings of a vivacious mind, to extend the dominion of their bounty beyond the limits of nature, and to perpetuate themselves through generations of generations, the guardians, the protectors, the nourishers of mankind.Burke claimed that the advent of East India Company domination in India had eroded much that was good in these traditions and that as a consequence of this and the lack of new customs to replace them the Indian populace under Company rule was needlessly suffering.", "He set about establishing a set of imperial expectations, whose moral foundation would in his opinion warrant an overseas empire.On 4 April 1786, Burke presented the House of Commons with the ''Article of Charge of High Crimes and Misdemeanors'' against Hastings.", "The impeachment in Westminster Hall which did not begin until 14 February 1788 would be the \"first major public discursive event of its kind in England\", bringing the morality of imperialism to the forefront of public perception.", "Burke was already known for his eloquent rhetorical skills and his involvement in the trial only enhanced its popularity and significance.", "Burke's indictment, fuelled by emotional indignation, branded Hastings a \"captain-general of iniquity\" who never dined without \"creating a famine\", whose heart was \"gangrened to the core\" and who resembled both a \"spider of Hell\" and a \"ravenous vulture devouring the carcasses of the dead\".", "The House of Commons eventually impeached Hastings, but subsequently the House of Lords acquitted him of all charges." ], [ "French Revolution: 1688 versus 1789", "''Smelling out a Rat;—or—The Atheistical-Revolutionist disturbed in his Midnight \"Calculations\"'' (1790) by Gillray, depicting a caricature of Burke holding a crown and a cross while the seated man Richard Price is writing \"On the Benefits of Anarchy Regicide Atheism\" beneath a picture of the execution of Charles I of England''Reflections on the Revolution in France, And on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to that Event.", "In a Letter Intended to Have Been Sent to a Gentleman in Paris.", "By the Right Honourable Edmund Burke''.Initially, Burke did not condemn the French Revolution.", "In a letter of 9 August 1789, he wrote: \"England gazing with astonishment at a French struggle for Liberty and not knowing whether to blame or to applaud!", "The thing indeed, though I thought I saw something like it in progress for several years, has still something in it paradoxical and Mysterious.", "The spirit it is impossible not to admire; but the old Parisian ferocity has broken out in a shocking manner\".", "The events of 5–6 October 1789, when a crowd of Parisian women marched on Versailles to compel King Louis XVI to return to Paris, turned Burke against it.", "In a letter to his son Richard Burke dated 10 October, he said: \"This day I heard from Laurence who has sent me papers confirming the portentous state of France—where the Elements which compose Human Society seem all to be dissolved, and a world of Monsters to be produced in the place of it—where Mirabeau presides as the Grand Anarch; and the late Grand Monarch makes a figure as ridiculous as pitiable\".", "On 4 November, Charles-Jean-François Depont wrote to Burke, requesting that he endorse the Revolution.", "Burke replied that any critical language of it by him should be taken \"as no more than the expression of doubt\", but he added: \"You may have subverted Monarchy, but not recover'd freedom\".", "In the same month, he described France as \"a country undone\".", "Burke's first public condemnation of the Revolution occurred on the debate in Parliament on the army estimates on 9 February 1790 provoked by praise of the Revolution by Pitt and Fox:Since the House had been prorogued in the summer much work was done in France.", "The French had shewn themselves the ablest architects of ruin that had hitherto existed in the world.", "In that very short space of time they had completely pulled down to the ground, their monarchy; their church; their nobility; their law; their revenue; their army; their navy; their commerce; their arts; and their manufactures...There was a danger of an imitation of the excesses of an irrational, unprincipled, proscribing, confiscating, plundering, ferocious, bloody and tyrannical democracy...In religion the danger of their example is no longer from intolerance, but from Atheism; a foul, unnatural vice, foe to all the dignity and consolation of mankind; which seems in France, for a long time, to have been embodied into a faction, accredited, and almost avowed.In January 1790, Burke read Richard Price's sermon of 4 November 1789 entitled ''A Discourse on the Love of Our Country'' to the Revolution Society.", "That society had been founded to commemorate the Glorious Revolution of 1688.In this sermon, Price espoused the philosophy of universal \"Rights of Men\".", "Price argued that love of our country \"does not imply any conviction of the superior value of it to other countries, or any particular preference of its laws and constitution of government\".", "Instead, Price asserted that Englishmen should see themselves \"more as citizens of the world than as members of any particular community\".A debate between Price and Burke ensued that was \"the classic moment at which two fundamentally different conceptions of national identity were presented to the English public\".", "Price claimed that the principles of the Glorious Revolution included \"the right to choose our own governors, to cashier them for misconduct, and to frame a government for ourselves\".Immediately after reading Price's sermon, Burke wrote a draft of what eventually became ''Reflections on the Revolution in France''.", "On 13 February 1790, a notice in the press said that shortly Burke would publish a pamphlet on the Revolution and its British supporters, but he spent the year revising and expanding it.", "On 1 November, he finally published the ''Reflections'' and it was an immediate best-seller.", "Priced at five shillings, it was more expensive than most political pamphlets, but by the end of 1790, it had gone through ten printings and sold approximately 17,500 copies.", "A French translation appeared on 29 November and on 30 November the translator Pierre-Gaëton Dupont wrote to Burke saying 2,500 copies had already been sold.", "The French translation ran to ten printings by June 1791.What the Glorious Revolution had meant was as important to Burke and his contemporaries as it had been for the last one hundred years in British politics.", "In the ''Reflections'', Burke argued against Price's interpretation of the Glorious Revolution and instead, gave a classic Whig defence of it.", "Burke argued against the idea of abstract, metaphysical rights of humans and instead advocated national tradition:The Revolution was made to preserve our ''antient'' indisputable laws and liberties, and that ''antient'' constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty...The very idea of the fabrication of a new government, is enough to fill us with disgust and horror.", "We wished at the period of the Revolution, and do now wish, to derive all we possess as ''an inheritance from our forefathers''.", "Upon that body and stock of inheritance we have taken care not to inoculate any cyon scion alien to the nature of the original plant...Our oldest reformation is that of Magna Charta.", "You will see that Sir Edward Coke, that great oracle of our law, and indeed all the great men who follow him, to Blackstone, are industrious to prove the pedigree of our liberties.", "They endeavour to prove that the ancient charter...were nothing more than a re-affirmance of the still more ancient standing law of the kingdom...In the famous law...called the ''Petition of Right'', the parliament says to the king, \"Your subjects have ''inherited'' this freedom\", claiming their franchises not on abstract principles \"as the rights of men\", but as the rights of Englishmen, and as a patrimony derived from their forefathers.Burke said: \"We fear God, we look up with awe to kings; with affection to Parliaments; with duty to magistrates; with reverence to priests; and with respect to nobility.", "Why?", "Because when such ideas are brought before our minds, it is ''natural'' to be so affected\".", "Burke defended this prejudice on the grounds that it is \"the general bank and capital of nations, and of ages\" and superior to individual reason, which is small in comparison.", "\"Prejudice\", Burke claimed, \"is of ready application in the emergency; it previously engages the mind in a steady course of wisdom and virtue, and does not leave the man hesitating in the moment of decision, sceptical, puzzled, and unresolved.", "Prejudice renders a man's virtue his habit\".", "Burke criticised social contract theory by claiming that society is indeed a contract, although it is \"a partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born\".The most famous passage in Burke's ''Reflections'' was his description of the events of 5–6 October 1789 and the part of Marie-Antoinette in them.", "Burke's account differs little from modern historians who have used primary sources.", "His use of flowery language to describe it provoked both praise and criticism.", "Philip Francis wrote to Burke saying that what he wrote of Marie-Antoinette was \"pure foppery\".", "Edward Gibbon reacted differently: \"I adore his chivalry\".", "Burke was informed by an Englishman who had talked with the Duchesse de Biron that when Marie-Antoinette was reading the passage she burst into tears and took considerable time to finish reading it.", "Price had rejoiced that the French king had been \"led in triumph\" during the October Days, but to Burke, this symbolised the opposing revolutionary sentiment of the Jacobins and the natural sentiments of those who shared his own view with horror—that the ungallant assault on Marie-Antoinette was a cowardly attack on a defenceless woman.Louis XVI translated the ''Reflections'' \"from end to end\" into French.", "Fellow Whig MPs Richard Sheridan and Charles James Fox disagreed with Burke and split with him.", "Fox thought the ''Reflections'' to be \"in very bad taste\" and \"favouring Tory principles\".", "Other Whigs such as the Duke of Portland and Earl Fitzwilliam privately agreed with Burke, but they did not wish for a public breach with their Whig colleagues.", "Burke wrote on 29 November 1790: \"I have received from the Duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam, the Duke of Devonshire, Lord John Cavendish, Montagu (Frederick Montagu MP), and a long et cetera of the old Stamina of the Whiggs a most full approbation of the principles of that work and a kind indulgence to the execution\".", "The Duke of Portland said in 1791 that when anyone criticised the ''Reflections'' to him, he informed them that he had recommended the book to his sons as containing the true Whig creed.In the opinion of Paul Langford, Burke crossed something of a Rubicon when he attended a levee on 3 February 1791 to meet the King, later described by Jane Burke as follows:On his coming to Town for the Winter, as he generally does, he went to the Levee with the Duke of ''Portland'', who went with Lord William to kiss hands on his going into the Guards—while Lord William was kissing hands, The King was talking to The Duke, but his Eyes were fixed on Burke who was standing in the Crowd, and when He said His say to The Duke, without waiting for Burke's coming up in his turn, The King went up to him, and, after the usual questions of how long have you been in Town and the weather, He said you have been very much employed of late, and very much confined.", "Burke said, no, Sir, not more than usual—You have and very well employed too, but there are none so deaf as those that w'ont hear, and none so blind as those that w'ont see—Burke made a low bow, Sir, I certainly now understand you, but was afraid my vanity or presumption might have led me to imagine what Your Majesty has said referred to what I have done—You cannot be vain—You have been of ''use to us all'', it is a general opinion, is it not so Lord Stair?", "who was standing near.", "It is said Lord Stair;—Your Majesty's adopting it, Sir, will make the opinion general, said Burke—I know it is the general opinion, and I know that there is no Man who calls himself a Gentleman that must not think himself obliged to you, for you have supported the cause of the Gentlemen—You know the tone at Court is a whisper, but The King said all this loud, so as to be heard by every one at Court.Burke's ''Reflections'' sparked a pamphlet war.", "Mary Wollstonecraft was one of the first into print, publishing ''A Vindication of the Rights of Men'' a few weeks after Burke.", "Thomas Paine followed with the ''Rights of Man'' in 1791.James Mackintosh, who wrote ''Vindiciae Gallicae'', was the first to see the ''Reflections'' as \"the manifesto of a Counter Revolution\".", "Mackintosh later agreed with Burke's views, remarking in December 1796 after meeting him that Burke was \"minutely and accurately informed, to a wonderful exactness, with respect to every fact relating to the French Revolution\".", "Mackintosh later said: \"Burke was one of the first thinkers as well as one of the greatest orators of his time.", "He is without parallel in any age, excepting perhaps Lord Bacon and Cicero; and his works contain an ampler store of political and moral wisdom than can be found in any other writer whatever\".Charles James FoxIn November 1790, François-Louis-Thibault de Menonville, a member of the National Assembly of France, wrote to Burke, praising ''Reflections'' and requesting more \"very refreshing mental food\" that he could publish.", "This Burke did in April 1791 when he published ''A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly''.", "Burke called for external forces to reverse the Revolution and included an attack on the late French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau as being the subject of a personality cult that had developed in revolutionary France.", "Although Burke conceded that Rousseau sometimes showed \"a considerable insight into human nature\", he mostly was critical.", "Although he did not meet Rousseau on his visit to Britain in 1766–1767, Burke was a friend of David Hume, with whom Rousseau had stayed.", "Burke said Rousseau \"entertained no principle either to influence of his heart, or to guide his understanding—but ''vanity''\"—which he \"was possessed to a degree little short of madness\".", "He also cited Rousseau's ''Confessions'' as evidence that Rousseau had a life of \"obscure and vulgar vices\" that was not \"chequered, or spotted here and there, with virtues, or even distinguished by a single good action\".", "Burke contrasted Rousseau's theory of universal benevolence and his having sent his children to a foundling hospital, stating that he was \"a lover of his kind, but a hater of his kindred\".These events and the disagreements that arose from them within the Whig Party led to its break-up and to the rupture of Burke's friendship with Fox.", "In debate in Parliament on Britain's relations with Russia, Fox praised the principles of the Revolution, although Burke was not able to reply at this time as he was \"overpowered by continued cries of question from his own side of the House\".", "When Parliament was debating the Quebec Bill for a constitution for Canada, Fox praised the Revolution and criticised some of Burke's arguments such as hereditary power.", "On 6 May 1791, Burke used the opportunity to answer Fox during another debate in Parliament on the Quebec Bill and condemn the new French Constitution and \"the horrible consequences flowing from the French idea of the Rights of Man\".", "Burke asserted that those ideas were the antithesis of both the British and the American constitutions.", "Burke was interrupted and Fox intervened, saying that Burke should be allowed to carry on with his speech.", "However, a vote of censure was moved against Burke for noticing the affairs of France which was moved by Lord Sheffield and seconded by Fox.", "Pitt made a speech praising Burke and Fox made a speech—both rebuking and complimenting Burke.", "He questioned the sincerity of Burke, who seemed to have forgotten the lessons he had learned from him, quoting from Burke's own speeches of fourteen and fifteen years before.", "Burke's response was as follows:It certainly was indiscreet at any period, but especially at his time of life, to parade enemies, or give his friends occasion to desert him; yet if his firm and steady adherence to the British constitution placed him in such a dilemma, he would risk all, and, as public duty and public experience taught him, with his last words exclaim, \"Fly from the French Constitution\".At this point, Fox whispered that there was \"no loss of friendship\".", "\"I regret to say there is\", Burke replied, \"I have indeed made a great sacrifice; I have done my duty though I have lost my friend.", "There is something in the detested French constitution that envenoms every thing it touches\".", "This provoked a reply from Fox, yet he was unable to give his speech for some time since he was overcome with tears and emotion.", "Fox appealed to Burke to remember their inalienable friendship, but he also repeated his criticisms of Burke and uttered \"unusually bitter sarcasms\".", "This only aggravated the rupture between the two men.", "Burke demonstrated his separation from the party on 5 June 1791 by writing to Fitzwilliam, declining money from him.Burke was dismayed that some Whigs, instead of reaffirming the principles of the Whig Party he laid out in the ''Reflections'', had rejected them in favour of \"French principles\" and that they criticised Burke for abandoning Whig principles.", "Burke wanted to demonstrate his fidelity to Whig principles and feared that acquiescence to Fox and his followers would allow the Whig Party to become a vehicle for Jacobinism.Burke knew that many members of the Whig Party did not share Fox's views and he wanted to provoke them into condemning the French Revolution.", "Burke wrote that he wanted to represent the whole Whig Party \"as tolerating, and by a toleration, countenancing those proceedings\" so that he could \"stimulate them to a public declaration of what every one of their acquaintance privately knows to be...their sentiments\".", "On 3 August 1791, Burke published his ''Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs'' in which he renewed his criticism of the radical revolutionary programmes inspired by the French Revolution and attacked the Whigs who supported them as holding principles contrary to those traditionally held by the Whig Party.Burke owned two copies of what has been called \"that practical compendium of Whig political theory\", namely ''The Tryal of Dr. Henry Sacheverell'' (1710).", "Burke wrote of the trial: \"It rarely happens to a party to have the opportunity of a clear, authentic, recorded, declaration of their political tenets upon the subject of a great constitutional event like that of the Glorious Revolution\".", "Writing in the third person, Burke asserted in his ''Appeal'':The foundations laid down by the Commons, on the trial of Doctor Sacheverel, for justifying the revolution of 1688, are the very same laid down in Mr. Burke's Reflections; that is to say,—a breach of the ''original contract'', implied and expressed in the constitution of this country, as a scheme of government fundamentally and inviolably fixed in King, Lords and Commons.—That the fundamental subversion of this antient constitution, by one of its parts, having been attempted, and in effect accomplished, justified the Revolution.", "That it was justified ''only'' upon the ''necessity'' of the case; as the ''only'' means left for the recovery of that ''antient'' constitution, formed by the ''original contract'' of the British state; as well as for the future preservation of the ''same'' government.", "These are the points to be proved.Burke then provided quotations from Paine's ''Rights of Man'' to demonstrate what the New Whigs believed.", "Burke's belief that Foxite principles corresponded to Paine's was genuine.", "Finally, Burke denied that a majority of \"the people\" had, or ought to have, the final say in politics and alter society at their pleasure.", "People had rights, but also duties and these duties were not voluntary.", "According to Burke, the people could not overthrow morality derived from God.Although Whig grandees such as Portland and Fitzwilliam privately agreed with Burke's ''Appeal'', they wished he had used more moderate language.", "Fitzwilliam saw the ''Appeal'' as containing \"the doctrines I have sworn by, long and long since\".", "Francis Basset, a backbench Whig MP, wrote to Burke that \"though for reasons which I will not now detail I did not then deliver my sentiments, I most perfectly differ from Mr. Fox & from the great Body of opposition on the French Revolution\".", "Burke sent a copy of the ''Appeal'' to the King and the King requested a friend to communicate to Burke that he had read it \"with great Satisfaction\".", "Burke wrote of its reception: \"Not one word from one of our party.", "They are secretly galled.", "They agree with me to a title; but they dare not speak out for fear of hurting Fox...They leave me to myself; they see that I can do myself justice\".", "Charles Burney viewed it as \"a most admirable book—the best & most useful on political subjects that I have ever seen\", but he believed the differences in the Whig Party between Burke and Fox should not be aired publicly.Eventually, most of the Whigs sided with Burke and gave their support to William Pitt the Younger's Tory government which in response to France's declaration of war against Britain declared war on France's Revolutionary Government in 1793.In December 1791, Burke sent government ministers his ''Thoughts on French Affairs'' where he put forward three main points, namely that no counter-revolution in France would come about by purely domestic causes; that the longer the Revolutionary Government exists, the stronger it becomes; and that the Revolutionary Government's interest and aim is to disturb all of the other governments of Europe.As a Whig, Burke did not wish to see an absolute monarchy again in France after the extirpation of Jacobinism.", "Writing to an ''émigré'' in 1791, Burke expressed his views against a restoration of the ''Ancien Régime'':When such a complete convulsion has shaken the State, and hardly left any thing whatsoever, either in civil arrangements, or in the Characters and disposition of men's minds, exactly where it was, whatever shall be settled although in the former persons and upon old forms, will be in some measure a new thing and will labour under something of the weakness as well as other inconveniences of a Change.", "My poor opinion is that you mean to establish what you call 'L'ancien Régime,' If any one means that system of Court Intrigue miscalled a Government as it stood, at Versailles before the present confusions as the thing to be established, that I believe will be found absolutely impossible; and if you consider the Nature, as well of persons, as of affairs, I flatter myself you must be of my opinion.", "That was tho' not so violent a State of Anarchy as well as the present.", "If it were even possible to lay things down exactly as they stood, before the series of experimental politicks began, I am quite sure that they could not long continue in that situation.", "In one Sense of L'Ancien Régime I am clear that nothing else can reasonably be done.Burke delivered a speech on the debate of the Aliens Bill on 28 December 1792.He supported the Bill as it would exclude \"murderous atheists, who would pull down Church and state; religion and God; morality and happiness\".", "The peroration included a reference to a French order for 3,000 daggers.", "Burke revealed a dagger he had concealed in his coat and threw it to the floor: \"This is what you are to gain by an alliance with France\".", "Burke picked up the dagger and continued:When they smile, I see blood trickling down their faces; I see their insidious purposes; I see that the object of all their cajoling is—blood!", "I now warn my countrymen to beware of these execrable philosophers, whose only object it is to destroy every thing that is good here, and to establish immorality and murder by precept and example—'Hic niger est hunc tu Romane caveto' 'Such a man is evil; beware of him, Roman'.", "Horace, ''Satires'' I.", "4.85..Burke supported the war against Revolutionary France, seeing Britain as fighting on the side of the royalists and ''émigres'' in a civil war, rather than fighting against the whole nation of France.", "Burke also supported the royalist uprising in La Vendée, describing it on 4 November 1793 in a letter to William Windham as \"the sole affair I have much heart in\".", "Burke wrote to Henry Dundas on 7 October urging him to send reinforcements there as he viewed it as the only theatre in the war that might lead to a march on Paris, but Dundas did not follow Burke's advice.Burke believed the British government was not taking the uprising seriously enough, a view reinforced by a letter he had received from the Prince Charles of France (''S.A.R.", "le comte d'Artois''), dated 23 October, requesting that he intercede on behalf of the royalists to the government.", "Burke was forced to reply on 6 November: \"I am not in His Majesty's Service; or at all consulted in his Affairs\".", "Burke published his ''Remarks on the Policy of the Allies with Respect to France'', begun in October, where he said: \"I am sure every thing has shewn us that in this war with France, one Frenchman is worth twenty foreigners.", "La Vendée is a proof of this\".On 20 June 1794, Burke received a vote of thanks from the House of Commons for his services in the Hastings Trial and he immediately resigned his seat, being replaced by his son Richard.", "A tragic blow fell upon Burke with the loss of Richard in August 1794, to whom he was tenderly attached and in whom he saw signs of promise which were not patent to others and which in fact appear to have been non-existent, although this view may have rather reflected the fact that his son Richard had worked successfully in the early battle for Catholic emancipation.", "King George III, whose favour he had gained by his attitude on the French Revolution, wished to create him Earl of Beaconsfield, but the death of his son deprived the opportunity of such an honour and all its attractions, so the only award he would accept was a pension of £2,500.Even this modest reward was attacked by the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Lauderdale, to whom Burke replied in his ''Letter to a Noble Lord'' (1796): \"It cannot at this time be too often repeated; line upon line; precept upon precept; until it comes into the currency of a proverb, ''To innovate is not to reform''\".", "He argued that he was rewarded on merit, but the Duke of Bedford received his rewards from inheritance alone, his ancestor being the original pensioner: \"Mine was from a mild and benevolent sovereign; his from Henry the Eighth\".", "Burke also hinted at what would happen to such people if their revolutionary ideas were implemented and included a description of the British Constitution:But as to ''our'' country and ''our'' race, as long as the well compacted structure of our church and state, the sanctuary, the holy of holies of that ancient law, defended by reverence, defended by power, a fortress at once and a temple, shall stand inviolate on the brow of the British Sion—as long as the British Monarchy, not more limited than fenced by the orders of the State, shall, like the proud Keep of Windsor, rising in the majesty of proportion, and girt with the double belt of its kindred and coeval towers, as long as this awful structure shall oversee and guard the subjected land—so long as the mounds and dykes of the low, fat, Bedford level will have nothing to fear from all the pickaxes of all the levellers of France.Burke's last publications were the ''Letters on a Regicide Peace'' (October 1796), called forth by negotiations for peace with France by the Pitt government.", "Burke regarded this as appeasement, injurious to national dignity and honour.", "In his ''Second Letter'', Burke wrote of the French Revolutionary government: \"Individuality is left out of their scheme of government.", "The State is all in all.", "Everything is referred to the production of force; afterwards, everything is trusted to the use of it.", "It is military in its principle, in its maxims, in its spirit, and in all its movements.", "The State has dominion and conquest for its sole objects—dominion over minds by proselytism, over bodies by arms\".This is held to be the first explanation of the modern concept of totalitarian state.", "Burke regarded the war with France as ideological, against an \"armed doctrine\".", "He wished that France would not be partitioned due to the effect this would have on the balance of power in Europe and that the war was not against France, but against the revolutionaries governing her.", "Burke said: \"It is not France extending a foreign empire over other nations: it is a sect aiming at universal empire, and beginning with the conquest of France\"." ], [ "Later life", "In November 1795, there was a debate in Parliament on the high price of corn and Burke wrote a memorandum to Pitt on the subject.", "In December, Samuel Whitbread MP introduced a bill giving magistrates the power to fix minimum wages and Fox said he would vote for it.", "This debate probably led Burke to editing his memorandum as there appeared a notice that Burke would soon publish a letter on the subject to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture Arthur Young, but he failed to complete it.", "These fragments were inserted into the memorandum after his death and published posthumously in 1800 as ''Thoughts and Details on Scarcity''.", "In it, Burke expounded \"some of the doctrines of political economists bearing upon agriculture as a trade\".", "Burke criticised policies such as maximum prices and state regulation of wages and set out what the limits of government should be:That the State ought to confine itself to what regards the State, or the creatures of the State, namely, the exterior establishment of its religion; its magistracy; its revenue; its military force by sea and land; the corporations that owe their existence to its fiat; in a word, to every thing that is ''truly and properly'' public, to the public peace, to the public safety, to the public order, to the public prosperity.The economist Adam Smith remarked that Burke was \"the only man I ever knew who thinks on economic subjects exactly as I do, without any previous communications having passed between us\".Writing to a friend in May 1795, Burke surveyed the causes of discontent: \"I think I can hardly overrate the malignity of the principles of Protestant ascendency, as they affect Ireland; or of Indianism i.e.", "corporate tyranny, as practised by the British East Indies Company, as they affect these countries, and as they affect Asia; or of Jacobinism, as they affect all Europe, and the state of human society itself.", "The last is the greatest evil\".", "By March 1796, Burke had changed his mind: \"Our Government and our Laws are beset by two different Enemies, which are sapping its foundations, Indianism, and Jacobinism.", "In some Cases they act separately, in some they act in conjunction: But of this I am sure; that the first is the worst by far, and the hardest to deal with; and for this amongst other reasons, that it weakens discredits, and ruins that force, which ought to be employed with the greatest Credit and Energy against the other; and that it furnishes Jacobinism with its strongest arms against all ''formal'' Government\".For more than a year prior to his death, Burke knew that his stomach was \"irrecoverably ruind\".", "After hearing that Burke was nearing death, Fox wrote to Mrs. Burke enquiring after him.", "Fox received the reply the next day:Mrs. Burke presents her compliments to Mr. Fox, and thanks him for his obliging inquiries.", "Mrs. Burke communicated his letter to Mr. Burke, and by his desire has to inform Mr. Fox that it has cost Mr. Burke the most heart-felt pain to obey the stern voice of his duty in rending asunder a long friendship, but that he deemed this sacrifice necessary; that his principles continue the same; and that in whatever of life may yet remain to him, he conceives that he must live for others and not for himself.", "Mr. Burke is convinced that the principles which he has endeavoured to maintain are necessary to the welfare and dignity of his country, and that these principles can be enforced only by the general persuasion of his sincerity.Burke died in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, on 9 July 1797 and was buried there alongside his son and brother." ], [ "Legacy", "Statue of Edmund Burke in Washington, D.C.Burke is regarded by most political historians in the English-speaking world as a liberal conservative and the father of modern British conservatism.", "Burke was utilitarian and empirical in his arguments while Joseph de Maistre, a fellow conservative from the Continent, was more providentialist and sociological and deployed a more confrontational tone in his arguments.Burke believed that property was essential to human life.", "Because of his conviction that people desire to be ruled and controlled, the division of property formed the basis for social structure, helping develop control within a property-based hierarchy.", "He viewed the social changes brought on by property as the natural order of events which should be taking place as the human race progressed.", "With the division of property and the class system, he also believed that it kept the monarch in check to the needs of the classes beneath the monarch.", "Since property largely aligned or defined divisions of social class, class too was seen as natural—part of a social agreement that the setting of persons into different classes, is the mutual benefit of all subjects.", "Concern for property is not Burke's only influence.", "Christopher Hitchens summarises as follows: \"If modern conservatism can be held to derive from Burke, it is not just because he appealed to property owners in behalf of stability but also because he appealed to an everyday interest in the preservation of the ancestral and the immemorial\".Burke's support for the causes of the \"oppressed majorities\", such as Irish Catholics and Indians, led him to be at the receiving end of hostile criticism from Tories; while his opposition to the spread of the French Republic (and its radical ideals) across Europe led to similar charges from Whigs.", "As a consequence, Burke often became isolated in Parliament.In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both liberals and conservatives.", "Burke's friend Philip Francis wrote that Burke \"was a man who truly & prophetically foresaw all the consequences which would rise from the adoption of the French principles\", but because Burke wrote with so much passion, people were doubtful of his arguments.", "William Windham spoke from the same bench in the House of Commons as Burke had when he had separated from Fox and an observer said Windham spoke \"like the ghost of Burke\" when he made a speech against peace with France in 1801.William Hazlitt, a political opponent of Burke, regarded him as amongst his three favourite writers (the others being Junius and Rousseau) and made it \"a test of the sense and candour of any one belonging to the opposite party, whether he allowed Burke to be a great man\".", "William Wordsworth was originally a supporter of the French Revolution and attacked Burke in ''A Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff'' (1793), but by the early 19th century he had changed his mind and came to admire Burke.", "In his ''Two Addresses to the Freeholders of Westmorland'', Wordsworth called Burke \"the most sagacious Politician of his age\", whose predictions \"time has verified\".", "He later revised his poem ''The Prelude'' to include praise of Burke (\"Genius of Burke!", "forgive the pen seduced/By specious wonders\") and portrayed him as an old oak.", "Samuel Taylor Coleridge came to have a similar conversion as he had criticised Burke in ''The Watchman'', but in his ''Friend'' (1809–1810) had defended Burke from charges of inconsistency.", "Later in his ''Biographia Literaria'' (1817), Coleridge hails Burke as a prophet and praises Burke for referring \"habitually to ''principles''.", "He was a ''scientific'' statesman; and therefore a ''seer''\".", "Henry Brougham wrote of Burke that \"all his predictions, save one momentary expression, had been more than fulfilled: anarchy and bloodshed had borne sway in France; conquest and convulsion had desolated Europe...The providence of mortals is not often able to penetrate so far as this into futurity\".", "George Canning believed that Burke's ''Reflections'' \"has been justified by the course of subsequent events; and almost every prophecy has been strictly fulfilled\".", "In 1823, Canning wrote that he took Burke's \"last works and words as the manual of my politics\".", "The Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli \"was deeply penetrated with the spirit and sentiment of Burke's later writings\".The 19th-century Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone considered Burke \"a magazine of wisdom on Ireland and America\" and in his diary recorded: \"Made many extracts from Burke—''sometimes almost divine''\".", "The Radical MP and anti-Corn Law activist Richard Cobden often praised Burke's ''Thoughts and Details on Scarcity''.", "The Liberal historian Lord Acton considered Burke one of the three greatest Liberals, along with Gladstone and Thomas Babington Macaulay.", "Lord Macaulay recorded in his diary: \"I have now finished reading again most of Burke's works.", "Admirable!", "The greatest man since Milton\".", "The Gladstonian Liberal MP John Morley published two books on Burke (including a biography) and was influenced by Burke, including his views on prejudice.", "The Cobdenite Radical Francis Hirst thought Burke deserved \"a place among English libertarians, even though of all lovers of liberty and of all reformers he was the most conservative, the least abstract, always anxious to preserve and renovate rather than to innovate.", "In politics, he resembled the modern architect who would restore an old house instead of pulling it down to construct a new one on the site\".", "Burke's ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' was controversial at the time of its publication, but after his death, it was to become his best-known and most influential work and a manifesto for Conservative thinking.Two contrasting assessments of Burke also were offered long after his death by Karl Marx and Winston Churchill.", "In a footnote to Volume One of ''Das Kapital'', Marx wrote:The sycophant—who in the pay of the English oligarchy played the romantic ''laudator temporis acti'' against the French Revolution just as, in the pay of the North American colonies at the beginning of the American troubles, he had played the liberal against the English oligarchy—was an out-and-out vulgar bourgeois.", "\"The laws of commerce are the laws of Nature, and therefore the laws of God.\"", "(E. Burke, l.c., pp.", "31, 32) No wonder that, true to the laws of God and Nature, he always sold himself in the best market.In ''Consistency in Politics'', Churchill wrote:On the one hand Burke is revealed as a foremost apostle of Liberty, on the other as the redoubtable champion of Authority.", "But a charge of political inconsistency applied to this life appears a mean and petty thing.", "History easily discerns the reasons and forces which actuated him, and the immense changes in the problems he was facing which evoked from the same profound mind and sincere spirit these entirely contrary manifestations.", "His soul revolted against tyranny, whether it appeared in the aspect of a domineering Monarch and a corrupt Court and Parliamentary system, or whether, mouthing the watch-words of a non-existent liberty, it towered up against him in the dictation of a brutal mob and wicked sect.", "No one can read the Burke of Liberty and the Burke of Authority without feeling that here was the same man pursuing the same ends, seeking the same ideals of society and Government, and defending them from assaults, now from one extreme, now from the other.The historian Piers Brendon asserts that Burke laid the moral foundations for the British Empire, epitomised in the trial of Warren Hastings, that was ultimately to be its undoing.", "When Burke stated that \"the British Empire must be governed on a plan of freedom, for it will be governed by no other\", this was \"an ideological bacillus that would prove fatal.", "This was Edmund Burke's paternalistic doctrine that colonial government was a trust.", "It was to be so exercised for the benefit of subject people that they would eventually attain their birthright—freedom\".", "As a consequence of these opinions, Burke objected to the opium trade which he called a \"smuggling adventure\" and condemned \"the great Disgrace of the British character in India\".", "According to political scientist Jennifer Pitts, Burke \"was arguably the first political thinker to undertake a comprehensive critique of British imperial practice in the name of justice for those who suffered from its moral and political exclusions.", "\"A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque commemorates Burke at 37 Gerrard Street now in London's Chinatown.Statues of Burke are in Bristol, England, Trinity College Dublin and Washington, D.C. Burke is also the namesake of a private college preparatory school in Washington, Edmund Burke School.Burke Avenue, in The Bronx, New York, is named for him." ], [ "Criticism", "One of Burke's largest and most developed critics was the American political theorist Leo Strauss.", "In his book ''Natural Right and History'', Strauss makes a series of points in which he somewhat harshly evaluates Burke's writings.One of the topics that he first addresses is the fact that Burke creates a definitive separation between happiness and virtue and explains that \"Burke, therefore, seeks the foundation of government 'in a conformity to our duties' and not in 'imaginary rights of man\".", "Strauss views Burke as believing that government should focus solely on the duties that a man should have in society as opposed to trying to address any additional needs or desires.", "Government is simply a practicality to Burke and not necessarily meant to function as a tool to help individuals to live as well as possible.", "Strauss also argues that in a sense Burke's theory could be seen as opposing the very idea of forming such philosophies.", "Burke expresses the view that theory cannot adequately predict future occurrences and therefore men need to have instincts that cannot be practised or derived from ideology.This leads to an overarching criticism that Strauss holds regarding Burke which is his rejection of the use of logic.", "Burke dismisses a widely held view amongst theorists that reason should be the primary tool in the forming of a constitution or contract.", "Burke instead believes that constitutions should be made based on natural processes as opposed to rational planning for the future.", "However, Strauss points out that criticising rationality actually works against Burke's original stance of returning to traditional ways because some amount of human reason is inherent and therefore is in part grounded in tradition.", "In regards to this formation of legitimate social order, Strauss does not necessarily support Burke's opinion—that order cannot be established by individual wise people, but exclusively by a culmination of individuals with historical knowledge of past functions to use as a foundation.", "Strauss notes that Burke would oppose more newly formed republics due to this thought, although Lenzner adds the fact that he did seem to believe that America's constitution could be justified given the specific circumstances.", "On the other hand, France's constitution was much too radical as it relied too heavily on enlightened reasoning as opposed to traditional methods and values." ], [ "Religious thought", "Burke's religious writing comprises published works and commentary on the subject of religion.", "Burke's religious thought was grounded in the belief that religion is the foundation of civil society.", "He sharply criticised deism and atheism and emphasised Christianity as a vehicle of social progress.", "Born in Ireland to a Catholic mother and a Protestant father, Burke vigorously defended the Church of England, but he also demonstrated sensitivity to Catholic concerns.", "He linked the conservation of a state-established religion with the preservation of citizens' constitutional liberties and highlighted Christianity's benefit not only to the believer's soul, but also to political arrangements." ], [ "Disputed or misattributed quotation", "===\"When good men do nothing\"===The well-known maxim that \"The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing\" is widely attributed to Burke, despite the debated origin of the quotation.", "It is known that, in 1770, Burke wrote the following passage in \"Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents\":In 1867, John Stuart Mill made a similar statement in an inaugural address delivered at the University of St Andrews:" ], [ "Timeline", "ImageSize = width:450 height:500PlotArea = left:50 right:0 bottom:10 top:10DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:1725 till:1800TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1725ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1725PlotData = color: red mark:(line,black) align: left fontsize:S shift:(25,0) # shift text to right side of bar # there is no automatic collision detection, fontsize:XS # so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap shift:(25,-10) at:1729 text:(1729) Born in Dublin at:1743 text:(1743) Enters Trinity College at:1750 text:Enters Middle Temple at:1756 text:Publishes treatise On the Sublime and Beautiful at:1765 shift:(15,-5) text:Employed as Secretary to Rockingham at:1766 text:Enters House of Commons at:1775 text:Delivers on Conciliation with America at:1782 text:Paymaster of Forces and P.C.", "; ~ joined coalition of Fox and North from:1787 till:1794 shift:(25,6) text:Leads in prosecution of W. Hastings at:1790 text:Publishes Reflections on French Revolution; ~ breaks with Fox party at:1794 text:Retires from House of Commons at:1796 text:Publishes Letter on a Regicide Peace at:1797 shift:(25,5) text:Dies" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''A Vindication of Natural Society'' (1756)* ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1757)* ''An Account of the European Settlement in America'' (1757)* ''The Abridgement of the History of England'' (1757)* ''Annual Register'' editor for some 30 years (1758)* ''Tracts on the Popery Laws'' (Early 1760s)* ''On the Present State of the Nation'' (1769)* ''Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents'' (1770)* ''On American Taxation'' (1774)* ''Conciliation with the Colonies'' (1775)* ''A Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol'' (1777)* ''Reform of the Representation in the House of Commons'' (1782)* ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' (1790)* ''Letter to a Member of the National Assembly'' (1791)* ''An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs'' (1791)* ''Thoughts on French Affairs'' (1791)* ''Remarks on the Policy of the Allies'' (1793)* ''Thoughts and Details on Scarcity'' (1795)* ''Letters on a Regicide Peace'' (1795–97)* ''Letter to a Noble Lord'' (1796)" ], [ "In popular media", "Actor T. P. McKenna was cast as Edmund Burke in the TV series ''Longitude'' in 2000." ], [ "See also", "* Burke family* Conservative Party* List of abolitionist forerunners" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * Blakemore, Steven (ed.", "), ''Burke and the French Revolution.", "Bicentennial Essays'' (The University of Georgia Press, 1992).", "* Bourke, Richard, ''Empire and Revolution: The Political Life of Edmund Burke'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).", "* Bromwich, David, ''The Intellectual Life of Edmund Burke: From the Sublime and Beautiful to American Independence'' (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2014).", "A review: '' Freedom fighter'', The Economist, 5 July 2014* Clark, J. C. D.", "(ed.", "), ''Reflections on the Revolution in France: A Critical Edition'' (Stanford University Press: 2001).", "* Cone, Carl B.", "''Burke and the Nature of Politics'' (2 vols, 1957, 1964), a detailed modern biography of Burke; somewhat uncritical and sometimes superficial regarding politics* Thomas Wellsted Copeland, 'Edmund Burke and the Book Reviews in Dodsley's Annual Register', ''Publications of the Modern Language Association'', Vol.", "57, No.", "2.(Jun.", "1942), pp. 446–468.", "* Courtenay, C.P.", "''Montesquieu and Burke'' (1963), good introduction* Crowe, Ian, ed.", "''The Enduring Edmund Burke: Bicentennial Essays'' (1997) essays by American conservatives online edition* Crowe, Ian, ed.", "''An Imaginative Whig: Reassessing the Life and Thought of Edmund Burke.''", "(2005).", "247 pp.", "essays by scholars* Ian Crowe, 'The career and political thought of Edmund Burke', ''Journal of Liberal History'', Issue 40, Autumn 2003.", "* Frederick Dreyer, 'The Genesis of Burke's Reflections', ''The Journal of Modern History'', Vol.", "50, No.", "3.(Sep.", "1978), pp. 462–479.", "* Robert Eccleshall, ''English Conservatism since the Restoration'' (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990).", "* Gibbons, Luke.", "''Edmund Burke and Ireland: Aesthetics, Politics, and the Colonial Sublime.''", "(2003).", "304 pp.", "* * Russell Kirk, ''The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Eliot'' (7th ed.", "1992).", "* Kirk, Russell.", "''Edmund Burke: A Genius Reconsidered'' (1997) online edition* Kramnick, Isaac.", "''The Rage of Edmund Burke: Portrait of an Ambivalent Conservative'' (1977) online edition* Lock, F. P. ''Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1985).", "* Lock, F. P. ''Edmund Burke.", "Volume I: 1730–1784'' (Clarendon Press, 1999).", "* Lock, F. P. ''Edmund Burke.", "Volume II: 1784–1797'' (Clarendon Press, 2006).", "* Levin, Yuval.", "''The Great Debate: Edmund Burke, Thomas Paine, and the Birth of Right and Left'' (Basic Books; 2013) 275 pages; their debate regarding the French Revolution.", "* Lucas, Paul.", "\"On Edmund Burke's Doctrine of Prescription; Or, An Appeal from the New to the Old Lawyers\", ''Historical Journal,'' 11 (1968) opens the way towards an effective synthesis of Burke's ideas of History, Change and Prescription.", "* Jim McCue, ''Edmund Burke and Our Present Discontents'' (The Claridge Press, 1997).", "* Magnus, Philip.", "''Edmund Burke: A Life'' (1939), older biography* Marshall, P. J.", "''The Impeachment of Warren Hastings'' (1965), the standard history of the trial and Burke's role* O'Brien, Conor Cruise, ''The Great Melody.", "A Thematic Biography of Edmund Burke'' (1992).", ".", "* O'Gorman, Frank.", "''Edmund Burke: Edmund Burke: His Political Philosophy'' (2004) 153pp online edition* Parkin, Charles.", "''The Moral Basis of Burke's Political Thought'' (1956)* Pocock, J.G.A.", "\"Burke and the Ancient Constitution\", ''Historical Journal,'' 3 (1960), 125–143; shows Burke's debt to the Common Law tradition of the seventeenth century in JSTOR* Raeder, Linda C. \"Edmund Burke: Old Whig\".", "''Political Science Reviewer'' 2006 35: 115–131.Fulltext: Ebsco, argues Burke's ideas closely resemble those of conservative philosopher Friedrich August von Hayek (1899–1992).", "* J. J. Sack, 'The Memory of Burke and the Memory of Pitt: English Conservatism Confronts Its Past, 1806–1829', ''The Historical Journal'', Vol.", "30, No.", "3.(Sep.", "1987), pp. 623–640.", "* J. J. Sack, ''From Jacobite to Conservative.", "Reaction and orthodoxy in Britain, c. 1760–1832'' (Cambridge University Press, 2004).", "* Spinner, Jeff.", "\"Constructing Communities: Edmund Burke on Revolution\", ''Polity,'' Vol.", "23, No.", "3 (Spring, 1991), pp.", "395–421 in JSTOR* Stanlis, Peter.", "''Edmund Burke and the Natural Law'' (1958)* Underdown, P. T., ''Bristol and Burke'' (Bristol Historical Association pamphlets, no.", "2, 1961)* Vermeir, Koen and Funk Deckard, Michael (ed.)", "''The Science of Sensibility: Reading Burke's Philosophical Enquiry'' (International Archives of the History of Ideas, Vol.", "206) (Springer, 2012)* John Whale (ed.", "), ''Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France.", "New interdisciplinary essays'' (Manchester University Press, 2000).", "* Whelan, Frederick G. ''Edmund Burke and India: Political Morality and Empire'' (1996)* O'Connor Power, J.", "'Edmund Burke and His Abiding Influence', ''The North'' ''American Review'', vol.", "165 issue 493, December 1897, 666–681.===Main sources===* Clark, J. C. D., ed.", "(2001).", "''Reflections on the Revolution in France.", "A Critical Edition''.", "Stanford University Press.", "* Hoffman, R.; Levack, P.", "(eds.)", "(1949).", "''Burke's Politics''.", "Alfred A.", "Knopf.", "* Burke, Edmund.", "''The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke'' (9 vol 1981– ) vol 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 6 ''India: The Launching of the Hastings Impeachment, 1786–1788'' online; vol 8 online; vol 9 online.===Further reading===* Bourke, Richard (2015).", "''Empire and Revolution: The Political Life of Edmund Burke''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Bromwich, David (2014).", "''The Intellectual Life of Edmund Burke: From the Sublime and Beautiful to American Independence''.", "Harvard University Press.", "* Doran, Robert (2015).", "\"Burke: Sublime Individualism\".", "''The Theory of the Sublime from Longinus to Kant''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Lock, F. P. (1999).", "''Edmund Burke.", "Volume I: 1730–1784''.", "Clarendon Press.", "* Lock, F. P. (2006).", "''Edmund Burke.", "Volume II: 1784–1797''.", "Clarendon Press.", "* Marshall, P. J.", "(2019) ''Edmund Burke and the British Empire in the West Indies: Wealth, Power, and Slavery'' (Oxford University Press, 2019) online review* Norman, Jesse (2014).", "''Edmund Burke: The Visionary who Invented Modern Politics''.", "William Collins.", "* O'Brien, Conor Cruise (1992).", "''The Great Melody.", "A Thematic Biography of Edmund Burke''.", "University of Chicago Press* * Uglow, Jenny (23 May 2019).", "\"Big Talkers\" (review of Leo Damrosch, ''The Club: Johnson, Boswell, and the Friends Who Shaped an Age'', Yale University Press, 473 pp.).", "''The New York Review of Books''.", "'''LXVI''' (9): 26–28.", "* * Whelan, Frederick G. (1996).", "''Edmund Burke and India: Political Morality and Empire''.", "University of Pittsburgh Press" ], [ "External links", "* Edmund Burke Society at Columbia University* * Burke's works at The Online Library of Liberty* Burke's \"Reflections on the Revolution in France\", lightly modified for easier reading* * * * * Burke according to Dr Jesse Norman MP at www.bbc.co.uk* * \"Edmund Burke for a Postmodern Age\", William F. Byrne, '' Berfrois'', 29 June 2011* * * \"The Liberalism/Conservatism of Edmund Burke and F. A. Hayek: A Critical Comparison\" by Linda C. Raeder.", "From ''Humanitas'', Volume X, No.", "1, 1997.National Humanities Institute.", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Early music" ], [ "Introduction", "Renaissance-era lute and viol, depicted in a detail from a painting by Francesco Francia'''Early music''' generally comprises Medieval music (500–1400) and Renaissance music (1400–1600), but can also include Baroque music (1600–1750).", "Originating in Europe, early music is a broad musical era for the beginning of Western classical music." ], [ "Terminology", "Interpretations of historical scope of \"early music\" vary.", "The original Academy of Ancient Music formed in 1726 defined \"Ancient\" music as works written by composers who lived before the end of the 16th century.", "Johannes Brahms and his contemporaries would have understood Early music to range from the High Renaissance and Baroque, while some scholars consider that Early music should include the music of ancient Greece or Rome before 500 AD (a period that is generally covered by the term Ancient music).", "Music critic Michael Kennedy excludes Baroque, defining Early music as \"musical compositions from the earliest times up to and including music of the Renaissance period\".Musicologist Thomas Forrest Kelly considers that the essence of Early music is the revival of \"forgotten\" musical repertoire and that the term is intertwined with the rediscovery of old performance practice.", "According to the UK's National Centre for Early Music, the term \"early music\" refers to both a repertory (European music written between 1250 and 1750 embracing Medieval, Renaissance and the Baroque) – and a historically informed approach to the performance of that music.", "Today, the understanding of \"Early music\" has come to include \"any music for which a historically appropriate style of performance must be reconstructed on the basis of surviving scores, treatises, instruments and other contemporary evidence.\"" ], [ "Revival", "The Akademie für Alte Musik Berlin, modern performers of Early musicIn the later 20th century there was a resurgence of interest in the performance of music from the Medieval and Renaissance eras, and a number of instrumental consorts and choral ensembles specialising in Early music repertoire were formed.", "Groups such as the Tallis Scholars, the Early Music Consort and the Taverner Consort and Players have been influential in bringing Early music to modern audiences through performances and popular recordings." ], [ "Performance practice", "The revival of interest in Early music has given rise to a scholarly approach to the performance of music.", "Through academic musicological research of music treatises, urtext editions of musical scores and other historical evidence, performers attempt to be faithful to the performance style of the musical era in which a work was originally conceived.", "Additionally, there has been a rise in the use of original or reproduction period instruments as part of the performance of Early music, such as the revival of the harpsichord or the viol.The practice of \"historically informed performance\" is nevertheless dependent on stylistic inference.", "According to Margaret Bent, Renaissance notation is not as prescriptive as modern scoring, and there is much that was left to the performer's interpretation: \"Renaissance notation is under-prescriptive by our standards; when translated into modern form it acquires a prescriptive weight that overspecifies and distorts its original openness.", "Accidentals … may or may not have been notated, but what modern notation requires would then have been perfectly apparent without notation to a singer versed in counterpoint\"." ], [ "See also", "*Ancient music*Early music festivals*History of music*List of Baroque composers*List of early music ensembles*List of Medieval composers*List of Renaissance composers*Neo-Medieval music" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* Davidson, Audrey Ekdahl.", "2008.", "''Aspects of Early Music and Performance''.", "New York: AMS Press.", ".", "* Donington, Robert.", "1989.", "''The Interpretation of Early Music'', new revised edition.", "London and Boston: Faber and Faber.", ".", "* Epp, Maureen, and Brian E. Power (eds.).", "2009.", "''The Sounds and Sights of Performance in Early Music: Essays in Honour of Timothy J. Mcgee''.", "Farnham, Surrey (UK); Burlington, VT: Ashgate.", ".", "* Haynes, Bruce.", "2007.", "''The End of Early Music: A Period Performer's History of Music for the Twenty-First Century''.", "Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Remnant, M. \"The Use of Frets on Rebecs and Medieval Fiddles\" ''Galpin Society Journal'', 21, 1968, p. 146.", "* Remnant, M. and Marks, R.", "1980.", "\"A medieval 'gittern' \", British Museum Yearbook 4, Music and Civilisation, 83–134.", "* Remnant, M. \"Musical Instruments of the West\".", "240 pp.", "Batsford, London, 1978.Reprinted by Batsford in 1989 .", "Digitized by the University of Michigan 17 May 2010.", "* * * Roche, Jerome, and Elizabeth Roche.", "1981.", "''A Dictionary of Early Music: From the Troubadours to Monteverdi''.", "London: Faber Music in association with Faber & Faber; New York: Oxford University Press.", "(UK, cloth); (UK, pbk); (US, cloth).", "* Sherman, Bernard.", "1997.", "''Inside Early Music: Conversations with Performers''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Stevens, Denis.", "1997.", "''Early Music'', revised edition.", "Yehudi Menuhin Music Guides.", "London: Kahn & Averill.", ".", "First published as ''Musicology'' (London: Macdonald & Co. Ltd, 1980)." ], [ "External links", "* Early Music FAQ* Renaissance Workshop Company the company which has saved many rare and some relatively unknown instruments from extinction.", "* Celebrating Early Music Master Orlando Gibbons* Early MusiChicago – Early Music in Chicago and Beyond, with many links and resources of general interest" ] ]
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[ [ "Elfenland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Elfenland''''' is a German-style board game designed by Alan R. Moon and published by Amigo Spiele in German and Rio Grande Games in English in 1998.", "''Elfenland'' won the Spiel des Jahres award in 1998." ], [ "Background", "The game was originally based on his earlier game ''Elfenroads'' (published by White Wind), but since ''Elfenroads'' took about four hours for a game, the play was simplified to reduce the time closer to an hour, making it appeal more as a family game." ], [ "Gameplay", "The game is played by 2–6 players, with 4–5 making for the best game.", "Each player tries to reach as many cities as possible and then return to his \"home city.\"", "Home cities are drawn at the beginning of the game from a pack of city cards and they remain hidden throughout the game.The game is thus reminiscent of the traveling salesman problem.Players move using transportation cards.", "Elves can travel on a wide variety of vehicles including troll wagons, elf cycles, rafts, giant pigs, unicorns, dragons and magic clouds.", "Different types of transportation will travel better over different terrain, and some methods of transport cannot cross certain terrains at all.", "There is only one problem: you cannot travel over a route (except water) unless there is a tile on that road, and only the type of transport shown on the tile can be used to move along that road.", "Before anyone can move, tiles are drawn and laid out across the board.", "This part is the one that calls for the most strategy, as players try to line up their tiles to set up a nice route for themselves and a difficult one for their opponents at the same time.As well as normal tiles, each player receives one trouble tile for use during the game.These hinder other players by forcing them to use an extra transportation card at that point.", "Also, any player can simply use any three cards to pass over any route that has a tile already there, allowing the type of transport shown on the tile to be ignored.The game has subtle strategies to make others navigate through the cities.", "When a player puts a transportation type you don't want in your path then you have to find a way around it.", "All of the aspects of the game make for a very exciting race to visit the most cities while never quite being sure who is winning until the last round." ], [ "Expansion", "There was an expansion for ''Elfenland'' published, called ''Elfengold''.Note that this is different from the original ''Elfengold'' published by White Wind." ], [ "Reception", "Bernhard Fischer from ''Spieltest'' praised the game's mechanisms, and accessibility, but was mixed on the luck elements.", "It also won the 1998 Spiel des Jahres award, and placed third place in the 1998 Deutscher Spiele Preis award." ], [ "Reviews", "*''Envoyer'' #24" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Euroscepticism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euroscepticism''', also spelled as '''Euroskepticism''' or '''EU-scepticism''', is a political position involving criticism of the European Union (EU) and European integration.", "It ranges from those who oppose some EU institutions and policies, and seek reform (''Eurorealism'', ''Eurocritical'', or ''soft Euroscepticism''), to those who oppose EU membership and see the EU as unreformable (''anti-European Unionism'', ''anti-EUism'', or ''hard Euroscepticism'').", "The opposite of Euroscepticism is known as ''pro-Europeanism'', or ''European Unionism''.Public opinion on the EU (2022)The main drivers of Euroscepticism have been beliefs that integration undermines national sovereignty and the nation state, that the EU is elitist and lacks democratic legitimacy and transparency, that it is too bureaucratic and wasteful, that it encourages high levels of immigration, or perceptions that it is a neoliberal organisation serving the big business elite at the expense of the working class, that it is responsible for austerity, and drives privatization.Euroscepticism is found in groups across the political spectrum, both left-wing and right-wing, and is often found in populist parties.", "Although they criticise the EU for many of the same reasons, Eurosceptic left-wing populists focus more on economic issues, such as the European debt crisis and the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, while Eurosceptic right-wing populists focus more on nationalism and immigration, such as the European migrant crisis.", "The rise in radical-right parties since the 2000s is strongly linked to a rise in Euroscepticism.Eurobarometer surveys of EU citizens show that trust in the EU and its institutions declined strongly from 2007 to 2015.In that period, it was consistently below 50%.", "A 2009 survey showed that support for EU membership was lowest in the United Kingdom (UK), Latvia, and Hungary.", "By 2016, the countries viewing the EU most unfavourably were the UK, Greece, France, and Spain.", "The 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum resulted in a 51.9% vote in favour of leaving the EU (Brexit), a decision that came into effect on 31 January 2020.Since 2015, trust in the EU has risen in most EU countries as a result of falling unemployment rates and the end of the migrant crisis.", "A post-2019 election Eurobarometer survey showed that 68% of citizens support the EU, the highest level since 1983; however, sentiment that things are not going in the right direction in the EU had increased to 50%.Trust in the EU had increased significantly at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic with levels varying across member states." ], [ "Reasoning", "The main reasons for Euroscepticism include beliefs that:* integration undermines national sovereignty and the nation state;* the EU is elitist and lacks democratic legitimacy and transparency;* the EU is too bureaucratic and wasteful;* it encourages high levels of immigration;* it is a neoliberal organisation serving the big business elite at the expense of the working class* the EU is responsible for austerity;* the EU is responsible for driving privatization." ], [ "Terminology", "There can be considered to be several different types of Eurosceptic thought, which differ in the extent to which adherents reject integration between member states of the EU and in their reasons for doing so.", "Aleks Szczerbiak and Paul Taggart described two of these as hard and soft Euroscepticism.", "At the same time, some scholars have said that there is no clear line between the presumed hard and soft Euroscepticism.", "Cas Mudde and Petr Kopecky have said that if the demarcation line is the number of and which policies a party opposes, then the question arises of how many must a party oppose and which ones should a party oppose that makes them hard Eurosceptic instead of soft.===Hard Euroscepticism===Flag of the \"EUSSR\", a common trope among right-wing hard Eurosceptics who seek to compare the European Union to the Soviet UnionAccording to Taggart and Szczerbiak, hard Euroscepticism or anti-EU-ism is \"a principled opposition to the EU and European integration and therefore can be seen in parties who think that their countries should withdraw from membership, or whose policies towards the EU are tantamount to being opposed to the whole project of European integration as it is currently conceived.\"", "The Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group in the European Parliament (2014–2019) displayed hard Euroscepticism, but following the 2019 EU elections the group was disbanded due to too few members, as its largest member, the British Brexit Party, withdrew ahead of the United Kingdom's formal exit from the EU.Some hard Eurosceptics regard their position as pragmatic rather than in principle.", "Additionally, Tony Benn, a left-wing Labour Party MP who fought against European integration in 1975 by opposing membership of the European Communities in that year's referendum on the issue, emphasised his opposition to xenophobia and his support of democracy, saying: \"My view about the European Union has always been not that I am hostile to foreigners, but that I am in favour of democracy.", "...", "I think they're building an empire there, they want us to be a part of their empire and I don't want that.", "\"The Czech president Václav Klaus rejected the term ''Euroscepticism'' for its purported negative undertones, saying at a meeting in April 2012 that the expressions for a Eurosceptic and their opponent should be \"a Euro-realist\" and someone who is \"Euro-naïve\", respectively.", "François Asselineau of the French Popular Republican Union has criticised the use of the term 'sceptic' to describe hard Eurosceptics, and would rather advocate the use of the term \"Euro opponent\".", "He believes the use of the term 'sceptic' for soft Eurosceptics to be correct, since other Eurosceptic parties in France are \"merely criticising\" the EU without taking into account the fact that the Treaty of Rome can only be modified with a unanimous agreement of all the EU member states, something he considers impossible to achieve.===Soft Euroscepticism===Soft Euroscepticism reflects a support for the existence of, and membership of, a form of EU but with opposition to specific EU policies, or in Taggart's and Szczerbiak's words, \"where there is NOT a principled objection to European integration or EU membership but where concerns on one (or a number) of policy areas lead to the expression of qualified opposition to the EU, or where there is a sense that 'national interest' is currently at odds with the EU's trajectory.", "\"Both the European Conservatives and Reformists group, dominated by the right-wing Polish party Law and Justice, and the European United Left–Nordic Green Left, which is an alliance of the left-wing parties in the European Parliament, display soft Euroscepticism.", "The European Conservatives and Reformist Group does not itself use the descriptions Euroscepticism or soft Euroscepticism and instead describes its position as one of Eurorealism, a distinction described by Leruth as being one that is \"quite subtle but should not be ignored\" given the association of the term Euroscepticism with \"European disintegration\".", "Leruth describes Eurorealism as \"a pragmatic, anti-federalist, and flexible vision of European integration where the principle of subsidiarity prevails, aiming to reform the current institutional framework to extend the role of national parliaments in the decision-making process.\"", "Steven states that \"Eurorealism is a form of conservativism, first and foremost, rather than a form or Euroscepticism, even if it obviously very much also has the 'soft' Eurosceptic tendencies which are present in a number of ECR member parties.", "\"===Anti-Europeanism===While having some overlaps, Euroscepticism and anti-Europeanism are different.", "Euroscepticism is criticism of the European Union (EU) and European integration.", "Anti-Europeanism is sentiment or policies in opposition to Europe.", "For example, American exceptionalism in the United States has long led to criticism of European domestic policy, such as the size of the welfare state in European countries, and foreign policy, such as European countries that did not support the US-led 2003 invasion of Iraq.===Other terms===Some scholars consider the gradual difference in terminology between hard and soft Euroscepticism inadequate to accommodate the large differences in terms of political agenda; ''hard Euroscepticism'' has also been referred to as ''Europhobia'' as opposed to mere ''Euroscepticism''.", "Other alternative names for hard and soft Euroscepticism include ''withdrawalist'' and ''reformist'', respectively." ], [ "Eurobarometer surveys", "File:Poll about perceived EU balance benefit (2018).svg|thumb|From the Parlameter 2018 poll, to the question \"Taking everything into account, would you say that our country has on balance benefited or not from being a member of EU?", "\", the interviewed answered \"Benefited\" with the following percentages: A survey in , conducted by TNS Opinion and Social on behalf of the European Commission, showed that, across the EU as a whole, those with a positive image of the EU were down from a high of 52% in 2007 to 37% in autumn 2015; this compares with 23% with a negative image of the EU, and 38% with a neutral image.", "About 43% of Europeans thought things were \"going in the wrong direction\" in the EU, compared with 23% who thought things were going \"in the right direction\" (11% \"don't know\").", "About 32% of EU citizens tend to trust the EU as an institution, and about 55% do not tend to trust it (13% \"don't know\").", "Distrust of the EU was highest in Greece (81%), Cyprus (72%), Austria (65%), France (65%), the United Kingdom (UK) and the Czech Republic (both 63%).", "Overall, more respondents distrusted their own government (66%) than they distrusted the EU (55%).", "Distrust of national government was highest in Greece (82%), Slovenia (80%), Portugal (79%), Cyprus (76%), and France (76%).A Eurobarometer survey carried out four days prior to and six days after the 2016 United States presidential election revealed that the surprise victory of Donald Trump caused an increase in the popularity of the EU in Europe.", "The increase was strongest among the political right and among respondents who perceived their country as economically struggling.A survey carried out in April 2018 for the European Parliament by Kantar Public consulting found that support for the EU was \"the highest score ever measured since 1983\".", "Support for the EU was up in 26 out of 28 EU countries, the exceptions being Germany and the UK, where support had dropped by about 2% since the previous survey.", "Almost half (48%) of the 27,601 EU citizens surveyed agreed that their voice counted in the EU, up from 37% in 2016, whereas 46% disagreed with this statement.", "Two-thirds (67%) of respondents felt that their country had benefited from EU membership and 60% said that being part of the bloc was a good thing, as opposed to 12% who felt the opposite.", "At the height of the EU's financial and economic crises in 2011, just 47% had been of the view that EU membership was a good thing.", "Support for EU membership was greatest in Malta (93%), Ireland (91%), Lithuania (90%), Poland (88%), Luxembourg (88%), Estonia (86%), and Denmark (84%), and lowest in Greece (57%), Bulgaria (57%), Cyprus (56%), Austria (54%), the United Kingdom (53%), and Italy (44%).When asked which issues should be a priority for the European Parliament, survey respondents picked terrorism as the most pressing topic of discussion, ahead of youth unemployment and immigration.", "Not all countries shared the same priorities.", "Immigration topped the list in Italy (66% of citizens surveyed considered it a priority issue), Malta (65%), and Hungary (62%) but fighting youth unemployment and support for economic growth were top concerns in Spain, Greece, Portugal, Cyprus, and Croatia.", "Social protection of citizens was the top concern for Dutch, Swedish, and Danish respondents.The April 2019 Eurobarometer showed that despite the challenges of the past years, and in cases such as the ongoing debate surrounding Brexit, possibly even because of it, the European sense of togetherness had not weakened, with 68% of respondents across the EU27 believing that their countries have benefited from being part of the EU, a historically high level since 1983.On the other hand, more Europeans (27%) were uncertain and saw the EU as \"neither a good thing nor a bad thing\", an increase in 19 countries.", "Despite the overall positive attitude towards the EU but in line with the uncertainty expressed by a growing number of Europeans, the feeling that things were not going in the right direction in both the EU and in their own countries had increased to 50% on EU average since September 2018.The Eurobarometer 93.1 survey was in the field across Europe when the European Council summit reached political agreement on a pandemic economic recovery fund (later named Next Generation EU) on 21 July 2020.A comparison of Eurobarometer responses gathered before this seminal decision and interviews conducted shortly thereafter indicates that the European Council's endorsement of pandemic economic relief increased popular support of Covid-19 economic recovery aid - but only among Europeans who view EU decisionmakers as trustworthy." ], [ "History in the European Parliament", "===1999–2004===A study analysed voting records of the Fifth European Parliament and ranked groups, concluding: \"Towards the top of the figure are the more pro-European parties (PES, EPP-ED, and ALDE), whereas towards the bottom of the figure are the more anti-European parties (EUL/NGL, G/EFA, UEN and EDD).", "\"===2004–2009===In 2004, 37 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) from the UK, Poland, Denmark and Sweden founded a new European Parliament group called \"Independence and Democracy\" from the old Europe of Democracies and Diversities (EDD) group.The main goal of the ID group was to reject the proposed Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe.", "Some delegations within the group, notably that from UKIP, also advocated the complete withdrawal of their country from the EU, while others only wished to limit further European integration.===2009 elections===The elections of 2009 saw a significant fall in support in some areas for Eurosceptic parties, with all such MEPs from Poland, Denmark and Sweden losing their seats.", "In the UK, the Eurosceptic UKIP achieved second place in the election, finishing ahead of the governing Labour Party, and the British National Party (BNP) won its first-ever two MEPs.", "Although new members joined the ID group from Greece and the Netherlands, it was unclear whether the group would reform in the new parliament.The ID group did reform, as the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) and is represented by 32 MEPs from nine countries.===2014 elections===The elections of 2014 saw a big anti-establishment vote in favour of Eurosceptic parties, which took around a quarter of the seats available.", "Those that came first their national elections included: UKIP in the UK (the first time since 1906 that a party other than Labour or the Conservatives had won a national vote), the National Front in France, the People's Party in Denmark and Syriza in Greece.", "Second places were taken by Sinn Féin in Ireland and the Five Star Movement in Italy.", "Herman Van Rompuy, the President of the European Council, agreed following the election to re-evaluate the economic area's agenda and to launch consultations on future policy areas with the 28 member states.===2019 elections===The elections of 2019 saw the centre-left and centre-right parties suffer significant losses including losing their overall majority, while green, pro-EU liberal, and some Eurosceptic right wing parties saw significant gains.", "Those that came first in their national elections included: the Brexit Party in the UK (which was only launched on 12 April 2019 by former UKIP leader Nigel Farage), the National Rally of France (formerly the National Front party until June 2018), Fidesz in Hungary, Lega in Italy, and Law and Justice in Poland.", "There were also notable falls in support for the Danish People's Party (previously topped the 2014 European election).", "Whilst Vox got elected with 3 seats, Spain's first Eurosceptic party and Belgium's Vlaams Belang rallied to gain second place after its poor 2014 result." ], [ "In EU member states", "===Austria===Heinz-Christian Strache, former leader of the Austrian hard Eurosceptic party FPÖ The Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), established in 1956, is a right-wing populist party that mainly attracts support from young people and workers.", "In 1989, it changed its stance over the EU to Euroscepticism.", "It opposed Austria joining the EU in 1994, and opposed the introduction of the euro in 1998.The party would like to leave the EU if it threatens to develop into a country, or if Turkey joins.", "The FPÖ received 20–27% of the national vote in the 1990s, and more recently received 18% in 2008.Following the 2017 Austrian legislative election, it has 51/183 National Council seats, 16/62 Federal Council seats, and 4/19 European Parliament seats.The Bündnis Zukunft Österreich (BZÖ), established in 2005, is a socially conservative party that has always held Eurosceptic elements.", "In 2011 the party openly supported leaving the eurozone, and in 2012 it announced that it supported a full withdrawal from the European Union.", "The party has also called upon a referendum on the Lisbon Treaty.", "In polls it generally received around 10–15%, although in one state it did receive 45% of the vote in 2009.Since the 2017 election, it has 0/183 National Council seats, 0/62 Federal Council seats, and 0/19 European Parliament seats.Team Stronach, established in 2012, has campaigned to reform the European Union, as well as to replace the euro with an Austrian Euro.", "In 2012, it regularly received 8–10% support in national polls.", "Politicians from many different parties (including the Social Democratic Party and the BZÖ) as well as previous independents switched their allegiances to the new party upon creation.", "In two local elections in March 2013, it won 11% of the vote in Carinthia, and 10% of the vote in Lower Austria.", "It dissolved in 2017.Ewald Stadler, a former member of FPÖ (and later of BZÖ) was very Eurosceptic, but in 2011 became a member of the European Parliament due to the Lisbon Treaty.", "Before Stadler accepted the seat, this led to heavy critics by Jörg Leichtfried (SPÖ) \"Stadler wants to just rescue his political career\" because Stadler before mentioned he would never accept a seat as MEP if this was only due to the Lisbon Treaty.", "On 23 December 2013 he founded a conservative and Eurosceptic party called The Reform Conservatives, although it has been inactive since June 2016.In the 2014 European Parliament election, the FPÖ increased its vote to 19.7% (up 7.0%), gaining 2 new MEPs, making a total of 4; the party came third, behind the ÖVP and the SPÖ.", "EU-STOP (the electoral alliance of the EU Withdrawal Party and the Neutral Free Austria Federation) polled 2.8%, gaining no seats, and the Reform Conservatives 1.2%, with Team Stronach putting up no candidates.In the 2019 European Parliament election, the FPÖ came 3rd with 17.2% of the vote which was only slightly down on 2014 despite a scandal allegedly promising public contracts to a woman posing as a Russian backer.", "This precipitated the collapse of the ruling coalition and a new election being called.===Belgium===According to Eurostat, in the fall of 2018, 44% of Belgians stated that they did not trust the European Union.", "The main Eurosceptic party in Belgium is the right-wing Vlaams Belang which is active in the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium, however the left-wing PTB-PVDA also opposes the EU on many issues, primarily austerity and social policy.", "In the 2014 European Parliament election, Vlaams Belang lost over half of its previous vote share, polling 4.3% (down 5.5%) and losing 1 of its 2 members of the European Parliament.", "Despite the presence of Eurosceptic parties in Belgium, their weight is relatively low, as Belgium is predominantly Europeanist.In 2019, Vlaams Belang stated in its program for the 2019 European Parliament election that it opposes the creation of a European state, would like to change the Economic and Monetary Union of the EU, and to end the Schengen Area, and refuses the accession of Turkey to the EU.", "More widely, the euro-sceptic arguments of the Vlaams Belang are based on four pillars:# loss of sovereignty (for instance on economic sovereignty or on the binding legal order);# the financial cost of the European Union;# less competences for European Union;# leaving the euro (even though in 2019 the party has changed its line and now wants to reform the euro).", "During the 2019 European Parliament election in Belgium, Vlaams Belang made substantial gains in both and polled in second place in Flemish region.", "At the beginning of 2019, the party was enrolled in the group of European Alliance of People and Nations in the European Parliament.The New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) is a soft Eurosceptic party in the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium.", "Before 2010, the N-VA was pro-European and supported the idea of a democratic European confederation, but has since altered this policy to a more sceptical stance on further European integration and now calls for more democratic transparency within the EU, changes to the EU's common asylum policy and economic reforms to the Eurozone.", "The N-VA has obtained 26.8% of the votes or 4 seats of the Dutch-language college out of 12 (21 MEPs for Belgium) in the 2014 European Parliament election.", "In April 2019, it stood in European Conservatives and Reformists of the European Parliament, and can be considered a moderate Eurosceptic party.In the French-speaking part of Belgium (Walloons), there are four Eurosceptic parties.", "The first one is Nation Movement, a far-right party which was a member of the Alliance for Peace and Freedom in the European Parliament.", "The second one is National Front, also a far right party which criticizes the European bureaucracy, intends to guarantee and preserve national independence and freedom in a liberated Europe; it also reaffirms the Christian roots of Europe.", "The third one is the People's Party, classified as right or extreme right.", "In its program for the European election of 2019 the People's Party proposes to abolish the European Commission, reduce the number of European parliamentarians and fight against the worker-posted directive.", "For this party, the EU must be led by a president elected by universal suffrage with clear but limited competences.", "It also wants to renegotiate the European Union treaties, restrict the judicial activism of the European Court of Human Rights.", "It declares itself against the Global Compact for Migration.", "The last one is the Parti libertarien.", "In early 2019, the party aims to reduce the powers of the European Commission, to abolish the Common Agricultural Policy, to abandon common defense projects, to simplify the exit procedure of the European Union, to reject federalism and to forbid the European Union to direct economic, fiscal or social policy, Finally, the Workers' Party of Belgium is an electoral and unitary party.", "It also intends to revise the European treaties considered too liberal.", "One of the Party's currencies is \"The left that stings, against the Europe of money\".===Bulgaria===Volen Siderov, leader of the Bulgarian Eurosceptic party Attack European flag in Bulgaria torn down by supporters of the Eurosceptic party AttackParties with mainly Eurosceptic views are NFSB, Attack, and VMRO – BND, which is a member of the Eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists).Bulgaria's Minister of Finance, Simeon Djankov, stated in 2011 that ERM II membership to enter the Euro zone would be postponed until after the Eurozone crisis had stabilised.In the 2014 European Parliament election Bulgaria remained overwhelmingly pro-EU, with the Eurosceptic Attack party receiving 3% of the vote, down 9%, with the splinter group National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria taking 3; neither party secured any MEPs.", "A coalition between VMRO – BND and Bulgaria Without Censorship secured an MEP position for Angel Dzhambazki from IMRO, who is a hard Eurosceptic.Followers of Eurosceptic Attack tore down and trampled the European flag on 3 March 2016 at a meeting of the party in the Bulgarian capital Sofia, dedicated to the commemoration of the 138th anniversary of the liberation of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire.In the 2019 European Parliament election, Bulgaria remained overwhelmingly pro-EU with the ruling centre-right Gerb party winning with 31%, against 26% for the socialist BSP.Since the 2021–2023 Bulgarian political crisis, the far-right hard Eurosceptic party Revival has outplaced Attack, with it getting 14% on the most recent 2023 Bulgarian parliamentary election.===Croatia===Parties with Eurosceptic views are mainly small right-wing parties like Croatian Party of Rights, Croatian Party of Rights dr. Ante Starčević, Croatian Pure Party of Rights, Autochthonous Croatian Party of Rights, Croatian Christian Democratic Party and Only Croatia – Movement for Croatia.The only parliamentary party that is vocally Eurosceptic is the Human Shield that won 5 out of 151 seats at the 2016 parliamentary election.", "Their position is generally considered to waver between hard and soft Euroscepticism; it requests thorough reform of the EU so that all member states would be perfectly equal.In the 2019 European Parliament election, the Human Shield gained its first seat in the European Parliament with 6% of the vote putting it in 5th place.===Cyprus===Parties with mainly Eurosceptic views in Cyprus are the Progressive Party of Working People and ELAM.In the 2019 European Parliament election, there was little change politically – the conservatives won narrowly, the ruling DISY taking two seats with 29%, followed by socialist AKEL (27.5%, two seats) with no seats taken by Eurosceptic parties.===Czechia===Václav Klaus, former Eurosceptic President of the Czech Republic In May 2010, the Czech president Václav Klaus said that they \"needn't hurry to enter the Eurozone\".Petr Mach, an economist, a close associate of president Václav Klaus and a member of the Civic Democratic Party between 1997 and 2007, founded the Free Citizens Party in 2009.The party aims to mainly attract dissatisfied Civic Democratic Party voters.", "At the time of the Lisbon Treaty ratification, they were actively campaigning against it, supported by the president Vaclav Klaus, who demanded opt-outs such as were granted to the United Kingdom and Poland, unlike the governing Civic Democratic Party, who endorsed it in the Chamber of Deputies.", "After the treaty has been ratified, Mach's party is in favour of withdrawing from the European Union completely.", "In the 2014 European Parliament election, the Free Citizens Party won one mandate and allied with UKIP in the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFD).The 2017 Czech legislative election brought into Parliament one soft eurosceptic party, the centre-right Civic Democratic Party (ODS) (11%), and two hard eurosceptic parties, the far-right Freedom and Direct Democracy (SPD) (11%) and the left-wing to far-left Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) (8%).An April 2016 survey by the CVVM Institute indicated that 25% of Czechs were satisfied with EU membership, down from 32% the previous year.Dividends worth CZK 270 billion were paid to the foreign owners of Czech companies in 2017, which has become a political issue in the Czech Republic.In the 2019 European Parliament election, the Civic Democratic Party saw its vote share rise to 15% and its seats doubled from 2 to 4.The Freedom and Direct Democracy party took 2 seats with 9% of the vote.", "KSČM dropped 2 seats leaving it with only one and a vote share of 7%===Denmark===Pia Kjærsgaard, member (and former leader) of the hard Eurosceptic party Danish People's Party (Dansk Folkeparti), the fifth-largest represented in the Danish parliament and the fifth-most represented in the European ParliamentThe People's Movement against the EU only takes part in European Parliament elections and has one member in the European Parliament.", "The soft Eurosceptic June Movement, originally a split-off from the People's Movement against the EU, existed from 1992 to 2009.In the Danish Parliament, the Red-Green Alliance previously advocated withdrawal from the EU, but in March 2019, the party announced it would no longer campaign for a referendum to leave the EU, pointing to Brexit illustrating the need for clarity before withdrawal can be considered.", "The Danish People's Party also advocates withdrawal, but says it supports some EU structures such as the internal market, and supported the EU-positive Liberal-Conservative coalition between 2001 and 2011 and again from 2015 to 2019.The Socialist People's Party, minorities within the Social Liberal Party and Social Democratic Party, and some smaller parties were against accession to the European Union in 1972.Still in 1986, these parties advocated a no vote in the Single European Act referendum.", "Later, the Social Liberal Party changed to a strongly EU-positive party, and EU opposition within the Social Democratic Party faded.", "The Socialist People's Party were against the Amsterdam Treaty in 1998 and Denmark's joining the euro in 2000, but has become increasingly EU-positive, for example when MEP Margrete Auken left the European United Left–Nordic Green Left and joined The Greens–European Free Alliance in 2004.In the 2014 European Parliament election, the Danish People's Party came first by a large margin with 27% of the vote, gaining 2 extra seats for a total of 4 MEPs.", "The People's Movement against the EU polled 8%, retaining its single MEP.In the 2019 European Parliament election, the Danish People's Party lost around two-thirds of their previous vote share dropping from 4 seats to just 1.The People's Movement against the EU lost their seat and the Red-Green Alliance got one seat.The 2019 Danish general election saw the emergence of a new hard Eurosceptic party Nye Borgerlige which supports Denmark leaving the EU.", "The party won four seats in parliament.===Estonia===The Independence Party and Centre Party were against accession to the EU, but only the Independence Party still wants Estonia to withdraw from the EU.", "The Conservative People's Party (EKRE) also has some Eurosceptic policies and increased its vote share from 4% in 2014 to 13% in the 2019 European Elections winning one seat.===Finland===The largest Eurosceptic party in Finland is the Finns Party.", "In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Finns Party increased their vote share by 3% to 13%, adding a second MEP.", "With their 39 seats, the Finns Party are also the second-biggest party in the 200-seat Finnish Eduskunta.In the European Parliament election, 2019, the Finns Party increased their vote share slightly from 13% to 14% and retained their 2 seats.In its latest party platform written in 2019, the Finns Party is strongly opposed to further EU integration.", "The party proposes introducing a parallel currency within Finland in tandem with the Euro in order to phase out Finnish membership of the Eurozone and argues that while Finland is needed in the short-term in the European Parliament to defend Finland's interests, the country should also enact policies to help gradually withdraw Finland from the EU.", "During the 2018 Finnish presidential election, the Finns Party candidate Laura Huhtasaari stated that her campaign would support exiting the EU.===France===Marine Le Pen, prominent French MEP, former leader and former presidential candidate of the National Front (France) and of the Europe of Nations and Freedom groupIn France there are multiple parties that are Eurosceptic to different degrees, varying from advocating less EU intervention in national affairs, to advocating outright withdrawal from the EU and the Eurozone.", "These parties belong to all sides of the political spectrum, so the reasons for their Euroscepticism may differ.", "In the past many French people appeared to be uninterested in such matters, with only 40% of the French electorate voting in the 2009 European Parliament elections.Right-wing Eurosceptic parties include the Gaullist ''Debout la République'', and ''Mouvement pour la France'', which was part of Libertas, a pan-European Eurosceptic party.", "In the 2009 European Parliament elections, Debout la République received 1.8% of the national vote, and Libertas 4.8%.", "In a similar way to some moderate parties, the French right and far-right in general are naturally opposed to the EU, as they criticise France's loss of political and economic sovereignty to a supranational entity.", "Some of these hard Eurosceptic parties include the Popular Republican Union and formerly the Front National (FN).", "Popular Republican Union seek France's withdrawal from the EU and the euro as well as France's withdrawal from NATO.", "The FN received 33.9% of the votes in the 2017 French presidential election, making it the largest Eurosceptic party in France.", "In June 2018, the National Front was renamed as National Rally (RN) and in 2019 dropped support for France leaving the European Union and the Eurozone from its manifesto, instead calling for \"reform from within\" the union.Eurosceptic parties on the left in France tend to criticise what they see as the neoliberal agenda of the EU, as well as the elements of its structure which are undemocratic and seen as top-down.", "These parties include the ''Parti de Gauche'' and the French Communist Party, which formed the ''Front de Gauche'' for the 2009 European Parliament elections and received 6.3% of the votes.", "The leader of the Left Front defends a complete reform of the Monetary Union, rather than the withdrawal of France from the Eurozone.", "Some of the major far-left Eurosceptic parties in France include the New Anticapitalist Party which received 4.8% and Lutte Ouvrière which received 1.2%.", "The Citizen and Republican Movement, a left-wing Eurosceptic and souverainist party, have not participated in any elections for the European Parliament.The party ''Chasse, Pêche, Nature & Traditions'', is an agrarianist Eurosceptic party that says it is neither left nor right.In the European Parliament election, 2014, the National Front won the elections with 24.9% of the vote, a swing of 18.6%, winning 24 seats, up from 3 previously.", "The former French President François Hollande had called for the EU to be reformed and for a scaling back of its power.In the European Parliament election, 2019, the renamed National Rally won the elections with 23.3% of the vote, winning 22 seats, down from 23 previously when their vote share was 24.9%.===Germany===\"Referendum on saving the euro!\"", "Poster from the party Alternative for Germany (AfD) regarding Germany's financial contributions during the Eurozone crisisThe Alternative for Germany (AfD) is Germany's largest Eurosceptic party.", "It was elected into the German Parliament with 94 seats in September 2017.Initially the AfD was a soft Eurosceptic party, that considered itself pro-Europe and pro-EU, but opposed the euro, which it believed had undermined European integration, and called for reforms to the Eurozone.In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Alternative for Germany came 5th with 7% of the vote, winning 7 seats and is a member of the Eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists.", "The Alternative for Germany went on to take seats in three state legislatures in the Autumn of 2014.The party became purely Eurosceptic in 2015, when an internal split occurred, leading to Frauke Petry's leadership and a more hard-line approach to the European Union, including its calling for an end for German Eurozone membership, withdrawal from EU common asylum policies and significantly reducing the power of the EU with some AfD members supporting a complete exit from the EU altogether.In July 2015 an AfD splinter group created a new soft Eurosceptic party called Alliance for Progress and Renewal.In the European Parliament election, 2019, the Alternative for Germany increased their vote share from 7% and 7 seats to 11% and 11 seats.In the 2021 German Federal Election, AfD won 10.3% of the vote and 94 seats whereas in 2017, they received 12.6% of the vote and 83 seats; this meant they moved from third place to fifth place, falling behind the Green Party and FDP, both of which had been less popular than the AfD in 2017.Despite their overall electoral decline, the AfD still emerged as the largest in the states of Saxony and Thuringia, and saw a strong performance in eastern Germany.===Greece===Golden Dawn, Communist Party of Greece (KKE), Greek Solution, ANEL, Course of Freedom, Popular Unity, and LAOS have been the main Eurosceptic parties in Greece.", "According to the London School of Economics, Greece used to be the second most Eurosceptic country in the European Union, with 50% of Greeks thinking that their country has not benefited at all from the EU (only behind the UK).", "Meanwhile, 33% of Greeks viewed Greek membership in EU as a good thing, marginally ahead of the UK.", "81% of Greeks felt that the EU was going in the wrong direction.", "These figures represented a major increase in Euroscepticism in Greece since 2009.In June 2012, the Eurosceptic parties in Greece that were represented in the parliament before the Election in January 2015 (ANEL, Golden Dawn, KKE) got 45.8% of the votes and 40.3% of the seats in the parliament.", "In the legislative election of January 2015 the pro-European (left and right-wing) parties (ND, PASOK, Potami, KIDISO, EK and Prasinoi-DIMAR) got 43.3% of the votes.", "The Eurosceptic parties got 54.6%.", "The Eurosceptic left (KKE, ANTARSYA-MARS and KKE (M–L)/M–L KKE) got 42.6% of the votes and the Eurosceptic right (Golden Dawn, ANEL and LAOS) got 12.1% of the votes, with Syriza ahead with 36.3%.", "The Eurosceptic parties got 194 seats in the new parliament and the pro-EU parties got 106 seats.According to the polls conducted in June and July 2015 (12 polls), the Eurosceptic left would get on average 48.0% (excluding extraparliamentary parties as ANTARSYA-MARS and KKE (m–l)/ML-KKE), the parliamentary pro-EU parties (Potami, New Democracy and PASOK) would get 33.8%, the extra-parliamentary (not represented in the Hellenic Parliament) pro-EU parties (KIDISO and EK) would get 4.4% and the Eurosceptic right would get 10.2% (excluding extraparliamentary parties, such as LAOS, not displayed on recent opinion polls).", "The soft Eurosceptic parties would get 42.3%, the hard Eurosceptic parties (including KKE, ANEL and Golden Dawn) would get 15.9%, and the pro-EU parties (including extra-parliamentary parties displayed on opinion polls) would get 38.3% of the votes.In the European Parliament election, 2014, Syriza won the election with 26.6% of the vote (a swing of 21.9%) taking 6 seats (up 5), with Golden Dawn coming 3rd taking 3 seats, the Communist Party taking 2 seats and the Independent Greeks gaining their first ever seat.", "Syriza's leader Tsipras said he's not anti-European and does not want to leave the euro.", "According to ''The Economist'', Tsipras is willing to negotiate with Greece's European partners, and it is believed a Syriza victory could encourage radical leftist parties across Europe.", "Alexis Tsipras vowed to reverse many of the austerity measures adopted by Greece since a series of bailouts began in 2010, at odds with the Eurogroup's positions.The government coalition in Greece was composed by Syriza and ANEL (right-wing hard Eurosceptic party, led by Panos Kammenos, who is the current Minister of Defence).Euroscepticism has softened in Greece as the economy improved.", "According to a research in early 2018, 68% of Greeks judge as positive the participation of Greece in the EU (instead of 53.5% in 2017).In the European Parliament election, 2019, the New Democracy movement, beat the ruling left-wing Syriza formation with 33.1% and 23.8% of the vote respectively, maintaining Syriza's 6 seats and prompting the Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras to call a legislative election on 7 July 2019.In this election, which was won by ND, the pro-European parties (ND, SYRIZA, KINAL, MeRA25, and the extra-parliamentary Union of Centrists and Recreate Greece) got 84.9% of the vote and the Eurosceptic parties (KKE, Greek Solution, the extraparliamentary Golden Dawn and a host of other small mainly left-wing parties) got 15.1%.", "That drastic change in the balance is mostly the result of SYRIZA abandoning Euroscepticism.===Hungary===Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister of Hungary Viktor Orbán is the soft Eurosceptic Prime Minister of Hungary for the national-conservative Fidesz Party.", "Another Eurosceptic party that was present in Hungary was Jobbik, which until around 2016, was identified as a radical and far-right party.", "Those far-right factions, who left Jobbik, decided to form the Our Homeland Movement party.In 2015, 39% of the Hungarian population had a positive image of the EU, 20% had a negative image, and 40% neutral (1% \"Don't know\").In the 2014 Hungarian parliamentary election, Fidesz got 44.5% of the votes, Jobbik got 20.5% of the votes and the communist Hungarian Workers' Party got 0.6% of the votes.", "Thus at the time, Eurosceptic parties in Hungary obtained 65.7% of the votes, one of the highest figures in Europe.The green-liberal Politics Can Be Different (Lehet Más a Politika, LMP) classifies as a soft or reformist Eurosceptic party given its self-professed ''euro-critical'' stance.", "During the European parliamentary campaign of 2014 party Co-president András Schiffer described LMP as having a pronounced pro-integration position on environmental, wage and labour policy as supporting member state autonomy on the self-determination of local communities concerning land resources.", "So as to combat the differentiated integration of the multi-speed Europe which discriminates against Eastern and Southern member states, LMP would like to initiate an eco-social market economy within the union.In the European Parliament election, 2019, Fidesz consolidated their position by increasing their vote share to 51.5% and adding a seat to take their tally to 13.Former Eurosceptic (now pro-European) Jobbik dropped to 6.3% of the votes, losing 2 of its 3 seats.", "The Momentum Movement, a newly created pro-European party, came 3rd with 9.3% of the vote, with the strongly pro-European Democratic Coalition coming second with 16.1% of the vote.", "Our Homeland Movement got 3.3% of the votes, gaining no seats.===Ireland===Euroscepticism is a minority view in Ireland, with opinion polls from 2016 to 2018 indicating growing support for EU membership, moving from 70% to 92% in that time.The Irish people initially voted against ratifying the Nice and Lisbon Treaties.", "Following renegotiations, second referendums on both were passed with approximately 2:1 majorities in both cases.", "Some commentators and smaller political groups questioned the validity of the Irish Government's decision to call second referendums.The left-wing Irish republican party Sinn Féin expresses soft Eurosceptic positions on the current structure of the European Union and the direction in which it is moving.The party expresses, \"support for Europe-wide measures that promote and enhance human rights, equality and the all-Ireland agenda\", but has a \"principled opposition\" to a European superstate.", "In its manifesto for the 2015 UK general election, Sinn Féin pledged that the party would campaign for the UK to stay within the EU.", "In the 2019 European Parliament election, Sinn Féin won one seat and 11.7% of the vote, down 7.8%.The Socialist Party, a Trotskyist organisation, supports Ireland leaving the EU and supported the Brexit result.", "It argues that the European Union is institutionally capitalist and neoliberal.", "The Socialist Party campaigned against the Lisbon and Nice Treaties and favours the foundation of an alternative Socialist European Union.===Italy===The Five Star Movement (M5S), an anti-establishment movement founded by comedian Beppe Grillo, originally set itself out as a Eurosceptic party.", "The M5S received 25.5% of vote in the 2013 general election, becoming the largest anti-establishment and Eurosceptic party in Europe.", "The party used to advocate a non-binding referendum on the withdrawal of Italy from the Eurozone (but not from the European Union) and the return to the lira.", "Since then, the party has toned down its eurosceptic rhetoric and such policy was rejected in 2018, and the M5S's leader has since stated that the \"European Union is the Five Star Movement's home\", clarifying that the party wants Italy to stay in the EU, even though it remains critical of some of its treaties.", "The M5S's popular support is distributed all across Italy: in the 2018 general election the party won 32.7% of the popular vote nationwide, and was particularly successful in central and southern Italy.A party that retains a Eurosceptic identity is the Northern League (LN), a regionalist movement led by Matteo Salvini favouring Italy's exit from the Eurozone and the re-introduction of the lira.", "When in government, Lega approved the Treaty of Lisbon.", "The party won 6.2% of the vote in the 2014 European Parliament elections, but two of its leading members are presidents of Lombardy and Veneto (where Lega gained 40.9% of the vote in 2015).Matteo Salvini with the Eurosceptic economists Claudio Borghi Aquilini, Alberto Bagnai and Antonio Maria Rinaldi during the ''No Euro Day'' in Milan, 2013.All economists were later elected MPs in different assembliesIn the 2014 European Parliament election the Five Star Movement came second, with 17 seats and 21.2% of the vote after contesting EP seats for the first time.", "Northern League had five seats and The Other Europe with Tsipras had three seats.Other minor Eurosceptic organizations include right-wing political parties (e.g., Brothers of Italy, Tricolour Flame, New Force, National Front, CasaPound, National Movement for Sovereignty, the No Euro Movement), far-left political parties (e.g., the Communist Party of Marco Rizzo, the Italian Communist Party and the political movement Power to the People) and other political movements (e.g., the Sovereignist Front, MMT Italy).", "In addition, the European Union is criticized (especially for the austerity and the creation of the euro) by some left-wing thinkers, like the trade unionist Giorgio Cremaschi and the journalist Paolo Barnard, and some academics, such as the economists Alberto Bagnai and Vladimiro Giacché, the philosopher Diego Fusaro and the mathematician Marino Badiale.According to the Standard Eurobarometer 87 conducted by the European Commission in spring 2017, 48% of Italians tend not to trust the European Union compared to 36% of Italians who do.In the 2019 European election, the Italian Eurosceptic and souverainist right-wing, represented in large part by the League, increased its number of seats in the EP, but was not assigned any presidency in the committees of the European Parliament.", "Despite its national political alliance with the League during the Conte Cabinet, the Five Star Movement voted for Ursula von der Leyen, member of pro-EU Christian Democratic Union of Germany, as President of the European Commission.In July 2020, senator Gianluigi Paragone formed Italexit, a new political party with a main goal to withdraw Italy from the European Union.===Latvia===The National Alliance (For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK/All for Latvia!", "), Union of Greens and Farmers and For Latvia from the Heart are parties that are described by some political commentators as bearing soft Eurosceptic views.", "A small hard Eurosceptic party exists, but it has failed to gain any administrative seats throughout history of its existence.===Lithuania===The Order and Justice party had mainly Eurosceptic views.===Luxembourg===The Alternative Democratic Reform Party is a soft Eurosceptic party.", "It is a member of the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists.===Malta===The Labour Party was not in favour of Malta entering the European Union.", "It was in favour of a partnership with the EU.", "After a long battle, the Nationalist Party led by Eddie Fenech Adami won the referendum and the following election, making Malta one of the states to enter the European Union on 1 May 2004.The party is now pro-European.", "Nowadays the People's Party often adopts Eurosceptic views.===Netherlands===Geert Wilders, leader of the Party for Freedom, a hardline Dutch Eurosceptic party and a prominent anti-Islamic radicalism partyHistorically, the Netherlands have been a very pro-European country, being one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952, and campaigning with much effort to include the United Kingdom into the Community in the 1970s and others after that.", "It has become slightly more Eurosceptic in the 2000s, rejecting the European Constitution in 2005 and complaining about the relatively high financial investment into the Union or the democratic deficit amongst other issues.A number of hard and soft eurosceptic parties have politicians elected to the Dutch House of Representatives and European Parliament which include:* The nationalist Party for Freedom (founded in 2006) is a hard-eurosceptic party and wants the Netherlands to leave the EU in its entirety, because it believes the EU is undemocratic, costs money and cannot close the borders for immigrants.", "* The conservative and right-wing populist Forum for Democracy (FvD) party was originally founded by Thierry Baudet as a think tank to campaign against the Association Agreement between the European Union and Ukraine.", "In 2016, the FvD was established as a fully fledged party.", "It is opposed to many of the policies of the European Union and calls for a referendum on Dutch membership in which it would endorse withdrawal.", "* The conservative-liberal JA21 party (founded in 2021 as a splinter from the FvD) is opposed to Dutch participation several European Union agreements, including its immigration and asylum policies, and believes Dutch identity and self-determination should be prioritized above the EU.", "It supports Dutch withdrawal from the Eurozone and for the Netherlands to exit EU treaties it deems a threat to national sovereignty.", "* The Socialist Party believes the European Union has already brought Europe 50 years of peace and prosperity and argues that European co-operation is essential for tackling global problems like climate change and international crime.", "The SP opines that the current Union is dominated by the big businesses and the big countries, while the labour movement, consumer organisations and smaller companies are often left behind.", "\"Neoliberal\" measures have supposedly increased social inequality, and perhaps the Union is expanding too fast and taking on too much power in issues that should be dealt with on a national level.", "* The conservative Protestant Reformed Political Party and the Christian Union favour co-operation within Europe, but reject a superstate, especially one that is dominated by Catholics, or that infringes on religious rights and/or privileges.", "* The pensioner's interest party 50PLUS is moderately Eurosceptic.", "* The ecologist Party for the Animals favours European co-operation, but believes the current EU does not respect animal rights enough and should have a more active policy on environment protection.", "* The agrarian and rural interests Farmer–Citizen Movement (BBB) was founded in 2019 and is a soft-eurosceptic party.", "It supports membership of the EU for economic and trade purposes, but argues the political power of the EU should be stripped back so the bloc is closer to the model of the former EEC, wants reforms made to the Eurozone and is against the EU becoming a superstate.", "* The classical liberal and conservative Belang van Nederland (founded in 2021 as a splinter from the FvD) wants to stop any further transfer of powers to the EU without referendums, calls for Dutch law to come before EU law and for a referendum on EU membership if polls show public support for one or if the EU assumes more powers.A prominent former Eurosceptic party in the Netherlands was the Pim Fortuyn List (LPF) established by politician and academic Pim Fortuyn in 2002.The party campaigned to reduce Dutch financial contributions to the EU, was against Turkish membership and opposed what it saw as the excessive bureaucracy and threat to national sovereignty posed by the EU.", "During the 2002 general election, the LPF polled in second place with 17% of the vote.", "Following the assassination of Fortuyn in the run-up to the election, support for the party declined soon after and it was disbanded in 2008 with many of is former supporters transferring to the Party for Freedom.Despite these concerns, in 2014 the majority of the Dutch electorate continued to support parties that favour ongoing European integration: the Social Democrats, the Christian Democrats, the Liberals, but most of all the (Liberal) Democrats.In 2016, a substantial majority in a low-turnout referendum rejected the ratification of an EU trade and association treaty with Ukraine.In the 2019 European Parliament election, Eurosceptic parties had mixed results with Geert Wilders' Party for Freedom losing all 4 of its seats taking only 3.5% of the vote.", "The new Forum for Democracy established in late 2016 took 11.0% of the vote and entered the European Parliament with 3 seats.===Poland===The main parties with Eurosceptic views are Law and Justice (PiS), United Poland (SP) and the Confederation Liberty and Independence and the main Eurosceptic politicians include Ryszard Bender, Andrzej Grzesik, Krzysztof Bosak, Dariusz Grabowski, Janusz Korwin-Mikke, Marian Kowalski, Paweł Kukiz, Zbigniew Ziobro, Anna Sobecka, Robert Winnicki, Artur Zawisza, and Stanisław Żółtek.Former president of Poland Lech Kaczyński resisted giving his signature on behalf of Poland to the Treaty of Lisbon, objecting specifically to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.", "Subsequently, Poland got an opt-out from this charter.", "As Polish President, Kaczyński also opposed the Polish government's intentions to join the euro.Polish President Andrzej Duda, Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki and Jarosław Kaczyński, 9 April 2018In 2015, it was reported that Euroscepticism was growing in Poland, which was thought to be due to the \"economic crisis, concern over perceived interference from Brussels and migration\".", "Polish president Andrzej Duda indicated that he wished for Poland to step back from further EU integration.", "He suggested that the country should \"hold a referendum on joining the euro, resist further integration and fight the EU's green policies\", despite getting the largest share of EU cash.In the 2019 European Parliament election, the Law and Justice party won the largest number of seats, with a vote share increase up from 31.8% to 45.4%, increasing its seats from 19 to 27.obscene Slavic gesture.", "Polish fishermen protest against the EU's prohibition of cod fishing on Polish ships.In 2019, the former MEP Stanisław Żółtek created a political party called PolEXIT, whose flagship ideology is euroscepticism.", "Its candidate for president of Poland in the 2020 elections was the party's leader, Żółtek, who got 45 419 votes (0.23%), ranking 7th out of 11 candidates and did not qualify to the second round.===Portugal===The main Eurosceptic parties in Portugal are Chega, the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), and Left Bloc (BE).", "Opinion polling in Portugal in 2015 indicated that 48 per cent tended not to trust the EU, while 79 per cent tended not to trust the Portuguese government (then led by Portugal Ahead).", "Eurosceptic political parties hold a combined total of 23 seats out of 230 in Portugal's parliament (BE 5, PCP 6, PNR 0, CHEGA 12) and a combined total of 4 out of Portugal's 21 seats in the European Parliament (PCP 2, BE 2, PNR 0, CHEGA 0).In the last 2014 European Parliament election, the Portuguese Communist Party won three seats and the Left Bloc won one seat.In the 2019 European Parliament election, Left Bloc took 9.8% and gained 1 seat, Portuguese Communist Party working in coalition with Ecologist Party \"The Greens\" took 6.9% and 2 seats and National Renovator Party (PNR) polled just 0.5%, with no seats.2019 saw the emergence of a new Eurosceptic political party, Chega, who gained a seat in that year's legislative election.", "The party did not capture any seats in the 2019 European Parliament elections, but saw its leader André Ventura finish third in the 2021 presidential election, securing 11.9% of those voting.In the 2022 Portuguese snap election, Chega got 7.2% of the vote and 12 out of the 230 seats in the Assembly of the Republic.===Romania===Several parties espousing Eurosceptic views exist on the right, such as the New Republic, the Greater Romania Party and Noua Dreaptă, but as of June 2020 none of these parties are represented in European Parliament.", "Euroscepticism is relatively unpopular in Romania, a 2015 survey found 65% of Romanians had a positive view of the country's EU membership.The Eurosceptic parties remained unrepresented in the 2019 European Parliament election.The soft Eurosceptic Alliance for the Union of Romanians, which was founded in September 2019, entered the Romanian parliament in 2020.===Slovakia===Parties with Eurosceptic views are the Slovak National Party, Republic, We Are Family, People's Party Our Slovakia.", "Prominent Slovak Eurosceptic politicians include Andrej Danko, Milan Uhrík, Boris Kollár, Marian Kotleba.In the 2019 European Parliament election, People's Party Our Slovakia came 3rd securing 12.1% and winning their first 2 seats in the European Parliament, whereas the Slovak National Party and We Are Family did not win any seats.===Slovenia===Parties with mainly Eurosceptic views are Slovenian National Party and The Left.", "Neither won seats in the 2019 European Parliament election in Slovenia.===Spain===Santiago Abascal, leader of Vox The process of Europeanization changed during the years in Spain.", "In 1986 Spain entered in the European Community.", "Since then, Spain has been one of the most Europeanist countries.", "Therefore, when Spain became part of the European Community, the country had a strong pro-Europeanist feeling, according to Eurobarometer, as it reflected a 60% of the population.", "In Spain different reasons explain its entrance to the European Community.", "On the one hand, democracy has just been established in Spain after Francisco Franco dictatorship.", "On the other hand, the main objectives of Spain were to achieve economic development, and also a social modernization.", "Spain was one of the few countries to vote Yes for the European Constitution in a referendum in February 2005, though by a lower margin in Catalonia and the Basque Country.", "In 2008, after the financial crisis reached Spain, the percentage of pro European persons started to fall.", "Thus, during the five years of the economic crisis, the Eurobarometer shows how the trust in the EU increasingly fell in Spain, and the confidence of the Spanish citizens in the European Union decreased for more than 50 points.", "Spain became one of the most Eurosceptic countries among all European Union Members, as it happened in pretty much European countries, where nationalist and eurosceptic characterised parties became stronger.The historical two-parties system, composed by the conservative Partido Popular and the social-democratic Partido Socialista Obrero Español, collapsed.", "In the 2000s, the liberal Ciudadanos and leftist party Podemos became part of the political context, gaining electoral consensus, followed years later by ultranationalist party Vox.", "The new parties were the effect of the disaffection of most Spaniards towards politics and politicians, that increased for several reasons: firstly, corruption at all political levels, reaching the Royal Family too; secondly, recession intensified distrust of the population towards national government; thirdly, a phase of renovation of the autonomous regions which extended the distance between the National government and the Regional ones.", "Candidatura d'Unitat Popular, a left-wing to far-left political party with about 1,300 members advocates independence for Catalonia outside of the European Union.", "Up to 2014 European elections, there were no Spanish parties present in the Eurosceptic groups at the European Parliament.", "In the 2015 Spanish general election, Podemos became the first left-wing Eurosceptic political party to win seats in the Congress of Deputies, obtaining 69 seats, and in the 2019 Spanish general election, Vox became the first far-right Eurosceptic political party to win seats in the Congress of Deputies, obtaining 24 seats.===Sweden===The Left Party of Sweden is against accession to the eurozone and previously wanted Sweden to leave the European Union until 2019.The nationalist and right-wing populist party Sweden Democrats (SD) support closer political, economic and military cooperation with neighboring Nordic and certain Northern European countries, but strongly oppose further EU integration and further transfers of Swedish sovereignty to the EU as a whole.", "The party is also against Swedish accession to the eurozone, the creation of a combined EU military budget and want to renegotiate Swedish membership of the Schengen Agreement.", "The SD also want a constitutional amendment to require that all EU treaties must be voted on by the Swedish public first and that if the EU cannot be reformed and assumes more power at the expense of national sovereignty Sweden must exit the bloc.The June List, a Eurosceptic list consisting of members from both the political right and left won three seats in the 2004 Elections to the European Parliament and sat in the EU-critical IND/DEM group in the European Parliament.", "The movement favours a withdrawal from the EU.Around 75% of the Riksdag members represent parties that officially supports the Sweden membership.In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Sweden Democrats gained 2 seats with 9.7% of the vote, up 6.4%, and the Left Party took one seat with 6.3% of the vote.In the European Parliament election, 2019, the Sweden Democrats increased from 2 to 3 seats with 15.3% of the vote, up from 9.7%, and the Left Party retained its one seat with 6.8% of the vote.In winter 2019–2020, in connection with the request from \"poor\" member countries of much higher membership fees for \"rich\" member countries, for the reason of keeping support levels so \"poor\" countries would not suffer from Brexit, where a \"rich\" country left the union in part due to high membership fees, a media and social media debate for a \"Swexit\" increased.", "This was still rejected by parties representing a majority of the parliament, with the COVID-19 pandemic quickly taking over the debate." ], [ "In other European countries", "===Armenia===Prosperous Armenia represents the main Eurosceptic party in Armenia.", "Following the 2018 Armenian parliamentary election, the party gained 26 seats in the National Assembly, becoming the official opposition.", "Following the 2021 Armenian parliamentary election, the party lost all political representation and currently acts as an extra-parliamentary force.", "The party was a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe.===Bosnia and Herzegovina===The Alliance of Independent Social Democrats is a Bosnian Serb political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "Founded in 1996, it is the governing party in Bosnia and Herzegovina's entity called Republika Srpska, with its leader being Milorad Dodik.===Georgia===Georgian March is the main Eurosceptic party in Georgia.", "The party supports a slight distancing of Georgia from the West, as well as rejecting the country's entrance into NATO.In March 2022, Georgia submitted a formal application for membership of the EU.===Iceland===The three main Eurosceptic parties in Iceland are the Independence Party, Left-Green Movement and the Progressive Party.", "The Independence Party and the Progressive Party won the parliamentary election in April 2013 and they have halted the current negotiations with the European Union regarding Icelandic membership and tabled a parliamentary resolution on 21 February 2014 to withdraw the application completely.In 2017, Iceland's newly elected government announced that it would hold a vote in parliament on whether to hold a referendum on resuming EU membership negotiations.", "In November 2017 that government was replaced by a coalition of the Independence Party, the Left Green Movement and the Progressive Party; all of whom oppose membership.", "Only 11 out of 63 MPs are in favour of EU membership.===Moldova===The main Eurosceptic parties in Moldova are the left-wing Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova, which officially declared its main purpose to be the integration of Moldova in the Eurasian Economic Union, the Revival Party, and the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova, even if nowadays its leader speech became more soft on the issue of Euroscepticism.", "As of March 2022 all the parties are represented in Moldovan Parliament, with 37 MPs out of a total of 101 MPs.In March 2022, Moldova submitted a formal application for membership of the EU.===Montenegro===The right-wing Democratic Front alliance are the main moderate eurosceptic subject in the Parliament of Montenegro, although its initially declaratively supported country's bid for accession to the European Union, all other parliamentary subjects officially advocates Montenegrin access to EU.", "The only parties that advocates Montenegro's rejecting the European integration are the extra-parliamentary right-wing populist to far-right parties, such as True Montenegro, Party of Serb Radicals, Democratic Party of Unity and the Serb List, all four are known for their close cooperation with the parliamentary Democratic Front.===North Macedonia===Since having come into national opposition, and amid disagreements in the Macedonia naming dispute, the VMRO-DPMNE – which does not endorse the name of ''North Macedonia'', instead continuing to refer to ''Republic of Macedonia'' without qualifiers – no longer supports the country's candidacy for EU membership.", "It has subsequently declared its aspirations towards Russia.===Norway===Norway has rejected EU membership in two referendums, 1972 and 1994.The Centre Party, Christian Democratic Party, Socialist Left Party and Liberal Party were against EU membership in both referendums.", "The Liberal Party was particularly divided on the issue, and a large pro-EEC minority split off from the party before the 1972 referendum.", "In 2020, the Liberal Party officially reversed its position and since then, supports Norwegian EU membership.Among the established political parties of Norway, the Centre Party, Socialist Left Party, and Red Party are also against Norway's current membership of the European Economic Area.", "In addition, the libertarian Capitalist Party and Christian-conservative The Christians, both of whom have never held a seat in the Norwegian parliament, are also against Norway's membership in the EEA.===Russia===Russian President Vladimir Putin is an outspoken Eurosceptic who has promoted an alternative Economic Union with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan – the Eurasian Economic Union.Parties with mainly Eurosceptic views are the ruling United Russia, and opposition parties the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and Liberal Democratic Party of Russia.Following the 2014 Crimean crisis, the European Union issued sanctions on the Russian Federation in response to what it regards as the \"illegal\" annexation of Crimea and \"deliberate destabilisation\" of a neighbouring sovereign country.", "In response to this, Alexey Borodavkin – Russia's permanent representative with the UN – said \"The EU is committing a direct violation of human rights by its actions against Russia.", "The unilateral sanctions introduced against us are not only illegitimate according to international law, they also undermine Russian citizens' freedom of travel, freedom of development, freedom of work and others\".", "In the same year, Russian president Vladimir Putin said: \"What are the so-called European values?", "Maintaining the coup, the armed seizure of power and the suppression of dissent with the help of the armed forces?", "\"A February 2014 poll conducted by the Levada Center, Russia's largest independent polling organization, found that nearly 80% of Russian respondents had a \"good\" impression of the EU.", "This changed dramatically in 2014 with the Ukrainian crisis resulting in 70% taking a hostile view of the EU compared to 20% viewing it positively.A Levada poll released in August 2018 found that 68% of Russians polled believe that Russia needs to dramatically improve relations with Western countries.", "42% of Russian respondents said they had a positive view of the EU, up from 28% in May 2018.===San Marino===A referendum was held in the landlocked microstate on 20 October 2013 in which the citizens were asked whether the country should submit an application to join the European Union.", "The proposal was rejected because of a low turnout, even though 50.3% of voters approved it.", "The \"Yes\" campaign was supported by the main left-wing parties (Socialist Party, United Left) and the Union for the Republic whereas the Sammarinese Christian Democratic Party suggested voting with a blank ballot, the Popular Alliance declared itself neutral, and We Sammarinese and the RETE movement supported the \"No\" campaign.", "The Citizens' Rights Directive, which defines the right of free movement for the European citizens, may have been an important reason for those voting no.===Serbia===Serbian politician Boško Obradović, a prominent euroscepticIn Serbia, political parties with eurosceptic views tend to be right-orientated.", "The most notable examples are the ultranationalist Serbian Radical Party (SRS) which since its inception has opposed entering the European Union and the right-wing populist Dveri.", "Political parties such as the Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS) had pro-Western views and was initially supportive of the accession into the European Union but under the late 2000s leadership of Vojislav Koštunica they turned eurosceptic, and the Enough is Enough (DJB) political party, initially a liberal centrist party that also supported the accession turned towards the right-wing eurosceptic position shortly after 2018.Historically, the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS) and the Yugoslav Left (JUL) were the only two left-leaning political parties that imposed eurosceptic and anti-Western views.", "The ruling coalition in Serbia, For Our Children, which is predominantly pro-European orientated is also composed of two minor eurosceptic parties, the right-wing Serbian People's Party that advocates closer ties to Russia, and the left-leaning Movement of Socialists which was formed as the eurosceptic split from SPS in the 2000s.Other minor political parties in Serbia that have eurosceptic views are Healthy Serbia, People's Freedom Movement, Russian Party, Love, Faith, Hope, Serbian Party Oathkeepers, Serbian Right and Leviathan Movement.===Switzerland===Switzerland has long been known for its neutrality in international politics.", "Swiss voters rejected EEA membership in 1992, and EU membership in 2001.Despite the passing of several referendums calling for closer relations between Switzerland and the European Union such as the adoption of bilateral treaties and the joining of the Schengen Area, a second referendum of the joining of the EEA or the EU is not expected, and the general public remains opposed to joining.In February 2014, the Swiss voters narrowly approved a referendum limiting the freedom of movement of EU citizens to Switzerland.Eurosceptic political parties include the Swiss People's Party, which is the largest political party in Switzerland, with 29.4% of the popular vote as of the 2015 federal election.", "Smaller Eurosceptic parties include, but are not limited to, the Federal Democratic Union, the Ticino League, and the Geneva Citizens' Movement, all of which are considered right-wing parties.In addition, the Campaign for an Independent and Neutral Switzerland is a political organisation in Switzerland that is strongly opposed to Swiss membership of or further integration otherwise with the European Union.Regionally, the German-speaking majority as well as the Italian-speaking areas are the most Eurosceptic, while French-speaking Switzerland tends to be more pro-European integration.", "In the 2001 referendum, the majority of French-speakers voted against EU membership.", "According to a 2016 survey conducted by M.I.S Trend and published in ''L'Hebdo'', 69 percent of the Swiss population supports systematic border controls, and 53 percent want restrictions on the EU accord of the free movements of peoples and 14 percent want it completely abolished.", "54% of the Swiss population said that if necessary, they would ultimately keep the freedom of movement of people's accord.===Turkey===The two main Eurosceptic parties are the far-right ultranationalist, Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), which secured 11.1% of votes, and 49 seats in the Parliament at the last election, and the Felicity Party (Saadet Partisi), a far-right Sunni Islamist party, which has no seats in the Parliament, as it only secured 0.7% of the votes in the last election, far below the 10% threshold necessary to be represented in the Parliament.Many left-wing nationalist and far-left parties hold no seats at parliament but they control many activist and student movements in Turkey.", "The Patriotic Party (formerly called Workers' Party) consider the European Union as a front-runner of global imperialism.Founded on 26 August 2021 under the leadership of Ümit Özdağ, Victory Party (Turkey) is a Turkish nationalist and anti-immigrant political party.", "It is represented by two deputies in the Turkish Grand National Assembly.", "\"The European Union does not want to negotiate with Turkey.", "We will not humiliate Turkey anymore.\"", "Özdağ said.===Ukraine===Dmytro Yarosh, leader of the Ukrainian hard Eurosceptic party Right Sector Parties with mainly Eurosceptic views are Opposition Platform – For Life, Opposition Bloc, Party of Shariy and Right Sector.The far-right Ukrainian group Right Sector opposes joining the European Union.", "It regards the EU as an \"oppressor\" of European nations.In the 2019 parliamentary election the Opposition Platform – For Life won 37 seats on the nationwide party list and 6 constituency seats.The leader of the Party of Shariy Anatoly Shariy is one of the closest associates of Viktor Medvedchuk, whom Ukraine's special services suspect of financing terrorism.===United Kingdom===Nigel Farage, former Leader of UKIP and the Brexit Party and former co-leader of the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group in the European Parliament.", "Farage is one of the most prominent Eurosceptic figures in the UK.Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom has been a significant element in British politics ever since the inception of the European Economic Community (EEC), the predecessor to the EU.", "The European Union strongly divides the British public, political parties, media and civil society.The UK Independence Party has backed the idea of the UK unilaterally leaving the European Union (Brexit) since its foundation in 1993.During the 23 June 2016 referendum on the issue, whilst the Conservatives had no official position, although its leader David Cameron was in favour of remaining in the EU albeit after some renegotiation of the terms of membership, the party remained profoundly split, as it always had been.", "The Labour Party officially supported remaining in the EU, although party leader Jeremy Corbyn did suggest early on in the campaign that he would consider withdrawal, a position he had personally advocated from the far left for many years, throughout his period as a Labour MP.", "The Liberal Democrats were the most adamantly pro-EU party, and since the referendum, pro-Europeanism has been their main policy.The referendum resulted in an overall vote to leave the EU, as opposed to remaining an EU member, by 51.9% to 48.1%, on a turnout of 72.2%.", "The vote was split between the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, with a majority in England and Wales voting to leave, and a majority in Scotland and Northern Ireland, as well as Gibraltar (a British Overseas Territory), voting to remain.", "As a result of the referendum, the UK Government notified the EU of its intention to withdraw on 29 March 2017 by invoking Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty.On 12 April 2019, a new Eurosceptic party, the Brexit Party was officially launched by former UK Independence Party Leader Nigel Farage.In the 2019 European Parliament election, the Brexit Party topped the national poll by a large margin with 31.7% gaining 29 seats by running on a single policy of leaving the EU, versus the second-placed Liberal Democrats with 18.5% and 16 seats who promoted themselves as the party of Remain (the total vote for Remain-supporting parties was approximately the same as that for parties supporting a 'no-deal' Brexit).", "The Conservative Party suffered their lowest ever national vote share of 9.1% with just 4 seats following 3 years of Theresa May's unsuccessful Brexit negotiations.", "The Labour Party's ambiguous position on Brexit led to their vote share dropping significantly to 14.1% resulting in the loss of half their seats, down from 20 to 10.The rapid growth of the Brexit Party was a contributing factor to Theresa May announcing on 24 May that she would step down as Prime Minister on 7 June 2019.After the elections, the Eurosceptic Blue Collar Conservative caucus of Conservative MPs was formed.Historically, the Conservative Party has expressed divided sentiments on the issue of EU membership, with the official stance changing with party leadership and individual MPs within the party variously favouring total withdrawal and remaining in the EU, while others adopted a position of soft Euroscepticism being supportive of membership but opposed to joining the eurozone and pursuing further integration.", "Until the 1980s, the Conservative Party was somewhat more pro-EU than the Labour Party: for example, in the 1971 House of Commons vote on whether the UK should join the European Economic Community, only 39 of the then 330 Conservative MPs were opposed to membership.", "When Margaret Thatcher came into power in 1979, the Conservative parties view on the EU saw a big shift from supporting the EU to becoming skeptical, thus campaigning against increasing its powers.", "Thatcher was seen as the \"spiritual mother\" of Euroscepticism and was one of the most important Eurosceptic voices in the United Kingdom, ultimately changing the Conservative parties view on the EU throughout the 1980s.", "In 2009 the Conservative Party actively campaigned against the Lisbon Treaty, which it believed would give away too much sovereignty to Brussels.", "Shadow Foreign Secretary William Hague stated that, should the treaty be in force by the time of an incoming Conservative government, he would \"not let matters rest there\".", "Following the election of Boris Johnson as leader in 2019, the Conservative Party became a strong supporter of the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union and its platform was changed to unanimously support EU withdrawal.", "In the 2019 general election the Conservative Party adopted a clear pro-Brexit platform in its manifesto.Although often associated with being a cause on the right in the twenty-first century with the contemporary Labour Party supporting EU membership, there have been notable Eurosceptic politicians on the left of British politics, such as former Labour cabinet minister Tony Benn who held a longstanding opposition to British membership of the EU throughout his career.", "Other Labour MPs who have supported eurosceptic sentiments and British withdrawal have included Kate Hoey, Frank Field, Graham Stringer, Ian Austin, Tom Harris, Gisela Stuart and Austin Mitchell.", "Other figures on the left have included George Galloway and socialist politician and trade unionist Arthur Scargill who both endorsed Britain's exit from the European Union.On 23 January 2020, the Parliament of the United Kingdom ratified a withdrawal agreement from the European Union, which was ratified by the EU Parliament on 30 January.", "On 31 January, the United Kingdom officially left the European Union after 47 years.", "During a transition period until 31 December 2020, the UK still followed EU rules and continued free trade and free movement for people within the European Union." ], [ "Counter-criticism", "Ben Chu, writing for ''The Independent'', argued against the left-wing notion that the EU is a neoliberal organization, pointing to \"high levels of social protection, state-owned rail companies, nationalised utilities and banks, various price controls and industrial interventions\"." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-Federalism* European Referendum Campaign* Europeanism* Fourth Reich* Globalisation* Institutions of the European Union* Radical right in Europe* States' rights (US)* Subsidiarity* United States of Europe* Withdrawal from the European Union" ], [ "References" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Estimator" ], [ "Introduction", "An estimate is not the same thing as an estimator: an estimate is a specific value dependent on only the dataset while an estimator is a method for estimation that is realized through random variables.In statistics, an '''estimator''' is a rule for calculating an estimate of a given quantity based on observed data: thus the rule (the estimator), the quantity of interest (the estimand) and its result (the estimate) are distinguished.", "For example, the sample mean is a commonly used estimator of the population mean.There are point and interval estimators.", "The point estimators yield single-valued results.", "This is in contrast to an interval estimator, where the result would be a range of plausible values.", "\"Single value\" does not necessarily mean \"single number\", but includes vector valued or function valued estimators.", "''Estimation theory'' is concerned with the properties of estimators; that is, with defining properties that can be used to compare different estimators (different rules for creating estimates) for the same quantity, based on the same data.", "Such properties can be used to determine the best rules to use under given circumstances.", "However, in robust statistics, statistical theory goes on to consider the balance between having good properties, if tightly defined assumptions hold, and having less good properties that hold under wider conditions." ], [ "Background", "An \"estimator\" or \"point estimate\" is a statistic (that is, a function of the data) that is used to infer the value of an unknown parameter in a statistical model.", "A common way of phrasing it is \"the estimator is the method selected to obtain an estimate of an unknown parameter\".", "The parameter being estimated is sometimes called the ''estimand''.", "It can be either finite-dimensional (in parametric and semi-parametric models), or infinite-dimensional (semi-parametric and non-parametric models).", "If the parameter is denoted then the estimator is traditionally written by adding a circumflex over the symbol: .", "Being a function of the data, the estimator is itself a random variable; a particular realization of this random variable is called the \"estimate\".", "Sometimes the words \"estimator\" and \"estimate\" are used interchangeably.The definition places virtually no restrictions on which functions of the data can be called the \"estimators\".", "The attractiveness of different estimators can be judged by looking at their properties, such as unbiasedness, mean square error, consistency, asymptotic distribution, etc.", "The construction and comparison of estimators are the subjects of the estimation theory.", "In the context of decision theory, an estimator is a type of decision rule, and its performance may be evaluated through the use of loss functions.When the word \"estimator\" is used without a qualifier, it usually refers to point estimation.", "The estimate in this case is a single point in the parameter space.", "There also exists another type of estimator: interval estimators, where the estimates are subsets of the parameter space.The problem of density estimation arises in two applications.", "Firstly, in estimating the probability density functions of random variables and secondly in estimating the spectral density function of a time series.", "In these problems the estimates are functions that can be thought of as point estimates in an infinite dimensional space, and there are corresponding interval estimation problems." ], [ "Definition", "Suppose a fixed ''parameter'' needs to be estimated.", "Then an \"estimator\" is a function that maps the sample space to a set of ''sample estimates''.", "An estimator of is usually denoted by the symbol .", "It is often convenient to express the theory using the algebra of random variables: thus if ''X'' is used to denote a random variable corresponding to the observed data, the estimator (itself treated as a random variable) is symbolised as a function of that random variable, .", "The estimate for a particular observed data value (i.e.", "for ) is then , which is a fixed value.", "Often an abbreviated notation is used in which is interpreted directly as a random variable, but this can cause confusion." ], [ "Quantified properties", "The following definitions and attributes are relevant.===Error===For a given sample , the \"error\" of the estimator is defined as:where is the parameter being estimated.", "The error, ''e'', depends not only on the estimator (the estimation formula or procedure), but also on the sample.===Mean squared error===The mean squared error of is defined as the expected value (probability-weighted average, over all samples) of the squared errors; that is,:It is used to indicate how far, on average, the collection of estimates are from the single parameter being estimated.", "Consider the following analogy.", "Suppose the parameter is the bull's-eye of a target, the estimator is the process of shooting arrows at the target, and the individual arrows are estimates (samples).", "Then high MSE means the average distance of the arrows from the bull's eye is high, and low MSE means the average distance from the bull's eye is low.", "The arrows may or may not be clustered.", "For example, even if all arrows hit the same point, yet grossly miss the target, the MSE is still relatively large.", "However, if the MSE is relatively low then the arrows are likely more highly clustered (than highly dispersed) around the target.===Sampling deviation===For a given sample , the ''sampling deviation'' of the estimator is defined as:where is the expected value of the estimator.", "The sampling deviation, ''d'', depends not only on the estimator, but also on the sample.===Variance===The variance of is the expected value of the squared sampling deviations; that is, .", "It is used to indicate how far, on average, the collection of estimates are from the ''expected value'' of the estimates.", "(Note the difference between MSE and variance.)", "If the parameter is the bull's-eye of a target, and the arrows are estimates, then a relatively high variance means the arrows are dispersed, and a relatively low variance means the arrows are clustered.", "Even if the variance is low, the cluster of arrows may still be far off-target, and even if the variance is high, the diffuse collection of arrows may still be unbiased.", "Finally, even if all arrows grossly miss the target, if they nevertheless all hit the same point, the variance is zero.===Bias===The bias of is defined as .", "It is the distance between the average of the collection of estimates, and the single parameter being estimated.", "The bias of is a function of the true value of so saying that the bias of is means that for every the bias of is .There are two kinds of estimators: biased estimators and unbiased estimators.", "Whether an estimator is biased or not can be identified by the relationship between and 0:* If , is biased.", "* If , is unbiased.The bias is also the expected value of the error, since .", "If the parameter is the bull's eye of a target and the arrows are estimates, then a relatively high absolute value for the bias means the average position of the arrows is off-target, and a relatively low absolute bias means the average position of the arrows is on target.", "They may be dispersed, or may be clustered.", "The relationship between bias and variance is analogous to the relationship between accuracy and precision.The estimator is an unbiased estimator of if and only if .", "Bias is a property of the estimator, not of the estimate.", "Often, people refer to a \"biased estimate\" or an \"unbiased estimate\", but they really are talking about an \"estimate from a biased estimator\", or an \"estimate from an unbiased estimator\".", "Also, people often confuse the \"error\" of a single estimate with the \"bias\" of an estimator.", "That the error for one estimate is large, does not mean the estimator is biased.", "In fact, even if all estimates have astronomical absolute values for their errors, if the expected value of the error is zero, the estimator is unbiased.", "Also, an estimator's being biased does not preclude the error of an estimate from being zero in a particular instance.", "The ideal situation is to have an unbiased estimator with low variance, and also try to limit the number of samples where the error is extreme (that is, have few outliers).", "Yet unbiasedness is not essential.", "Often, if just a little bias is permitted, then an estimator can be found with lower mean squared error and/or fewer outlier sample estimates.An alternative to the version of \"unbiased\" above, is \"median-unbiased\", where the median of the distribution of estimates agrees with the true value; thus, in the long run half the estimates will be too low and half too high.", "While this applies immediately only to scalar-valued estimators, it can be extended to any measure of central tendency of a distribution: see median-unbiased estimators.In a practical problem, can always have functional relationship with .", "For example, A genetic theory states there is a type of leave, starchy green, occur with probability , with .For leaves, the random variable , the number of starchy green leaves, can be modeled with a distribution.", "The number can be used to express the following estimator for : .", "One can show that is an unbiased estimator for :.===Unbiased===Difference between estimators: an unbiased estimator is centered around vs. a biased estimator .A desired property for estimators is the unbiased trait where an estimator is shown to have no systematic tendency to produce estimates larger or smaller than the provided probability.", "Additionally, unbiased estimators with smaller variances are preferred over larger variances because it will be closer to the \"true\" value of the parameter.", "The unbiased estimator with the smallest variance is known as the Minimum-variance unbiased estimator(MVUE).To find if your estimator is unbiased it is easy to follow along the equation , .", "With estimator ''T'' with and parameter of interest solving the previous equation so it is shown as the estimator is unbiased.", "Looking at the figure to the right despite being the only unbiased estimator.", "If the distributions overlapped and were both centered around then distribution would actually be the preferred unbiased estimator.", "'''Expectation'''When looking at quantities in the interest of expectation for the model distribution there is an unbiased estimator which should satisfy the two equations below.", "::'''Variance'''Similarly, when looking at quantities in the interest of variance as the model distribution there is also an unbiased estimator that should satisfy the two equations below.", "::Note we are dividing by ''n'' - 1 because if we divided with ''n'' we would obtain an estimator with a negative bias which would thus produce estimates that are too small for .", "It should also be mentioned that even though is unbiased for the reverse is not true.===Relationships among the quantities===*The mean squared error, variance, and bias, are related: i.e.", "mean squared error = variance + square of bias.", "In particular, for an unbiased estimator, the variance equals the mean squared error.", "*The standard deviation of an estimator of (the square root of the variance), or an estimate of the standard deviation of an estimator of , is called the ''standard error'' of .", "*The bias-variance tradeoff will be used in model complexity, over-fitting and under-fitting.", "It is mainly used in the field of supervised learning and predictive modeling to diagnose the performance of algorithms." ], [ "Sampling Distribution", "The sampling distribution can be shown by the estimator .", "represented by the random sample :.", "The sampling distribution is equivalent to the probability distribution of the estimator S which can also be represented by the equation::.where Y is the number of equal to zero and ''n'' is the number of trials.To understand why the expectation value is dependent on the probability () we need to understand the distribution.", "For example, in the sampling distribution for each ''i'' in the random dataset X it can be considered a success when X = 0.This makes Y is equal to the success of X = 0 in ''n'' trials.", "With the concept of Y either being a success or not it can be thought of as a binomial distribution with constant probability .", "Therefore, the sampling distribution S can be seen as the distribution making S a discrete random variable.", "As a result, the expectation for the sampling distribution can be thought of as :.proving that the property holds regardless of what the value of is.", "This shows that despite values fluctuating between samples estimators can be on target regardless of the differences." ], [ "Behavioral properties", "===Consistency===A consistent sequence of estimators is a sequence of estimators that converge in probability to the quantity being estimated as the index (usually the sample size) grows without bound.", "In other words, increasing the sample size increases the probability of the estimator being close to the population parameter.Mathematically, a sequence of estimators is a consistent estimator for parameter ''θ'' if and only if, for all , no matter how small, we have:.The consistency defined above may be called weak consistency.", "The sequence is ''strongly consistent'', if it converges almost surely to the true value.An estimator that converges to a ''multiple'' of a parameter can be made into a consistent estimator by multiplying the estimator by a scale factor, namely the true value divided by the asymptotic value of the estimator.", "This occurs frequently in estimation of scale parameters by measures of statistical dispersion.===Fisher Consistency===An estimator can be considered Fisher Consistent as long as the estimator is the same functional of the empirical distribution function as the true distribution function.", "Following the formula::Where and is the empirical distribution function and theoretical distribution functions respectively.", "An easy example to see if something is fisher consistent is to check the mean consistency and the variance.", "For example, to check consistency for the mean and to check for variance confirm that .===Asymptotic normality===An asymptotically normal estimator is a consistent estimator whose distribution around the true parameter ''θ'' approaches a normal distribution with standard deviation shrinking in proportion to as the sample size ''n'' grows.", "Using to denote convergence in distribution, ''tn'' is asymptotically normal if:for some ''V''.In this formulation ''V/n'' can be called the ''asymptotic variance'' of the estimator.", "However, some authors also call ''V'' the ''asymptotic variance''.Note that convergence will not necessarily have occurred for any finite \"n\", therefore this value is only an approximation to the true variance of the estimator, while in the limit the asymptotic variance (V/n) is simply zero.", "To be more specific, the distribution of the estimator ''tn'' converges weakly to a dirac delta function centered at .The central limit theorem implies asymptotic normality of the sample mean as an estimator of the true mean.More generally, maximum likelihood estimators are asymptotically normal under fairly weak regularity conditions — see the asymptotics section of the maximum likelihood article.", "However, not all estimators are asymptotically normal; the simplest examples are found when the true value of a parameter lies on the boundary of the allowable parameter region.===Efficiency===The efficiency of an estimator is used to estimate the quantity of interest in a \"minimum error\" manner.", "In reality, there is not an explicit best estimator; there can only be a better estimator.", "The good or not of the efficiency of an estimator is based on the choice of a particular loss function, and it is reflected by two naturally desirable properties of estimators: to be unbiased and have minimal mean squared error (MSE) .", "These cannot in general both be satisfied simultaneously: an unbiased estimator may have a lower mean squared error than any biased estimator (see estimator bias).A function relates the mean squared error with the estimator bias.The first term represents the mean squared error; the second term represents the square of the estimator bias; and the third term represents the variance of the sample.", "The quality of the estimator can be identified from the comparison between the variance, the square of the estimator bias, or the MSE.", "The variance of the good estimator (good efficiency) would be smaller than the variance of the bad estimator (bad efficiency).", "The square of an estimator bias with a good estimator would be smaller than the estimator bias with a bad estimator.", "The MSE of a good estimator would be smaller than the MSE of the bad estimator.", "Suppose there are two estimator, is the good estimator and is the bad estimator.", "The above relationship can be expressed by the following formulas.Besides using formula to identify the efficiency of the estimator, it can also be identified through the graph.", "If an estimator is efficient, in the frequency vs. value graph, there will be a curve with high frequency at the center and low frequency on the two sides.", "For example:thumbIf an estimator is not efficient, the frequency vs. value graph, there will be a relatively more gentle curve.thumbTo put it simply, the good estimator has a narrow curve, while the bad estimator has a large curve.", "Plotting these two curves on one graph with a shared y-axis, the difference becomes more obvious.Comparison between good and bad estimator.Among unbiased estimators, there often exists one with the lowest variance, called the minimum variance unbiased estimator (MVUE).", "In some cases an unbiased efficient estimator exists, which, in addition to having the lowest variance among unbiased estimators, satisfies the Cramér–Rao bound, which is an absolute lower bound on variance for statistics of a variable.Concerning such \"best unbiased estimators\", see also Cramér–Rao bound, Gauss–Markov theorem, Lehmann–Scheffé theorem, Rao–Blackwell theorem.===Robustness===" ], [ "See also", "* Best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE)* Invariant estimator* Kalman filter* Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC)* Maximum a posteriori (MAP)* Method of moments, generalized method of moments* Minimum mean squared error (MMSE)* Particle filter* Pitman closeness criterion* Sensitivity and specificity* Shrinkage estimator* Signal processing* Testimator* Wiener filter* Well-behaved statistic" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* .", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Fundamentals on Estimation Theory" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emerald" ], [ "Introduction", "Main emerald producing countries'''Emerald''' is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6) colored green by trace amounts of chromium or sometimes vanadium.", "Beryl has a hardness of 7.5–8 on the Mohs scale.", "Most emeralds have much material trapped inside during the gem's formation, so their toughness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor.", "Emerald is a cyclosilicate." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"emerald\" is derived (via and ), from Vulgar Latin: ''esmaralda/esmaraldus'', a variant of Latin ''smaragdus'', which was via (smáragdos; \"green gem\") from a Semitic language.", "According to ''Webster's Dictionary'' the term emerald was first used in the 14th century." ], [ "Properties determining value", "Cut emeraldsEmeralds, like all colored gemstones, are graded using four basic parameters known as \"the four ''C''s\": ''color'', ''clarity,'' ''cut'' and ''carat weight''.", "Normally, in grading colored gemstones, color is by far the most important criterion.", "However, in the grading of emeralds, clarity is considered a close second.", "A fine emerald must possess not only a pure verdant green hue as described below, but also a high degree of transparency to be considered a top gemstone.This member of the beryl family ranks among the traditional \"big four\" gems along with diamonds, rubies and sapphires.In the 1960s, the American jewelry industry changed the definition of ''emerald'' to include the green vanadium-bearing beryl.", "As a result, ''vanadium emeralds'' purchased as emeralds in the United States are not recognized as such in the United Kingdom and Europe.", "In America, the distinction between traditional emeralds and the new vanadium kind is often reflected in the use of terms such as \"Colombian emerald\".===Color===In gemology, color is divided into three components: ''hue'', ''saturation'', and ''tone''.", "Emeralds occur in hues ranging from yellow-green to blue-green, with the primary hue necessarily being green.", "Yellow and blue are the normal secondary hues found in emeralds.", "Only gems that are medium to dark in tone are considered emeralds; light-toned gems are known instead by the species name ''green beryl''.", "The finest emeralds are approximately 75% tone on a scale where 0% tone is colorless and 100% is opaque black.", "In addition, a fine emerald will be saturated and have a hue that is bright (vivid).", "Gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in emeralds; a grayish-green hue is a dull-green hue.===Clarity===Brazilian emerald (grass-green variety of the mineral beryl) in a quartz-pegmatite matrix with typical hexagonal, prismatic crystals.Emeralds tend to have numerous inclusions and surface-breaking fissures.", "Unlike diamonds, where the loupe standard (i.e., 10× magnification) is used to grade clarity, emeralds are graded by eye.", "Thus, if an emerald has no visible inclusions to the eye (assuming normal visual acuity) it is considered flawless.", "Stones that lack surface breaking fissures are extremely rare and therefore almost all emeralds are treated (\"oiled\", see below) to enhance the apparent clarity.", "The inclusions and fissures within an emerald are sometimes described as ''jardin'' (French for ''garden''), because of their mossy appearance.", "Imperfections are unique for each emerald and can be used to identify a particular stone.", "Eye-clean stones of a vivid primary green hue (as described above), with no more than 15% of any secondary hue or combination (either blue or yellow) of a medium-dark tone, command the highest prices.", "The relative non-uniformity motivates the cutting of emeralds in cabochon form, rather than faceted shapes.", "Faceted emeralds are most commonly given an oval cut, or the signature emerald cut, a rectangular cut with facets around the top edge.===Treatments===Most emeralds are oiled as part of the post-lapidary process, in order to fill in surface-reaching cracks so that clarity and stability are improved.", "Cedar oil, having a similar refractive index, is often used in this widely adopted practice.", "Other liquids, including synthetic oils and polymers with refractive indexes close to that of emeralds, such as ''Opticon'', are also used.", "The least expensive emeralds are often treated with epoxy resins, which are effective for filling stones with many fractures.", "These treatments are typically applied in a vacuum chamber under mild heat, to open the pores of the stone and allow the fracture-filling agent to be absorbed more effectively.", "The U.S. Federal Trade Commission requires the disclosure of this treatment when an oil-treated emerald is sold.", "The use of oil is traditional and largely accepted by the gem trade, although oil-treated emeralds are worth much less than untreated emeralds of similar quality.", "Untreated emeralds must also be accompanied by a certificate from a licensed, independent gemology laboratory.", "Other treatments, for example the use of green-tinted oil, are not acceptable in the trade.", "Gems are graded on a four-step scale; ''none'', ''minor'', ''moderate'' and ''highly'' enhanced.", "These categories reflect levels of enhancement, not ''clarity''.", "A gem graded ''none'' on the enhancement scale may still exhibit visible inclusions.", "Laboratories apply these criteria differently.", "Some gemologists consider the mere presence of oil or polymers to constitute enhancement.", "Others may ignore traces of oil if the presence of the material does not improve the look of the gemstone." ], [ "Emerald mines", "A Colombian trapiche emeraldEmeralds in antiquity were mined in Ancient Egypt at locations on Mount Smaragdus since 1500 BC, and India and Austria since at least the 14th century AD.", "The Egyptian mines were exploited on an industrial scale by the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and later by Islamic conquerors.", "Mining in Egypt ceased with the discovery of the Colombian deposits.", "Today, only ruins remain in Egypt.Colombia is by far the world's largest producer of emeralds, constituting 50–95% of the world production, with the number depending on the year, source and grade.", "Emerald production in Colombia has increased drastically in the last decade, increasing by 78% from 2000 to 2010.The three main emerald mining areas in Colombia are Muzo, Coscuez, and Chivor.", "Rare \"trapiche\" emeralds are found in Colombia, distinguished by ray-like spokes of dark impurities.Zambia is the world's second biggest producer, with its Kafubu River area deposits (Kagem Mines) about southwest of Kitwe responsible for 20% of the world's production of gem-quality stones in 2004.In the first half of 2011, the Kagem Mines produced 3.74 tons of emeralds.Emeralds are found all over the world in countries such as Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Canada, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, France, Germany, India, Kazakhstan, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Russia, Somalia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Tanzania, the United States, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.", "In the US, emeralds have been found in Connecticut, Montana, Nevada, North Carolina, and South Carolina.", "In 1998, emeralds were discovered in the Yukon Territory of Canada.=== Origin determinations ===Since the onset of concerns regarding diamond origins, research has been conducted to determine if the mining location could be determined for an emerald already in circulation.", "Traditional research used qualitative guidelines such as an emerald's color, style and quality of cutting, type of fracture filling, and the anthropological origins of the artifacts bearing the mineral to determine the emerald's mine location.", "More recent studies using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy methods have uncovered trace chemical element differences between emeralds, including ones mined in close proximity to one another.", "American gemologist David Cronin and his colleagues have extensively examined the chemical signatures of emeralds resulting from fluid dynamics and subtle precipitation mechanisms, and their research demonstrated the chemical homogeneity of emeralds from the same mining location and the statistical differences that exist between emeralds from different mining locations, including those between the three locations: Muzo, Coscuez, and Chivor, in Colombia, South America." ], [ "Synthetic emerald", "Emerald showing its hexagonal structureBoth hydrothermal and ''flux-growth'' synthetics have been produced, and a method has been developed for producing an emerald overgrowth on colorless beryl.", "The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham, likely involving a lithium vanadate flux process, as Chatham's emeralds do not have any water and contain traces of vanadate, molybdenum and vanadium.", "The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., whose products have been on the market since 1964.Gilson's emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds, which are coated on both sides.", "Growth occurs at the rate of 1 mm per month, a typical seven-month growth run produces emerald crystals 7 mm thick.Hydrothermal synthetic emeralds have been attributed to IG Farben, Nacken, Tairus, and others, but the first satisfactory commercial product was that of Johann Lechleitner of Innsbruck, Austria, which appeared on the market in the 1960s.", "These stones were initially sold under the names \"Emerita\" and \"Symeralds\", and they were grown as a thin layer of emerald on top of natural colorless beryl stones.", "Later, from 1965 to 1970, the Linde Division of Union Carbide produced completely synthetic emeralds by hydrothermal synthesis.", "According to their patents (attributable to E.M. Flanigen), acidic conditions are essential to prevent the chromium (which is used as the colorant) from precipitating.", "Also, it is important that the silicon-containing nutrient be kept away from the other ingredients to prevent nucleation and confine growth to the seed crystals.", "Growth occurs by a diffusion-reaction process, assisted by convection.", "The largest producer of hydrothermal emeralds today is Tairus, which has succeeded in synthesizing emeralds with chemical composition similar to emeralds in alkaline deposits in Colombia, and whose products are thus known as “Colombian created emeralds” or “Tairus created emeralds”.", "Luminescence in ultraviolet light is considered a supplementary test when making a natural versus synthetic determination, as many, but not all, natural emeralds are inert to ultraviolet light.", "Many synthetics are also UV inert.Emerald made by hydrothermal synthesisSynthetic emeralds are often referred to as \"created\", as their chemical and gemological composition is the same as their natural counterparts.", "The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has very strict regulations as to what can and what cannot be called a \"synthetic\" stone.", "The FTC says: \"§ 23.23(c) It is unfair or deceptive to use the word \"laboratory-grown\", \"laboratory-created\", \"manufacturer name-created\", or \"synthetic\" with the name of any natural stone to describe any industry product unless such industry product has essentially the same optical, physical, and chemical properties as the stone named.\"" ], [ "In culture and lore", "Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological sign of Cancer (June/July)Traditional alchemical lore ascribes several uses and characteristics to emeralds:The virtue of the Emerald is to counteract poison.", "They say that if a venomous animal should look at it, it will become blinded.", "The gem also acts as a preservative against epilepsy; it cures leprosy, strengthens sight and memory, checks copulation, during which act it will break, if worn at the time on the finger.According to French writer Brantôme ( 1540-1614) Hernán Cortés had one of the emeralds which he had looted from Mexico text engraved, ''Inter Natos Mulierum non surrexit major'' (\"Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater,\" Matthew 11:11), in reference to John the Baptist.", "Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss in 1541 of an extremely precious pearl(to which he dedicated a work, ''A beautiful and incomparable pearl''), and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died (1574) soon afterward.In American author L. Frank Baum's 1900 children's novel ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'', and the 1939 MGM film adaptation, the protagonist must travel to an Emerald City to meet the eponymous character, the Wizard.The chief deity of one of India's most famous temples, the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, is the goddess Meenakshi, whose idol is traditionally thought to be made of emerald." ], [ "Notable emeralds", " Emerald Origin Size LocationChipembeleZambia, 20217,525 carats (1.505kg)Israel Diamond Exchange, Eshed – GemstarBahia EmeraldBrazil, 2001180,000 carats, crystals in host rock 752 lb (341 kg) Los Angeles County Sheriff's DepartmentCarolina EmperorUnited States, 2009310 carats uncut, 64.8 carats cutNorth Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, RaleighChalk EmeraldColombia38.40 carats cut, then recut to 37.82 caratsNational Museum of Natural History, WashingtonDuke of Devonshire EmeraldColombia, before 18311,383.93 carats uncutNatural History Museum, LondonEmerald of Saint LouisAustria, probably Habachtal51.60 carats cutNational Museum of Natural History, ParisGachalá EmeraldColombia, 1967858 carats uncutNational Museum of Natural History, WashingtonMogul Mughal EmeraldColombia, 1107 A.H. (1695–1696 AD)217.80 carats cutMuseum of Islamic Art, Doha, Qatar Rockefeller Emerald Colombia 18.04 carats Octagonal step-cut Private collectionPatricia EmeraldColombia, 1920632 carats uncut, dihexagonal (12 sided)American Museum of Natural History, New YorkMim EmeraldColombia, 20141,390 carats uncut, dihexagonal (12 sided)Mim Museum, Beirut" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Émeraude, quartz 2.jpg|Emerald on quartz, from Carnaiba Mine, Pindobaçu, Campo Formoso ultramafic complex, Bahia, BrazilFile:Chalk emerald 03.jpg|The Chalk Emerald ring, containing a top-quality 37-carat emerald, in the U.S. National Museum of Natural HistoryFile:Зүмірет.jpg|Emerald crystalsFile:Beryl-130023.jpg|A 5-carat emerald from Muzo with hexagonal cross-sectionFile:Gachala Emerald 3526711557 849c4c7367.jpg|Gachalá Emerald, one of the largest gem emeralds in the world, at .", "Found in 1967 at La Vega de San Juan mine in Gachalá, Colombia.", "Housed at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.File:Béryl var.", "émeraude sur gangue (Muzo Mine Boyaca - Colombie) -2.jpg|Colombian emeraldsFile:Rough emerald crystals from Panjshir Valley Afghanistan.jpg|Rough emerald crystals from Panjshir Valley AfghanistanFile:Mim emerald.jpg|Large, di-hexagonal prismatic crystal of 1,390 carats uncut with a deep green color.", "It is transparent and features few inclusions in the upper 2/3, and is translucent in the lower part.", "Housed at the Mim Museum, Beirut, Lebanon.File:Amélie de Leuchtenberg - Impératrice du Brésil.png|Empress Amélie of Brazil wearing an emerald parure and the insignia of the Order of the Rose" ], [ "See also", "*List of emeralds by size*List of minerals*Mineral industry of Colombia*Colombian emeralds*Cardinal gem*Sapphire*Ruby*Red beryl" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ali, Saleem H. (2006).", "The Emerald City: Emerald mining in Brazil (+Gemstone mining in other countries) https://web.archive.org/web/20071014012610/http://www.uvm.edu/envnr/gemecology/brazil.html * Cooper, J. C.", "(ed.)", "(1992).", "''Brewer's Myth and Legend''.", "New York: Cassell Publishers Ltd.", ".", "* Giuliani, Gaston, Ed.", "(2022).", "Émeraudes, tout un monde.", "Led Editions du Piat, * Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis (1985).", "''Manual of Mineralogy'' (20th ed.).", "New York: John Wiley and Sons.", ".", "* Sinkankas, John (1994).", "''Emerald & Other Beryls''.", "Prescott, Ariz.: Geoscience Press.", ".", "* Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste (1925 1676).", "''Travels in India'' (second edition), Volume II.", "Edited by William Crooke and translated by V. Ball.", "London: Oxford University Press.", "* Weinstein, Michael (1958).", "''The World of Jewel Stones''.", "New York: Sheriden House.", ".", "* Wise, Richard W. (2003).", "''Secrets of the Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones''.", "Lenox, Mass.", ": Brunswick House Press.", ".", ".", "Online Emerald chapters." ], [ "External links", "* ICA's Emerald Page International Colored Gemstone Association Emerald Page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erie Canal" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Erie Canal''' is a historic canal in upstate New York that runs east–west between the Hudson River and Lake Erie.", "Completed in 1825, the canal was the first navigable waterway connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes, vastly reducing the costs of transporting people and goods across the Appalachians.", "In effect, the canal accelerated the settlement of the Great Lakes region, the westward expansion of the United States, and the economic ascendancy of New York State.", "It has been called \"The Nation's First Superhighway.", "\"A canal from the Hudson to the Great Lakes was first proposed in the 1780s, but a formal survey was not conducted until 1808.The New York State Legislature authorized construction in 1817.Political opponents of the canal, and of its lead supporter New York Governor DeWitt Clinton, denigrated the project as \"Clinton's Folly\" and \"Clinton's Big Ditch\".", "Nonetheless, the canal saw quick success upon opening on October 26, 1825, with toll revenue covering the state's construction debt within the first year of operation.", "The westward connection gave New York City a strong advantage over all other U.S. ports and brought major growth to canal cities such as Albany, Utica, Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo.The construction of the Erie Canal was a landmark civil engineering achievement in the early history of the United States.", "When built, the canal was the second-longest in the world (after the Grand Canal in China).", "Initially wide and deep, the canal was expanded several times, most notably from 1905 to 1918 when the \"Barge Canal\" was built and over half the original route was abandoned.", "The modern Barge Canal measures long, wide, and deep.", "It has 34 locks, including the Waterford Flight, the steepest locks in the United States.", "When leaving the canal, boats must also traverse the Black Rock Lock to reach Lake Erie or the Troy Federal Lock to reach the tidal Hudson.", "The overall elevation difference is about .The Erie's peak year was 1855, when 33,000 commercial shipments took place.", "It continued to be competitive with railroads until about 1902, when tolls were abolished.", "Commercial traffic declined heavily in the latter half of the 20th century due to competition from trucking and the 1959 opening of the larger St. Lawrence Seaway.", "The canal's last regularly scheduled hauler, the ''Day Peckinpaugh'', ended service in 1994.Today, the Erie Canal is mainly used by recreational watercraft.", "It connects the three other canals in the New York State Canal System: the Champlain, Oswego, and Cayuga–Seneca.", "Some long-distance boaters take the Erie as part of the Great Loop.", "The canal has also become a tourist attraction in its own right—a number of parks and museums are dedicated to its history.", "The Erie Canalway Trail is a popular cycling path that follows the canal across the state.", "In 2000, Congress designated the Erie Canalway National Heritage Corridor to protect and promote the system." ], [ "Ambiguity in name", "The waterway today referred to as the Erie Canal is quite different from the nineteenth-century Erie Canal.", "More than half of the original Erie Canal was destroyed or abandoned during construction of the New York State Barge Canal in the early 20th century.", "The sections of the original route remaining in use were widened significantly, mostly west of Syracuse, with bridges rebuilt and locks replaced.", "It was called the Barge Canal at the time, but that name fell into disuse with the disappearance of commercial traffic and the increase of recreational travel in the later 20th century." ], [ "History", "===Background===The Mohawk Valley, running east and west, cuts a natural path between the Catskill Mountains to the south and the Adirondack Mountains to the north.Erie Canal map Prior to the advent of railroads, water transport was the most cost-effective way to ship bulk goods.", "A mule can only carry about , but can draw a barge weighing as much as along a towpath.quotation page 87: \"There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a packhorse would carry only an eighth of a ton .", "On a soft road, a horse might be able to draw ths of a ton () or 5×.", "But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons ( or ) or 240× could be drawn by the same horse.\"", "In total, a canal could cut transport costs by about 95 percent.In the early years of the United States, transportation of goods between the coastal ports and the interior was slow and difficult.", "Close to the seacoast, rivers provided easy inland transport up to the fall line, since floating vessels encounter much less friction than land vehicles.", "However, the Appalachian Mountains were a great obstacle to further transportation or settlement, stretching from Maine to Alabama, with just five places where mule trains or wagon roads could be routed.Plains of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi (around the bottom), the Cumberland Gap pass connecting North Carolina/Southern Virginia with Kentucky/Tennessee, the Cumberland Narrows pass connecting Cumberland, Maryland (in Western Maryland) and Northern Virginia with West Virginia and Western Pennsylvania via Brownsville, Pennsylvania and the Monongahela River or the Youghiogheny River valley (both of the Ohio & Mississippi river system), the gaps of the Allegheny connecting the Susquehanna River Valley in central Pennsylvania with the Allegheny River valley (and again the Ohio Country), and lastly, the Mohawk River water gap and valley tributary of the Hudson River, creating what later advertising would call the level water route westwards.", "Passengers and freight bound for the western parts of the country had to travel overland, a journey made more difficult by the rough condition of the roads.", "In 1800, it typically took 2½ weeks to travel overland from New York to Cleveland, Ohio, () and 4 weeks to Detroit ().The principal exportable product of the Ohio Valley was grain, which was a high-volume, low-priced commodity, bolstered by supplies from the coast.", "Frequently it was not worth the cost of transporting it to far-away population centers.", "This was a factor leading to farmers in the west turning their grains into whiskey for easier transport and higher sales, and later the Whiskey Rebellion.", "In the 18th and early 19th centuries, it became clear to coastal residents that the city or state that succeeded in developing a cheap, reliable route to the West would enjoy economic success, and the port at the seaward end of such a route would see business increase greatly.", "In time, projects were devised in Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and relatively deep into the coastal states.====Topography====The Mohawk River (a tributary of the Hudson River) rises near Lake Ontario and runs in a glacial meltwater channel just north of the Catskill range of the Appalachian Mountains, separating them from the geologically distinct Adirondacks to the north.", "The Mohawk and Hudson valleys form the only cut across the Appalachians north of Alabama.", "A navigable canal through the Mohawk Valley would allow an almost complete water route from New York City in the south to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie in the west.", "Via the canal and these lakes, other Great Lakes, and to a lesser degree, related rivers, a large part of the continent's interior (and many settlements) would be made well connected to the Eastern seaboard.===Proposals===Governor DeWitt Clinton, champion of the canalThe idea of a canal to tie the East Coast to the new western settlements was discussed as early as 1724: New York provincial official Cadwallader Colden made a passing reference (in a report on fur trading) to improving the natural waterways of western New York.Gouverneur Morris and Elkanah Watson were early proponents of a canal along the Mohawk River.", "Their efforts led to the creation of the \"Western and Northern Inland Lock Navigation Companies\" in 1792, which took the first steps to improve navigation on the Mohawk and construct a canal between the Mohawk and Lake Ontario, but it was soon discovered that private financing was insufficient.Christopher Colles (who was familiar with the Bridgewater Canal) surveyed the Mohawk Valley, and made a presentation to the New York state legislature in 1784, proposing a shorter canal from Lake Ontario.", "The proposal drew attention and some action but was never implemented.Jesse Hawley had envisioned encouraging the growing of large quantities of grain on the western New York plains (then largely unsettled) for sale on the Eastern seaboard.", "However, he went bankrupt trying to ship grain to the coast.", "While in Canandaigua debtors' prison, Hawley began pressing for the construction of a canal along the -long Mohawk River valley with support from Joseph Ellicott (agent for the Holland Land Company in Batavia).", "Ellicott realized that a canal would add value to the land he was selling in the western part of the state.", "He later became the first canal commissioner.New York legislators became interested in the possibility of building a canal across New York in the first decade of the 19th century.", "Shipping goods west from Albany was a costly and tedious affair; there was no railroad yet, and to cover the distance from Buffalo to New York City by stagecoach took two weeks.", "The problem was that the land rises about from the Hudson to Lake Erie.", "Locks at the time could handle up to of lift, so even with the heftiest cuttings and viaducts, fifty locks would be required along the canal.", "Such a canal would be expensive to build even with modern technology; in 1800, the expense was barely imaginable.", "President Thomas Jefferson called it \"little short of madness\" and rejected it.Eventually, Hawley interested New York Governor DeWitt Clinton in the project.", "There was much opposition, and the project was ridiculed as \"Clinton's folly\" and \"Clinton's ditch\".", "In 1817, though, Clinton received approval from the legislature for $7 million for construction.alt=Elevation drawing of the canal's length===Construction===Aqueduct over the Mohawk River at Rexford, one of 32 navigable aqueducts on the Erie Canal|alt=Black-and-white photo of aqueduct over curve in canalStonework of lock abandoned because of route change, at Durhamville, New YorkAn original five-step lock structure crossing the Niagara Escarpment at Lockport, now without gates and used as a cascade for excess waterThe original canal was long, from Albany on the Hudson to Buffalo on Lake Erie.", "The channel was cut wide and deep, with removed soil piled on the downhill side to form a walkway known as a towpath.", "Its construction, through limestone and mountains, proved a daunting task.", "To move earth, animals pulled a \"slip scraper\" (similar to a bulldozer).", "The sides of the canal were lined with stone set in clay, and the bottom was also lined with clay.", "The Canal was built by Irish laborers and German stonemasons.", "All labor on the canal depended upon human and animal power or the force of water.", "Engineering techniques developed during its construction included the building of aqueducts to redirect water; one aqueduct was long to span of river.", "As the canal progressed, the crews and engineers working on the project developed expertise and became a skilled labor force.The men who planned and oversaw construction were novices as surveyors and as engineers.", "There were no civil engineers in the United States.", "James Geddes and Benjamin Wright, who laid out the route, were judges whose experience in surveying was in settling boundary disputes.", "Geddes had only used a surveying instrument for a few hours before his work on the Canal.", "Canvass White was a 27-year-old amateur engineer who persuaded Clinton to let him go to Britain at his own expense to study the canal system there.", "Nathan Roberts was a mathematics teacher and land speculator.", "Yet these men \"carried the Erie Canal up the Niagara escarpment at Lockport, maneuvered it onto a towering embankment to cross over Irondequoit Creek, spanned the Genesee River on an awesome aqueduct, and carved a route for it out of the solid rock between Little Falls and Schenectady—and all of those venturesome designs worked precisely as planned\".Construction began on July 4, 1817, at Rome, New York.", "The first , from Rome to Utica, opened in 1819.At that rate, the canal would not be finished for 30 years.", "The main delays were caused by felling trees to clear a path through virgin forest and moving excavated soil, which took longer than expected, but the builders devised ways to solve these problems.", "To fell a tree, they threw rope over the top branches and winched it down.", "They pulled out the stumps with an innovative stump puller.", "Two huge wheels were mounted loose on the ends of an axle.", "A third wheel, slightly smaller than the others, was fixed to the center of the axle.", "A chain was wrapped around the axle and hooked to the stump.", "A rope was wrapped around the center wheel and hooked to a team of oxen.", "The mechanical advantage (torque) obtained ripped the stumps out of the soil.", "Soil to be moved was shoveled into large wheelbarrows that were dumped into mule-pulled carts.", "Using a scraper and a plow, a three-man team with oxen, horses and mules could build a mile in a year.The remaining problem was finding labor; increased immigration helped fill the need.", "Many of the laborers working on the canal were Irish, who had recently come to the United States as a group of about 5,000.Most of them were Roman Catholic, a religion that raised much suspicion in early America because of its hierarchic structure, and many laborers on the canal suffered violent assault as the result of misjudgment and xenophobia.Construction continued at an increased rate as new workers arrived.", "When the canal reached Montezuma Marsh (at the outlet of Cayuga Lake west of Syracuse), it was rumored that over 1,000 workers died of \"swamp fever\" (malaria), and construction was temporarily stopped.", "However, recent research has revealed that the death toll was likely much lower, as no contemporary reports mention significant worker mortality, and mass graves from the period have never been found in the area.", "Work continued on the downhill side towards the Hudson, and the crews worked on the section across the swampland when it froze in winter.The middle section from Utica to Salina (Syracuse) was completed in 1820, and traffic on that section started up immediately.", "Expansion to the east and west proceeded simultaneously, and the whole eastern section, from Brockport to Albany, opened on September 10, 1823, to great fanfare.", "The Champlain Canal, a separate but connected north–south route from Watervliet on the Hudson to Lake Champlain, opened on the same date.After Montezuma Marsh, the next difficulties were crossing Irondequoit Creek and the Genesee River near Rochester.", "The former ultimately required building the long \"Great Embankment\", to carry the canal at a height of above the level of the creek, which ran through a culvert underneath.", "The canal crossed the river on a stone aqueduct, long and wide, supported by 11 arches.In 1823 construction reached the Niagara Escarpment, an -high wall of hard dolomitic limestone.", "The route followed the channel of a creek that had cut a ravine steeply down the escarpment.", "The construction and operation of two sets of five locks along a corridor soon gave rise to the community of Lockport.", "The lift-locks had a total lift of , exiting into a deeply cut channel.", "The final leg had to be cut deep through another limestone mass, the Onondaga ridge.", "Much of that section was blasted with black powder, and the inexperience of the crews often led to accidents, and sometimes to rocks falling on nearby homes.Two villages competed to be the terminus: Black Rock, on the Niagara River, and Buffalo, at the eastern tip of Lake Erie.", "Buffalo expended great energy to widen and deepen Buffalo Creek to make it navigable and to create a harbor at its mouth.", "Buffalo won over Black Rock, and grew into a large city, eventually encompassing its former rival.===Completion===Keg poured in the \"Wedding of the Waters\"In 1824, before the canal was completed, a detailed ''Pocket Guide for the Tourist and Traveler, Along the Line of the Canals, and the Interior Commerce of the State of New York'', was published for the benefit of travelers and land speculators.The entire canal was officially completed on October 26, 1825.The event was marked by a statewide \"Grand Celebration\", culminating in a series of cannon shots along the length of the canal and the Hudson, a 90-minute cannonade from Buffalo to New York City.", "A flotilla of boats, led by Governor Dewitt Clinton aboard ''Seneca Chief'', sailed from Buffalo to New York City over ten days.", "Clinton then ceremonially poured Lake Erie water into New York Harbor to mark the \"Wedding of the Waters\".", "On its return trip, ''Seneca Chief'' brought back a keg of Atlantic Ocean water, which was poured into Lake Erie by Buffalo's Judge Samuel Wilkeson, who would later become mayor.The Erie Canal was thus completed in eight years at a total length of and cost $7.143 million (equivalent to $ million in ).", "It was acclaimed as an engineering marvel that united the country and helped New York City develop as an international trade center.Problems developed but were quickly solved.", "Leaks developed along the entire length of the canal, but these were sealed using cement that hardened underwater (hydraulic cement).", "Erosion on the clay bottom proved to be a problem and the speed was limited to .===Branch canals===1853 map of New York canalsAdditional feeder canals soon extended the Erie Canal into a system.", "These included the Cayuga-Seneca Canal south to the Finger Lakes, the Oswego Canal from Three Rivers north to Lake Ontario at Oswego, and the Champlain Canal from Troy north to Lake Champlain.", "From 1833 to 1877, the short Crooked Lake Canal connected Keuka Lake and Seneca Lake.", "The Chemung Canal connected the south end of Seneca Lake to Elmira in 1833, and was an important route for Pennsylvania coal and timber into the canal system.", "The Chenango Canal in 1836 connected the Erie Canal at Utica to Binghamton and caused a business boom in the Chenango River valley.", "The Chenango and Chemung canals linked the Erie with the Susquehanna River system.", "The Black River Canal connected the Black River to the Erie Canal at Rome and remained in operation until the 1920s.", "The Genesee Valley Canal was run along the Genesee River to connect with the Allegheny River at Olean, but the Allegheny section, which would have connected to the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, was never built.", "The Genesee Valley Canal was later abandoned and became the route of the Genesee Valley Canal Railroad.===First Enlargement===Camillus, New York, built in 1841 and abandoned ; one of 32 navigable aqueducts on the Erie Canal, it has since been restored.The original design planned for an annual tonnage of 1.5 million tons (1.36 million metric tons), but this was exceeded immediately.", "An ambitious program to improve the canal began in 1834.During this massive series of construction projects, known as the First Enlargement, the canal was widened from and deepened from .", "Locks were widened and/or rebuilt in new locations, and many new navigable aqueducts were constructed.", "The canal was straightened and slightly re-routed in some stretches, resulting in the abandonment of short segments of the original 1825 canal.", "The First Enlargement was completed in 1862, with further minor enlargements in later decades.===Railroad competition===Map of the \"Water Level Routes\" of the New York Central Railroad (purple), West Shore Railroad (red) and Erie Canal (blue)The Mohawk and Hudson Railroad opened in 1837, providing a bypass to the slowest part of the canal between Albany and Schenectady.", "Other railroads were soon chartered and built to continue the line west to Buffalo, and in 1842 a continuous line (which later became the New York Central Railroad and its Auburn Road in 1853) was open the whole way to Buffalo.", "As the railroad served the same general route as the canal, but provided for faster travel, passengers soon switched to it.", "However, as late as 1852, the canal carried thirteen times more freight tonnage than all the railroads in New York State combined.", "The New York, West Shore and Buffalo Railway was completed in 1884, as a route running closely parallel to both the canal and the New York Central Railroad.", "However, it went bankrupt and was acquired the next year by the New York Central.", "The canal continued to compete well with the railroads through 1902, when tolls were abolished.===Barge Canal===Two lift bridges in Lockport, New York, July 2010The modern Erie Canal has 34 locks, which are painted with the blue and gold colors of the New York State Canal System.In 1903 the New York State legislature authorized construction of the New York State Barge Canal as the \"Improvement of the Erie, the Oswego, the Champlain, and the Cayuga and Seneca Canals\".In 1905, construction of the Barge Canal began, which was completed in 1918, at a cost of $96.7 million.This new canal replaced much of the original route, leaving many abandoned sections (most notably between Syracuse and Rome).", "New digging and flood control technologies allowed engineers to canalize rivers that the original canal had sought to avoid, such as the Mohawk, Seneca, and Clyde rivers, and Oneida Lake.", "In sections that did not consist of canalized rivers (particularly between Rochester and Buffalo), the original Erie Canal channel was enlarged to wide and deep.", "The expansion allowed barges up to to use the Canal.", "This expensive project was politically unpopular in parts of the state not served by the canal, and failed to save it from becoming obsolete for commercial shipping.===Commercial decline===Freight traffic reached a total of 5.2 million short tons (4.7 million metric tons) by 1951.The growth of railroads and highways across the state, and the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1959, caused commercial traffic on the canal to decline dramatically during the second half of the 20th century.", "Since the 1990s, the canal system has been used primarily by recreational traffic.===New York State Canal System===In 1992, the New York State Barge Canal was renamed the New York State Canal System (including the Erie, Cayuga-Seneca, Oswego, and Champlain canals) and placed under the newly created New York State Canal Corporation, a subsidiary of the New York State Thruway Authority.", "While part of the Thruway, the canal system was operated using money generated by Thruway tolls.", "In 2017, the New York State Canal Corporation was transferred from the New York State Thruway to the New York Power Authority.In 2000, Congress designated the Erie Canalway National Heritage Corridor, covering of navigable water from Lake Champlain to the Capital Region and west to Buffalo.", "The area has a population of 2.7 million; about 75% of Central and Western New York's population lives within of the Erie Canal.There were some 42 commercial shipments on the canal in 2008, compared to 15 such shipments in 2007 and more than 33,000 shipments in 1855, the canal's peak year.", "The new growth in commercial traffic is due to the rising cost of diesel fuel.", "Canal barges can carry a short ton of cargo on one gallon of diesel fuel, while a gallon allows a train to haul the same amount of cargo and a truck .", "Canal barges can carry loads up to , and are used to transport objects that would be too large for road or rail shipment.", "In 2012, the New York State Canal System as a whole was used to ship 42,000 tons of cargo.Travel on the canal's middle section (particularly in the Mohawk Valley) was severely hampered by flooding in late June and early July 2006.Flood damage to the canal and its facilities was estimated as at least $15 million." ], [ "Route", "===Original Canal===The Erie made use of the favorable conditions of New York's unique topography, which provided that area with the only break in the Appalachians south of the St. Lawrence River.", "The Hudson is tidal to Troy, and Albany is west of the Appalachians.", "It allowed for east–west navigation from the coast to the Great Lakes within US territory.The canal began on the west side of the Hudson River at Albany, and ran north to Watervliet, where the Champlain Canal branched off.", "At Cohoes, it climbed the escarpment on the west side of the Hudson River—16 locks rising —and then turned west along the south shore of the Mohawk River, crossing to the north side at Crescent and again to the south at Rexford.", "The canal continued west near the south shore of the Mohawk River all the way to Rome, where the Mohawk turns north.At Rome, the canal continued west parallel to Wood Creek, which flows westward into Oneida Lake, and turned southwest and west cross-country to avoid the lake.", "From Canastota west, it ran roughly along the north (lower) edge of the Onondaga Escarpment, passing through Syracuse, Onondaga Lake, and Rochester.", "Before reaching Rochester, the canal uses a series of natural ridges to cross the deep valley of Irondequoit Creek.", "At Lockport the canal turned southwest to rise to the top of the Niagara Escarpment, using the ravine of Eighteen Mile Creek.The canal continued south-southwest to Pendleton, where it turned west and southwest, mainly using the channel of Tonawanda Creek.", "From the Tonawanda south toward Buffalo, it ran just east of the Niagara River, where it reached its \"Western Terminus\" at Little Buffalo Creek (later it became the Commercial Slip), which discharged into the Buffalo River just above its confluence with Lake Erie.", "With Buffalo's re-excavation of the Commercial Slip, completed in 2008, the Canal's original terminus is now re-watered and again accessible by boats.", "With several miles of the Canal inland of this location still lying under 20th-century fill and urban construction, the effective western navigable terminus of the Erie Canal is found at Tonawanda.===Barge Canal===North Tonawanda, about from the present-day western terminus of the Erie Canal where it connects to the Niagara RiverThe new alignment began on the Hudson River at the border between Cohoes and Waterford, where it ran northwest with five locks (the so-called \"Waterford Flight\"), running into the Mohawk River east of Crescent.", "The Waterford Flight is claimed to be one of the steepest series of locks in the world.While the old Canal ran next to the Mohawk all the way to Rome, the new canal ran through the river, which was straightened or widened where necessary.", "At Ilion, the new canal left the river for good, but continued to run on a new alignment parallel to both the river and the old canal to Rome.", "From Rome, the new route continued almost due west, merging with Fish Creek just east of its entry into Oneida Lake.From Oneida Lake, the new canal ran west along the Oneida River, with cutoffs to shorten the route.", "At Three Rivers, the Oneida River turns northwest, and was deepened for the Oswego Canal to Lake Ontario.", "The new Erie Canal turned south there along the Seneca River, which turns west near Syracuse and continues west to a point in the Montezuma Marsh.", "There the Cayuga and Seneca Canal continued south with the Seneca River, and the new Erie Canal again ran parallel to the old canal along the bottom of the Niagara Escarpment, in some places running along the Clyde River, and in some places replacing the old canal.", "At Pittsford, southeast of Rochester, the canal turned west to run around the south side of Rochester, rather than through downtown.", "The canal crosses the Genesee River at the Genesee Valley Park, then rejoins the old path near North Gates.From there it was again roughly an upgrade to the original canal, running west to Lockport.", "This reach of from Henrietta to Lockport is called \"the 60‑mile level\" since there are no locks and the water level rises only over the entire segment.", "Diversions from and to adjacent natural streams along the way are used to maintain the canal's level.", "It runs southwest to Tonawanda, where the new alignment discharges into the Niagara River, which is navigable upstream to the New York Barge Canal's Black Rock Lock and thence to the Canal's original \"Western Terminus\" at Buffalo's Inner Harbor." ], [ "Operations", "Lockport, New York, in 1839===Freight boats===Canal boats up to in draft were pulled by horses and mules walking on the towpath.", "The canal had one towpath, generally on the north side.", "When canal boats met, the boat with the right of way remained on the towpath side of the canal.", "The other boat steered toward the berm (or heelpath) side of the canal.", "The driver (or \"hoggee\", pronounced HO-gee) of the privileged boat kept his towpath team by the canalside edge of the towpath, while the hoggee of the other boat moved to the outside of the towpath and stopped his team.", "His towline would be unhitched from the horses, go slack, fall into the water and sink to the bottom, while his boat coasted with its remaining momentum.", "The privileged boat's team would step over the other boat's towline, with its horses pulling the boat over the sunken towline without stopping.", "Once clear, the other boat's team would continue on its way.Pulled by teams of horses, canal boats moved slowly, but methodically, shrinking time and distance.", "Efficiently, the smooth, nonstop method of transportation cut the travel time between Albany and Buffalo nearly in half, moving by day and by night.", "Migrants took passage on freight boats, camping on deck or on top of crates.===Passenger boats===''Nearing the Bend'', a nostalgic image of early canal travel by Edward Lamson Henry, Packet boats, serving passengers exclusively, reached speeds of up to and ran at much more frequent intervals than the cramped, bumpy stagecoach wagons.", "These boats, measuring up to long and wide, made ingenious use of space, accommodating up to 40 passengers at night and up to three times as many in the daytime.", "The best examples, furnished with carpeted floors, stuffed chairs, and mahogany tables stocked with books and current newspapers, served as sitting rooms during the days.", "At mealtimes, crews transformed the cabin into a dining room.", "Drawing a curtain across the width of the room divided the cabin into ladies' and gentlemen's sleeping quarters at night.", "Pull-down tiered beds folded from the walls, and additional cots could be hung from hooks in the ceiling.", "Some captains hired musicians and held dances.===Sunday closing debate===The New York State Legislature debated closing the locks of the Erie Canal on Sundays, when they convened in 1858.However, George Jeremiah and Dwight Bacheller, two of the bill's opponents, argued that the state had no right to stop canal traffic on the grounds that the Erie Canal and its tributaries had ceased to be wards of the state.", "The canal at its inception had been imagined as an extension of nature, an artificial river where there had been none.", "The canal succeeded by sharing more in common with lakes and seas than it had with public roads.", "Jeremiah and Bacheller argued, successfully, that just as it was unthinkable to halt oceangoing navigation on Sunday, so it was with the canal." ], [ "Impact", "=== Economic impact ===The canal at Clinton Square in Syracuse Rochester, New York, aqueduct Little Falls, a popular scenic stopThe Erie Canal greatly lowered the cost of shipping between the Midwest and the Northeast, bringing much lower food costs to Eastern cities and allowing the East to ship machinery and manufactured goods to the Midwest more economically.", "To give an example, the cost to transport barrel of flour from Rochester to Albany dropped from $3 (before the canal) to 75¢ on the canal.", "The canal also made an immense contribution to the wealth and importance of New York City, Buffalo and New York State.", "Its impact went much further, increasing trade throughout the nation by opening eastern and overseas markets to Midwestern farm products and by enabling migration to the West.", "The port of New York became essentially the Atlantic home port for all of the Midwest.", "Because of this vital connection and others to follow, such as the railroads, New York would become known as the \"Empire State\" or \"the great Empire State\".The Erie Canal was an immediate success.", "Tolls collected on freight had already exceeded the state's construction debt in its first year of official operation.", "By 1828, import duties collected at the New York Customs House supported federal government operations and provided funds for all the expenses in Washington except the interest on the national debt.", "Additionally, New York State's initial loan for the original canal had been paid by 1837.Although it had been envisioned as primarily a commercial channel for freight boats, passengers also traveled on the canal's packet boats.", "In 1825 more than 40,000 passengers took advantage of the convenience and beauty of canal travel.", "The canal's steady flow of tourists, businessmen and settlers lent it to uses never imagined by its initial sponsors.", "Evangelical preachers made their circuits of the upstate region, and the canal served as the last leg of the Underground Railroad ferrying runaway slaves to Buffalo near the Canada–US border.", "Aspiring merchants found that tourists were reliable customers.", "Vendors moved from boat to boat peddling items such as books, watches and fruit, while less scrupulous \"confidence men\" sold remedies for foot corns or passed off counterfeit bills.", "Tourists were carried along the \"northern tour,\" which ultimately led to the popular honeymoon destination Niagara Falls, just north of Buffalo.As the canal brought travelers to New York City, it took business away from other ports such as Philadelphia and Baltimore.", "Those cities and their states started projects to compete with the Erie Canal.", "In Pennsylvania, the Main Line of Public Works was a combined canal and railroad running west from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh on the Ohio River, opened in 1834.In Maryland, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ran west to Wheeling, West Virginia, then a part of Virginia, also on the Ohio River, and was completed in 1853.The canal played a major role in the growth of Standard Oil, as founder John D. Rockefeller used the canal as a cheaper form of transportation – in the summer months when it was not frozen – to get his refined oil from Cleveland to New York City.", "In the winter months his only options were the three trunk lines: the Erie Railroad, the New York Central Railroad, or the Pennsylvania Railroad.=== Migratory impact ===New ethnic Irish communities formed in some towns along its route after completion, as Irish immigrants were a large portion of the construction labor force.", "A plaque honoring the canal's construction is located in Battery Park in southern Manhattan.Because so many immigrants traveled on the canal, many genealogists have sought copies of canal passenger lists.", "Apart from the years 1827–1829, canal boat operators were not required to record passenger names or report them to the New York government.", "Some passenger lists survive today in the New York State Archives, and other sources of traveler information are sometimes available.The canal allowed Buffalo to grow from just 200 settlers in 1820 to more than 18,000 people by 1840.=== Cultural impact ===Low Bridge, Everybody Down\"The Canal also helped bind the still-new nation closer to Britain and Europe.", "Repeal of Britain's Corn Law resulted in a huge increase in exports of Midwestern wheat to Britain.", "Trade between the United States and Canada also increased as a result of the repeal and a reciprocity (free-trade) agreement signed in 1854.Much of this trade flowed along the Erie.Its success also prompted imitation: a rash of canal-building followed.", "Also, the many technical hurdles that had to be overcome made heroes of those whose innovations made the canal possible.", "This led to an increased public esteem for practical education.", "Chicago, among other Great Lakes cities, recognized the importance of the canal to its economy, and two West Loop streets are named \"Canal\" and \"Clinton\" (for canal proponent DeWitt Clinton).Concern that erosion caused by logging in the Adirondacks could silt up the canal contributed to the creation in 1885 of another New York National Historic Landmark, the Adirondack Park.Many notable authors wrote about the canal, including Herman Melville, Frances Trollope, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mark Twain, Samuel Hopkins Adams and the Marquis de Lafayette, and many tales and songs were written about life on the canal.", "The popular song \"Low Bridge, Everybody Down\" by Thomas S. Allen was written in 1905 to memorialize the canal's early heyday, when barges were pulled by mules rather than engines.Consisting of a massive stone aqueduct that carried boats over incredible cascades, Little Falls was one of the most popular stops for American and foreign tourists.", "This is shown in Scene 4 of William Dunlap's play ''A Trip to Niagara'', where he depicts the general preference of tourists to travel by canal so that they could experience a combination of artificial and natural sights.", "Canal travel was, for many, an opportunity to take in the sublime and commune with nature.", "The play also reflects the less enthusiastic view of some who saw movement on the canal as tedious.The Erie Canal changed property law in New York.", "Most importantly, it expanded the government's right to take private property.", "Cases surrounding the newly built Erie Canal expanded condemnation theory to permit canal builders to appropriate private land and broadened the meaning of \"public use\" in the 5th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.", "The canal also had an impact on water access jurisprudence as well as nuisance law." ], [ "The canal today", "Baldwinsville's Lock 24.MV ''Grande Caribe'' traversing the canal on an overnight cruise in 2014Today, the Erie Canal is used primarily by recreational vessels, though it remains served by several commercial barge-towing companies.The canal is open to small craft and some larger vessels from May through November each year.", "During winter, water is drained from parts of the canal for maintenance.", "The Champlain Canal, Lake Champlain, and the Chambly Canal, and Richelieu River in Canada form the Lakes to Locks Passage, making a tourist attraction of the former waterway linking eastern Canada to the Erie Canal.", "In 2006 recreational boating fees were eliminated to attract more visitors.The Erie Canal is a destination for tourists from all over the world, and has inspired guidebooks dedicated to exploration of the waterway.", "An Erie Canal Cruise company, based in Herkimer, operates from mid-May until mid-October with daily cruises.", "The cruise goes through the history of the canal and also takes passengers through Lock 18.Aside from transportation, numerous businesses, farms, factories and communities alongside its banks still utilize the canal's waters for other purposes such as irrigation for farmland, hydroelectricity, research, industry, and even drinking.", "Use of the canal system has an estimated total economic impact of $6.2 billion annually.===Old Erie Canal===Canalside, a re-created segment of the Old Erie Canal in BuffaloSecond Genesee Aqueduct in Rochester carried the Rochester Subway and now carries Broad StreetToday, the reconfiguration of the canal created during the First Enlargement is commonly referred to as the \"Improved Erie Canal\" or the \"Old Erie Canal\", to distinguish it from the canal's modern-day course.", "Existing remains of the 1825 canal abandoned during the Enlargement are officially referred to today as \"Clinton's Ditch\" (which was also the popular nickname for the entire Erie Canal project during its original 1817–1825 construction).Sections of the Old Erie Canal not used after 1918 are owned by New York State, or have been ceded to or purchased by counties or municipalities.", "Many stretches of the old canal have been filled in to create roads such as Erie Boulevard in Syracuse and Schenectady, and Broad Street and the Rochester Subway in Rochester.", "A 36‑mile (58 km) stretch of the old canal from the town of DeWitt, New York, east of Syracuse, to just outside Rome, New York, is preserved as the Old Erie Canal State Historic Park.", "In 1960 the Schoharie Crossing State Historic Site, a section of the canal in Montgomery County, was one of the first sites recognized as a National Historic Landmark.Some municipalities have preserved sections as town or county canal parks, or have plans to do so.", "Camillus Erie Canal Park preserves a stretch and has restored Nine Mile Creek Aqueduct, built in 1841 as part of the First Enlargement of the canal.", "In some communities, the old canal has refilled with overgrowth and debris.", "Proposals have been made to rehydrate the old canal through downtown Rochester or Syracuse as a tourist attraction.", "In Syracuse, the location of the old canal is represented by a reflecting pool in downtown's Clinton Square and the downtown hosts a canal barge and weigh lock structure, now dry.", "Buffalo's Commercial Slip is the restored and re-watered segment of the canal which formed its \"Western Terminus\".In 2004, the administration of New York Governor George Pataki was criticized when officials of New York State Canal Corporation attempted to sell private development rights to large stretches of the Old Erie Canal to a single developer for $30,000, far less than the land was worth on the open market.", "After an investigation by the ''Syracuse Post-Standard'' newspaper, the Pataki administration nullified the deal.====Parks and museums====Old Erie Canal Lock 52 in Port ByronOld Erie Canal State Historic Park in DeWittParks and museums related to the Old Erie Canal include (listed from east to west):* ''Day Peckinpaugh'' ship; restoration and conversion to a floating museum was planned for completion in 2012 by the New York State Museum* Watervliet Side Cut Locks, located at Watervliet and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971* Enlarged Erie Canal Historic District (Discontiguous), a national historic district located at Cohoes, New York listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004* Cohoes Falls Park, 231 N. Mohawk St., Cohoes, New York, offers, looking away from the river, a dramatic view of abandoned and dry Erie Canal lock 18, high above.", "* Enlarged Double Lock No.", "23, Old Erie Canal, Rotterdam* Schoharie Crossing State Historic Site at Fort Hunter* Old Erie Canal State Historic Park, 36-mile linear park from Rome to DeWitt** Erie Canal Village, near Rome** Canastota Canal Town Museum, Canastota** Chittenango Landing Canal Boat Museum, near Chittenango* Erie Canal Museum in downtown Syracuse* Camillus Erie Canal Park in Camillus* Jordan Canal Park in Jordan, town of Elbridge* Enlarged Double Lock No.", "33 Old Erie Canal, St. Johnsville* Erie Canal Lock 52 Complex, a national historic district located within the Old Erie Canal Heritage Park at Port Byron and Mentz in Cayuga County; listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998* Seneca River Crossing Canals Historic District, a national historic district located at Montezuma and Tyre in Cayuga County; listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005* Centerport Aqueduct Park near Weedsport; listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000* Lock Berlin Park near Clyde* Macedon Aqueduct Park near Palmyra* Old Erie Canal Lock 60 Park in Macedon* Perinton Park in Perinton near Fairport* Genesee Valley Park in the city of Rochester* Spencerport Depot & Canal Museum, Spencerport* Niagara Escarpment \"Flight of Five\" locks at Lockport* Erie Canal Discovery Center, 24 Church Street, Lockport (Locks 34 and 35)* Canalside Buffalo at the Canal's \"Western Terminus\"===Erie Canalway Trail======Records and research===Records of the planning, funding, design, construction, and administration of the Erie Canal are vast and can be found in the New York State Archives.", "Except for two years (1827–1829), the State of New York did not require canal boat operators to maintain or submit passenger lists." ], [ "Locks", "Pittsford, New YorkThe modern single lock at the Niagara EscarpmentThe following list of locks is provided for the current canal, from east to west.", "There are a total of 36 (35 numbered) locks on the Erie Canal.All locks on the New York State Canal System are single-chamber; the dimensions are long and wide with a minimum depth of water over the miter sills at the upstream gates upon lift.", "They can accommodate a vessel up to long and wide.", "Overall sidewall height will vary by lock, ranging between depending on the lift and navigable stages.", "Lock E17 at Little Falls has the tallest sidewall height at .Distance is based on position markers from an interactive canal map provided online by the New York State Canal Corporation and may not exactly match specifications on signs posted along the canal.", "Mean surface elevations are comprised from a combination of older canal profiles and history books as well as specifications on signs posted along the canal.", "The margin of error should normally be within .The Waterford Flight series of locks (comprising Locks E2 through E6) is one of the steepest in the world, lifting boats in less than .", "''All surface elevations are approximate.", "''Lock No.LocationElevation(upstream/west)Elevation(downstream/east)Lift or DropDistance to Next Lock(upstream/west)HAER No.", "Troy Federal Lock * Troy E2, E2 Waterford E3, E3 Waterford E4, E4 Waterford E5, E5 Waterford E6, E6 Crescent E7, E7 Vischer Ferry E8, E8 Scotia E9, E9 Rotterdam E10, E10 Cranesville E11, E11 Amsterdam E12, E12 Tribes Hill E13, E13 Yosts E14, E14 Canajoharie E15, E15 Fort Plain E16, E16 St. Johnsville E17, E17 Little Falls E18, E18 Jacksonburg E19, E19 Frankfort E20, E20 Whitesboro E21, E21 New London E22, E22 New London E23, E23 Brewerton E24, E24 Baldwinsville E25, E25 Mays Point E26, E26 Clyde E27, E27 Lyons E28A, E28A Lyons E28B, E28B Newark E29, E29 Palmyra E30, E30 Macedon E32, E32 Pittsford E33, E33 Rochester E34/35, E34 Lockport E35, adjacent to Lock E34.E35 Lockport Black Rock Lock in Niagara River, Black Rock Lock * Buffalo Commercial Slip at Buffalo River, Denotes federally managed locks.There is a natural rise between locks E33 and E34 as well as a natural rise between Lock E35 and the Niagara River.There is no Lock E1 or Lock E31 on the Erie Canal.", "The place of \"Lock E1\" on the passage from the lower Hudson River to Lake Erie is taken by the Troy Federal Lock, located just north of Troy, New York, and is not part of the Erie Canal System proper.", "It is operated by the United States Army Corps of Engineers.", "The Erie Canal officially begins at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers at Waterford, New York.Although the original alignment of the Erie Canal through Buffalo has been filled in, travel by water is still possible from Buffalo via the Black Rock Lock in the Niagara River to the canal's modern western terminus in Tonawanda, and eastward to Albany.", "The Black Rock Lock is operated by the United States Army Corps of Engineers.Oneida Lake lies between locks E22 and E23, and has a mean surface elevation of .", "Lake Erie has a mean surface elevation of ." ], [ "See also", "* Robert C. Dorn* List of canals in New York* List of canals in the United States* \"Low Bridge\", a song written by Thomas S. Allen, also known as \"The Erie Canal Song\"* John C. Mather (New York politician)* Ohio and Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio River* Welland Canal, opened in 1829, bypasses the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * Online review.", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Erie & Barge Canal: A bibliography by the Buffalo History Museum.", "* Listing and index of maps, plans, profiles, pictures, and photographs of canals of New York State in annual reports of State Engineer and Surveyor through 1905* Erie Canal case study in Transition Times.", "Archived at Ghostarchive.", "* Information and Boater's Guide to the Erie Canal* Canalway Trail Information* Historical information (with photos) of the Erie Canal* Video showing the operations of Lock 22E in 2016.", "* New York State Canal Corporation Site* The Opening of the Erie Canal – An Online Exhibition by CUNY*New York Heritage online exhibit - '' Two Hundred Years on the Erie Canal''* The Canal Society of New York State* Digging Clinton's Ditch: The Impact of the Erie Canal on America 1807–1860 Multimedia* A Glimpse at Clinton's Ditch, 1819–1820 by Richard F. Palmer* Guide to Canal Records in the New York State Archives* The Erie Canal Mapping Project* New York Heritage – Working on the Erie Canal* Photographs of the Erie Canal Relating to Fort Hunter, N.Y. Ca.", "1910 (finding aid) at the New York State Library, accessed May 18, 2016.", "* William Jaeger's photography of the Canal remains.", "Archived at the Wayback Machine* American Society of Civil Engineers site- The Erie Canal was the world's longest canal and one of America's great engineering feats.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Newspaper articles and clippings about the Building of the Erie Canal at Newspapers.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ethanol" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ethanol''' (also called '''ethyl alcohol''', '''grain alcohol''', '''drinking alcohol''', or simply '''alcohol''') is an organic compound with the chemical formula .", "It is an alcohol, with its formula also written as , or EtOH, where Et stands for ethyl.", "Ethanol is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic wine-like odor and pungent taste.", "It is a psychoactive recreational drug, and the active ingredient in alcoholic drinks.Ethanol is naturally produced by the fermentation process of sugars by yeasts or via petrochemical processes such as ethylene hydration.", "Historically it was used as a general anesthetic, and has modern medical applications as an antiseptic, disinfectant, solvent for some medications, and antidote for methanol poisoning and ethylene glycol poisoning.", "It is used as a chemical solvent and in the synthesis of organic compounds, and as a fuel source.", "Ethanol also can be dehydrated to make ethylene, an important chemical feedstock.", "As of 2006, world production of ethanol was , coming mostly from Brazil and the U.S." ], [ "Etymology", "''Ethanol'' is the systematic name defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry for a compound consisting of an alkyl group with two carbon atoms (prefix \"eth-\"), having a single bond between them (infix \"-an-\") and an attached −OH functional group (suffix \"-ol\").The \"eth-\" prefix and the qualifier \"ethyl\" in \"ethyl alcohol\" originally came from the name \"ethyl\" assigned in 1834 to the group − by Justus Liebig.", "He coined the word from the German name ''Aether'' of the compound −O− (commonly called \"ether\" in English, more specifically called \"diethyl ether\").", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''Ethyl'' is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ ('''', \"upper air\") and the Greek word ὕλη ('''', \"wood, raw material\", hence \"matter, substance\").The name ''ethanol'' was coined as a result of a resolution on naming alcohols and phenols that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland.The term ''alcohol'' now refers to a wider class of substances in chemistry nomenclature, but in common parlance it remains the name of ethanol.", "It is a medieval loan from Arabic , a powdered ore of antimony used since antiquity as a cosmetic, and retained that meaning in Middle Latin.", "The use of 'alcohol' for ethanol (in full, \"alcohol of wine\") is modern and was first recorded in 1753.Before the late 18th century the term \"alcohol\" generally referred to any sublimated substance." ], [ "Uses", "=== Medical ======= Anesthetic ====Ethanol is the oldest known sedative, used as an oral general anesthetic during surgery in ancient Mesopotamia and in medieval times.", "Mild intoxication starts at a blood alcohol concentration of 0.03-0.05 % and induces anesthetic coma at 0.4%.", "However, this use carried the high risk of deadly alcohol intoxication and pulmonary aspiration on vomit, which led to use of alternatives in antiquity, such as opium and cannabis, and later diethyl ether starting in the 1840s.==== Antiseptic ====Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most commonly in antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic for its bactericidal and anti-fungal effects.", "Ethanol kills microorganisms by dissolving their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins, and is effective against most bacteria, fungi and viruses.", "However, it is ineffective against bacterial spores, but that can be alleviated by using hydrogen peroxide.", "A solution of 70% ethanol is more effective than pure ethanol because ethanol relies on water molecules for optimal antimicrobial activity.", "Absolute ethanol may inactivate microbes without destroying them because the alcohol is unable to fully permeate the microbe's membrane.", "Ethanol can also be used as a disinfectant and antiseptic because it causes cell dehydration by disrupting the osmotic balance across the cell membrane, so water leaves the cell leading to cell death.==== Antidote ====Ethanol may be administered as an antidote to ethylene glycol poisoning and methanol poisoning.", "Ethanol serves this process by acting as a competitive inhibitor against methanol and ethylene glycol for alcohol dehydrogenase.", "Though it has more side effects, ethanol is less expensive and more readily available than fomepizole, which is also used as an antidote for methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning.==== Medicinal solvent ====Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications and related compounds.", "Liquid preparations of pain medications, cough and cold medicines, and mouth washes, for example, may contain up to 25% ethanol and may need to be avoided in individuals with adverse reactions to ethanol such as alcohol-induced respiratory reactions.", "Ethanol is present mainly as an antimicrobial preservative in over 700 liquid preparations of medicine including acetaminophen, iron supplements, ranitidine, furosemide, mannitol, phenobarbital, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and over-the-counter cough medicine.==== Pharmacology ====In mammals, ethanol is primarily metabolized in the liver and stomach by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) enzymes.", "These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of ethanol into acetaldehyde (ethanal)::CH3CH2OH + NAD+ → CH3CHO + NADH + H+When present in significant concentrations, this metabolism of ethanol is additionally aided by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2E1 in humans, while trace amounts are also metabolized by catalase.The resulting intermediate, acetaldehyde, is a known carcinogen, and poses significantly greater toxicity in humans than ethanol itself.", "Many of the symptoms typically associated with alcohol intoxication—as well as many of the health hazards typically associated with the long-term consumption of ethanol—can be attributed to acetaldehyde toxicity in humans.The subsequent oxidation of acetaldehyde into acetate is performed by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzymes.", "A mutation in the ALDH2 gene that encodes for an inactive or dysfunctional form of this enzyme affects roughly 50 % of east Asian populations, contributing to the characteristic alcohol flush reaction that can cause temporary reddening of the skin as well as a number of related, and often unpleasant, symptoms of acetaldehyde toxicity.", "This mutation is typically accompanied by another mutation in the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme ADH1B in roughly 80 % of east Asians, which improves the catalytic efficiency of converting ethanol into acetaldehyde.=== Recreational ===As a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs.Despite alcohol's psychoactive, addictive, and carcinogenic properties, it is readily available and legal for sale in most countries.", "There are laws regulating the sale, exportation/importation, taxation, manufacturing, consumption, and possession of alcoholic beverages.", "The most common regulation is prohibition for minors.", "=== Fuel ===Corn vs ethanol production in the United States==== Engine fuel ====+Energy content (lower heating value) of some fuels compared with ethanol.Fuel type MJ/L MJ/kg ResearchoctanenumberDry wood (20% moisture) ~19.5Methanol17.919.9108.7Ethanol21.226.8108.6E85(85% ethanol, 15% gasoline)25.233.2105Liquefied natural gas25.3~55Autogas (LPG)(60% propane + 40% butane)26.850Aviation gasoline(high-octane gasoline, not jet fuel)33.546.8100/130 (lean/rich)Gasohol(90% gasoline + 10% ethanol)33.747.193/94 Regular gasoline/petrol34.844.4min.", "91 Premium gasoline/petrol max.", "104Diesel38.645.425Charcoal, extruded5023The largest single use of ethanol is as an engine fuel and fuel additive.", "Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, due in part to its role as one of the world's leading producers of ethanol.", "Gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol.", "Hydrous ethanol (about 95% ethanol and 5% water) can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline-fueled cars sold in the country.The US and many other countries primarily use E10 (10% ethanol, sometimes known as gasohol) and E85 (85% ethanol) ethanol/gasoline mixtures.", "Over time, it is believed that a material portion of the ≈ per year market for gasoline will begin to be replaced with fuel ethanol.USP grade ethanol for laboratory useAustralian law limits the use of pure ethanol from sugarcane waste to 10 % in automobiles.", "Older cars (and vintage cars designed to use a slower burning fuel) should have the engine valves upgraded or replaced.According to an industry advocacy group, ethanol as a fuel reduces harmful tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen, and other ozone-forming pollutants.", "Argonne National Laboratory analyzed greenhouse gas emissions of many different engine and fuel combinations, and found that biodiesel/petrodiesel blend (B20) showed a reduction of 8%, conventional E85 ethanol blend a reduction of 17% and cellulosic ethanol 64%, compared with pure gasoline.", "Ethanol has a much greater research octane number (RON) than gasoline, meaning it is less prone to pre-ignition, allowing for better ignition advance which means more torque, and efficiency in addition to the lower carbon emissions.Ethanol combustion in an internal combustion engine yields many of the products of incomplete combustion produced by gasoline and significantly larger amounts of formaldehyde and related species such as acetaldehyde.", "This leads to a significantly larger photochemical reactivity and more ground level ozone.", "This data has been assembled into The Clean Fuels Report comparison of fuel emissions and show that ethanol exhaust generates 2.14 times as much ozone as gasoline exhaust.", "When this is added into the custom ''Localized Pollution Index'' of The Clean Fuels Report, the local pollution of ethanol (pollution that contributes to smog) is rated 1.7, where gasoline is 1.0 and higher numbers signify greater pollution.", "The California Air Resources Board formalized this issue in 2008 by recognizing control standards for formaldehydes as an emissions control group, much like the conventional NOx and reactive organic gases (ROGs).More than 20% of Brazilian cars are able to use 100% ethanol as fuel, which includes ethanol-only engines and flex-fuel engines.", "Flex-fuel engines in Brazil are able to work with all ethanol, all gasoline or any mixture of both.", "In the United States, flex-fuel vehicles can run on 0% to 85% ethanol (15% gasoline) since higher ethanol blends are not yet allowed or efficient.", "Brazil supports this fleet of ethanol-burning automobiles with large national infrastructure that produces ethanol from domestically grown sugarcane.Ethanol's high miscibility with water makes it unsuitable for shipping through modern pipelines like liquid hydrocarbons.", "Mechanics have seen increased cases of damage to small engines (in particular, the carburetor) and attribute the damage to the increased water retention by ethanol in fuel.==== Rocket fuel ====Ethanol was commonly used as fuel in early bipropellant rocket (liquid-propelled) vehicles, in conjunction with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen.", "The German A-4 ballistic rocket of World War II (better known by its propaganda name ), which is credited as having begun the space age, used ethanol as the main constituent of .", "Under such nomenclature, the ethanol was mixed with 25% water to reduce the combustion chamber temperature.", "The design team helped develop U.S. rockets following World War II, including the ethanol-fueled Redstone rocket, which launched the first U.S. satellite.", "Alcohols fell into general disuse as more energy-dense rocket fuels were developed, although ethanol is currently used in lightweight rocket-powered racing aircraft.==== Fuel cells ====Commercial fuel cells operate on reformed natural gas, hydrogen or methanol.", "Ethanol is an attractive alternative due to its wide availability, low cost, high purity and low toxicity.", "There is a wide range of fuel cell concepts that have entered trials including direct-ethanol fuel cells, auto-thermal reforming systems and thermally integrated systems.", "The majority of work is being conducted at a research level although there are a number of organizations at the beginning of the commercialization of ethanol fuel cells.==== Household heating and cooking ====Ethanol fireplaces can be used for home heating or for decoration.", "Ethanol can also be used as stove fuel for cooking.=== Feedstock ===Ethanol is an important industrial ingredient.", "It has widespread use as a precursor for other organic compounds such as ethyl halides, ethyl esters, diethyl ether, acetic acid, and ethyl amines.=== Solvent ===Ethanol is considered a universal solvent, as its molecular structure allows for the dissolving of both polar, hydrophilic and nonpolar, hydrophobic compounds.", "As ethanol also has a low boiling point, it is easy to remove from a solution that has been used to dissolve other compounds, making it a popular extracting agent for botanical oils.", "Cannabis oil extraction methods often use ethanol as an extraction solvent, and also as a post-processing solvent to remove oils, waxes, and chlorophyll from solution in a process known as winterization.Ethanol is found in paints, tinctures, markers, and personal care products such as mouthwashes, perfumes and deodorants.", "Polysaccharides precipitate from aqueous solution in the presence of alcohol, and ethanol precipitation is used for this reason in the purification of DNA and RNA.=== Low-temperature liquid ===Because of its low freezing point of and low toxicity, ethanol is sometimes used in laboratories (with dry ice or other coolants) as a cooling bath to keep vessels at temperatures below the freezing point of water.", "For the same reason, it is also used as the active fluid in alcohol thermometers." ], [ "Chemistry", "=== Chemical formula ===Ethanol is a 2-carbon alcohol.", "Its molecular formula is CH3CH2OH.", "The structure of the molecule of ethanol is (an ethyl group linked to a hydroxyl group), which indicates that the carbon of a methyl group (CH3−) is attached to the carbon of a methylene group (−CH2–), which is attached to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group (−OH).", "It is a constitutional isomer of dimethyl ether.", "Ethanol is sometimes abbreviated as '''EtOH''', using the common organic chemistry notation of representing the ethyl group (C2H5−) with '''Et'''.=== Physical properties ===Ethanol burning with its spectrum depictedEthanol is a volatile, colorless liquid that has a slight odor.", "It burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light.", "The physical properties of ethanol stem primarily from the presence of its hydroxyl group and the shortness of its carbon chain.", "Ethanol's hydroxyl group is able to participate in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight, such as propane.Ethanol's adiabatic flame temperature for combustion in air\tis 2082 °C or 3779 °F.Ethanol is slightly more refractive than water, having a refractive index of 1.36242 (at λ=589.3 nm and ).", "The triple point for ethanol is .", "=== Solvent properties ===Ethanol is a versatile solvent, miscible with water and with many organic solvents, including acetic acid, acetone, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, diethyl ether, ethylene glycol, glycerol, nitromethane, pyridine, and toluene.", "Its main use as a solvent is in making tincture of iodine, cough syrups, etc.", "It is also miscible with light aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane and hexane, and with aliphatic chlorides such as trichloroethane and tetrachloroethylene.Ethanol's miscibility with water contrasts with the immiscibility of longer-chain alcohols (five or more carbon atoms), whose water miscibility decreases sharply as the number of carbons increases.", "The miscibility of ethanol with alkanes is limited to alkanes up to undecane: mixtures with dodecane and higher alkanes show a miscibility gap below a certain temperature (about 13 °C for dodecane).", "The miscibility gap tends to get wider with higher alkanes, and the temperature for complete miscibility increases.Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than the sum of their individual components at the given fractions.", "Mixing equal volumes of ethanol and water results in only 1.92 volumes of mixture.", "Mixing ethanol and water is exothermic, with up to 777 J/mol being released at 298 K.Mixtures of ethanol and water form an azeotrope at about 89 mole-% ethanol and 11 mole-% water or a mixture of 95.6% ethanol by mass (or about 97% alcohol by volume) at normal pressure, which boils at 351 K (78 °C).", "This azeotropic composition is strongly temperature- and pressure-dependent and vanishes at temperatures below 303 K.Hydrogen bonding in solid ethanol at −186 °CHydrogen bonding causes pure ethanol to be hygroscopic to the extent that it readily absorbs water from the air.", "The polar nature of the hydroxyl group causes ethanol to dissolve many ionic compounds, notably sodium and potassium hydroxides, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, ammonium bromide, and sodium bromide.", "Sodium and potassium chlorides are slightly soluble in ethanol.", "Because the ethanol molecule also has a nonpolar end, it will also dissolve nonpolar substances, including most essential oils and numerous flavoring, coloring, and medicinal agents.The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the surface tension of water.", "This property partially explains the \"tears of wine\" phenomenon.", "When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass.", "As the wine's ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases and the thin film \"beads up\" and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet.=== Flammability ===An ethanol–water solution will catch fire if heated above a temperature called its flash point and an ignition source is then applied to it.", "For 20% alcohol by mass (about 25% by volume), this will occur at about .", "The flash point of pure ethanol is , but may be influenced very slightly by atmospheric composition such as pressure and humidity.", "Ethanol mixtures can ignite below average room temperature.", "Ethanol is considered a flammable liquid (Class 3 Hazardous Material) in concentrations above 2.35% by mass (3.0% by volume; 6 proof).+ Flash points of ethanol–water mixtures Ethanol mass fraction, % Temperature °C °F 1 2 2.35 3 5 6 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Dishes using burning alcohol for culinary effects are called flambé." ], [ "Natural occurrence", "Ethanol is a byproduct of the metabolic process of yeast.", "As such, ethanol will be present in any yeast habitat.", "Ethanol can commonly be found in overripe fruit.", "Ethanol produced by symbiotic yeast can be found in bertam palm blossoms.", "Although some animal species, such as the pentailed treeshrew, exhibit ethanol-seeking behaviors, most show no interest or avoidance of food sources containing ethanol.", "Ethanol is also produced during the germination of many plants as a result of natural anaerobiosis.", "Ethanol has been detected in outer space, forming an icy coating around dust grains in interstellar clouds.Minute quantity amounts (average 196 ppb) of endogenous ethanol and acetaldehyde were found in the exhaled breath of healthy volunteers.", "Auto-brewery syndrome, also known as gut fermentation syndrome, is a rare medical condition in which intoxicating quantities of ethanol are produced through endogenous fermentation within the digestive system." ], [ "Production", "94% denatured ethanol sold in a bottle for household useEthanol is produced both as a petrochemical, through the hydration of ethylene and, via biological processes, by fermenting sugars with yeast.", "Which process is more economical depends on prevailing prices of petroleum and grain feed stocks.=== Sources ===World production of ethanol in 2006 was , with 69% of the world supply coming from Brazil and the U.S. Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugarcane, which has relatively high yields (830% more fuel than the fossil fuels used to produce it) compared to some other energy crops.", "Sugarcane not only has a greater concentration of sucrose than corn (by about 30%), but is also much easier to extract.", "The bagasse generated by the process is not discarded, but burned by power plants to produce electricity.", "Bagasse burning accounts for around 9% of the electricity produced in Brazil.In the 1970s most industrial ethanol in the U.S. was made as a petrochemical, but in the 1980s the U.S. introduced subsidies for corn-based ethanol.", "According to the Renewable Fuels Association, as of 30 October 2007, 131 grain ethanol bio-refineries in the U.S. have the capacity to produce of ethanol per year.", "An additional 72 construction projects underway (in the U.S.) can add of new capacity in the next 18 months.In India ethanol is made from sugarcane.", "Sweet sorghum is another potential source of ethanol, and is suitable for growing in dryland conditions.", "The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is investigating the possibility of growing sorghum as a source of fuel, food, and animal feed in arid parts of Asia and Africa.", "Sweet sorghum has one-third the water requirement of sugarcane over the same time period.", "It also requires about 22% less water than corn.", "The world's first sweet sorghum ethanol distillery began commercial production in 2007 in Andhra Pradesh, India.=== Hydration ===Ethanol can be produced from petrochemical feed stocks, primarily by the acid-catalyzed hydration of ethylene.", "It is often referred to as synthetic ethanol.", ":C2H4 + H2O -> C2H5OHThe catalyst is most commonly phosphoric acid, adsorbed onto a porous support such as silica gel or diatomaceous earth.", "This catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the Shell Oil Company in 1947.The reaction is carried out in the presence of high pressure steam at where a 5:3 ethylene to steam ratio is maintained.", "This process was used on an industrial scale by Union Carbide Corporation and others.", "It is no longer practiced in the US as fermentation ethanol produced from corn is more economical.In an older process, first practiced on the industrial scale in 1930 by Union Carbide but now almost entirely obsolete, ethylene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce ethyl sulfate, which was hydrolyzed to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulfuric acid::C2H4 + H2SO4 -> C2H5HSO4:C2H5HSO4 + H2O -> H2SO4 + C2H5OH=== From carbon dioxide ===Ethanol has been produced in the laboratory by converting carbon dioxide via biological and electrochemical reactions.=== Fermentation ===Ethanol in alcoholic beverages and fuel is produced by fermentation.", "Certain species of yeast (e.g., ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'') metabolize sugar (namely polysaccharides), producing ethanol and carbon dioxide.", "The chemical equations below summarize the conversion:Fermentation is the process of culturing yeast under favorable thermal conditions to produce alcohol.", "This process is carried out at around .", "Toxicity of ethanol to yeast limits the ethanol concentration obtainable by brewing; higher concentrations, therefore, are obtained by fortification or distillation.", "The most ethanol-tolerant yeast strains can survive up to approximately 18% ethanol by volume.To produce ethanol from starchy materials such as cereals, the starch must first be converted into sugars.", "In brewing beer, this has traditionally been accomplished by allowing the grain to germinate, or malt, which produces the enzyme amylase.", "When the malted grain is mashed, the amylase converts the remaining starches into sugars.==== Cellulose ====Sugars for ethanol fermentation can be obtained from cellulose.", "Deployment of this technology could turn a number of cellulose-containing agricultural by-products, such as corncobs, straw, and sawdust, into renewable energy resources.", "Other agricultural residues such as sugarcane bagasse and energy crops such as switchgrass may also be fermentable sugar sources.=== Testing ===Infrared reflection spectra of liquid ethanol, showing the −OH band centered near 3300 cm−1 and C−H bands near 2950 cm−1Near-infrared spectrum of liquid ethanolBreweries and biofuel plants employ two methods for measuring ethanol concentration.", "Infrared ethanol sensors measure the vibrational frequency of dissolved ethanol using the C−H band at 2900 cm.", "This method uses a relatively inexpensive solid-state sensor that compares the C−H band with a reference band to calculate the ethanol content.", "The calculation makes use of the Beer–Lambert law.", "Alternatively, by measuring the density of the starting material and the density of the product, using a hydrometer, the change in specific gravity during fermentation indicates the alcohol content.", "This inexpensive and indirect method has a long history in the beer brewing industry." ], [ "Purification", "=== Distillation ===Ethylene hydration or brewing produces an ethanol–water mixture.", "For most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified.", "Fractional distillation at atmospheric pressure can concentrate ethanol to 95.6% by weight (89.5 mole%).", "This mixture is an azeotrope with a boiling point of , and ''cannot'' be further purified by distillation.", "Addition of an entraining agent, such as benzene, cyclohexane, or heptane, allows a new ternary azeotrope comprising the ethanol, water, and the entraining agent to be formed.", "This lower-boiling ternary azeotrope is removed preferentially, leading to water-free ethanol.=== Molecular sieves and desiccants ===Apart from distillation, ethanol may be dried by addition of a desiccant, such as molecular sieves, cellulose, or cornmeal.", "The desiccants can be dried and reused.", "Molecular sieves can be used to selectively absorb the water from the 95.6% ethanol solution.", "Molecular sieves of pore-size 3 Ångstrom, a type of zeolite, effectively sequester water molecules while excluding ethanol molecules.", "Heating the wet sieves drives out the water, allowing regeneration of their desiccant capability.=== Membranes and reverse osmosis ===Membranes can also be used to separate ethanol and water.", "Membrane-based separations are not subject to the limitations of the water-ethanol azeotrope because the separations are not based on vapor-liquid equilibria.", "Membranes are often used in the so-called hybrid membrane distillation process.", "This process uses a pre-concentration distillation column as the first separating step.", "The further separation is then accomplished with a membrane operated either in vapor permeation or pervaporation mode.", "Vapor permeation uses a vapor membrane feed and pervaporation uses a liquid membrane feed.=== Other techniques ===A variety of other techniques have been discussed, including the following:* Salting using potassium carbonate to exploit its insolubility will cause a phase separation with ethanol and water.", "This offers a very small potassium carbonate impurity to the alcohol that can be removed by distillation.", "This method is very useful in purification of ethanol by distillation, as ethanol forms an azeotrope with water.", "* Direct electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to ethanol under ambient conditions using copper nanoparticles on a carbon nanospike film as the catalyst;* Extraction of ethanol from grain mash by supercritical carbon dioxide;* Pervaporation;* Fractional freezing is also used to concentrate fermented alcoholic solutions, such as traditionally made Applejack (beverage);* Pressure swing adsorption.=== Grades of ethanol ======= Denatured alcohol ====Pure ethanol and alcoholic beverages are heavily taxed as psychoactive drugs, but ethanol has many uses that do not involve its consumption.", "To relieve the tax burden on these uses, most jurisdictions waive the tax when an agent has been added to the ethanol to render it unfit to drink.", "These include bittering agents such as denatonium benzoate and toxins such as methanol, naphtha, and pyridine.", "Products of this kind are called ''denatured alcohol.", "''==== Absolute alcohol ====Absolute or anhydrous alcohol refers to ethanol with a low water content.", "There are various grades with maximum water contents ranging from 1% to a few parts per million (ppm).", "If azeotropic distillation is used to remove water, it will contain trace amounts of the material separation agent (e.g.", "benzene).", "Absolute alcohol is not intended for human consumption.", "Absolute ethanol is used as a solvent for laboratory and industrial applications, where water will react with other chemicals, and as fuel alcohol.", "Spectroscopic ethanol is an absolute ethanol with a low absorbance in ultraviolet and visible light, fit for use as a solvent in ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy.Pure ethanol is classed as 200 proof in the US, equivalent to 175 degrees proof in the UK system.==== Rectified spirits ====Rectified spirit, an azeotropic composition of 96% ethanol containing 4% water, is used instead of anhydrous ethanol for various purposes.", "Spirits of wine are about 94% ethanol (188 proof).", "The impurities are different from those in 95% (190 proof) laboratory ethanol." ], [ "Reactions", "Ethanol is classified as a primary alcohol, meaning that the carbon that its hydroxyl group attaches to has at least two hydrogen atoms attached to it as well.", "Many ethanol reactions occur at its hydroxyl group.=== Ester formation ===In the presence of acid catalysts, ethanol reacts with carboxylic acids to produce ethyl esters and water::RCOOH + HOCH2CH3 → RCOOCH2CH3 + H2OThis reaction, which is conducted on large scale industrially, requires the removal of the water from the reaction mixture as it is formed.", "Esters react in the presence of an acid or base to give back the alcohol and a salt.", "This reaction is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap.", "Ethanol can also form esters with inorganic acids.", "Diethyl sulfate and triethyl phosphate are prepared by treating ethanol with sulfur trioxide and phosphorus pentoxide respectively.", "Diethyl sulfate is a useful ethylating agent in organic synthesis.", "Ethyl nitrite, prepared from the reaction of ethanol with sodium nitrite and sulfuric acid, was formerly used as a diuretic.=== Dehydration ===In the presence of acid catalysts, alcohols can be converted to alkenes such as ethanol to ethylene.", "Typically solid acids such as alumina are used.", ":CH3CH2OH → H2C=CH2 + H2OSince water is removed from the same molecule, the reaction is known as intramolecular dehydration.", "Intramolecular dehydration of an alcohol requires a high temperature and the presence of an acid catalyst such as sulfuric acid.Ethylene produced from sugar-derived ethanol (primarily in Brazil) competes with ethylene produced from petrochemical feedstocks such as naphtha and ethane.At a lower temperature than that of intramolecular dehydration, intermolecular alcohol dehydration may occur producing a symmetrical ether.", "This is a condensation reaction.", "In the following example, diethyl ether is produced from ethanol::2 CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2OCH2CH3 + H2O=== Combustion ===Complete combustion of ethanol forms carbon dioxide and water::C2H5OH (l) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l); −Δc''H'' = 1371 kJ/mol = 29.8 kJ/g = 327 kcal/mol = 7.1 kcal/g:C2H5OH (l) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (g); −Δc''H'' = 1236 kJ/mol = 26.8 kJ/g = 295.4 kcal/mol = 6.41 kcal/gSpecific heat = 2.44 kJ/(kg·K)=== Acid-base chemistry ===Ethanol is a neutral molecule and the pH of a solution of ethanol in water is nearly 7.00.Ethanol can be quantitatively converted to its conjugate base, the ethoxide ion (CH3CH2O−), by reaction with an alkali metal such as sodium::2 CH3CH2OH + 2 Na → 2 CH3CH2ONa + H2or a very strong base such as sodium hydride::CH3CH2OH + NaH → CH3CH2ONa + H2The acidities of water and ethanol are nearly the same, as indicated by their pKa of 15.7 and 16 respectively.", "Thus, sodium ethoxide and sodium hydroxide exist in an equilibrium that is closely balanced::CH3CH2OH + NaOH CH3CH2ONa + H2O=== Halogenation ===Ethanol is not used industrially as a precursor to ethyl halides, but the reactions are illustrative.", "Ethanol reacts with hydrogen halides to produce ethyl halides such as ethyl chloride and ethyl bromide via an SN2 reaction::CH3CH2OH + HCl → CH3CH2Cl + H2OHCl requires a catalyst such as zinc chloride.HBr requires refluxing with a sulfuric acid catalyst.", "Ethyl halides can, in principle, also be produced by treating ethanol with more specialized halogenating agents, such as thionyl chloride or phosphorus tribromide.", ":CH3CH2OH + SOCl2 → CH3CH2Cl + SO2 + HClUpon treatment with halogens in the presence of base, ethanol gives the corresponding haloform (CHX3, where X = Cl, Br, I).", "This conversion is called the haloform reaction.An intermediate in the reaction with chlorine is the aldehyde called chloral, which forms chloral hydrate upon reaction with water::4 Cl2 + CH3CH2OH → CCl3CHO + 5 HCl:CCl3CHO + H2O → CCl3C(OH)2H=== Oxidation ===Ethanol can be oxidized to acetaldehyde and further oxidized to acetic acid, depending on the reagents and conditions.", "This oxidation is of no importance industrially, but in the human body, these oxidation reactions are catalyzed by the enzyme liver alcohol dehydrogenase.", "The oxidation product of ethanol, acetic acid, is a nutrient for humans, being a precursor to acetyl CoA, where the acetyl group can be spent as energy or used for biosynthesis.=== Metabolism ===Ethanol is similar to macronutrients such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in that it provides calories.", "When consumed and metabolized, it contributes 7 kilocalories per gram via ethanol metabolism." ], [ "Safety", "Ethanol is very flammable and should not be used around an open flame.", "Pure ethanol will irritate the skin and eyes.", "Nausea, vomiting, and intoxication are symptoms of ingestion.", "Long-term use by ingestion can result in serious liver damage.", "Atmospheric concentrations above one part per thousand are above the European Union occupational exposure limits." ], [ "History", "The fermentation of sugar into ethanol is one of the earliest biotechnologies employed by humans.", "Ethanol has historically been identified variously as spirit of wine or ardent spirits, and as aqua vitae or aqua vita.", "The intoxicating effects of its consumption have been known since ancient times.", "Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient of alcoholic beverages.", "Dried residue on 9,000-year-old pottery found in China suggests that Neolithic people consumed alcoholic beverages.The inflammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus (–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE).", "However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of ethanol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt.", "An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced.", "The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī (–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī (–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) ''Kitāb al-Taṣrīf'' (later translated into Latin as ''Liber servatoris'').", "In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of ''aqua ardens'' (\"burning water\", i.e., ethanol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating ethanol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an ethanol purity of 90% could be obtained.", "The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa (–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the ''aqua vitae'' or \"water of life\", also called by John the ''quintessence'' of wine).In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the Jin (1115–1234) or Southern Song (1127–1279) dynasties.", "A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei, dating to the 12th century.", "In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East, and was in wide use in the Delhi Sultanate by the 14th century.In 1796, German-Russian chemist Johann Tobias Lowitz obtained pure ethanol by mixing partially purified ethanol (the alcohol-water azeotrope) with an excess of anhydrous alkali and then distilling the mixture over low heat.", "French chemist Antoine Lavoisier described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in 1807 Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure determined ethanol's chemical formula.", "Fifty years later, Archibald Scott Couper published the structural formula of ethanol.", "It was one of the first structural formulas determined.Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1825 by Michael Faraday.", "He found that sulfuric acid could absorb large volumes of coal gas.", "He gave the resulting solution to Henry Hennell, a British chemist, who found in 1826 that it contained \"sulphovinic acid\" (ethyl hydrogen sulfate).", "In 1828, Hennell and the French chemist Georges-Simon Serullas independently discovered that sulphovinic acid could be decomposed into ethanol.", "Thus, in 1825 Faraday had unwittingly discovered that ethanol could be produced from ethylene (a component of coal gas) by acid-catalyzed hydration, a process similar to current industrial ethanol synthesis.Ethanol was used as lamp fuel in the U.S. as early as 1840, but a tax levied on industrial alcohol during the Civil War made this use uneconomical.", "The tax was repealed in 1906.Use as an automotive fuel dates back to 1908, with the Ford Model T able to run on petrol (gasoline) or ethanol.", "It fuels some spirit lamps.Ethanol intended for industrial use is often produced from ethylene.", "Ethanol has widespread use as a solvent of substances intended for human contact or consumption, including scents, flavorings, colorings, and medicines.", "In chemistry, it is both a solvent and a feedstock for the synthesis of other products.", "It has a long history as a fuel for heat and light, and more recently as a fuel for internal combustion engines." ], [ "See also", "* Ethanol-induced non-lamellar phases in phospholipids* Methanol * 1-Propanol* 2-Propanol* Rubbing alcohol* tert-Butyl alcohol* Butanol fuel * Timeline of alcohol fuel" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Alcohol (Ethanol) at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* International Labour Organization ethanol safety information* National Pollutant Inventory – Ethanol Fact Sheet* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Ethyl Alcohol* National Institute of Standards and Technology chemical data on ethanol* Chicago Board of Trade news and market data on ethanol futures* Calculation of vapor pressure, liquid density, dynamic liquid viscosity, surface tension of ethanol* Ethanol History A look into the history of ethanol* ChemSub Online: Ethyl alcohol* Industrial ethanol production process flow diagram using ethylene and sulphuric acid" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eric Clapton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eric Patrick Clapton''' (born 1945) is an English rock and blues guitarist, singer, and songwriter.", "He is regarded as one of the most successful and influential guitarists in rock music.", "He ranked second in ''Rolling Stone''s list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\" and fourth in Gibsons \"Top 50 Guitarists of All Time\".", "In 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' named Clapton the 35th best guitarist of all time.", "He was also named number five in ''Time'' magazine's list of \"The 10 Best Electric Guitar Players\" in 2009.After playing in a number of different local bands, Clapton joined the Yardbirds from 1963 to 1965, and John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers from 1965 to 1966.After leaving Mayall, he formed the power trio Cream with drummer Ginger Baker and bassist/vocalist Jack Bruce, in which Clapton played sustained blues improvisations and \"arty, blues-based psychedelic pop\".", "After four successful albums, Cream broke up in November 1968.Clapton then formed the blues rock band Blind Faith with Baker, Steve Winwood, and Ric Grech, recording one album and performing on one tour before they broke up.", "Clapton then toured with Delaney & Bonnie and recorded his first solo album in 1970, before forming Derek and the Dominos with Bobby Whitlock, Carl Radle and Jim Gordon.", "Like Blind Faith, the band only lasted one album, ''Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs'', which includes \"Layla\", one of Clapton's signature songs.Clapton continued to record a number of successful solo albums and songs over the next several decades, including a 1974 cover of Bob Marley's \"I Shot the Sheriff\" (which helped reggae reach a mass market), the country-infused ''Slowhand'' album (1977) and the pop rock of 1986's ''August''.", "Following the death of his son Conor in 1991, Clapton's grief was expressed in the song \"Tears in Heaven\", which appeared on his ''Unplugged'' album.", "In 1996 he had another top-40 hit with the R&B crossover \"Change the World\".", "In 1998, he released the Grammy award-winning \"My Father's Eyes\".", "Since 1999, he has recorded a number of traditional blues and blues rock albums and hosted the periodic Crossroads Guitar Festival.", "His most recent studio album is ''Happy Xmas'' (2018).Clapton has received 18 Grammy Awards as well as the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music.", "In 2004, he was awarded a CBE for services to music.", "He has received four Ivor Novello Awards from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors, including the Lifetime Achievement Award.", "He is the only three-time inductee to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame: once as a solo artist, and separately as a member of the Yardbirds and of Cream.", "In his solo career, he has sold more than 280 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling musicians of all time.", "In 1998, Clapton, a recovering alcoholic and drug addict, founded the Crossroads Centre on Antigua, a medical facility for those recovering from substance abuse." ], [ "Early life", "Clapton was born on 30 March 1945 in Ripley, Surrey, England, to 16-year-old Patricia Molly Clapton (1929–1999) and Edward Walter Fryer (1920–1985), a 25-year-old soldier from Montreal, Quebec.", "Fryer was drafted to war before Clapton's birth and then returned to Canada.", "Clapton grew up believing that his grandmother, Rose, and her second husband, Jack Clapp, Patricia's stepfather, were his parents, and that his mother was actually his older sister.", "The similarity in surnames gave rise to the erroneous belief that Clapton's real surname is Clapp (Reginald Cecil Clapton was the name of Rose's first husband, Eric Clapton's maternal grandfather).", "Years later, his mother married another Canadian soldier and moved to Germany, leaving Eric with his grandparents in Surrey.Clapton received an acoustic Hoyer guitar, made in Germany, for his thirteenth birthday, but the inexpensive steel-stringed instrument was difficult to play and he briefly lost interest.", "Two years later he picked it up again and started playing consistently.", "He was influenced by blues music from an early age, and practised long hours learning the chords of blues music by playing along to the records.", "He preserved his practice sessions using his portable Grundig reel-to-reel tape recorder, listening to them over and over until he was satisfied.In 1961, after leaving Hollyfield School in Surbiton, he studied at the Kingston College of Art but was expelled at the end of the academic year because his focus had remained on music rather than art.", "His guitar playing was sufficiently advanced that, by the age of 16, he was getting noticed.", "Around this time, he began busking around Kingston, Richmond, and the West End.In 1962, he started performing as a duo with fellow blues enthusiast Dave Brock in pubs around Surrey.", "When he was 17, he joined his first band, an early British R&B group, the Roosters, whose other guitarist was Tom McGuinness.", "He stayed with them from January until August 1963.In October of that year, he performed a seven-gig stint with Casey Jones & the Engineers." ], [ "Career", "=== The Yardbirds and the Bluesbreakers ===In October 1963, Clapton joined the Yardbirds, a rhythm and blues band, and stayed with them until March 1965.Synthesising influences from Chicago blues and leading blues guitarists such as Buddy Guy, Freddie King, and B.B.", "King, Clapton forged a distinctive style and rapidly became one of the most talked-about guitarists in the British music scene.", "The band initially played Chess/Checker/Vee-Jay blues numbers and began to attract a large cult following when they took over the Rolling Stones' residency at the Crawdaddy Club in Richmond, London.", "They toured England with American bluesman Sonny Boy Williamson II; a joint LP album, recorded in December 1963, was issued in 1965.Appearing at the Royal Albert Hall in London for the first time in 1964, Clapton has since performed at the venue over 200 times.Yardbirds' rhythm guitarist, Chris Dreja, recalled that whenever Clapton broke a guitar string during a concert, he would stay on stage and replace it.", "The English audiences would wait out the delay by doing what is called a \"slow handclap\".", "Clapton's nickname of \"Slowhand\" came from Giorgio Gomelsky, a pun on the slow handclapping that ensued when Clapton stopped playing while he replaced a string.", "In December 1964, Clapton made his first appearance at the Royal Albert Hall in London, with the Yardbirds.", "Since then, Clapton has performed at the Hall over 200 times, and has stated that performing at the venue is like \"playing in my front room\".In March 1965, Clapton and the Yardbirds had their first major hit, \"For Your Love\", written by songwriter Graham Gouldman, who also wrote hit songs for Herman's Hermits and the Hollies (and later achieved success of his own as a member of 10cc).", "In part because of its success, the Yardbirds elected to move toward a pop-orientated sound, much to the annoyance of Clapton, who was devoted to the blues and not commercial success.", "He left the Yardbirds on the day that \"For Your Love\" went public, a move that left the band without its lead guitarist and most accomplished member.", "Clapton suggested fellow guitarist Jimmy Page as his replacement, but Page declined out of loyalty to Clapton, putting Jeff Beck forward.", "Beck and Page played together in the Yardbirds for a while, but Beck, Page, and Clapton were never in the group together.", "They first appeared together in 1983 on the 12-date benefit tour for Action for Research into multiple sclerosis with the first date on 23 September at the Royal Albert Hall.Clapton joined John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers in April 1965, only to quit a few months later.", "In June, Clapton was invited to jam with Jimmy Page, recording a number of tracks that were retroactively credited to The Immediate All-Stars.", "In the summer of 1965 he left for Greece with a band called the Glands, which included his old friend Ben Palmer on piano.", "After a car crash that killed the bassist and injured the guitarist of the Greek band the Juniors, on 17 October 1965 the surviving members played memorial shows in which Clapton played with the band.", "In October 1965 he rejoined John Mayall.", "In March 1966, while still a member of the Bluesbreakers, Clapton briefly collaborated on a side project with Jack Bruce and Steve Winwood among others, recording only a few tracks under the name Eric Clapton and the Powerhouse.", "During his second Bluesbreakers stint, Clapton gained a reputation as the best blues guitarist on the club circuit.", "Although Clapton gained fame for playing on the influential album, ''Blues Breakers – John Mayall – With Eric Clapton'', this album was not released until he had left the band for the last time in July 1966.The album itself is often called ''The Beano Album'' by fans because of its cover photograph showing Clapton reading the British children's comic ''The Beano''.Having swapped his Fender Telecaster and Vox AC30 amplifier for a 1960 Gibson Les Paul Standard guitar and Marshall amplifier, Clapton's sound and playing inspired the famous slogan \"Clapton is God\", spray-painted by an unknown admirer on a wall in Islington, North London in 1967.The graffito was captured in a now-famous photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.", "Clapton is reported to have been embarrassed by the slogan, saying in his ''The South Bank Show'' profile in 1987, \"I never accepted that I was the greatest guitar player in the world.", "I always ''wanted'' to be the greatest guitar player in the world, but that's an ideal, and I accept it as an ideal\".===Cream===Clapton (right) as a member of CreamClapton left the Bluesbreakers in July 1966 (replaced by Peter Green) and was invited by drummer Ginger Baker to play in his newly formed band Cream, one of the earliest supergroups, with Jack Bruce on bass (Bruce was previously of the Bluesbreakers, the Graham Bond Organisation and Manfred Mann).", "Before the formation of Cream, Clapton was not well known in the United States; he left the Yardbirds before \"For Your Love\" hit the US top ten, and had yet to perform there.", "During his time with Cream, Clapton began to develop as a singer, songwriter and guitarist, though Bruce took most of the lead vocals and wrote the majority of the material with lyricist Pete Brown.", "Cream's first gig was an unofficial performance at the Twisted Wheel Club in Manchester on 1966 before their full debut two nights later at the National Jazz and Blues Festival in Windsor.", "Cream established its enduring legend with the high-volume blues jamming and extended solos of their live shows.By early 1967, fans of the emerging blues-rock sound in the UK had begun to portray Clapton as Britain's top guitarist; however, he found himself rivalled by the emergence of Jimi Hendrix, an acid rock-infused guitarist who used wailing feedback and effects pedals to create new sounds for the instrument.", "Hendrix attended a performance of the newly formed Cream at the Central London Polytechnic on 1966, during which he sat in on a double-timed version of \"Killing Floor\".", "Top UK stars, including Clapton, Pete Townshend and members of the Rolling Stones and the Beatles, avidly attended Hendrix's early club performances.", "Hendrix's arrival had an immediate and major effect on the next phase of Clapton's career.The Fool guitar (replica shown), with its bright artwork and famous \"woman tone\", was symbolic of the 1960s psychedelic rock era.Clapton first visited the United States while touring with Cream.", "In March 1967, Cream performed a nine-show stand at the RKO Theater in New York.", "Clapton's 1964 painted Gibson SG guitar – The Fool – a \"psychedelic fantasy\", according to Clapton, made its debut at the RKO Theater.", "Clapton used the guitar for most of Cream's recordings after ''Fresh Cream'', particularly on ''Disraeli Gears'', until the band broke up in 1968.One of the world's best-known guitars, it symbolises the psychedelic era.", "They recorded ''Disraeli Gears'' in New York from 11 to 15 May 1967.Cream's repertoire varied from hard rock (\"I Feel Free\") to lengthy blues-based instrumental jams (\"Spoonful\").", "''Disraeli Gears'' contained Clapton's searing guitar lines, Bruce's soaring vocals and prominent, fluid bass playing, and Baker's powerful, polyrhythmic jazz-influenced drumming.", "Together, Cream's talents secured them as an influential power trio.", "Clapton's voice can be heard on Frank Zappa's album ''We're Only in It for the Money'', on the tracks \"Are You Hung Up?\"", "and \"Nasal Retentive Calliope Music\".In 28 months, Cream had become a commercial success, selling millions of records and playing throughout the US and Europe.", "They redefined the instrumentalist's role in rock and were one of the first blues-rock bands to emphasise musical virtuosity and lengthy jazz-style improvisation sessions.", "Their US hit singles include \"Sunshine of Your Love\" (No.", "5, 1968), \"White Room\" (No.", "6, 1968) and \"Crossroads\" (No.", "28, 1969) – a live version of Robert Johnson's \"Cross Road Blues\".", "Though Cream were hailed as one of the greatest groups of its day, and the adulation of Clapton as a guitar legend reached new heights, the supergroup was short-lived.", "Drug and alcohol use escalated tension between the three members, and conflicts between Bruce and Baker eventually led to Cream's demise.", "A strongly critical ''Rolling Stone'' review of a concert of the group's second headlining US tour was another significant factor in the trio's demise, and it affected Clapton profoundly.", "Clapton has also credited ''Music from Big Pink'', the debut album of The Band, and its revolutionary Americana sound as influencing his decision to leave Cream.Cream's farewell album, ''Goodbye'', comprising live performances recorded at The Forum, Los Angeles, on 1968, was released shortly after Cream disbanded.", "It also spawned the studio single \"Badge\", co-written by Clapton and George Harrison (Clapton had met and become close friends with Harrison after the Beatles shared a bill with the Clapton-era Yardbirds at the London Palladium).", "In 1968, Clapton played the lead guitar solo on Harrison's \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", from the Beatles' self-titled double album (also known as the \"White Album\").", "Harrison's debut solo album, ''Wonderwall Music'' (1968), became the first of many Harrison solo records to include Clapton on guitar.", "Clapton went largely uncredited for his contributions to Harrison's albums due to contractual restraints, and Harrison was credited as \"L'Angelo Misterioso\" for his contributions to the song \"Badge\" on ''Goodbye''.", "The pair often played live together as each other's guest.", "A year after Harrison's death in 2001, Clapton was musical director for the Concert for George.In January 1969, when the Beatles were recording and filming what became ''Let It Be'', tensions became so acute that Harrison quit the group for several days, prompting John Lennon to suggest they complete the project with Clapton if Harrison did not return.", "Michael Lindsay-Hogg, television director of the recording sessions for ''Let It Be'', later recalled: \"I was there when John mentioned Clapton – but that wasn't going to happen.", "Would Eric have become a Beatle?", "No.", "Paul McCartney didn't want to go there.", "He didn't want them to break up.", "Then George came back.\"", "Clapton was on good terms with all four of the Beatles; in December 1968 he had played with Lennon at ''The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus'' as part of the one-off group the Dirty Mac.Cream briefly reunited in 1993 to perform at the ceremony inducting them into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "A full reunion took place in May 2005, with Clapton, Bruce and Baker playing four sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall, and three shows at New York's Madison Square Garden that October.", "Recordings from the London shows, ''Royal Albert Hall London May 2-3-5-6, 2005'', were released on CD, LP and DVD in late 2005.===Blind Faith===Blind Faith in 1969, with Clapton standing far rightClapton's next group, Blind Faith, formed in 1969, was composed of Cream drummer Ginger Baker, Steve Winwood of Traffic, and Ric Grech of Family, and yielded one LP and one arena-circuit tour.", "The supergroup debuted before 100,000 fans in London's Hyde Park on 1969.They performed several dates in Scandinavia and began a sold-out American tour in July before their only album was released.", "The LP ''Blind Faith'' consisted of just six songs, one of them the hit \"Can't Find My Way Home\".", "Another, \"Presence of the Lord\", is the first song credited solely to Clapton.", "The album's jacket image of a topless pubescent girl was deemed controversial in the US and was replaced by a photograph of the band.", "Blind Faith dissolved after less than seven months.===Delaney & Bonnie and first solo album===Clapton subsequently toured as a sideman for an act that had opened for Blind Faith, Delaney and Bonnie and Friends.", "He also performed as a member of Lennon's Plastic Ono Band at the Toronto Rock and Roll Revival in September 1969, a recording from which was released as the album ''Live Peace in Toronto 1969''.", "On 30 September, Clapton played lead guitar on Lennon's second solo single, \"Cold Turkey\".", "On 15 December that year, Clapton performed with Lennon, Harrison and others as the Plastic Ono Supergroup at a fundraiser for UNICEF in London.Delaney Bramlett encouraged Clapton in his singing and writing.", "Using the Bramletts' backing group and an all-star cast of session players (including Leon Russell and Stephen Stills), Clapton recorded his first solo album during two brief tour hiatuses, titled ''Eric Clapton''.", "Delaney Bramlett co-wrote six of the songs with Clapton, also producing the LP, and Bonnie Bramlett co-wrote \"Let It Rain\".", "The album yielded the unexpected US No.", "18 hit, J. J. Cale's \"After Midnight\".", "Clapton also worked with much of Delaney and Bonnie's band to record George Harrison's ''All Things Must Pass'' in spring 1970.During this period, Clapton also recorded with artists such as Dr. John, Leon Russell, Billy Preston, Ringo Starr and Dave Mason.", "With Chicago blues artist Howlin' Wolf, he recorded ''The London Howlin' Wolf Sessions'', that also included long-time Wolf guitarist Hubert Sumlin and members of the Rolling Stones, Winwood and Starr.", "Despite the superstar line-up, critic Cub Koda noted: \"Even Eric Clapton, who usually welcomes any chance to play with one of his idols, has criticized this album repeatedly in interviews, which speaks volumes in and of itself.\"", "Other noted recordings from this period include Clapton's guitar work on \"Go Back Home\" from Stephen Stills' self-titled first solo album.===Derek and the Dominos===With the intention of counteracting the \"star\" cult faction that had begun to form around him, Clapton assembled a new band composed of Delaney and Bonnie's former rhythm section, Bobby Whitlock as keyboardist and vocalist, Carl Radle as the bassist, and drummer Jim Gordon, with Clapton playing guitar.", "It was his intention to show that he need not fill a starring role, and functioned well as a member of an ensemble.", "During this period, Clapton was increasingly influenced by The Band and their 1968 album ''Music from Big Pink'', saying: \"What I appreciated about the Band was that they were more concerned with songs and singing.", "They would have three- and four-part harmonies, and the guitar was put back into perspective as being accompaniment.", "That suited me well, because I had gotten so tired of the virtuosity – or ''pseudo''-virtuosity – thing of long, boring guitar solos just because they were expected.", "The Band brought things back into perspective.", "The priority was the song.", "\"Clapton (right) with Derek and the DominosThe band was originally called \"Eric Clapton and Friends\".", "The eventual name was a fluke that occurred when the band's provisional name of \"Del and the Dynamos\" was misread as Derek and the Dominos.", "Clapton's biography states that Tony Ashton of Ashton, Gardner and Dyke told Clapton to call the band \"Del and the Dominos\", since \"Del\" was his nickname for Eric Clapton.", "Del and Eric were combined and the final name became \"Derek and the Dominos\".Clapton's close friendship with George Harrison brought him into contact with Harrison's wife, Pattie Boyd, with whom he became deeply infatuated.", "When she spurned his advances, Clapton's unrequited affections prompted most of the material for the Dominos' album ''Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs'' (1970).", "Heavily blues-influenced, the album features the twin lead guitars of Clapton and Duane Allman, with Allman's slide guitar as a key ingredient of the sound.", "Working at Criteria Studios in Miami with Atlantic Records producer Tom Dowd, who had worked with Clapton on Cream's ''Disraeli Gears'', the band recorded a double album.The album contained the hit love song \"Layla\", inspired by the classical poet of Persian literature, Nizami Ganjavi's ''The Story of Layla and Majnun'', a copy of which Ian Dallas had given to Clapton.", "The book moved Clapton profoundly, as it was the tale of a young man who fell hopelessly in love with a beautiful, unavailable woman and went crazy because he could not marry her.", "The two parts of \"Layla\" were recorded in separate sessions: the opening guitar section was recorded first, and for the second section, laid down a few weeks later, drummer Jim Gordon played the piano part for the melody, which he claimed to have written (though Bobby Whitlock stated that Rita Coolidge wrote it).The ''Layla'' LP was actually recorded by a five-piece version of the group, thanks to the unforeseen inclusion of guitarist Duane Allman of the Allman Brothers Band.", "A few days into the Layla sessions, Dowd – who was also producing the Allmans – invited Clapton to an Allman Brothers outdoor concert in Miami.", "The two guitarists met first on stage, then played all night in the studio, and became friends.", "Duane first added his slide guitar to \"Tell the Truth\" and \"Nobody Knows You When You're Down and Out\".", "In four days, the five-piece Dominos recorded \"Key to the Highway\", \"Have You Ever Loved a Woman\" (a blues standard popularised by Freddie King and others) and \"Why Does Love Got to be So Sad?\"", "In September, Duane briefly left the sessions for gigs with his own band, and the four-piece Dominos recorded \"I Looked Away\", \"Bell Bottom Blues\" and \"Keep on Growing\".", "Allman returned to record \"I Am Yours\", \"Anyday\" and \"It's Too Late\".", "On 9 September, they recorded Hendrix's \"Little Wing\" and the title track.", "The following day, the final track, \"It's Too Late\", was recorded.Eric Clapton in Barcelona, 1974Tragedy dogged the group throughout its brief career.", "During the sessions, Clapton was devastated by news of the death of Jimi Hendrix; eight days previously the band had cut a cover of \"Little Wing\" as a tribute.", "On 1970, one day before Hendrix's death, Clapton had purchased a left-handed Fender Stratocaster that he had planned to give to Hendrix as a birthday gift.", "Adding to Clapton's woes, ''Layla'' received only lukewarm reviews upon release.", "The shaken group undertook a US tour without Allman, who had returned to the Allman Brothers Band.", "Despite Clapton's later admission that the tour took place amid a blizzard of drugs and alcohol, it resulted in the live double album ''In Concert''.Recording of a second Dominos studio album was underway when a clash of egos took place and Clapton walked out, thus disbanding the group.", "Allman was killed in a motorcycle accident on 1971.Clapton wrote later in his autobiography that he and Allman were inseparable during the ''Layla'' sessions in Florida; he talked about Allman as the \"musical brother I'd never had but wished I did\".", "Although Radle remained Clapton's bass player until the summer of 1979 (Radle died in May 1980 from the effects of alcohol and narcotics), it was not until 2003 that Clapton and Whitlock appeared together again; Clapton guested on Whitlock's appearance on the ''Later with Jools Holland'' show.", "Another tragic footnote to the Dominos story was the fate of drummer Jim Gordon, who had undiagnosed schizophrenia and years later murdered his mother during a psychotic episode.", "Gordon was confined to 16-years-to-life imprisonment, later being moved to a mental institution, where he remained for the rest of his life.===Personal problems and early solo success===Clapton's career successes in the 1970s were in stark contrast with the struggles he coped with in his personal life, which was troubled by romantic longings and drug and alcohol addiction.", "Still infatuated with Boyd and torn by his friendship with Harrison, he withdrew from recording and touring to isolation in his Surrey residence as the Dominos broke up.", "He nursed a heroin addiction, which resulted in a lengthy career hiatus interrupted only by performing at Harrison's Concert for Bangladesh benefit shows in New York in August 1971; there, he passed out on stage, was revived, and managed to finish his performance.", "In January 1973, the Who's Pete Townshend organised a comeback concert for Clapton at London's Rainbow Theatre, titled the \"Rainbow Concert\", to help Clapton kick his addiction.", "Clapton returned the favour by playing \"The Preacher\" in Ken Russell's film version of the Who's ''Tommy'' in 1975.His appearance in the film (performing \"Eyesight to the Blind\") is notable as he is clearly wearing a fake beard in some shots, the result of deciding to shave off his real beard after the initial takes in an attempt to force the director to remove his earlier scene from the film and leave the set.Yvonne Elliman with Clapton promoting ''461 Ocean Boulevard'' in 1974In 1974, Clapton started living with Boyd (they would not marry until 1979) and was no longer using heroin (although he gradually began to drink heavily).", "He assembled a low-key touring band that included Radle, Miami guitarist George Terry, keyboardist Dick Sims (who died in 2011), drummer Jamie Oldaker, and vocalists Yvonne Elliman and Marcy Levy (also known as Marcella Detroit).", "With this band Clapton recorded ''461 Ocean Boulevard'' (1974), an album with an emphasis on more compact songs and fewer guitar solos; the cover version of \"I Shot the Sheriff\" was Clapton's first number one hit.", "The 1975 album ''There's One in Every Crowd'' continued this trend.", "The album's original title, ''The World's Greatest Guitar Player (There's One in Every Crowd)'', was changed before pressing, as it was felt its ironic intention would be misunderstood.", "The band toured the world and subsequently released the 1975 live LP ''E.", "C. Was Here''.", "Clapton continued to release albums and toured regularly.", "Highlights of the period include ''No Reason to Cry'' (a collaboration with Bob Dylan and The Band); ''Slowhand'', which contained \"Wonderful Tonight\" and a second J. J. Cale cover, \"Cocaine\".", "In 1976, he performed as one of a string of notable guests at the farewell performance of The Band, filmed in a Martin Scorsese documentary titled ''The Last Waltz''.===Continued success===A seven-times Platinum RIAA certification for the album ''Timepieces: The Best of Eric Clapton'' (1982)In 1981, Clapton was invited by producer Martin Lewis to appear at the Amnesty International benefit The Secret Policeman's Other Ball in London.", "Clapton accepted the invitation and teamed up with Jeff Beck to perform a series of duets – reportedly their first ever billed stage collaboration.", "Three of the performances were released on the album of the show, and one of the songs appeared in the film.", "The performances at London's Drury Lane theatre heralded a return to form and prominence for Clapton in the new decade.", "Many factors had influenced Clapton's comeback, including his \"deepening commitment to Christianity\", to which he had converted prior to his heroin addiction.After calling his manager and admitting he was an alcoholic, Clapton flew to Minneapolis–Saint Paul in January 1982 and checked in at Hazelden Treatment Center, located in Center City, Minnesota.", "On the flight over, Clapton indulged in a large number of drinks, for fear he would never be able to drink again.", "Clapton wrote in his autobiography:After being discharged, it was recommended by doctors of Hazelden that Clapton not partake in any activities that would act as triggers for his alcoholism or stress.", "But it did happen.", "Clapton would go back to the Hazelden Treatment Center in November 1987.He has stayed sober ever since.", "A few months after his discharge from his first rehab, Clapton began working on his next album, against doctors' orders.", "Working with Tom Dowd, he produced what he thought as his \"most forced\" album to date, ''Money and Cigarettes''.", "Clapton chose the name of the album \"because that's all I saw myself having left\" after his first rehabilitation from alcoholism.In 1984, he performed on former Pink Floyd member Roger Waters' solo album ''The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking'', and participated in the supporting tour.", "Since then Waters and Clapton have had a close relationship.", "In 2005, they performed together for the Tsunami Relief Fund.", "In 2006, they performed at the Highclere Castle, in aid of the Countryside Alliance, playing two set pieces of \"Wish You Were Here\" and \"Comfortably Numb\".", "Clapton, now a regular charity performer, played at the Live Aid concert at John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia on 13 July 1985, playing with Phil Collins, Tim Renwick, Chris Stainton, Jamie Oldaker, Marcy Levy, Shaun Murphy and Donald 'Duck' Dunn.", "When offered a slot close to peak viewing hours, he was apparently flattered.", "His album output continued in the 1980s, including two produced with Phil Collins, 1985's ''Behind the Sun'', which produced the hits \"Forever Man\" and \"She's Waiting\", and 1986's ''August''.", "''August'' was suffused with Collins's trademark drum and horn sound, and became Clapton's biggest seller in the UK to date, matching his highest chart position, number 3.The album's first track, the hit \"It's in the Way That You Use It\", appeared in the Tom Cruise–Paul Newman film ''The Color of Money''.", "The songs \"Tearing Us Apart\" (with Tina Turner) and \"Miss You\" continued Clapton's more angry sound.", "This rebound kicked off Clapton's two-year period of touring with Collins and their ''August'' collaborators, bassist Nathan East and keyboard player/songwriter Greg Phillinganes.", "While on tour for ''August'', two concert videos were recorded of the four-man band: ''Eric Clapton Live from Montreux'' and ''Eric Clapton and Friends''.", "Clapton later remade \"After Midnight\" as a single and a promotional track for the Michelob beer brand, which had also used earlier songs by Collins and Steve Winwood.", "Clapton won a British Academy Television Award for his collaboration with Michael Kamen on the score for the 1985 BBC television thriller series ''Edge of Darkness''.", "At the 1987 Brit Awards in London, Clapton was awarded the prize for Outstanding Contribution to Music.", "In 1987, he played on George Harrison's album ''Cloud Nine'', contributing guitar to \"Cloud 9\", \"That's What It Takes\", \"Devil's Radio\" and \"Wreck of the Hesperus\".Clapton also got together with the Bee Gees for charity.", "The supergroup called itself the Bunburys, and recorded a charity album with the proceeds going to the Bunbury Cricket Club in Cheshire, which plays exhibition cricket matches to raise money for nonprofit organisations in England.", "The Bunburys recorded three songs for ''The Bunbury Tails'': \"We're the Bunburys\", \"Bunbury Afternoon\" and \"Fight (No Matter How Long)\".", "The last song also appeared on ''The 1988 Summer Olympics Album'' and went to No.", "8 on the rock music chart.", "Clapton played at the cricket club's 25th anniversary celebrations in 2011, which were held at London's Grosvenor House Hotel.", "In 1988, he played with Dire Straits and Elton John at the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute at Wembley Stadium and the Prince's Trust rock gala at the Royal Albert Hall.", "In 1989, Clapton released ''Journeyman'', an album that covered a wide range of styles, including blues, jazz, soul and pop.", "Collaborators included George Harrison, Phil Collins, Daryl Hall, Chaka Khan, Mick Jones, David Sanborn and Robert Cray.", "The song \"Bad Love\" was released as a single and later won the Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance.===Son's death, \"Tears in Heaven\"===The 1990s brought a series of 32 concerts to the Royal Albert Hall, such as the 24 Nights series of concerts that took place around January through February 1990, and February to March 1991.On 1990, Dire Straits, Clapton and Elton John made a guest appearance in the Nordoff-Robbins charity show held at Knebworth in England.", "On 1990, fellow blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan, who was touring with Clapton, and three members of their road crew were killed in a helicopter crash between concerts.", "Then, on 1991, Clapton's four-year-old son, Conor, died after falling from the 53rd-floor window of his mother's friend's New York City apartment at 117 East 57th Street.", "Conor's funeral took place on 28 March at St Mary Magdalene's Church in Clapton's home village in Ripley, Surrey, with Conor buried in the church graveyard.", "In 1991, Clapton appeared on Richie Sambora's album, ''Stranger in This Town'', in a song dedicated to him, called \"Mr. Bluesman\".", "He contributed guitar and vocals to \"Runaway Train\", a duet with Elton John on the latter's ''The One'' album the following year.Clapton's grief was expressed in the song \"Tears in Heaven\", which was co-written by Will Jennings.", "At the 35th Annual Grammy Awards, Clapton received six Grammys for the single \"Tears in Heaven\" and his ''Unplugged'' album, for which Clapton performed live in front of a small audience on 16 January 1992 at Bray Film Studios in Windsor, Berkshire, England.", "The album reached number one on the ''Billboard'' 200, and is certified Diamond by the RIAA for selling over 10 million copies in the US.", "It reached number two in the UK Albums Chart and is certified four times platinum in the UK.", "On 9 September 1992, Clapton performed \"Tears in Heaven\" at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards, and won the award for Best Male Video.In 1992, Clapton received the Ivor Novello Award for Lifetime Achievement from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors.", "In October 1992 Clapton was among the dozens of artists performing at Bob Dylan's 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration.", "Recorded at Madison Square Garden in New York City, the live two-disk CD/DVD captured a show full of celebrities performing classic Dylan songs, with Clapton playing the lead on a nearly 7-minute version of Dylan's \"Knockin' on Heaven's Door\" as part of the finale.", "While Clapton played acoustic guitar on ''Unplugged'', his 1994 album ''From the Cradle'' contained new versions of old blues standards, highlighted by his electric guitar playing.", "In 1995, Clapton for the first and only time appeared on a UK No.", "1 single, collaborating with Chrissie Hynde, Cher and Neneh Cherry on a solo to a cover of \"Love Can Build a Bridge\" released in aid of the British charity telethon Comic Relief.Clapton and Tracy Chapman on stage at a White House Special Olympics dinner, December 1998On 12 September 1996 Clapton played a party for Armani at New York City's Lexington Armory with Greg Phillinganes, Nathan East and Steve Gadd.", "Sheryl Crow appeared on one number, performing \"Tearing Us Apart\", a track from ''August'', which was first performed by Tina Turner during the Prince's Trust All-Star Rock show in 1986.It was Clapton's sole US appearance that year, following the open-air concert held at Hyde Park.", "The concert was taped and the footage was released both on VHS video cassette and later, on DVD.", "Clapton's 1996 recording of the Wayne Kirkpatrick/Gordon Kennedy/Tommy Sims tune \"Change the World\" (on the soundtrack of the film ''Phenomenon'') won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year in 1997, the same year he recorded ''Retail Therapy'' (an album of electronic music with Simon Climie under the pseudonym TDF).", "On 15 September 1997, Clapton appeared at the ''Music for Montserrat'' concert at the Royal Albert Hall, London, performing \"Layla\" and \"Same Old Blues\" before finishing with \"Hey Jude\" alongside fellow English artists Paul McCartney, Elton John, Phil Collins, Mark Knopfler and Sting.", "That autumn, Clapton released the album ''Pilgrim'', the first record containing new material for almost a decade.In 1996, Clapton had a relationship with singer-songwriter Sheryl Crow.", "They remain friends, and Clapton appeared as a guest on Crow's Central Park Concert.", "The duo performed a Cream hit single, \"White Room\".", "Later, Clapton and Crow performed an alternate version of \"Tulsa Time\" with other guitar legends at the Crossroads Guitar Festival in June 2007 as well as Robert Johnson's blues classic \"Crossroads\" at London's Hyde Park in August 2008 with John Mayer and Robert Randolph.At the 41st Annual Grammy Awards on 24 February 1999, Clapton received his third Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, for his song \"My Father's Eyes\".", "In October 1999, the compilation album, ''Clapton Chronicles: The Best of Eric Clapton'', was released, which contained a new song, \"Blue Eyes Blue\", that also appears in soundtrack for the film, ''Runaway Bride''.", "Clapton finished the twentieth century with collaborations with Carlos Santana and B.B.", "King.", "Clapton looked up to King and had always wanted to make an album with him, while King said of Clapton, \"I admire the man.", "I think he's No.", "1 in rock 'n' roll as a guitarist and No.", "1 as a great person.", "\"===Collaboration albums===Clapton performing for Tsunami Relief Cardiff at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, Wales, on 22 January 2005Clapton released the album ''Reptile'' in March 2001.One month after the 11 September attacks, Clapton appeared at the Concert for New York City, performing alongside Buddy Guy.", "An event marking the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in June 2002, Clapton performed \"Layla\" and \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" at the Party at the Palace concert in the grounds of Buckingham Palace.", "On 29 November 2002, the Concert for George was held at the Royal Albert Hall, a tribute to George Harrison, who had died a year earlier of lung cancer.", "Clapton was a performer and the musical director.", "The concert included Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Jeff Lynne, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Ravi Shankar, Gary Brooker, Billy Preston, Joe Brown and Dhani Harrison.", "In 2004, Clapton released two albums of covers of songs by bluesman Robert Johnson, ''Me and Mr. Johnson'' and ''Sessions for Robert J''.", "Guitarist Doyle Bramhall II worked on the album with Clapton (after opening Clapton's 2001 tour with his band Smokestack) and joined him on his 2004 tour.", "In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Clapton No.", "53 on their list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".", "Other media appearances include the Toots & the Maytals Grammy award-winning album ''True Love'', where he played guitar on the track \"Pressure Drop\".Ahoy Arena of Rotterdam on 1 June 2006On 22 January 2005, Clapton performed in the Tsunami Relief Concert held at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, in aid of the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.", "In May 2005, Clapton, Jack Bruce, and Ginger Baker reunited as Cream for a series of concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in London.", "Concert recordings were released on CD and DVD.", "Later, Cream performed in New York at Madison Square Garden.", "Clapton's first album of new original material in nearly five years, ''Back Home'', was released on Reprise Records on .A collaboration with guitarist J. J. Cale, ''The Road to Escondido'', was released on 2006, featuring Derek Trucks and Billy Preston (Preston had also been a part of Clapton's 2004 touring band).", "He invited Trucks to join his band for his 2006–2007 world tour.", "Bramhall remained, giving Clapton three elite guitarists in his band, allowing him to revisit many Derek and the Dominos songs that he hadn't played in decades.", "Trucks became the third member of the Allman Brothers Band to tour supporting Clapton, the second being pianist/keyboardist Chuck Leavell, who appeared on the ''MTV Unplugged'' album and the ''24 Nights'' performances at the Royal Albert Hall, London in 1990 and 1991, as well as Clapton's 1992 US tour.On 20 May 2006, Clapton performed with Queen drummer Roger Taylor and former Pink Floyd bassist/songwriter Roger Waters at Highclere Castle, Hampshire, in support of the Countryside Alliance, which promotes issues relating to the British countryside.", "On 2006, Clapton made a guest appearance at the Bob Dylan concert in Columbus, Ohio, playing guitar on three songs in Jimmie Vaughan's opening act.", "The chemistry between Trucks and Clapton convinced him to invite the Derek Trucks Band to open for Clapton's set at his 2007 Crossroads Guitar Festival.", "Trucks remained on set and performed with Clapton's band throughout his performances.", "The rights to Clapton's official memoirs, written by Christopher Simon Sykes and published in 2007, were sold at the 2005 Frankfurt Book Fair for .Clapton (left) and actor Bill Murray kicking off the Crossroads Guitar Festival, Illinois, on 27 July 2007In 2007, Clapton learned more about his father, a Canadian soldier who left the UK after the war.", "Although Clapton's grandparents eventually told him the truth about his parentage, he only knew that his father's name was Edward Fryer.", "This was a source of disquiet for Clapton, as witnessed by his 1998 song \"My Father's Eyes\".", "A Montreal journalist named Michael Woloschuk researched Canadian Armed Forces service records and tracked down members of Fryer's family, and finally pieced together the story.", "He learned that Clapton's father was Edward Walter Fryer, born 1920, in Montreal and died in Newmarket, Ontario.", "Fryer was a musician (piano and saxophone) and a lifelong drifter who was married several times, had several children, and apparently never knew that he was the father of Eric Clapton.", "Clapton thanked Woloschuk in an encounter at Macdonald–Cartier Airport, in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.On 26 February 2008, it was reported that Clapton had been invited to play a concert in North Korea by government officials.", "Clapton agreed in principle and suggested it take place in 2009.Kristen Foster, a spokesperson for Clapton, said that he regularly received offers to play abroad and that there had been no agreement for him to play in North Korea.", "In February 2008, Clapton performed with his long-time friend Steve Winwood at Madison Square Garden and guested on his recorded single, \"Dirty City\", on Winwood's album ''Nine Lives''.", "The two former Blind Faith bandmates met again for a series of 14 concerts throughout the United States in June 2009.Clapton's 2008 Summer Tour began on at the Ford Amphitheatre, Tampa, Florida, and then moved to Canada, Ireland, England, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Poland, Germany, and Monaco.", "On 2008, he headlined Saturday night for Hard Rock Calling 2008 in London's Hyde Park (previously Hyde Park Calling) with support from Sheryl Crow and John Mayer.Clapton (right) performing with the Allman Brothers Band at the Beacon Theatre, New York City, in March 2009In March 2009, the Allman Brothers Band (amongst many notable guests) celebrated their 40th year, dedicating their string of concerts to the late Duane Allman on their annual run at the Beacon Theatre.", "Eric Clapton was one of the performers, with drummer Butch Trucks remarking that the performance was not the typical Allman Brothers experience, given the number and musical styles of the guests who were invited to perform.", "Songs like \"In Memory of Elizabeth Reed\" were punctuated with others, including \"The Weight\", with Levon Helm; Johnny Winter sitting in on Hendrix's \"Red House\"; and \"Layla\".", "On 2009 Clapton appeared at the Royal Albert Hall, playing \"Further on Up the Road\" with Joe Bonamassa.Clapton was scheduled to perform at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 25th anniversary concert in Madison Square Garden on 2009, but cancelled due to gallstone surgery.", "Van Morrison (who also cancelled) said in an interview that he and Clapton were to do a \"couple of songs\", but that they would do something else together at \"some other stage of the game\".===''Clapton'', ''Old Sock'' and ''I Still Do''===Clapton performed a two-night show with Jeff Beck at the O2 Arena in London on 2010.The two former Yardbirds extended their 2010 tour with stops at Madison Square Garden, the Air Canada Centre in Toronto, and the Bell Centre in Montreal.", "Clapton performed a series of concerts in 11 cities throughout the United States from to 2010, including Roger Daltrey as opening act.", "His third European tour with Steve Winwood began on and ended , including Tom Norris as opening act.", "He then began a short North American tour lasting from to , starting with his third Crossroads Guitar Festival on at Toyota Park in Bridgeview, Illinois.", "Clapton released a new studio album, ''Clapton'', on 2010 in the United Kingdom and 28 September 2010 in the United States.", "On 2010, Clapton performed as guest on the Prince's Trust rock gala held at the Royal Albert Hall, supported by the house band for the evening, which included Jools Holland, Midge Ure and Mark King.Clapton, Keb' Mo' and Buddy Guy at the Crossroads Guitar Festival on 26 June 2010On 24 June 2011, Clapton was in concert with Pino Daniele in Cava de' Tirreni stadium before performing a series of concerts in South America from 6 to 16 October 2011.He spent November and December 2011 touring Japan with Steve Winwood, playing 13 shows in various cities throughout the country.", "On 24 February 2012 Clapton, Keith Richards, Gary Clark Jr., Derek Trucks, Doyle Bramhall II, Kim Wilson and other artists performed together in the Howlin' For Hubert Tribute concert held at the Apollo Theater of New York City honouring blues guitarist Hubert Sumlin who died at age 80 on 4 December 2011.On 29 November 2012, Clapton joined The Rolling Stones at London's O2 Arena during the band's second of five arena dates celebrating their 50th anniversary.", "On 12 December, Clapton performed The Concert for Sandy Relief at Madison Square Garden, broadcast live via television, radio, cinemas and the Internet across six continents.", "In January 2013, Surfdog Records announced a signed deal with Clapton for the release of his forthcoming album ''Old Sock'' on 12 March.", "On 8 April 2013, Eric and Hard Rock International launched the limited-edition Eric Clapton Artist Spotlight merchandise programme benefiting Crossroads Centre Antigua.", "Clapton toured the US and Europe from 14 March to 19 June 2013 to celebrate 50 years as a professional musician.", "On 28 February 2013, Clapton announced his intention to stop touring in 2015 due to hassles with travel.Clapton in Prague, June 2013, during his 50th Celebration World TourOn 15 October 2013, Clapton's popular ''Unplugged'' album and concert DVD were re-released, titled ''Unplugged: Expanded & Remastered.''", "The album includes the original 14 tracks, remastered, as well as 6 additional tracks, including 2 versions of \"My Father's Eyes\".", "The DVD includes a restored version of the concert, as well as over 60 minutes of unseen footage from the rehearsal.", "On 13 and 14 November 2013, Clapton headlined the final two evenings of the \"Baloise Session\", an annual indoor music festival in Basel, Switzerland.", "On 20 November 2013, Warner Bros released Crossroads Guitar Festival 2013 in CD/DVD/Blu-ray.", "On 30 April 2014, Clapton announced the release of ''The Breeze: An Appreciation of JJ Cale'' as an homage to J. J. Cale who died on 26 July 2013.This tribute album is named after the 1972 single \"Call Me the Breeze\" and comprises 16 Cale songs performed by Clapton, Mark Knopfler, John Mayer, Willie Nelson, Tom Petty and others.", "On 21 June 2014, Clapton abruptly walked off stage during a concert at the Glasgow Hydro.", "Although he did return to perform one final song, thousands of fans were upset by the lack of explanation from Clapton or the venue and booed after the concert ended around 40 minutes before advertised to finish.", "Both Clapton and the venue apologised the next day, blaming 'technical difficulties' for making sound conditions 'unbearable' for Clapton on stage.", "A week later he confirmed his retirement plans attributing his decision to the road being \"unbearable\" in addition to \"odd ailments\" that may force him to put down his guitar permanently.", "In a 2016 interview with ''Classic Rock'' magazine, Clapton revealed that he had been diagnosed with peripheral neuropathy in 2013, a condition involving damage to peripheral nerves that typically causes stabbing, burning, or tingling pain in the arms and legs.Clapton at the Royal Albert Hall in 2017 during his ''A Celebration of 50 Years of Music'' tourClapton performed two shows at Madison Square Garden in New York on 1 and 3 May 2015 followed by a 7-night residency at London's Royal Albert Hall from 14 to 23 May 2015 to celebrate his 70th birthday on 30 March.", "The shows also mark 50 years since Clapton first played at the Royal Albert Hall – his debut was on 7 December 1964 when he performed as part of The Yardbirds for the BBC's ''Top Beat Show''.", "The concert film, ''Slowhand at 70 – Live at the Royal Albert Hall'', was released by Eagle Rock Entertainment on 13 November 2015 on DVD, CD, Blu-ray and LP.", "The 2-night concerts in the US marked the 46th anniversary since Clapton, with Cream, opened the \"new\" Madison Square Garden on 2 November 1968.Clapton has performed more times at Madison Square Garden than any other US venue, a total of 45 times.", "On 20 May 2016, Clapton released his twenty-third studio album ''I Still Do''.", "On 30 September 2016 the live-album ''Live in San Diego'' was released.", "In August 2018, Clapton announced that he had recorded his twenty-fourth studio album, ''Happy Xmas'', which consists of blues-tinged interpretations of Christmas songs, with the album released on 12 October.", "Between April and September 2019, he played 17 concerts in Japan, Europe and the Southwestern United States.", "He returned to the road in September 2021, playing eight shows in the southern United States.", "In May 2022, Clapton announced a run of seven US concerts in September with Jimmie Vaughan.", "In May 2023, Clapton performed at the Jeff Beck tribute concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall, sharing the stage with Rod Stewart, Ronnie Wood, Kirk Hammett and Johnny Depp among others." ], [ "Influences", "Clapton and B.", "B.", "King in 2010Clapton cites Muddy Waters, Freddie King, B.B.", "King, Albert King, Buddy Guy, and Hubert Sumlin as guitar-playing influences.", "In his 2007 autobiography, Clapton refers to Muddy Waters as \"the father figure I never really had\".", "Until his death in 1983, Waters was a part of Clapton's life.", "\"When I got to know Muddy, unfortunately, my drinking career was in full sway.\"", "In 2000, Clapton collaborated with B.B.", "King on their album ''Riding with the King''.", "The music video for the title track shows Clapton as the chauffeur, with one of his idols in the back seat.Clapton has said that blues musician Robert Johnson is his single most important influence.", "In 2004, Clapton released ''Sessions for Robert Johnson'', containing covers of Johnson's songs using electric and acoustic guitars.", "In an essay for the 1990 boxed set of Johnson's recordings, Clapton wrote:Clapton also singled out Buddy Holly as an influence.", "''The Chirping Crickets'' was the first album Clapton ever bought; he later saw Holly on ''Sunday Night at the London Palladium''.", "In his autobiography, Clapton recounts the first time he saw Holly and his Fender, saying, \"I thought I'd died and gone to heaven ... it was like seeing an instrument from outer space and I said to myself: 'That's the future – that's what I want.", "In the 2017 documentary film, ''Eric Clapton: Life in 12 Bars'', Clapton cites Bismillah Khan as an influence, adding that \"I wanted my guitar to sound like his reed instrument.\"", "In the same documentary he also cited harmonica player Little Walter as an influence: \"The sound he made with the harmonica playing through an amplifier.", "It was thick and fat and very melodic.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Clapton's handprints (far right) with other members of the Yardbirds at the Rock and Roll Hall of FameClapton has been referred to as one of the most important and influential guitarists of all time.", "Clapton is the only three-time inductee to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame: once as a solo artist, and separately as a member of the Yardbirds and Cream.", "He ranked second in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\" and fourth in ''Gibson's'' Top 50 Guitarists of All Time.In 2011, ''The Guardian'' attributed the creation of the cult of the guitar hero to Clapton, ranking it number seven on their list of the 50 key events in rock music history;Elias Leight of ''Rolling Stone'' writes that Clapton \"influenced recording techniques as well as guitar-playing technique\".", "During recording sessions with John Mayall's group, Clapton was frustrated by technicians \"that just came up to your amp with the microphone and just stuck it two inches away from the front of the amplifier.", "It seemed to me that if you wanted to get the atmosphere we were getting in the clubs, you needed it to sound like you were in the audience 10 feet away, not three inches\".", "Clapton then moved the microphones, with Pink Floyd's Roger Waters stating, \"That changed everything.", "Before Eric, guitar playing in England had been Hank Marvin of the Shadows, very simple, not much technique.", "Suddenly we heard something completely different.", "The records sounded unlike anything we had heard before.", "\"In 2012, Clapton was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his artwork – the Beatles' ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires to mark his 80th birthday.", "Indelibly linked to the Royal Albert Hall in London, a venue he has played at more than any other in his 50-year plus career, Clapton was inducted into the Royal Albert Hall's Walk of Fame in 2018, making him one of the first eleven recipients of a star on the walk, thus joining Muhammad Ali, Winston Churchill, the Suffragettes, and Albert Einstein, among others who were viewed as \"key players\" in the building's history.Robert Christgau, in a dissenting appraisal of Clapton's legacy, writes:" ], [ "Guitars", "Blackie\" in 1978.He recorded hits such as \"Cocaine\", \"I Shot the Sheriff\", \"Wonderful Tonight\", \"Further On Up the Road\" and \"Lay Down Sally\" on Blackie.Like Hank Marvin, the Beatles and Jimi Hendrix, Clapton exerted a crucial and widespread influence in popularising particular models of electric guitar.", "With the Yardbirds, Clapton played a Fender Telecaster, a Fender Jazzmaster, a double-cutaway Gretsch 6120, and a 1964 Cherry-Red Gibson ES-335.He became exclusively a Gibson player for a period beginning in mid-1965, when he purchased a used sunburst Gibson Les Paul guitar from a guitar store in London.", "Clapton commented on the slim profile of the neck, which would indicate it was a 1960 model.Early during his stint in Cream, Clapton's first Les Paul Standard was stolen.", "He continued to play Les Pauls exclusively with Cream (one bought from Andy Summers was almost identical to the stolen guitar) until 1967, when he acquired his most famous guitar in this period, a 1964 Gibson SG, dubbed \"the Fool\".", "Clapton used both the Les Paul and the SG to create his self-described \"woman tone\".", "He explained in a 1967 interview, \"I am playing more smoothly now.", "I'm developing what I call my 'woman tone.'", "It's a sweet sound, something like the solo on 'I Feel Free'.\"", "Writer Michael Dregni describes it as \"thick yet piercing, overdriven yet smooth, distorted yet creamy\".", "The tone is achieved by a combination of tone control settings on the guitars and Clapton's Marshall JTM45 amplifier.", "''Vintage Guitar'' magazine identifies \"the opening riff and solo of 'Sunshine of Your Love' are arguably the best illustrations of full-blown woman tone\".", "Clapton's \"Fool\" acquired its name from its distinctive psychedelic paint job, created by the visual art collective also known as the Fool (just before Cream's first US appearance in 1967, Clapton's SG, Bruce's Fender VI, and Baker's drum head were all repainted in psychedelic designs).Eric Clapton Stratocaster at the Hard Rock Calling concert in Hyde Park, London, in 2008In 1968, Clapton bought a Gibson Firebird and started using the 1964 Cherry-Red Gibson ES-335 again.", "The aforementioned 1964 ES-335 had a storied career.", "Clapton used it at the last Cream show in November 1968 as well as with Blind Faith, played it sparingly for slide pieces in the 1970s, used it on \"Hard Times\" from ''Journeyman'', the Hyde Park live concert of 1996, and the ''From the Cradle'' sessions and tour of 1994–95.It was sold for US$847,500 at a 2004 auction.", "Gibson produced a limited run of 250 \"Crossroads 335\" replicas.", "The 335 was only the second electric guitar Clapton bought.In July 1968 Clapton gave George Harrison a 1957 'goldtop' Gibson Les Paul that been refinished with a red colour, nicknamed Lucy.", "The following September, Clapton played the guitar on the Beatles' recording of \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\".", "Lucy was stolen from Harrison, though later tracked down and returned to him – he lent it to Clapton for his 1973 comeback concert at the Rainbow.", "His SG \"The Fool\" found its way into the hands of George Harrison's friend Jackie Lomax, who subsequently sold it to musician Todd Rundgren for US$500 in 1972.Rundgren restored the guitar and nicknamed it \"Sunny\", after \"Sunshine of Your Love\".", "He retained it until 2000, when he sold it at an auction for US$150,000.At the 1969 Blind Faith concert in Hyde Park, London Clapton played a Fender Custom Telecaster, which was fitted with \"Brownie\"s neck.Clapton's Lead II Fender, the first ever piece of memorabilia donated to the Hard Rock Cafe, London, in 1979In late 1969 Clapton made the switch to the Fender Stratocaster.", "\"I had a lot of influences when I took up the Strat.", "First there was Buddy Holly, and Buddy Guy.", "Hank Marvin was the first well known person over here in England who was using one, but that wasn't really my kind of music.", "Steve Winwood had so much credibility, and when he started playing one, I thought, oh, if he can do it, I can do it\".", "The first—used during the recording of ''Eric Clapton''—was \"Brownie\", which in 1973 became the backup to the most famous of all Clapton's guitars, \"Blackie\".", "In November 1970 Eric bought six Fender Stratocasters from the Sho-bud guitar shop in Nashville, Tennessee while on tour with the Dominos.", "He gave one each to George Harrison, Steve Winwood, and Pete Townshend.", "His very first Stratocaster, Brownie, was purchased on May 7, 1967 and made its debut in 1970 on his first solo album, in concert with Derek and the Dominos as well on the album Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs.", "Clapton assembled the best components of the remaining three to create \"Blackie\", which was his favourite stage guitar until its retirement in 1985.It was first played live 1973 at the Rainbow Concert.", "Clapton called the 1956/57 Strat a \"mongrel\".", "On 2004, Clapton sold \"Blackie\" at Christie's Auction House, New York, for US$959,500 to raise funds for his Crossroads Centre for drug and alcohol addictions.", "\"Brownie\" is now on display at the Experience Music Project.", "The Fender Custom Shop has since produced a limited run of 275 'Blackie' replicas, correct in every detail right down to the 'Duck Brothers' flight case, and artificially aged using Fender's 'Relic' process to simulate years of hard wear.", "One was presented to Clapton upon the model's release and was used for three numbers during a concert at the Royal Albert Hall on 2006.In 1979, Clapton gave his signed Fender Lead II guitar to the Hard Rock Cafe in London to designate his favourite bar stool.", "Pete Townshend also donated his own Gibson Les Paul guitar, with a note attached: \"Mine's as good as his!", "Love, Pete\".Signature guitars in Clapton's honour are made by Fender and C.F.", "Martin & Company.", "In 1988, Fender introduced his signature Eric Clapton Stratocaster.", "Several signature-model 000-sized acoustic guitars made by Martin.", "The first, of these, introduced in 1995, was a limited edition 000-42EC Eric Clapton signature model with a production run of 461.For the single \"Change the World\" (1996) and the album ''Pilgrim'' (1998) he used a Martin 000-28 EC Eric Clapton signature model, which he subsequently gave to guitarist Paul Wassif.", "His 1939 000-42 Martin that he played on the ''Unplugged'' album sold for US$791,500 at auction.", "Clapton uses Ernie Ball Slinky and Super Slinky strings, gauge .10 to.46.His guitar technician for over thirty years was Lee Dickson." ], [ "Other media appearances", "Clapton's handprints in Hollywood, CaliforniaClapton appeared in the movie version of ''Tommy'', the first full-length rock opera, written by the Who.", "In the movie version, Clapton appeared as the Preacher, performing Sonny Boy Williamson's song, \"Eyesight to the Blind\".", "He appeared in ''Blues Brothers 2000'' as one of the Louisiana Gator Boys.", "In addition to being in the band, he had a small speaking role.", "Clapton has appeared in an advertisement for the Mercedes-Benz G-Wagen.", "In March 2007 Clapton appeared in an advertisement for RealNetwork's Rhapsody online music service.", "In 2010, Clapton started appearing as a spokesman for T-Mobile, advertising their MyTouch Fender cell phone.", "Clapton also appeared in the 2011 BBC documentary ''Reggae Got Soul: The Story of Toots and the Maytals'', which was described as \"The untold story of one of the most influential artists ever to come out of Jamaica.", "\"When asked to describe God by their minister, the characters Eric Forman and Steven Hyde both drew an image of Clapton in the episode \"Holy Crap!\"", "of season two of ''That '70s Show''.Clapton appeared on the BBC's ''Top Gear'' in 2013, during Series 19 Episode 4 and was involved in testing the new Kia Cee'd.", "He was called upon to test the Cee'd's auxiliary input, which he tested by plugging in one of his guitars and playing several bars of his most famous hits.", "He was introduced by ''Top Gear'' host Jeremy Clarkson as a \"local guitarist\".In 2017, a documentary film titled ''Eric Clapton: Life in 12 Bars'' was directed by Lili Fini Zanuck.", "Clapton wrote the film score for Zanuck's 1991 film ''Rush'' and the two remained friends.", "In an interview for BBC News, Zanuck said that Clapton only agreed to participate if she directed it:" ], [ "Personal life", "===Relationships and children===Clapton's partner from the late 1960s to 1974 was Alice Ormsby-Gore, a British aristocrat; they were often wrongly reported as engaged.", "He briefly dated funk singer Betty Davis.", "He married Pattie Boyd on 27 March 1979, in Tucson, Arizona, but their marriage was marred by his infidelities and domestic violence.", "During a 1999 interview with ''The Sunday Times'', Clapton admitted to raping and abusing her while they were married and he was a \"full-blown\" alcoholic who felt entitled to sex.", "In 1984, while recording ''Behind the Sun'', Clapton began a relationship with Yvonne Kelly, the manager of AIR Studios Montserrat.", "Although both were married to other partners at the time, they had a daughter named Ruth Kelly Clapton in January 1985.Ruth's existence was kept from the public until the media realised she was his child in 1991.Clapton and Boyd tried unsuccessfully to have children, even trying in vitro fertilisation in 1984, but were faced instead with miscarriages.", "He had an affair with Italian model Lory Del Santo, who gave birth to their son, Conor, on 21 August 1986.Clapton and Boyd later divorced in 1989 after she was \"utterly devastated\" by his confession to impregnating Del Santo during this affair.", "Conor died on 20 March 1991 at the age of four after falling out of an open bedroom window on the 53rd floor of a Manhattan apartment building.In 1998, Clapton, then 53, met 22-year-old administrative assistant Melia McEnery in Columbus, Ohio, at a party given for him after a performance.", "He quietly dated her for a year, and went public with the relationship in 1999.They married on 2002 at St Mary Magdalene church in Clapton's birthplace, Ripley.", "They have three daughters, Julie Rose (born 2001), Ella May (born 2003), and Sophie Belle (born 2005)." ], [ "Political opinions", "=== \"Keep Britain White\" ===On 5 August 1976, Clapton provoked an uproar when he spoke out against increasing immigration during a concert in Birmingham.", "Visibly intoxicated on stage, Clapton voiced his support for the right-wing British politician Enoch Powell.", "He addressed the audience as follows:\"Keep Britain White\" was, at the time, a slogan of the far-right National Front (NF).", "This incident, along with some controversial remarks made around the same time by David Bowie, were the main catalysts for the creation of Rock Against Racism, with a concert on 30 April 1978.=== Clapton's response ===In an interview from October 1976 with ''Sounds'' magazine, Clapton said that he did not \"know much about politics\" and said of his immigration speech that \"I just don't know what came over me that night.", "It must have been something that happened in the day but it came out in this garbled thing.\"", "In a 2004 interview with ''Uncut'', Clapton referred to Enoch Powell as \"outrageously brave\".", "He said that the UK was \"inviting people in as cheap labour and then putting them in ghettos\".", "In 2004, Clapton told an interviewer for ''Scotland on Sunday'', \"There's no way I could be a racist.", "It would make no sense.\"", "In his 2007 autobiography, Clapton said he was \"deliberately oblivious\" to racial conflict.", "In a December 2007 interview with Melvyn Bragg on ''The South Bank Show'', Clapton said he was not a racist but still believed Powell's comments were relevant.After watching unedited footage of the 1976 outburst, which is included in ''Eric Clapton: Life in 12 Bars''—a documentary which also covers his daily alcohol and drug abuse prior to his sobriety—in 2018 Clapton stated he was \"disgusted\" with himself for his \"chauvinistic\" and \"fascistic\" comments on stage.", "He added: \"I sabotaged everything I got involved with.", "I was so ashamed of who I was, a kind of semi-racist, which didn't make sense.", "Half of my friends were black, I dated a black woman, and I championed black music.", "\"=== Opposition to fox-hunting ban ===Clapton supports the Countryside Alliance, which promotes field sports and issues relating to the British countryside.", "He has played in concerts to raise funds for the organisation and publicly opposed the Labour Party's ban on fox hunting with the 2004 Hunting Act.", "A spokesperson for Clapton said, \"Eric supports the Countryside Alliance.", "He does not hunt himself, but does enjoy rural pursuits such as fishing and shooting.", "He supports the Alliance's pursuit to scrap the ban on the basis that he disagrees with the state's interference with people's private pursuits.", "\"=== COVID-19 ===In November 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Clapton and Van Morrison collaborated on an anti-mask, anti-lockdown single entitled \"Stand and Deliver\", the profits from which were donated to Morrison's Lockdown Financial Hardship Fund.", "Morrison's stance was criticised by Northern Ireland Health Minister Robin Swann.", "In July 2021, Clapton wrote that he would \"not perform on any stage where there is a discriminated audience present\", in response to Boris Johnson mandating that concert attendees be vaccinated.", "Clapton had by then taken both doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine and said he had had severe reactions to both injections.", "Whether the symptoms he reported were actually vaccine-related was called into question by an NBC News editorial, given that Clapton previously reported suffering the same symptoms as early as 2013 due to nerve damage.In August 2021, Clapton released the single \"This Has Gotta Stop\" and an accompanying music video.", "It was described as a protest song against COVID-19 lockdowns, vaccinations, and contains lyrical and visual statements against what Clapton sees as the erosion of civil liberties as the result of lockdown policies.Clapton tested positive for COVID-19 in May 2022 causing him to cancel some concerts in his tour schedule.=== Israel-Palestine conflict ===In November 2023, during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war, Clapton released \"Voice of a Child\", a song featuring images of destruction in the Gaza Strip.", "In December 2023, Eric Clapton organized a charity concert to raise funds for children in the Gaza Strip.", "During the event, he played a guitar painted with the colors of the Palestinian flag." ], [ "Assets and philanthropy", "===Wealth and assets===In 2009, ''Surrey Life Magazine'' ranked Clapton as number 17 in their list of richest Surrey residents, estimating his fortune at £120 million in assets.", "This was a combination of income, property, a £9 million yacht, ''Va Bene'' (previously owned by Bernie Ecclestone), his back music catalogue, his touring income, and his holding company Marshbrook Ltd, which had earned him £110 million since 1989.In 2003, he purchased a 50% share of gentleman's outfitters Cordings Piccadilly.", "At the time, owner Noll Uloth was trying to save the shop from closure and contacted Clapton, his \"best client\"; within five minutes, Clapton replied with \"I can't let this happen\".===Car collection===Ferrari SP12 EC built for Clapton under Ferrari's Special Projects programmeSince the 1970s, Clapton has considered himself a \"car enthusiast\" and has often stated his passion for the Ferrari brand.", "Clapton currently owns or has owned a range of Ferraris, and when asked about his Ferrari collection in 1989, he said he liked the touring cars the company produces for road use and commented \"if I had more space and if I had been wise I would have a huge collection by now and I would be a multi-multi-millionaire\".", "In 2010, he explained that for him \"Ferrari has always been the number one car\" to own and drive, and that he always supported Ferrari on the road and in Formula One motor racing.In 2012, Ferrari honoured Clapton with the one-off special project car, the Ferrari SP12 EC.", "In July 2013 Clapton displayed it at the Goodwood Festival of Speed in England in the Michelin Supercar Run.", "In 2014, Clapton explained that Ferrari is still his favourite car brand.", "Among the other vehicles Clapton owns or has owned are a vintage Mini Cooper Radford that was a gift from George Harrison.===Charitable work===Auction of Clapton's guitars and amps in aid of the Crossroads Centre, a substance abuse rehabilitation facilityIn 1993, Clapton was appointed a director of Clouds House, a UK treatment centre for drug and alcohol dependence, and served on their board until 1997.Clapton also served on the board of directors for The Chemical Dependency Centre from 1994 until 1999.Both charities subsequently merged to become Action on Addiction in 2007.In 1998, he established the Crossroads Centre in Antigua to help others overcome their addictions to drugs and alcohol and is active in its management oversight and fundraising to the present day.", "Clapton has organised the Crossroads Guitar Festival in 1999, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2013 and 2019 to raise funds for this centre.", "In 1999, Clapton auctioned off some of his guitar collection to raise more than US$5 million for continuing support of the Crossroads Centre.", "A second guitar auction, including the \"Cream\" of Clapton's collection – as well as guitars donated by famous friends – was held on 2004.His Lowden acoustic guitar sold for US$41,825.The revenue garnered by this auction at Christie's was US$7,438,624.In 2011, he auctioned off over 150 items at a New York auction with proceeds going to his Crossroads Centre.", "Items included his guitar from the Cream reunion tour in 2005, speaker cabinets used in the early 1970s from his days with Derek and the Dominos, and some guitars from Jeff Beck, J. J. Cale, and Joe Bonamassa.", "In March 2011 he raised more than £1.3 million when he auctioned off 138 lots, made up of 75 guitars and 55 amps from his personal collection, including a 1984 Gibson hollow body guitar, a Gianni Versace suit from his 1990 concert at the Royal Albert Hall, and a replica of the famous Fender Stratocaster known as \"Blackie\", which fetched more than $30,000.All proceeds again went to Crossroads.Clapton has performed at the ''Secret Policeman's Ball'', a benefit show co-founded by Monty Python member John Cleese on behalf of Amnesty International.", "He made his first appearance at the 1981 show held in London's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and he subsequently became an activist.", "Clapton has collaborated with The Prince's Trust, the leading UK youth charity, which provides training, personal development, business start up support, mentoring, and advice.", "He has performed at the charity's rock concert numerous times since the 1980s, most recently in 2010.In 2008, he donated a song to Aid Still Required's CD to assist with the restoration of Southeast Asia after the devastation inflicted by the 2004 tsunami.===Football===Clapton is a fan of English football club West Bromwich Albion.", "In 1982, he performed a concert before West Brom player John Wile's testimonial game at The Hawthorns.", "It has been reported that the club rejected his offer to invest cash in the club around this time.", "In the late 1970s Clapton positioned a West Brom scarf on the back cover of his album, ''Backless''.", "In the 1978–79 season Clapton sponsored West Brom's UEFA Cup home game against Turkish club Galatasaray." ], [ "Awards and honours", " Year Award / Recognition'''1983'''Presented the Silver Clef Award from Princess Michael of Kent for outstanding contribution to British music.", "'''1985'''Presented the BAFTA for Best Original Television Music for Score of ''Edge of Darkness'' with Michael Kamen.", "'''1992''' Presented the Ivor Novello Award for Lifetime Achievement from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors.", "'''1993'''\"Tears in Heaven\" won three Grammy Awards for Song of the Year, Record of the Year, and Male Pop Vocal Performance.", "Clapton also won Album of the Year and Best Rock Vocal Performance for ''Unplugged'' and Best Rock Song for \"Layla\".", "'''1995'''Made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to music, as part of the 1995 New Year Honours list.", "'''2000'''Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for the third time, this time as a solo artist.", "He was earlier inducted as a member of the bands Cream and the Yardbirds.", "'''2004'''Promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), receiving the award from the Princess Royal at Buckingham Palace as part of the 2004 New Year Honours list.", "'''2006'''Awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award as a member of Cream.", "'''2015'''An asteroid, 4305 Clapton, is named after him.", "'''2017'''Made a ''Commandeur'' of the of France" ], [ "Clapton's music in film and TV", "Clapton's music has appeared in dozens of movies and television shows as far back as 1973's ''Mean Streets'', which included the Derek and the Dominos song \"I Looked Away\" and a performance of \"Steppin' Out\" by Cream.", "Other appearances in media include in the ''Miami Vice'' series (\"Wonderful Tonight\", \"Knock on Wood\", \"She's Waiting\", and \"Layla\"), ''Back to the Future'' (\"Heaven Is One Step Away\"), ''The Color of Money'' (\"It's in the Way That You Use It\"), ''Lethal Weapon 2'' (\"Knockin' On Heaven's Door\"), ''Goodfellas'' (\"Layla\" and \"Sunshine of Your Love\"), ''Freaks and Geeks'' episode \"I'm With the Band\" (\"Sunshine of Your Love\", \"White Room\" and \"Crossroads\"), ''Friends'' episodes \"The One with the Proposal, Part 2\" (\"Wonderful Tonight\") and \"The One Where Rachel Has A Baby\" (\"River of Tears\"), ''School Of Rock'' (\"Sunshine Of Your Love)\", ''Men in Black III'' (\"Strange Brew\"), ''Captain Phillips'' (\"Wonderful Tonight\"), ''August: Osage County'' (\"Lay Down Sally\"), ''Good Girls Revolt'' episode \"The Year-Ender\" (\"White Room)\", ''Rick and Morty'' episode \"The Vat of Acid Episode\" (\"It's in the Way That You Use It\") and ''Joker'' (\"White Room\").Both Opel and Vauxhall used the guitar riff from \"Layla\" in their advertising campaigns throughout 1987–95.In addition to his music appearing in media, Clapton has contributed to several movies by writing or co-writing the musical scores or contributing original songs.", "These movies include ''Lethal Weapon'' (co-written with Michael Kamen), ''Communion'', ''Rush'', ''Phenomenon'' (\"Change the World\"), and ''Lethal Weapon 3'' (co-wrote and co-performed \"It's Probably Me\" with Sting and \"Runaway Train\" with Elton John)." ], [ "Discography", "===Solo studio albums======Collaborations===*''Riding with the King'' (with B.B.", "King) (2000)*''The Road to Escondido'' (with J. J. Cale) (2006)*''The Breeze: An Appreciation of JJ Cale'' (by Eric Clapton & Friends) (2014)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "; On Clapton's career:* Eric Clapton, ''Clapton, The Autobiography'', 2007 and 2008, Broadway Books, 352 pp.", "/ Arrow, 400 pages / Century, 384 pp.", "* Eric Clapton, Derek Taylor and Peter Blake, ''24 Nights'', Genesis Publications, 2 volumes, 1992, 198 and 64 pp.", "Eric Clapton's signed limited edition books, in a Solander box with 2 live CD* Ray Coleman, ''Clapton!", ": The Authorized Biography'', Warner Books, 368 pp, or Futura, 336 pages, 1986; originally publ.", "as \"Survivor: The Authorized Biography\", Sidgwick & Jackson, 1985, 300 pp.", "* Christopher Hjort w/ a foreword by John Mayall, ''Strange brew: Eric Clapton and the British Blues Boom, 1965–1970'', Jawbone, 2007, 352 pp.", "* Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton: The Complete Recording Sessions 1963–1992'', Blandford or St. Martin's Press, 1993, 192 pp.", "* Marc Roberty, ''Slowhand: The Life & Music of Eric Clapton'', Octopus or Harmony, 1991, 176 pp; upd.", "ed.", "Crown, 1993, 192 pp.", "* Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton in His Own Words'', Omnibus Press, 1993, 96 pp.", "* Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton: The New Visual Documentary'', Omnibus Press, 1990, 128 pp.", "; rev.", "ed., 1994, ...pp.", "; originally publ.", "as ''Eric Clapton: A Visual Documentary'', 1986, ...", "pp.", "* Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton: The Man, the Music and the Memorabilia'', Paper Tiger-Dragon's World, 1994, 226 pp.", "* Marc Roberty, ''The Complete Guide to the Music of Eric Clapton'', Omnibus Press, 1995, 152 pp.", "CD format; rev.", "ed., 2005, 128 pp.", "* Michael Schumacher, ''Crossroads: The Life and Music of Eric Clapton'', Hyperion, 1995, 388 pp.", "; rev.", "ed, Time Warner p'backs, 1998, 411 pp.", "; new ed.", "titled ''Eric Clapton'', Sphere, 2008, 432 pp.", "* Harry Shapiro, ''Eric Clapton: Lost in The Blues'', Guinness Books or Muze, 1992, 256 pp.", "; rev.", "ed.", "Da Capo press, 1193, 225 pp.", "; originally publ.", "as ''Slowhand: The Story of Eric Clapton'', Proteus Books, 1985, 160 pp.", "* Dave Thompson, ''Cream: The World's First Supergroup'', Virgin Books, 2005, 256 pp.", "; rev., upd.", "& illustr.", "ed.", "titled ''Cream: How Eric Clapton Took the World By Storm'', 2006, 320 pp.", "* Steve Turner, ''Conversations with Eric Clapton'', London: Abacus, 1976, 116 pp.", "; About Clapton's playing and sound:* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * David Browne: ''Eric Clapton Isn't Just Spouting Vaccine Nonsense—He's Bankrolling It.''", "In: ''Rolling Stone'', 10 October 2021." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "E2" ], [ "Introduction", "'''E2''', '''e2''', '''E02''', '''E.II''', '''e''' or '''E-2''' may refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* E2 reaction, a type of elimination reaction* Honda E2, one of the predecessors of Honda's ASIMO robot* E2, a communications channel defined in the E-carrier standard* G2 (mathematics) (old name E2 or E2), a group===Biology and medicine===* Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, a protein component of proteasome-mediated protein degradation* E2 regulatory sequence, for the insulin gene* Levuglandin E2, an aldehyde* Prostaglandin E2, an abortifacient* Prostaglandin E2 receptor, a human gene* Iodine-deficiency (ICD-10 code: E02)* Estradiol, an estrogen steroid hormone* Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase, the second element of the multienzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex* Acireductone dioxygenase (iron(II)-requiring), an enzyme* Haplogroup E2 (Y-DNA), a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup===Computing===* E2 (cipher), a block cipher submitted to the AES competition by NTT* Tungsten E2, a business-class Palm OS-based handheld computer* Motorola ROKR E2, a smartphone* Everything2, a collaborative web-based community consisting of a database of interlinked user-submitted written material" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''E'' (album), a 2007 album by Eros Ramazzotti===Television===* \"E²\", an episode of ''Star Trek: Enterprise''* ''MTV e2'', a Canadian entertainment news program that airs on MTV Canada* E2 (TV channel), a Turkish TV channel* e2 by SKY PerfecTV!, a satellite television service in Japan operated by SKY Perfect" ], [ "Transport", "===Air===* Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, an American carrier-based AWACS aircraft * Fokker E.II, a 1915 German single-seat monoplane fighter aircraft* Pfalz E.II, a German aircraft powered by the Oberursel U.I engine* Taylor E-2, a small, light and simple utility aircraft* Embraer E-Jet E2 family, an updated version of the E-jet family* Eastman E-2 Sea Rover, a 1920s seaplane* Eurowings Europe (former IATA code: E2), an Austrian airline subsidiary of Lufthansa* Kampuchea Airlines (former IATA code: E2), a Cambodian airline===Rail===* E2 Series Shinkansen, a Japanese high-speed train* EMC E2, an early American passenger-train diesel locomotive* LB&SCR E2 class, a class of 0-6-0T steam locomotives designed by Lawson Billington* PRR E2, an American PRR 4-4-2 locomotive* CNW Class E-2, a class of 4-6-2 steam locomotives built by the American Locomotive Company in 1923===Roads and footpaths===* E02 expressway (Sri Lanka), in Sri Lanka* E2 European long distance path, a long-distance footpath that runs from Galway in Ireland to France's Mediterranean coast* North–South Expressway Southern Route (E2), in Malaysia* European route E002, in Azerbaijan and Armenia* E2 expressway (Philippines), expressway route in the Philippines* San'yō Expressway (route E2), Hiroshiwa-Iwakuni Road, Ogori Road and Yamaguchi-Ube Road, in Japan===Submarines===* HMS ''E2'', an E-class submarine of the Royal Navy* USS ''E-2'', an E-class submarine of the US Navy===Other transport===* London Buses route E2, England" ], [ "Other uses", "* E-2 visa, a type of US visa* E2, a postcode district in the E postcode area for east London, England* Private E-2, a pay grade for the rank of Private in the US Army* E2 (nightclub), a nightclub in Chicago, US* Eternity II puzzle, a puzzle competition* E-II Holdings, Inc., an investment holding company formerly owned by Meshulam Riklis, and later by Carl Icahn* E2 grade, an assessment of difficulty in rock climbing" ], [ "See also", "* E2c, earphones by Shure* 2E (disambiguation)* EII (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Etiology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Etiology''' (; alternatively spelled '''aetiology''' or '''ætiology''') is the study of causation or origination.", "The word is derived from the Greek word (), meaning \"giving a reason for\" ().", "More completely, etiology is the study of the causes, origins, or reasons behind the way that things are, or the way they function, or it can refer to the causes themselves.", "The word is commonly used in medicine (pertaining to causes of disease) and in philosophy, but also in physics, biology, psychology, government, geography, spatial analysis and theology in reference to the causes or origins of various phenomena.In the past, when many physical phenomena were not well understood or when histories were not recorded, myths often arose to provide etiologies.", "Thus, an etiological myth, or origin myth, is a myth that has arisen, been told over time or written to explain the origins of various social or natural phenomena.", "For example, Virgil's ''Aeneid'' is a national myth written to explain and glorify the origins of the Roman Empire.", "In theology, many religions have creation myths explaining the origins of the world or its relationship to believers." ], [ "Medicine", "In medicine, the etiology of an illness or condition refers to the frequent studies to determine one or more factors that come together to cause the illness.", "Relatedly, when disease is widespread, epidemiological studies investigate what associated factors, such as location, sex, exposure to chemicals, and many others, make a population more or less likely to have an illness, condition, or disease, thus helping determine its etiology.", "Sometimes determining etiology is an imprecise process.", "In the past, the etiology of a common sailor's disease, scurvy, was long unknown.", "When large, ocean-going ships were built, sailors began to put to sea for long periods of time, and often lacked fresh fruit and vegetables.", "Without knowing the precise cause, Captain James Cook suspected scurvy was caused by the lack of vegetables in the diet.", "Based on his suspicion, he forced his crew to eat sauerkraut, a cabbage preparation, every day, and based upon the positive outcomes, he inferred that it prevented scurvy, even though he did not know precisely why.", "It took about another two hundred years to discover the precise etiology; the lack of vitamin C in a sailor's diet.The following are examples of intrinsic factors:* Inherited conditions, or conditions that are passed down to you from your parents.", "An example of this is hemophilia, a disorder that leads to excessive bleeding.", "* Metabolic and endocrine, or hormone, disorders.", "These are abnormalities in the chemical signaling and interaction in the body.", "For example, Diabetes mellitus is an endocrine disease that causes high blood sugar.", "* Neoplastic disorders or cancer where the cells of the body grow out of control.", "* Problems with immunity, such as allergies, which are an overreaction of the immune system." ], [ "Mythology", "An etiological myth, or origin myth, is a myth intended to explain the origins of cult practices, natural phenomena, proper names and the like.", "For example, the name Delphi and its associated deity, ''Apollon Delphinios'', are explained in the Homeric Hymn which tells of how Apollo, in the shape of a dolphin (''''), propelled Cretans over the seas to make them his priests.", "While Delphi is actually related to the word '''' (\"womb\"), many etiological myths are similarly based on folk etymology (the term \"Amazon\", for example).", "In the ''Aeneid'' (published ), Virgil claims the descent of Augustus Caesar's Julian clan from the hero Aeneas through his son Ascanius, also called Iulus.", "The story of Prometheus' sacrifice trick at Mecone in Hesiod's ''Theogony'' relates how Prometheus tricked Zeus into choosing the bones and fat of the first sacrificial animal rather than the meat to justify why, after a sacrifice, the Greeks offered the bones wrapped in fat to the gods while keeping the meat for themselves.", "In Ovid's ''Pyramus and Thisbe'', the origin of the color of mulberries is explained, as the white berries become stained red from the blood gushing forth from their double suicide." ], [ "See also", "* Backstory* Bradford Hill criteria* Correlation does not imply causation* Creation myth* Just-so story* ''Just So Stories''* Pathology* Pourquoi story* Problem of causation* Involution (esoterism)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Empirical formula" ], [ "Introduction", "In chemistry, the '''empirical formula''' of a chemical compound is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in a compound.", "A simple example of this concept is that the empirical formula of sulfur monoxide, or SO, would simply be SO, as is the empirical formula of disulfur dioxide, S2O2.Thus, sulfur monoxide and disulfur dioxide, both compounds of sulfur and oxygen, have the same empirical formula.", "However, their molecular formulas, which express the number of atoms in each molecule of a chemical compound, are not the same.An empirical formula makes no mention of the arrangement or number of atoms.", "It is standard for many ionic compounds, like calcium chloride (CaCl2), and for macromolecules, such as silicon dioxide (SiO2).The molecular formula, on the other hand, shows the number of each type of atom in a molecule.", "The structural formula shows the arrangement of the molecule.", "It is also possible for different types of compounds to have equal empirical formulas.In the early days of chemistry, information regarding the composition of compounds came from elemental analysis, which gives information about the relative amounts of elements present in a compound, which can be written as percentages or mole ratios.", "However, chemists were not able to determine the exact amounts of these elements and were only able to know their ratios, hence the name \"empirical formula\".", "Since ionic compounds are extended networks of anions and cations, all formulas of ionic compounds are empirical." ], [ "Examples", "* Glucose (), ribose (), Acetic acid (), and formaldehyde () all have different molecular formulas but the same empirical formula: .", "This is the actual molecular formula for formaldehyde, but acetic acid has double the number of atoms, ribose has five times the number of atoms, and glucose has six times the number of atoms." ], [ "Calculation example", "A chemical analysis of a sample of methyl acetate provides the following elemental data: 48.64% carbon (C), 8.16% hydrogen (H), and 43.20% oxygen (O).", "For the purposes of determining empirical formulas, it's assumed that we have 100 grams of the compound.", "If this is the case, the percentages will be equal to the mass of each element in grams.", ":Step 1: Change each percentage to an expression of the mass of each element in grams.", "That is, 48.64% C becomes 48.64 g C, 8.16% H becomes 8.16 g H, and 43.20% O becomes 43.20 g O.:Step 2: Convert the amount of each element in grams to its amount in moles::::Step 3: Divide each of the resulting values by the smallest of these values (2.7)::::Step 4: If necessary, multiply these numbers by integers in order to get whole numbers; if an operation is done to one of the numbers, it must be done to all of them.", ":::Thus, the empirical formula of methyl acetate is .", "This formula also happens to be methyl acetate's molecular formula." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Episcopal polity" ], [ "Introduction", "The chair (cathedra) of the Bishop of Rome (Pope) of the Catholic Church in the Archbasilica of St. John in Lateran in Rome, Italy, represents his episcopal authority.An '''episcopal polity''' is a hierarchical form of church governance (\"ecclesiastical polity\") in which the chief local authorities are called bishops.", "The word \"bishop\" here is derived via the British Latin and Vulgar Latin term ''*ebiscopus''/''*biscopus'', from the Ancient Greek ''epískopos'' meaning \"overseer\".", "It is the structure used by many of the major Christian Churches and denominations, such as the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Anglican, Lutheran and Methodist churches or denominations, and other churches founded independently from these lineages." ], [ "History", "Churches with an episcopal polity are governed by bishops, practising their authorities in the dioceses and conferences or synods.", "Their leadership is both sacramental and constitutional; as well as performing ordinations, confirmations, and consecrations, the bishop supervises the clergy within a local jurisdiction and is the representative both to secular structures and within the hierarchy of the church.", "Bishops are considered to derive their authority from an unbroken, personal apostolic succession from the Twelve Apostles of Jesus.", "Bishops with such authority are said to represent the historical episcopate or historic episcopate.", "Churches with this type of government usually believe that the Church requires episcopal government as described in the New Testament (see 1 Timothy 3 and 2 Timothy 1).", "In some systems, bishops may be subject in limited ways to bishops holding a higher office (variously called archbishops, metropolitans, or patriarchs, depending upon the tradition).", "They also meet in councils or synods.", "These gatherings, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, usually make important decisions, though the synod or council may also be purely advisory.For much of the written history of institutional Christianity, episcopal government was the only known form of church organization.", "This changed at the Reformation.", "Many Protestant churches are now organized by either congregational or presbyterian church polities, both descended from the writings of John Calvin, a Protestant reformer working and writing independently following the break with the Catholic Church precipitated by The Ninety-Five Theses of Martin Luther.", "However, some people have disputed the episcopal polity before the reformation, such as Aerius of Sebaste in the 4th century." ], [ "Overview of episcopal churches", "bishops's see at Chartres Cathedral.The definition of the word ''episcopal'' has variation among Christian traditions.", "There are subtle differences in governmental principles among episcopal churches at the present time.", "To some extent the separation of episcopal churches can be traced to these differences in ecclesiology, that is, their theological understanding of church and church governance.", "For some, \"episcopal churches\" are churches that use a hierarchy of bishops who identify as being in an unbroken, personal apostolic succession.", "\"Episcopal\" is also commonly used to distinguish between the various organizational structures of denominations.", "For instance, \"Presbyterian\" (, presbýteros) is used to describe a church governed by a hierarchy of assemblies of elected elders, referred to as presbyterian polity.", "Similarly, \"episcopal\" is used to describe a church governed by bishops.", "Self-governed local congregations, governed neither by elders nor bishops, are usually described as \"congregational\".More specifically, the capitalized appellation \"Episcopal\" is applied to several churches historically based within Anglicanism (\"Episcopalianism\"), including those still in communion with the Church of England.Using these definitions, examples of specific episcopal churches include:* The Catholic Church* The Eastern Orthodox Church* The Oriental Orthodox Churches* The Assyrian Church of the East* The Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church* The Churches of the Anglican Communion* The Old Catholic churches* Numerous smaller \"catholic\" churches* Certain national churches of the Lutheran confession* The African Methodist Episcopal Church* The United Methodist ChurchSome Lutheran churches practice congregational polity or a form of presbyterian polity.", "Others, including the Church of Sweden, practice episcopal polity; the Church of Sweden also counts its bishops among the historic episcopate.", "This is also the case with some American Lutheran churches, such as the Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church, Lutheran Orthodox Church, Lutheran Church - International, and the Lutheran Episcopal Communion.Many Methodist churches (the United Methodist Church, among others) retain the form and function of episcopal polity, although in a modified form, called connexionalism.", "Since all trace their ordinations to an Anglican priest, John Wesley, it is generally considered that their bishops do not share in apostolic succession.", "However, United Methodists affirm that their bishops share in the historic episcopate." ], [ "Formation", "The Apostle Paul in the letter to Philippians, Clement of Rome and the Didache when talking about the church system of governance, mention \"bishops and deacons\", omitting the word \"presbyter\", which has been argued by some to show that there was no presbyter-bishop distinction yet in the first century.Ignatius of Antioch writing in already the early second century makes a clear distinction of bishops and presbyters, meaning that his letters show that an episcopal system was already existing by his time.", "However Bart Erhman sees it as significant that Ignatius in his letter to the Romans never mentioned a bishop in Rome.", "Later also Tertullian very clearly distinguishes the presbyters and bishops as a separate office, Irenaeus made lists of the succession of bishops, though bishop succession lists made by early church fathers are highly contradictory.", "By the second century it appears that the episcopal system had become the majority, universal view among Christians.Even schismatic sects such as the Novatians and Donatists would use the episcopal system.", "Except for Aerius of Sebaste, who contested the episcopal system and started his own sect.Jerome stated that churches were originally governed by a group of presbyters but only later churches decided to elect bishops to suppress schisms.Pope Pius IX convened the First Vatican Council that approved the dogma of the pope as the visible head of the church, prime bishop over a hierarchy of clergy and believers." ], [ "Catholic Church", "The Catholic Church has an episcopate, with the Pope, who is the Bishop of Rome, at the top.", "The Catholic Church considers that juridical oversight over the Church is not a power that derives from human beings, but strictly from the authority of Christ, which was given to his twelve apostles.", "The See of Rome, as the unbroken line of apostolic authority descending from St. Peter (the \"prince and head of the apostles\"), is a visible sign and instrument of communion among the college of bishops and therefore also of the local churches around the world.", "In communion with the worldwide college of bishops, the Pope has all legitimate juridical and teaching authority over the whole Church.", "This authority given by Christ to St. Peter and the apostles is transmitted from one generation to the next by the power of the Holy Spirit, through the laying on of hands from the Apostles to the bishops, in unbroken succession." ], [ "Eastern Orthodox Church", "The conciliar idea of episcopal government continues in the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "In Eastern Orthodoxy, all autocephalous primates are seen as collectively gathering around Christ, with other archbishops and bishops gathering around them, and so forth.", "There is no single primate with exclusive authority comparable to the Pope in Rome.", "However, the Patriarch of Constantinople (now Istanbul) is seen as the ''primus inter pares'', the \"first among equals\" of the autocephalous churches of Eastern Orthodoxy." ], [ "Oriental Orthodox churches", "The Oriental Orthodox Churches affirm the ideas of apostolic succession and episcopal government.", "Within each national Church, the bishops form a holy synod to which even the Patriarch is subject.", "The Syriac Orthodox Church traces its apostolic succession to St. Peter and recognises Antioch as the original See of St. Peter.", "The Armenian Apostolic Church traces its lineage to the Apostle Bartholomew.", "The Indian Orthodox Church traces its lineage to the Apostle Thomas.", "The Ethiopian Orthodox Church received its lines of succession (Frumentius) through the Coptic Orthodox Church in the fifth century.Both the Greek and Coptic Orthodox Churches each recognise their own Pope of Alexandria (Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa, and Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria respectively), both of whom trace their apostolic succession back to the figure Mark the Evangelist.", "There are official, ongoing efforts in recent times to heal this ancient breach.", "Already, the two recognize each other's baptisms, chrismations, and marriages, making intermarriage much easier." ], [ "Church of the East", "Historically, the Church of the East has traced its episcopal succession to St. Thomas the Apostle.", "Currently the bishops of the Assyrian Church of the East continue to maintain its apostolic succession." ], [ "Anglican Communion", "Anglicanism is the most prominent of the Reformation traditions to lay claim to the historic episcopate through apostolic succession in terms comparable to the various Roman Catholic and Orthodox Communions.", "Anglicans assert unbroken episcopal succession in and through the Church of England back to St. Augustine of Canterbury and to the first century Roman province of Britannia.", "While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times.The legislation of Henry VIII effectively establishing the independence of the Church of England from Rome did not alter its constitutional or pastoral structures.", "Royal supremacy was exercised through the extant legal structures of the church, whose leaders were bishops.", "Episcopacy was thus seen as a given of the Reformed ''Ecclesia Anglicana'', and a foundation in the institution's appeal to ancient and apostolic legitimacy.", "What did change was that bishops were now seen to be ministers of the Crown for the spiritual government of its subjects.", "The influence of Richard Hooker was crucial to an evolution in this understanding in which bishops came to be seen in their more traditional role as ones who delegate to the presbyterate inherited powers, act as pastors to presbyters, and holding a particular teaching office with respect to the wider church.Paul Kwong, Anglican Archbishop and Primate of Hong KongAnglican opinion has differed as to the way in which episcopal government is ''de jure divino'' (by the Divine Right of Kings).", "On the one hand, the seventeenth century divine, John Cosin, held that episcopal authority is ''jure divino'', but that it stemmed from \"apostolic practice and the customs of the Church ... not absolute precept that either Christ or His Apostles gave about it\" (a view maintained also by Hooker).", "In contrast, Lancelot Andrewes and others held that episcopal government is derived from Christ via the apostles.", "Regardless, both parties viewed the episcopacy as bearing the apostolic function of oversight which both includes, and derives from, the power of ordination, and is normative for the governance of the church.", "The practice of apostolic succession both ensures the legitimacy of the church's mission and establishes the unity, communion, and continuity of the local church with the universal church.", "This formulation, in turn, laid the groundwork for an independent view of the church as a \"sacred society\" distinct from civil society, which was so crucial for the development of local churches as non-established entities outside England, and gave direct rise to the Catholic Revival and disestablishmentarianism within England.Functionally, Anglican episcopal authority is expressed synodically, although individual provinces may accord their primate with more or less authority to act independently.", "Called variously \"synods,\" \"councils,\" or \"conventions,\" they meet under episcopal chairmanship.", "In many jurisdictions, conciliar resolutions that have been passed require episcopal assent or consent to take force.", "Seen in this way, Anglicans often speak of \"the bishop-in-synod\" as the force and authority of episcopal governance.", "Such conciliar authority extends to the standard areas of doctrine, discipline, and worship, but in these regards is limited by Anglicanism's tradition of the limits of authority.", "Those limits are expressed in Article XXI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, ratified in 1571 (significantly, just as the Council of Trent was drawing to a close), which held that \"General Councils ... may err, and sometimes have erred ... wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor authority, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of holy Scripture.\"", "Hence, Anglican jurisdictions have traditionally been conservative in their approach to either innovative doctrinal development or in encompassing actions of the church as doctrinal (see ''lex orandi, lex credendi'').Anglican synodical government, though varied in expression, is characteristically representative.", "Provinces of the Anglican Communion, their ecclesiastical provinces and dioceses are governed by councils consisting not only of bishops, but also representatives of the presbyterate and laity.There is no international juridical authority in Anglicanism, although the tradition's common experience of episcopacy, symbolised by the historical link with the See of Canterbury, along with a common and complex liturgical tradition, has provided a measure of unity.", "This has been reinforced by the Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion bishops, which first met in 1867.These conferences, though they propose and pass resolutions, are strictly consultative, and the intent of the resolutions is to provide guideposts for Anglican jurisdictions—not direction.", "The Conferences also express the function of the episcopate to demonstrate the ecumenical and catholic nature of the church.The Scottish Episcopal Church traces its history back to the origins of Christianity in Scotland.", "Following the 1560 Scottish Reformation the Church of Scotland was initially run by Superintendents, episcopal governance was restored in 1572, but episcopalianism alternated with periods when the Kirk was under presbyterian control until the 1711 Act allowed formation of the independent non-established Scottish Episcopal Church.", "The Nonjuring schism led to the British Government imposing penal laws against the church.", "In 1784 the Scottish church appointed Samuel Seabury as first bishop of the American Episcopal Church, beginning the worldwide Anglican Communion of churches, and in 1792 the penal laws were abolished.", "The church accepted the articles of the Church of England in 1804.The spread of increasingly democratic forms of representative governance has its origin in the formation of the first General Conventions of the American Episcopal Church in the 1780s, which established a \"House of Bishops\" and a \"House of Deputies\".", "In many jurisdictions, there is also a third, clerical House.", "Resolutions may be voted on jointly or by each House, in the latter case requiring passage in all Houses to be adopted by the particular council.Churches that are members of the Anglican Communion are episcopal churches in polity, and some are named \"Episcopal\".", "However, some churches that self-identify as Anglican do not belong to the Anglican Communion, and not all episcopally-governed churches are Anglican.", "The Roman Catholic Church, the Old Catholic Churches (in full communion with, but not members of, the Anglican Communion), and the Eastern Orthodox churches are recognized, and also their bishops, by Anglicans." ], [ "American Methodist churches", "As an offshoot of Anglicanism, Methodist churches often use episcopal polity for historical as well as practical reasons, albeit to limited use.", "Methodists often use the term ''connexionalism'' or ''connexional polity'' in addition to \"episcopal\".", "Nevertheless, the powers of the Methodist episcopacy can be relatively strong and wide-reaching compared to traditional conceptions of episcopal polity.", "For example, in the United Methodist Church, bishops are elected for life, can serve up to two terms in a specific conference (three if special permission is given), are responsible for ordaining and appointing clergy to pastor churches, perform many administrative duties, preside at the annual sessions of the regional Conferences and at the quadrennial meeting of the worldwide General Conference, have authority for teaching and leading the church on matters of social and doctrinal import, and serve to represent the denomination in ecumenical gatherings.", "United Methodist bishops in the United States serve in their appointed conferences, being moved to a new \"Episcopal Area\" after 8 (or 12) years, until their mandated retirement at the end of the quadrennium following their sixty-sixth birthday.British Methodism holds that all ordained ministers are equal in terms of spirituality.", "However, for practical management lines are drawn into President of Conference, Chair of District, Superintendent Minister, Minister.", "However, all are ministers." ], [ "Episcopal government in other denominations", "The Reformed Church of Hungary and the Lutheran churches in continental Europe may sometimes be called \"episcopal\".", "In these latter cases, the form of government is not radically different from the presbyterian form, except that their councils of bishops have hierarchical jurisdiction over the local ruling bodies to a greater extent than in most Presbyterian and other Reformed churches.", "As mentioned, the Lutheran Church in Sweden and Finland are exceptions, claiming apostolic succession in a pattern somewhat like the Anglican churches.", "Otherwise, forms of polity are not mandated in the Lutheran churches, as it is not regarded as having doctrinal significance.", "Old World Lutheranism, for historical reasons, has tended to adopt Erastian theories of episcopal authority (by which church authority is to a limited extent sanctioned by secular government).", "In the United States, the Lutheran churches tend to adopt a form of government that grants congregations more independence, but ultimately has an episcopal structure.", "A small minority of Episcopal Baptists exists.Most Anabaptist churches of the plain dress tradition follow an episcopal system, at least in name.", "Congregational governance is strongly emphasized, and each congregation elects its pastor.", "Bishops enforce inter-congregational unity and may discipline pastors for breaking from traditional norms.Although it never uses the term, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is episcopal, rather than presbyterian or congregational, in the sense that it has a strict hierarchy of leadership from the local bishop/branch president up to a single prophet/president, believed to be personally authorized and guided by Jesus Christ.", "Local congregations (branches, wards, and stakes) have ''de jure'' boundaries by which members are allocated, and membership records are centralized.", "This system developed gradually from a more presbyterian polity (Joseph Smith's original title in 1830 was \"First Elder\") for pragmatic and doctrinal reasons, reaching a full episcopacy during the Nauvoo period (1839–1846)." ], [ "See also", "*Canon law*Collegiality (Catholic Church)*Conciliarism*Conciliarity*Episcopal subsidy*Magisterium" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** * Fairweather, E. R., and R. F. Hettlinger.", "''Episcopacy and Reunion''.", "First English ed.", "London: A.R.", "Mowbray & Co., 1953, cop.", "1952.ix, 118 p.", "''N.B''.", ": First published in 1952 by the General Board of Religious Education of the Church of England in Canada, Toronto, Ont.", "* * Swete, H. B., ed.", "''Essays on the Early History of the Church and the Ministry'', by Various Authors.", "London: Macmillan and Co., 1918." ], [ "External links", "* Vatican: The Holy See Official Website of the Papacy* Catholic Encyclopedia: Bishop* The Website of the Archbishop of Canterbury Official Website of the Church of England* Episcopacy * United Methodist Council of Bishops Official Website of the United Methodist Church* Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders By Gregory S. Neal* An Agreed Statement on Conciliarity and Primacy in the Church by the Orthodox/Roman Catholic Consultation in the United States of America, 1989." ] ]
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[ [ "Episcopal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Episcopal''' may refer to:*Of or relating to a bishop, an overseer in the Christian church*Episcopate, the see of a bishop – a diocese*Episcopal Church (disambiguation), any church with \"Episcopal\" in its name** Episcopal Church (United States), an affiliate of Anglicanism based in the United States*Episcopal conference, an official assembly of bishops in a territory of the Roman Catholic Church*Episcopal polity, the church united under the oversight of bishops*Episcopal see, the official seat of a bishop, often applied to the area over which he exercises authority*Historical episcopate, dioceses established according to apostolic succession" ], [ "See also", "* Episcopal High School (disambiguation)* Pontifical (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "East Slavic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''East Slavic languages''' constitute one of three regional subgroups of the Slavic languages, distinct from the West and South Slavic languages.", "East Slavic languages are currently spoken natively throughout Eastern Europe, and eastwards to Siberia and the Russian Far East.", "In part due to the large historical influence of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, the Russian language is also spoken as a lingua franca in many regions of Caucasus and Central Asia.", "Of the three Slavic branches, East Slavic is the most spoken, with the number of native speakers larger than the Western and Southern branches combined.The common consensus is that Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian are the existent East Slavic languages; some linguists consider that there are even more East Slavic languages in total, e.g.", "West Polesian, or the most common claim, Rusyn.", "However, both of them are very often considered as dialects (West Polesian as a dialect of Belarusian and/or Ukrainian and Rusyn as a dialect of Ukrainian).The modern East Slavic languages descend from a common predecessor spoken in Kievan Rus' from the 9th to 13th centuries, which later evolved into Ruthenian, the chancery language of the Balto-Ruthenian Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Dnieper river valley, and into medieval Russian in the Volga river valley, the language of the Russian principalities including the Grand Duchy of Moscow.All these languages use the Cyrillic script, but with particular modifications.", "Belarusian and Ukrainian, which are descendants of Ruthenian, have a tradition of using Latin-based alphabets—the Belarusian Łacinka and the Ukrainian Latynka alphabets, respectively (also Rusyn uses Latin in some regions, e.g.", "in Slovakia).", "The Latin alphabet is traditionally more common in Belarus, while the usage of the Cyrillic script in Russia and Ukraine could never be compared to any other alphabet." ], [ "Classification", "Modern East Slavic languages include Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian.", "Also sometimes considered as the fourth living language of the East Slavic group, the Rusyn language, the status of which as an independent language is the subject of scientific debate.Classification of the East Slavic languagesHistory of UkrainianHistory of BelarusianHistory of Russianca.", "600s/700s to 1200s/1300s'''Old East Slavic'''ca.", "1400s to 1700s'''Ruthenian''''''Old Russian'''ca.", "since 1700s to 1800s(modern) '''Ukrainian'''(modern) '''Belarusian'''(modern) '''Russian'''" ], [ "Distinctive features", "=== Vocabulary ===The East Slavic territory exhibits a linguistic continuum with many transitional dialects.", "Between Belarusian and Ukrainian there is the Polesian dialect, which shares features from both languages.", "East Polesian is a transitional variety between Belarusian and Ukrainian on one hand, and between South Russian and Ukrainian on the other hand.", "At the same time, Belarusian and Southern Russian form a continuous area, making it virtually impossible to draw a line between the two languages.", "Central or Middle Russian (with its Moscow sub-dialect), the transitional step between the North and the South, became a base for the Russian literary standard.", "Northern Russian with its predecessor, the Old Novgorod dialect, has many original and archaic features.Ruthenian, the ancestor of modern Belarusian and Ukrainian, was the official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as \"Chancery Slavonic\" until the end of the 17th century when it was gradually replaced by the Polish language.", "It was also the native language of the Cossack Hetmanate until the end of the 18th century, when the Ukrainian state completely became part of the Russian Empire in 1764.The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk from 1710 is one of the most important written sources of the Ruthenian language.", "Due to the influence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth over many centuries, Belarusian and Ukrainian have been influenced in several respects by Polish, a Lechitic West Slavic language.", "As a result of the long Polish-Lithuanian rule, these languages had been less exposed to Church Slavonic, featuring therefore less Church Slavonicisms than the modern Russian language, for example:+Comparison of the word \"sweet\"UkrainianBelarusianRussianсолодкий (''solodkyj'')салодкі (''salodki'')сладкий (''sladkij'')Additionally, the original East Slavic phonetic form was kept in many words in Ukrainian and Belarusian, for example:+Comparison of the word \"unit\"UkrainianBelarusianRussianодиниця (''odynycia'')адзінка (''adzinka'')eдиница (''edinica'')In general, Ukrainian and Belarusian are also closer to other Western European languages, especially to German (via Polish).", "At the same time Russian was being heavily influenced by Church Slavonic (South Slavic language), but also by the Turkic and Uralic languages.", "For example:+Comparison of the word \"to search\"UkrainianBelarusianRussianшукати (''šukaty'')шукаць (''šukać'')искать (''iskat́'')Compare Polish \"szukać\" and Old Low German \"sōkian\" (German \"suchen\")Compare Bulgarian \"искам\" (''iskam'') and Serbo-Croatian \"искати\" (''iskati'')What's more, all three languages do also have false friends, that sometimes can lead to (big) misunderstandings.", "For example, Ukrainian орати (''oraty'') — \"to plow\" and Russian орать (''orat́'') — \"to scream\", or Ukrainian помітити (''pomityty'') — \"to notice\" and Russian пометить (''pometit́'') — \"to mark\".===Orthography======= Alphabet ====The alphabets of the East Slavic languages are all written in the Cyrillic script, however each of them has their own letters and pronunciations.", "Russian and Ukrainian have 33 letters, while Belarusian has 32.Additionally, Belarusian and Ukrainian use the apostrophe (') for the hard sign, which has the same function as the letter Ъ in Russian.+Cyrillic alphabets comparison tableEast Slavic languagesRussianАБВГДЕЁЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯBelarusianАБВГДЕЁЖЗІЙКЛМНОПРСТУЎФХЦЧШ'ЫЬЭЮЯUkrainianАБВГҐДЕЄЖЗИІЇЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩ'ЬЮЯSome letters, that are not included in the alphabet of a language, can be written as diagraphs.", "For example, the letter Ё, which doesn't exist in the Ukrainian alphabet, can be written as ЙО (ЬО before and after consonants), while the letter Щ is written as ШЧ in Belarusian (compare Belarusian плошча and Ukrainian площа (\"area\")).There are also different rules of usage for certain letters, e.g.", "the soft sign (Ь) cannot be written before and after the letter Ц in Russian, because such combination straightforwardly doesn't exist in the Russian language, while in Ukrainian and especially Belarusian, on the contrary, it's a relatively common maneuver.", "Moreover, the Russian Щ is always pronounced softly (palatalization).Standard Ukrainian, unlike all the other Slavic languages (excl.", "Serbo-Croatian), does not exhibit final devoicing.", "Nevertheless, this rule is not that clear when listening to colloquial Ukrainian.", "It's one of the typical deviations that occur in the Ukrainian spoken language.==== Other orthographic differentiations (false friends) ====Besides the differences of the alphabets, there are also quite many false friends.", "For example, one of the common false friends, the letter И (romanized as ''I'' for Russian and ''Y'' for Ukrainian), which in Russian is mostly pronounced as (identical with the Ukrainian І), while in Ukrainian it's mostly pronounced as (very similar to the Russian Ы).", "Other examples:+\"False friends\"LetterPronunciationBelarusian and Russian ЕUkrainian Belarusian and Russian ЭUkrainian Belarusian and Russian ЫUkrainian (B. and R.), (U.", ")Belarusian and Ukrainian ІRussian Belarusian and Ukrainian Гno sound in RussianRussian Ukrainian (rarely used)===Phonology=== Isoglosses NorthernRussian Standard Russian (Moscow dialect) Southern Russian Standard Belarusian Standard Ukrainian Examples reductionof unstressed (akanye) no yes no R. ,B. ,U.", "\"head\" pretonic (yakanye) R. ,B. ,U.", "\"earth\" Proto-Slavic *''i'' R. ,B. ,U.", "\"leaf\" Proto-Slavic *''y'' stressed CoC Proto-Slavic *''ě'' R. ,B. ,U.", "\"seed\" /e/>/o/ change before nonpalatalized consonants always under stress after /j/, /nʲ/, /lʲ/, /ʒ/, /ʃ/, /t͡ʃ/ R. , B. , U.", "\"green\" Proto-Slavic *''c'' Proto-Slavic *''č'' R. \"hour\",B. ,U.", "\"time (of day)\" Proto-Slavic *''skj'', ''zgj'' , , , soft dental stops , , , Proto-Slavic *''v'' (in loanwords) Prothetic no yes Proto-Slavic *''g'' R. ,B. ,U.", "\"head\" Hardening of final soft labials no yes R. /sʲtʲepʲ/,B.", "стэп /stɛp/,U.", "/stɛp/\"steppe\" Hardening of soft no yes partially Proto-Slavic *''CrьC, ClьC,CrъC, CrъC'' , ,, , ,, , ,, Proto-Slavic *-''ъj-'', -''ьj''- , , Proto-Slavic adj.", "end.", "*''-ьjь'' , , Proto-Slavic adj.", "end.", "*''-ъjь'' , Loss of the vocative case no yes no 3 sg.", "& pl.", "pres.", "ind.", "Dropping outof 3 sg.", "pres.", "ind.", "ending (in ''e''-stems) no yes 3 sg.", "masc.", "past ind.", "R. ,B. ,U.", "\"(he) thought\" 2nd palatalization in oblique cases no yes R. ,B. ,U.", "\"hand\"(locative or prepositional case)===Notes===" ], [ "History", "===Influence of Church Slavonic===After the conversion of the East Slavic region to Christianity the people used service books borrowed from Bulgaria, which were written in Old Church Slavonic (a South Slavic language).", "The Church Slavonic language was strictly used only in text, while the colloquial language of the Bulgarians was communicated in its spoken form.Throughout the Middle Ages (and in some way up to the present day) there existed a duality between the Church Slavonic language used as some kind of 'higher' register (not only) in religious texts and the popular tongue used as a 'lower' register for secular texts.", "It has been suggested to describe this situation as ''diglossia'', although there do exist mixed texts where it is sometimes very hard to determine why a given author used a popular or a Church Slavonic form in a given context.", "Church Slavonic was a major factor in the evolution of modern Russian, where there still exists a \"high stratum\" of words that were imported from this language." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Slavic history and culture" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Elizabeth Gracen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elizabeth Ward Gracen''' (born '''Elizabeth Grace Ward''', April 3, 1961) is an American actress and beauty pageant contestant who won the title of Miss America in 1982." ], [ "Early life and education", "Elizabeth Grace Ward was born on April 3, 1961, in Ozark, Arkansas, the daughter of Patricia Hampe, a nurse, and Jimmy Young Ward, a poultry worker.", "She was raised in Booneville, Arkansas.", "The family later moved to Russellville, Arkansas, where Ward dated University of Arkansas trainer Mike Walker and graduated from Russellville High School in 1979.She was a junior accounting major at Arkansas Tech University at the time she entered the Miss America contest.", "Instead of returning to Arkansas Tech, she used her Miss America scholarship money to study acting at HB Studios in New York City." ], [ "Career", "===Pageants and modeling===Gracen as Miss America 1982Gracen won the titles of Miss Arkansas in 1981 and Miss America in 1982.After her yearlong work as Miss America, she enrolled in acting classes then relocated to California to pursue a film and television career.Gracen posed nude for ''Playboy'' magazine's May 1992 issue.===Acting===Gracen made her professional feature film debut in ''Three For The Road'' with Charlie Sheen.", "Her film credits also include a featured role in ''Marked for Death'', opposite Steven Seagal, ''Pass The Ammo'' with Tim Curry, and the CBS feature ''83 Hours Till Dawn'' with Peter Strauss and Robert Urich.", "Gracen starred in ''Lower Level'' and ''Discretion Assured'' with Michael York.On television, Gracen has appeared in Shelley Duvall's ''Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'', Sidney Sheldon's ''The Sands of Time,'' and ''The'' ''Death of the Incredible Hulk''.", "She also appeared with a starring role in the series ''Extreme'' for NBC and the syndicated series ''Renegade'' and ''Queen of Swords''.Gracen's best-known acting role has been as the recurring character Amanda, a 1,200-year-old immortal, in the series ''Highlander: The Series'' and its spin-off series ''Highlander: The Raven''.Gracen, speaking about writing at TusCon 43 in Tucson, Arizona (2016)In December 1999, Gracen filed for bankruptcy protection.", "After few television guest roles, and a supporting role in the made-for-television movie ''Interceptor Force 2'', she took a long leave of absence from acting, beginning in 2002.Gracen began doing voiceover work for Blue Hours Productions, which has revived the classic radio anthology ''Suspense'', which airs on Sirius XM.", "In 2012, Gracen did a character voice-over in the Malaysian animated science fiction film ''War of the Worlds: Goliath''.===Directing, producing, and writing===In 2012, Gracen formed Flapper Films.", "In 2014, she starred in ''Coherence'', a sci-fi indie thriller.", "In January 2016, Gracen established Flapper Press and self-published ''Shalilly'', a young adult fantasy novel.Gracen made her directorial debut with a documentary short, \"The Damn Deal,\" about three young drag queens from Arkansas who compete in female impersonator beauty pageants." ], [ "Personal life", "===Marriages and family===Gracen married Jon Birmingham in 1982, and they divorced in 1984.In 1989, while filming ''Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat'', she met actor Brendan Hughes, and they married soon after.", "They divorced in 1994.Gracen married Adam Murphy, and they have a daughter.===Affair with Bill Clinton===According to Gracen, some time in 1983, she had a one-night stand with future President Bill Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas.", "She was married at the time, as was he.In 1992, rumors swirled that Gracen had had an affair with Clinton.", "At first, Gracen dismissed this claim (as requested by Clinton's campaign manager Mickey Kantor); however, in spring 1998 Gracen recanted her six-year-old denial and stated she had a one-night stand with Clinton in 1983.Gracen stated that \"What I did was wrong, and I feel very, very bad about it now.", "My behavior was inappropriate -- that's just the bottom line\" and publicly apologized to Hillary Clinton.After her claim, Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr, who was investigating Clinton in the Paula Jones lawsuit, issued a subpoena to have her testify to her claim in court.", "However, Gracen eluded the subpoena and was at one point able to avoid it because ''Highlander: The Raven'' was being filmed outside of the US.", "Paula Jones's legal team was also unable to track down Gracen because she had made unscheduled trips to Las Vegas and the Caribbean." ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Three for the Road'' (1987) Nadine* ''Pass the Ammo'' (1988) Christie Lynn* ''The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'' (1989)* ''Lisa'' (1989) Mary* ''The Death of the Incredible Hulk'' (1990) Jasmin* ''Marked for Death'' (1990) Melissa* ''The Flash'' (1990 TV Series) 1 episode - Celia Wayne * ''83 Hours 'Til Dawn'' (1990) Maria Ranfield* ''Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat'' (1991) Alice* ''Lower Level'' (1992) Hillary* ''The Sands of Time'' (1992)* ''Final Mission'' (1993) Caitlin Cole* ''Time Trax'' episode 7 (1993) Sydney* ''Discretion Assured'' (1993) Miranda* ''Highlander: The Series'' (1992–1998) Amanda* ''Renegade: The Series(1992 -1997 ) Rikki Yeager''* ''Murder, She Wrote'' (1994) Michelle Scarlotti* ''The Expert'' (1995) Liz Pierce* ''Extreme'' (1995) Callie Manners* ''Kounterfeit'' (1996) Bridgette* ''Highlander: The Raven'' (1998–1999) Amanda* ''Queen of Swords'' \"Counterfeit Queen\" (2000) Carlotta* ''Charmed'' \"Bite Me\" (2002) Vampire Queen* ''Interceptor Force 2'' (2002) Adriana Sikes* ''War of the Worlds: Goliath'' (2012) Lt. Jennifer Carter (voice) * ''Coherence'' (2013) Beth" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Epicurus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Epicurus''' (, ; ; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy.", "He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents.", "Influenced by Democritus, Aristippus, Pyrrho, and possibly the Cynics, he turned against the Platonism of his day and established his own school, known as \"the Garden\", in Athens.", "Epicurus and his followers were known for eating simple meals and discussing a wide range of philosophical subjects.", "He openly allowed women and slaves to join the school as a matter of policy.", "Of the over 300 works said to have been written by Epicurus about various subjects, the vast majority have been destroyed.", "Only three letters written by him—the letters to ''Menoeceus'', ''Pythocles'', and ''Herodotus''—and two collections of quotes—the ''Principal Doctrines'' and the ''Vatican Sayings''—have survived intact, along with a few fragments of his other writings.", "As a result of his work's destruction, most knowledge about his philosophy is due to later authors, particularly the biographer Diogenes Laërtius, the Epicurean Roman poet Lucretius and the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus, and with hostile but largely accurate accounts by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus, and the Academic Skeptic and statesman Cicero.Epicurus asserted that philosophy's purpose is to attain as well as to help others attain happy (''eudaimonic''), tranquil lives characterized by ''ataraxia'' (peace and freedom from fear) and ''aponia'' (the absence of pain).", "He advocated that people were best able to pursue philosophy by living a self-sufficient life surrounded by friends.", "He taught that the root of all human neuroses is death denial and the tendency for human beings to assume that death will be horrific and painful, which he claimed causes unnecessary anxiety, selfish self-protective behaviors, and hypocrisy.", "According to Epicurus, death is the end of both the body and the soul and therefore should not be feared.", "Epicurus taught that although the gods exist, they have no involvement in human affairs.", "He taught that people should act ethically not because the gods punish or reward them for their actions but because, due to the power of guilt, amoral behavior would inevitably lead to remorse weighing on their consciences and as a result, they would be prevented from attaining ''ataraxia''.", "Epicurus derived much of his physics and cosmology from the earlier philosopher Democritus ( 460– 370 BC).", "Like Democritus, Epicurus taught that the universe is infinite and eternal and that all matter is made up of extremely tiny, invisible particles known as ''atoms''.", "All occurrences in the natural world are ultimately the result of atoms moving and interacting in empty space.", "Epicurus deviated from Democritus by proposing the idea of atomic \"swerve\", which holds that atoms may deviate from their expected course, thus permitting humans to possess free will in an otherwise deterministic universe.Though popular, Epicurean teachings were controversial from the beginning.", "Epicureanism reached the height of its popularity during the late years of the Roman Republic.", "It died out in late antiquity, subject to hostility from early Christianity.", "Throughout the Middle Ages Epicurus was popularly, though inaccurately, remembered as a patron of drunkards, whoremongers, and gluttons.", "His teachings gradually became more widely known in the fifteenth century with the rediscovery of important texts, but his ideas did not become acceptable until the seventeenth century, when the French Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi revived a modified version of them, which was promoted by other writers, including Walter Charleton and Robert Boyle.", "His influence grew considerably during and after the Enlightenment, profoundly impacting the ideas of major thinkers, including John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Jeremy Bentham, and Karl Marx." ], [ "Life", "===Upbringing and influences===Epicurus was born in the Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos in February 341 BC.", "His parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, were both Athenian-born, and his father was an Athenian citizen.", "Epicurus grew up during the final years of the Greek Classical Period.", "Plato had died seven years before Epicurus was born and Epicurus was seven years old when Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont into Persia.", "As a child, Epicurus would have received a typical ancient Greek education.", "As such, according to Norman Wentworth DeWitt, \"it is inconceivable that he would have escaped the Platonic training in geometry, dialectic, and rhetoric.\"", "Epicurus is known to have studied under the instruction of a Samian Platonist named Pamphilus, probably for about four years.", "His ''Letter of Menoeceus'' and surviving fragments of his other writings strongly suggest that he had extensive training in rhetoric.", "After the death of Alexander the Great, Perdiccas expelled the Athenian settlers on Samos to Colophon, on the coast of what is now Turkey.", "Epicurus joined his family there after the completion of his military service.", "He studied under Nausiphanes, who followed the teachings of Democritus, and later those of Pyrrho, whose way of life Epicurus greatly admired.Allocation of key positions and satrapies following the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC after the death of Alexander the Great.", "Epicurus came of age at a time when Greek intellectual horizons were vastly expanding due to the rise of the Hellenistic Kingdoms across the Near East.Epicurus's teachings were heavily influenced by those of earlier philosophers, particularly Democritus.", "Nonetheless, Epicurus differed from his predecessors on several key points of determinism and vehemently denied having been influenced by any previous philosophers, whom he denounced as \"confused\".", "Instead, he insisted that he had been \"self-taught\".", "According to DeWitt, Epicurus's teachings also show influences from the contemporary philosophical school of Cynicism.", "The Cynic philosopher Diogenes of Sinope was still alive when Epicurus would have been in Athens for his required military training and it is possible they may have met.", "Diogenes's pupil Crates of Thebes ( 365 – 285 BC) was a close contemporary of Epicurus.", "Epicurus agreed with the Cynics' quest for honesty, but rejected their \"insolence and vulgarity\", instead teaching that honesty must be coupled with courtesy and kindness.", "Epicurus shared this view with his contemporary, the comic playwright Menander.Epicurus's ''Letter to Menoeceus'', possibly an early work of his, is written in an eloquent style similar to that of the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates (436–338 BC), but, for his later works, he seems to have adopted the bald, intellectual style of the mathematician Euclid.", "Epicurus's epistemology also bears an unacknowledged debt to the later writings of Aristotle (384–322 BC), who rejected the Platonic idea of hypostatic Reason and instead relied on nature and empirical evidence for knowledge about the universe.", "During Epicurus's formative years, Greek knowledge about the rest of the world was rapidly expanding due to the Hellenization of the Near East and the rise of Hellenistic kingdoms.", "Epicurus's philosophy was consequently more universal in its outlook than those of his predecessors, since it took cognizance of non-Greek peoples as well as Greeks.", "He may have had access to the now-lost writings of the historian and ethnographer Megasthenes, who wrote during the reign of Seleucus I Nicator (ruled 305–281 BC).===Teaching career===Reconstruction by K. Fittschen of an Epicurus enthroned statue, presumably set up after his death.", "University of Göttingen, Abgußsammlung.During Epicurus's lifetime, Platonism was the dominant philosophy in higher education.", "Epicurus's opposition to Platonism formed a large part of his thought.", "Over half of the forty Principal Doctrines of Epicureanism are flat contradictions of Platonism.", "In around 311 BC, Epicurus, when he was around thirty years old, began teaching in Mytilene.", "Around this time, Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, arrived in Athens, at the age of about twenty-one, but Zeno did not begin teaching what would become Stoicism for another twenty years.", "Although later texts, such as the writings of the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero, portray Epicureanism and Stoicism as rivals, this rivalry seems to have only emerged after Epicurus's death.Epicurus's teachings caused strife in Mytilene and he was forced to leave.", "He then founded a school in Lampsacus before returning to Athens in 306 BC, where he remained until his death.", "There he founded The Garden (κῆπος), a school named for the garden he owned that served as the school's meeting place, about halfway between the locations of two other schools of philosophy, the Stoa and the Academy.", "The Garden was more than just a school; it was \"a community of like-minded and aspiring practitioners of a particular way of life.\"", "The primary members were Hermarchus, the financier Idomeneus, Leonteus and his wife Themista, the satirist Colotes, the mathematician Polyaenus of Lampsacus, and Metrodorus of Lampsacus, the most famous popularizer of Epicureanism.", "His school was the first of the ancient Greek philosophical schools to admit women as a rule rather than an exception, and the biography of Epicurus by Diogenes Laërtius lists female students such as Leontion and Nikidion.", "An inscription on the gate to The Garden is recorded by Seneca the Younger in epistle XXI of ''Epistulae morales ad Lucilium'': \"Stranger, here you will do well to tarry; here our highest good is pleasure.", "\"According to Diskin Clay, Epicurus himself established a custom of celebrating his birthday annually with common meals, befitting his stature as ''heros ktistes'' (\"founding hero\") of the Garden.", "He ordained in his will annual memorial feasts for himself on the same date (10th of Gamelion month).", "Epicurean communities continued this tradition, referring to Epicurus as their \"saviour\" (soter) and celebrating him as hero.", "The hero cult of Epicurus may have operated as a Garden variety civic religion.", "However, clear evidence of an Epicurean hero cult, as well as the cult itself, seems buried by the weight of posthumous philosophical interpretation.", "Epicurus never married and had no known children.", "He was most likely a vegetarian.===Death===Diogenes Laërtius records that, according to Epicurus's successor Hermarchus, Epicurus died a slow and painful death in 270 BC at the age of seventy-two from a stone blockage of his urinary tract.", "Despite being in immense pain, Epicurus is said to have remained cheerful and to have continued to teach until the very end.", "Possible insights into Epicurus's death may be offered by the extremely brief ''Epistle to Idomeneus'', included by Diogenes Laërtius in Book X of his ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers''.", "The authenticity of this letter is uncertain and it may be a later pro-Epicurean forgery intended to paint an admirable portrait of the philosopher to counter the large number of forged epistles in Epicurus's name portraying him unfavorably.I have written this letter to you on a happy day to me, which is also the last day of my life.", "For I have been attacked by a painful inability to urinate, and also dysentery, so violent that nothing can be added to the violence of my sufferings.", "But the cheerfulness of my mind, which comes from the recollection of all my philosophical contemplation, counterbalances all these afflictions.", "And I beg you to take care of the children of Metrodorus, in a manner worthy of the devotion shown by the young man to me, and to philosophy.If authentic, this letter would support the tradition that Epicurus was able to remain joyful to the end, even in the midst of his suffering.", "It would also indicate that he maintained a special concern for the wellbeing of children." ], [ "Philosophy", "Illustration from 1885 of a small bronze bust of Epicurus from Herculaneum.", "Three Epicurus bronze busts were recovered from the Villa of the Papyri, as well as text fragments.===Epistemology===Epicurus and his followers had a well-developed epistemology, which developed as a result of their rivalry with other philosophical schools.", "Epicurus wrote a treatise entitled , or ''Rule'', in which he explained his methods of investigation and theory of knowledge.", "This book, however, has not survived, nor does any other text that fully and clearly explains Epicurean epistemology, leaving only mentions of this epistemology by several authors to reconstruct it.", "Epicurus rejected the Platonic idea of \"Reason\" as a reliable source of knowledge about the world apart from the senses and was bitterly opposed to the Pyrrhonists and Academic Skeptics, who not only questioned the ability of the senses to provide accurate knowledge about the world, but also whether it is even possible to know anything about the world at all.Epicurus maintained that the senses never deceive humans, but that the senses can be misinterpreted.", "Epicurus held that the purpose of all knowledge is to aid humans in attaining ''ataraxia''.", "He taught that knowledge is learned through experiences rather than innate and that the acceptance of the fundamental truth of the things a person perceives is essential to a person's moral and spiritual health.", "In the ''Letter to Pythocles'', he states, \"If a person fights the clear evidence of his senses he will never be able to share in genuine tranquility.\"", "Epicurus regarded gut feelings as the ultimate authority on matters of morality and held that whether a person feels an action is right or wrong is a far more cogent guide to whether that act really is right or wrong than abstracts maxims, strict codified rules of ethics, or even reason itself.Epicurus permitted that any and every statement that is not directly contrary to human perception has the possibility to be true.", "Nonetheless, anything contrary to a person's experience can be ruled out as false.", "Epicureans often used analogies to everyday experience to support their argument of so-called \"imperceptibles\", which included anything that a human being cannot perceive, such as the motion of atoms.", "In line with this principle of non-contradiction, the Epicureans believed that events in the natural world may have multiple causes that are all equally possible and probable.", "Lucretius writes in ''On the Nature of Things'', as translated by William Ellery Leonard:There be, besides, some thingOf which 'tis not enough one only causeTo state—but rather several, whereof oneWill be the true: lo, if thou shouldst espyLying afar some fellow's lifeless corse,'Twere meet to name all causes of a death,That cause of his death might thereby be named:For prove thou mayst he perished not by steel,By cold, nor even by poison nor disease,Yet somewhat of this sort hath come to himWe know—And thus we have to say the sameIn divers cases.Epicurus strongly favored naturalistic explanations over theological ones.", "In his ''Letter to Pythocles'', he offers four different possible natural explanations for thunder, six different possible natural explanations for lightning, three for snow, three for comets, two for rainbows, two for earthquakes, and so on.", "Although all of these explanations are now known to be false, they were an important step in the history of science, because Epicurus was trying to explain natural phenomena using natural explanations, rather than resorting to inventing elaborate stories about gods and mythic heroes.===Ethics===Marble relief from the first or second century showing the mythical transgressor Ixion being tortured on a spinning fiery wheel in Tartarus.", "Epicurus taught that stories of such punishment in the afterlife are ridiculous superstitions and that believing in them prevents people from attaining ''ataraxia''.Epicurus was a hedonist, meaning he taught that what is pleasurable is morally good and what is painful is morally evil.", "He idiosyncratically defined \"pleasure\" as the absence of suffering and taught that all humans should seek to attain the state of ''ataraxia'', meaning \"untroubledness\", a state in which the person is completely free from all pain or suffering.", "He argued that most of the suffering which human beings experience is caused by the irrational fears of death, divine retribution, and punishment in the afterlife.", "In his ''Letter to Menoeceus'', Epicurus explains that people seek wealth and power on account of these fears, believing that having more money, prestige, or political clout will save them from death.", "He, however, maintains that death is the end of existence, that the terrifying stories of punishment in the afterlife are ridiculous superstitions, and that death is therefore nothing to be feared.", "He writes in his ''Letter to Menoeceus'': \"Accustom thyself to believe that death is nothing to us, for good and evil imply sentience, and death is the privation of all sentience;... Death, therefore, the most awful of evils, is nothing to us, seeing that, when we are, death is not come, and, when death is come, we are not.\"", "From this doctrine arose the Epicurean epitaph: ''Non fui, fui, non-sum, non-curo'' (\"I was not; I was; I am not; I do not care\"), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire.", "This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.The Tetrapharmakos presents a summary of the key points of Epicurean ethics:* Don't fear god* Don't worry about death* What is good is easy to get* What is terrible is easy to endureAlthough Epicurus has been commonly misunderstood as an advocate of the rampant pursuit of pleasure, he, in fact, maintained that a person can only be happy and free from suffering by living wisely, soberly, and morally.", "He strongly disapproved of raw, excessive sensuality and warned that a person must take into account whether the consequences of his actions will result in suffering, writing, \"the pleasant life is produced not by a string of drinking bouts and revelries, nor by the enjoyment of boys and women, nor by fish and the other items on an expensive menu, but by sober reasoning.\"", "He also wrote that a single good piece of cheese could be equally pleasing as an entire feast.", "Furthermore, Epicurus taught that \"it is not possible to live pleasurably without living sensibly and nobly and justly\", because a person who engages in acts of dishonesty or injustice will be \"loaded with troubles\" on account of his own guilty conscience and will live in constant fear that his wrongdoings will be discovered by others.", "A person who is kind and just to others, however, will have no fear and will be more likely to attain ''ataraxia''.Epicurus distinguished between two different types of pleasure: \"moving\" pleasures (κατὰ κίνησιν ἡδοναί) and \"static\" pleasures (καταστηματικαὶ ἡδοναί).", "\"Moving\" pleasures occur when one is in the process of satisfying a desire and involve an active titillation of the senses.", "After one's desires have been satisfied (e.g.", "when one is full after eating), the pleasure quickly goes away and the suffering of wanting to fulfill the desire again returns.", "For Epicurus, static pleasures are the best pleasures because moving pleasures are always bound up with pain.", "Epicurus had a low opinion of sex and marriage, regarding both as having dubious value.", "Instead, he maintained that platonic friendships are essential to living a happy life.", "One of the ''Principal Doctrines'' states, \"Of the things wisdom acquires for the blessedness of life as a whole, far the greatest is the possession of friendship.\"", "He also taught that philosophy is itself a pleasure to engage in.", "One of the quotes from Epicurus recorded in the ''Vatican Sayings'' declares, \"In other pursuits, the hard-won fruit comes at the end.", "But in philosophy, delight keeps pace with knowledge.", "It is not after the lesson that enjoyment comes: learning and enjoyment happen at the same time.", "\"Epicurus distinguishes between three types of desires: natural and necessary, natural but unnecessary, and vain and empty.", "Natural and necessary desires include the desires for food and shelter.", "These are easy to satisfy, difficult to eliminate, bring pleasure when satisfied, and are naturally limited.", "Going beyond these limits produces unnecessary desires, such as the desire for luxury foods.", "Although food is necessary, luxury food is not necessary.", "Correspondingly, Epicurus advocates a life of hedonistic moderation by reducing desire, thus eliminating the unhappiness caused by unfulfilled desires.", "Vain desires include desires for power, wealth, and fame.", "These are difficult to satisfy because no matter how much one gets, one can always want more.", "These desires are inculcated by society and by false beliefs about what we need.", "They are not natural and are to be shunned.Epicurus' teachings were introduced into medical philosophy and practice by the Epicurean doctor Asclepiades of Bithynia, who was the first physician who introduced Greek medicine in Rome.", "Asclepiades introduced the friendly, sympathetic, pleasing and painless treatment of patients.", "He advocated humane treatment of mental disorders, had insane persons freed from confinement and treated them with natural therapy, such as diet and massages.", "His teachings are surprisingly modern; therefore Asclepiades is considered to be a pioneer physician in psychotherapy, physical therapy and molecular medicine.===Physics===Epicurus writes in his ''Letter to Herodotus'' (not the historian) that \"nothing ever arises from the nonexistent\", indicating that all events therefore have causes, regardless of whether those causes are known or unknown.", "Similarly, he also writes that nothing ever passes away into nothingness, because, \"if an object that passes from our view were completely annihilated, everything in the world would have perished, since that into which things were dissipated would be nonexistent.\"", "He therefore states: \"The totality of things was always just as it is at present and will always remain the same because there is nothing into which it can change, inasmuch as there is nothing outside the totality that could intrude and effect change.\"", "Like Democritus before him, Epicurus taught that all matter is entirely made of extremely tiny particles called \"atoms\" (; '''', meaning \"indivisible\").", "For Epicurus and his followers, the existence of atoms was a matter of empirical observation; Epicurus's devoted follower, the Roman poet Lucretius, cites the gradual wearing down of rings from being worn, statues from being kissed, stones from being dripped on by water, and roads from being walked on in ''On the Nature of Things'' as evidence for the existence of atoms as tiny, imperceptible particles.Also like Democritus, Epicurus was a materialist who taught that the only things that exist are atoms and void.", "Void occurs in any place where there are no atoms.", "Epicurus and his followers believed that atoms and void are both infinite and that the universe is therefore boundless.", "In ''On the Nature of Things'', Lucretius argues this point using the example of a man throwing a javelin at the theoretical boundary of a finite universe.", "He states that the javelin must either go past the edge of the universe, in which case it is not really a boundary, or it must be blocked by something and prevented from continuing its path, but, if that happens, then the object blocking it must be outside the confines of the universe.", "As a result of this belief that the universe and the number of atoms in it are infinite, Epicurus and the Epicureans believed that there must also be infinitely many worlds within the universe.Epicurus taught that the motion of atoms is constant, eternal, and without beginning or end.", "He held that there are two kinds of motion: the motion of atoms and the motion of visible objects.", "Both kinds of motion are real and not illusory.", "Democritus had described atoms as not only eternally moving, but also eternally flying through space, colliding, coalescing, and separating from each other as necessary.", "In a rare departure from Democritus's physics, Epicurus posited the idea of atomic \"swerve\" ( ''''; ), one of his best-known original ideas.", "According to this idea, atoms, as they are travelling through space, may deviate slightly from the course they would ordinarily be expected to follow.", "Epicurus's reason for introducing this doctrine was because he wanted to preserve the concepts of free will and ethical responsibility while still maintaining the deterministic physical model of atomism.", "Lucretius describes it, saying, \"It is this slight deviation of primal bodies, at indeterminate times and places, which keeps the mind as such from experiencing an inner compulsion in doing everything it does and from being forced to endure and suffer like a captive in chains.", "\"Epicurus was first to assert human freedom as a result of the fundamental indeterminism in the motion of atoms.", "This has led some philosophers to think that, for Epicurus, free will was ''caused directly by chance''.", "In his ''On the Nature of Things'', Lucretius appears to suggest this in the best-known passage on Epicurus' position.", "In his ''Letter to Menoeceus'', however, Epicurus follows Aristotle and clearly identifies ''three'' possible causes: \"some things happen of necessity, others by chance, others through our own agency.\"", "Aristotle said some things \"depend on us\" (''eph'hemin'').", "Epicurus agreed, and said it is to these last things that praise and blame naturally attach.", "For Epicurus, the \"swerve\" of the atoms simply defeated determinism to leave room for autonomous agency.===Theology===First-century AD Roman fresco from Pompeii, showing the mythical human sacrifice of Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon.", "Epicurus's devoted follower, the Roman poet Lucretius, cited this myth as an example of the evils of popular religion, in contrast to the more wholesome theology advocated by Epicurus.In his ''Letter to Menoeceus'', a summary of his own moral and theological teachings, the first piece of advice Epicurus himself gives to his student is: \"First, believe that a god is an indestructible and blessed animal, in accordance with the general conception of god commonly held, and do not ascribe to god anything foreign to his indestructibility or repugnant to his blessedness.\"", "Epicurus maintained that he and his followers knew that the gods exist because \"our knowledge of them is a matter of clear and distinct perception\", meaning that people can empirically sense their presences.", "He did not mean that people can see the gods as physical objects, but rather that they can see visions of the gods sent from the remote regions of interstellar space in which they actually reside.", "According to George K. Strodach, Epicurus could have easily dispensed of the gods entirely without greatly altering his materialist worldview, but the gods still play one important function in Epicurus's theology as the paragons of moral virtue to be emulated and admired.Epicurus rejected the conventional Greek view of the gods as anthropomorphic beings who walked the earth like ordinary people, fathered illegitimate offspring with mortals, and pursued personal feuds.", "Instead, he taught that the gods are morally perfect, but detached and immobile beings who live in the remote regions of interstellar space.", "In line with these teachings, Epicurus adamantly rejected the idea that deities were involved in human affairs in any way.", "Epicurus maintained that the gods are so utterly perfect and removed from the world that they are incapable of listening to prayers or supplications or doing virtually anything aside from contemplating their own perfections.", "In his ''Letter to Herodotus'', he specifically denies that the gods have any control over natural phenomena, arguing that this would contradict their fundamental nature, which is perfect, because any kind of worldly involvement would tarnish their perfection.", "He further warned that believing that the gods control natural phenomena would only mislead people into believing the superstitious view that the gods punish humans for wrongdoing, which only instills fear and prevents people from attaining ''ataraxia''.Epicurus himself criticizes popular religion in both his ''Letter to Menoeceus'' and his ''Letter to Herodotus'', but in a restrained and moderate tone.", "Later Epicureans mainly followed the same ideas as Epicurus, believing in the existence of the gods, but emphatically rejecting the idea of divine providence.", "Their criticisms of popular religion, however, are often less gentle than those of Epicurus himself.", "The ''Letter to Pythocles'', written by a later Epicurean, is dismissive and contemptuous towards popular religion and Epicurus's devoted follower, the Roman poet Lucretius ( 99 BC – 55 BC), passionately assailed popular religion in his philosophical poem ''On the Nature of Things''.", "In this poem, Lucretius declares that popular religious practices not only do not instill virtue, but rather result in \"misdeeds both wicked and ungodly\", citing the mythical sacrifice of Iphigenia as an example.", "Lucretius argues that divine creation and providence are illogical, not because the gods do not exist, but rather because these notions are incompatible with the Epicurean principles of the gods' indestructibility and blessedness.", "The later Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus ( 160 – 210 AD) rejected the teachings of the Epicureans specifically because he regarded them as theological \"Dogmaticists\".====Epicurean paradox====The most famous version of the problem of evil is attributed to Epicurus by David Hume (''pictured''), who was relying on an attribution of it to him by the Christian apologist Lactantius.", "The trilemma does not occur in any of Epicurus's extant writings, however.", "If Epicurus did write some version of it, it would have been an argument against divine providence, not the existence of deities.The '''Epicurean paradox''' or '''riddle of Epicurus''' or '''Epicurus' trilemma''' is a version of the problem of evil.", "Lactantius attributes this trilemma to Epicurus in ''De Ira Dei'', 13, 20-21:God, he says, either wishes to take away evils, and is unable; or He is able, and is unwilling; or He is neither willing nor able, or He is both willing and able.", "If He is willing and is unable, He is feeble, which is not in accordance with the character of God; if He is able and unwilling, He is envious, which is equally at variance with God; if He is neither willing nor able, He is both envious and feeble, and therefore not God; if He is both willing and able, which alone is suitable to God, from what source then are evils?", "Or why does He not remove them?In ''Dialogues concerning Natural Religion'' (1779), David Hume also attributes the argument to Epicurus:Epicurus’s old questions are yet unanswered.", "Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able?", "then is he impotent.", "Is he able, but not willing?", "then is he malevolent.", "Is he both able and willing?", "whence then is evil?No extant writings of Epicurus contain this argument.", "However, the vast majority of Epicurus's writings have been lost and it is possible that some form of this argument may have been found in his lost treatise ''On the Gods'', which Diogenes Laërtius describes as one of his greatest works.", "If Epicurus really did make some form of this argument, it would not have been an argument against the existence of deities, but rather an argument against divine providence.", "Epicurus's extant writings demonstrate that he did believe in the existence of deities.", "Furthermore, religion was such an integral part of daily life in Greece during the early Hellenistic Period that it is doubtful anyone during that period could have been an atheist in the modern sense of the word.", "Instead, the Greek word (''átheos''), meaning \"without a god\", was used as a term of abuse, not as an attempt to describe a person's beliefs.===Politics===Epicurus promoted an innovative theory of justice as a social contract.", "Justice, Epicurus said, is an agreement neither to harm nor be harmed, and we need to have such a contract in order to enjoy fully the benefits of living together in a well-ordered society.", "Laws and punishments are needed to keep misguided fools in line who would otherwise break the contract.", "But the wise person sees the usefulness of justice, and because of his limited desires, he has no need to engage in the conduct prohibited by the laws in any case.", "Laws that are useful for promoting happiness are just, but those that are not useful are not just.", "(''Principal Doctrines'' 31–40)Epicurus discouraged participation in politics, as doing so leads to perturbation and status seeking.", "He instead advocated not drawing attention to oneself.", "This principle is epitomised by the phrase ''lathe biōsas'' (), meaning \"live in obscurity\", \"get through life without drawing attention to yourself\", i.e., live without pursuing glory or wealth or power, but anonymously, enjoying little things like food, the company of friends, etc.", "Plutarch elaborated on this theme in his essay ''Is the Saying \"Live in Obscurity\" Right?''", "(, ''An recte dictum sit latenter esse vivendum'') 1128c; cf.", "Flavius Philostratus, ''Vita Apollonii'' 8.28.12." ], [ "Works", "Epicurus, in the ''Nuremberg Chronicle''Epicurus was an extremely prolific writer.", "According to Diogenes Laërtius, he wrote around 300 treatises on a variety of subjects.", "Although more original writings of Epicurus have survived to the present day than of any other Hellenistic Greek philosopher, the vast majority of everything he wrote has still been lost, and most of what is known about Epicurus's teachings come from the writings of his later followers, particularly the Roman poet Lucretius.", "The only surviving complete works by Epicurus are three relatively lengthy letters, which are quoted in their entirety in Book X of Diogenes Laërtius's ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers'', and two groups of quotes: the ''Principal Doctrines'' (Κύριαι Δόξαι), which are likewise preserved through quotation by Diogenes Laërtius, and the ''Vatican Sayings'', preserved in a manuscript from the Vatican Library that was first discovered in 1888.In the ''Letter to Herodotus'' and the ''Letter to Pythocles'', Epicurus summarizes his philosophy on nature and, in the ''Letter to Menoeceus'', he summarizes his moral teachings.", "Numerous fragments of Epicurus's lost thirty-seven volume treatise ''On Nature'' have been found among the charred papyrus fragments at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum.", "Scholars first began attempting to unravel and decipher these scrolls in 1800, but the efforts are painstaking and are still ongoing.According to Diogenes Laertius (10.27-9), the major works of Epicurus include:# On Nature, in 37 books# On Atoms and the Void# On Love# Abridgment of the Arguments employed against the Natural Philosophers# Against the Megarians# Problems# Fundamental Propositions (''Kyriai Doxai'')# On Choice and Avoidance# On the Chief Good# On the Criterion (the Canon)# Chaeridemus, # On the Gods# On Piety# Hegesianax# Four essays on Lives# Essay on Just Dealing# Neocles# Essay addressed to Themista# The Banquet (Symposium)# Eurylochus# Essay addressed to Metrodorus# Essay on Seeing# Essay on the Angle in an Atom# Essay on Touch# Essay on Fate# Opinions on the Passions# Treatise addressed to Timocrates# Prognostics# Exhortations# On Images# On Perceptions# Aristobulus# Essay on Music (i.e., on music, poetry, and dance)# On Justice and the other Virtues# On Gifts and Gratitude# Polymedes# Timocrates (three books)# Metrodorus (five books)# Antidorus (two books)# Opinions about Diseases and Death, addressed to Mithras# Callistolas# Essay on Kingly Power# Anaximenes# Letters" ], [ "Legacy", "===Ancient Epicureanism===Metrodorus in the Louvre MuseumEpicureanism was extremely popular from the very beginning.", "Diogenes Laërtius records that the number of Epicureans throughout the world exceeded the populations of entire cities.", "Nonetheless, Epicurus was not universally admired and, within his own lifetime, he was vilified as an ignorant buffoon and egoistic sybarite.", "He remained the most simultaneously admired and despised philosopher in the Mediterranean for the next nearly five centuries.", "Epicureanism rapidly spread beyond the Greek mainland all across the Mediterranean world.", "By the first century BC, it had established a strong foothold in Italy.", "The Roman orator Cicero (106 – 43 BC), who deplored Epicurean ethics, lamented, \"the Epicureans have taken Italy by storm.", "\"The overwhelming majority of surviving Greek and Roman sources are vehemently negative towards Epicureanism and, according to Pamela Gordon, they routinely depict Epicurus himself as \"monstrous or laughable\".", "Many Romans in particular took a negative view of Epicureanism, seeing its advocacy of the pursuit of ''voluptas'' (\"pleasure\") as contrary to the Roman ideal of ''virtus'' (\"manly virtue\").", "The Romans therefore often stereotyped Epicurus and his followers as weak and effeminate.", "Prominent critics of his philosophy include prominent authors such as the Roman Stoic Seneca the Younger ( 4 BC – AD 65) and the Greek Middle Platonist Plutarch ( 46 – 120), who both derided these stereotypes as immoral and disreputable.", "Gordon characterizes anti-Epicurean rhetoric as so \"heavy-handed\" and misrepresentative of Epicurus's actual teachings that they sometimes come across as \"comical\".", "In his ''De vita beata'', Seneca states that the \"sect of Epicurus... has a bad reputation, and yet it does not deserve it.\"", "and compares it to \"a man in a dress: your chastity remains, your virility is unimpaired, your body has not submitted sexually, but in your hand is a tympanum.", "\"Epicureanism was a notoriously conservative philosophical school; although Epicurus's later followers did expand on his philosophy, they dogmatically retained what he himself had originally taught without modifying it.", "Epicureans and admirers of Epicureanism revered Epicurus himself as a great teacher of ethics, a savior, and even a god.", "His image was worn on finger rings, portraits of him were displayed in living rooms, and wealthy followers venerated likenesses of him in marble sculpture.", "His admirers revered his sayings as divine oracles, carried around copies of his writings, and cherished copies of his letters like the letters of an apostle.", "On the twentieth day of every month, admirers of his teachings would perform a solemn ritual to honor his memory.", "At the same time, opponents of his teachings denounced him with vehemence and persistence.However, in the first and second centuries AD, Epicureanism gradually began to decline as it failed to compete with Stoicism, which had an ethical system more in line with traditional Roman values.", "Epicureanism also suffered decay in the wake of Christianity, which was also rapidly expanding throughout the Roman Empire.", "Of all the Greek philosophical schools, Epicureanism was the one most at odds with the new Christian teachings, since Epicureans believed that the soul was mortal, denied the existence of an afterlife, denied that the divine had any active role in human life, and advocated pleasure as the foremost goal of human existence.", "As such, Christian writers such as Justin Martyr ( 100– 165 AD), Athenagoras of Athens ( 133– 190), Tertullian ( 155– 240), and Clement of Alexandria ( 150– 215), Arnobius (died 330), and Lactantius (c. 250-c.325) all singled it out for the most vitriolic criticism.In spite of this, DeWitt argues that Epicureanism and Christianity share much common language, calling Epicureanism \"the first missionary philosophy\" and \"the first world philosophy\".", "Both Epicureanism and Christianity placed strong emphasis on the importance of love and forgiveness and early Christian portrayals of Jesus are often similar to Epicurean portrayals of Epicurus.", "DeWitt argues that Epicureanism, in many ways, helped pave the way for the spread of Christianity by \"helping to bridge the gap between Greek intellectualism and a religious way of life\" and \"shunting the emphasis from the political to the social virtues and offering what may be called a religion of humanity.", "\"===Middle Ages===Dante Alighieri meets Farinata, an Epicurean from Florence, in his ''Inferno'' in the Sixth Circle of Hell (canto 10).", "Epicurus and his followers are imprisoned in flaming coffins for the heretical belief that the soul dies with the body, shown here in an illustration by Gustave Doré.By the early fifth century AD, Epicureanism was virtually extinct.", "The Christian Church Father Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD) declared, \"its ashes are so cold that not a single spark can be struck from them.\"", "While the ideas of Plato and Aristotle could easily be adapted to suit a Christian worldview, the ideas of Epicurus were not nearly as easily amenable.", "As such, while Plato and Aristotle enjoyed a privileged place in Christian philosophy throughout the Middle Ages, Epicurus was not held in such esteem.", "Information about Epicurus's teachings was available, through Lucretius's ''On the Nature of Things'', quotations of it found in medieval Latin grammars and ''florilegia'', and encyclopedias, such as Isidore of Seville's ''Etymologiae'' (seventh century) and Hrabanus Maurus's ''De universo'' (ninth century), but there is little evidence that these teachings were systematically studied or comprehended.During the Middle Ages, Epicurus was remembered by the educated as a philosopher, but he frequently appeared in popular culture as a gatekeeper to the Garden of Delights, the \"proprietor of the kitchen, the tavern, and the brothel.\"", "He appears in this guise in Martianus Capella's ''Marriage of Mercury and Philology'' (fifth century), John of Salisbury's ''Policraticus'' (1159), John Gower's ''Mirour de l'Omme'', and Geoffrey Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales''.", "Epicurus and his followers appear in Dante Alighieri's ''Inferno'' in the Sixth Circle of Hell, where they are imprisoned in flaming coffins for having believed that the soul dies with the body.===Renaissance===Epicurus is shown among other famous philosophers in the Italian Renaissance painter Raphael's ''School of Athens'' (1509–1511).", "Epicurus's genuine busts were unknown prior to 1742, so early modern artists who wanted to depict him were forced to make up their own iconographies.In 1417, a manuscript-hunter named Poggio Bracciolini discovered a copy of Lucretius's ''On the Nature of Things'' in a monastery near Lake Constance.", "The discovery of this manuscript was met with immense excitement, because scholars were eager to analyze and study the teachings of classical philosophers and this previously-forgotten text contained the most comprehensive account of Epicurus's teachings known in Latin.", "The first scholarly dissertation on Epicurus, ''De voluptate'' (''On Pleasure'') by the Italian Humanist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla was published in 1431.Valla made no mention of Lucretius or his poem.", "Instead, he presented the treatise as a discussion on the nature of the highest good between an Epicurean, a Stoic, and a Christian.", "Valla's dialogue ultimately rejects Epicureanism, but, by presenting an Epicurean as a member of the dispute, Valla lent Epicureanism credibility as a philosophy that deserved to be taken seriously.None of the Quattrocento Humanists ever clearly endorsed Epicureanism, but scholars such as Francesco Zabarella (1360–1417), Francesco Filelfo (1398–1481), Cristoforo Landino (1424–1498), and Leonardo Bruni ( 1370–1444) did give Epicureanism a fairer analysis than it had traditionally received and provided a less overtly hostile assessment of Epicurus himself.", "Nonetheless, \"Epicureanism\" remained a pejorative, synonymous with extreme egoistic pleasure-seeking, rather than a name of a philosophical school.", "This reputation discouraged orthodox Christian scholars from taking what others might regard as an inappropriately keen interest in Epicurean teachings.", "Epicureanism did not take hold in Italy, France, or England until the seventeenth century.", "Even the liberal religious skeptics who might have been expected to take an interest in Epicureanism evidently did not; Étienne Dolet (1509–1546) only mentions Epicurus once in all his writings and François Rabelais (between 1483 and 1494–1553) never mentions him at all.", "Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) is the exception to this trend, quoting a full 450 lines of Lucretius's ''On the Nature of Things'' in his ''Essays''.", "His interest in Lucretius, however, seems to have been primarily literary and he is ambiguous about his feelings on Lucretius's Epicurean worldview.", "During the Protestant Reformation, the label \"Epicurean\" was bandied back and forth as an insult between Protestants and Catholics.===Revival===The French priest and philosopher Pierre Gassendi is responsible for reviving Epicureanism in modernity as an alternative to Aristotelianism.In the seventeenth century, the French Catholic priest and scholar Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) sought to dislodge Aristotelianism from its position of the highest dogma by presenting Epicureanism as a better and more rational alternative.", "In 1647, Gassendi published his book ''De vita et moribus Epicuri'' (''The Life and Morals of Epicurus''), a passionate defense of Epicureanism.", "In 1649, he published a commentary on Diogenes Laërtius's ''Life of Epicurus''.", "He left ''Syntagma philosophicum'' (''Philosophical Compendium''), a synthesis of Epicurean doctrines, unfinished at the time of his death in 1655.It was finally published in 1658, after undergoing revision by his editors.", "Gassendi modified Epicurus's teachings to make them palatable for a Christian audience.", "For instance, he argued that atoms were not eternal, uncreated, and infinite in number, instead contending that an extremely large but finite number of atoms were created by God at creation.As a result of Gassendi's modifications, his books were never censored by the Catholic Church.", "They came to exert profound influence on later writings about Epicurus.", "Gassendi's version of Epicurus's teachings became popular among some members of English scientific circles.", "For these scholars, however, Epicurean atomism was merely a starting point for their own idiosyncratic adaptations of it.", "To orthodox thinkers, Epicureanism was still regarded as immoral and heretical.", "For instance, Lucy Hutchinson (1620–1681), the first translator of Lucretius's ''On the Nature of Things'' into English, railed against Epicurus as \"a lunatic dog\" who formulated \"ridiculous, impious, execrable doctrines\".Epicurus's teachings were made respectable in England by the natural philosopher Walter Charleton (1619–1707), whose first Epicurean work, ''The Darkness of Atheism Dispelled by the Light of Nature'' (1652), advanced Epicureanism as a \"new\" atomism.", "His next work ''Physiologia Epicuro-Gassendo-Charletoniana, or a Fabrick of Science Natural, upon a Hypothesis of Atoms, Founded by Epicurus, Repaired by Petrus Gassendus, and Augmented by Walter Charleton'' (1654) emphasized this idea.", "These works, together with Charleton's ''Epicurus's Morals'' (1658), provided the English public with readily available descriptions of Epicurus's philosophy and assured orthodox Christians that Epicureanism was no threat to their beliefs.", "The Royal Society, chartered in 1662, advanced Epicurean atomism.", "One of the most prolific defenders of atomism was the chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691), who argued for it in publications such as ''The Origins of Forms and Qualities'' (1666), ''Experiments, Notes, etc.", "about the Mechanical Origin and Production of Divers Particular Qualities'' (1675), and ''Of the Excellency and Grounds of the Mechanical Hypothesis'' (1674).", "By the end of the seventeenth century, Epicurean atomism was widely accepted by members of the English scientific community as the best model for explaining the physical world, but it had been modified so greatly that Epicurus was no longer seen as its original parent.===Enlightenment and after===The Anglican bishop Joseph Butler's anti-Epicurean polemics in his ''Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel'' (1726) and ''Analogy of Religion'' (1736) set the tune for what most orthodox Christians believed about Epicureanism for the remainder of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.", "Nonetheless, there are a few indications from this time period of Epicurus's improving reputation.", "Epicureanism was beginning to lose its associations with indiscriminate and insatiable gluttony, which had been characteristic of its reputation ever since antiquity.", "Instead, the word \"epicure\" began to refer to a person with extremely refined taste in food.", "Examples of this usage include \"Epicurean cooks / sharpen with cloyless sauce his appetite\" from William Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'' (Act II.", "scene i; 1607) and \"such an epicure was Potiphar—to please his tooth and pamper his flesh with delicacies\" from William Whately's ''Prototypes'' (1646).Around the same time, the Epicurean injunction to \"live in obscurity\" was beginning to gain popularity as well.", "In 1685, Sir William Temple (1628–1699) abandoned a promising career as a diplomat and instead retired to his garden, devoting himself to writing essays on Epicurus's moral teachings.", "That same year, John Dryden translated the celebrated lines from Book II of Lucretius's ''On the Nature of Things'': \"'Tis pleasant, safely to behold from shore / The rowling ship, and hear the Tempest roar.\"", "Meanwhile, John Locke (1632–1704) adapted Gassendi's modified version of Epicurus's epistemology, which became highly influential on English empiricism.", "Many thinkers with sympathies towards the Enlightenment endorsed Epicureanism as an admirable moral philosophy.", "Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, declared in 1819, \"I too am an Epicurean.", "I consider the genuine (not imputed) doctrines of Epicurus as containing everything rational in moral philosophy which Greece and Rome have left us.", "\"The German philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883), whose ideas are the basis of Marxism, was profoundly influenced as a young man by the teachings of Epicurus and his doctoral thesis was a Hegelian dialectical analysis of the differences between the natural philosophies of Democritus and Epicurus.", "Marx viewed Democritus as a rationalist skeptic, whose epistemology was inherently contradictory, but saw Epicurus as a dogmatic empiricist, whose worldview is internally consistent and practically applicable.", "The British poet Alfred Tennyson (1809–1892) praised \"the sober majesties / of settled, sweet, Epicurean life\" in his 1868 poem \"Lucretius\".", "Epicurus's ethical teachings also had an indirect impact on the philosophy of Utilitarianism in England during the nineteenth century.", "Soviet politician Joseph Stalin (1878–1953) lauded Epicurus by stating: \"He was the greatest philosopher of all time.", "He was the one who recommended practicing virtue to derive the greatest joy from life\".Friedrich Nietzsche once noted: \"Even today many educated people think that the victory of Christianity over Greek philosophy is a proof of the superior truth of the former – although in this case it was only the coarser and more violent that conquered the more spiritual and delicate.", "So far as superior truth is concerned, it is enough to observe that the awakening sciences have allied themselves point by point with the philosophy of Epicurus, but point by point rejected Christianity.", "\"Academic interest in Epicurus and other Hellenistic philosophers increased over the course of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, with an unprecedented number of monographs, articles, abstracts, and conference papers being published on the subject.", "The texts from the library of Philodemus of Gadara in the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, first discovered between 1750 and 1765, are being deciphered, translated, and published by scholars part of the Philodemus Translation Project, funded by the United States National Endowment for the Humanities, and part of the Centro per lo Studio dei Papiri Ercolanesi in Naples.", "Epicurus's popular appeal among non-scholars is difficult to gauge, but it seems to be relatively comparable to the appeal of more traditionally popular ancient Greek philosophical subjects such as Stoicism, Aristotle, and Plato." ], [ "See also", "* Eikas* Epikoros* Philosophy of happiness* Separation of church and state" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "; Texts* * * * * * * Oates, Whitney J.", "(1940).", "''The Stoic and Epicurean philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius''.", "New York: Modern Library.", "* ; Studies* Bailey C. (1928).", "''The Greek Atomists and Epicurus'', Oxford: Clarendon Press.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * William Wallace.", "''Epicureanism''.", "SPCK (1880)" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * ''Stoic And Epicurean'' by Robert Drew Hicks (1910) (Internet Archive) * Epicurea, Hermann Usener - full text* * .", "* Society of Friends of Epicurus* Discussion Forum for Epicurus and Epicurean philosophy - EpicureanFriends.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epitaph" ], [ "Introduction", "Epitaph on the base of the ''Haymarket Martyrs' Monument'', Waldheim Cemetery, Forest Park, IllinoisAn '''epitaph''' (; ) is a short text honoring a deceased person.", "Strictly speaking, it refers to text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, but it may also be used in a figurative sense.", "Some epitaphs are specified by the person themselves before their death, while others are chosen by those responsible for the burial.", "An epitaph may be written in prose or in poem verse.Most epitaphs are brief records of the family, and perhaps the career, of the deceased, often with a common expression of love or respect—for example, \"beloved father of ...\"—but others are more ambitious.", "From the Renaissance to the 19th century in Western culture, epitaphs for notable people became increasingly lengthy and pompous descriptions of their family origins, career, virtues and immediate family, often in Latin.", "Notably, the Laudatio Turiae, the longest known Ancient Roman epitaph, exceeds almost all of these at 180 lines; it celebrates the virtues of an honored wife, probably of a consul.Some are quotes from holy texts, or aphorisms.", "One approach of many epitaphs is to \"speak\" to the reader and warn them about their own mortality.", "A wry trick of others is to request the reader to get off their resting place, inasmuch as the reader would have to be standing on the ground above the coffin to read the inscription.", "Some record achievements (e.g., past politicians note the years of their terms of office).", "Nearly all (excepting those where this is impossible by definition, such as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier) note name, year or date of birth, and date of death.", "Many list family members and the relationship of the deceased to them (for example, \"Father / Mother / Son / Daughter of\")." ], [ "Linguistic distinctions", "In English, and in accordance with the word's etymology, the word \"epitaph\" refers to a ''textual'' commemoration of a person, which may or may not be inscribed on a monument.", "In many European languages, however, the meaning of the word (or its close equivalent) has broadened to mean the monument itself, specifically a mural monument or plaque erected in a church, often close to, but not directly over, a person's place of burial.", "Examples include German ''Epitaph''; Dutch ''epitaaf''; Hungarian ''epitáfium''; Polish ''epitafium''; Danish ''epitafium''; Swedish ''epitafium''; and Estonian ''epitaaf''." ], [ "History", "The history of epitaphs extends as far back as the ancient Egyptians and have differed in delivery.", "The ancient Greeks utilised emotive expression, written in elegiac verse, later in prose.", "Ancient Romans' use of epitaphs was more blunt and uniform, typically detailing facts of the deceased – as did the earliest epitaphs in English churches.", "\"May the earth lie light upon thee\" was a common inscription for them.", "Due to the influence of Roman occupiers, the dominant language of epitaphs was Latin, evidenced by the oldest existing epitaphs in Britain.", "French and English came into fashion around the 13th and 14th centuries, respectively.By the 16th century, epitaphs had become more literary in nature and those written in verse were involved in trade.", "In America and Britain, comedic epitaphs are common in the form of acrostics, palindromes, riddles, and puns on names and professions – Robert Burns, the most prolific pre-Romantic epitaphist, wrote 35 pieces, them being largely satirical.", "The rate of literary epitaphs has been historically overshadowed by \"popular sepulchral inscriptions which are produced in countless numbers at all time\"; \"strictly literary\" epitaphs were most present during the start of the Romantic period.", "The Lake Poets have been credited with providing success to epitaph-writing adjacent to that of poetry significance – Robert Southey, in focusing simultaneously upon transience and eternity, contributed substantially.", "General interest for epitaphs was waning at the cusp of the 19th century, in contrast to a considerable burgeoning intellectual interest.", "Critical essays had been published before on the matter, possibly contributing towards its flourishing in the latter half of the 18th century.", "Epitaphs never became a major poetic form and, according to Romantic scholar Ernest Bernhardt-Kabisch, they had \"virtually disappeared\" by 1810.", "\"The art of the epitaph was largely lost in the 20th century\", wrote the ''Encyclopedia Britannica''.=== Format ===Sarcophagi and coffins were the choice of ancient Egyptians for epitaphs; brasses was the prominent format for a significant period of time.", "Epitaphs upon stone monuments became a common feature by the Elizabethan era." ], [ "In England", "===Medieval era===Ledger stone with epitaph in ledger lines of Sir John Harsyck (), South Acre Church, NorfolkStock phrases or standard elements present in epitaphs on mediaeval church monuments and ledger stones in England include:*''Hic jacet..'' (here lies...)*''... cuius animae propitietur deus amen'' (generally abbreviated to ''cuius aie ppitiet ds ame'' with tildes indicating the omitted letters) (\"whose soul may God look upon with favour Amen\")*''Memoriae sacrum ...'' / ''MS'' (\"Sacred to the memory (of) ...\")===Modern era===*''Requiescat in pace'' / ''RIP'' (\"may he rest in peace\")" ], [ "Notable examples", "=== Poets, playwrights and other writers ====== Statesmen ====== Mathematicians ====== Soldiers ====== Entertainers ====== Activists ====== Other ===" ], [ "Monuments with epitaphs", "File:Selena Quintanilla-Perez's grave.jpg|Grave of Selena at Seaside Memorial Park in Corpus Christi, Texas citing Isaiah 25:8 writings Image:Grave of W. B. Yeats; Drumecliff, Co Sligo.jpg|Grave of W. B. Yeats; Drumecliff, Co. SligoFile:Grabplatte Johann Wauer Hochkirch.jpg|Lengthy epitaph for Johann Wauer (d. 1728), a German pastor, concluding with a short Biblical quotationFile:Mel Blanc 4-15-05.JPG|The epitaph on voice actor Mel Blanc's tombstoneHeather O'Rourke crypt 2.jpg|Inscription at Heather O'Rourke's cryptFile:Sahabi tomb.jpg|Ezzatollah Sahabi, Glory of Iran and his patriotic daughter HalehFile:Garner headstone with eitaph, Houghton, Cambridgeshire.jpg|A folksy epitaph to an English village blacksmith in Houghton, CambridgeshireFile:Spike Milligan gravestone, Winchelsea, East Sussex.jpg|The gravestone of comedian, writer and actor Spike Milligan showing the notable epitaphFile:Mary Kay Bergman Grave.JPG|Grave of Mary Kay Bergman, at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills).", "It features etchings of characters she voiced on ''South Park''." ], [ "In music", "In a more figurative sense, the term may be used for music composed in memory of the deceased.", "Igor Stravinsky composed in 1958 ''Epitaphium'' for flute, clarinet and harp.", "In 1967 Krzysztof Meyer called his Symphony No.", "2 for choir and orchestra ''Epitaphium Stanisław Wiechowicz in memoriam''.", "Jeffrey Lewis composed ''Epitaphium – Children of the Sun'' for narrator, chamber choir, piano, flute, clarinet and percussion.", "In 1969, King Crimson released the song ''Epitaph'', giving a reference to epitaphs within the song.", "Bronius Kutavičius composed in 1998 ''Epitaphium temporum pereunti''.", "Valentin Silvestrov composed in 1999 ''Epitaph L.B.''", "(Епітафія Л.Б.)", "for viola (or cello) and piano.", "In 2007 Graham Waterhouse composed ''Epitaphium'' for string trio as a tribute to the memory of his father William Waterhouse.", "The South African poet Gert Vlok Nel wrote an (originally) untitled song, which appeared on his first music album \"Beaufort-Wes se Beautiful Woorde\" as \"Epitaph\", because his producer Eckard Potgieter told him that the song sounded like an epitaph.", "David Bowie's final album, ''Blackstar'', released in 2016, is generally seen as his musical epitaph, with singles \"Blackstar\" and \"Lazarus\" often singled out." ], [ "See also", "* Chronogram* Cenotaph* Death poem* Epigraph* Eulogy* ''Epitaphios logos'' (ancient Greek funeral oration)* Hero stone* Seikilos epitaph" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "****" ], [ "External links", "* * Kohima Epitaph" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epigram" ], [ "Introduction", " Robert Hayman's 1628 book ''Quodlibets'' devotes much of its text to epigrams.An '''epigram''' is a brief, interesting, memorable, sometimes surprising or satirical statement.", "The word derives from the Greek (, \"inscription\", from , \"to write on, to inscribe\").", "This literary device has been practiced for over two millennia.The presence of wit or sarcasm tends to distinguish non-poetic epigrams from aphorisms and adages, which typically do not show those qualities." ], [ "Ancient Greek", "The Greek tradition of epigrams began as poems inscribed on votive offerings at sanctuariesincluding statues of athletesand on funerary monuments, for example \"Go tell it to the Spartans, passersby...\".", "These original epigrams did the same job as a short prose text might have done, but in verse.", "Epigram became a literary genre in the Hellenistic period, probably developing out of scholarly collections of inscriptional epigrams.Though modern epigrams are usually thought of as very short, Greek literary epigram was not always as short as later examples, and the divide between \"epigram\" and \"elegy\" is sometimes indistinct (they share a characteristic metre, elegiac couplets).", "In the classical period, the clear distinction between them was that epigrams were inscribed and meant to be read, while elegies were recited and meant to be heard.", "Some elegies could be quite short, but only public epigrams were longer than ten lines.", "All the same, the origin of epigram in inscription exerted a residual pressure to keep things concise, even when they were recited in Hellenistic times.", "Many of the characteristic types of literary epigram look back to inscriptional contexts, particularly funerary epigram, which in the Hellenistic era becomes a literary exercise.", "Many \"sympotic\" epigrams combine sympotic and funerary elementsthey tell their readers (or listeners) to drink and live for today because life is short.", "Generally, any theme found in classical elegies could be and were adapted for later literary epigrams.Hellenistic epigrams are also thought of as having a \"point\"that is, the poem ends in a punchline or satirical twist.", "By no means do all Greek epigrams behave this way; many are simply descriptive, but Meleager of Gadara and Philippus of Thessalonica, the first comprehensive anthologists, preferred the short and witty epigram.", "Since their collections helped form knowledge of the genre in Rome and then later throughout Europe, Epigram came to be associated with 'point', especially because the European epigram tradition takes the Latin poet Martial as its principal model; he copied and adapted Greek models (particularly the contemporary poets Lucillius and Nicarchus) selectively and in the process redefined the genre, aligning it with the indigenous Roman tradition of \"satura\", hexameter satire, as practised by (among others) his contemporary Juvenal.", "Greek epigram was actually much more diverse, as the Milan Papyrus now indicates.A major source for Greek literary epigram is the ''Greek Anthology'', a compilation from the 10th century AD based on older collections, including those of Meleager and Philippus.", "It contains epigrams ranging from the Hellenistic period through the Imperial period and Late Antiquity into the compiler's own Byzantine eraa thousand years of short elegiac texts on every topic under the sun.", "The ''Anthology'' includes one book of Christian epigrams as well as one book of erotic and amorous homosexual epigrams called the (, \"The Boyish Muse\")." ], [ "Ancient Roman", "Roman epigrams owe much to their Greek predecessors and contemporaries.", "Roman epigrams, however, were often more satirical than Greek ones, and at times used obscene language for effect.", "Latin epigrams could be composed as inscriptions or graffiti, such as this one from Pompeii, which exists in several versions and seems from its inexact meter to have been composed by a less educated person.", "Its content makes it clear how popular such poems were::'''':'''':I'm astonished, wall, that you haven't collapsed into ruins,:since you're holding up the weary verse of so many poets.However, in the literary world, epigrams were most often gifts to patrons or entertaining verse to be published, not inscriptions.", "Many Roman writers seem to have composed epigrams, including Domitius Marsus, whose collection ''Cicuta'' (now lost) was named after the poisonous plant ''Cicuta'' for its biting wit, and Lucan, more famous for his epic ''Pharsalia''.", "Authors whose epigrams survive include Catullus, who wrote both invectives and love epigrams – his poem 85 is one of the latter.", ":'''':'''': I hate and I love.", "Maybe you'd like to know why I do?", ": I don't know, but I feel it happening, and I am tormented.Martial, however, is considered to be the master of the Latin epigram.", "His technique relies heavily on the satirical poem with a joke in the last line, thus drawing him closer to the modern idea of epigram as a genre.", "Here he defines his genre against a (probably fictional) critic (in the latter half of 2.77)::'''':'''':'''':'''':Learn what you don't know: one work of (Domitius) Marsus or learned Pedo:often stretches out over a doublesided page.", ":A work isn't long if you can't take anything out of it,:but you, Cosconius, write even a couplet too long.Poets known for their epigrams whose work has been lost include Cornificia." ], [ "English", "In early English literature the short couplet poem was dominated by the poetic epigram and proverb, especially in the translations of the Bible and the Greek and Roman poets.Two successive lines of verse that rhyme with each other are known as a couplet.", "Since 1600, the couplet has been featured as a part of the longer sonnet form, most notably in William Shakespeare's sonnets.", "Sonnet 76 is an example.", "The two-line poetic form as a closed couplet was also used by William Blake in his poem \"Auguries of Innocence\", and also by Byron in his poem ''Don Juan'', by John Gay in his fables, and by Alexander Pope in his ''An Essay on Man''.The first work of English literature penned in North America was Robert Hayman's ''Quodlibets, Lately Come Over from New Britaniola, Old Newfoundland'', which is a collection of over 300 epigrams, many of which do not conform to the two-line rule or trend.", "While the collection was written between 1618 and 1628 in what is now Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, it was published shortly after his return to Britain.", "In Victorian times the epigram couplet was often used by the prolific American poet Emily Dickinson.", "Her poem No.", "1534 is a typical example of her eleven poetic epigrams.", "The novelist George Eliot also included couplets throughout her writings.", "Her best example is in her sequenced sonnet poem entitled ''Brother and Sister'' in which each of the eleven sequenced sonnet ends with a couplet.", "In her sonnets, the preceding lead-in-line, to the couplet ending of each, could be thought of as a title for the couplet, as is shown in Sonnet VIII of the sequence.During the early 20th century, the rhymed epigram couplet form developed into a fixed verse image form, with an integral title as the third line.", "Adelaide Crapsey codified the couplet form into a two-line rhymed verse of ten syllables per line with her image couplet poem ''On Seeing Weather-Beaten Trees'', first published in 1915.By the 1930s, the five-line cinquain verse form became widely known in the poetry of the Scottish poet William Soutar.", "These were originally labelled epigrams but later identified as image cinquains in the style of Adelaide Crapsey.J.", "V. Cunningham was also a noted writer of epigrams (a medium suited to a \"short-breathed\" person)." ], [ "Poetic epigrams", ":What is an Epigram?", "a dwarfish whole,:Its body brevity, and wit its soul.", ":— Samuel Taylor Coleridge (\"Epigram\", 1809):Some can gaze and not be sick:But I could never learn the trick.", ":There's this to say for blood and breath;:They give a man a taste for death.", ":— A. E. Housman:Little strokes:Fell great oaks.", ":— Benjamin Franklin:Here lies my wife: here let her lie!", ":Now she's at restand so am I.:— John Dryden:Three Poets, in three distant Ages born,:Greece, Italy, and England did adorn.", ":The First in loftiness of thought surpassed;:The Next in Majesty; in both the Last.", ":The force of Nature could no farther go::To make a third she joined the former two.", ":— John Dryden (\"Epigram on Milton\", 1688 (Epigram about John Milton: many poets commented on Milton, including Dryden:We have a pretty witty king,:Whose word no man relies on.", ":He never said a foolish thing,:And never did a wise one.", ":— John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester (epigram about Charles II of England):I am His Highness' dog at Kew;:Pray tell me, sir, whose dog are you?", ":— Alexander Pope:I'm tired of Love: I'm still more tired of Rhyme.", ":But Money gives me pleasure all the time.", ":— Hilaire Belloc:I hope for nothing.", "I fear nothing.", "I am free.", ":— Nikos Kazantzakis:To define the beautiful is to misunderstand it.", ":— Charles Robert Anon (Fernando Pessoa):This Humanist whom no belief constrained:Grew so broad-minded he was scatter-brained.", ":— J.V.", "Cunningham:All things pass:Love and mankind is grass.", ":— Stevie Smith" ], [ "In art", "* \"When Guns Speak, Death Settles Disputes\" is Charles Marion Russell's epigrammatic title for a clash by gunfighters of the Old West in America." ], [ "See also", "* Admetus (epigrammatist)* Aphorism* Epigraph (archeology)* Epigraph (literature)* Epitaph* Wikisource: Epigram" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bruss, Jon.", "2010.\"Epigram.\"", "In ''A Companion to Hellenistic Literature.''", "Edited by James J. Clauss and Martine Cuypers, 117–135.Chichester, UK: Blackwell.", "* Day, Joseph.", "1989.", "\"Rituals in Stone: Early Greek Grave Epigrams and Monuments.\"", "''Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 109:22–27.", "* Gow, A. S. F.", "1958.", "''The Greek Anthology: Sources and Ascriptions.''", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "* Henriksén, Christer (ed.).", "2019.''", "A Companion to Ancient Epigram''.", "Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell.", "* Nisbet, Gideon.", "2003.", "''Greek Epigram in the Roman Empire: Martial’s Forgotten Rivals.''", "Oxford: Oxford Univ.", "Press.", "* Nixon, Paul.", "1963.", "''Martial and the Modern Epigram.''", "New York: Cooper Square.", "* Petrain, David.", "2012.", "\"The Archaeology of the Epigrams from the Tabulae Iliacae: Adaptation, Allusion, Alteration.\"", "''Mnemosyne'' 65.4–5: 597–635.", "* Rimell, Victoria.", "2008.", "''Martial’s Rome: Empire and the Ideology of Epigram.''", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "* Rosen, Ralph.", "2007.", "\"The Hellenistic Epigrams on Archilochus and Hipponax.\"", "In ''Brill’s Companion to Hellenistic Epigram: Down to Philip.''", "Edited by Peter Bing and Jon Bruss, 459–476.Brill’s Companions in Classical Studies.", "Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.", "* Sullivan, John P.", "1990.", "\"Martial and English Poetry.\"", "''Classical Antiquity'' 9:149–174.", "* Tarán, Sonya Lida.", "1979.", "''The Art of variation in the Hellenistic Epigram.''", "Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Sterling epigrams from literature and poetry" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "El Cid" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar''' ( – 10 July 1099) was a Castilian knight and ruler in medieval Spain.", "Fighting both with Christian and Muslim armies during his lifetime, he earned the Arabic honorific (\"the Lord\" or \"the Master\"), which would evolve into '''El Çid''' (, ), and the Spanish honorific '''El Campeador''' (\"the Champion\").", "He was born in Vivar, a village near the city of Burgos.", "As the head of his loyal knights, he came to dominate the Levante of the Iberian Peninsula at the end of the 11th century.", "He reclaimed the Taifa of Valencia from Muslim control for a brief period during the ''Reconquista'', ruling the principality as its from 17 June 1094 until his death in 1099.His wife, Jimena Díaz, inherited the city and maintained it until 1102 when it was reconquered by the Moors.Díaz de Vivar became well known for his service in the armies of both Christian and Muslim rulers.", "After his death, El Cid became Spain's celebrated national hero and the protagonist of the most significant medieval Spanish epic poem, , which presents him as the ideal medieval knight: strong, valiant, loyal, just, and pious.There are various theories on his family history, which remains uncertain; however, he was the grandfather of García Ramírez de Pamplona, King of Navarre, the first son of his daughter Cristina Rodríguez.", "To this day, El Cid remains a popular Spanish folk hero and national icon, with his life and deeds remembered in popular culture." ], [ "Etymology: ''Cid'' and ''Campeador''", "Here on the penultimate and final line of the document's text appears the autograph of Rodrigo Díaz: «» This translates as \"I Rodrigo, together with my wife, affirm that which is written above.", "\"Rodrigo Díaz was recognized with the honorary title of \"Campeador\" during his lifetime, as is evidenced by a document that he signed in 1098, which he signed in the Latinized expression, .", "The title \"Campeador\" thus comes from the Latin , literally meaning \"Teacher of the Field\", but translatable as \"Master of the Battlefield\".", "Arabic sources from the late 11th century and early 12th century call him (), (), also preceded by or , which are Arabized forms of his name and title.The epithet of \"El Cid\" meant \"the Lord\", probably from the original Arabic (), and was a title given to other Christian leaders.", "It has been conjectured that Rodrigo Díaz received the honorific title and respectful treatment of contemporaries in Zaragoza because of his victories in the service of the King of the Taifa of Zaragoza between 1081 and 1086; however, he more likely received the epithet after his conquest of Valencia in 1094.This title appears for the first time, as , in the , composed between 1147 and 1149.The combination of \"Cid Campeador\" is documented from 1195 in (''The Lineage of Rodrigo Díaz'') in Navarro-Aragonese which form part of the written as ; and in ." ], [ "Summary", "Born a member of the minor nobility, El Cid was brought up at the court of Ferdinand the Great and served Ferdinand's son, Sancho II of León and Castile.", "He rose to become the commander and royal standard-bearer (''armiger regis'') of Castile upon Sancho's ascension in 1065.El Cid went on to lead the Castilian military campaigns against Sancho's brothers, Alfonso VI of León and García II of Galicia, as well as in the Muslim kingdoms in al-Andalus.", "He became renowned for his military prowess in these campaigns, which helped expand the territory of the Crown of Castile at the expense of the Muslims and Sancho's brothers' kingdoms.", "When conspirators murdered Sancho in 1072, El Cid found himself in a difficult situation.", "Since Sancho was childless, the throne passed to his brother Alfonso, whom El Cid had helped remove from power.", "Although El Cid continued to serve the sovereign, he lost his ranking in the new court, which treated him suspiciously and kept him at arm's length.", "Finally, in 1081, he was exiled.El Cid found work fighting for the Muslim rulers of Zaragoza, whom he defended from its traditional enemy, Aragon.", "While in exile, he regained his reputation as a strategist and formidable military leader.", "He was repeatedly victorious in battle against the Muslim rulers of Lérida and their Christian allies, as well as against a large Christian army under King Sancho Ramírez of Aragon.", "In 1086, an expeditionary army of North African Almoravids inflicted a severe defeat to Castile, compelling Alfonso to overcome the resentment he harboured against El Cid.", "The terms for El Cid's return to Christian service must have been attractive enough since El Cid soon found himself fighting for his former lord.", "Over the next several years, however, El Cid set his sights on the kingdom-city of Valencia, operating more or less independently of Alfonso, while politically supporting the Banu Hud and other Muslim dynasties opposed to the Almoravids.", "He gradually increased his control over Valencia; the Islamic ruler, Yahya al-Qadir, became his tributary in 1092.When the Almoravids instigated an uprising that resulted in the death of Al-Cádir, El Cid responded by laying siege to the city.", "Valencia finally fell in 1094, and El Cid established an independent principality on the Mediterranean coast of Iberia.", "He ruled over a pluralistic society with the popular support of Christians and Muslims alike.El Cid's final years were spent fighting the Almoravid Berbers.", "He inflicted upon them their first major defeat in 1094, on the plains of Caurte, outside Valencia, and continued opposing them until his death.", "Although El Cid remained undefeated in Valencia, Diego Rodríguez, his only son and heir, died fighting against the Almoravids in the service of Alfonso in 1097.After El Cid's death in 1099, his wife, Jimena Díaz, succeeded him as ruler of Valencia, but she was eventually forced to surrender the principality to the Almoravids in 1102." ], [ "Title", "First paragraph of the ''Carmen Campidoctoris'', the earliest literary treatment of El Cid's life, written to celebrate El Cid's defeat of some counts and championsThe name ''El Cid'' () is a modern Spanish denomination composed of the article ''el'' meaning \"the\" and ''Cid'', which derives from the Old Castilian loan word ''Çid'' borrowed from the dialectal Arabic word سيد ''sîdi'' or sayyid, which means \"lord\" or \"master\".", "The Mozarabs or the Arabs that served in his ranks may have addressed him in this way, which the Christians may have transliterated and adopted.", "Historians, however, have not yet found contemporary records referring to Rodrigo as ''Cid.''", "Arab sources use instead ''Rudriq'', ''Ludriq al-Kanbiyatur'' or ''al-Qanbiyatur'' (''Rodrigo el Campeador'').", "The cognomen ''Campeador'' derives from Latin ''campi doctor,'' which means \"battlefield master\".", "He probably gained it during the campaigns of King Sancho II of Castile against his brothers, kings Alfonso VI of León and García II of Galicia.", "While his contemporaries left no historical sources that would have addressed him as ''Cid'', they left plenty of Christian and Arab records, some even signed documents with his autograph, addressing him as ''Campeador'', which prove that he used the Christian cognomen himself.", "The whole combination ''Cid Campeador'' is first documented c. 1195 in the Navarro-Aragonese '''' included in the ''Liber Regum'' under the formula ''mio Cid el Campeador''." ], [ "Life and career", "Urraca, called '''the Reckless''' (''la Temeraria'') Queen of León, Castile and Galicia from 1109 until her death.", "===Origins===El Cid was born Rodrigo Díaz circa 1043 in Vivar, also known as Castillona de Bivar, a small town about ten kilometers (or six miles) north of Burgos, the capital of Castile.", "His father, Diego Laínez, was a courtier, bureaucrat, and cavalryman who had fought in several battles.", "Despite the fact that El Cid's mother's family was aristocratic, in later years, the peasants would consider him one of their own.", "However, his relatives were not major court officials; documents show that El Cid's paternal grandfather, Laín, confirmed only five documents of Ferdinand I's; his maternal grandfather, Rodrigo Álvarez, certified only two of Sancho II's; and El Cid's father confirmed only one.===Service under Sancho II===As a young man in 1057, El Cid fought against the Moorish stronghold of Zaragoza, making its emir al-Muqtadir a vassal of Sancho.", "In the spring of 1063, El Cid fought in the Battle of Graus, where Ferdinand's half-brother, Ramiro I of Aragon, was laying siege to the Moorish town of Graus, which was fought on Zaragozan lands in the valley of the river Cinca.", "Al-Muqtadir, accompanied by Castilian troops including El Cid, fought against the Aragonese.", "The party slew Ramiro I, setting the Aragonese army on the run, and emerged victorious.", "One legend has said that during the conflict, El Cid killed an Aragonese knight in single combat, thereby receiving the honorific title \"''Campeador''\".When Ferdinand died, Sancho continued to enlarge his territory, conquering both Christian strongholds and the Moorish cities of Zamora and Badajoz.", "When Sancho learned that Alfonso was planning on overthrowing him in order to gain his territory, Sancho sent Cid to bring Alfonso back so that Sancho could speak to him.===Service under Alfonso VI===Marcos Giráldez de Acosta painting (1864) depicting the \"Santa Gadea Oath\".", "In the middle of the scene, Alfonso VI (with red cape) is swearing with his right hand on the Bible that he did not take part in the murder of his brother Sancho II, while El Cid stands as a witness in front of him.Sancho was assassinated in 1072, during a siege of his sister's town of Zamora.", "Since Sancho died unmarried and childless, all of his power passed to his brother Alfonso who, almost immediately, returned from exile in Toledo and took his seat as king of Castile and León.", "He was, however, deeply suspected of having been involved in Sancho's murder.", "According to the 11th century epic poem ''Cantar de mio Cid'', the Castilian nobility led by El Cid and a dozen \"oath-helpers\" forced Alfonso to swear publicly on holy relics multiple times in front of Santa Gadea (Saint Agatha) Church in Burgos that he did not participate in the plot to kill his brother.", "This is not mentioned in the more reliable 12th century chronicle ''Historia Roderici'', however.", "El Cid's position as ''armiger regis'' was taken away and given to his enemy, Count García Ordóñez.In 1079, El Cid was sent by Alfonso VI to Seville to the court of al-Mutamid to collect the ''parias'' owed by that ''taifa'' to León–Castile.", "While he was there Granada, assisted by other Castilian knights, attacked Seville, and El Cid and his forces repulsed the Christian and Grenadine attackers at the Battle of Cabra, in the (probably mistaken) belief that he was defending the king's tributary.", "During the aftermath of this battle the Muslim troops under El Cid's command would hail him as Sayyidi.", "Count García Ordóñez and the other Castilian leaders were taken captive and held for three days before being released.===Exile===In the Battle of Cabra (1079), El Cid rallied his troops and turned the battle into a rout of Emir Abdullah of Granada and his ally García Ordóñez.", "This unauthorized expedition into Granada, however, greatly angered Alfonso and May 8, 1080 was the last time El Cid confirmed a document in King Alfonso's court.", "The most likely reason was El Cid's incursion into Toledo, which happened to be under the control of Alfonso’s vassal, Yahya Al-Qadir.", "Alfonso's anger over El Cid's unsanctioned incursion into his vassal's territory would lead him to exile the knight.This is the generally accepted reason for the exile of El Cid, although several others are plausible and indeed may have been contributing factors to the exile: jealous nobles turning Alfonso against El Cid through court intrigue, and Alfonso's own personal animosity towards El Cid.", "The song of El Cid and subsequent tales state that Alfonso’s and his court’s animosity toward Rodrigo was the primary reason the expulsion of the knights from León, as well as a possible misappropriation of some of the tribute from Seville by El Cid.At first he went to Barcelona, where Ramon Berenguer II refused his offer of service." ], [ "Moorish service", "During his service to the Taifa of Zaragoza, he had gained a prominent reputation and the title ''El Cid'' (the lord).", "He is also known to have developed links with the other Taifas in 1080.Aljaferia palace, in the Taifa of ZaragozaThe exile was not the end of El Cid, either physically or as an important figure.", "After being rejected by Ramon Berenguer II, El Cid journeyed to the Taifa of Zaragoza, where he received a warmer welcome.", "In 1081, El Cid went on to offer his services to the king of Zaragoza, Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud, and served both him and his successor, al-Musta'in II.", "He was given the title ''El Cid'' (''The Master'') and served as a leading figure in a diverse Moorish force consisting of Muwallads, Berbers, Arabs, and Malians within the respective Taifa.According to Moorish accounts:In his ''History of Medieval Spain'' (Cornell University Press, 1975), Joseph F. O'Callaghan writes:In 1082, the army of the Taifa of Zaragoza under El Cid defeated the Taifa of Lleida at the Battle of Almenar.", "In 1084, he defeated the Aragonese at the Battle of Morella near Tortosa, but in autumn the Castilians started a loose siege of Toledo and later the next year the Christians captured Salamanca, a stronghold of the Taifa of Toledo.In 1086, the Almoravid invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, through and around Gibraltar, began.", "The Almoravids, a Berber dynasty from North Africa, led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, were asked to help defend the divided Moors from Alfonso.", "The Almoravid army, joined by that of several Taifas, including Badajoz, Málaga, Granada, Tortosa and Seville, defeated a combined army of León, Aragón, and Castile at the Battle of Sagrajas.In 1087, Raymond of Burgundy and his Christian allies attempted to weaken the Taifa of Zaragoza's northernmost stronghold by initiating the Siege of Tudela and Alfonso captured Aledo, Murcia, blocking the route between the Taifas in the eastern and western Iberian Peninsula." ], [ "Recall from exile", "El Cid ordering the execution of Almoravid allies after his conquest of Valencia in 1094Battle of Quart de Poblet (21 October 1094).", "El Cid's troops are in green, Almoravid troops are in red.Terrified after his crushing defeat, Alfonso recalled El Cid, rewarding him lavishly with lands and lordships, such as the fortress of Gormaz.", "In the year 1087 Alfonso sent him to negotiate with the emboldened Taifa kingdoms.El Cid returned to Alfonso, but now he had his own plans.", "He only stayed a short while and then returned to Zaragoza.", "El Cid was content to let the Almoravid armies and the armies of Alfonso fight without his help, even when there was a chance that the Almoravids might defeat Alfonso and take over all of Alfonso's lands.", "El Cid chose not to fight because he was hoping that both armies would weaken themselves.", "===Conquest of Valencia===Around this time, El Cid, with a combined Christian and Moorish army, began maneuvering in order to create his own fief in the Moorish Mediterranean coastal city of Valencia.", "Several obstacles lay in his way.", "First was Berenguer Ramon II, who ruled nearby Barcelona.", "In May 1090, El Cid defeated and captured Berenguer in the Battle of Tébar (nowadays Pinar de Tévar, near Monroyo, Teruel).", "Berenguer was later released and his nephew Ramon Berenguer III married El Cid's youngest daughter Maria to ward against future conflicts.Along the way to Valencia, El Cid also conquered other towns, many of which were near Valencia, such as El Puig and Quart de Poblet.El Cid gradually came to have more influence in Valencia, then ruled by Yahya al-Qadir, of the Hawwara Berber Dhulnunid dynasty.", "In October 1092 an uprising occurred in Valencia, inspired by the city's chief judge Ibn Jahhaf and the Almoravids.", "El Cid began a siege of Valencia.", "A December 1093 attempt to break the siege failed.", "By the time the siege ended in May 1094, El Cid had carved out his own principality on the coast of the Mediterranean.", "Officially, El Cid ruled in the name of Alfonso; in practice, El Cid was fully independent.", "The city was both Christian and Muslim, and both Moors and Christians served in the army and as administrators.", "Jerome of Périgord was made bishop.===Death===Tomb of El Cid and his wife Doña Jimena at the Burgos CathedralEl Cid and his wife Jimena Díaz lived peacefully in Valencia until the Almoravids besieged the city.", "But he defeated them and died 5 years later, on July 10, 1099.Afterward Valencia was captured by Mazdali on May 5, 1102.Jimena fled to Burgos, Castile, in 1101.She rode into the town with her retinue and the body of El Cid.", "Originally buried in Castile in the monastery of , his body now lies at the center of Burgos Cathedral.===Legend of posthumous victory===After his demise, but still during the siege of Valencia, legend holds that Jimena ordered that the corpse of El Cid be fitted with his armor and set on his horse, Babieca, to bolster the morale of his troops.", "In several variations of the story, the dead Rodrigo and his knights win a thundering charge against Valencia's besiegers, resulting in a war-is-lost-but-battle-is-won catharsis for generations of Christian Spaniards to follow.", "It is believed that the legend originated shortly after Jimena entered Burgos, and that it is derived from the manner in which Jimena's procession rode into the city, i.e.", "alongside her deceased husband." ], [ "Warrior and general", "===Battle tactics===During his campaigns, El Cid often ordered that books by classic Roman and Greek authors on military themes be read aloud to him and his troops, for both entertainment and inspiration before battle.", "El Cid's army had a novel approach to planning strategy as well, holding what might be called \"brainstorming\" sessions before each battle to discuss tactics.", "They frequently used unexpected strategies, engaging in what modern generals would call psychological warfare—waiting for the enemy to be paralyzed with terror and then attacking them suddenly; distracting the enemy with a small group of soldiers, etc.", "(El Cid used this distraction in capturing the town of Castejón as depicted in ''Cantar de mio Cid'' (''The Song of my Cid'').)", "El Cid accepted or included suggestions from his troops.", "In ''The Song'' the man who served him as his closest adviser was his vassal and kinsman Álvar Fáñez \"''Minaya''\" (meaning ''\"My brother\"'', a compound word of Spanish possessive ''Mi'' (My) and ''Anaia'', the basque word for ''brother''), although the historical Álvar Fáñez remained in Castile with Alfonso VI.===Babieca===Tomb of Babieca at the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña'''Babieca''', or '''Bavieca''', was El Cid's warhorse.", "Several stories exist about El Cid and Babieca.", "One well-known legend about El Cid describes how he acquired the stallion.", "According to this story, Rodrigo's godfather, Pedro El Grande, was a monk at a Carthusian monastery.", "Pedro's coming-of-age gift to El Cid was his pick of a horse from an Andalusian herd.", "El Cid picked a horse that his godfather thought was a weak, poor choice, causing the monk to exclaim \"''Babieca!''\"", "(stupid!).", "Hence, it became the name of El Cid's horse.", "Another legend states that in a competition of battle to become King Sancho's \"Campeador\", or champion, a knight on horseback wished to challenge El Cid.", "The King wished a fair fight and gave El Cid his finest horse, Babieca, or Bavieca.", "This version says Babieca was raised in the royal stables of Seville and was a highly trained and loyal war horse, not a foolish stallion.", "The name in this instance could suggest that the horse came from the Babia region in León, Spain.", "In the poem ''Carmen Campidoctoris'', Babieca appears as a gift from \"a barbarian\" to El Cid, so its name could also be derived from \"Barbieca\", or \"horse of the barbarian\".Regardless, Babieca became a great warhorse, famous to the Christians, feared by El Cid's enemies, and loved by El Cid, who allegedly requested that Babieca be buried with him in the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña.", "Babieca is mentioned in several tales and historical documents about El Cid, including ''The Lay of El Cid''.===Swords===A weapon traditionally identified as El Cid's sword, Tizona, used to be displayed in the Army Museum (Museo del Ejército) in Toledo.", "In 1999, a small sample of the blade underwent metallurgical analysis which confirmed that the blade was made in Moorish Córdoba in the eleventh century and contained amounts of Damascus steel.In 2007, the Autonomous Community of Castile and León bought the sword for €1.6 million, and it is currently on display at the Museum of Burgos.El Cid also had a sword called Colada." ], [ "Wife and children", "El Cid depicted on the title page of a 16th-century working of his storyEl Cid married Jimena Díaz, who was said to be part of an aristocratic family from Asturias, in the mid-1070s.", "The ''Historia Roderici'' calls her a daughter of a Count Diego Fernández de Oviedo.", "Tradition states that when El Cid first laid eyes on her, he was enamoured of her great beauty.", "El Cid and Jimena had two daughters, Cristina and María, and a son.", "The latter, Diego Rodríguez, was killed while fighting against the invading Muslim Almoravids from North Africa at the Battle of Consuegra in 1097.El Cid's daughters Cristina Rodríguez and María both married into noble families.", "Cristina married Ramiro, Lord of Monzón and grandson of García Sánchez III of Navarre.", "Her own son, El Cid's grandson, would be elevated to the throne of Navarre as King García Ramírez.", "The other daughter, María (also known as Sol), is said first to have married a prince of Aragon, presumably the son of Peter I, and she later married Ramon Berenguer III, count of Barcelona.", "Both the poem and the chronicle may state a previous marriage to the ; however, these marriages are not a historical fact and are an important element in the construction of the poem." ], [ "In literature, music, video games, and film", "The figure of El Cid has been the source for many literary works, beginning with the ''Cantar de mio Cid'', an epic poem from the 12th century which gives a partly-fictionalized account of his life, and was one of the early chivalric romances.", "This poem, along with similar later works such as the ''Mocedades de Rodrigo'', contributed to portray El Cid as a chivalric hero of the Reconquista, making him a legendary figure in Spain.", "El Cid is one of the few examples of knight errantry formally recognized by the priest in Miguel de Cervantes's ''Don Quixote'' (1605-1615).", "In the early 17th century, the Spanish writer Guillén de Castro wrote a play called ''Las Mocedades del Cid'', on which French playwright Pierre Corneille based one of his most famous tragicomedies, ''Le Cid''.", "He was also a popular source of inspiration for Spanish writers of the Romantic period, such as Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch, who wrote ''La Jura de Santa Gadea'', or José Zorrilla, who wrote a long poem called ''La Leyenda del Cid''.", "In 2019, Arturo Pérez-Reverte published the novel entitled ''Sidi: Un relato de frontera''.Herman Melville references El Cid when introducing the character of Samoa in Chapter 21 of ''Mardi'' (1849): \"He alighted about six paces from where we stood, and balancing his weapon, eyed us bravely as the Cid\".Georges Bizet worked on ''Don Rodrigue'' in 1873 that was set aside and never completed.", "Jules Massenet wrote an opera, ''Le Cid'', in 1885, based on Corneille's play of the same name.", "Claude Debussy began work in 1890 on an opera, ''Rodrigue et Chimène'', which he abandoned as unsuitable for his temperament; it was orchestrated for performance by Edison Denisov circa 1993.El Cid is portrayed by American actor Charlton Heston in a 1961 epic film of the same name directed by Anthony Mann, where the character of Doña Ximena is portrayed by Italian actress Sophia Loren.", "In 2020, Amazon Prime Video premiered a Spanish TV series with Jaime Lorente starring as ''El Cid''.In 1979, Crack, one of the most prominent progressive rock bands from Spain, released their first and only album ''Si Todo Hiciera Crack'' including \"Marchando una del Cid\", a song based on the epic legend of El Cid.In 1980, ''Ruy, the Little Cid'' was an animated series based on El Cid's childhood made by Nippon Animation.El Cid was described to inspire Ferny about his Spanish heritage in \"The Legend of Raloo\", episode 16 of season 1 of ''Jakers!", "The Adventures of Piggley Winks'' in 2004.In the second ''Age of Empires'' video game installment, ''The Conquerors'' expansion pack, there is a campaign starring El Cid Campeador.In both the first and second ''Medieval: Total War'' games, El Cid appears as a powerful independent general in the castle of Valencia.In 2003, the Spanish animated film ''El Cid: The Legend'' was released.", "''The Ministry of Time'', a Spanish science fiction television series, portrayed El Cid in season 2, episode 1.El Cid is a playable character in the Mobile/PC Game Rise of Kingdoms.El Cid is a playable character in ''Crusader Kings II'' and Crusader Kings III in start dates corresponding to his historical rule over Valencia." ], [ "Gallery" ], [ "See also", "* Camino del Cid* El Cid (TV series)" ], [ "References" ], [ "General and cited sources", "===Primary===*Kurtz, Barbara E. ''El Cid''.", "University of Illinois.*I.", "Michael.", "''The Poem of El Cid''.", "Manchester: 1975.", "*''The Song of El Cid.''", "Translated by Burton Raffel.", "Penguin Classics, 2009.", "* ''Cantar de mío Cid'' – Spanish (free PDF)* Poema de Mio Cid, Códice de Per Abbat in the European Library (third item on page)*R. Selden Rose and Leonard Bacon (trans.)", "''The Lay of El Cid.''", "Semicentennial Publications of the University of California: 1868–1918.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997.", "* Romancero e historia del muy valeroso caballero El Cid Ruy Díaz de Vibar (1828)* Cronica del muy esforçado cavallero el Cid ruy diaz campeador (1533)* Carmen Campidoctoris, a Latin poem on El Cid===Secondary (not cited)===*Simon Barton and Richard Fletcher.", "''The world of El Cid, Chronicles of the Spanish reconquest''.", "Manchester: University Press, 2000.hardback, paperback.", "*Gonzalo Martínez Díez, \"El Cid Histórico: Un Estudio Exhaustivo Sobre el Verdadero Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar\", Editorial Planeta (Spain, June 1999).", "*C. Melville and A. Ubaydli (ed.", "and trans.", "), ''Christians and Moors in Spain, vol.", "III, Arabic sources (711–1501)''.", "(Warminster, 1992).", "**Joseph F. O'Callaghan.", "''A History of Medieval Spain.''", "Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975*Peter Pierson.", "''The History of Spain.''", "Ed.", "John E. Findling and Frank W. Thacheray.", "Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999.34–36.", "* Bernard F. Reilly.", "''The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI, 1065–1109'' Princeton, New Jersey: University Press, 1988.", "* Steven Thomas.", "''711–1492: Al-Andalus and the Reconquista''.*M.", "J. Trow,''El Cid The Making of a Legend,'' Sutton Publishing Limited, 2007.", "*Henry Edwards Watts.", "\"The Story of El Cid (1026–1099)\" in ''The Christian Recovery of Spain: The Story of Spain from the Moorish Conquest to the Fall of Granada (711–1492 AD)''.", "New York: Putnam, 1894.71–91.*T.Y.", "Henderson.", "\"Conquests Of Valencia\"*J. I. Garcia Alonso, J.", "A. Martinez, A. J. Criado, \"Origin of El Cid's sword revealed by ICP-MS metal analysis\", Spectroscopy Europe, 11/4 (1999)." ], [ "Further reading", "* McNair, Alexander J.", "\"El Cid, the Impaler?", ": Line 1254 of the Poem of the Cid.\"", "''Essays in Medieval Studies'', Volume 26, 2010, pp.", "45–68" ], [ "External links", "* Information about The Route of El Cid – English*" ] ]
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[ [ "Enjambment" ], [ "Introduction", "In poetry, '''enjambment''' ( or ; from the French ''enjamber'') is incomplete syntax at the end of a line; the meaning 'runs over' or 'steps over' from one poetic line to the next, without punctuation.", "Lines without enjambment are end-stopped.", "The origin of the word is credited to the French word ''enjamber'', which means 'to straddle or encroach'.In reading, the delay of meaning creates a tension that is released when the word or phrase that completes the syntax is encountered (called the rejet); the tension arises from the \"mixed message\" produced both by the pause of the line-end, and the suggestion to continue provided by the incomplete meaning.", "In spite of the apparent contradiction between rhyme, which heightens closure, and enjambment, which delays it, the technique is compatible with rhymed verse.", "Even in couplets, the closed or heroic couplet was a late development; older is the open couplet, where rhyme and enjambed lines co-exist.Enjambment has a long history in poetry.", "Homer used the technique, and it is the norm for alliterative verse where rhyme is unknown.", "In the 32nd Psalm of the Hebrew Bible enjambment is unusually conspicuous.", "It was used extensively in England by Elizabethan poets for dramatic and narrative verses, before giving way to closed couplets.", "The example of John Milton in ''Paradise Lost'' laid the foundation for its subsequent use by the English Romantic poets; in its preface he identified it as one of the chief features of his verse: \"sense variously drawn out from one verse into another\"." ], [ "Examples", "The start of ''The Waste Land'' by T. S. Eliot, with only lines 4 and 7 end-stopped:These lines from Shakespeare's ''The Winter's Tale'' (''c.''", "1611) are heavily enjambed (meaning enjambment is used):Meaning flows as the lines progress, and the reader's eye is forced to go on to the next sentence.", "It can also make the reader feel uncomfortable or the poem feel like \"flow-of-thought\" with a sensation of urgency or disorder.", "In contrast, the following lines from ''Romeo and Juliet'' (''c.''", "1595) are completely end-stopped:Each line is formally correspondent with a unit of thought—in this case, a clause of a sentence.", "End-stopping is more frequent in early Shakespeare: as his style developed, the proportion of enjambment in his plays increased.", "Scholars such as Goswin König and A. C. Bradley have estimated approximate dates of undated works of Shakespeare by studying the frequency of enjambment.", "''Endymion'' by John Keats, lines 2–4:The song \"One Night In Bangkok\", from the musical ''Chess'', written by Tim Rice and Björn Ulvaeus, includes examples such as :Closely related to enjambment is the technique of \"broken rhyme\" or \"split rhyme\" which involves the splitting of an individual word, typically to allow a rhyme with one or more syllables of the split word.", "In English verse, broken rhyme is used almost exclusively in light verse, such as to form a word that rhymes with \"orange\", as in this example by Willard Espy, in his poem \"The Unrhymable Word: Orange\":The clapping game \"Miss Susie\" uses the break \"... Hell / -o operator\" to allude to the taboo word \"Hell\", then replaces it with the innocuous \"Hello\"." ], [ "See also", "* Blank verse* Caesura* Concrete poetry* Free verse* Line break (poetry)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "*John Hollander, ''Vision and Resonance,'' Oxford U.", "Press, 1975 (especially chapter 5).", "* Free online explanation with examples" ] ]
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[ [ "European Convention on Nationality" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Convention on Nationality''' (E.T.S.", "No.", "166) was signed in Strasbourg on 6 November 1997.It is a comprehensive convention of the Council of Europe dealing with the law of nationality.", "The convention is open for signature by the member States of the Council of Europe and the non-member States which have participated in its elaboration and for accession by other non-member States.", "The Convention came into force on 1 March 2000 after ratification by 3 countries.", ", the convention has been signed by 29 countries and ratified by 21 of those countries." ], [ "Provisions", "Article 4(d) provides that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage shall automatically affect the nationality of either spouse, nor shall a change of nationality by one spouse during marriage automatically affect the nationality of their spouse.", "Common practice among states at the beginning of the 20th century was that a woman was to have the nationality of her husband; i.e., upon marrying a foreigner the wife would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband, and lose her previous nationality.", "Even after the nationality of a married woman was no longer dependent on the nationality of her husband, legal provisions were still retained which automatically naturalised married women, and sometimes married men as well.", "This led to a number of problems, such as loss of the spouses' original nationality, the spouse losing the right to consular assistance (since consular assistance cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals), and becoming subject to military service obligations.", "Article 4d addresses this situation.Article 5 provides that no discrimination shall exist in a state's internal nationality law on the grounds of \"sex, religion, race, colour or national or ethnic origin\".", "It also provides that a state shall not discriminate amongst its nationals on the basis of whether they hold their nationality by birth or acquired it subsequently.Article 6 relates to the acquisition of nationality.", "It provides for nationality to be acquired at birth by descent from either parent to those born within the territory of the state.", "(States may exclude partially or fully children born abroad).", "It also provides for nationality by virtue of birth in the territory of state; however, states may limit this to only children who would be otherwise stateless.", "It requires the possibility of naturalisation, and provides that the period of residence required for eligibility cannot be more than ten years lawful and habitual residence.", "It also requires to \"facilitate\" the acquisition of nationality by certain persons, including spouses of nationals, children of its nationals born abroad, children one of whose parents has acquired the nationality, children adopted by a national, persons lawfully and habitually resident for a period before the age of eighteen, and stateless persons and refugees lawfully and habitually resident on its territory.Article 7 regulates the involuntary loss of nationality.", "It provides that states may deprive their nationals of their nationality in only the cases of voluntary acquisition of another nationality, fraud or failure to provide relevant information when acquiring nationality, voluntary military service in a foreign military force, or adoption as a child by foreign nationals.", "It also provides for the possibility of loss of nationality for nationals habitually residing abroad.", "Finally, it provides loss of nationality for \"conduct seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the State Party\".Article 8 provides nationals with the right to renounce their nationality, providing they do not thereby become stateless.", "States may however restrict this right with respect to nationals residing abroad." ], [ "Status", ", the following countries have signed or ratified the convention:+ Status of European Convention on Nationality Signatory Signed Ratified In force" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Details of the convention" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "English orthography" ], [ "Introduction", "'''English orthography''' is the writing system used to represent spoken English, allowing readers to connect the graphemes to sound and to meaning.", "It includes English's norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.Like the orthography of most world languages, English orthography has a broad degree of standardisation.", "This standardisation began to develop when movable type spread to England in the late 15th century.", "However, unlike with most languages, there are multiple ways to spell every phoneme, and most letters also represent multiple pronunciations depending on their position in a word and the context.This is partly due to the large number of words that have been borrowed from a large number of other languages throughout the history of English, without successful attempts at complete spelling reforms, and partly due to accidents of history, such as some of the earliest mass-produced English publications being typeset by highly trained, multilingual printing compositors, who occasionally used a spelling pattern more typical for another language.", "For example, the word ''ghost'' was spelled ''gost'' in Middle English, until the Flemish spelling pattern was unintentionally substituted, and happened to be accepted.", "Most of the spelling conventions in Modern English were derived from the phonemic spelling of a variety of Middle English, and generally do not reflect the sound changes that have occurred since the late 15th century (such as the Great Vowel Shift).", "As a result of this, many words are spelled the way that they were pronounced more than 600 years ago, instead of being spelled like they are pronounced in the 21st century.Despite the various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most recognised variations being British and American spelling, and its overall uniformity helps facilitate international communication.", "On the other hand, it also adds to the discrepancy between the way English is written and spoken in any given location." ], [ "Function of the letters", "=== Phonemic representation ===Letters in English orthography positioned at one location within a specific word usually represent a particular phoneme.", "For example, ''at'' consists of 2 letters and , which represent and , respectively.Sequences of letters may perform this role as well as single letters.", "Thus, in ''thrash'' , the digraph (two letters) represents .", "In ''hatch'' , the trigraph represents .Less commonly, a single letter can represent multiple successive sounds.", "The most common example is , which normally represents the consonant cluster (for example, in ''tax'' ).The same letter (or sequence of letters) may be pronounced differently when occurring in different positions within a word.", "For instance, represents at the end of some words (''tough'' ) but not in others (''plough'' ).", "At the beginning of syllables, is pronounced , as in ''ghost'' .", "Conversely, is never pronounced in syllable onsets other than in inflected forms, and is almost never pronounced in syllable codas (the proper name ''Pittsburgh'' is an exception).Some words contain silent letters, which do not represent any sound in modern English pronunciation.", "Examples include the in ''talk'', ''half'', ''calf'', etc., the in ''two'' and ''sword'', as mentioned above in numerous words such as ''though'', ''daughter'', ''night'', ''brought'', and the commonly encountered silent (discussed further below).=== Word origin ===Another type of spelling characteristic is related to word origin.", "For example, when representing a vowel, represents the sound in some words borrowed from Greek (reflecting an original upsilon), whereas the letter usually representing this sound in non-Greek words is the letter .", "Thus, ''myth'' is of Greek origin, while ''pith'' is a Germanic word.", "However, a large number of Germanic words have in word-final position.Some other examples are pronounced (which is most commonly ), and pronounced (which is most commonly or ).", "The use of these spellings for these sounds often marks words that have been borrowed from Greek.Some researchers, such as Brengelman (1970), have suggested that, in addition to this marking of word origin, these spellings indicate a more formal level of style or register in a given text, although Rollings (2004) finds this point to be exaggerated as there would be many exceptions where a word with one of these spellings, such as for (like ''telephone''), could occur in an informal text.=== Homophone differentiation ===Spelling may also be useful to distinguish between homophones (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings), although in most cases the reason for the difference is historical and was not introduced for the purpose of making a distinction.For example, ''heir'' and ''air'' are pronounced identically in most dialects, but, in writing, they are distinguished from each other by their different spellings.Another example is the pair of homophones ''pain'' and ''pane'', where both are pronounced but have two different spellings of the vowel .", "Often, this is because of the historical pronunciation of each word where, over time, two separate sounds became the same but the different spellings remained: ''pain'' used to be pronounced as , with a diphthong, and ''pane'' as , but the diphthong merged with the long vowel in ''pane'', making ''pain'' and ''pane'' homophones (''pane''–''pain'' merger).", "Later became a diphthong .In written language, this may help to resolve potential ambiguities that would arise otherwise (cf.", "''He's breaking the car'' vs. ''He's braking the car'').Nevertheless, many homophones remain that are unresolved by spelling (for example, the word ''bay'' has at least five fundamentally different meanings).=== Marking sound changes in other letters ===Some letters in English provide information about the pronunciation of other letters in the word.", "Rollings (2004) uses the term \"markers\" for such letters.", "Letters may mark different types of information.For instance, in ''once'' indicates that the preceding is pronounced , rather than the more common value of in word-final position as the sound , such as in ''attic'' .", "also often marks an altered pronunciation of a preceding vowel.", "In the pair ''mat'' and ''mate'', the of ''mat'' has the value , whereas the of ''mate'' is marked by the as having the value .", "In this context, the is not pronounced, and is referred to as a \"silent e\".A single letter may even fill multiple pronunciation-marking roles simultaneously.", "For example, in the word ''ace'', marks not only the change of from to , but also of from to .", "In the word ''vague'', marks the long sound, but keeps the hard rather than soft.Doubled consonants usually indicate that the preceding vowel is pronounced short.", "For example, the doubled in ''batted'' indicates that the is pronounced , while the single of ''bated'' gives .", "Doubled consonants only indicate any lengthening or gemination of the consonant sound itself when they come from different morphemes, as with the in ''unnamed'' (''un''+''named'').=== Multiple functionality ===Any given letters may have dual functions.", "For example, in ''statue'' has a sound-representing function (representing the sound ) and a pronunciation-marking function (marking the as having the value opposed to the value ).=== Underlying representation ===Like many other alphabetic orthographies, English spelling does not represent non-contrastive phonetic sounds (that is, minor differences in pronunciation which are not used to distinguish between different words).Although the letter is pronounced by most speakers with aspiration at the beginning of words, this is never indicated in the spelling, and, indeed, this phonetic detail is probably not noticeable to the average native speaker not trained in phonetics.However, unlike some orthographies, English orthography often represents a very abstract underlying representation (or morphophonemic form) of English words.In these cases, a given morpheme (i.e., a component of a word) has a fixed spelling even though it is pronounced differently in different words.", "An example is the past tense suffix -, which may be pronounced variously as , , or (for example, ''pay'' , ''payed'' , ''hate'' , ''hated'' ).", "As it happens, these different pronunciations of - can be predicted by a few phonological rules, but that is not the reason why its spelling is fixed.Another example involves the vowel differences (with accompanying stress pattern changes) in several related words.", "For instance, ''photographer'' is derived from ''photograph'' by adding the derivational suffix -.", "When this suffix is added, the vowel pronunciations change largely owing to the moveable stress: Spelling Pronunciation ''photograph'' or ''photographer'' ''photographical'' Other examples of this type are the - suffix (as in ''agile'' vs. ''agility'', ''acid'' vs. ''acidity'', ''divine'' vs. ''divinity'', ''sane'' vs. ''sanity'').", "See also: Trisyllabic laxing.Another example includes words like ''mean'' and ''meant'' , where is pronounced differently in the two related words.", "Thus, again, the orthography uses only a single spelling that corresponds to the single morphemic form rather than to the surface phonological form.English orthography does not always provide an underlying representation; sometimes it provides an intermediate representation between the underlying form and the surface pronunciation.", "This is the case with the spelling of the regular plural morpheme, which is written as either - (as in ''tat, tats'' and ''hat, hats'') or - (as in ''glass, glasses'').", "Here, the spelling - is pronounced either or (depending on the environment, e.g., ''tats'' and ''tails'' ) while - is usually pronounced (e.g.", "''classes'' ).", "Thus, there are two different spellings that correspond to the single underlying representation of the plural suffix and the three surface forms.", "The spelling indicates the insertion of before the in the spelling -, but does not indicate the devoiced distinctly from the unaffected in the spelling -.The abstract representation of words as indicated by the orthography can be considered advantageous since it makes etymological relationships more apparent to English readers.", "This makes writing English more complex, but arguably makes reading English more efficient.", "However, very abstract underlying representations, such as that of Chomsky & Halle (1968) or of underspecification theories, are sometimes considered too abstract to accurately reflect the communicative competence of native speakers.", "Followers of these arguments believe the less abstract surface forms are more \"psychologically real\" and thus more useful in terms of pedagogy." ], [ "Diacritics", "English has some words that can be written with accents.", "These words are mostly loanwords, usually from French.", "As they become increasingly naturalised, there is an increasing tendency to omit the accent marks, even in formal writing.", "For example, ''rôle'' and ''hôtel'' originally had accents when they were borrowed into English, but now the accents are almost never used.", "The words were originally considered foreign—and some people considered that English alternatives were preferable—but today their foreign origin is largely forgotten.", "Words most likely to retain the accent are those atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign.", "For example, ''café'' and ''pâté'' both have a pronounced final , which would otherwise be silent under the normal English pronunciation rules.", "However, ''pâté'', the acute accent is helpful to distinguish it from ''pate''.Further examples of words sometimes retaining diacritics when used in English are: ''ångström'' (partly because the scientific symbol for this unit of measurement is \"Å\"), ''appliqué'', ''attaché'', ''blasé'', ''bric-à-brac'', ''Brötchen'', ''cliché'', ''crème'', ''crêpe'', ''façade'', ''fiancé(e)'', ''flambé'', ''jalapeño'', ''naïve'', ''naïveté'', ''né(e)'', ''papier-mâché'', ''passé'', ''piñata'', ''protégé'', ''résumé'', ''risqué'', and ''voilà''.", "Italics, with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, ''adiós, crème brûlée, pièce de résistance, raison d'être, vis-à-vis,'' and ''belles-lettres.", "''It was formerly common in American English to use a diaeresis to indicate a hiatus, e.g.", "''coöperate'', ''daïs'', and ''reëlect''.", "''The New Yorker'' and ''Technology Review'' magazines still use it for this purpose, even though it is increasingly rare in modern English.", "Nowadays, the diaeresis is normally left out (''cooperate''), or a hyphen is used (''co-operate'') if the hiatus is between two morphemes in a compound word.", "It is, however, still common in monomorphemic loanwords such as ''naïve'' and ''Noël''.Written accents are also used occasionally in poetry and scripts for dramatic performances to indicate that a certain normally unstressed syllable in a word should be stressed for dramatic effect, or to keep with the metre of the poetry.", "This use is frequently seen in archaic and pseudoarchaic writings with the ''-ed'' suffix, to indicate that the should be fully pronounced, as with ''cursèd''.The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to indicate stress overtly where it might be ambiguous (rébel vs. rebél) or nonstandard for metrical reasons (caléndar); the grave to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (warnèd, parlìament)." ], [ "{{anchor|æ|ae|œ|oe}}Ligatures", "In certain older texts (typically British), the use of the ligatures and is common in words such as ''archæology'', ''diarrhœa'', and ''encyclopædia'', all of Latin or Greek origin.", "Nowadays, the ligatures have been generally replaced by the digraphs and (''encyclopaedia'', ''diarrhoea'') in British English or just (''encyclopedia'', ''diarrhea'') in American English, though both spell some words with only (''economy'', ''ecology'') and others with and (''paean'', ''amoeba'', ''oedipal'', ''Caesar'').", "In some cases, usage may vary; for instance, both ''encyclopedia'' and ''encyclopaedia'' are current in the UK." ], [ "Phonic irregularities", "Partly because English has never had any official regulating authority for spelling, such as the Spanish , the French , and the German ''Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung'', English spelling, compared to many other languages, is quite irregular and complex.", "Although French, among other languages, presents a similar degree of difficulty when ''encoding'' (writing), English is more difficult when ''decoding'' (reading), as there are clearly many more possible pronunciations of a group of letters.", "For example, in French, (as in \"true\", but short), can be spelled (''ou'', ''nous'', ''tout'', ''choux''), but the pronunciation of each of those sequences is always the same.", "In English, can be spelled in up to 24 different ways, including (''spook'', ''truth'', ''suit'', ''blues'', ''to'', ''shoe'', ''group'', ''through'', ''few'') (see Sound-to-spelling correspondences below), but all of these have other pronunciations as well (e.g., as in ''foot'', ''us'', ''build'', ''bluest'', ''so'', ''toe'', ''grout'', ''plough'', ''sew'') (See the Spelling-to-sound correspondences below).", "Thus, in unfamiliar words and proper nouns, the pronunciation of some sequences, being the prime example, is unpredictable to even educated native English speakers." ], [ "Spelling irregularities", "Attempts to regularise or reform the spelling of English have usually failed.", "However, Noah Webster popularised more phonetic spellings in the United States, such as ''flavor'' for British ''flavour'', ''fiber'' for ''fibre'', ''defense'' for ''defence'', ''analyze'' for ''analyse'', ''catalog'' for ''catalogue'', and so forth.", "These spellings already existed as alternatives, but Webster's dictionaries helped standardise them in the US.", "(See American and British English spelling differences for details.", ")Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other irregularities in spelling that make it tricky to learn.", "English contains, depending on dialect, 24–27 consonant phonemes and 13–20 vowels.", "However, there are only 26 letters in the modern English alphabet, so there is not a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds.", "Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters.", "For example, represents two different sounds (the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives) (see Pronunciation of English ''th''), and the voiceless alveolar sibilant can be represented by or .It is, however, not (solely) the shortage of letters which makes English spelling irregular.", "Its irregularities are caused mainly by the use of many different spellings for some of its sounds, such as /uː/, /iː/ and /oʊ/ (''t'''oo''''', ''tr'''ue''''', ''sh'''oe''''', ''fl'''ew''''', ''thr'''ough'''''; ''sl'''ee'''ve'', ''l'''ea'''ve'', '''''e'''ven'', ''s'''ei'''ze'', ''s'''ie'''ge''; ''st'''o'''l'''e''''', ''c'''oa'''l'', ''b'''ow'''l'', ''r'''ol'''l'', '''''o'''ld'', ''m'''ou'''ld''), and the use of identical sequences for spelling different sounds ('''''ove'''r'', '''''ove'''n'', ''m'''ove''''').Furthermore, English no longer makes any attempt to anglicise the spellings of loanwords, but preserves the foreign spellings, even when they do not follow English spelling conventions like the Polish in ''Czech'' (rather than ''*Check'') or the Norwegian in ''fjord'' (although ''fiord'' was formerly the most common spelling).", "In early Middle English, until roughly 1400, most imports from French were respelled according to English rules (e.g.", "''bataille''–''battle'', ''bouton''–''button'', but not ''double'', or ''trouble'').", "Instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling, e.g.", "''ski'', adopted from Norwegian in the mid-18th century.", "It used to be pronounced , similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the mid-20th century helped the pronunciation replace it.There was also a period when the spelling of a small number of words was altered to make them conform to their perceived etymological origins.", "For example, was added to ''debt'' (originally ''dette'') to link it to the Latin , and in ''island'' to link it to Latin instead of its true origin, the Old English word ''īġland''.", "in ''ptarmigan'' has no etymological justification whatsoever, only seeking to show Greek origin despite being a Gaelic word.The spelling of English continues to evolve.", "Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols have in the International Phonetic Alphabet.", "As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing \"foreign\" words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system.", "For example, ''Hindu'' used to be spelled ''Hindoo'', and the name ''Maria'' used to be pronounced like the name ''Mariah'', but was changed to conform to this system.", "This only further complicates the spelling, however.", "On the one hand, words that retained anglicised spellings may be misread in a hyperforeign way.", "On the other hand, words that are respelled in a 'foreign' way may be misread as if they are English words, e.g.", "''Muslim'' was formerly spelled ''Mooslim'' because of its original pronunciation.Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling.", "They introduced new or simplified spellings like ''lite'' instead of ''light'', ''thru'' instead of ''through'', and ''rucsac'' instead of ''rucksack''.", "The spellings of personal names have also been a source of spelling innovations: diminutive versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: ''Nikki'' and ''Nicky'', ''Toni'' and ''Tony'', ''Jo'' and ''Joe''.", "The differentiation in between names that are spelled differently but have the same phonetic sound may come from modernisation or different countries of origin.", "For example, ''Isabelle'' and ''Isabel'' sound the same but are spelled differently; these versions are from France and Spain respectively.As an example of the irregular nature of English spelling, can be pronounced at least nine different ways: in ''out'', in ''soul'', in ''soup'', in ''touch'', in ''could'', in ''four'', in ''journal'', in ''cough'', and in ''famous'' (See Spelling-to-sound correspondences).", "In the other direction, can be spelled in at least 18~21 different ways: ''b'''e''''' (''c'''e'''d'''e'''''), ''sk'''i''''' (''mach'''i'''n'''e'''''), ''bologn'''a''''' (GA), ''alg'''ae''''', ''qu'''ay''''', ''b'''ea'''ch'', ''b'''ee''''', ''dec'''ei'''t'', ''p'''eo'''ple'', ''k'''ey''''', ''k'''eye'''d'', ''f'''ie'''ld'' (''hyg'''ie'''n'''e'''''), ''am'''oe'''ba'', ''cham'''oi'''s'' (GA), ''deng'''ue''''' (GA), ''beg'''ui'''ne'', ''g'''uy'''ot'', and '''''y'''nambu'' (See Sound-to-spelling correspondences).", "(These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent.", "Other accents will vary.", ")Sometimes everyday speakers of English change a counterintuitive spelling simply because it is counterintuitive.", "Changes like this are not usually seen as \"standard\", but can become standard if used enough.", "An example is the word ''miniscule'', which still competes with its original spelling of ''minuscule'', though this might also be because of analogy with the word ''mini''.=== History ===Inconsistencies and irregularities in English pronunciation and spelling have gradually increased in number throughout the history of the English language.", "There are a number of contributing factors.", "First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the Great Vowel Shift, account for a tremendous number of irregularities.", "Second, relatively recent loan words generally carry their original spellings, which are often not phonetic in English.", "The Romanization of languages (e.g., Chinese) has further complicated this problem, for example when pronouncing Chinese proper names (of people or places).The regular spelling system of Old English was swept away by the Norman Conquest, and English itself was supplanted in some spheres by Norman French for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French.", "English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, and kept their French spellings.", "The spelling of Middle English is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled in different ways, sometimes even in the same sentence.", "However, these were generally much better guides to the then-pronunciation than modern English spelling is.For example, , normally written , is spelled with an in ''one'', ''some'', ''love'', etc., due to Norman spelling conventions which prohibited writing before due to the graphical confusion that would result.", "( were written identically with two minims in Norman handwriting; was written as two letters; was written with three minims, hence looked like , etc.).", "Similarly, spelling conventions also prohibited final .", "Hence the identical spellings of the three different vowel sounds in ''love'', ''move'', and ''cove'' are due to ambiguity in the Middle English spelling system, not sound change.In 1417, Henry V began using English, which had no standardised spelling, for official correspondence instead of Latin or French which had standardised spelling, e.g.", "Latin had one spelling for ''right'' (''rectus''), Old French as used in English law had six and Middle English had 77.This motivated writers to standardise English spelling, an effort which lasted about 500 years.There was also a series of linguistic sound changes towards the end of this period, including the Great Vowel Shift, which resulted in the in ''ate'', for example, changing from a pure vowel to a diphthong.", "These changes for the most part did not detract from the rule-governed nature of the spelling system; but, in some cases, they introduced confusing inconsistencies, like the well-known example of the many pronunciations of (''tough'', ''through'', ''though'', ''cough'', ''plough'', etc.).", "Most of these changes happened before the arrival of printing in England.", "However, the arrival of the modern printing press in 1476 froze the current system, rather than providing the impetus for a realignment of spelling with pronunciation.", "Furthermore, it introduced further inconsistencies, partly because of the use of typesetters trained abroad, particularly in the Low Countries.", "For example, the in ''ghost'' was influenced by Flemish.", "The addition and deletion of a silent ''e'' at the ends of words was also sometimes used to make the right-hand margin line up more neatly.By the time dictionaries were introduced in the mid-17th century, the spelling system of English had started to stabilise.", "By the 19th century, most words had set spellings, though it took some time before they diffused throughout the English-speaking world.", "In ''The Mill on the Floss'' (1860), English novelist George Eliot satirised the attitude of the English rural gentry of the 1820s towards orthography:The modern English spelling system, with its national variants, spread together with the expansion of public education later in the 19th century.=== \"Ough\" words ===The most notorious multigraph in the English language is the tetragraph , which can be pronounced in at least ten different ways, six of which are illustrated in the construct, ''Though the tough cough and hiccough plough him through'', which is quoted by Robert A. Heinlein in ''The Door into Summer'' to illustrate the difficulties facing automated speech transcription and reading.", "''Ough'' itself is a word, an exclamation of disgust similar to ''ugh'', though rarely known or used.", "The following are typical pronunciations of this string of letters:* (as in ''s'''o''''') in ''though'' and ''dough''* (as in ''c'''uff''''') in ''tough'', ''rough'', ''enough'', and the name ''Hough''* (as in '''''off''''') in ''trough'', ''cough'', and ''Gough''* (as in ''bl'''ue''''') in ''through''* (as in ''s'''aw''''') in ''thought'', ''ought'', ''sought'', ''nought'', ''brought'', etc.", "* (as in ''comm'''a''''') in ''thorough'', ''borough'', and names ending in ''-borough''; however, American English pronounces this as * (as in ''h'''ow''''') in ''bough'', ''sough'', ''drought'', ''plough'' (''plow'' in North America), ''doughty'', and the names ''Slough'' and ''Doughty''* (as in ''l'''och'''''; mainly in words of Gaelic origin) in the word ''lough'' (an anglicised variant of ''loch'' used in Ireland) and in Irish place names, such as ''Ardclough'', ''Glendalough'', ''Loughmoe'', ''Loughrea'', etc.The following pronunciations are found in uncommon single words:* ''hough'': (more commonly spelled \"hock\" now)* ''hiccough'' (a now-uncommon variant of ''hiccup''): as in '''''up'''''* ''Oughterard'' (Irish place name): The place name Loughborough uses two different pronunciations of : the first has the sound as in ''c'''uff''''' and the second rhymes with ''thor'''ough'''''." ], [ "Spelling-to-sound correspondences", "'''Notes''':* In the tables, the hyphen has two different meanings.", "A hyphen after the letter indicates that it ''must'' be at the beginning of a ''syllable'', e.g., - in jumper and ajar.", "A hyphen before the letter indicates that it ''cannot'' be at the beginning of a ''word'', e.g., - in sick and ticket.", "* More specific rules take precedence over more general ones, e.g., \"- before \" takes precedence over \"\".", "* Where the letter combination is described as \"word-final\", inflectional suffixes may be added without changing the pronunciation, e.g., catalogue'''s'''.", "* The dialect used is RP.", "Several entries are indicated as specifically being GA.* Isolated foreign borrowings are excluded.=== Vowels ===In a generative approach to English spelling, Rollings (2004) identifies twenty main orthographic vowels of stressed syllables that are grouped into four main categories: \"Lax\", \"Tense\", \"Heavy\", \"Tense-R\".", "LetterLaxTenseHeavyTense-RIPAexampleIPAexampleIPAexampleIPAexample a/æ/man/eɪ/mane/ɑːr/mar/ɛər/mare e/ɛ/met/iː/mete/ɜːr/her/ɪər/ here i/ɪ/win/aɪ/wine/ɜːr/fir/aɪər/fire o/ɒ/mop/oʊ/mope/ɔːr/for/ɔːr/fore u/ʌ/hug/juː/huge/ɜːr/cur/jʊər/cure/ʊ/push/uː/rude/ʊər/sure Digraph Lax Tense Heavy Tense-RIPAexampleIPAexampleIPAexampleIPAexample ai, ay – /eɪ/bait/ɛər/ airessayAyrau, aw –/ɔː/audio –/ɔːr/auradrawrawr ea /ɛ/dreamt/iː/dream/ɜːr/learn/ɪər/hear ee – /iː/see/ɪər/beereu, ew –/juː/feudal –/jʊ(ə)r/neuroticfewNewry oa – /oʊ/boat /ɔːr/ coarse/ɔːr/soar oo /ʊ/ foot/uː/ goose/ʊər/poorou, ow/ʌ/southern/aʊ/south/ɜːr/scourge/aʊər/ hour –now –dowry –/oʊ/soul – /ɔːr/ four/ɒ/knowledgeknow –oi, oy –/ɔɪ/point – /ɔɪər/ coirboyMoyraFor instance, can represent the lax vowel , tense , heavy , or tense-r .", "Heavy and tense-r vowels are the respective lax and tense counterparts followed by .Tense vowels are distinguished from lax vowels with a \"silent\" that is added at the end of words.", "Thus, in ''hat'' is lax , but when is added in the word ''hate'' is tense .", "Heavy and tense-r vowels follow a similar pattern, e.g.", "in ''car'' is heavy , followed by silent in ''care'' is .", "represents two different vowel patterns, one being , the other .", "There is no distinction between heavy and tense-r , and in the pattern does not have a heavy vowel.Besides silent , another strategy for indicating tense and tense-r vowels is the addition of another orthographic vowel forming a digraph.", "In this case, the first vowel is usually the main vowel while the second vowel is the \"marking\" vowel.", "For example, ''man'' has a lax (), but the addition of (as the digraph ) in ''main'' marks the as tense ().", "These two strategies produce words that are spelled differently but pronounced identically, which helps differentiate words that would otherwise be homonyms, as in ''mane'' (silent strategy), ''main'' (digraph strategy) and ''Maine'' (both strategies).Besides the 20 basic vowel spellings, has a reduced vowel category (representing the sounds ) and a miscellaneous category (representing the sounds and +V, +V, V+V).=== Combinations of vowel letters ===To reduce dialectal difficulties, the sound values given here correspond to the conventions at Help:IPA/English.", "This table includes when they represent vowel sounds.", "If no information is given, it is assumed that the vowel is in a stressed syllable.Deriving the pronunciation of an English word from its spelling requires not only a careful knowledge of the rules given below (many of which are not explicitly known even by native speakers: speakers merely learn the spelling of a word along with its pronunciation) and their many exceptions, but also:* a knowledge of which syllables are stressed and which are unstressed (not derivable from the spelling: compare ''hallow'' and ''allow'')* which combinations of vowels represent monosyllables and which represent disyllables (ditto: compare ''waive'' and ''naive'', ''creature'' and ''creator'')+ Spelling Major value(IPA) Examples of major value Minor values Examples of minor value Exceptions '''a''' in closed syllables* before multiple consonants* final vowel in word h'''a'''tchet, b'''a'''nner, t'''a'''llyacrob'''a'''t, c'''a'''t '''a'''ncient, ch'''a'''mber, p'''a'''stry,b'''a'''ss RP: '''a'''ft, '''a'''sk, d'''a'''nce, p'''a'''st*followed by 2+ unstressed syllables* next syllable contains n'''a'''tional, c'''a'''mera, re'''a'''lity'''a'''cid, gr'''a'''nite, p'''a'''lacen'''a'''tionhood, sc'''a'''thinglyb'''a'''sis, aph'''a'''sic∅ sars'''a'''parillabefore final or + cons.", "* open syllables b'''a'''r, c'''a'''rtb'''a'''rred, m'''a'''rring sc'''a'''rce s'''a'''rsaparilla (GA) dh'''a'''rnain open syllables or before cons.", "+ * before single consonant* before cons.", "+ - or + vowel* before heterosyllabic vowel '''a'''che, g'''a'''ve,op'''a'''que, s'''a'''vor, st'''a'''tust'''a'''ble, h'''a'''tred, '''A'''prilch'''a'''os, '''a'''orta, mos'''a'''ic h'''a'''ve, pl'''a'''que, m'''a'''nor, st'''a'''tuem'''a'''cle, s'''a'''crifice, the'''a'''trical m'''a'''ny, '''a'''ny, '''a'''te (RP) n'''a'''ive (also with ) s'''a'''ti deb'''a'''cleg'''a'''la, l'''a'''va, sl'''a'''lom, son'''a'''tabefore final -r'''a'''nge, exch'''a'''nge, h'''a'''stefl'''a'''nge, c'''a'''ste (GA)mel'''a'''ngebefore + vowel* open syllables '''a'''rea, c'''a'''re, g'''a'''rish, antiqu'''a'''rian, squ'''a'''re, w'''a'''riness '''a'''rid, p'''a'''rish, m'''a'''riners, c'''a'''raway '''a'''ria, '''a'''re, saf'''a'''ris, f'''a'''raway qu'''a'''rantine (GA) w'''a'''ratah bh'''a'''ralafter except before * closed syllables w'''a'''nt, w'''a'''tch, sw'''a'''mp, sw'''a'''stika, w'''a'''llet w'''a'''spw'''a'''ll, w'''a'''lnut, w'''a'''ltzw'''a'''stage qu'''a'''lm (also ), su'''a'''ve, sw'''a'''mi sw'''a'''m, aqu'''a'''tic (RP) w'''a'''s (GA), wh'''a'''t (GA)after before final or + cons.", "* closed syllablesw'''a'''r, aw'''a'''rd, dw'''a'''rf, w'''a'''rning, qu'''a'''rter, w'''a'''rringafter except before * open syllablespersu'''a'''de, sw'''a'''the" ], [ "Sound-to-spelling correspondences", "The following table shows for each sound the various spelling patterns used to denote it, starting with the prototypical pattern(s) followed by others in alphabetical order.", "Some of these patterns are very rare or unique (such as for , for , for ).", "An ellipsis () stands for an intervening consonant.=== Consonants ===Arranged in the order of the IPA consonant tables.", "Consonants IPA Spelling Examples m, mm, chm, gm, lm, mb, mbe, me, mh, mme, mn, monde, mp, sme, tm '''m'''ine, ha'''mm'''er, dra'''chm''', phle'''gm''', sa'''lm'''on, cli'''mb''', co'''mbe''', for'''me''', '''mh'''o, fe'''mme''', autu'''mn''', Chol'''monde'''ley, assu'''mp'''tion, di'''sme''', '''tm'''esipteris n, nn, cn, dn, gn, gne, hn, kn, ln, mn, mp, nd, ne, ng, nh, nne, nt, pn, sn, sne '''n'''ice, i'''nn''', '''cn'''idarian, We'''dn'''esday, '''gn'''ome, coi'''gne''', Jo'''hn''', '''kn'''ee, Linco'''ln''', '''mn'''emonic, co'''mp'''troller, ha'''nd'''some, bor'''ne''', '''ng'''aio, pira'''nh'''a, to'''nne''', topgalla'''nt'''-sail, '''pn'''eumonia, pui'''sn'''e, me'''sne''' ng, n, nc, nd, ngh, ngue si'''ng''', li'''n'''k, charaba'''nc''', ha'''nd'''kerchief, sa'''ngh''', to'''ngue''' p, pp, gh, pe, ph, ppe, lfp '''p'''ill, a'''pp'''s, hiccou'''gh''', thor'''pe''', di'''ph'''thong (RP), ste'''ppe''', ha'''lfp'''enny b, bb, be, bh, pb, gb, (p) '''b'''it, e'''bb''', bar'''be''', '''bh'''ang, cu'''pb'''oard, I'''gb'''o, (thes'''p'''ian (GA)) t, tt, bt, cht, ct, d, dt, ed, ght, kt, pt, phth, st, te, th, tte '''t'''en, se'''tt''', dou'''bt''', ya'''cht''', vi'''ct'''ual, ice'''d''', vel'''dt''', dress'''ed''', li'''ght'''er, '''kt'''ypeite, '''pt'''armigan, '''phth'''isical, ce'''st'''ui, for'''te''', '''th'''yme, cigare'''tte''' d, dd, ddh, bd, de, dh, ed, ld, t, tt (some dialects) '''d'''ive, o'''dd''', Bu'''ddh'''ism, '''bd'''ellium, hor'''de''', '''dh'''arma, abandon'''ed''', so'''ld'''er, kindergar'''t'''en (GA), (fla'''tt'''er) c, k, cc, cch, ch, ck, cq, cqu, cque, cu, ke, kh, kk, lk, q, qh, qu, que, x, (g) '''c'''at, '''k'''ey, a'''cc'''ount, zu'''cch'''ini, '''ch'''ord, ta'''ck''', a'''cq'''uire, la'''cqu'''er, sa'''cque''', bis'''cu'''it, bur'''ke''', '''kh'''aki, tre'''kk'''er, po'''lk'''a-dotted, '''q'''uorum, fi'''qh''', li'''qu'''or, mos'''que''', e'''x'''cite, (stren'''g'''th) g, gg, ckg, gge, gh, gu, gue '''g'''i'''g''', e'''gg''', bla'''ckg'''uard, po'''gge''', '''gh'''ost, '''gu'''ard, catalo'''gue''' f, ff, fe, ffe, ft, gh, lf, ph, phe, pph, v, ve, u '''f'''ine, cha'''ff''', cara'''fe''', ga'''ffe''', so'''ft'''en, lau'''gh''', ha'''lf''', '''ph'''ysical, ou'''phe''', sa'''pph'''ire, so'''v'''khoz, fi'''ve'''pence, lie'''u'''tenant (RP) v, vv, f, lve, ph, u, ve, w, zv, b, bh, mh '''v'''ine, sa'''vv'''y, o'''f''', ha'''lve''', Ste'''ph'''en, q'''u'''etsch, ha'''ve''', '''w'''eltanschauung, rende'''zv'''ous, Ha'''b'''dalah, kethi'''bh''', olla'''mh''' th, the, chth, phth, tth, h '''th'''in, absin'''the''', '''chth'''onic, apo'''phth'''egm, Ma'''tth'''ew, eight'''h''' th, the, dd, dh, y '''th'''em, brea'''the''', gorse'''dd''', e'''dh''', '''y'''e (mock archaic) s, ss, c, cc, ce, ps, sc, sce, sch, se, sh, sse, sses, st, sth, sw, t, th, ti, ts, tsw, tzs, tz, z '''s'''ong, me'''ss''', '''c'''ity, fla'''cc'''id, oun'''ce''', '''ps'''alm, '''sc'''ene, coale'''sce''', '''sch'''ism (RP), hor'''se''', di'''sh'''onest, fine'''sse''', chau'''sses''', li'''st'''en, a'''sth'''ma (RP), '''sw'''ord, tzitzi'''t''', zizi'''th''', Kiriba'''ti''', '''ts'''unami (GA), boa'''tsw'''ain, brit'''zs'''ka, wal'''tz''' (RP), quart'''z''' z, zz, cz, ds, dz, s, sc, se, sh, sp, ss, sth, ts, tz, x, ze, zh, zs (one pronunciation), c (some dialects) '''z'''oo, fu'''zz''', '''cz'''ar, Win'''ds'''or, '''Dz'''ongkha, ha'''s''', cre'''sc'''ent (RP), tea'''se''', dé'''sh'''abillé, ra'''sp'''berry, di'''ss'''olve, a'''sth'''ma (GA), '''ts'''arina, '''tz'''ar, '''x'''ylophone, bree'''ze''', '''zh'''o, (vi'''zs'''la), (electri'''c'''ity) sh, c, ce, ch, che, chi, chsi, ci, s, sc, sch, sche, schsch, sci, sesh, she, shh, shi, si, sj, ss, ssi, ti, psh, zh, x '''sh'''in, spe'''c'''iality, o'''ce'''an, ma'''ch'''ine, qui'''che''', mar'''chi'''oness, fu'''chsi'''a, spe'''ci'''al, '''s'''ugar, cre'''sc'''endo, '''sch'''mooze, schotti'''sche''', e'''schsch'''oltzia, con'''sci'''ence, tortoi'''sesh'''ell, galo'''she''', '''shh''', cu'''shi'''on, expan'''si'''on, '''sj'''ambok, ti'''ss'''ue, mi'''ssi'''on, na'''ti'''on, '''psh'''aw, piro'''zh'''ki, pa'''x'''iuba ci, g, ge, j, s, si, ssi, ti, z, zh, zhe, zi, zs (one pronunciation) coer'''ci'''on (GA), '''g'''enre, bei'''ge''', bi'''j'''ou, lei'''s'''ure, divi'''si'''on, absci'''ssi'''on, equa'''ti'''on, sei'''z'''ure, mu'''zh'''ik, u'''zhe''', bra'''zi'''er (GA), (vi'''zs'''la) ch (in Scottish English), gh (in Irish English) lo'''ch''', lou'''gh''' h, wh, j, ch, x '''h'''e, '''wh'''o, fa'''j'''ita, '''ch'''utzpah, Qui'''x'''ote  In some dialects (see flapping): tt, dd, t, d be'''tt'''er, da'''dd'''y, uni'''t'''ed, Co'''d'''y r, rr, l, re, rh, rre, rrh, rt, wr fu'''r''', bu'''rr''', co'''l'''onel, fo'''re'''warn, '''rh'''yme, mu'''rre''', my'''rrh''', mo'''rt'''gage, '''wr'''ong l, ll, le, lh, lle, gl, sle, ln (some dialects)'''l'''ine, sha'''ll''', ta'''le''', pe'''lh'''am, gaze'''lle''', imbro'''gl'''io, ai'''sle''', (ki'''ln''') y, h, i, j, l, ll, z, r (one pronunciation) '''y'''es, vin'''h'''o verde, on'''i'''on, hallelu'''j'''ah, l'''l'''ano, torti'''ll'''a, capercail'''z'''ie, Feb'''r'''uary wh (in some dialects), hu, hw, ju '''wh'''ich, '''Hu'''ang He, '''Hw'''ang Ho, Don '''Ju'''an w, u, o, ou, hu, hw, ju, wh (in most dialects)'''w'''e, pers'''u'''ade, ch'''o'''ir, '''Ou'''ija, '''Hu'''astec, Ya'''hw'''eh, mari'''ju'''ana, '''wh'''at ch, tch, c, cc, cch, che, chi, cs, cz, t, tche, te, th, ti, ts, tsch, tsh, tz, tzs, tzsch, q '''ch'''op, ba'''tch''', '''c'''ello, bo'''cc'''e, ka'''cch'''a, ni'''che''' (GA), fal'''chi'''on, '''cs'''ardas, '''Cz'''ech, na'''t'''ure, escu'''tche'''on, righ'''te'''ous, pos'''th'''umous (GA), bas'''ti'''on (GA), bri'''ts'''ka (US), pu'''tsch''', Wil'''tsh'''ire, bri'''tz(s)'''ka (US), Nie'''tzsch'''ean, '''Q'''in g, j, ch, d, dg, dge, di, dj, dzh, ge, gg, gi, jj, t ma'''g'''ic, '''j'''ump, sandwi'''ch''' (RP), gra'''d'''uate, ju'''dg'''ment, bri'''dge''', sol'''di'''er, a'''dj'''ust, Ta'''dzh'''ik, bar'''ge''', ve'''gg'''ies, Bel'''gi'''an, ha'''jj''', congra'''t'''ulate (US) x, xx, cast, cc, chs, cks, cques, cs, cz, kes, ks, lks, ques, xc, xe, xs, xsc, xsw sa'''x''', do'''xx'''ing, fore'''cast'''le, a'''cc'''ent, ta'''chs''', ba'''cks''', sa'''cques''', sa'''cs''', e'''cz'''ema, bur'''kes''', ya'''ks''', cau'''lks''', to'''ques''', e'''xc'''el, a'''xe''', e'''xs'''ert, e'''xsc'''ind, co'''xsw'''ain/gz/x, ggs, gse'''x'''am, e'''ggs''', ba'''gs'''/ts/ts, tz, zz, tz, ts, ce, senu'''ts''', quar'''tz''', pi'''zz'''a, pre'''tz'''el, prin'''ts''', prin'''ce''', ten'''se'''/dz/ds, s, ze, pon'''ds''', pawn'''s''', bron'''ze'''=== Vowels ===Sorted more or less from close to open sounds in the vowel diagram.", "Nasal vowels used by some speakers in words of French origin such as ''enceinte'' (" ], [ "See also", "* False etymology* Spelling bee* List of English homographs* The Chaos – a poem by Gerard Nolst Trenité demonstrating the irregularities of English spelling----; Conventions* English plural* I before E except after C* Three letter rule; Variant spelling* American and British English spelling differences* Misspelling** Satiric misspelling** Sensational spelling* Spelling of disc; Graphemes* Apostrophe* Eth* Long s* Thorn (letter)* Yogh; Phonetic orthographic systems* English spelling reform* Interspel* Pronouncing Orthography; English scripts* English alphabet (Latin script)* American manual alphabet* Two-handed manual alphabets* English braille* American braille* New York Point* Shavian alphabet; Words in English* Lists of English words* Classical compound* Ghoti; English phonology* Regional accents of English** IPA chart for English dialects* Stress and vowel reduction in English* Initial-stress-derived noun* Traditional English pronunciation of Latin=== Orthographies of English-related languages ===; Germanic languages* Danish* Dutch* German* Icelandic* Scots; Romance languages* French* Italian* Milanese* Portuguese* Spanish;Celtic languages* Irish* Scottish Gaelic* Welsh;Historical languages* Latin* Old Norse* Old English;Constructed languages* Esperanto" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Rules for English Spelling: Adding Suffixes, QU Rule, i before e, Silent e, 'er' vs. 'or'* Hou tu pranownse Inglish describes rules which predict a word's pronunciation from its spelling with 85% accuracy* Free spelling information and Free spelling lessons in QuickTime movie format at The Phonics Page." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Æthelred the Unready" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Æthelred II''' (, ; ;  966 – 23 April 1016), known as '''Æthelred the Unready''', was King of the English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 until his death in 1016.His epithet comes from the Old English word meaning \"poorly advised\"; it is a pun on his name, which means \"well advised\".Æthelred was the son of King Edgar the Peaceful and Queen Ælfthryth.", "He came to the throne at about the age of 12, following the assassination of his older half-brother, King Edward the Martyr.The chief characteristic of Æthelred's reign was conflict with the Danes.", "After several decades of relative peace, Danish raids on English territory began again in earnest in the 980s, becoming markedly more serious in the early 990s.", "Following the Battle of Maldon in 991, Æthelred paid tribute, or Danegeld, to the Danish king.", "In 1002, Æthelred ordered what became known as the St. Brice's Day massacre of Danish settlers.", "In 1013, King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark invaded England, as a result of which Æthelred fled to Normandy in 1013 and was replaced by Sweyn.", "After Sweyn died in 1014, Æthelred returned to the throne, but he died just two years later.", "Æthelred's 37-year combined reign was the longest of any Anglo-Saxon English king, and was only surpassed in the 13th century, by Henry III.", "Æthelred was briefly succeeded by his son, Edmund Ironside, but he died after a few months and was replaced by Sweyn's son Cnut." ], [ "Name", "Æthelred's first name, composed of the elements , \"noble\", and , \"counsel, advice\", is typical of the compound names of those who belonged to the royal House of Wessex, and it characteristically alliterates with the names of his ancestors, like (\"noble-wolf\"), (\"elf-counsel\"), (\"rich-protection\"), and (\"rich-spear\").Æthelred's notorious nickname, Old English , is commonly translated into present-day English as \"The Unready\" (less often, though less inaccurately, as \"The Redeless\").", "The Anglo-Saxon noun means \"evil counsel\", \"bad plan\", or \"folly\".", "It was most often used in reference to decisions and deeds, but once in reference to the ill-advised disobedience of Adam and Eve.", "The element in is the same element in Æthelred's name that means \"counsel\" (compare the cognate in the German word and Dutch ''raad'').", "Thus is an oxymoron: \"Noble counsel, No counsel\".", "The nickname has also been translated as \"ill-advised\", \"ill-prepared\", thus \"Æthelred the ill-advised\".Because the nickname was first recorded in the 1180s, more than 150 years after Æthelred's death, it is doubtful that it carries any implications as to the reputation of the king in the eyes of his contemporaries or near contemporaries." ], [ "Early life", "Gold mancus of Æthelred wearing armour, 1003–1006Sir Frank Stenton remarked that \"much that has brought condemnation of historians on King Æthelred may well be due in the last resort to the circumstances under which he became king.\"", "Æthelred's father, King Edgar, had died suddenly in July 975, leaving two young sons behind.", "The elder, Edward (later Edward the Martyr), was probably illegitimate, and was \"still a youth on the verge of manhood\" in 975.The younger son was Æthelred, whose mother, Ælfthryth, Edgar had married in 964.Ælfthryth was the daughter of Ordgar, ealdorman of Devon, and widow of Æthelwald, Ealdorman of East Anglia.", "At the time of his father's death, Æthelred could have been no more than 10 years old.", "As the elder of Edgar's sons, Edward – reportedly a young man given to frequent violent outbursts – probably would have naturally succeeded to the throne of England despite his young age, had he not \"offended many important persons by his intolerable violence of speech and behaviour.\"", "In any case, a number of English nobles took to opposing Edward's succession and to defending Æthelred's claim to the throne; Æthelred was, after all, the son of Edgar's last, living wife, and no rumour of illegitimacy is known to have plagued Æthelred's birth, as it might have his elder brother's.Both boys, Æthelred certainly, were too young to have played any significant part in the political manoeuvring which followed Edgar's death.", "It was the brothers' supporters, and not the brothers themselves, who were responsible for the turmoil which accompanied the choice of a successor to the throne.", "Æthelred's cause was led by his mother and included Ælfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia and Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, while Edward's claim was supported by Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury and Oswald, the Archbishop of York among other noblemen, notably Æthelwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia, and Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex.", "In the end, Edward's supporters proved the more powerful and persuasive, and he was crowned king at Kingston upon Thames before the year was out.Edward reigned for only three years before he was murdered by members of his brother's household.", "Though little is known about Edward's short reign, it is known that it was marked by political turmoil.", "Edgar had made extensive grants of land to monasteries which pursued the new monastic ideals of ecclesiastical reform, but these disrupted aristocratic families' traditional patronage.", "The end of his firm rule saw a reversal of this policy, with aristocrats recovering their lost properties or seizing new ones.", "This was opposed by Dunstan, but according to Cyril Hart, \"The presence of supporters of church reform on both sides indicates that the conflict between them depended as much on issues of land ownership and local power as on ecclesiastical legitimacy.", "Adherents of both Edward and Æthelred can be seen appropriating, or recovering, monastic lands.\"", "Nevertheless, favour for Edward must have been strong among the monastic communities.", "When Edward was killed at Æthelred's estate at Corfe Castle in Dorset in March 978, the job of recording the event, as well as reactions to it, fell to monastic writers.", "Stenton offers a summary of the earliest account of Edward's murder, which comes from a work praising the life of St Oswald:" ], [ "Kingship", "Nevertheless, at first, the outlook of the new king's officers and counsellors seems in no way to have been bleak.", "According to one chronicler, the coronation of Æthelred took place with much rejoicing by the councillors of the English people.", "Simon Keynes notes that \"Byrhtferth of Ramsey states similarly that when Æthelred was consecrated king, by Archbishop Dunstan and Archbishop Oswald, 'there was great joy at his consecration', and describes the king in this connection as 'a young man in respect of years, elegant in his manners, with an attractive face and handsome appearance'.", "\"Æthelred was between nine and twelve years old when he became king and affairs were initially managed by leading councillors such as Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester, Queen Ælfthryth and Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury.", "Æthelwold was especially influential and when he died, on 1 August 984, Æthelred abandoned his early councillors and launched on policies which involved encroachment on church privileges, to his later regret.", "In a charter of 993 he stated that Æthelwold's death had deprived the country of one \"whose industry and pastoral care administered not only to my interest but also to that of all inhabitants of the country.", "\"Ælfthryth enjoyed renewed status in the 990s, when she brought up his heirs and her brother Ordulf became one of Æthelred's leading advisers.", "She died between 1000 and 1002.Despite conflicts with the Danes throughout his reign, Æthelred's reign of England saw expansion in England's population, trade and wealth." ], [ "Conflict with the Danes", "England had experienced a period of peace after the reconquest of the Danelaw in the mid-10th century by King Edgar, Æthelred's father.", "However, beginning in 980, when Æthelred could not have been more than 14 years old, small companies of Danish adventurers carried out a series of coastline raids against England.", "Hampshire, Thanet and Cheshire were attacked in 980, Devon and Cornwall in 981, and Dorset in 982.A period of six years then passed before, in 988, another coastal attack is recorded as having taken place to the south-west, though here a famous battle was fought between the invaders and the thegns of Devon.", "Stenton notes that, though this series of isolated raids had no lasting effect on England itself, \"their chief historical importance is that they brought England for the first time into diplomatic contact with Normandy.", "\"Danish attacks started becoming more serious in the early 990s, with highly devastating assaults in 1006–1007 and 1009–1012.Tribute payments by Æthelred did not successfully temper the Danish attacks.", "Æthelred's forces were primarily composed of infantry, with substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries.", "He did not have substantial numbers of trained cavalry forces.During this period, the Normans offered shelter to Danes returning from raids on England.", "This led to tension between the English and Norman courts, and word of their enmity eventually reached Pope John XV.", "The pope was disposed to dissolve their hostility towards each other, and took steps to engineer a peace between England and Normandy, which was ratified in Rouen in 991.===Battle of Maldon===In August 991, a sizeable Danish fleet began a sustained campaign in the south-east of England.", "It arrived off Folkestone, in Kent, and made its way around the south-east coast and up the River Blackwater, coming eventually to its estuary and occupying Northey Island.", "About west of Northey lies the coastal town of Maldon, where Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex, was stationed with a company of thegns.", "The battle that followed between English and Danes is immortalised by the Old English poem ''The Battle of Maldon'', which describes the doomed but heroic attempt of Byrhtnoth to defend the coast of Essex against overwhelming odds.", "This was the first of a series of crushing defeats felt by the English: beaten first by Danish raiders, and later by organised Danish armies.", "Stenton summarises the events of the poem:===England begins tributes===Silver penny of Æthelred IIIn the aftermath of Maldon, it was decided that the English should grant the tribute to the Danes that they desired, and so a ''gafol'' of £10,000 was paid them for their peace.", "Yet it was presumably the Danish fleet that had beaten Byrhtnoth at Maldon that continued to ravage the English coast from 991 to 993.In 994, the Danish fleet, which had swollen in ranks since 991, turned up the Thames estuary and headed toward London.", "The battle fought there was inconclusive.It was about this time that Æthelred met with the leaders of the Danish fleet and arranged an uneasy accord.", "A treaty was signed that provided for seemingly civilised arrangements between the then-settled Danish companies and the English government, such as regulation of settlement disputes and trade.", "But the treaty also stipulated that the ravaging and slaughter of the previous year would be forgotten, and ended abruptly by stating that £22,000 of gold and silver had been paid to the raiders as the price of peace.", "In 994, Olaf Tryggvason, a Norwegian prince and already a baptised Christian, was confirmed as Christian in a ceremony at Andover; King Æthelred stood as his sponsor.", "After receiving gifts, Olaf promised \"that he would never come back to England in hostility.\"", "Olaf then left England for Norway and never returned, though \"other component parts of the Viking force appear to have decided to stay in England, for it is apparent from the treaty that some had chosen to enter into King Æthelred's service as mercenaries, based presumably on the Isle of Wight.", "\"===Renewed Danish raids===In 997, Danish raids began again.", "According to Keynes, \"there is no suggestion that this was a new fleet or army, and presumably the mercenary force created in 994 from the residue of the raiding army of 991 had turned on those whom it had been hired to protect.\"", "It harried Cornwall, Devon, western Somerset and south Wales in 997, Dorset, Hampshire and Sussex in 998.In 999, it raided Kent, and, in 1000, it left England for Normandy, perhaps because the English had refused in this latest wave of attacks to acquiesce to the Danish demands for ''gafol'' or tribute, which would come to be known as Danegeld, 'Dane-payment'.", "This sudden relief from attack Æthelred used to gather his thoughts, resources, and armies: the fleet's departure in 1000 \"allowed Æthelred to carry out a devastation of Strathclyde, the motive for which is part of the lost history of the north.", "\"In 1001, a Danish fleet – perhaps the same fleet from 1000 – returned and ravaged west Sussex.", "During its movements, the fleet regularly returned to its base in the Isle of Wight.", "There was later an attempted attack in the south of Devon, though the English mounted a successful defence at Exeter.", "Nevertheless, Æthelred must have felt at a loss, and, in the Spring of 1002, the English bought a truce for £24,000.Æthelred's frequent payments of immense Danegelds are often held up as exemplary of the incompetency of his government and his own short-sightedness.", "However, Keynes points out that such payments had been practice for at least a century, and had been adopted by Alfred the Great, Charles the Bald and many others.", "Indeed, in some cases it \"may have seemed the best available way of protecting the people against loss of life, shelter, livestock and crops.", "Though undeniably burdensome, it constituted a measure for which the king could rely on widespread support.\"===St.", "Brice's Day massacre of 1002===Æthelred ordered the massacre of all Danish men in England to take place on 13 November 1002, St Brice's Day.", "Gunhilde, sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, was said to have been among the victims.", "It is likely that a wish to avenge her was a principal motive for Sweyn's invasion of western England the following year.", "By 1004 Sweyn was in East Anglia, where he sacked Norwich.", "In this year, a nobleman of East Anglia, Ulfcytel Snillingr met Sweyn in force, and made an impression on the until-then rampant Danish expedition.", "Though Ulfcytel was eventually defeated, outside Thetford, he caused the Danes heavy losses and was nearly able to destroy their ships.", "The Danish army left England for Denmark in 1005, perhaps because of the losses they sustained in East Anglia, perhaps from the very severe famine which afflicted the continent and the British Isles in that year.An expedition the following year was bought off in early 1007 by tribute money of £36,000, and for the next two years England was free from attack.", "In 1008, the government created a new fleet of warships, organised on a national scale, but this was weakened when one of its commanders took to piracy, and the king and his council decided not to risk it in a general action.", "In Stenton's view: \"The history of England in the next generation was really determined between 1009 and 1012...the ignominious collapse of the English defence caused a loss of morale which was irreparable.\"", "The Danish army of 1009, led by Thorkell the Tall and his brother Hemming, was the most formidable force to invade England since Æthelred became king.", "It harried England until it was bought off by £48,000 in April 1012.===Invasion of 1013===Sweyn then launched an invasion in 1013 intending to crown himself king of England.", "By the end of 1013 English resistance had collapsed and Sweyn had conquered the country, forcing Æthelred into exile in Normandy.", "But the situation changed suddenly when Sweyn died on 3 February 1014.The crews of the Danish ships in the Trent that had supported Sweyn immediately swore their allegiance to Sweyn's son Cnut the Great, but leading English noblemen sent a deputation to Æthelred to negotiate his restoration to the throne.", "He was required to declare his loyalty to them, to bring in reforms regarding everything that they disliked and to forgive all that had been said and done against him in his previous reign.", "The terms of this agreement are of great constitutional interest in early English history as they are the first recorded pact between a King and his subjects; they are also widely regarded as showing that many English noblemen had submitted to Sweyn simply because of their distrust of Æthelred.", "According to the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'':Æthelred then launched an expedition against Cnut and his allies.", "Only the people of the Kingdom of Lindsey (modern North Lincolnshire) supported Cnut.", "Æthelred first set out to recapture London, apparently with the help of the Norwegian Olaf Haraldsson.", "According to the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson, Olaf led a successful attack on London Bridge with a fleet of ships.", "He then went on to help Æthelred retake London and other parts of the country.", "Cnut and his army decided to withdraw from England in April 1014, leaving his Lindsey allies to suffer Æthelred's revenge.", "In about 1016 it is thought that Olaf left to concentrate on raiding western Europe.", "In the same year, Cnut returned to find a complex and volatile situation unfolding in England.", "Æthelred's son, Edmund Ironside, had revolted against his father and established himself in the North, which was angry at Cnut and Æthelred for the ravaging of Lindsey and was prepared to support Edmund in any uprising against both of them." ], [ "Death and burial", "Over the next few months Cnut conquered most of England, while Edmund rejoined Æthelred to defend London when Æthelred died on 23 April 1016.The subsequent war between Edmund and Cnut ended in a decisive victory for Cnut at the Battle of Assandun on 18 October 1016.Edmund's reputation as a warrior was such that Cnut nevertheless agreed to divide England, Edmund taking Wessex and Cnut the whole of the country beyond the Thames.", "However, Edmund died on 30 November, and Cnut became king of the whole country.Æthelred was buried in Old St Paul's Cathedral, London.", "The tomb and his monument in the quire at Old St Paul's Cathedral were destroyed along with the cathedral in the Great Fire of London in 1666.A modern monument in the crypt lists his among the important graves lost." ], [ "Legislation", "A charter of Æthelred's in 1003 to a follower, also called Æthelred.", "British Library, LondonÆthelred's government produced extensive legislation, which he \"ruthlessly enforced\".", "Records of at least six legal codes survive from his reign, covering a range of topics.", "Notably, one of the members of his council (known as the ''Witan'') was Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York, a well-known homilist.", "The three latest codes from Æthelred's reign seemed to have been drafted by Wulfstan.", "These codes are extensively concerned with ecclesiastical affairs.", "They also exhibit the characteristics of Wulfstan's highly rhetorical style.", "Wulfstan went on to draft codes for King Cnut, and recycled there many of the laws which were used in Æthelred's codes.Despite the failure of his government in the face of the Danish threat, Æthelred's reign was not without some important institutional achievements.", "The quality of the coinage, a good indicator of the prevailing economic conditions, significantly improved during his reign due to his numerous coinage reform laws." ], [ "Legacy", "Later perspectives of Æthelred have been less than flattering.", "Numerous legends and anecdotes have sprung up to explain his shortcomings, often elaborating abusively on his character and failures.", "One such anecdote is given by William of Malmesbury (lived  1080 –  1143), who reports that Æthelred had defecated in the baptismal font as a child, which led St Dunstan to prophesy that the English monarchy would be overthrown during his reign.", "This story is, however, a fabrication, and a similar story is told of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Copronymus (the epithet means 'dung-named'), another medieval monarch who was unpopular among certain of his subjects.Efforts to rehabilitate Æthelred's reputation have gained momentum since about 1980.Chief among the rehabilitators has been Simon Keynes, who has often argued that our poor impression of Æthelred is almost entirely based upon after-the-fact accounts of, and later accretions to, the narrative of events during Æthelred's long and complex reign.", "Chief among the culprits is in fact one of the most important sources for the history of the period, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', which, as it reports events with a retrospect of 15 years, cannot help but interpret events with the eventual English defeat a foregone conclusion.Yet, as virtually no strictly contemporary narrative account of the events of Æthelred's reign exists, historians are forced to rely on what evidence there is.", "Keynes and others thus draw attention to some of the inevitable snares of investigating the history of a man whom later popular opinion has utterly damned.", "Recent cautious assessments of Æthelred's reign have more often uncovered reasons to doubt, rather than uphold, Æthelred's later infamy.", "Though the failures of his government will always put Æthelred's reign in the shadow of the reigns of kings Edgar, Æthelstan, and Alfred, historians' current impression of Æthelred's personal character is certainly not as unflattering as it once was: \"Æthelred's misfortune as a ruler was owed not so much to any supposed defects of his imagined character, as to a combination of circumstances which anyone would have found difficult to control.", "\"===Origin of the jury===Æthelred has been credited with the formation of a local investigative body made up of twelve thegns who were charged with publishing the names of any notorious or wicked men in their respective districts.", "Because the members of these bodies were under solemn oath to act in accordance with the law and their own good consciences, they have been seen by some legal historians as the prototype for the English grand jury.", "Æthelred makes provision for such a body in the Wantage Code (''III Æthelred''), promulgations enacted at Wantage in 997, which states:But the wording here suggests that Æthelred was perhaps revamping or re-confirming a custom which had already existed.", "He may actually have been expanding an established English custom for use among the Danish citizens in the North (the Danelaw).", "Previously, King Edgar had legislated along similar lines in his Whitbordesstan code:The 'legend' of an Anglo-Saxon origin to the jury was first challenged seriously by Heinrich Brunner in 1872, who claimed that evidence of the jury was only seen for the first time during the reign of Henry II, some 200 years after the end of the Anglo-Saxon period, and that the practice had originated with the Franks, who in turn had influenced the Normans, who thence introduced it to England.", "Since Brunner's thesis, the origin of the English jury has been much disputed.", "Throughout the 20th century, legal historians disagreed about whether the practice was English in origin, or was introduced, directly or indirectly, from either Scandinavia or Francia.", "Recently, the legal historians Patrick Wormald and Michael Macnair have reasserted arguments in favour of finding in practices current during the Anglo-Saxon period traces of the Angevin practice of conducting inquests using bodies of sworn, private witnesses.", "Wormald has gone as far as to present evidence suggesting that the English practice outlined in Æthelred's Wantage Code is at least as old as, if not older than, 975, and ultimately traces it back to a Carolingian model (something Brunner had done).", "However, no scholarly consensus has yet been reached." ], [ "Appearance and character", "The twelfth-century English chronicler, John of Worcester, describes Æthelred as \"elegant in his manners, handsome in visage, glorious in appearance\".", "No contemporary descriptions of Æthelred's appearance survive.", "The thirteenth-century Icelandic text, ''Gunnlaugs saga Ormstungu'', preserves a positive assessment of Æthelred's character, in which he is described by a visiting Icelander as \"a good prince\", a \"generous prince\", and a \"war-swift king\"." ], [ "Marriages and issue", "Æthelred married first Ælfgifu, daughter of Thored, earl of Northumbria, in about 985.Their known children are:* Æthelstan Ætheling (died 1014)* Ecgberht Ætheling (died  1005)* Edmund Ironside (King of England, died 1016)* Eadred Ætheling (died before 1013)* Eadwig Ætheling (executed by Cnut 1017)* Edgar Ætheling (died  1008)* Eadgyth or Edith (married Eadric Streona)* Ælfgifu (married Uhtred the Bold, ealdorman of Northumbria)* Wulfhild?", "(married Ulfcytel Snillingr)* Abbess of Wherwell Abbey?In 1002 Æthelred married Emma of Normandy, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.", "Their children were:* Edward the Confessor (King of England, died 1066)* Alfred Aetheling (died 1036–37)* Godgifu or Goda of England (married firstly Drogo of Mantes, Count of Mantes, Valois and the Vexin and secondly Eustace II, Count of Boulogne)All of Æthelred's sons were named after English kings." ], [ "See also", "* Burial places of British royalty* Cultural depictions of Æthelred the Unready* House of Wessex family tree" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Further reading===* * * Godsell, Andrew \"Ethelred the Unready\" in \"History For All\" magazine September 2000, republished in \"Legends of British History\" (2008).", "* Hart, Cyril, ed.", "and tr.", "(2006).", "''Chronicles of the Reign of Æthelred the Unready: An Edition and Translation of the Old English and Latin Annals''.", "The Early Chronicles of England 1.", "* * * Skinner, Patricia, ed, ''Challenging the Boundaries of Medieval History: The Legacy of Timothy Reuter'' (2009), ." ], [ "External links", "* Ethelred II at the official website of the British monarchy* * * Documentary – The Making of England: Aethelred the Unready*" ] ]
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[ [ "Edward Elgar" ], [ "Introduction", "Edward Elgar, 1900'''Sir Edward William Elgar, 1st Baronet''', (; 2 June 1857 – 23 February 1934) was an English composer, many of whose works have entered the British and international classical concert repertoire.", "Among his best-known compositions are orchestral works including the ''Enigma Variations'', the ''Pomp and Circumstance Marches'', concertos for violin and cello, and two symphonies.", "He also composed choral works, including ''The Dream of Gerontius'', chamber music and songs.", "He was appointed Master of the King's Musick in 1924.Although Elgar is often regarded as a typically English composer, most of his musical influences were not from England but from continental Europe.", "He felt himself to be an outsider, not only musically, but socially.", "In musical circles dominated by academics, he was a self-taught composer; in Protestant Britain, his Roman Catholicism was regarded with suspicion in some quarters; and in the class-conscious society of Victorian and Edwardian Britain, he was acutely sensitive about his humble origins even after he achieved recognition.", "He nevertheless married the daughter of a senior British Army officer.", "She inspired him both musically and socially, but he struggled to achieve success until his forties, when after a series of moderately successful works his ''Enigma Variations'' (1899) became immediately popular in Britain and overseas.", "He followed the Variations with a choral work, ''The Dream of Gerontius'' (1900), based on a Roman Catholic text that caused some disquiet in the Anglican establishment in Britain, but it became, and has remained, a core repertory work in Britain and elsewhere.", "His later full-length religious choral works were well received but have not entered the regular repertory.In his fifties, Elgar composed a symphony and a violin concerto that were immensely successful.", "His second symphony and his cello concerto did not gain immediate public popularity and took many years to achieve a regular place in the concert repertory of British orchestras.", "Elgar's music came, in his later years, to be seen as appealing chiefly to British audiences.", "His stock remained low for a generation after his death.", "It began to revive significantly in the 1960s, helped by new recordings of his works.", "Some of his works have, in recent years, been taken up again internationally, but the music continues to be played more in Britain than elsewhere.Elgar has been described as the first composer to take the gramophone seriously.", "Between 1914 and 1925, he conducted a series of acoustic recordings of his works.", "The introduction of the moving-coil microphone in 1923 made far more accurate sound reproduction possible, and Elgar made new recordings of most of his major orchestral works and excerpts from ''The Dream of Gerontius''." ], [ "Biography", "Lower Broadheath===Early years===Edward Elgar was born in the small village of Lower Broadheath, near Worcester, England, on 2 June 1857.His father, William Henry Elgar (1821–1906), was raised in Dover and had been apprenticed to a London music publisher.", "In 1841 William moved to Worcester, where he worked as a piano tuner and set up a shop selling sheet music and musical instruments.", "In 1848 he married Ann Greening (1822–1902), daughter of a farm worker.", "Edward was the fourth of their seven children.", "Ann Elgar had converted to Roman Catholicism shortly before Edward's birth, and he was baptised and brought up as a Roman Catholic, to the disapproval of his father.", "William Elgar was a violinist of professional standard and held the post of organist of St George's Roman Catholic Church, Worcester, from 1846 to 1885.At his instigation, masses by Cherubini and Hummel were first heard at the Three Choirs Festival by the orchestra in which he played the violin.", "All the Elgar children received a musical upbringing.", "By the age of eight, Elgar was taking piano and violin lessons, and his father, who tuned the pianos at many grand houses in Worcestershire, would sometimes take him along, giving him the chance to display his skill to important local figures.Elgar's parents, William and Ann ElgarElgar's mother was interested in the arts and encouraged his musical development.", "He inherited from her a discerning taste for literature and a passionate love of the countryside.", "His friend and biographer W. H. \"Billy\" Reed wrote that Elgar's early surroundings had an influence that \"permeated all his work and gave to his whole life that subtle but none the less true and sturdy English quality\".", "He began composing at an early age; for a play written and acted by the Elgar children when he was about ten, he wrote music that forty years later he rearranged with only minor changes and orchestrated as the suites titled ''The Wand of Youth''.Until he was fifteen, Elgar received a general education at Littleton (now Lyttleton) House school, near Worcester.", "His only formal musical training beyond piano and violin lessons from local teachers consisted of more advanced violin studies with Adolf Pollitzer, during brief visits to London in 1877–78.Elgar said, \"my first music was learnt in the Cathedral ... from books borrowed from the music library, when I was eight, nine or ten.\"", "He worked through manuals of instruction on organ playing and read every book he could find on the theory of music.", "He later said that he had been most helped by Hubert Parry's articles in the ''Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians''.", "Elgar began to learn German, in the hope of going to the Leipzig Conservatory for further musical studies, but his father could not afford to send him.", "Years later, a profile in ''The Musical Times'' considered that his failure to get to Leipzig was fortunate for Elgar's musical development: \"Thus the budding composer escaped the dogmatism of the schools.\"", "However, it was a disappointment to Elgar that on leaving school in 1872 he went not to Leipzig but to the office of a local solicitor as a clerk.", "He did not find an office career congenial, and for fulfilment he turned not only to music but to literature, becoming a voracious reader.", "Around this time, he made his first public appearances as a violinist and organist.After a few months, Elgar left the solicitor to embark on a musical career, giving piano and violin lessons and working occasionally in his father's shop.", "He was an active member of the Worcester Glee club, along with his father, and he accompanied singers, played the violin, composed and arranged works, and conducted for the first time.", "Pollitzer believed that, as a violinist, Elgar had the potential to be one of the leading soloists in the country, but Elgar himself, having heard leading virtuosi at London concerts, felt his own violin playing lacked a full enough tone, and he abandoned his ambitions to be a soloist.", "At twenty-two he took up the post of conductor of the attendants' band at the Worcester and County Lunatic Asylum in Powick, from Worcester.", "The band consisted of: piccolo, flute, clarinet, two cornets, euphonium, three or four first and a similar number of second violins, occasional viola, cello, double bass and piano.", "Elgar coached the players and wrote and arranged their music, including quadrilles and polkas, for the unusual combination of instruments.", "''The Musical Times'' wrote, \"This practical experience proved to be of the greatest value to the young musician. ...", "He acquired a practical knowledge of the capabilities of these different instruments. ...", "He thereby got to know intimately the tone colour, the ins and outs of these and many other instruments.\"", "He held the post for five years, from 1879, travelling to Powick once a week.", "Another post he held in his early days was professor of the violin at the Worcester College for the Blind Sons of Gentlemen.Although rather solitary and introspective by nature, Elgar thrived in Worcester's musical circles.", "He played in the violins at the Worcester and Birmingham Festivals, and one great experience was to play Dvořák's Symphony No.", "6 and ''Stabat Mater'' under the composer's baton.", "Elgar regularly played the bassoon in a wind quintet, alongside his brother Frank, an oboist (and conductor who ran his own wind band).", "Elgar arranged numerous pieces by Mozart, Beethoven, Haydn, and others for the quintet, honing his arranging and compositional skills.Schumann and Brahms, ''top'', Rubinstein and Wagner, ''bottom'', whose music inspired Elgar in LeipzigIn his first trips abroad, Elgar visited Paris in 1880 and Leipzig in 1882.He heard Saint-Saëns play the organ at the Madeleine and attended concerts by first-rate orchestras.", "In 1882 he wrote, \"I got pretty well dosed with Schumann (my ideal!", "), Brahms, Rubinstein & Wagner, so had no cause to complain.\"", "In Leipzig he visited a friend, Helen Weaver, who was a student at the Conservatoire.", "They became engaged in the summer of 1883, but for unknown reasons the engagement was broken off the next year.", "Elgar was greatly distressed, and some of his later cryptic dedications of romantic music may have alluded to Helen and his feelings for her.", "Throughout his life, Elgar was often inspired by close women friends; Helen Weaver was succeeded by Mary Lygon, Dora Penny, Julia Worthington, Alice Stuart Wortley and finally Vera Hockman, who enlivened his old age.In 1882, seeking more professional orchestral experience, Elgar was employed as a violinist in Birmingham in William Stockley's Orchestra, for whom he played every concert for the next seven years and where he later said he \"learned all the music I know\".", "On 13 December 1883 he took part with Stockley in a performance at Birmingham Town Hall of one of his first works for full orchestra, the ''Sérénade mauresque'' – the first time one of his compositions had been performed by a professional orchestra.", "Stockley had invited him to conduct the piece but later recalled \"he declined, and, further, insisted upon playing in his place in the orchestra.", "The consequence was that he had to appear, fiddle in hand, to acknowledge the genuine and hearty applause of the audience.\"", "Elgar often went to London in an attempt to get his works published, but this period in his life found him frequently despondent and low on money.", "He wrote to a friend in April 1884, \"My prospects are about as hopeless as ever ...", "I am not wanting in energy I think, so sometimes I conclude that 'tis want of ability. ...", "I have no money – not a cent.", "\"===Marriage===Edward and Alice Elgar, c. 1891When Elgar was 29, he took on a new pupil, Caroline Alice Roberts, known as Alice, daughter of the late Major-General Sir Henry Roberts, and published author of verse and prose fiction.", "Eight years older than Elgar, Alice became his wife three years later.", "Elgar's biographer Michael Kennedy writes, \"Alice's family was horrified by her intention to marry an unknown musician who worked in a shop and was a Roman Catholic.", "She was disinherited.\"", "They were married on 8 May 1889, at Brompton Oratory.", "From then until her death, she acted as his business manager and social secretary, dealt with his mood swings, and was a perceptive musical critic.", "She did her best to gain him the attention of influential society, though with limited success.", "In time, he would learn to accept the honours given him, realising that they mattered more to her and her social class and recognising what she had given up to further his career.", "In her diary, she wrote, \"The care of a genius is enough of a life work for any woman.\"", "As an engagement present, Elgar dedicated his short violin-and-piano piece ''Salut d'Amour'' to her.", "With Alice's encouragement, the Elgars moved to London to be closer to the centre of British musical life, and Elgar started devoting his time to composition.", "Their only child, Carice Irene, was born at their home in West Kensington on 14 August 1890.Her name, revealed in Elgar's dedication of ''Salut d'Amour'', was a contraction of her mother's names Caroline and Alice.", "Elgar took full advantage of the opportunity to hear unfamiliar music.", "In the days before miniature scores and recordings were available, it was not easy for young composers to get to know new music.", "Elgar took every chance to do so at the Crystal Palace Concerts.", "He and Alice attended day after day, hearing music by a wide range of composers.", "Among these were masters of orchestration from whom he learned much, such as Berlioz and Richard Wagner.", "His own compositions made little impact on London's musical scene.", "August Manns conducted Elgar's orchestral version of ''Salut d'amour'' and the Suite in D at the Crystal Palace, and two publishers accepted some of Elgar's violin pieces, organ voluntaries, and part songs.", "Some tantalising opportunities seemed to be within reach but vanished unexpectedly.", "For example, an offer from the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, to run through some of his works was withdrawn at the last second when Sir Arthur Sullivan arrived unannounced to rehearse some of his own music.", "Sullivan was horrified when Elgar later told him what had happened.", "Elgar's only important commission while in London came from his home city: the Worcester Festival Committee invited him to compose a short orchestral work for the 1890 Three Choirs Festival.", "The result is described by Diana McVeagh in the ''Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', as \"his first major work, the assured and uninhibited ''Froissart''.\"", "Elgar conducted the first performance in Worcester in September 1890.For lack of other work, he was obliged to leave London in 1891 and return with his wife and child to Worcestershire, where he could earn a living conducting local musical ensembles and teaching.", "They settled in Alice's former home town, Great Malvern.===Growing reputation===During the 1890s, Elgar gradually built up a reputation as a composer, chiefly of works for the great choral festivals of the English Midlands.", "''The Black Knight'' (1892) and ''King Olaf'' (1896), both inspired by Longfellow, ''The Light of Life'' (1896) and ''Caractacus'' (1898) were all modestly successful, and he obtained a long-standing publisher in Novello and Co. Other works of this decade included the ''Serenade for Strings'' (1892) and ''Three Bavarian Dances'' (1897).", "Elgar was of enough consequence locally to recommend the young composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor to the Three Choirs Festival for a concert piece, which helped establish the younger man's career.", "Elgar was catching the attention of prominent critics, but their reviews were polite rather than enthusiastic.", "Although he was in demand as a festival composer, he was only just getting by financially and felt unappreciated.", "In 1898, he said he was \"very sick at heart over music\" and hoped to find a way to succeed with a larger work.", "His friend August Jaeger tried to lift his spirits: \"A day's attack of the blues ... will not drive away your desire, your necessity, which is to exercise those creative faculties which a kind providence has given you.", "Your time of universal recognition will come.", "\"August Jaeger, Elgar's publisher and friend, and \"Nimrod\" of the ''Enigma Variations''In 1899, that prediction suddenly came true.", "At the age of forty-two, Elgar produced the ''Enigma Variations'', which were premiered in London under the baton of the eminent German conductor Hans Richter.", "In Elgar's own words, \"I have sketched a set of Variations on an original theme.", "The Variations have amused me because I've labelled them with the nicknames of my particular friends ... that is to say I've written the variations each one to represent the mood of the 'party' (the person) ... and have written what I think they would have written – if they were asses enough to compose\".", "He dedicated the work \"To my friends pictured within\".", "Probably the best known variation is \"Nimrod\", depicting Jaeger.", "Purely musical considerations led Elgar to omit variations depicting Arthur Sullivan and Hubert Parry, whose styles he tried but failed to incorporate in the variations.", "The large-scale work was received with general acclaim for its originality, charm and craftsmanship, and it established Elgar as the pre-eminent British composer of his generation.The work is formally titled ''Variations on an Original Theme''; the word \"Enigma\" appears over the first six bars of music, which led to the familiar version of the title.", "The enigma is that, although there are fourteen variations on the \"original theme\", there is another overarching theme, never identified by Elgar, which he said \"runs through and over the whole set\" but is never heard.", "Later commentators have observed that although Elgar is today regarded as a characteristically English composer, his orchestral music and this work in particular share much with the Central European tradition typified at the time by the work of Richard Strauss.", "The ''Enigma Variations'' were well received in Germany and Italy, and remain to the present day a worldwide concert staple.===National and international fame===Cardinal Newman, author of the text of ''The Dream of Gerontius''Elgar's biographer Basil Maine commented, \"When Sir Arthur Sullivan died in 1900 it became apparent to many that Elgar, although a composer of another build, was his true successor as first musician of the land.\"", "Elgar's next major work was eagerly awaited.", "For the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival of 1900, he set Cardinal John Henry Newman's poem ''The Dream of Gerontius'' for soloists, chorus and orchestra.", "Richter conducted the premiere, which was marred by a poorly prepared chorus, which sang badly.", "Critics recognised the mastery of the piece despite the defects in performance.", "It was performed in Düsseldorf, Germany, in 1901 and again in 1902, conducted by Julius Buths, who also conducted the European premiere of the ''Enigma Variations'' in 1901.The German press was enthusiastic.", "''The Cologne Gazette'' said, \"In both parts we meet with beauties of imperishable value. ...", "Elgar stands on the shoulders of Berlioz, Wagner, and Liszt, from whose influences he has freed himself until he has become an important individuality.", "He is one of the leaders of musical art of modern times.\"", "''The Düsseldorfer Volksblatt'' wrote, \"A memorable and epoch-making first performance!", "Since the days of Liszt nothing has been produced in the way of oratorio ... which reaches the greatness and importance of this sacred cantata.\"", "Richard Strauss, then widely viewed as the leading composer of his day, was so impressed that in Elgar's presence he proposed a toast to the success of \"the first English progressive musician, Meister Elgar.\"", "Performances in Vienna, Paris and New York followed, and ''The Dream of Gerontius'' soon became equally admired in Britain.", "According to Kennedy, \"It is unquestionably the greatest British work in the oratorio form ... it opened a new chapter in the English choral tradition and liberated it from its Handelian preoccupation.\"", "Elgar, as a Roman Catholic, was much moved by Newman's poem about the death and redemption of a sinner, but some influential members of the Anglican establishment disagreed.", "His colleague, Charles Villiers Stanford complained that the work \"stinks of incense\".", "The Dean of Gloucester banned ''Gerontius'' from his cathedral in 1901, and at Worcester the following year, the Dean insisted on expurgations before allowing a performance.Clara Butt, first singer of Elgar's \"Land of Hope and Glory\"Elgar is probably best known for the first of the five ''Pomp and Circumstance Marches'', which were composed between 1901 and 1930.It is familiar to millions of television viewers all over the world every year who watch the Last Night of the Proms, where it is traditionally performed.", "When the theme of the slower middle section (technically called the \"trio\") of the first march came into his head, he told his friend Dora Penny, \"I've got a tune that will knock 'em – will knock 'em flat\".", "When the first march was played in 1901 at a London Promenade Concert, it was conducted by Henry Wood, who later wrote that the audience \"rose and yelled ... the one and only time in the history of the Promenade concerts that an orchestral item was accorded a double encore.\"", "To mark the coronation of Edward VII, Elgar was commissioned to set A. C. Benson's ''Coronation Ode'' for a gala concert at the Royal Opera House on 30 June 1902.The approval of the king was confirmed, and Elgar began work.", "The contralto Clara Butt had persuaded him that the trio of the first ''Pomp and Circumstance'' march could have words fitted to it, and Elgar invited Benson to do so.", "Elgar incorporated the new vocal version into the Ode.", "The publishers of the score recognised the potential of the vocal piece, \"Land of Hope and Glory\", and asked Benson and Elgar to make a further revision for publication as a separate song.", "It was immensely popular and is now considered an unofficial British national anthem.", "In the United States, the trio, known simply as \"Pomp and Circumstance\" or \"The Graduation March\", has been adopted since 1905 for virtually all high school and university graduations.In March 1904 a three-day festival of Elgar's works was presented at Covent Garden, an honour never before given to any English composer.", "''The Times'' commented, \"Four or five years ago if any one had predicted that the Opera-house would be full from floor to ceiling for the performance of an oratorio by an English composer he would probably have been supposed to be out of his mind.\"", "The king and queen attended the first concert, at which Richter conducted ''The Dream of Gerontius'', and returned the next evening for the second, the London premiere of ''The Apostles'' (first heard the previous year at the Birmingham Festival).", "The final concert of the festival, conducted by Elgar, was primarily orchestral, apart for an excerpt from ''Caractacus'' and the complete ''Sea Pictures'' (sung by Clara Butt).", "The orchestral items were ''Froissart'', the ''Enigma Variations'', ''Cockaigne'', the first two (at that time the only two) ''Pomp and Circumstance'' marches, and the premiere of a new orchestral work, ''In the South'', inspired by a holiday in Italy.University of Birmingham as it was when Elgar was Peyton Professor of MusicElgar was knighted at Buckingham Palace on 5 July 1904.The following month, he and his family moved to Plâs Gwyn, a large house on the outskirts of Hereford, overlooking the River Wye, where they lived until 1911.Between 1902 and 1914, Elgar was, in Kennedy's words, at the zenith of popularity.", "He made four visits to the US, including one conducting tour, and earned considerable fees from the performance of his music.", "Between 1905 and 1908, he held the post of Peyton Professor of Music at the University of Birmingham.", "He had accepted the post reluctantly, feeling that a composer should not head a school of music.", "He was not at ease in the role, and his lectures caused controversy, with his attacks on the critics and on English music in general: \"Vulgarity in the course of time may be refined.", "Vulgarity often goes with inventiveness ... but the commonplace mind can never be anything but commonplace.", "An Englishman will take you into a large room, beautifully proportioned, and will point out to you that it is white – all over white – and somebody will say, 'What exquisite taste'.", "You know in your own mind, in your own soul, that it is not taste at all, that it is the want of taste, that is mere evasion.", "English music is white, and evades everything.\"", "He regretted the controversy and was glad to hand on the post to his friend Granville Bantock in 1908.His new life as a celebrity was a mixed blessing to the highly strung Elgar, as it interrupted his privacy, and he often was in ill-health.", "He complained to Jaeger in 1903, \"My life is one continual giving up of little things which I love.\"", "Both W. S. Gilbert and Thomas Hardy sought to collaborate with Elgar in this decade.", "Elgar refused, but would have collaborated with Bernard Shaw had Shaw been willing.Elgar paid three visits to the USA between 1905 and 1911.His first was to conduct his music and to accept a doctorate from Yale University.", "His principal composition in 1905 was the ''Introduction and Allegro for Strings'', dedicated to Samuel Sanford.", "It was well received but did not catch the public imagination as ''The Dream of Gerontius'' had done and continued to do.", "Among keen Elgarians, however, ''The Kingdom'' was sometimes preferred to the earlier work: Elgar's friend Frank Schuster told the young Adrian Boult: \"compared with ''The Kingdom'', ''Gerontius'' is the work of a raw amateur.\"", "As Elgar approached his fiftieth birthday, he began work on his first symphony, a project that had been in his mind in various forms for nearly ten years.", "His First Symphony (1908) was a national and international triumph.", "Within weeks of the premiere it was performed in New York under Walter Damrosch, Vienna under Ferdinand Löwe, St Petersburg under Alexander Siloti, and Leipzig under Arthur Nikisch.", "There were performances in Rome, Chicago, Boston, Toronto and fifteen British towns and cities.", "In just over a year, it received a hundred performances in Britain, America and continental Europe.Fritz Kreisler, dedicatee of Elgar's Violin ConcertoThe Violin Concerto (1910) was commissioned by Fritz Kreisler, one of the leading international violinists of the time.", "Elgar wrote it during the summer of 1910, with occasional help from W. H. Reed, the leader of the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO), who helped the composer with advice on technical points.", "Elgar and Reed formed a firm friendship, which lasted for the rest of Elgar's life.", "Reed's biography, ''Elgar As I Knew Him'' (1936), records many details of Elgar's methods of composition.", "The work was presented by the Royal Philharmonic Society, with Kreisler and the LSO, conducted by the composer.", "Reed recalled, \"the Concerto proved to be a complete triumph, the concert a brilliant and unforgettable occasion.\"", "So great was the impact of the concerto that Kreisler's rival Eugène Ysaÿe spent much time with Elgar going through the work.", "There was great disappointment when contractual difficulties prevented Ysaÿe from playing it in London.The Violin Concerto was Elgar's last popular triumph.", "The following year he presented his Second Symphony in London, but was disappointed at its reception.", "Unlike the First Symphony, it ends not in a blaze of orchestral splendour but quietly and contemplatively.", "Reed, who played at the premiere, later wrote that Elgar was recalled to the platform several times to acknowledge the applause, \"but missed that unmistakable note perceived when an audience, even an English audience, is thoroughly roused or worked up, as it was after the Violin Concerto or the First Symphony.\"", "Elgar asked Reed, \"What is the matter with them, Billy?", "They sit there like a lot of stuffed pigs.\"", "The work was, by normal standards, a success, with twenty-seven performances within three years of its premiere, but it did not achieve the international ''furore'' of the First Symphony.===Last major works===Elgar aged about 60In June 1911, as part of the celebrations surrounding the coronation of King George V, Elgar was appointed to the Order of Merit, an honour limited to twenty-four holders at any time.", "The following year, the Elgars moved back to London, to a large house in Netherhall Gardens, Hampstead, designed by Norman Shaw.", "There Elgar composed his last two large-scale works of the pre-war era, the choral ode, ''The Music Makers'' (for the Birmingham Festival, 1912) and the symphonic study ''Falstaff'' (for the Leeds Festival, 1913).", "Both were received politely but without enthusiasm.", "Even the dedicatee of ''Falstaff'', the conductor Landon Ronald, confessed privately that he could not \"make head or tail of the piece,\" while the musical scholar Percy Scholes wrote of ''Falstaff'' that it was a \"great work\" but, \"so far as public appreciation goes, a comparative failure.", "\"When World War I broke out, Elgar was horrified at the prospect of the carnage, but his patriotic feelings were nonetheless aroused.", "He composed \"A Song for Soldiers\", which he later withdrew.", "He signed up as a special constable in the local police and later joined the Hampstead Volunteer Reserve of the army.", "He composed patriotic works, ''Carillon'', a recitation for speaker and orchestra in honour of Belgium, and ''Polonia'', an orchestral piece in honour of Poland.", "\"Land of Hope and Glory\", already popular, became still more so, and Elgar wished in vain to have new, less nationalistic, words sung to the tune.Laurence Binyon (top) and Rudyard Kipling, whose verses Elgar set during World War IElgar's other compositions during the war included incidental music for a children's play, ''The Starlight Express'' (1915); a ballet, ''The Sanguine Fan'' (1917); and ''The Spirit of England'' (1915–17, to poems by Laurence Binyon), three choral settings very different in character from the romantic patriotism of his earlier years.", "His last large-scale composition of the war years was ''The Fringes of the Fleet'', settings of verses by Rudyard Kipling, performed with great popular success around the country, until Kipling for unexplained reasons objected to their performance in theatres.", "Elgar conducted a recording of the work for the Gramophone Company.Towards the end of the war, Elgar was in poor health.", "His wife thought it best for him to move to the countryside, and she rented \"Brinkwells\", a house near Fittleworth in Sussex, from the painter Rex Vicat Cole.", "There Elgar recovered his strength and, in 1918 and 1919, he produced four large-scale works.", "The first three of these were chamber pieces: the Violin Sonata in E minor, the Piano Quintet in A minor, and the String Quartet in E minor.", "On hearing the work in progress, Alice Elgar wrote in her diary, \"E. writing wonderful new music\".", "All three works were well received.", "''The Times'' wrote, \"Elgar's sonata contains much that we have heard before in other forms, but as we do not at all want him to change and be somebody else, that is as it should be.\"", "The quartet and quintet were premiered at the Wigmore Hall on 21 May 1919.", "''The Manchester Guardian'' wrote, \"This quartet, with its tremendous climaxes, curious refinements of dance-rhythms, and its perfect symmetry, and the quintet, more lyrical and passionate, are as perfect examples of chamber music as the great oratorios were of their type.", "\"By contrast, the remaining work, the Cello Concerto in E minor, had a disastrous premiere, at the opening concert of the LSO's 1919–20 season in October 1919.Apart from the Elgar work, which the composer conducted, the rest of the programme was conducted by Albert Coates, who overran his rehearsal time at the expense of Elgar's.", "Lady Elgar wrote, \"that brutal selfish ill-mannered bounder ... that brute Coates went on rehearsing.\"", "The critic of ''The Observer'', Ernest Newman, wrote, \"There have been rumours about during the week of inadequate rehearsal.", "Whatever the explanation, the sad fact remains that never, in all probability, has so great an orchestra made so lamentable an exhibition of itself. ...", "The work itself is lovely stuff, very simple – that pregnant simplicity that has come upon Elgar's music in the last couple of years – but with a profound wisdom and beauty underlying its simplicity.\"", "Elgar attached no blame to his soloist, Felix Salmond, who played the work for him again later.", "In contrast with the First Symphony and its hundred performances in just over a year, the Cello Concerto did not have a second performance in London for more than a year.===Last years===Elgar in 1919, by William RothensteinAlthough in the 1920s Elgar's music was no longer in fashion, his admirers continued to present his works when possible.", "Reed singles out a performance of the Second Symphony in March 1920 conducted by \"a young man almost unknown to the public\", Adrian Boult, for bringing \"the grandeur and nobility of the work\" to a wider public.", "Also in 1920, Landon Ronald presented an all-Elgar concert at the Queen's Hall.", "Alice Elgar wrote with enthusiasm about the reception of the symphony, but this was one of the last times she heard Elgar's music played in public.", "After a short illness, she died of lung cancer on 7 April 1920, at the age of seventy-two.Elgar was devastated by the loss of his wife.", "With no public demand for new works, and deprived of Alice's constant support and inspiration, he allowed himself to be deflected from composition.", "His daughter later wrote that Elgar inherited from his father a reluctance to \"settle down to work on hand but could cheerfully spend hours over some perfectly unnecessary and entirely unremunerative undertaking\", a trait that became stronger after Alice's death.", "For much of the rest of his life, Elgar indulged himself in his several hobbies.", "Throughout his life he was a keen amateur chemist, sometimes using a laboratory in his back garden.", "He even patented the \"Elgar Sulphuretted Hydrogen Apparatus\" in 1908.He enjoyed football, supporting Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C., for whom he composed an anthem, ''\"He Banged the Leather for Goal\"'', and in his later years he frequently attended horseraces.", "His protégés, the conductor Malcolm Sargent and violinist Yehudi Menuhin, both recalled rehearsals with Elgar at which he swiftly satisfied himself that all was well and then went off to the races.", "In his younger days, Elgar had been an enthusiastic cyclist, buying Royal Sunbeam bicycles for himself and his wife in 1903 (he named his \"Mr. Phoebus\").", "As an elderly widower, he enjoyed being driven about the countryside by his chauffeur.", "In November and December 1923, he took a voyage to Brazil, journeying up the Amazon to Manaus, where he was impressed by its opera house, the Teatro Amazonas.", "Almost nothing is recorded about Elgar's activities or the events that he encountered during the trip, which gave the novelist James Hamilton-Paterson considerable latitude when writing ''Gerontius'', a fictional account of the journey.After Alice's death, Elgar sold the Hampstead house, and after living for a short time in a flat in St James's in the heart of London, he moved back to Worcestershire, to the village of Kempsey, where he lived from 1923 to 1927.He did not wholly abandon composition in these years.", "He made large-scale symphonic arrangements of works by Bach and Handel and wrote his ''Empire March'' and eight songs ''Pageant of Empire'' for the 1924 British Empire Exhibition.", "Shortly after these were published, he was appointed Master of the King's Musick on 13 May 1924, following the death of Sir Walter Parratt.From 1926 onwards, Elgar made a series of recordings of his own works.", "Described by the music writer Robert Philip as \"the first composer to take the gramophone seriously\", he had already recorded much of his music by the early acoustic-recording process for His Master's Voice (HMV) from 1914 onwards, but the introduction of electrical microphones in 1925 transformed the gramophone from a novelty into a realistic medium for reproducing orchestral and choral music.", "Elgar was the first composer to take full advantage of this technological advance.", "Fred Gaisberg of HMV, who produced Elgar's recordings, set up a series of sessions to capture on disc the composer's interpretations of his major orchestral works, including the ''Enigma Variations'', ''Falstaff'', the first and second symphonies, and the cello and violin concertos.", "For most of these, the orchestra was the LSO, but the ''Variations'' were played by the Royal Albert Hall Orchestra.", "Later in the series of recordings, Elgar also conducted two newly founded orchestras, Boult's BBC Symphony Orchestra and Sir Thomas Beecham's London Philharmonic Orchestra.Elgar's recordings were released on 78-rpm discs by both HMV and RCA Victor.", "After World War II, the 1932 recording of the Violin Concerto with the teenage Menuhin as soloist remained available on 78 and later on LP, but the other recordings were out of the catalogues for some years.", "When they were reissued by EMI on LP in the 1970s, they caused surprise to many by their fast tempi, in contrast to the slower speeds adopted by many conductors in the years since Elgar's death.", "The recordings were reissued on CD in the 1990s.In November 1931, Elgar was filmed by Pathé for a newsreel depicting a recording session of ''Pomp and Circumstance March No.", "1'' at the opening of EMI's Abbey Road Studios in London.", "It is believed to be the only surviving sound film of Elgar, who makes a brief remark before conducting the LSO, asking the musicians to \"play this tune as though you've never heard it before.\"", "A memorial plaque to Elgar at Abbey Road was unveiled on 24 June 1993.A late piece of Elgar's, the ''Nursery Suite'', was an early example of a studio premiere: its first performance was in the Abbey Road studios.", "For this work, dedicated to the wife and daughters of the Duke of York, Elgar once again drew on his youthful sketch-books.Elgar family grave at St Wulstan's Roman Catholic Church, Little MalvernIn his final years, Elgar experienced a musical revival.", "The BBC organised a festival of his works to celebrate his seventy-fifth birthday, in 1932.He flew to Paris in 1933 to conduct the Violin Concerto for Menuhin.", "While in France, he visited his fellow composer Frederick Delius at his house at Grez-sur-Loing.", "He was sought out by younger musicians such as Adrian Boult, Malcolm Sargent and John Barbirolli, who championed his music when it was out of fashion.", "He began work on an opera, ''The Spanish Lady'', and accepted a commission from the BBC to compose a Third Symphony.", "His final illness prevented their completion.", "He fretted about the unfinished works.", "He asked Reed to ensure that nobody would \"tinker\" with the sketches and attempt a completion of the symphony, but at other times he said, \"If I can't complete the Third Symphony, somebody will complete it – or write a better one.\"", "After Elgar's death, Percy M. Young, in co-operation with the BBC and Elgar's daughter Carice, produced a version of ''The Spanish Lady'', which was issued on CD.", "The Third Symphony sketches were elaborated by the composer Anthony Payne into a complete score in 1997.Inoperable colorectal cancer was discovered during an operation on 8 October 1933.He told his consulting doctor, Arthur Thomson, that he had no faith in an afterlife: \"I believe there is nothing but complete oblivion.\"", "Elgar died on 23 February 1934 at the age of seventy-six and was buried next to his wife at St Wulstan's Roman Catholic Church in Little Malvern." ], [ "Music", "===Influences, antecedents and early works===Elgar was contemptuous of folk music and had little interest in or respect for the early English composers, calling William Byrd and his contemporaries \"museum pieces\".", "Of later English composers, he regarded Purcell as the greatest, and he said that he had learned much of his own technique from studying Hubert Parry's writings.", "The continental composers who most influenced Elgar were Handel, Dvořák and, to some degree, Brahms.", "In Elgar's chromaticism, the influence of Wagner is apparent, but Elgar's individual style of orchestration owes much to the clarity of nineteenth-century French composers, Berlioz, Massenet, Saint-Saëns and, particularly, Delibes, whose music Elgar played and conducted at Worcester and greatly admired.Elgar began composing when still a child, and all his life he drew on his early sketchbooks for themes and inspiration.", "The habit of assembling his compositions, even large-scale ones, from scraps of themes jotted down randomly remained throughout his life.", "His early adult works included violin and piano pieces, music for the wind quintet in which he and his brother played between 1878 and 1881, and music of many types for the Powick Asylum band.", "Diana McVeagh in ''Grove's Dictionary'' finds many embryonic Elgarian touches in these pieces, but few of them are regularly played, except ''Salut d'Amour'' and (as arranged decades later into ''The Wand of Youth'' Suites) some of the childhood sketches.", "Elgar's sole work of note during his first spell in London in 1889–91, the overture ''Froissart'', was a romantic-bravura piece, influenced by Mendelssohn and Wagner, but also showing further Elgarian characteristics.", "Orchestral works composed during the subsequent years in Worcestershire include the ''Serenade for Strings'' and ''Three Bavarian Dances''.", "In this period and later, Elgar wrote songs and part songs.", "W. H. Reed expressed reservations about these pieces, but praised the part song ''The Snow'', for female voices, and ''Sea Pictures'', a cycle of five songs for contralto and orchestra which remains in the repertory.Elgar's principal large-scale early works were for chorus and orchestra for the Three Choirs and other festivals.", "These were ''The Black Knight'', ''King Olaf'', ''The Light of Life'', ''The Banner of St George'' and ''Caractacus''.", "He also wrote a ''Te Deum'' and ''Benedictus'' for the Hereford Festival.", "Of these, McVeagh comments favourably on his lavish orchestration and innovative use of leitmotifs, but less favourably on the qualities of his chosen texts and the patchiness of his inspiration.", "McVeagh makes the point that, because these works of the 1890s were for many years little known (and performances remain rare), the mastery of his first great success, the ''Enigma Variations'', appeared to be a sudden transformation from mediocrity to genius, but in fact his orchestral skills had been building up throughout the decade.===Peak creative years===Elgar and the London Symphony Orchestra at the Queen's HallElgar's best-known works were composed within the twenty-one years between 1899 and 1920.Most of them are orchestral.", "Reed wrote, \"Elgar's genius rose to its greatest height in his orchestral works\" and quoted the composer as saying that, even in his oratorios, the orchestral part is the most important.", "The ''Enigma Variations'' made Elgar's name nationally.", "The variation form was ideal for him at this stage of his career, when his comprehensive mastery of orchestration was still in contrast to his tendency to write his melodies in short, sometimes rigid, phrases.", "His next orchestral works, ''Cockaigne'', a concert-overture (1900–1901), the first two ''Pomp and Circumstance'' marches (1901), and the gentle ''Dream Children'' (1902), are all short: the longest of them, ''Cockaigne'', lasting less than fifteen minutes.", "''In the South'' (1903–1904), although designated by Elgar as a concert-overture, is, according to Kennedy, really a tone poem and the longest continuous piece of purely orchestral writing Elgar had essayed.", "He wrote it after setting aside an early attempt to compose a symphony.", "The work reveals his continuing progress in writing sustained themes and orchestral lines, although some critics, including Kennedy, find that in the middle part \"Elgar's inspiration burns at less than its brightest.\"", "In 1905 Elgar completed the ''Introduction and Allegro for Strings''.", "This work is based, unlike much of Elgar's earlier writing, not on a profusion of themes but on only three.", "Kennedy called it a \"masterly composition, equalled among English works for strings only by Vaughan Williams's ''Tallis Fantasia''.", "\"During the next four years Elgar composed three major concert pieces, which, though shorter than comparable works by some of his European contemporaries, are among the most substantial such works by an English composer.", "These were his First Symphony, Violin Concerto, and Second Symphony, which all play for between forty-five minutes and an hour.", "McVeagh says of the symphonies that they \"rank high not only in Elgar's output but in English musical history.", "Both are long and powerful, without published programmes, only hints and quotations to indicate some inward drama from which they derive their vitality and eloquence.", "Both are based on classical form but differ from it to the extent that ... they were considered prolix and slackly constructed by some critics.", "Certainly the invention in them is copious; each symphony would need several dozen music examples to chart its progress.", "\"Cello Concerto|alt=manuscript music score, faded with ageElgar's Violin Concerto and Cello Concerto, in the view of Kennedy, \"rank not only among his finest works, but among the greatest of their kind\".", "They are, however, very different from each other.", "The Violin Concerto, composed in 1909 as Elgar reached the height of his popularity, and written for the instrument dearest to his heart, is lyrical throughout and rhapsodical and brilliant by turns.", "The Cello Concerto, composed a decade later, immediately after World War I, seems, in Kennedy's words, \"to belong to another age, another world ... the simplest of all Elgar's major works ... also the least grandiloquent.\"", "Between the two concertos came Elgar's symphonic study ''Falstaff'', which has divided opinion even among Elgar's strongest admirers.", "Donald Tovey viewed it as \"one of the immeasurably great things in music\", with power \"identical with Shakespeare's\", while Kennedy criticises the work for \"too frequent reliance on sequences\" and an over-idealised depiction of the female characters.", "Reed thought that the principal themes show less distinction than some of Elgar's earlier works.", "Elgar himself thought ''Falstaff'' the highest point of his purely orchestral work.The major works for voices and orchestra of the twenty-one years of Elgar's middle period are three large-scale works for soloists, chorus and orchestra: ''The Dream of Gerontius'' (1900), and the oratorios ''The Apostles'' (1903) and ''The Kingdom'' (1906); and two shorter odes, the ''Coronation Ode'' (1902) and ''The Music Makers'' (1912).", "The first of the odes, as a ''pièce d'occasion'', has rarely been revived after its initial success, with the culminating \"Land of Hope and Glory\".", "The second is, for Elgar, unusual in that it contains several quotations from his earlier works, as Richard Strauss quoted himself in ''Ein Heldenleben''.", "The choral works were all successful, although the first, ''Gerontius'', was and remains the best-loved and most performed.", "On the manuscript Elgar wrote, quoting John Ruskin, \"This is the best of me; for the rest, I ate, and drank, and slept, loved and hated, like another.", "My life was as the vapour, and is not; but this I saw, and knew; this, if anything of mine, is worth your memory.\"", "All three of the large-scale works follow the traditional model with sections for soloists, chorus and both together.", "Elgar's distinctive orchestration, as well as his melodic inspiration, lifts them to a higher level than most of their British predecessors.Elgar's other works of his middle period include incidental music for ''Grania and Diarmid'', a play by George Moore and W. B. Yeats (1901), and for ''The Starlight Express'', a play based on a story by Algernon Blackwood (1916).", "Of the former, Yeats called Elgar's music \"wonderful in its heroic melancholy\".", "Elgar also wrote a number of songs during his peak period, of which Reed observes, \"it cannot be said that he enriched the vocal repertory to the same extent as he did that of the orchestra.", "\"===Final years and posthumous completions===After the Cello Concerto, Elgar completed no more large-scale works.", "He made arrangements of works by Bach, Handel and Chopin, in distinctively Elgarian orchestration, and once again turned his youthful notebooks to use for the ''Nursery Suite'' (1931).", "His other compositions of this period have not held a place in the regular repertory.", "For most of the rest of the twentieth century, it was generally agreed that Elgar's creative impulse ceased after his wife's death.", "Anthony Payne's elaboration of the sketches for Elgar's Third Symphony into a complete score led to a reconsideration of this supposition.", "Elgar left the opening of the symphony complete in full score, and those pages, along with others, show Elgar's orchestration changed markedly from the richness of his pre-war work.", "''The Gramophone'' described the opening of the new work as something \"thrilling ... unforgettably gaunt\".", "Its first public performance was given by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Andrew Davis in London on 15 February 1998.Payne also subsequently produced a performing version of the sketches for a sixth ''Pomp and Circumstance March'', premiered at the Proms in August 2006.Elgar's sketches for a piano concerto dating from 1913 were elaborated by the composer Robert Walker and first performed in August 1997 by the pianist David Owen Norris.", "The realisation has since been extensively revised.===Reputation===Elgar, by Percival Hedley, 1905Views of Elgar's stature have varied in the decades since his music came to prominence at the beginning of the twentieth century.", "Richard Strauss, as noted, hailed Elgar as a progressive composer; even the hostile reviewer in ''The Observer'', unimpressed by the thematic material of the First Symphony in 1908, called the orchestration \"magnificently modern\".", "Hans Richter rated Elgar as \"the greatest modern composer\" in any country, and Richter's colleague Arthur Nikisch considered the First Symphony \"a masterpiece of the first order\" to be \"justly ranked with the great symphonic models – Beethoven and Brahms.\"", "By contrast, the critic W. J. Turner, in the mid-twentieth century, wrote of Elgar's \"Salvation Army symphonies,\" and Herbert von Karajan called the ''Enigma Variations'' \"second-hand Brahms\".", "Elgar's immense popularity was not long-lived.", "After the success of his First Symphony and Violin Concerto, his Second Symphony and Cello Concerto were politely received but without the earlier wild enthusiasm.", "His music was identified in the public mind with the Edwardian era, and after the First World War he no longer seemed a progressive or modern composer.", "In the early 1920s, even the First Symphony had only one London performance in more than three years.", "Wood and younger conductors such as Boult, Sargent and Barbirolli championed Elgar's music, but in the recording catalogues and the concert programmes of the middle of the century his works were not well represented.In 1924, the music scholar Edward J. Dent wrote an article for a German music journal in which he identified four features of Elgar's style that gave offence to a section of English opinion (namely, Dent indicated, the academic and snobbish section): \"too emotional\", \"not quite free from vulgarity\", \"pompous\", and \"too deliberately noble in expression\".", "This article was reprinted in 1930 and caused controversy.", "In the later years of the century there was, in Britain at least, a revival of interest in Elgar's music.", "The features that had offended austere taste in the inter-war years were seen from a different perspective.", "In 1955, the reference book ''The Record Guide'' wrote of the Edwardian background during the height of Elgar's career:By the 1960s, a less severe view was being taken of the Edwardian era.", "In 1966 the critic Frank Howes wrote that Elgar reflected the last blaze of opulence, expansiveness and full-blooded life, before World War I swept so much away.", "In Howes's view, there was a touch of vulgarity in both the era and Elgar's music, but \"a composer is entitled to be judged by posterity for his best work. ...", "Elgar is historically important for giving to English music a sense of the orchestra, for expressing what it felt like to be alive in the Edwardian age, for conferring on the world at least four unqualified masterpieces, and for thereby restoring England to the comity of musical nations.", "\"Sibelius (l) and Richard Strauss and (below) Vaughan Williams (l) and Stravinsky|alt=head and shoulders portraits of four men.", "One is bald; one is balding and luxuriantly moustached; one is a drawing of a young man in full face, with a full head of hair, in collar and tie; the fourth shows a young man, balding and bespectacled looking towards the cameraIn 1967 the critic and analyst David Cox considered the question of the supposed Englishness of Elgar's music.", "Cox noted that Elgar disliked folk-songs and never used them in his works, opting for an idiom that was essentially German, leavened by a lightness derived from French composers including Berlioz and Gounod.", "How then, asked Cox, could Elgar be \"the most English of composers\"?", "Cox found the answer in Elgar's own personality, which \"could use the alien idioms in such a way as to make of them a vital form of expression that was his and his alone.", "And the personality that comes through in the music is English.\"", "This point about Elgar's transmuting his influences had been touched on before.", "In 1930 ''The Times'' wrote, \"When Elgar's first symphony came out, someone attempted to prove that its main tune on which all depends was like the Grail theme in Parsifal. ...", "but the attempt fell flat because everyone else, including those who disliked the tune, had instantly recognized it as typically 'Elgarian', while the Grail theme is as typically Wagnerian.\"", "As for Elgar's \"Englishness\", his fellow-composers recognised it: Richard Strauss and Stravinsky made particular reference to it, and Sibelius called him \"the personification of the true English character in music ... a noble personality and a born aristocrat\".Among Elgar's admirers there is disagreement about which of his works are to be regarded as masterpieces.", "The ''Enigma Variations'' are generally counted among them.", "''The Dream of Gerontius'' has also been given high praise by Elgarians, and the Cello Concerto is similarly rated.", "Many rate the Violin Concerto equally highly, but some do not.", "Sackville-West omitted it from the list of Elgar masterpieces in ''The Record Guide'', and in a long analytical article in ''The Musical Quarterly'', Daniel Gregory Mason criticised the first movement of the concerto for a \"kind of sing-songiness ... as fatal to noble rhythm in music as it is in poetry.\"", "''Falstaff'' also divides opinion.", "It has never been a great popular favourite, and Kennedy and Reed identify shortcomings in it.", "In a ''Musical Times'' 1957 centenary symposium on Elgar led by Vaughan Williams, by contrast, several contributors share Eric Blom's view that ''Falstaff'' is the greatest of all Elgar's works.The two symphonies divide opinion even more sharply.", "Mason rates the Second poorly for its \"over-obvious rhythmic scheme\", but calls the First \"Elgar's masterpiece. ...", "It is hard to see how any candid student can deny the greatness of this symphony.\"", "However, in the 1957 centenary symposium, several leading admirers of Elgar express reservations about one or both symphonies.", "In the same year, Roger Fiske wrote in ''The Gramophone'', \"For some reason few people seem to like the two Elgar symphonies equally; each has its champions and often they are more than a little bored by the rival work.\"", "The critic John Warrack wrote, \"There are no sadder pages in symphonic literature than the close of the First Symphony's Adagio, as horn and trombones twice softly intone a phrase of utter grief\", whereas to Michael Kennedy, the movement is notable for its lack of anguished yearning and ''angst'' and is marked instead by a \"benevolent tranquillity.", "\"Despite the fluctuating critical assessment of the various works over the years, Elgar's major works taken as a whole have in the twenty-first century recovered strongly from their neglect in the 1950s.", "''The Record Guide'' in 1955 could list only one currently available recording of the First Symphony, none of the Second, one of the Violin Concerto, two of the Cello Concerto, two of the ''Enigma Variations'', one of ''Falstaff'', and none of ''The Dream of Gerontius''.", "Since then there have been multiple recordings of all the major works.", "More than thirty recordings have been made of the First Symphony since 1955, for example, and more than a dozen of ''The Dream of Gerontius''.", "Similarly, in the concert hall, Elgar's works, after a period of neglect, are once again frequently programmed.", "The Elgar Society's website, in its diary of forthcoming performances, lists performances of Elgar's works by orchestras, soloists and conductors across Europe, North America and Australasia." ], [ "Honours, awards and commemorations", "Worcester High StreetElgar was knighted in 1904, and in 1911 he was appointed a member of the Order of Merit.", "In 1920 he received the Cross of Commander of the Belgian Order of the Crown; in 1924 he was made Master of the King's Musick; the following year he received the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society; and in 1928 he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO).", "Between 1900 and 1931, Elgar received honorary degrees from the Universities of Cambridge, Durham, Leeds, Oxford, Yale (USA), Aberdeen, Western Pennsylvania (USA), Birmingham and London.", "Foreign academies of which he was made a member were Regia Accademia di Santa Cecilia, Rome; Accademia del Reale Istituto Musicale, Florence; Académie des Beaux Arts, Paris; Institut de France; and the American Academy.", "In 1931 he was created a Baronet, of Broadheath in the County of Worcester.", "In 1933 he was promoted within the Royal Victorian Order to Knight Grand Cross (GCVO).", "In Kennedy's words, he \"shamelessly touted\" for a peerage, but in vain.", "In ''Who's Who'', post-First World War, he claimed to have been awarded \"several Imperial Russian and German decorations (lapsed)\".", "Elgar was offered, but declined, the office of Mayor of Hereford (despite not being a member of its city council) when he lived in the city in 1905.The same year he was made an honorary freeman of the city of Worcester.The house in Lower Broadheath where Elgar was born is now the Elgar Birthplace Museum, devoted to his life and work.", "Elgar's daughter, Carice, helped to found the museum in 1936 and bequeathed to it much of her collection of Elgar's letters and documents on her death in 1970.Carice left Elgar manuscripts to musical colleges: ''The Black Knight'' to Trinity College of Music; ''King Olaf'' to the Royal Academy of Music; ''The Music Makers'' to Birmingham University; the Cello Concerto to the Royal College of Music; ''The Kingdom'' to the Bodleian Library; and other manuscripts to the British Museum.", "The Elgar Society dedicated to the composer and his works was formed in 1951.Elgar's statue at the end of Worcester High Street stands facing the cathedral, only yards from where his father's shop once stood.", "Another statue of the composer by Rose Garrard is at the top of Church Street in Malvern, overlooking the town and giving visitors an opportunity to stand next to the composer in the shadow of the Hills that he so often regarded.", "In September 2005, a third statue sculpted by Jemma Pearson was unveiled near Hereford Cathedral in honour of his many musical and other associations with the city.", "It depicts Elgar with his bicycle.", "From 1999 until early 2007, new Bank of England twenty pound notes featured a portrait of Elgar.", "The change to remove his image generated controversy, particularly because 2007 was the 150th anniversary of Elgar's birth.", "From 2007 the Elgar notes were phased out, ceasing to be legal tender on 30 June 2010.There are around 65 roads in the UK named after Elgar, including six in the counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire.", "Elgar had three locomotives named in his honour.Statue of Elgar with bicycle in HerefordElgar's life and music have inspired works of literature including the novel ''Gerontius'' and several plays.", "''Elgar's Rondo'', a 1993 stage play by David Pownall depicts the dead Jaeger offering ghostly advice on Elgar's musical development.", "Pownall also wrote a radio play, ''Elgar's Third'' (1994); another Elgar-themed radio play is Alick Rowe's ''The Dorabella Variation'' (2003).", "David Rudkin's BBC television \"Play for Today\" ''Penda's Fen'' (1974) deals with themes including sex and adolescence, spying, and snobbery, with Elgar's music, chiefly ''The Dream of Gerontius'', as its background.", "In one scene, a ghostly Elgar whispers the secret of the \"Enigma\" tune to the youthful central character, with an injunction not to reveal it.", "''Elgar on the Journey to Hanley'', a novel by Keith Alldritt (1979), tells of the composer's attachment to Dora Penny, later Mrs Powell, (depicted as \"Dorabella\" in the ''Enigma Variations'').Perhaps the best-known work depicting Elgar is Ken Russell's 1962 BBC television film ''Elgar'', made when the composer was still largely out of fashion.", "This hour-long film contradicted the view of Elgar as a jingoistic and bombastic composer, and evoked the more pastoral and melancholy side of his character and music." ], [ "Notes and references", "'''Notes''''''References'''" ], [ "Sources", "**** * *******************" ], [ "Further reading", "*********** * ***********" ], [ "External links", "* * * The Elgar Society, official site.", "* The Elgar Foundation and Birthplace Museum, official site.", "* \"Elgar, Sir Edward William\" at The National Archives* \"The Growing Significance of Elgar\", lecture by Simon Mundy, Gresham College, 29 June 2007" ] ]
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[ [ "European Investment Fund" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Investment Fund''' ('''EIF'''), established in 1994, is a financial institution for the provision of finance to SMEs (small and medium-sized enterprises), headquartered in Luxembourg.", "It is part of the European Investment Bank Group.It does not lend money to SMEs directly; rather it provides finance through private banks and funds.", "Its main operations are in the areas of venture capital and guaranteeing loans.", "Its shareholders are: the European Investment Bank (62%); the European Union, represented by the European Commission (29%); and 30 privately owned EU financial institutions (9%).The European Investment Bank Group is able to assist the development of a broader creative, green ecosystem through the European Investment Fund: venture capital funds, technical transfer, business perspectives, and private-sector equity (infrastructure funds) in general.Since 2015, the EaSI Guarantee Instrument (EU Programme for Employment and Social Innovation), managed by the European Investment Fund, has provided over €280 million in guarantees across Europe and is expected to provide over €3 billion in financing to micro-enterprises and social enterprises.", "In the coming years, the EIF intends to continue providing assistance to these types of final beneficiaries in areas heavily impacted by the transition to a low-carbon economy.The EIF is managed by a Chief Executive who acts independently in the EIF’s best interests.", "As of January 1, 2023, the Chief Executive is Marjut Falkstedt." ], [ "See also", "* Institutions of the European Union" ], [ "Sources" ] ]
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[ [ "European Currency Unit" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Currency Unit''' (, , ; ⟨''''''⟩, '''ECU''', or '''XEU''') was a unit of account used by the European Economic Community and composed of a basket of member country currencies.", "The ECU came in to operation on 13 March 1979 and was assigned the ISO 4217 code.", "The ECU replaced the European Unit of Account (EUA) at parity in 1979, and it was later replaced by the euro (EUR) at parity on 1 January 1999.As a unit of account, the ECU was not a circulating currency and did not replace or override the value of the currency of EEC member countries.", "However, it was used to price some international financial transactions and capital transfers." ], [ "Exchange rate", "Using a mechanism known as the \"snake in the tunnel\", the European Exchange Rate Mechanism was an attempt to minimize fluctuations between member state currencies—initially by managing the variance of each against its respective ECU reference rate—with the aim to achieve fixed ratios over time, and so enable the European Single Currency (which became known as the euro) to replace national currencies." ], [ "Hard ECU proposal", "In 1990 the British Chancellor of the Exchequer John Major proposed the creation of a 'hard' ECU, which different national currencies could compete against and, if the ECU was successful, could lead to a single currency.", "The move was seen by France and Germany as a wrecking tactic, especially when the increasingly Eurosceptic Thatcher announced her outright opposition to European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), and the idea was abandoned." ], [ "Euro replaces the ECU", "On 1 January 1999, the euro (with the code EUR and symbol ⟨€⟩) replaced the ECU at par (one-to-one).", "Unlike the ECU, the euro is a real currency, although not all member states participate (for details on euro membership see Eurozone).", "Two of the countries in the ECU basket of currencies, UK and Denmark, did not join the eurozone, and a third, Greece, joined late.", "On the other hand, Finland and Austria joined the eurozone from the beginning, even though their currencies were not part of the ECU basket, since they had joined the EU in 1995, two years after the ECU composition was \"frozen\".=== Legal implications ===Due to the ECU being used in some international financial transactions, there was a concern that foreign courts might not recognize the euro as the legal successor to the ECU.", "This was unlikely to be a problem, since it is a generally accepted principle of private international law that states determine their currencies, and that therefore states would accept the European Union legislation to that effect.", "However, for abundant caution, several foreign jurisdictions adopted legislation to ensure a smooth transition.", "Of particular importance, the U.S. states of Illinois and New York adopted legislation to ensure a large proportion of international financial contracts recognized the euro as the successor of the ECU." ], [ "Symbol and name", "The ECU's symbol, '''₠''', consists of an interlaced ''C'' and ''E''—the initials of \"European Community\" in many languages of Europe.", "However, the symbol was not widely adopted.", "Few computer systems utilized by financial institutions and governments could render it, and commercial payment systems were obliged to use the ISO code, XEU, as with other currencies without widely recognised currency symbols.", "The Unicode designation for the ECU symbol () was not implemented on many personal computer operating systems until the release of Unicode v2.1 in May 1998, which also introduced the euro sign ().", "Microsoft did include the ECU symbol in many of its European versions of Windows beginning in the early 1990s; however, accessing it required the use of an Alt code, and not all typefaces provided a glyph.", "By 2009, Microsoft referred to the ECU symbol as \"historical\".", "Support among other operating systems, including Macintosh operating systems, was inconsistent.Although the acronym for ECU is formed from the English name of the unit, the écu was a family of gold coins minted during the reign of Louis IX of France.", "The name of the ECU's successor, the euro, was chosen because the name did not favor any single language, nation, or historical period." ], [ "Coins and notes", "As the ECU was only an electronic unit of account and not a full currency, it did not have any official coins or notes that could be used for everyday transactions.", "However, various European countries and organizations like the European Parliament made commemorative and mock-up coins and notes.", "A common theme on the coins was usually celebrating European unity, such as celebrating membership of the European Union.Gibraltar issued commemorative coins from 1993 through 1996, though these were (nominally) legal tender only in Gibraltar, which uses the pound sterling." ], [ "Currency basket", "+Composition of 1 ECUPeriodNo.", "of national currency units (weight, i.e.", "% contribution to total value)1979–1984 BEF DEM DKK FRF GBP IEP ITL NLG LUF3.80 (9.64%)0.828 (32.98%)0.217 (3.06%)1.15 (19.83%)0.0885 (13.34%)0.00759 (1.15%)109 (9.49%)0.286 (10.51%)—1984–1989 BEF DEM DKK FRF GBP IEP ITL NLG LUF3.85 (8.57%)0.719 (32.08%)0.219 (2.69%)1.31 (19.06%)0.0878 (14.98%)0.00871 (1.20%)140 (9.98%)0.256 (10.13%)—1989–1998 BEF DEM DKK FRF GBP IEP ITL NLG LUF ESP GRD PTE3.301 (8.183%)0.6242 (31.915%)0.1976 (2.653%)1.332 (20.306%)0.08784 (12.452%)0.008552 (1.086%)151.8 (7.84%)0.2198 (9.87%)0.13 (0.322%)6.885 (4.138%)1.44 (0.437%)1.393 (0.695%)1999 EUR1.0 (100%)" ], [ "See also", "* Asian Monetary Unit* Eco (currency)* Green pound* World currency unit" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Economic and Monetary Union at the European Central Bank* Google Ngrams: Historical usage graph of \"ecus\" and \"euros\" in English" ] ]
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[ [ "Eastern Caribbean dollar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eastern Caribbean dollar''' (symbol: '''EC$'''; code: '''XCD''') is the currency of all seven full members and one associate member of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).", "The successor to the British West Indies dollar, it has existed since 1965, and it is normally abbreviated with the dollar sign ''$'' or, alternatively, ''EC$'' to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies.", "The EC$ is subdivided into 100 cents.", "It has been pegged to the United States dollar since 7 July 1976, at the exchange rate of = .70." ], [ "Circulation", "Six of the states using the EC$ are independent states: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.", "The other two, Anguilla and Montserrat, are British Overseas Territories.", "These states are all members of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union.The other two associate members of the OECS do not use the Eastern Caribbean dollar as their official currency: the British Virgin Islands and Martinique.", "The British Virgin Islands were always problematic for currency purposes due to their proximity to the Danish West Indies, which became the United States Virgin Islands in 1917.Officially, the British Virgin Islands used to use sterling, but in practice the situation was more complicated and involved the circulation of French francs and U.S. dollars.", "In 1951, the British Virgin Islands adopted the British West Indies dollar which at that time operated in conjunction with the sterling coinage, and in 1959 they changed over officially to the U.S. dollar.Martinique, as part of France, uses the euro as its currency.British Guiana and Barbados had previously been members of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union but withdrew in 1966 and 1972, respectively.", "Trinidad and Tobago had been a member of the earlier British West Indies currency union, but withdrew in 1964.The combined population of the EC$ area is about 613,000 (2014 census and estimates), which is comparable to Montenegro or the American capital city of Washington, D.C.", "The combined GDP is 5.46 billion US dollars, which is comparable to Bermuda.The late Queen Elizabeth II appears on the banknotes and also on the obverse of the coins.", "She was the head of state of all the states and territories using the EC$, except for Dominica.", "Dominica is nevertheless a member of the Commonwealth of Nations which now recognizes King Charles III as Head of the Commonwealth." ], [ "History", "Queen Anne's proclamation of 1704 was the first attempt to introduce sterling currency to the British West Indies, however it failed to displace the existing Spanish dollar currency system right up until the late 1870s.", "In 1822, the British government coined , , and fractional 'Anchor dollars' for use in Mauritius and the British West Indies (but not Jamaica).", "A few years later copper fractional dollars were coined for Mauritius, Sierra Leone, and the British West Indies.The next attempts to introduce British sterling silver coinage to the colonies came with an imperial order-in-council dated 1825.This move was inspired by a number of factors.", "The United Kingdom was now operating a very successful gold standard in relation to the gold sovereign that was introduced in 1816, and there was a desire to extend this system to the colonies.", "In addition to this, there was that the supply of Spanish dollars (pieces of eight) had been cut off as a result of the revolutions in Latin America where most of the Spanish dollars were minted.", "The last Spanish Dollar was in fact minted at Potosi in 1825.There was now a growing desire to have a stable and steady supply of British shillings everywhere the British drum was beating.", "The 1825 order-in-council was largely a failure because it made sterling silver coinage legal tender at the unrealistic rating in relation to the Spanish dollar of = 4 shillings 4 pence.", "It succeeded in Jamaica, Bermuda, and British Honduras because the authorities in those territories set aside the official ratings and used the more realistic rating of = 4 shillings.", "The reality of the rating between the dollar and the pound was based on the silver content of the Spanish pieces of eight as compared to the gold content of the British gold sovereign.A second imperial order-in-council was passed in 1838 with the correct rating of = 4 shillings 2 pence.", "In the years following the 1838 order-in-council, the British West Indies territories began to enact local legislation for the purposes of assimilating their monies of account with the British pound sterling.", "Gold discoveries in Australia in 1851 drove the silver dollar out of the West Indies, but it returned again with the great depreciation in the value of silver that followed with Germany's transition to the gold standard between 1871 and 1873.In the years immediately following 1873, there was a fear that the British West Indies might return to a silver standard.", "As such, legislation was passed in the individual territories to demonetize the silver dollars.", "Even though the British coinage was also silver, it represented fractions of the gold sovereign and so its value was based on a gold standard.During this period, and into the nineteenth century, accounts could be kept in either dollars or sterling.", "Jamaica, Bermuda, and the Bahamas preferred to use sterling accounts whereas British Guiana used dollar accounts.", "British Guiana used dollar accounts for the purpose of assisting in the transition from the Dutch guilder system of currency to the British pound sterling system.", "In the Eastern Caribbean territories the private sector preferred to use dollar accounts whereas the government preferred to use sterling accounts.", "In some of the Eastern Caribbean territories, notes were issued by various private banks, denominated in dollars equivalent to 4 shillings 2 pence.", "See Antigua dollar, Barbadian dollar, Dominican dollar, Grenadian dollar, Guyanese dollar, Saint Kitts dollar, Saint Lucia dollar, Saint Vincent dollar and Trinidad and Tobago dollar.In 1946, a West Indian Currency Conference saw Barbados, British Guiana, the Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago and the Windward Islands agree to establish a unified decimal currency system based on a West Indian dollar to replace the current arrangement of having three different Boards of Commissioners of Currency (for Barbados (which also served the Leeward and Windward Islands), British Guiana and Trinidad & Tobago).In 1949, the British government formalized the dollar system of accounts in British Guiana and the Eastern Caribbean territories by introducing the British West Indies dollar (BWI$) at the already existing conversion rate of per pound sterling (or = 4 shillings 2 pence).", "It was one of the many experimental political and economic ventures tested by the British government to form a uniform system within the British West Indies territories.", "The symbol \"BWI$\" was frequently used and the currency was known verbally as the \"Beewee\" (slang for British West Indies) dollar.", "Shortly thereafter in 1950, the British Caribbean Currency Board (BCCB) was set up in Trinidad with the sole right to issue notes and coins of the new unified currency and given the mandate of keeping full foreign exchange cover to ensure convertibility at .80 per pound sterling.", "In 1951, the British Virgin Islands joined the arrangement, but this led to discontent because that territory was more naturally drawn to the currency of the neighbouring U.S. Virgin Islands.", "In 1961, the British Virgin Islands withdrew from the arrangement and adopted the U.S. dollar.Until 1955, the BWI$ existed only as banknotes in conjunction with sterling fractional coinage.", "Decimal coins replaced the sterling coins in 1955.These decimal coins were denominated in cents, with each cent worth one halfpenny in sterling.In 1958, the West Indies Federation was established and the BWI$ was its currency.", "However, although Jamaica (including the Cayman Islands and the Turks and Caicos Islands) was part of the West Indies Federation, it retained the Jamaican pound, despite adopting the BWI$ as legal tender from 1954.Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, and the Turks and Caicos Islands were already long established users of the sterling accounts system of pounds, shillings, and pence.In 1964 Jamaica ended the legal tender status of the BWI$ and Trinidad and Tobago withdrew from the currency union (adopting the Trinidad and Tobago dollar) forcing the movement of the headquarters of the BCCB to Barbados and soon the \"BWI$\" dollar lost its regional support.In 1965, the British West Indies dollar of the now defunct West Indies Federation was replaced at par by the Eastern Caribbean dollar and the BCCB was replaced by the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority or ECCA (established by the Eastern Caribbean Currency Agreement 1965).", "British Guiana withdrew from the currency union the following year.", "Grenada, which had used the Trinidad and Tobago dollar from 1964, rejoined the common currency arrangement in 1968.Barbados withdrew from the currency union in 1972, following which the ECCA headquarters were moved to St. Kitts.Between 1965 and 1983, the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority issued the EC$, with banknotes from 1965 and coins from 1981.The EC$ is now issued by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, based in the city of Basseterre, in Saint Kitts and Nevis.", "The bank was established by an agreement (the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank Agreement) signed at Port of Spain on 5 July 1983.The exchange rate of = £1 sterling (equivalent to the old = 4s 2d) continued until 1976 for the new Eastern Caribbean dollar.For a wider outline of the history of currency in the region see Currencies of the British West Indies." ], [ "Coins", "Until 1981, the coins of the BWI$ circulated.", "In 1982, a new series of coins was introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 25 cents and 1 dollar.", "The 1 and 5 cent coins were scalloped in shape while the 2 cent coin was square.", "These three were struck in aluminum.", "The 10 and 25 cent coins were round and cupro-nickel.", "The dollar was aluminum bronze and also round.", "The round, aluminum bronze dollar coin was replaced in 1989 with a decagonal, cupro-nickel type.", "In 2002 new and larger round-shaped 1, 2, and 5 cent pieces were introduced, along with a new 1 dollar coin which was also round.", "The effigy of Queen Elizabeth II was also changed that same year on all coin denominations to the Ian Rank-Broadley design, making it the last commonwealth currency up to that date to discontinue the Arnold Machin portrait.", "Their compositions remained aluminum and cupro-nickel, respectively.", "Higher denominations exist, but these were issued only as medal-coins.", "1 and 2 cent coins were withdrawn from circulation in July 2015, and remained legal tender until 30 June 2020.+ 2002 Series Value Technical parameters Description Date of first minting Diameter Mass Composition Edge Obverse Reverse 1 cent 18.42 mm 1.03 g Aluminium Plain Elizabeth II Value, year of minting, \"East Caribbean States\", 2-branch wreath 2002 2 cents 21.46 mm 1.42 g 5 cents 23.11 mm 1.74 g 10 cents 18.06 mm 2.59 g Cupronickel Ribbed Value, year of minting, \"East Caribbean States\", sailing ship 25 cents 23.98 mm 6.48 g 1 dollar 26.5 mm 7.98 g Alternate smooth and ribbed" ], [ "Banknotes", "In 1965, the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority issued banknotes in denominations of 1, 5, 20 and 100 dollars, all featuring Pietro Annigoni's 1956 portrait of Queen Elizabeth II in regalia of the Order of the Garter.", "The first issues in the name of the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank in 1985 were of the same denominations, with the addition of 10 dollar notes.", "The last 1 dollar notes were issued in 1989 and 50 dollar notes were introduced in 1993.On 1 April 2008, the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank issued a new series of banknotes which are like the preceding issues, except for omitting both the barcode and the country code letters which form part of the serial number on current notes.", "In 2012, the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank issued a series of banknotes with Braille features in an effort to provide notes which are easier for blind and visually impaired persons to use.", "The raised Braille characters on the upgraded notes feature a cricket theme in the form of balls and stumps.", "These characters have been added to the 10, 20, 50, and 100 dollar notes.In 2019, the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank is set to introduce a new family of notes produced in polymer substrate and are to be presented in a vertical format.+2019 Issue Obverse Reverse Denomination Obverse ReverseEast Caribbean States $5 note (front)East Caribbean States $5 note (rear)EC$5Queen Elizabeth II, turtle, Green-throated caribTrafalgar Falls, Dominica; Admiral's House, Antigua East Caribbean States $10 note (front)East Caribbean States $10 note (rear)EC$10Admiralty Bay, Bequia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States; brown pelican; tropical fishEast Caribbean States $20 note (front)East Caribbean States $20 note (rear) EC$20 Government House, Montserrat, NutmegEast Caribbean States $50 note (front)East Caribbean States $50 note (rear) EC$50 Sir K. Dwight Venner; Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park, St. Kitts; Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, Tropical FishEast Caribbean States $100 note (front)East Caribbean States $100 note (rear) EC$100 Sir William Arthur Lewis, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, View of the twin peaks of Les Pitons Volcano – Petit Piton and Gros Piton near Soufrière in Saint Lucia, Tropical Fish=== Previous issues ===+2008 IssueObverseReverseDenominationObverseReverseEC$5Queen Elizabeth II, turtle, Green-throated caribAdmiral's House in Antigua and Barbuda, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, Trafalgar Falls in Dominica, tropical fishEC$10Admiralty Bay in St. Vincent & The Grenadines, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, The Warspite schooner in Anguilla, brown pelican, tropical fishEC$20Government House Montserrat, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, hands harvesting nutmeg in Grenada, tropical fishEC$50Brimstone Hill fortress in St. Kitts, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, Les Pitons (volcanoes) in St. Lucia, sooty tern, tropical fishEC$100St.", "Lucian economist Sir William Arthur Lewis, map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, Eastern Caribbean Central Bank building, Lesser Antillean swifts, tropical fishThe 2012 issue included raised braille elements for the visually-impaired in the form of a cricket ball and stumps.", "These were added to the EC$10, $20, $50, and $100 banknotes.", "+2012 IssueObverseReverseDenominationObverseReverseEC$10Queen Elizabeth II, turtle, Green-throated caribAdmiralty Bay in St. Vincent & The Grenadines, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, The Warspite schooner in Anguilla, brown pelican, tropical fishEC$20Government House Montserrat, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, hands harvesting nutmeg in Grenada, tropical fishEC$50Brimstone Hill fortress in St. Kitts, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, Les Pitons (volcanoes) in St. Lucia, sooty tern, tropical fishEC$100St.", "Lucian economist Sir William Arthur Lewis, map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, Eastern Caribbean Central Bank building, Lesser Antillean swifts, tropical fish+2015 IssueObverseReverseDenominationObverseReverseEC$10Queen Elizabeth II, turtle, Green-throated caribAdmiralty Bay in St. Vincent & The Grenadines, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, The Warspite schooner in Anguilla, brown pelican, tropical fishEC$20Government House Montserrat, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, hands harvesting nutmeg in Grenada, tropical fishEC$50Brimstone Hill fortress in St. Kitts, Map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, Les Pitons (volcanoes) in St. Lucia, sooty tern, tropical fishEC$100St.", "Lucian economist Sir William Arthur Lewis, map of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, silver compass rose, Eastern Caribbean Central Bank building, Lesser Antillean swifts, tropical fish" ], [ "See also", "* Amero* CARICOM* Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean* Currencies of the British West Indies* Currency union* Eastern Caribbean Securities Exchange* Economy of the Caribbean* Sterling area* SUCRE (currency)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ECCB: Banknotes* ECCB: Coins* The banknotes of the Eastern Caribbean dollar" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erythromycin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erythromycin''' is an antibiotic used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections.", "This includes respiratory tract infections, skin infections, chlamydia infections, pelvic inflammatory disease, and syphilis.", "It may also be used during pregnancy to prevent Group B streptococcal infection in the newborn, and to improve delayed stomach emptying.", "It can be given intravenously and by mouth.", "An eye ointment is routinely recommended after delivery to prevent eye infections in the newborn.Common side effects include abdominal cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea.", "More serious side effects may include ''Clostridium difficile'' colitis, liver problems, prolonged QT, and allergic reactions.", "It is generally safe in those who are allergic to penicillin.", "Erythromycin also appears to be safe to use during pregnancy.", "While generally regarded as safe during breastfeeding, its use by the mother during the first two weeks of life may increase the risk of pyloric stenosis in the baby.", "This risk also applies if taken directly by the baby during this age.", "It is in the macrolide family of antibiotics and works by decreasing bacterial protein production.Erythromycin was first isolated in 1952 from the bacteria ''Saccharopolyspora erythraea''.", "It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.", "In 2021, it was the 259th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions." ], [ "Medical uses", "Erythromycin can be used to treat bacteria responsible for causing infections of the skin and upper respiratory tract, including ''Streptococcus'', ''Staphylococcus'', ''Haemophilus'' and ''Corynebacterium'' genera.", "The following represents MIC susceptibility data for a few medically significant bacteria:* ''Haemophilus influenzae'': 0.015 to 256 μg/ml* ''Staphylococcus aureus'': 0.023 to 1024 μg/ml* ''Streptococcus pyogenes'': 0.004 to 256 μg/ml* ''Corynebacterium minutissimum'': 0.015 to 64 μg/mlIt may be useful in treating gastroparesis due to this promotility effect.", "It has been shown to improve feeding intolerances in those who are critically ill. Intravenous erythromycin may also be used in endoscopy to help clear stomach contents.=== Available forms ===Enteric-coated erythromycin capsule from Abbott LabsErythromycin is available in enteric-coated tablets, slow-release capsules, oral suspensions, ophthalmic solutions, ointments, gels, enteric-coated capsules, non enteric-coated tablets, non enteric-coated capsules, and injections.The following erythromycin combinations are available for oral dosage:* erythromycin base (capsules, tablets)* erythromycin estolate (capsules, oral suspension, tablets), contraindicated during pregnancy* erythromycin ethylsuccinate (oral suspension, tablets)* erythromycin stearate (oral suspension, tablets)For injection, the available combinations are:* erythromycin gluceptate* erythromycin lactobionateFor ophthalmic use:* erythromycin base (ointment)" ], [ "Adverse effects", "Gastrointestinal disturbances, such as diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, and vomiting, are very common because erythromycin is a motilin agonist.More serious side effects include arrhythmia with prolonged QT intervals, including ''torsades de pointes'', and reversible deafness.", "Allergic reactions range from urticaria to anaphylaxis.", "Cholestasis and Stevens–Johnson syndrome are some other rare side effects that may occur.Studies have shown evidence both for and against the association of pyloric stenosis and exposure to erythromycin prenatally and postnatally.", "Exposure to erythromycin (especially long courses at antimicrobial doses, and also through breastfeeding) has been linked to an increased probability of pyloric stenosis in young infants.", "Erythromycin used for feeding intolerance in young infants has not been associated with hypertrophic pyloric stenosis.Erythromycin estolate has been associated with reversible hepatotoxicity in pregnant women in the form of elevated serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase and is not recommended during pregnancy.", "Some evidence suggests similar hepatotoxicity in other populations.It can also affect the central nervous system, causing psychotic reactions, nightmares, and night sweats." ], [ "Interactions", "Erythromycin is metabolized by enzymes of the cytochrome P450 system, in particular, by isozymes of the CYP3A superfamily.", "The activity of the CYP3A enzymes can be induced or inhibited by certain drugs (e.g., dexamethasone), which can cause it to affect the metabolism of many different drugs, including erythromycin.", "If other CYP3A substrates — drugs that are broken down by CYP3A — such as simvastatin (Zocor), lovastatin (Mevacor), or atorvastatin (Lipitor) — are taken concomitantly with erythromycin, levels of the substrates increase, often causing adverse effects.", "A noted drug interaction involves erythromycin and simvastatin, resulting in increased simvastatin levels and the potential for rhabdomyolysis.", "Another group of CYP3A4 substrates are drugs used for migraine such as ergotamine and dihydroergotamine; their adverse effects may be more pronounced if erythromycin is associated.Earlier case reports on sudden death prompted a study on a large cohort that confirmed a link between erythromycin, ventricular tachycardia, and sudden cardiac death in patients also taking drugs that prolong the metabolism of erythromycin (like verapamil or diltiazem) by interfering with CYP3A4.Hence, erythromycin should not be administered to people using these drugs, or drugs that also prolong the QT interval.", "Other examples include terfenadine (Seldane, Seldane-D), astemizole (Hismanal), cisapride (Propulsid, withdrawn in many countries for prolonging the QT time) and pimozide (Orap).", "Interactions with theophylline, which is used mostly in asthma, were also shown.Erythromycin and doxycycline can have a synergistic effect when combined and kill bacteria (''E.", "coli)'' with a higher potency than the sum of the two drugs together.", "This synergistic relationship is only temporary.", "After approximately 72 hours, the relationship shifts to become antagonistic, whereby a 50/50 combination of the two drugs kills less bacteria than if the two drugs were administered separately.It may alter the effectiveness of combined oral contraceptive pills because of its effect on the gut flora.", "A review found that when erythromycin was given with certain oral contraceptives, there was an increase in the maximum serum concentrations and AUC of estradiol and dienogest.Erythromycin is an inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 system, which means it can have a rapid effect on levels of other drugs metabolised by this system, e.g., warfarin." ], [ "Pharmacology", "=== Mechanism of action ===Erythromycin displays bacteriostatic activity or inhibits growth of bacteria, especially at higher concentrations.", "By binding to the 50s subunit of the bacterial rRNA complex, protein synthesis and subsequent structure and function processes critical for life or replication are inhibited.", "Erythromycin interferes with aminoacyl translocation, preventing the transfer of the tRNA bound at the A site of the rRNA complex to the P site of the rRNA complex.", "Without this translocation, the A site remains occupied, thus the addition of an incoming tRNA and its attached amino acid to the nascent polypeptide chain is inhibited.", "This interferes with the production of functionally useful proteins, which is the basis of this antimicrobial action.Erythromycin increases gut motility by binding to motilin receptor, thus it is a motilin receptor agonist in addition to its antimicrobial properties.", "It can be therefore administered intravenously as a stomach emptying stimulant.=== Pharmacokinetics ===Erythromycin is easily inactivated by gastric acid; therefore, all orally administered formulations are given as either enteric-coated or more-stable salts or esters, such as erythromycin ethylsuccinate.", "Erythromycin is very rapidly absorbed, and diffuses into most tissues and phagocytes.", "Due to the high concentration in phagocytes, erythromycin is actively transported to the site of infection, where, during active phagocytosis, large concentrations of erythromycin are released.=== Metabolism ===Most of erythromycin is metabolised by demethylation in the liver by the hepatic enzyme CYP3A4.Its main elimination route is in the bile with little renal excretion, 2%–15% unchanged drug.", "Erythromycin's elimination half-life ranges between 1.5 and 2.0 hours and is between 5 and 6 hours in patients with end-stage renal disease.", "Erythromycin levels peak in the serum 4 hours after dosing; ethylsuccinate peaks 0.5–2.5 hours after dosing, but can be delayed if digested with food.Erythromycin crosses the placenta and enters breast milk.", "The American Association of Pediatrics determined erythromycin is safe to take while breastfeeding.", "Absorption in pregnant patients has been shown to be variable, frequently resulting in levels lower than in nonpregnant patients." ], [ "Chemistry", "=== Composition ===Standard-grade erythromycin is primarily composed of four related compounds known as erythromycins A, B, C, and D. Each of these compounds can be present in varying amounts and can differ by lot.", "Erythromycin A has been found to have the most antibacterial activity, followed by erythromycin B. Erythromycins C and D are about half as active as erythromycin A.", "Some of these related compounds have been purified and can be studied and researched individually.=== Synthesis ===Over the three decades after the discovery of erythromycin A and its activity as an antimicrobial, many attempts were made to synthesize it in the laboratory.", "The presence of 10 stereogenic carbons and several points of distinct substitution has made the total synthesis of erythromycin A a formidable task.", "Complete syntheses of erythromycins’ related structures and precursors such as 6-deoxyerythronolide B have been accomplished, giving way to possible syntheses of different erythromycins and other macrolide antimicrobials.", "Woodward successfully completed the synthesis of erythromycin A." ], [ "History", "In 1949 Abelardo B. Aguilar, a Filipino scientist, sent some soil samples to his employer at Eli Lilly.", "Aguilar managed to isolate erythromycin from the metabolic products of a strain of ''Streptomyces erythreus'' (designation changed to ''Saccharopolyspora erythraea'') found in the samples.", "Aguilar received no further credit or compensation for his discovery.The scientist was allegedly promised a trip to the company's manufacturing plant in Indianapolis, but it was never fulfilled.", "In a letter to the company's president, Aguilar wrote: “A leave of absence is all I ask as I do not wish to sever my connection with a great company which has given me wonderful breaks in life.” The request was not granted.Aguilar reached out to Eli Lilly again in 1993, requesting royalties from sales of the drug over the years, intending to use them to put up a foundation for poor and sickly Filipinos.", "This request was also denied.", "He died in September of the same year.Lilly filed for patent protection on the compound which was granted in 1953.The product was launched commercially in 1952 under the brand name Ilosone (after the Philippine region of Iloilo where it was originally collected).", "Erythromycin was formerly also called Ilotycin.The antibiotic clarithromycin was invented by scientists at the Japanese drug company Taisho Pharmaceutical in the 1970s as a result of their efforts to overcome the acid instability of erythromycin." ], [ "Society and culture", "=== Economics ===It is available as a generic medication.In the United States, in 2014, the price increased to seven dollars per tablet.The price of erythromycin rose three times between 2010 and 2015, from 24 cents per tablet in 2010 to $8.96 in 2015.In 2017, a Kaiser Health News study found that the per-unit cost of dozens of generics doubled or even tripled from 2015 to 2016, increasing spending by the Medicaid program.", "Due to price increases by drug manufacturers, Medicaid paid on average $2,685,330 more for Erythromycin in 2016 compared to 2015 (not including rebates).", "By 2018, generic drug prices had climbed another 5% on average.===Brand names===Brand names include Robimycin, E-Mycin, E.E.S.", "Granules, E.E.S.-200, E.E.S.-400, E.E.S.-400 Filmtab, Erymax, Ery-Tab, Eryc, Ranbaxy, Erypar, EryPed, Eryped 200, Eryped 400, Erythrocin Stearate Filmtab, Erythrocot, E-Base, Erythroped, Ilosone, MY-E, Pediamycin, Zineryt, Abboticin, Abboticin-ES, Erycin, PCE Dispertab, Stiemycine, Acnasol, and Tiloryth." ], [ "Veterinary uses", "Erythromycin is also used in fishcare for the \"''broad spectrum treatment and control of bacterial disease''\".", "Body slime, mouth fungus, furunculosis, bacterial gill illness, and hemorrhagic septicaemia are all examples of bacterial diseases in fish that may be treated and controlled with this therapy.", "The usage of Erythromycin in fishcare is mainly limited to therapies targeting gram-positive bacteria." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Environmental law" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Environmental laws''' are laws that protect the environment.", "Environmental law is the collection of laws, regulations, agreements and common law that governs how humans interact with their environment.", "This includes '''environmental regulations'''; laws governing management of natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries; and related topics such as environmental impact assessments.", "Environmental law is seen as the body of laws concerned with the protection of living things (human beings inclusive) from the harm that human activity may immediately or eventually cause to them or their species, either directly or to the media and the habits on which they depend." ], [ "History", "Early examples of laws designed to preserve the environment for its own sake or for human enjoyment are found throughout history.", "In the common law, the primary protection was found in the law of nuisance, but this only allowed for private actions for damages or injunctions if there was harm to land.", "Thus, smells emanating from pigsties, strict liability against dumping rubbish, or damage from exploding dams.", "Private enforcement, however, was limited and found to be woefully inadequate to deal with major environmental threats, particularly threats to common resources.", "During the \"Great Stink\" of 1858, the dumping of sewerage into the River Thames began to smell so ghastly in the summer heat that Parliament had to be evacuated.", "Ironically, the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers Act 1848 had allowed the Metropolitan Commission for Sewers to close cesspits around the city in an attempt to \"clean up\" but this simply led people to pollute the river.", "In 19 days, Parliament passed a further Act to build the London sewerage system.", "London also suffered from terrible air pollution, and this culminated in the \"Great Smog\" of 1952, which in turn triggered its own legislative response: the Clean Air Act 1956.The basic regulatory structure was to set limits on emissions for households and businesses (particularly burning of coal) while an inspectorate would enforce compliance." ], [ "Pollution control", "=== Air quality ===Industrial air pollution now regulated by air quality law=== Water quality ===A typical stormwater outfall, subject to water quality law=== Waste management ===A municipal landfill, operated pursuant to waste management law=== Contaminant cleanup ===Oil spill emergency response, governed by environmental cleanup law=== Chemical safety ===Chemical safety laws govern the use of chemicals in human activities, particularly human-made chemicals in modern industrial applications.", "As contrasted with media-oriented environmental laws (e.g., air or water quality laws), chemical control laws seek to manage the (potential) pollutants themselves.", "Regulatory efforts include banning specific chemical constituents in consumer products (e.g., Bisphenol A in plastic bottles), and regulating pesticides." ], [ "Resource sustainability", "=== Impact assessment ====== Water resources ===water resources lawWater resources laws govern the ownership and use of water resources, including surface water and ground water.", "Regulatory areas may include water conservation, use restrictions, and ownership regimes.=== Mineral resources ====== Forest resources ===A timber operation, regulated by forestry law=== Wildlife and plants ===Wildlife laws govern the potential impact of human activity on wild animals, whether directly on individuals or populations, or indirectly via habitat degradation.", "Similar laws may operate to protect plant species.", "Such laws may be enacted entirely to protect biodiversity, or as a means for protecting species deemed important for other reasons.", "Regulatory efforts may include the creation of special conservation statuses, prohibitions on killing, harming, or disturbing protected species, efforts to induce and support species recovery, establishment of wildlife refuges to support conservation, and prohibitions on trafficking in species or animal parts to combat poaching.=== Fish and game ===Fish and game laws regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of fish and wild animal (game).", "Such laws may restrict the days to harvest fish or game, the number of animals caught per person, the species harvested, or the weapons or fishing gear used.", "Such laws may seek to balance dueling needs for preservation and harvest and to manage both environment and populations of fish and game.", "Game laws can provide a legal structure to collect license fees and other money which is used to fund conservation efforts as well as to obtain harvest information used in wildlife management practice." ], [ "Principles", "Environmental law has developed in response to emerging awareness of and concern over issues impacting the entire world.", "While laws have developed piecemeal and for a variety of reasons, some effort has gone into identifying key concepts and guiding principles common to environmental law as a whole.", "The principles discussed below are not an exhaustive list and are not universally recognized or accepted.", "Nonetheless, they represent important principles for the understanding of environmental law around the world.=== Sustainable development ===Defined by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as \"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,\" sustainable development may be considered together with the concepts of \"integration\" (development cannot be considered in isolation from sustainability) and \"interdependence\" (social and economic development, and environmental protection, are interdependent).", "Laws mandating environmental impact assessment and requiring or encouraging development to minimize environmental impacts may be assessed against this principle.The modern concept of sustainable development was a topic of discussion at the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference), and the driving force behind the 1983 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, or Bruntland Commission).", "In 1992, the first UN Earth Summit resulted in the Rio Declaration, Principle 3 of which reads: \"The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.\"", "Sustainable development has been a core concept of international environmental discussion ever since, including at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit 2002), and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit 2012, or Rio+20).=== Equity ===Defined by UNEP to include intergenerational equity – \"the right of future generations to enjoy a fair level of the common patrimony\" – and intragenerational equity – \"the right of all people within the current generation to fair access to the current generation's entitlement to the Earth's natural resources\" – environmental equity considers the present generation under an obligation to account for long-term impacts of activities, and to act to sustain the global environment and resource base for future generations.", "Pollution control and resource management laws may be assessed against this principle.=== Transboundary responsibility ===Defined in the international law context as an obligation to protect one's own environment, and to prevent damage to neighboring environments, UNEP considers transboundary responsibility at the international level as a potential limitation on the rights of the sovereign state.", "Laws that act to limit externalities imposed upon human health and the environment may be assessed against this principle.=== Public participation and transparency ===Identified as essential conditions for \"accountable governments,... industrial concerns,\" and organizations generally, public participation and transparency are presented by UNEP as requiring \"effective protection of the human right to hold and express opinions and to seek, receive and impart ideas,... a right of access to appropriate, comprehensible and timely information held by governments and industrial concerns on economic and social policies regarding the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment, without imposing undue financial burdens upon the applicants and with adequate protection of privacy and business confidentiality,\" and \"effective judicial and administrative proceedings.\"", "These principles are present in environmental impact assessment, laws requiring publication and access to relevant environmental data, and administrative procedure.=== Precautionary principle ===One of the most commonly encountered and controversial principles of environmental law, the Rio Declaration formulated the precautionary principle as follows:In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.", "Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.The principle may play a role in any debate over the need for environmental regulation.=== Prevention ===:The concept of prevention ... can perhaps better be considered an overarching aim that gives rise to a multitude of legal mechanisms, including prior assessment of environmental harm, licensing or authorization that set out the conditions for operation and the consequences for violation of the conditions, as well as the adoption of strategies and policies.", "Emission limits and other product or process standards, the use of best available techniques and similar techniques can all be seen as applications of the concept of prevention.=== Polluter pays principle ===The polluter pays principle stands for the idea that \"the environmental costs of economic activities, including the cost of preventing potential harm, should be internalized rather than imposed upon society at large.\"", "All issues related to responsibility for cost for environmental remediation and compliance with pollution control regulations involve this principle." ], [ "Theory", "Environmental law is a continuing source of controversy.", "Debates over the necessity, fairness, and cost of environmental regulation are ongoing, as well as regarding the appropriateness of regulations vs. market solutions to achieve even agreed-upon ends.Allegations of scientific uncertainty fuel the ongoing debate over greenhouse gas regulation, and are a major factor in debates over whether to ban particular pesticides.", "In cases where the science is well-settled, it is not unusual to find that corporations intentionally hide or distort the facts, or sow confusion.It is very common for regulated industry to argue against environmental regulation on the basis of cost.", "Difficulties arise in performing cost–benefit analysis of environmental issues.", "It is difficult to quantify the value of an environmental value such as a healthy ecosystem, clean air, or species diversity.", "Many environmentalists' response to pitting economy vs. ecology is summed up by former Senator and founder of Earth Day Gaylord Nelson, \"The economy is a wholly owned subsidiary of the environment, not the other way around.\"", "Furthermore, environmental issues are seen by many as having an ethical or moral dimension, which would transcend financial cost.", "Even so, there are some efforts underway to systemically recognize environmental costs and assets, and account for them properly in economic terms.While affected industries spark controversy in fighting regulation, there are also many environmentalists and public interest groups who believe that current regulations are inadequate, and advocate for stronger protection.", "Environmental law conferences – such as the annual Public Interest Environmental Law Conference in Eugene, Oregon – typically have this focus, also connecting environmental law with class, race, and other issues.An additional debate is to what extent environmental laws are fair to all regulated parties.", "For instance, researchers Preston Teeter and Jorgen Sandberg highlight how smaller organizations can often incur disproportionately larger costs as a result of environmental regulations, which can ultimately create an additional barrier to entry for new firms, thus stifling competition and innovation." ], [ "International environmental law", "Global and regional environmental issues are increasingly the subject of international law.", "Debates over environmental concerns implicate core principles of international law and have been the subject of numerous international agreements and declarations.Customary international law is an important source of international environmental law.", "These are the norms and rules that countries follow as a matter of custom and they are so prevalent that they bind all states in the world.", "When a principle becomes customary law is not clear cut and many arguments are put forward by states not wishing to be bound.", "Examples of customary international law relevant to the environment include the duty to warn other states promptly about icons of an environmental nature and environmental damages to which another state or states may be exposed, and Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration ('good neighborliness' or sic utere).Given that customary international law is not static but ever evolving and the continued increase of air pollution (carbon dioxide) causing climate changes, has led to discussions on whether basic customary principles of international law, such as the jus cogens (peremptory norms) and erga omnes principles could be applicable for enforcing international environmental law.Numerous legally binding international agreements encompass a wide variety of issue-areas, from terrestrial, marine and atmospheric pollution through to wildlife and biodiversity protection.", "International environmental agreements are generally multilateral (or sometimes bilateral) treaties (a.k.a.", "convention, agreement, protocol, etc.).", "Protocols are subsidiary agreements built from a primary treaty.", "They exist in many areas of international law but are especially useful in the environmental field, where they may be used to regularly incorporate recent scientific knowledge.", "They also permit countries to reach an agreement on a framework that would be contentious if every detail were to be agreed upon in advance.", "The most widely known protocol in international environmental law is the Kyoto Protocol, which followed from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.While the bodies that proposed, argued, agreed upon, and ultimately adopted existing international agreements vary according to each agreement, certain conferences, including 1972's United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1983's World Commission on Environment and Development, 1992's United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, and 2002's World Summit on Sustainable Development have been particularly important.", "Multilateral environmental agreements sometimes create an International Organization, Institution or Body responsible for implementing the agreement.", "Major examples are the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).International environmental law also includes the opinions of international courts and tribunals.", "While there are few and they have limited authority, the decisions carry much weight with legal commentators and are quite influential on the development of international environmental law.", "One of the biggest challenges in international decisions is to determine an adequate compensation for environmental damages.", "The courts include the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), the European Court of Justice, European Court of Human Rights and other regional treaty tribunals." ], [ "Around the world", "=== Africa ===According to the International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE), the major environmental issues in Africa are \"drought and flooding, air pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, freshwater availability, degradation of soil and vegetation, and widespread poverty.\"", "The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is focused on the \"growing urban and industrial pollution, water quality, electronic waste and indoor air from cookstoves.\"", "They hope to provide enough aid on concerns regarding pollution before their impacts contaminate the African environment as well as the global environment.", "By doing so, they intend to \"protect human health, particularly vulnerable populations such as children and the poor.\"", "In order to accomplish these goals in Africa, EPA programs are focused on strengthening the ability to enforce environmental laws as well as public compliance to them.", "Other programs work on developing stronger environmental laws, regulations, and standards.=== Asia ===The Asian Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Network (AECEN) is an agreement between 16 Asian countries dedicated to improving cooperation with environmental laws in Asia.", "These countries include Cambodia, China, Indonesia, India, Maldives, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Lao PDR.=== European Union ===The European Union issues secondary legislation on environmental issues that are valid throughout the EU (so called regulations) and many directives that must be implemented into national legislation from the 27 member states (national states).", "Examples are the Regulation (EC) No.", "338/97 on the implementation of CITES; or the Natura 2000 network the centerpiece for nature & biodiversity policy, encompassing the bird Directive (79/409/EEC/ changed to 2009/147/EC)and the habitats directive (92/43/EEC).", "Which are made up of multiple SACs (Special Areas of Conservation, linked to the habitats directive) & SPAs (Special Protected Areas, linked to the bird directive), throughout Europe.EU legislation is ruled in Article 249 Treaty for the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).", "Topics for common EU legislation are:* Climate change* Air pollution* Water protection and management* Waste management* Soil protection* Protection of nature, species and biodiversity* Noise pollution* Cooperation for the environment with third countries (other than EU member states)* Civil protection=== Middle East ===Environmental law is rapidly growing in the Middle East.", "The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is working with countries in the Middle East to improve \"environmental governance, water pollution and water security, clean fuels and vehicles, public participation, and pollution prevention.", "\"=== Oceania ===The main concerns about environmental issues in Oceania are \"illegal releases of air and water pollutants, illegal logging/timber trade, illegal shipment of hazardous wastes, including e-waste and ships slated for destruction, and insufficient institutional structure/lack of enforcement capacity\".", "The Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP) is an international organization between Australia, the Cook Islands, FMS, Fiji, France, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Island, Tonga, Tuvalu, US, and Vanuatu.", "The SPREP was established in order to provide assistance in improving and protecting the environment as well as assure sustainable development for future generations.=== Australia ===''Commonwealth v Tasmania'' (1983), also known as the \"Tasmanian Dam Case\", was a highly significant case in Australian environmental law.The ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' is the centerpiece of environmental legislation in Australia.", "It sets up the \"legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places\" and focuses on protecting world heritage properties, national heritage properties, wetlands of international importance, nationally threatened species and ecological communities, migratory species, Commonwealth marine areas, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and the environment surrounding nuclear activities.", "However, it has been subject to numerous reviews examining its shortcomings, the latest taking place in mid-2020.The interim report of this review concluded that the laws created to protect unique species and habitats are ineffective.=== Brazil ===The Brazilian government created the Ministry of Environment in 1992 in order to develop better strategies for protecting the environment, using natural resources sustainably, and enforcing public environmental policies.", "The Ministry of Environment has authority over policies involving environment, water resources, preservation, and environmental programs involving the Amazon.=== Canada ===The Department of the Environment Act establishes the Department of the Environment in the Canadian government as well as the position Minister of the Environment.", "Their duties include \"the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality; renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna; water; meteorology;\" The Environmental Protection Act is the main piece of Canadian environmental legislation that was put into place March 31, 2000.The Act focuses on \"respecting pollution prevention and the protection of the environment and human health in order to contribute to sustainable development.\"", "Other principle federal statutes include the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, and the Species at Risk Act.", "When provincial and federal legislation are in conflict federal legislation takes precedence, that being said individual provinces can have their own legislation such as Ontario's Environmental Bill of Rights, and Clean Water Act.=== China ===According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, \"China has been working with great determination in recent years to develop, implement, and enforce a solid environmental law framework.", "Chinese officials face critical challenges in effectively implementing the laws, clarifying the roles of their national and provincial governments, and strengthening the operation of their legal system.\"", "Explosive economic and industrial growth in China has led to significant environmental degradation, and China is currently in the process of developing more stringent legal controls.", "The harmonization of Chinese society and the natural environment is billed as a rising policy priority.Environmental lawsuits have been available in China since the early 2000s.", "Public protest, however, plays a greater role in shaping China's environmental policy than litigation does.=== Congo (RC) ===In the Republic of Congo, inspired by the African models of the 1990s, the phenomenon of constitutionalization of environmental law appeared in 1992, which completed an historical development of environmental law and policy dating back to the years of independence and even long before the colonization.", "It gives a constitutional basis to environmental protection, which traditionally was part of the legal framework.", "The two Constitutions of 15 March 1992 and 20 January 2002 concretize this paradigm, by stating a legal obligation of a clean environment, by establishing a principle of compensation and a foundation of criminal nature.", "By this phenomenon, Congolese environmental law is situated between non-regression and the search for efficiency.", "\"=== Ecuador ===With the enactment of the 2008 Constitution, Ecuador became the first country in the world to codify the Rights of Nature.", "The Constitution, specifically Articles 10 and 71–74, recognizes the inalienable rights of ecosystems to exist and flourish, gives people the authority to petition on the behalf of ecosystems, and requires the government to remedy violations of these rights.", "The rights approach is a break away from traditional environmental regulatory systems, which regard nature as property and legalize and manage degradation of the environment rather than prevent it.The Rights of Nature articles in Ecuador's constitution are part of a reaction to a combination of political, economic, and social phenomena.", "Ecuador's abusive past with the oil industry, most famously the class-action litigation against Chevron, and the failure of an extraction-based economy and neoliberal reforms to bring economic prosperity to the region has resulted in the election of a New Leftist regime, led by President Rafael Correa, and sparked a demand for new approaches to development.", "In conjunction with this need, the principle of \"Buen Vivir,\" or good living – focused on social, environmental and spiritual wealth versus material wealth – gained popularity among citizens and was incorporated into the new constitution.The influence of indigenous groups, from whom the concept of \"Buen Vivir\" originates, in the forming of the constitutional ideals also facilitated the incorporation of the Rights of Nature as a basic tenet of their culture and conceptualization of \"Buen Vivir.", "\"=== Egypt ===The Environmental Protection Law outlines the responsibilities of the Egyptian government to \"preparation of draft legislation and decrees pertinent to environmental management, collection of data both nationally and internationally on the state of the environment, preparation of periodical reports and studies on the state of the environment, formulation of the national plan and its projects, preparation of environmental profiles for new and urban areas, and setting of standards to be used in planning for their development, and preparation of an annual report on the state of the environment to be prepared to the President.", "\"=== India ===In India, Environmental law is governed by the Environment Protection Act, 1986.This act is enforced by the Central Pollution Control Board and the numerous State Pollution Control Boards.", "Apart from this, there are also individual legislation specifically enacted for the protection of Water, Air, Wildlife, etc.", "Such legislations include :* The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974* The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977* The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980* The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981* Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Union Territories) Rules, 1983* The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972* Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001* Recycled Plastics, Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999* The National Green Tribunal established under the National Green Tribunal Act of 2010 has jurisdiction over all environmental cases dealing with a substantial environmental question and acts covered under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.", "* Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978* Ganga Action Plan, 1986* The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980* Wildlife protection Act, 1972* The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.The acts covered under Indian Wild Life Protection Act 1972 do not fall within the jurisdiction of the National Green Tribunal.", "Appeals can be filed in the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India.", "* Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements on Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 1989 and Its Protocols* Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2003=== Japan ===The Basic Environmental Law is the basic structure of Japan's environmental policies replacing the Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control and the Nature Conservation Law.", "The updated law aims to address \"global environmental problems, urban pollution by everyday life, loss of accessible natural environment in urban areas and degrading environmental protection capacity in forests and farmlands.", "\"The three basic environmental principles that the Basic Environmental Law follows are \"the blessings of the environment should be enjoyed by the present generation and succeeded to the future generations, a sustainable society should be created where environmental loads by human activities are minimized, and Japan should contribute actively to global environmental conservation through international cooperation.", "\"From these principles, the Japanese government have established policies such as \"environmental consideration in policy formulation, establishment of the Basic Environment Plan which describes the directions of long-term environmental policy, environmental impact assessment for development projects, economic measures to encourage activities for reducing environmental load, improvement of social infrastructure such as sewerage system, transport facilities etc., promotion of environmental activities by corporations, citizens and NGOs, environmental education, and provision of information, promotion of science and technology.", "\"=== New Zealand ===The Ministry for the Environment and Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment were established by the Environment Act 1986.These positions are responsible for advising the Minister on all areas of environmental legislation.", "A common theme of New Zealand's environmental legislation is sustainably managing natural and physical resources, fisheries, and forests.", "The Resource Management Act 1991 is the main piece of environmental legislation that outlines the government's strategy to managing the \"environment, including air, water soil, biodiversity, the coastal environment, noise, subdivision, and land use planning in general.", "\"=== Russia ===The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation makes regulation regarding \"conservation of natural resources, including the subsoil, water bodies, forests located in designated conservation areas, fauna and their habitat, in the field of hunting, hydrometeorology and related areas, environmental monitoring and pollution control, including radiation monitoring and control, and functions of public environmental policy making and implementation and statutory regulation.", "\"=== Singapore ===Singapore is a signatory of the Convention on Biological Diversity; with most of its CBD obligations being overseen by the National Biodiversity Reference Centre, a division of its National Parks Board (NParks).", "Singapore is also a signatory of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Animals, with its obligations under that treaty also being overseen by NParks.", "The Parliament of Singapore has enacted numerous pieces of legislation to fulfil its obligations under these treaties, such as the Parks and Trees Act, Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act, and Wildlife Act.", "The new Wildlife (Protected Wildlife Species) Rules 2020 marks the first instance in Singapore's history that direct legal protection has been offered for specific named species, as listed in Parts 1-5 of the Rules' schedule.=== South Africa ====== United Kingdom ====== United States ====== Vietnam ===Vietnam is currently working with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on dioxin remediation and technical assistance in order to lower methane emissions.", "In March 2002, the U.S and Vietnam signed the U.S.-Vietnam Memorandum of Understanding on Research on Human Health and the Environmental Effects of Agent Orange/Dioxin." ], [ "See also", "* Climate target* Environmental health* Environmental justice* Environmental racism* Environmental racism in Europe* Indigenous rights* International law* List of environmental law journals* List of international environmental agreements* UK enterprise law" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Akhatov, Aydar (1996).", "''Ecology & International Law''.", "Moscow: АST-PRESS.", "512 pp.", "* Bimal N. Patel, ed.", "(2015).", "MCQ on Environmental Law.", "* Farber & Carlson, eds.", "(2013).", "''Cases and Materials on Environmental Law, 9th''.", "West Academic Publishing.", "1008 pp.", ".", "* Faure, Michael, and Niels Philipsen, eds.", "(2014).", "''Environmental Law & European Law''.", "The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.", "142 pp.", "* Malik, Surender & Sudeep Malik, eds.", "(2015).", "Supreme Court on Environment Law.", "* Martin, Paul & Amanda Kennedy, eds.", "(2015).", "''Implementing Environmental Law''.", "Edward Elgar Publishing" ], [ "Further reading", "* Around the world, environmental laws are under attack in all sorts of ways (30 May 2017), ''The Conversation''" ], [ "External links", ";International* United Nations Environment Programme* ECOLEX (Gateway to Environmental Law)* Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide (E-LAW)* Centre for International Environmental Law* Wildlife Interest Group, American Society of International Law* EarthRights International* Interamerican Association for Environmental Defense* United Kingdom Environmental Law Association* Lexadin global law database* Upholding Environmental Laws in Asia and the Pacific;United States* American Bar Association Section of Environment, Energy and Resources* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency* Environmental Law Institute (ELI)* EarthJustice* \"Law Journals: Submission and Ranking, 2007-2014\", Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia;Canada* West Coast Environmental Law (non-profit law firm)* Ecojustice* Canadian Environmental Law Association* Environmental Law Centre (of Alberta);European Union* Europa: Environmental rules of the European Union* Europa: Summaries of Legislation - Environment" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eurostar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eurostar''' is an international high-speed rail service in Western Europe, connecting Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.The service is operated by the Eurostar Group which was formed from the merger of Eurostar, which operated trains through the Channel Tunnel to the United Kingdom, and Thalys which operated in Western Europe.", "The operator is exploring future network expansions and aims to double passenger numbers by 2030." ], [ "History", "===Conception and planning===The history of the Eurostar brand can be traced to the choice in 1986 of a rail tunnel to provide a cross-channel link between Britain and France.", "A previous attempt to construct a tunnel between the two nations had begun in 1974, but was quickly aborted.", "Construction began afresh in 1988.Eurotunnel was created to manage and own the tunnel, which was finished in 1993, the official opening taking place on 6 May 1994.In addition to the tunnel's shuttle trains carrying cars and lorries between Folkestone and Calais, the tunnel opened up the possibility of through passenger and freight train services between places further afield.", "British Rail and France's SNCF contracted with Eurotunnel to use half the tunnel's capacity for this purpose.", "In 1987, Britain, France and Belgium set up an International Project Group to specify a train to provide an international high-speed passenger service through the tunnel.", "France had been operating high-speed TGV services since 1981, and had begun construction of a new high-speed line between Paris and the Channel Tunnel, LGV Nord; French TGV technology was chosen as the basis for the new trains.", "An order for 30 trainsets, to be manufactured in France but with some British and Belgian components, was placed in December 1989.On 20 June 1993, the first Eurostar test train travelled through the tunnel to the UK.", "Various technical difficulties in running the new trains on British tracks were quickly overcome.===Launch of service===The original Eurostar logo used from 1994 until 2011On 14 November 1994, Eurostar services began running from Waterloo International station in London, to Paris-Nord, as well as Brussels-South railway station.", "The train service started with a limited ''Discovery'' service; the full daily service started from 28 May 1995.In 1995, Eurostar was achieving an average end-to-end speed of from London to Paris.On 8 January 1996, Eurostar launched services from a second railway station in the UK when Ashford International was opened.Also in 1996, Eurostar commenced its year-round service to Disneyland with the first train running on 29 June.", "The following year saw the introduction of services to the French Alps during the winter.On 20 July 2002 a summer seasonal service to Avignon-Centre was launched.", "The service ran until 2014 after which it was replaced on 1 May 2015 by an expanded service calling at Avignon TGV and also serving Lyon and Marseille.On 23 September 2003, passenger services began running on the first completed section of High Speed 1.Following a high-profile glamorous opening ceremony and a large advertising campaign, on 14 November 2007, Eurostar services in London transferred from Waterloo to the extended and extensively refurbished London St Pancras International.Direct services from London to Amsterdam (returning to Brussels only) were launched on 4 April 2018.This service was made a return service on 26 October 2020.===Records achieved===The Channel Tunnel used by Eurostar services holds the record for having the longest underwater section of any tunnel in the world, and it is the third-longest railway tunnel (behind the Seikan Tunnel and the Gotthard Base Tunnel) in the world.On 30 July 2003, a Eurostar train set a new British speed record of on the first section of the \"High Speed 1\" railway between the Channel Tunnel, and Fawkham Junction in north Kent, two months before official public services began running.On 16 May 2006, Eurostar set a new record for the longest non-stop high-speed journey, a distance of from London to Cannes taking 7hours 25minutes.On 4 September 2007, a record-breaking train left Paris-Nord at 10:44 (09:44BST) and reached London St Pancras International in 2hours 3minutes 39seconds, carrying journalists and railway workers.", "This record trip was also the first passenger-carrying arrival at the new London St Pancras International station.", "On 20 September 2007, Eurostar broke another record when it completed the journey from Brussels to London in 1hour 43minutes.===Regional Eurostar and Nightstar===Eurostar trains at the former Waterloo InternationalThe original proposals for Eurostar included direct services to Paris and Brussels from cities north of London: Manchester Piccadilly via Birmingham New Street on the West Coast Main Line and Leeds and via Edinburgh Waverley, Newcastle and on the East Coast Main Line.Seven 14-coach \"North of London\" Eurostar trains for these Regional Eurostar services were built, but these services never came to fruition.", "Predicted journey times of almost nine hours for Glasgow to Paris at the time of growth of low-cost air travel during the 1990s made the plans commercially unviable against the cheaper and quicker airlines.", "Other reasons that have been suggested for these services having never been run were both government policies and the disruptive privatisation of British Rail.", "Three of the Regional Eurostar units were leased by Great North Eastern Railway (GNER) to increase domestic services from London King's Cross to York and later Leeds.", "The lease expired in December 2005, and most of the North of London sets were transferred to SNCF for TGV services in northern France.An international Nightstar sleeper train was also planned; this would have travelled the same routes as Regional Eurostar, plus the Great Western Main Line to .", "These were also deemed commercially unviable, and the scheme was abandoned with no services ever operated.", "In 2000, the coaches were sold to Via Rail in Canada.=== Merger with Thalys ===Logo used pre-merger (2011-2023)On 27 September 2019, the heads of two of Eurostar's major shareholders, Guillaume Pepy of SNCF, and the chair of SNCB, , publicised that Eurostar was planning to come together with its sister company the Franco-Belgian transnational rail service Thalys.", "The arrangement is to merge their operations under the working title of \"''Green Speed''\" and expand services outside the core London-Paris-Brussels-Amsterdam service, to create a grand Western European high-speed rail service covering the UK, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany, serving up to 30million customers by 2030.Thalys assisted Eurostar with onward connections between Amsterdam and Brussels, and to provide the Amsterdam to London service, in lieu of passport and customs checks at Amsterdam Centraal station.In September 2020, the merger between Thalys and Eurostar International was confirmed, a year after Thalys announced its intention to merge with the cross-Channel provider subject to gaining European Commission clearance, to form \"Green Speed\".", "SNCF and SNCB already hold a controlling shareholding in Eurostar.", "In October 2021, it was announced that, following the completion of the merger, the Thalys brand would be discontinued, with all of the new operation's services to be operated under the Eurostar name but with each service's own liveries.In October 2023, the Eurostar brand replaced Thalys, operating as one network and combining ticket sales in a single system.===Corporate structure===Eurostar was originally operated as a collaboration of three separate French, British and Belgian corporate entities.", "On 1 September 2010, Eurostar was incorporated as a single corporate entity, Eurostar International Limited (EIL), replacing the joint operation between EUKL, SNCF and SNCB/NMBS.", "EIL is ultimately owned by SNCF (55%), Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec (CDPQ) (30%), Hermes Infrastructure (10%) and SNCB (5%).=== Impact of COVID-19 ===By January 2021, Eurostar ridership went down to less than 1% of pre-pandemic levels.", "The combined financial troubles and lack of ridership caused by the COVID-19 pandemic led to Eurostar seeking governmental assistance from Britain's Treasury and Department for Transport, even though Britain sold its 40% Eurostar holding in 2015.Eurostar's appeal included granting the company access to Bank of England-backed loans and a temporary reduction in track access charges for use of the UK's high-speed rail line.", "Despite being majority-owned by the French state railway, SNCF, Eurostar was thought to have already exhausted options for governmental assistance from Paris, but both the French transport minister and the UK Department for Transport confirmed they were working on further plans to maintain the service.By the end of 2022, Eurostar had debts of €964m, following French bailouts and commercial loans.", "Ridership levels returned to around 8 million in 2022, however this figure was still 3 million below 2019 levels.", "Since the COVID-19 pandemic, Eurostar has not served the Ashford International or Ebbsfleet International stations in the UK, or Calais Frethun in France, and has withdrawn its Disneyland Paris and Avignon services, as part of plans to focus on the most profitable routes." ], [ "Mainline routes", "Networks of Major High Speed Rail Operators in Europe.", "Eurostar shown in brown.===LGV Nord (France)===The LGV Nord (, ) is a French high-speed rail line that connects Paris with the HSL 1 at the Belgium–France border and the Channel Tunnel.", "It opened in 1993.Of all French high-speed lines, LGV Nord sees the widest variety of high-speed rolling stock and is quite busy; a proposed cut-off bypassing Lille, which would reduce Eurostar journey times, is called LGV Picardie.===Channel Tunnel===The Channel Tunnel is the only rail connection between Great Britain and the European mainland.", "It joins LGV Nord in France with High Speed 1 in Britain.", "Tunnelling began in 1988, and the tunnel was officially opened by British sovereign, Elizabeth II, and the French President, François Mitterrand, on 6 May 1994.It is owned by Getlink, which charges a toll to Eurostar for its use.", "Within the Channel Tunnel, Eurostar trains operate at a reduced speed of for safety reasons.Since the launch of Eurostar services, severe disruptions and cancellations have been caused by fires breaking out within the Channel Tunnel, such as in 1996 and 2008.===HSL 1 (Belgium)===The HSL 1 (, ) is a Belgian high-speed rail line that connects Brussels with the LGV Nord at the Belgium–France border.", "It opened on 14 December 1997.Prior to the opening of the HSL 1, Eurostar trains were routed via the slower traditional Belgian railway line 94.A further four-minute improvement for London–Brussels trains was achieved in December 2006, with the opening of the Brussels South Viaduct.", "Linking the international platforms of Brussels-South railway station with the high-speed line, the viaduct separates Eurostar from local services.===High Speed 1 (United Kingdom)===Eurostar train on High Speed 1 near SellindgeHigh Speed 1, formerly known as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), is a British high-speed rail line that connects London with the Channel Tunnel.", "It opened in two stages.", "The first section between the tunnel and north Kent opened in September 2003, cutting journey times by 21minutes.", "On 14 November 2007, commercial services began over the whole of the High Speed 1 reducing journey times by a further 20minutes.", "The line's London terminal is St Pancras station, which was redeveloped for the project.===HSL-Zuid (Netherlands)===The HSL-Zuid (, ), is a Dutch high-speed railway line that connects Amsterdam with the HSL 4 at the Belgum-Netherlands border.", "It opened on on 7 September 2009." ], [ "Services", "===Frequency===Eurostar departure information – BrusselsEurostar offers up to 15 weekday London – Paris services (19 on Fridays) including nine non-stop (13 on Fridays).", "There are also nine (ten on Friday) London–Brussels services, of which two run non-stop (continuing to Amsterdam) and a further two call at Lille only.", "Four services daily operate to Amsterdam via Brussels and Rotterdam, some calling at Lille.", "There were also seasonal services: in the winter, \"Snow trains\", aimed at skiers, to Bourg-Saint-Maurice, Aime-la-Plagne and Moûtiers in the Alps; these ran weekly, arriving in the alps in the evening and leaving the same evening to arrive in London the following morning.", "This service was confirmed as withdrawn in August 2023, and its future is unknown.In February 2018, Eurostar announced the start of its long-planned service from London to Amsterdam, with an initial two trains per day from April of that year running between St Pancras and Amsterdam Centraal.", "This launched as a one-way service, with return trains carrying passengers to Rotterdam and Brussels Midi/Zuid, making a 28-minute stop (which was not deemed long enough to process UK-bound passengers) and then carrying different passengers from Brussels to London.", "Initially passengers travelling back took a Thalys service to Brussels Midi/Zuid where they could join the Eurostar.", "This was due to the lack of facilities for juxtaposed controls by the UK Border Force at Amsterdam Centraal and Rotterdam Centraal.", "On 4 February 2020, the Dutch Minister of Infrastructure and Water Management, Cora van Nieuwenhuizen, and the UK Transport Secretary, Grant Shapps, announced that juxtaposed controls would be established at Amsterdam Centraal and Rotterdam Centraal.", "The direct train from Amsterdam was originally due to launch on 30 April 2020, and from Rotterdam on 18 May 2020, although it was later postponed to 26 October 2020 for both cities due to the COVID-19 pandemic.Since 14 November 2007, all Eurostar trains have been routed via High Speed1 to or from the redeveloped London terminus at London St Pancras International, which at a cost of £800million was extensively rebuilt and extended to cope with long Eurostar trains.It had been intended to retain some Eurostar services at Waterloo International, but this was ruled out on cost grounds.Completion of High Speed1 increased the potential number of trains serving London.", "Separation of Eurostar from British domestic services through Kent meant that timetabling was no longer affected by peak-hour restrictions.===Fares===St Pancras InternationalEurostar's fares were significantly higher in its early years; the cheapest fare in 1994 was £99 return.In 2002, Eurostar was planning cheaper fares, an example of which was an offer of £50-day returns from London to Paris or Brussels.", "By March 2003, the cheapest fare from the UK was £59 return, available all year around.", "In June 2009 it was announced that one-way single fares would be available at £31 at the cheapest.", "Competition between Eurostar and airline services was a large factor in ticket prices being reduced from the initial levels.Business Premier fares also slightly undercut air fares on similar routes, targeted at regular business travellers.In 2009, Eurostar greatly increased its budget ticket availability to help maintain and grow its dominant market share.", "The Eurostar ticketing system is very complex, being distributed through no fewer than 48 individual sales systems.Eurostar is a member of the Amadeus CRS distribution system, making its tickets available alongside those of airlines worldwide.Eurostar has two sub-classes of first class: Standard Premier and Business Premier; benefits include guaranteed faster checking-in and meals served at-seat, as well as the improved furnishings and interior of carriages.The rebranding is part of Eurostar's marketing drive to attract more business professionals.", "Increasingly, business people in a group have been chartering private carriages as opposed to individual seats on the train.===Service connections===Two Eurostar trains, a Thalys train, and a TGV train side by side at Paris-Nord.Eurostar Class 373 at Lille-Europe, an interchange with other TGV servicesWithout the operation of Regional Eurostar services using the North of London trainsets across the rest of Britain, Eurostar has developed its connections with other transport services instead, such as integrating effectively with traditional UK rail operators' schedules and routes, making it possible for passengers to use Eurostar as a quick connection to further destinations on the continent.All three main terminals used by the Eurostar service – St Pancras International, Paris Gare du Nord, and Brussels Midi/Zuid – are served by domestic trains and by local urban transport networks such as the London Underground, Paris Metro, Brussels Metro and Amsterdam Metro.", "Standard Eurostar tickets no longer include free onward connections to or from any other station in Belgium: this is now available for a flat-rate supplement, currently £5.50.Eurostar has announced several partnerships with other rail services,most notably Thalys connections at Lille and Brussels for passengers to go beyond current Eurostar routes towards the Netherlands and Germany.In 2002, Eurostar initiated the Eurostar-Plus program, offering connecting tickets for onward journeys from Lille and Paris to dozens of destinations in France.", "Through fares are also available from 68 British towns and cities to destinations in France and Belgium.In May 2009 Eurostar announced that a formal connection to Switzerland had been established in a partnership between Eurostar and Lyria, which will operate TGV services from Lille to the Swiss Alps for Eurostar connection.In May 2019, Eurostar ended its agreement with Deutsche Bahn that allowed passengers to travel by train from the UK to Germany, Austria and Switzerland.", "Under the agreement passengers could travel on a single booking which made rescheduling easier.", "However, the direct tickets ceased to be sold from 9 November 2019.===Controls and security===Because the UK is not part of the European Union or the Schengen Area, and because the Netherlands, Belgium and France are not part of the Common Travel Area, all Eurostar passengers must go through border controls.", "Both the British Government and the Schengen governments concerned (Belgium, Netherlands and France) have legal obligations to check the travel documents of those entering and leaving their respective countries.To allow passengers to walk off the train without arrival checks in most cases, juxtaposed controls ordinarily take place at the embarkation station.To comply with UK law, there are full security checks similar to those at airports, consisting of bag X-rays and walk-through metal detectors.", "The recommended check-in time is 90–120minutes except for business class where it is 45–60minutes; these are much longer than previously because of extra checks in place due to Brexit and the COVID-19 pandemic.Eurostar passengers travelling within the Schengen area on trains towards London bypass border checks, and enter the preallocated cars at the rear of the train, which are reserved for these passengers.", "This area is then searched at Lille and all passengers removed.", "This arrangement was set up after numerous people entered the UK without prior authorisation, by buying a ticket from Brussels to Lille or Calais but remaining on the train until London – an issue exacerbated by Belgian police threatening to arrest UK Border Agency staff at Brussels-South if they tried to prevent passengers whom they suspected of attempting to exploit this loophole from boarding Eurostar trains.", "Travel from Calais or Lille towards Brussels and the Netherlands has no border or security control.", "On 7 July 2020, a modified agreement was signed in Brussels that includes The Netherlands in the previous agreement.", "This allows for juxtaposed controls in Amsterdam and Rotterdam like those in Brussels and Paris.When the tripartite agreements were signed, the Belgian Government said that it had serious questions about the compatibility of this agreement with the Schengen Convention and the principle of free movement of people enshrined in various European treaties.On 30 June 2009, Eurostar raised concerns at the UK House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee that it was illegal under French law to collect the information required by the UK government under the e-Borders scheme, and the company would be unable to cooperate.On the northbound Disneyland and ski trains, the security check and French passport check take place at the origin, while the UK passport check takes place at the UK arrival stations.", "These are the only route where passengers are not cleared by UK border officials before crossing the Channel.On the northbound Marseille-London train, there is no facility for security or passport checks at the southern French stations, so passengers must leave the train at Lille-Europe, taking all their belongings with them, and undergo security and border checks there before rejoining the train which waits at the station for just over an hour.On several occasions, people have tried to stow away illegally on board the train, sometimes in large groups, trying to enter the UK; border monitoring and security is therefore extremely tight.Eurostar claims to have good and well-funded security measures.===Operational performance===Lille-EuropeEurostar market share and punctuality.Eurostar's punctuality has fluctuated from year to year, but usually remains over 90%; in the first quarter of 1999, 89% of services operated were on time, and in the second quarter it reached 92%.", "Eurostar's best punctuality record was 97.35%, between 16 and 22 August 2004.In 2006, it was 92.7%, and in 2007, 91.5% were on time.", "In the first quarter of 2009, 96% of Eurostar services were punctual, compared with rival air routes' 76%.An advantage held by Eurostar is the convenience and speed of the service: with shorter check-in times than at most airports and hence quicker boarding and less queueing and high punctuality, it takes less time to travel between central London and central Paris by high-speed rail than by air.", "Eurostar now has a dominant share of the combined rail–air market on its routes to Paris and Brussels.", "In 2004, it had a 66% share of the London–Paris market, and a 59% share of the London–Brussels market.", "In 2007, it achieved record market shares of 71% for London–Paris and 65% for London–Brussels routes.Eurostar's passenger numbers initially failed to meet predictions.", "In 1996, London and Continental Railways forecast that passenger numbers would reach 21.4million annually by 2004, but only 7.3million was achieved.", "Eighty-two million passengers used Waterloo International Station from its opening in 1994 to its closure in 2007.2008 was a record year for Eurostar, with a 10.3% rise in passenger use, which was attributed to the use of High Speed 1 and the move to St Pancras.", "The following year, Eurostar saw an 11.5% fall in passenger numbers during the first three months of 2009, attributed to the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire and the 2009 recession.As a result of the poor economic conditions, Eurostar received state aid in May 2009 to cancel out some of the accumulated debt from the High Speed 1 construction programme.", "Later that year, during snowy conditions in the run-up to Christmas, thousands of passengers were left stranded as several trains broke down and many more were cancelled.", "In an independent review commissioned by Eurostar, the company came in for serious criticism about its handling of the incident and lack of plans for such a scenario.In 2006, the Department for Transport predicted that, by 2037, annual cross-channel passenger numbers would probably reach 16million, considerably less optimistic than London and Continental Railways's original 1996 forecast.", "In 2007 Eurostar set a target of carrying 10million passengers by 2010.The company cited several factors to support this objective, such as improved journey times, punctuality and station facilities.", "Passengers in general, it stated, are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental effects of air travel, and Eurostar services emit much less carbon dioxide.", "and that its remaining carbon emissions are now offset, making its services carbon neutral.", "Further expansion of the high-speed rail network in Europe, such as the HSL-Zuid line between Belgium and the Netherlands, continues to bring more destinations within rail-competitive range, giving Eurostar the possibility of opening up new services in future.The following chart presents the estimated number of passengers annually transported by the Eurostar service since 1995:In 2019, cumulative ridership since 1994 surpassed 200million.", "Eleven million passengers travelled on its international services during 2018, the highest ever, a 7% increase on the 10.3million carried in 2017.===Awards and accolades===Several Eurostar trains at platforms at Paris-NordParis-Nord running late night servicesEurostar has been hailed as having set new standards in international rail travel and has won praise several times over for its high standards.", "However, Eurostar had previously struggled with its reputation and brand image.", "One commentator had defined the situation at the time as:Eurostar won the Train Operator of the Year award in the HSBC Rail Awards for 2005.In 2006, Eurostar's Environment Group was set up, with the aim of making changes in the Eurostar services' daily running to decrease negative environmental impact.", "The organisation set itself a target of reducing carbon emissions per passenger journey by 25% by 2012.Drivers were trained in techniques to achieve maximum energy efficiency, and lighting was minimised; the provider of the bulk of the energy for the Channel Tunnel was switched to nuclear power stations in France.", "Eurostar's target was to reduce emissions by 35 percent per passenger journey by 2012, putting itself beyond the efforts of other railway companies in this field and thereby winning the 2007 Network Rail Efficiency Award.", "In the grand opening ceremony of St Pancras International, one of the Eurostar trains was given the name 'Tread Lightly', said to symbolise their smaller impact on the environment compared to planes.", "By 2008, Eurostar's environmental credentials had become highly developed and promoted.Since then, Eurostar has received multiple awards.", "It was declared the Best Train Company in the joint Guardian/Observer Travel Awards 2008 and earned a spot on the Sunday Times' Best Green Companies List (2009).", "Other awards include: ICARUS’ Environmental Award for Best Rail Provider (2009), Guardian & Observer Travel Award for Best Train Company (2009), Travel Weekly's Golden Globes Award for Best Rail Operator (2010), World Travel Market's Responsible Tourism Award for Best Low Carbon Initiative (2011), TNT Magazine's Gold Backpack Award for Favourite Travel Transport (2012), World Travel Awards Europe's Leading Passenger Rail Operator (2011), National Rail Awards Train of the Year (2017), PETA's Travel Award for Best Travel Experience (2019), Mobile Industry Awards' Distributor of the Year (2020).===Environmental initiatives===In 2007, Eurostar became the world's first carbon-neutral train service through its launch of \"Tread Lightly,\" an environmental programme with the goal of reducing the service's carbon-dioxide emissions by 25% by 2012.The programme included: reducing power consumption on its rolling stock; sourcing more electricity from lower-emission generators; adding new controls on lighting, heating, and air conditioning; reducing paper usage via electronic tickets; recycling water and employee uniforms; sourcing all food on board from Britain, France, or Belgium.", "Eurostar also funded three renewable energy projects in developing regions around the world: a windfarm in Tamil Nadu, India; a micro-hydropower project in China; and a plan specifying improvements on fuel consumption of three-wheeler taxis in Indonesia.In 2019, Eurostar removed all single-use plastics from its trains between London and Paris.", "Now the trains serve only wooden cutlery, recyclable cans of water, glass wine bottles, paper-based coffee cups, and eco-friendly food packaging.", "Eurostar partnered with the Woodland Trust, ReforestAction, and Trees for All in 2020, with the goal of planting 20,000 trees each year in woodlands along its routes across the UK, Belgium, and the Netherlands.", "Since Tread Lightly launched, Eurostar has reduced its carbon footprint by over 40% and now emits up to 90% less greenhouse gas emissions than the equivalent flight.===Railteam===Eurostar is a member of Railteam, a marketing alliance formed in July 2007 of seven European high-speed rail operators.The alliance plans to allow tickets to be booked from one end of Europe to the other on a single website.", "In June 2009 London and Continental Railways, and the Eurostar UK operations they held ownership of, became fully nationalised by the UK government.===Domestic journeys on London services===Eurostar is not permitted to carry passengers on London services for journeys within one country, so passengers cannot travel (for example) from Lille to Marne-la-Vallée–Chessy, London to Ashford, or Rotterdam to Amsterdam on a London service.", "Lille to Brussels is the only international intra-Schengen journey that Eurostar is offering for sale on London services." ], [ "Fleet", "===Fleet details===ClassImageTop speedCarriagesNumber in useUnit numbersElectric systemsRoutes operatedBuiltkm/hmph''Eurostar e300''125px3001862 power cars + 18 coaches111992–1996''Eurostar e320''125px32020016 self-propelled coaches172011–2018 PBA 125px 320 2002 power cars + 8 coaches 9 4532-4540 1996 PBKA 125px 320 200 17 1997===Current fleet=======Eurostar e300====London St Pancras International, LondonLondon St Pancras International stationBuilt between 1992 and 1996, Eurostar's fleet consisted of 38 EMU trains, designated Class 373 in the United Kingdom and TGV TMST in France.", "The units have also been branded as the Eurostar e300 by Eurostar since 2015.There are two variants:* 31 \"Inter-Capital\" sets consisting of two power cars and eighteen passenger carriages.", "These trains are long and can carry 750 passengers: 206 in first class, 544 in standard class.", "* Seven shorter \"North of London\" sets which have two power cars and fourteen passenger carriages and are long.", "These sets have a capacity of 558 seats: 114 first class, 444 standard and which were designed to operate the aborted Regional Eurostar services.Each train has a unique four-digit number starting with \"3\" (3xxx).", "This designates the train as a Mark 3 TGV (Mark 1 being SNCF TGV Sud-Est; Mark 2 being SNCF TGV Atlantique).", "The second digit denotes the country of ownership:* 3'''0'''xx UK* 3'''1'''xx Belgium* 3'''2'''xx France* 3'''3'''xx Regional EurostarThe trains are essentially modified TGV sets, and can operate at up to on high-speed lines, and in the Channel Tunnel.", "It is possible to exceed the 300km/h speed limit, but only with special permission from the safety authorities in the respective country.Speed limits in the Channel Tunnel are dictated by air-resistance, energy (heat) dissipation and the need to be used with other, slower trains.", "The trains were designed with Channel Tunnel safety in mind, and consist of two independent \"half-sets\" each with its own power car.", "In the event of a serious fire on board while travelling through the tunnel, passengers would be transferred into the undamaged half of the train, which would then be detached and driven out of the tunnel to safety.If the undamaged part were the rear half of the train, this would be driven by the Chef du Train (conductor), who is a fully authorized driver and occupies the rear driving cab while the train travels through the tunnel for this purpose.As the Class 374 units have entered service the Class 373 fleet has gradually been reduced.", "Eleven remain in regular service with 17 scrapped and ten in storage.=====Fleet updates=====Interior of a ''Leisure Select'' Eurostar carriageIn 2004–2005 the \"Inter-Capital\" sets still in daily use for international services were refurbished with a new interior designed by Philippe Starck.The original grey-yellow scheme in Standard class and grey-red of First/Premium First were replaced with a grey-brown look in Standard and grey-burnt-orange in First class.", "Power points were added to seats in First class and coaches 5 and 14 in Standard class.", "Premium First class was renamed BusinessPremier.In 2008, Eurostar announced that it would be carrying out a mid-life refurbishment of its Class 373 trains to allow the fleet to remain in service beyond 2020.This will include the 28 units making up the Eurostar fleet, but not the three Class 373/1 units used by SNCF or the seven Class 373/2 \"North of London\" sets.As part of the refurbishment, the Italian company Pininfarina was contracted to redesign the interiors, and The Yard Creative was selected to design the new buffet cars.On 11 May 2009 Eurostar revealed the new look for its first-class compartments.The first refurbished train was due in service in 2012, and Eurostar planned to complete the entire process by 2014.On 13 November 2014 Eurostar announced the first refurbished trains would not re-enter the fleet until the 3rd or 4th quarter of 2015 due to delays at the completion centre.", "The last refurbished ''e300'' eventually re-entered service in April 2019.==== Eurostar e320 ====In addition to the announced mid-life update of the existing Class 373 fleet, Eurostar in 2009 began looking to purchase eight new trainsets.", "Any new trains would need to meet the same safety rules governing passage through the Channel Tunnel as the existing Class 373 fleet.", "The replacement to the Class 373 trains has been decided jointly between the French Transport Ministry and the UK Department for Transport.", "The new trains will be equipped to use the new ERTMS in-cab signalling system, due to be fitted to High Speed 1 around 2040.ParisOn 7 October 2010, it was reported that Eurostar had selected Siemens as preferred bidder to supply 10 Siemens Velaro trainsets at a cost of €600million These would be sixteen-car, self-propelled, trainsets built to meet Channel Tunnel requirements.", "The top speed of the e320 trainsets is with 902 seats, compared to the e300 fleet which has a top speed of and a seating capacity of 750.Total traction power will be rated at .", "The e320 trainsets would also be quadri-current, adding the ability to run on the system used in Germany, allowing for an expanded route network, including services between London and Cologne.The selection of Siemens would see it break into the French high-speed market for the first time, as all French high-speed operators use TGV derivatives produced by Alstom.", "Alstom attempted legal action to prevent Eurostar from acquiring the German-built trains, claiming that the Siemens sets would breach Channel Tunnel safety rules, but the case was thrown out by the High Court in London.", "On 4 November 2010, Alstom lodged a complaint with the European Commission over the tendering process.", "Alstom then started legal action claiming that the Eurostar tender process was \"ineffective\", the High Court rejected the second suit in July 2011.In April 2012, Alstom said it would call off court actions against Siemens.On 13 November 2014, Eurostar announced the purchase of an additional seven e320s for delivery in the second half of 2016.At the same time, Eurostar announced the first five e320s from the original order of ten would be available by December 2015, with the remaining five entering service by May 2016.Of the five sets ready by December 2015, three of them were planned to be used on London-Paris and London-Brussels routes.===Past fleet=== Class Image Type Top speed Numberoperated Notes mph km/h Class 37 100px Diesel locomotive 90 145 12 Intended to operate sleeper services over non-electrified parts of the railway network in Britain.", "Eurostar retained three locomotives for the rescue of failed trains, route learning and driver training, but sold them to Direct Rail Services when the new Temple Mills Depot opened in November 2007.Class 73 100px Electro-diesel locomotive 90 145 2 Were used primarily to rescue failed trains.", "Eurostar operated two of these from its North Pole depot until 2007, when they were loaned to a pair of educational initiatives having become redundant following the move to Temple Mills.", "Class 92 100px Electric locomotive 87 140 7 Intended to operate the Nightstar sleeper services.", "Eurostar owned seven units of this class, which never saw service until they were sold in 2007 to Europorte 2.Class 373 ''Eurostar e300'' 100px EMU 186 300 38 11 in operation, 10 in storage, 17 scrapped, 4 power cars preserved." ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "A number of technical incidents have affected Eurostar services over the years, but there has only been one major accident involving a service operated by Eurostar, a derailment in June 2000.Other incidents in the Channel Tunnel – such as the 1996 and 2008 Channel Tunnel fires – have affected Eurostar services but were not directly related to Eurostar's operations.", "However, the breakdowns in the tunnel, which resulted in cessation of service and inconvenience to thousands of passengers, in the run-up to Christmas 2009, proved a public-relations disaster.===2000===On 5 June 2000, a Eurostar train travelling from Paris to London derailed on the LGV Nord high-speed line while traveling at .", "Fourteen people were treated for light injuries or shock, with no fatalities or major injuries.", "The articulated nature of the trainset was credited with maintaining stability during the incident and all of the train stayed upright.", "The incident was caused by a traction link on the second bogie of the front power car coming loose, leading to components of the transmission system on that bogie impacting the track.===2009===During the December 2009 European snowfall, five Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel, after leaving France, and one in Kent on 18 December.", "Although the trains had been winterised, the systems had not coped with the conditions.", "Over 2,000passengers were stuck inside failed trains inside the tunnel, and over 75,000 had their services disrupted.", "All Eurostar services were cancelled from Saturday 19 December to Monday 21 December 2009.An independent review, published on 12 February 2010, was critical of the contingency plans in place for assisting passengers stranded by the delays, calling them \"insufficient\"." ], [ "Future developments", "=== Eurostar expansion ===Eurostar and Thalys merged in 2023, with the intention to double combined passenger numbers from 14.8 million to 30 million.", "In an interview with Eurostar's former Chief Executive Nicolas Petrovic in the ''Financial Times'' in May 2012, an intention for cross-Channel Eurostar to serve ten new destinations was expressed, including Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Cologne, Lyon, Marseille and Geneva, along with a likely second hub to be created in Brussels.", "London-Amsterdam services launched in 2018.In March 2016, in an interview with Bloomberg, Eurostar's Chief Executive expressed interest in operating a direct train service between London and Bordeaux, but not before 2019.Journey time was said to be around 4.5hours using the new LGV Sud Europe Atlantique.=== Operational difficulties with UK-Schengen trains ===Brussels Midi/Zuid/SouthThe e320 trains allow Eurostar for the possibility of London to Germany services in the future.", "Due to the UK's not having signed up to the Schengen Agreement, which allows unrestricted movement across borders of member countries, as well asdifferent operational standards, expansion cross-Channel services is complex.", "For example, when the Amsterdam to London route began, it was direct in only one way, with people needing to get a train to Brussels to go through the juxtaposed controls; the direct connection was subject to talks between the UK and Dutch governments, and became completed in 2020 for services to start.The difficulties that Eurostar faces in expanding its services would also be faced by any potential competitors to Eurostar.", "As the UK is outside the Schengen Agreement, London-bound trains must use platforms that are physically isolated, a constraint which other international operators such as Thalys do not face.", "In addition, the British authorities are required to make passenger security and passport checks before they board the train,which might deter domestic passengers.", "Compounding the difficulties in providing a similar service are the Channel Tunnel safety rules, the major ones being the \"half-train rule\" and the \"length rule\".", "The \"half-train rule\" stipulated that passenger trains had to be able to split in the case of emergency.", "Class 373 trains were designed as two half-sets, which when coupled form a complete train, enabling them to be split easily in the event of an emergency while in the tunnel, with the unaffected set able to be driven out.", "The half-train rule was finally abolished in May 2010.However, the \"length rule\", which states that passenger trains must be at least long with a through corridor (to match the distance between the safety doors in the tunnel), was retained, preventing any potential operators from applying to run services with existing fleets the majority of both TGV and ICE trains are only long.===Competition===DB ICE 3 service, similar to which was displayed in LondonFollowing the liberalisation of international rail travel by European Union directives in 2010, various operators have announced proposals for competition with Eurostar.Deutsche Bahn (DB) intended to run services between London to Frankfurt and Amsterdam (two of the biggest air travel markets in Europe), with trains 'splitting & joining' in Brussels.", "In July 2010, DB announced that it intended to make a test run with a high-speed ICE-3MF train through the Channel Tunnel in October 2010 in preparation for possible future operations.", "The trial ran on 19 October 2010 with a Class 406 ICE train specially liveried with a British \"Union flag\" decal.", "The train was then put on display for the press at London St Pancras International.", "However, this was not the class of train planned for the proposed service, instead proposing to use Class 407 ICE units, specially adapted for stronger Channel Tunnel safety standards.DB scrapped the plan, mainly due to advance passport check requirements.", "DB had hoped that immigration checks could be done on board, but British authorities required immigration and security checks to be done at Lille-Europe station, taking at least 30minutes.In 2021, Renfe, the national operator of Spain announced it was proposing competing London to Paris services.", "In 2022, Getlink, the owner of the Channel Tunnel had reportedly considered purchasing trains suitable for competing services, leasing them to rival operations., while in 2023, Mobico Group, the owner of National Express has also been reported to be considering cross-Channel services named 'Evoyln'.===Long term possibilities=======Stratford International station====Eurostar service passing Stratford InternationalEurostar trains do not currently call at , which was intended to be a London stop for the regional Eurostars when the station was constructed.", "This was to be reviewed following the 2012 Olympics.", "However, in 2013, Eurostar claimed that its 'business would be hit' by stopping trains there.====Regional Eurostar====Although the original plan for Regional Eurostar services to destinations north of London was abandoned, the significantly improved journey times available since the opening of High Speed 1 — which is physically connected to both the East Coast Main Line and the North London Line (for the West Coast Main Line) at London St Pancras International – and the increased maximum speeds on the West Coast Main Line since the 2000s may make potential Regional Eurostar services more commercially viable.", "This would be even more likely if proposals are adopted for a new high-speed line from London to the north of Britain.Simon Montague, Eurostar's Director of Communications, commented that: \"...International services to the regions are only likely once High Speed 2 is built.\"", "However, as of 2014 the current plans for High Speed 2 do not allow for a direct rail link between that new line, and High Speed 1, meaning passengers would still be required to change at London Euston and take some form of transportation to London St Pancras International.Key pieces of infrastructure still belong to LCR via its subsidiary London & Continental Stations and Property, such as the Manchester International Depot, and Eurostar (UK) still owns several track access rights and the rights to paths on both the East Coast Main Line and the West Coast Main Line.While no announcement has been made of plans to start Regional Eurostar services, it remains a possibility for the future.", "In the meantime, the closest equivalent to Regional Eurostar services are same-station connections with East Midlands Railway and Thameslink, changing at London St Pancras International.", "The construction of a new concourse at adjacent London King's Cross improved interchange with St Pancras and provided London North Eastern Railway, Great Northern, Hull Trains and Grand Central services with easier connections to Eurostar.====LGV Picardie====LGV Picardie is a proposed high-speed line between Paris and Calais via Amiens.", "By cutting off the corner of the LGV Nord at Lille, it would enable Eurostar trains to save 20minutes on the journey between Paris and Calais, bringing the London–Paris journey time under 2hours.", "In 2008 the French Government announced its future investment plans for new LGVs to be built up to 2020; LGV Picardie was not included but was listed as planned in the longer term." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Equinox" ], [ "Introduction", "A solar '''equinox''' is a moment in time when the Sun crosses the Earth's equator, which is to say, appears directly above the equator, rather than north or south of the equator.", "On the day of the equinox, the Sun appears to rise \"due east\" and set \"due west\".", "This occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23 September.More precisely, an equinox is traditionally defined as the time when the plane of Earth's equator passes through the geometric center of the Sun's disk.", "Equivalently, this is the moment when Earth's rotation axis is directly perpendicular to the Sun-Earth line, tilting neither toward nor away from the Sun.", "In modern times, since the Moon (and to a lesser extent the planets) causes Earth's orbit to vary slightly from a perfect ellipse, the equinox is officially defined by the Sun's more regular ecliptic longitude rather than by its declination.", "The instants of the equinoxes are currently defined to be when the apparent geocentric longitude of the Sun is 0° and 180°.The word is derived from the Latin '''', from '''' (equal) and '''' (night).", "On the day of an equinox, daytime and nighttime are of approximately equal duration all over the planet.", "They are not exactly equal, however, because of the angular size of the Sun, atmospheric refraction, and the rapidly changing duration of the length of day that occurs at most latitudes around the equinoxes.", "Long before conceiving this equality, primitive equatorial cultures noted the day when the Sun rises due east and sets due west, and indeed this happens on the day closest to the astronomically defined event.", "As a consequence, according to a properly constructed and aligned sundial, the daytime duration is 12 hours.In the Northern Hemisphere, the March equinox is called the vernal or spring equinox while the September equinox is called the autumnal or fall equinox.", "In the Southern Hemisphere, the reverse is true.", "During the year, equinoxes alternate with solstices.", "Leap years and other factors cause the dates of both events to vary slightly.Hemisphere-neutral names are ''northward equinox'' for the March equinox, indicating that at that moment the solar declination is crossing the celestial equator in a northward direction, and ''southward equinox'' for the September equinox, indicating that at that moment the solar declination is crossing the celestial equator in a southward direction." ], [ "Equinoxes on Earth", "===General===Systematically observing the sunrise, people discovered that it occurs between two extreme locations at the horizon and eventually noted the midpoint between the two.", "Later it was realized that this happens on a day when the duration of the day and the night are practically equal and the word \"equinox\" comes from Latin ''aequus'', meaning \"equal\", and ''nox'', meaning \"night\".In the northern hemisphere, the ''vernal equinox'' (March) conventionally marks the beginning of spring in most cultures and is considered the start of the New Year in the Assyrian calendar, Hindu, and the Persian or Iranian calendars, while the ''autumnal equinox'' (September) marks the beginning of autumn.", "Ancient Greek calendars too had the beginning of the year either at the autumnal or vernal equinox and some at solstices.", "The Antikythera mechanism predicts the equinoxes and solstices.Image:Earth-lighting-equinox_EN.png|Illumination of Earth by the Sun at the equinoxImage:Ecliptic path.jpg|The relation between the Earth, Sun, and stars at the March equinox.", "From Earth's perspective, the Sun appears to move along the ecliptic (red), which is tilted compared to the celestial equator (white).Image:north season.jpg|Diagram of the Earth's seasons as seen from the north.", "Far right: December solstice.Image:south season.jpg|Diagram of the Earth's seasons as seen from the south.", "Far left: June solstice.The equinoxes are the only times when the solar terminator (the \"edge\" between night and day) is perpendicular to the equator.", "As a result, the northern and southern hemispheres are equally illuminated.For the same reason, this is also the time when the Sun rises for an observer at one of Earth's rotational poles and sets at the other.", "For a brief period lasting approximately four days, both North and South Poles are in daylight.", "For example, in 2021 sunrise on the North Pole is 18 March 07:09 UTC, and sunset on the South Pole is 22 March 13:08 UTC.", "Also in 2021, sunrise on the South Pole is 20 September 16:08 UTC, and sunset on the North Pole is 24 September 22:30 UTC.In other words, the equinoxes are the only times when the subsolar point is on the equator, meaning that the Sun is exactly overhead at a point on the equatorial line.", "The subsolar point crosses the equator moving northward at the March equinox and southward at the September equinox.===Date===When Julius Caesar established the Julian calendar in 45 BC, he set 25 March as the date of the spring equinox; this was already the starting day of the year in the Persian and Indian calendars.", "Because the Julian year is longer than the tropical year by about 11.3 minutes on average (or 1 day in 128 years), the calendar \"drifted\" with respect to the two equinoxes – so that in 300 AD the spring equinox occurred on about 21 March, and by the 1580s AD it had drifted backwards to 11 March.This drift induced Pope Gregory XIII to establish the modern Gregorian calendar.", "The Pope wanted to continue to conform with the edicts of the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD concerning the date of Easter, which means he wanted to move the vernal equinox to the date on which it fell at that time (21 March is the day allocated to it in the Easter table of the Julian calendar), and to maintain it at around that date in the future, which he achieved by reducing the number of leap years from 100 to 97 every 400 years.", "However, there remained a small residual variation in the date and time of the vernal equinox of about ±27 hours from its mean position, virtually all because the distribution of 24 hour centurial leap-days causes large jumps (see Gregorian calendar leap solstice).====Modern dates====The dates of the equinoxes change progressively during the leap-year cycle, because the Gregorian calendar year is not commensurate with the period of the Earth's revolution about the Sun.", "It is only after a complete Gregorian leap-year cycle of 400 years that the seasons commence at approximately the same time.", "In the 21st century the earliest March equinox will be 19 March 2096, while the latest was 21 March 2003.The earliest September equinox will be 21 September 2096 while the latest was 23 September 2003 (Universal Time).===Names===* Vernal equinox and autumnal equinox: these classical names are direct derivatives of Latin (''ver'' = spring, and ''autumnus'' = autumn).", "These are the historically universal and still most widely used terms for the equinoxes, but are potentially confusing because in the southern hemisphere the vernal equinox does not occur in spring and the autumnal equinox does not occur in autumn.", "The equivalent common language English terms ''spring equinox'' and ''autumn (or fall) equinox'' are even more ambiguous.", "It has become increasingly common for people to refer to the September equinox in the southern hemisphere as the Vernal equinox.", "* March equinox and September equinox: names referring to the months of the year in which they occur, with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context.", "They are still not universal, however, as not all cultures use a solar-based calendar where the equinoxes occur every year in the same month (as they do not in the Islamic calendar and Hebrew calendar, for example).", "Although the terms have become very common in the 21st century, they were sometimes used at least as long ago as the mid-20th century.", "* Northward equinox and southward equinox: names referring to the apparent direction of motion of the Sun.", "The northward equinox occurs in March when the Sun crosses the equator from south to north, and the southward equinox occurs in September when the Sun crosses the equator from north to south.", "These terms can be used unambiguously for other planets.", "They are rarely seen, although were first proposed over 100 years ago.", "* First point of Aries and first point of Libra: names referring to the astrological signs the Sun is entering.", "However, the precession of the equinoxes has shifted these points into the constellations Pisces and Virgo, respectively.===Length of equinoctial day and night===Contour plot of the hours of daylight as a function of latitude and day of the year, showing approximately 12 hours of daylight at all latitudes during the equinoxesEarth at the September 2022 equinoxOn the date of the equinox, the center of the Sun spends a roughly equal amount of time above and below the horizon at every location on the Earth, so night and day are about the same length.", "Sunrise and sunset can be defined in several ways, but a widespread definition is the time that the top limb of the Sun is level with the horizon.", "With this definition, the day is longer than the night at the equinoxes:# From the Earth, the Sun appears as a disc rather than a point of light, so when the centre of the Sun is below the horizon, its upper edge may be visible.", "Sunrise, which begins daytime, occurs when the top of the Sun's disk appears above the eastern horizon.", "At that instant, the disk's centre is still below the horizon.# The Earth's atmosphere refracts sunlight.", "As a result, an observer sees daylight before the top of the Sun's disk appears above the horizon.In sunrise/sunset tables, the atmospheric refraction is assumed to be 34 arcminutes, and the assumed semidiameter (apparent radius) of the Sun is 16 arcminutes.", "(The apparent radius varies slightly depending on time of year, slightly larger at perihelion in January than aphelion in July, but the difference is comparatively small.)", "Their combination means that when the upper limb of the Sun is on the visible horizon, its centre is 50 arcminutes below the geometric horizon, which is the intersection with the celestial sphere of a horizontal plane through the eye of the observer.These effects make the day about 14 minutes longer than the night at the equator and longer still towards the poles.", "The real equality of day and night only happens in places far enough from the equator to have a seasonal difference in day length of at least 7 minutes, actually occurring a few days towards the winter side of each equinox.The times of sunset and sunrise vary with the observer's location (longitude and latitude), so the dates when day and night are equal also depend upon the observer's location.A third correction for the visual observation of a sunrise (or sunset) is the angle between the apparent horizon as seen by an observer and the geometric (or sensible) horizon.", "This is known as the dip of the horizon and varies from 3 arcminutes for a viewer standing on the sea shore to 160 arcminutes for a mountaineer on Everest.", "The effect of a larger dip on taller objects (reaching over 2½° of arc on Everest) accounts for the phenomenon of snow on a mountain peak turning gold in the sunlight long before the lower slopes are illuminated.The date on which the day and night are exactly the same is known as an ''equilux''; the neologism, believed to have been coined in the 1980s, achieved more widespread recognition in the 21st century.", "At the most precise measurements, a true equilux is rare, because the lengths of day and night change more rapidly than any other time of the year around the equinoxes.", "In the mid-latitudes, daylight increases or decreases by about three minutes per day at the equinoxes, and thus adjacent days and nights only reach within one minute of each other.", "The date of the closest approximation of the equilux varies slightly by latitude; in the mid-latitudes, it occurs a few days before the spring equinox and after the fall equinox in each respective hemisphere.===Geocentric view of the astronomical seasons===In the half-year centered on the June solstice, the Sun rises north of east and sets north of west, which means longer days with shorter nights for the northern hemisphere and shorter days with longer nights for the southern hemisphere.", "In the half-year centered on the December solstice, the Sun rises south of east and sets south of west and the durations of day and night are reversed.Also on the day of an equinox, the Sun rises everywhere on Earth (except at the poles) at about 06:00 and sets at about 18:00 (local solar time).", "These times are not exact for several reasons:* Most places on Earth use a time zone which differs from the local solar time by minutes or even hours.", "For example, if a location uses a time zone with reference meridian 15° to the east, the Sun will rise around 07:00 on the equinox and set 12 hours later around 19:00 .", "* Day length is also affected by the variable orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun.", "This combined effect is described as the equation of time.", "Thus even locations which lie on their time zone's reference meridian will not see sunrise and sunset at 6:00 and 18:00 .", "At the March equinox they are 7–8 minutes later, and at the September equinox they are about 7–8 minutes earlier.", "* Sunrise and sunset are commonly defined for the upper limb of the solar disk, rather than its center.", "The upper limb is already up for at least a minute before the center appears, and the upper limb likewise sets later than the center of the solar disk.", "Also, when the Sun is near the horizon, atmospheric refraction shifts its apparent position above its true position by a little more than its own diameter.", "This makes sunrise more than two minutes earlier and sunset an equal amount later.", "These two effects combine to make the equinox day 12 7 long and the night only 11 53.Note, however, that these numbers are only true for the tropics.", "For moderate latitudes, the discrepancy increases (e.g., 12 minutes in London); and closer to the poles it becomes very much larger (in terms of time).", "Up to about 100 km from either pole, the Sun is up for a full 24 hours on an equinox day.", "* Height of the horizon changes the day's length.", "For an observer atop a mountain the day is longer, while standing in a valley will shorten the day.", "* The Sun is larger in diameter than the Earth, so more than half of the Earth is in sunlight at any one time (because non-parallel rays create tangent points beyond an equal-day-night line).====Day arcs of the Sun====Some of the statements above can be made clearer by picturing the day arc (i.e., the path along which the Sun appears to move across the sky).", "The pictures show this for every hour on equinox day.", "In addition, some 'ghost' suns are also indicated below the horizon, up to 18° below it; the Sun in such areas still causes twilight.", "The depictions presented below can be used for both the northern and the southern hemispheres.", "The observer is understood to be sitting near the tree on the island depicted in the middle of the ocean; the green arrows give cardinal directions.", "* In the northern hemisphere, north is to the left, the Sun rises in the east (far arrow), culminates in the south (right arrow), while moving to the right and setting in the west (near arrow).", "* In the southern hemisphere, south is to the left, the Sun rises in the east (near arrow), culminates in the north (right arrow), while moving to the left and setting in the west (far arrow).The following special cases are depicted:File:equinox-0.jpg |'''Day arc at 0° latitude (equator)'''The arc passes through the zenith, resulting in any purely vertical object (such as an obelisk or pillar) having no shadow at high noon.File:equinox-20.jpg|'''Day arc at 20° latitude'''The Sun culminates at 70° altitude and its path at sunrise and sunset occurs at a steep 70° angle to the horizon.", "Twilight still lasts about one hour.File:equinox-50.jpg|'''Day arc at 50° latitude'''Twilight lasts almost two hours.File:equinox-70.jpg|'''Day arc at 70° latitude'''The Sun culminates at no more than 20° altitude and its daily path at sunrise and sunset is at a shallow 20° angle to the horizon.", "Twilight lasts for more than four hours.File:equinox-90.jpg|'''Day arc at 90° latitude (pole)'''If it were not for atmospheric refraction, the Sun would be on the horizon all the time.===Celestial coordinate systems===Celestial sphereThe March equinox occurs about when the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator northward.", "In the Northern Hemisphere, the term ''vernal point'' is used for the time of this occurrence and for the precise direction in space where the Sun exists at that time.", "This point is the origin of some celestial coordinate systems, which are usually rooted to an astronomical epoch since it gradually varies (precesses) over time:* in the ecliptic coordinate system, the vernal point is the origin of the ecliptic longitude;* in the equatorial coordinate system, the vernal point is the origin of the right ascension.Diagram of the difference between the Sun's celestial longitude being zero and its declination being zero.", "Its celestial latitude never exceeds 1.2 arcseconds, but is exaggerated in this diagram.The modern definition of equinox is the instant when the Sun's apparent geocentric ecliptic longitude is 0° (northward equinox) or 180° (southward equinox).", "Note that at that moment, its latitude will not be exactly zero, since Earth is not exactly in the plane of the ecliptic.", "Its declination will also not be exactly zero, so the scientific definition is slightly different from the traditional one.", "The ''mean'' ecliptic is defined by the barycenter of Earth and the Moon combined, to minimize the fact that the orbital inclination of the Moon causes the Earth to wander slightly above and below the ecliptic.", "See the adjacent diagram.Because of the precession of the Earth's axis, the position of the vernal point on the celestial sphere changes over time, and the equatorial and the ecliptic coordinate systems change accordingly.", "Thus when specifying celestial coordinates for an object, one has to specify at what time the vernal point and the celestial equator are taken.", "That reference time can either be a conventional time (like J2000), or an arbitrary point in time, as for the equinox of date.The upper culmination of the vernal point is considered the start of the sidereal day for the observer.", "The hour angle of the vernal point is, by definition, the observer's sidereal time.Using the current official IAU constellation boundaries – and taking into account the variable precession speed and the rotation of the celestial equator – the equinoxes shift through the constellations as follows (expressed in astronomical year numbering when the etc.", "):* The March equinox passed from Taurus into Aries in passed into Pisces in will pass into Aquarius in and then into Capricornus in In 1489 it came within 10 arcminutes of Cetus without crossing the boundary.", "* The September equinox passed from Libra into Virgo in will pass into Leo in ===Auroras===Mirror-image conjugate auroras have been observed during the equinoxes.===Cultural aspects===The equinoxes are sometimes regarded as the start of spring and autumn.", "A number of traditional harvest festivals are celebrated on the date of the equinoxes.Religious architecture is often determined by the equinox; the Angkor Wat Equinox during which the sun rises in a perfect alignment over Angkor Wat in Cambodia is one such example.Catholic churches, since the recommendations of Charles Borromeo, have often chosen the equinox as their reference point for the orientation of churches." ], [ "Effects on satellites", "One effect of equinoctial periods is the temporary disruption of communications satellites.", "For all geostationary satellites, there are a few days around the equinox when the Sun goes directly behind the satellite relative to Earth (i.e.", "within the beam-width of the ground-station antenna) for a short period each day.", "The Sun's immense power and broad radiation spectrum overload the Earth station's reception circuits with noise and, depending on antenna size and other factors, temporarily disrupt or degrade the circuit.", "The duration of those effects varies but can range from a few minutes to an hour.", "(For a given frequency band, a larger antenna has a narrower beam-width and hence experiences shorter duration \"Sun outage\" windows.", ")Satellites in geostationary orbit also experience difficulties maintaining power during the equinox because they have to travel through Earth's shadow and rely only on battery power.", "Usually, a satellite travels either north or south of the Earth's shadow because Earth's axis is not directly perpendicular to a line from the Earth to the Sun at other times.", "During the equinox, since geostationary satellites are situated above the Equator, they are in Earth's shadow for the longest duration all year." ], [ "Equinoxes on other planets", "When Saturn is at equinox its rings reflect little sunlight, as seen in this image by ''Cassini'' in 2009.Equinoxes are defined on any planet with a tilted rotational axis.", "A dramatic example is Saturn, where the equinox places its ring system edge-on facing the Sun.", "As a result, they are visible only as a thin line when seen from Earth.", "When seen from above – a view seen during an equinox for the first time from the ''Cassini'' space probe in 2009 – they receive very little sunshine; indeed, they receive more planetshine than light from the Sun.", "This phenomenon occurs once every 14.7 years on average, and can last a few weeks before and after the exact equinox.", "Saturn's most recent equinox was on 11 August 2009, and its next will take place on 6 May 2025.Mars's most recent equinoxes were on 24 February 2022 (northern autumn), and on 26 December 2022 (northern spring)." ], [ "See also", "* Analemma* Anjana (Cantabrian mythology) – fairies believed to appear on the spring equinox* Angkor Wat Equinox* Aphelion – occurs around 5 July (see formula)* Geocentric view of the seasons* Iranian calendars* Kōreisai – days of worship in Japan that began in 1878* Lady Day* Nowruz* Orientation of churches* Perihelion and aphelion* Solstice * Songkran* Sun outage – a satellite phenomenon that occurs around the time of an equinox* Tekufah* Wheel of the Year* Zoroastrian calendar" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*****" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eugene Wigner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eugene Paul Wigner''' (, ; November 17, 1902 – January 1, 1995) was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist who also contributed to mathematical physics.", "He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 \"for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles\".A graduate of the Technical University of Berlin, Wigner worked as an assistant to Karl Weissenberg and Richard Becker at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, and David Hilbert at the University of Göttingen.", "Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into physics, particularly the theory of symmetry in physics.", "Along the way he performed ground-breaking work in pure mathematics, in which he authored a number of mathematical theorems.", "In particular, Wigner's theorem is a cornerstone in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.", "He is also known for his research into the structure of the atomic nucleus.", "In 1930, Princeton University recruited Wigner, along with John von Neumann, and he moved to the United States, where he obtained citizenship in 1937.Wigner participated in a meeting with Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein that resulted in the Einstein–Szilard letter, which prompted President Franklin D. Roosevelt to initiate the Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs.", "Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first.", "During the Manhattan Project, he led a team whose task was to design nuclear reactors to convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium.", "At the time, reactors existed only on paper, and no reactor had yet gone critical.", "Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors, not just their construction.", "He became director of research and development at the Clinton Laboratory (now the Oak Ridge National Laboratory) in early 1946, but became frustrated with bureaucratic interference by the Atomic Energy Commission, and returned to Princeton.In the postwar period, he served on a number of government bodies, including the National Bureau of Standards from 1947 to 1951, the mathematics panel of the National Research Council from 1951 to 1954, the physics panel of the National Science Foundation, and the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1952 to 1957 and again from 1959 to 1964.In later life, he became more philosophical, and published ''The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences'', his best-known work outside technical mathematics and physics." ], [ "Early life and education", "Werner Heisenberg and Eugene Wigner (1928)Wigner Jenő Pál was born in Budapest, Austria-Hungary on November 17, 1902, to middle class Jewish parents, Elisabeth Elsa Einhorn and Antal Anton Wigner, a leather tanner.", "He had an older sister, Berta, known as Biri, and a younger sister Margit, known as Manci, who later married British theoretical physicist Paul Dirac.", "He was home schooled by a professional teacher until the age of 9, when he started school at the third grade.", "During this period, Wigner developed an interest in mathematical problems.", "At the age of 11, Wigner contracted what his doctors believed to be tuberculosis.", "His parents sent him to live for six weeks in a sanatorium in the Austrian mountains, before the doctors concluded that the diagnosis was mistaken.Wigner's family was Jewish, but not religiously observant, and his Bar Mitzvah was a secular one.", "From 1915 through 1919, he studied at the secondary grammar school called Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium, the school his father had attended.", "Religious education was compulsory, and he attended classes in Judaism taught by a rabbi.", "A fellow student was János von Neumann, who was a year behind Wigner.", "They both benefited from the instruction of the noted mathematics teacher László Rátz.", "In 1919, to escape the Béla Kun communist regime, the Wigner family briefly fled to Austria, returning to Hungary after Kun's downfall.", "Partly as a reaction to the prominence of Jews in the Kun regime, the family converted to Lutheranism.", "Wigner explained later in his life that his family decision to convert to Lutheranism \"was not at heart a religious decision but an anti-communist one\".After graduating from the secondary school in 1920, Wigner enrolled at the Budapest University of Technical Sciences, known as the ''Műegyetem''.", "He was not happy with the courses on offer, and in 1921 enrolled at the ''Technische Hochschule Berlin'' (now Technical University of Berlin), where he studied chemical engineering.", "He also attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society.", "These colloquia featured leading researchers including Max Planck, Max von Laue, Rudolf Ladenburg, Werner Heisenberg, Walther Nernst, Wolfgang Pauli, and Albert Einstein.", "Wigner also met the physicist Leó Szilárd, who at once became Wigner's closest friend.", "A third experience in Berlin was formative.", "Wigner worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry (now the Fritz Haber Institute), and there he met Michael Polanyi, who became, after László Rátz, Wigner's greatest teacher.", "Polanyi supervised Wigner's DSc thesis, ''Bildung und Zerfall von Molekülen'' (\"Formation and Decay of Molecules\")." ], [ "Middle years", "Wigner returned to Budapest, where he went to work at his father's tannery, but in 1926, he accepted an offer from Karl Weissenberg at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin.", "Weissenberg wanted someone to assist him with his work on x-ray crystallography, and Polanyi had recommended Wigner.", "After six months as Weissenberg's assistant, Wigner went to work for Richard Becker for two semesters.", "Wigner explored quantum mechanics, studying the work of Erwin Schrödinger.", "He also delved into the group theory of Ferdinand Frobenius and Eduard Ritter von Weber.Wigner received a request from Arnold Sommerfeld to work at the University of Göttingen as an assistant to the great mathematician David Hilbert.", "This proved a disappointment, as the aged Hilbert's abilities were failing, and his interests had shifted to logic.", "Wigner nonetheless studied independently.", "He laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics and in 1927 introduced what is now known as the Wigner D-matrix.", "Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into quantum mechanics.", "The latter had written a standard text, ''Group Theory and Quantum Mechanics'' (1928), but it was not easy to understand, especially for younger physicists.", "Wigner's ''Group Theory and Its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra'' (1931) made group theory accessible to a wider audience.Jucys diagram for the Wigner 6-j symbol.", "The plus sign on the nodes indicates an anticlockwise reading of its surrounding lines.", "Due to its symmetries, there are many ways in which the diagram can be drawn.", "An equivalent configuration can be created by taking its mirror image and thus changing the pluses to minuses.In these works, Wigner laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics.", "Wigner's theorem proved by Wigner in 1931, is a cornerstone of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.", "The theorem specifies how physical symmetries such as rotations, translations, and CPT symmetry are represented on the Hilbert space of states.", "According to the theorem, any symmetry transformation is represented by a linear and unitary or antilinear and antiunitary transformation of Hilbert space.", "The representation of a symmetry group on a Hilbert space is either an ordinary representation or a projective representation.In the late 1930s, Wigner extended his research into atomic nuclei.", "By 1929, his papers were drawing notice in the world of physics.", "In 1930, Princeton University recruited Wigner for a one-year lectureship, at 7 times the salary that he had been drawing in Europe.", "Princeton recruited von Neumann at the same time.", "Jenő Pál Wigner and János von Neumann had collaborated on three papers together in 1928 and two in 1929.They anglicized their first names to \"Eugene\" and \"John\", respectively.", "When their year was up, Princeton offered a five-year contract as visiting professors for half the year.", "The Technische Hochschule responded with a teaching assignment for the other half of the year.", "This was very timely, since the Nazis soon rose to power in Germany.", "At Princeton in 1934, Wigner introduced his sister Margit \"Manci\" Wigner to the physicist Paul Dirac, with whom she remarried.Princeton did not rehire Wigner when his contract ran out in 1936.Through Gregory Breit, Wigner found new employment at the University of Wisconsin.", "There, he met his first wife, Amelia Frank, who was a physics student there.", "However, she died unexpectedly in 1937, leaving Wigner distraught.", "He therefore accepted a 1938 offer from Princeton to return there.", "Wigner became a naturalized citizen of the United States on January 8, 1937, and he brought his parents to the United States." ], [ "Manhattan Project", "Wigner receiving the Medal for Merit for his work on the Manhattan Project from Robert P. Patterson (left), March 5, 1946Although he was a professed political amateur, on August 2, 1939, he participated in a meeting with Leó Szilárd and Albert Einstein that resulted in the Einstein–Szilárd letter, which prompted President Franklin D. Roosevelt to initiate the Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs.", "Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first, and even refused to have his fingerprints taken because they could be used to track him down if Germany won.", "\"Thoughts of being murdered,\" he later recalled, \"focus your mind wonderfully.", "\"On June 4, 1941, Wigner married his second wife, Mary Annette Wheeler, a professor of physics at Vassar College, who had completed her Ph.D. at Yale University in 1932.After the war she taught physics on the faculty of Rutgers University's Douglass College in New Jersey until her retirement in 1964.They remained married until her death in November 1977.They had two children, David Wigner and Martha Wigner Upton.During the Manhattan Project, Wigner led a team that included J. Ernest Wilkins Jr., Alvin M. Weinberg, Katharine Way, Gale Young and Edward Creutz.", "The group's task was to design the production nuclear reactors that would convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium.", "At the time, reactors existed only on paper, and no reactor had yet gone critical.", "In July 1942, Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design, with a graphite neutron moderator and water cooling.", "Wigner was present at a converted rackets court under the stands at the University of Chicago's abandoned Stagg Field on December 2, 1942, when the world's first atomic reactor, Chicago Pile One (CP-1) achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction.The Chianti fiasco purchased by Wigner to help celebrate the first self-sustaining, controlled chain reaction.", "It was signed by the participants.Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors, not just their construction.", "He threatened to resign in February 1943, but was talked out of it by the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory, Arthur Compton, who sent him on vacation instead.", "As it turned out, a design decision by DuPont to give the reactor additional load tubes for more uranium saved the project when neutron poisoning became a problem.", "Without the additional tubes, the reactor could have been run at 35% power until the boron impurities in the graphite were burned up and enough plutonium produced to run the reactor at full power; but this would have set the project back a year.", "During the 1950s, he would even work for DuPont on the Savannah River Site.", "Wigner did not regret working on the Manhattan Project, and sometimes wished the atomic bomb had been ready a year earlier.An important discovery Wigner made during the project was the Wigner effect.", "This is a swelling of the graphite moderator caused by the displacement of atoms by neutron radiation.", "The Wigner effect was a serious problem for the reactors at the Hanford Site in the immediate post-war period, and resulted in production cutbacks and a reactor being shut down entirely.", "It was eventually discovered that it could be overcome by controlled heating and annealing.Through Manhattan project funding, Wigner and Leonard Eisenbud also developed an important general approach to nuclear reactions, the Wigner–Eisenbud R-matrix theory, which was published in 1947." ], [ "Later years", "Wigner was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1944 and the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1945.He accepted a position as the director of research and development at the Clinton Laboratory (now the Oak Ridge National Laboratory) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee in early 1946.Because he did not want to be involved in administrative duties, he became co-director of the laboratory, with James Lum handling the administrative chores as executive director.", "When the newly created Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) took charge of the laboratory's operations at the start of 1947, Wigner feared that many of the technical decisions would be made in Washington.", "He also saw the Army's continuation of wartime security policies at the laboratory as a \"meddlesome oversight\", interfering with research.", "One such incident occurred in March 1947, when the AEC discovered that Wigner's scientists were conducting experiments with a critical mass of uranium-235 when the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., had forbidden such experiments in August 1946 after the death of Louis Slotin at the Los Alamos Laboratory.", "Wigner argued that Groves's order had been superseded, but was forced to terminate the experiments, which were completely different from the one that killed Slotin.Feeling unsuited to a managerial role in such an environment, he left Oak Ridge in 1947 and returned to Princeton University, although he maintained a consulting role with the facility for many years.", "In the postwar period, he served on a number of government bodies, including the National Bureau of Standards from 1947 to 1951, the mathematics panel of the National Research Council from 1951 to 1954, the physics panel of the National Science Foundation, and the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1952 to 1957 and again from 1959 to 1964.He also contributed to civil defense.Wigner was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950.Near the end of his life, Wigner's thoughts turned more philosophical.", "In 1960, he published a now classic article on the philosophy of mathematics and of physics, which has become his best-known work outside technical mathematics and physics, \"The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences\".", "He argued that biology and cognition could be the origin of physical concepts, as we humans perceive them, and that the happy coincidence that mathematics and physics were so well matched, seemed to be \"unreasonable\" and hard to explain.", "His original paper has provoked and inspired many responses across a wide range of disciplines.", "These included Richard Hamming in Computer Science, Arthur Lesk in Molecular Biology, Peter Norvig in data mining, Max Tegmark in Physics, Ivor Grattan-Guinness in Mathematics, and Vela Velupillai in Economics.Turning to philosophical questions about the theory of quantum mechanics, Wigner developed a thought experiment (later called Wigner's Friend paradox) to illustrate his belief that consciousness is foundational to the quantum mechanical measurement process.", "He thereby followed an ontological approach that sets human's consciousness at the center: \"All that quantum mechanics purports to provide are probability connections between subsequent impressions (also called 'apperceptions') of the consciousness\".Measurements are understood as the interactions which create the impressions in our consciousness (and as a result modify the wave function of the \"measured\" physical system), an idea which has been called the \"consciousness causes collapse\" interpretation.Interestingly, Hugh Everett III (a student of Wigner) discussed Wigner's thought experiment in the introductory part of his 1957 dissertation as an \"amusing, but ''extremely hypothetical'' drama\".", "In an early draft of Everett's work, one also finds a drawing of the Wigner's Friend situation, which must be seen as the first evidence on paper of the thought experiment that was later assigned to be Wigner's.", "This suggests that Everett must at least have discussed the problem together with Wigner.In November 1963, Wigner called for the allocation of 10% of the national defense budget to be spent on nuclear blast shelters and survival resources, arguing that such an expenditure would be less costly than disarmament.", "Wigner considered a recent Woods Hole study's conclusion that a nuclear strike would kill 20% of Americans to be a very modest projection and that the country could recover from such an attack more quickly than Germany had recovered from the devastation of World War II.Wigner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 \"for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles\".", "The prize was shared that year, with the other half of the award divided between Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen.", "Wigner professed that he had never considered the possibility that this might occur, and added: \"I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked.\"", "He also won the Franklin Medal in 1950, the Enrico Fermi award in 1958, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959, the Max Planck Medal in 1961, the National Medal of Science in 1969, the Albert Einstein Award in 1972, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1974, the eponymous Wigner Medal in 1978, and the Herzl Prize in 1982.In 1968 he gave the Josiah Willard Gibbs lecture.After his retirement from Princeton in 1971, Wigner prepared the first edition of Symmetries and Reflections, a collection of philosophical essays, and became more involved in international and political meetings; around this time he became a leader and vocal defender of the Unification Church's annual International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences.Mary died in November 1977.In 1979, Wigner married his third wife, Eileen Clare-Patton (Pat) Hamilton, the widow of physicist Donald Ross Hamilton, the dean of the graduate school at Princeton University, who had died in 1972.In 1992, at the age of 90, he published his memoirs, ''The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner'' with Andrew Szanton.", "In it, Wigner said: \"The full meaning of life, the collective meaning of all human desires, is fundamentally a mystery beyond our grasp.", "As a young man, I chafed at this state of affairs.", "But by now I have made peace with it.", "I even feel a certain honor to be associated with such a mystery.\"", "In his collection of essays 'Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses' (1995), he commented: \"It was not possible to formulate the laws of quantum mechanics in a fully consistent way without reference to consciousness.", "\"Wigner was credited as a member of the advisory board for the Western Goals Foundation, a private domestic intelligence agency created in the US in 1979 to \"fill the critical gap caused by the crippling of the FBI, the disabling of the House Un-American Activities Committee and the destruction of crucial government files\".Wigner died of pneumonia at the University Medical Center in Princeton, New Jersey on 1 January 1995." ], [ "Publications", "* 1958 (with Alvin M. Weinberg).", "''Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors'' University of Chicago Press.", "* 1959.", "''Group Theory and its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra''.", "New York: Academic Press.", "Translation by J. J. Griffin of 1931, ''Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendungen auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren'', Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig.", "* 1970 ''Symmetries and Reflections: Scientific Essays''.", "Indiana University Press, Bloomington * 1992 (as told to Andrew Szanton).", "''The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner''.", "Plenum.", "* 1995 (with Jagdish Mehra and Arthur Wightman, eds.).", "''Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses''.", "Springer, Berlin" ], [ "Selected contributions", ";Theoretical physics* Bargmann–Wigner equations* Jordan–Wigner transformation* Newton–Wigner localization * Polynomial Wigner–Ville distribution* Relativistic Breit–Wigner distribution * Thomas–Wigner rotation * Wigner–Eckart theorem* Wigner–Inonu contraction * Wigner–Seitz cell * Wigner–Seitz radius* Wigner–Weyl transform * Wigner–Wilkins spectrum * Wigner's classification* Wigner quasiprobability distribution* Wigner's friend * Wigner's theorem* Wigner crystal* Wigner D-matrix* Wigner effect * Wigner energy * Wigner lattice* Wigner's disease * Thomas–Wigner rotation* Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation* Wigner–Witmer correlation rules;Mathematics* Gabor–Wigner transform* Modified Wigner distribution function * Wigner distribution function* Wigner semicircle distribution* Wigner rotation* Wigner quasiprobability distribution* Wigner semicircle distribution* 6-j symbol* 9-j symbol* Wigner 3-j symbols* Wigner–İnönü group contraction* Wigner surmise" ], [ "See also", "* List of things named after Eugene Wigner* The Martians (scientists)* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * N. Mukunda (1995) \"Eugene Paul Wigner – A tribute\", Current Science 69(4): 375–85 * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* 1964 Audio Interview with Eugene Wigner by Stephane Groueff Voices of the Manhattan Project* * * * * * * Wigner Jenö Iskolás Évei by Radnai Gyula, ELTE, Fizikai Szemle 2007/2 – 62.o.", "(''Hungarian'').", "Description of the childhood and especially of the school-years in Budapest, with some interesting photos too.", "* Interview with Eugene P. Wigner on John von Neumann at the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis – Wigner talks about his association with John von Neumann during their school years in Hungary, their graduate studies in Berlin, and their appointments to Princeton in 1930.Wigner discusses von Neumann's contributions to the theory of quantum mechanics, Wigner's own work in this area, and von Neumann's interest in the application of theory to the atomic bomb project.", "* * including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1963 ''Events, Laws of Nature, and Invariance Principles''" ] ]
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[ [ "Electroweak interaction" ], [ "Introduction", "In particle physics, the '''electroweak interaction''' or '''electroweak force''' is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism (electromagnetic interaction) and the weak interaction.", "Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force.", "Above the unification energy, on the order of 246 GeV, they would merge into a single force.", "Thus, if the temperature is high enough – approximately 1015 K – then the electromagnetic force and weak force merge into a combined electroweak force.", "During the quark epoch (shortly after the Big Bang), the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak force.", "It is thought that the required temperature of 1015 K has not been seen widely throughout the universe since before the quark epoch, and currently the highest human-made temperature in thermal equilibrium is around 5.5x1012 K (from the Large Hadron Collider).Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg were awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for their contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, known as the '''Weinberg–Salam theory'''.", "The existence of the electroweak interactions was experimentally established in two stages, the first being the discovery of neutral currents in neutrino scattering by the Gargamelle collaboration in 1973, and the second in 1983 by the UA1 and the UA2 collaborations that involved the discovery of the W and Z gauge bosons in proton–antiproton collisions at the converted Super Proton Synchrotron.", "In 1999, Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman were awarded the Nobel prize for showing that the electroweak theory is renormalizable." ], [ "History", "After the Wu experiment in 1956 discovered parity violation in the weak interaction, a search began for a way to relate the weak and electromagnetic interactions.", "Extending his doctoral advisor Julian Schwinger's work, Sheldon Glashow first experimented with introducing two different symmetries, one chiral and one achiral, and combined them such that their overall symmetry was unbroken.", "This did not yield a renormalizable theory, and its gauge symmetry had to be broken by hand as no spontaneous mechanism was known, but it predicted a new particle, the Z boson.", "This received little notice, as it matched no experimental finding.In 1964, Salam and John Clive Ward had the same idea, but predicted a massless photon and three massive gauge bosons with a manually broken symmetry.", "Later around 1967, while investigating spontaneous symmetry breaking, Weinberg found a set of symmetries predicting a massless, neutral gauge boson.", "Initially rejecting such a particle as useless, he later realized his symmetries produced the electroweak force, and he proceeded to predict rough masses for the W and Z bosons.", "Significantly, he suggested this new theory was renormalizable.", "In 1971, Gerard 't Hooft proved that spontaneously broken gauge symmetries are renormalizable even with massive gauge bosons." ], [ "Formulation", "Weinberg's weak mixing angle , and relation between coupling constants , and .", "Adapted from Lee (1981).The pattern of weak isospin, , and weak hypercharge, , of the known elementary particles, showing the electric charge, , along the weak mixing angle.", "The neutral Higgs field (circled) breaks the electroweak symmetry and interacts with other particles to give them mass.", "Three components of the Higgs field become part of the massive and bosons.Mathematically, electromagnetism is unified with the weak interactions as a Yang–Mills field with an SU(2) × U(1) gauge group, which describes the formal operations that can be applied to the electroweak gauge fields without changing the dynamics of the system.", "These fields are the weak isospin fields , , and , and the weak hypercharge field .This invariance is known as '''electroweak symmetry'''.The generators of SU(2) and U(1) are given the name weak isospin (labeled ) and weak hypercharge (labeled ) respectively.", "These then give rise to the gauge bosons which mediate the electroweak interactions – the three bosons of weak isospin (, , and ), and the boson of weak hypercharge, respectively, all of which are \"initially\" massless.", "These are not physical fields yet, before spontaneous symmetry breaking and the associated Higgs mechanism.In the Standard Model, the observed physical particles, the and bosons, and the photon, are produced through the spontaneous symmetry breaking of the electroweak symmetry SU(2) × U(1) to U(1), effected by the Higgs mechanism (see also Higgs boson), an elaborate quantum-field-theoretic phenomenon that \"spontaneously\" alters the realization of the symmetry and rearranges degrees of freedom.The electric charge arises as the particular linear combination (nontrivial) of (weak hypercharge) and the component of weak isospin that does ''not'' couple to the Higgs boson.", "That is to say: The Higgs and the electromagnetic field have no effect on each other, at the level of the fundamental forces (\"tree level\"), while any ''other'' combination of the hypercharge and the weak isospin must interact with the Higgs.", "This causes an apparent separation between the weak force, which interacts with the Higgs, and electromagnetism, which does not.", "Mathematically, the electric charge is a specific combination of the hypercharge and outlined in the figure.", "(the symmetry group of electromagnetism only) is defined to be the group generated by this special linear combination, and the symmetry described by the group is unbroken, since it does not ''directly'' interact with the Higgs.The above spontaneous symmetry breaking makes the and bosons coalesce into two different physical bosons with different masses – the boson, and the photon (),: where is the ''weak mixing angle''.", "The axes representing the particles have essentially just been rotated, in the (, ) plane, by the angle .", "This also introduces a mismatch between the mass of the and the mass of the particles (denoted as and , respectively),:The and bosons, in turn, combine to produce the charged massive bosons ::" ], [ "Lagrangian", "===Before electroweak symmetry breaking===The Lagrangian for the electroweak interactions is divided into four parts before electroweak symmetry breaking becomes manifest,:The term describes the interaction between the three vector bosons and the vector boson, :,where () and are the field strength tensors for the weak isospin and weak hypercharge gauge fields.", "is the kinetic term for the Standard Model fermions.", "The interaction of the gauge bosons and the fermions are through the gauge covariant derivative,:,where the subscript sums over the three generations of fermions; , , and are the left-handed doublet, right-handed singlet up, and right handed singlet down quark fields; and and are the left-handed doublet and right-handed singlet electron fields.The Feynman slash means the contraction of the 4-gradient with the Dirac matrices, defined as:and the covariant derivative (excluding the gluon gauge field for the strong interaction) is defined as:Here is the weak hypercharge and the are the components of the weak isospin.The term describes the Higgs field and its interactions with itself and the gauge bosons,:where is the vacuum expectation value.The term describes the Yukawa interaction with the fermions, :and generates their masses, manifest when the Higgs field acquires a nonzero vacuum expectation value, discussed next.", "The for are matrices of Yukawa couplings.===After electroweak symmetry breaking===The Lagrangian reorganizes itself as the Higgs boson acquires a non-vanishing vacuum expectation value dictated by the potential of the previous section.", "As a result of this rewriting, the symmetry breaking becomes manifest.", "In the history of the universe, this is believed to have happened shortly after the hot big bang, when the universe was at a temperature 159.5±1.5 GeV(assuming the Standard Model of particle physics).Due to its complexity, this Lagrangian is best described by breaking it up into several parts as follows.", ":The kinetic term contains all the quadratic terms of the Lagrangian, which include the dynamic terms (the partial derivatives) and the mass terms (conspicuously absent from the Lagrangian before symmetry breaking):where the sum runs over all the fermions of the theory (quarks and leptons), and the fields and are given as:with '' to be replaced by the relevant field (, , ), and by the structure constants of the appropriate gauge group.The neutral current and charged current components of the Lagrangian contain the interactions between the fermions and gauge bosons,:where The electromagnetic current is:where is the fermions' electric charges.", "The neutral weak current is:where is the fermions' weak isospin.The charged current part of the Lagrangian is given by:where is the right-handed singlet neutrino field, and the CKM matrix determines the mixing between mass and weak eigenstates of the quarks.", "contains the Higgs three-point and four-point self interaction terms,: contains the Higgs interactions with gauge vector bosons,: contains the gauge three-point self interactions,: contains the gauge four-point self interactions,: contains the Yukawa interactions between the fermions and the Higgs field,:" ], [ "See also", "* Electroweak star* Fundamental forces* History of quantum field theory* Standard Model (mathematical formulation)* Unitarity gauge* Weinberg angle* Yang–Mills theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===General readers===* Conveys much of the Standard Model with no formal mathematics.", "Very thorough on the weak interaction.=== Texts ===***=== Articles ===**** *" ] ]
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[ [ "Elara" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elara''' may refer to:* Elara (mythology), mother of the giant Tityos in Greek mythology** Elara (moon), a moon of Jupiter named after Elara* Elara (timeshare), a building on the Las Vegas Strip in Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S* Ellalan, or Eḷāra, a member of the Tamil Chola dynasty and monarch of the Anuradhapura Kingdom* \"Elara\", a song from the 2012 album ''Soundtrack for the Voices in My Head Vol.", "02'' by Celldweller* Elara Pictures, an American film production company* Chery A5, a Chinese compact sedan, sold in Ukraine as the Chery Elara" ], [ "See also", "* Elarra, a character in the roleplay game ''Final Fantasy Record Keeper''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erasmus Reinhold" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erasmus Reinhold''' (22 October 1511 – 19 February 1553) was a German astronomer and mathematician, considered to be the most influential astronomical pedagogue of his generation.", "He was born and died in Saalfeld, Saxony.He was educated, under Jacob Milich, at the University of Wittenberg, where he was first elected dean and later became rector.", "In 1536 he was appointed professor of higher mathematics by Philipp Melanchthon.", "In contrast to the limited modern definition, \"mathematics\" at the time also included applied mathematics, especially astronomy.", "His colleague, Georg Joachim Rheticus, also studied at Wittenberg and was appointed professor of lower mathematics in 1536.Reinhold catalogued a large number of stars.", "His publications on astronomy include a commentary (1542, 1553) on Georg Purbach's ''Theoricae novae planetarum''.", "Reinhold knew about Copernicus and his heliocentric ideas prior to the publication of his ''De revolutionibus'', and made a favourable reference to him in his commentary on Purbach.", "However, Reinhold (like other astronomers before Kepler and Galileo) translated Copernicus' mathematical methods back into a geocentric system, rejecting heliocentric cosmology on physical and theological grounds.", "''Prutenic Tables'' (1562 edition)Duke Albert of Brandenburg Prussia supported Reinhold and financed the printing of Reinhold's ''Prutenicae Tabulae'' (1551, 1562, 1571 & 1585) or ''Prussian Tables''.", "These astronomical tables helped to disseminate calculation methods of Copernicus throughout the Empire, however, Gingerich notes that they showed a \"notable lack of commitment\" to heliocentricity and were \"carefully framed\" to be independent of the movement of the Earth.", "Both Reinhold's ''Prutenic Tables'' and Copernicus' studies were the foundation for the Calendar Reform by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582.It was Reinhold's heavily annotated copy of ''De revolutionibus'' in the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, that started Owen Gingerich on his search for copies of the first and second editions which he describes in ''The Book Nobody Read''.", "In Reinhold's unpublished commentary on ''De revolutionibus'', he calculated the distance from the Earth to the sun.", "He \"massaged\" his calculation method in order to arrive at an answer close to that of Ptolemy.His name has been given to a prominent lunar impact crater that lies to the south-southwest of the crater Copernicus, on the Mare Insularum." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Earthquake" ], [ "Introduction", "Earthquake epicenters occur mostly along tectonic plate boundaries, especially on the Pacific Ring of Fire.Global plate tectonic movementAn '''earthquake'''also called a '''quake''', '''tremor''', or '''temblor'''is the shaking of the surface of Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves.", "Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt, to those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air, damage critical infrastructure, and wreak destruction across entire cities.", "The '''seismic activity''' of an area is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes experienced over a particular time.", "The seismicity at a particular location in the Earth is the average rate of seismic energy release per unit volume.", "The word ''tremor'' is also used for non-earthquake seismic rumbling.At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and displacing or disrupting the ground.", "When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami.", "Earthquakes can also trigger landslides.In its most general sense, the word ''earthquake'' is used to describe any seismic event—whether natural or caused by humans—that generates seismic waves.", "Earthquakes are caused mostly by the rupture of geological faults but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, fracking and nuclear tests.", "An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its hypocenter or focus.", "The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter." ], [ "Terminology", "An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves.", "Earthquakes may also be referred to as ''quakes'', ''tremors'', or ''temblors''.", "The word ''tremor'' is also used for non-earthquake seismic rumbling.In its most general sense, the word ''earthquake'' is used to describe any seismic event—whether natural or caused by humans—that generates seismic waves.", "Earthquakes are caused mostly by the rupture of geological faults but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, fracking and nuclear tests.", "An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its hypocenter or focus.", "The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.The ''seismic activity'' of an area is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes experienced over a particular time.", "The seismicity at a particular location in the Earth is the average rate of seismic energy release per unit volume." ], [ "Major examples", "Earthquakes (M6.0+) since 1900 through 2017Earthquakes of magnitude 8.0 and greater from 1900 to 2018.The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their respective fatalities.One of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history was the 1556 Shaanxi earthquake, which occurred on 23 January 1556 in Shaanxi, China.", "More than 830,000 people died.", "Most houses in the area were yaodongs—dwellings carved out of loess hillsides—and many victims were killed when these structures collapsed.", "The 1976 Tangshan earthquake, which killed between 240,000 and 655,000 people, was the deadliest of the 20th century.The 1960 Chilean earthquake is the largest earthquake that has been measured on a seismograph, reaching 9.5 magnitude on 22 May 1960.Its epicenter was near Cañete, Chile.", "The energy released was approximately twice that of the next most powerful earthquake, the Good Friday earthquake (27 March 1964), which was centered in Prince William Sound, Alaska.", "The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all been megathrust earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history.Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were deadly because of their proximity to either heavily populated areas or the ocean, where earthquakes often create tsunamis that can devastate communities thousands of kilometers away.", "Regions most at risk for great loss of life include those where earthquakes are relatively rare but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or nonexistent seismic building codes." ], [ "Occurrence", "Strike-slipB.", "NormalC.", "ReverseTectonic earthquakes occur anywhere on the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane.", "The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that increases the frictional resistance.", "Most fault surfaces do have such asperities, which leads to a form of stick-slip behavior.", "Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and, therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface.", "This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy.", "This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake.", "This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory.", "It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy.", "Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction.", "Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior.===Fault types===There are three main types of fault, all of which may cause an interplate earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust), and strike-slip.", "Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and where movement on them involves a vertical component.", "Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip.", "The topmost, brittle part of the Earth's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet that can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures.", "Rocks hotter than about flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes.", "The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are approximately .", "Examples are the earthquakes in Alaska (1957), Chile (1960), and Sumatra (2004), all in subduction zones.", "The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the San Andreas Fault (1857, 1906), the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey (1939), and the Denali Fault in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.==== Normal faults ====Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary.", "Earthquakes associated with normal faults are generally less than magnitude 7.Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about .==== Reverse faults ====Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary.", "Reverse faults, particularly those along convergent plate boundaries, are associated with the most powerful earthquakes, megathrust earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more.", "Megathrust earthquakes are responsible for about 90% of the total seismic moment released worldwide.==== Strike-slip faults ====Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault.", "Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can produce major earthquakes up to about magnitude 8.Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of within the brittle crust.", "Thus, earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible.Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in the Carrizo Plain, northwest of Los AngelesIn addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress levels in the three fault types.", "Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike-slip by intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels.", "This can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest principal stress, the direction of the force that \"pushes\" the rock mass during the faulting.", "In the case of normal faults, the rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (''greatest'' principal stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself.", "In the case of thrusting, the rock mass \"escapes\" in the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass, and thus, the overburden equals the ''least'' principal stress.", "Strike-slip faulting is intermediate between the other two types described above.", "This difference in stress regime in the three faulting environments can contribute to differences in stress drop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions.=== Energy released ===For every unit increase in magnitude, there is a roughly thirtyfold increase in the energy released.", "For instance, an earthquake of magnitude 6.0 releases approximately 32 times more energy than a 5.0 magnitude earthquake and a 7.0 magnitude earthquake releases 1,000 times more energy than a 5.0 magnitude earthquake.", "An 8.6 magnitude earthquake releases the same amount of energy as 10,000 atomic bombs of the size used in World War II.This is so because the energy released in an earthquake, and thus its magnitude, is proportional to the area of the fault that ruptures and the stress drop.", "Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude.", "The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault, however, is not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20.Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees.", "Thus, the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become (Japan, 2011; Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.===Focus===Collapsed Gran Hotel building in the San Salvador metropolis, after the shallow 1986 San Salvador earthquakeThe majority of tectonic earthquakes originate in the Ring of Fire at depths not exceeding tens of kilometers.", "Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than are classified as \"shallow-focus\" earthquakes, while those with a focal depth between are commonly termed \"mid-focus\" or \"intermediate-depth\" earthquakes.", "In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (ranging from ).", "These seismically active areas of subduction are known as Wadati–Benioff zones.", "Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure.", "A possible mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure.===Volcanic activity===Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes.", "Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.", "Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes.", "These swarms can be recorded by seismometers and tiltmeters (a device that measures ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions.===Rupture dynamics===A tectonic earthquake begins as an area of initial slip on the fault surface that forms the focus.", "Once the rupture has been initiated, it begins to propagate away from the focus, spreading out along the fault surface.", "Lateral propagation will continue until either the rupture reaches a barrier, such as the end of a fault segment, or a region on the fault where there is insufficient stress to allow continued rupture.", "For larger earthquakes, the depth extent of rupture will be constrained downwards by the brittle-ductile transition zone and upwards by the ground surface.", "The mechanics of this process are poorly understood because it is difficult either to recreate such rapid movements in a laboratory or to record seismic waves close to a nucleation zone due to strong ground motion.In most cases, the rupture speed approaches, but does not exceed, the shear wave (S-wave) velocity of the surrounding rock.", "There are a few exceptions to this:==== Supershear earthquakes ====The 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes ruptured along segments of the East Anatolian Fault at supershear speeds; more than 50,000 people died in both countries.Supershear earthquake ruptures are known to have propagated at speeds greater than the S-wave velocity.", "These have so far all been observed during large strike-slip events.", "The unusually wide zone of damage caused by the 2001 Kunlun earthquake has been attributed to the effects of the sonic boom developed in such earthquakes.==== Slow earthquakes ====Slow earthquake ruptures travel at unusually low velocities.", "A particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is the tsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities, caused by the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighboring coast, as in the 1896 Sanriku earthquake.====Co-seismic overpressuring and effect of pore pressure====During an earthquake, high temperatures can develop at the fault plane, increasing pore pressure and consequently vaporization of the groundwater already contained within the rock.In the coseismic phase, such an increase can significantly affect slip evolution and speed, in the post-seismic phase it can control the Aftershock sequence because, after the main event, pore pressure increase slowly propagates into the surrounding fracture network.From the point of view of the Mohr-Coulomb strength theory, an increase in fluid pressure reduces the normal stress acting on the fault plane that holds it in place, and fluids can exert a lubricating effect.As thermal overpressurization may provide positive feedback between slip and strength fall at the fault plane, a common opinion is that it may enhance the faulting process instability.", "After the mainshock, the pressure gradient between the fault plane and the neighboring rock causes a fluid flow that increases pore pressure in the surrounding fracture networks; such an increase may trigger new faulting processes by reactivating adjacent faults, giving rise to aftershocks.", "Analogously, artificial pore pressure increase, by fluid injection in Earth's crust, may induce seismicity.===Tidal forces===Tides may induce some seismicity.===Clusters===Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time.", "Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.", "Earthquake clustering has been observed, for example, in Parkfield, California where a long-term research study is being conducted around the Parkfield earthquake cluster.====Aftershocks====Central Italy earthquakes of August and October 2016 and January 2017 and the aftershocks (which continued to occur after the period shown here)An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock.", "Rapid changes of stress between rocks, and the stress from the original earthquake are the main causes of these aftershocks, along with the crust around the ruptured fault plane as it adjusts to the effects of the mainshock.", "An aftershock is in the same region as the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude, however, they can still be powerful enough to cause even more damage to buildings that were already previously damaged from the mainshock.", "If an aftershock is larger than the mainshock, the aftershock is redesignated as the mainshock and the original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock.", "Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the mainshock.====Swarms====Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period.", "They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is the main shock, so none has a notably higher magnitude than another.", "An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.", "In August 2012, a swarm of earthquakes shook Southern California's Imperial Valley, showing the most recorded activity in the area since the 1970s.Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in what has been called an ''earthquake storm'', where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes.", "Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones.", "Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East.===Frequency===Messina earthquake and tsunami took almost 100,000 lives on December 28, 1908, in Sicily and Calabria.It is estimated that around 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, detectable with current instrumentation.", "About 100,000 of these can be felt.", "Minor earthquakes occur very frequently around the world in places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in El Salvador, Mexico, Guatemala, Chile, Peru, Indonesia, the Philippines, Iran, Pakistan, the Azores in Portugal, Turkey, New Zealand, Greece, Italy, India, Nepal, and Japan.", "Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5.In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are:an earthquake of 3.7–4.6 every year, an earthquake of 4.7–5.5 every 10 years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years.", "This is an example of the Gutenberg–Richter law.The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today.", "As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes.", "The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0–7.9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable.", "In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, though this is probably a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend.", "More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the United States Geological Survey.A recent increase in the number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of intense tectonic activity, interspersed with longer periods of low intensity.", "However, accurate recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too early to categorically state that this is the case.Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the , horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate.", "Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains.With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo, and Tehran in areas of high seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single earthquake may claim the lives of up to three million people.===Induced seismicity===While most earthquakes are caused by the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates, human activity can also produce earthquakes.", "Activities both above ground and below may change the stresses and strains on the crust, including building reservoirs, extracting resources such as coal or oil, and injecting fluids underground for waste disposal or fracking.", "Most of these earthquakes have small magnitudes.", "The 5.7 magnitude 2011 Oklahoma earthquake is thought to have been caused by disposing wastewater from oil production into injection wells, and studies point to the state's oil industry as the cause of other earthquakes in the past century.", "A Columbia University paper suggested that the 8.0 magnitude 2008 Sichuan earthquake was induced by loading from the Zipingpu Dam, though the link has not been conclusively proved." ], [ "Measurement and location", "The instrumental scales used to describe the size of an earthquake began with the Richter magnitude scale in the 1930s.", "It is a relatively simple measurement of an event's amplitude, and its use has become minimal in the 21st century.", "Seismic waves travel through the Earth's interior and can be recorded by seismometers at great distances.", "The surface wave magnitude was developed in the 1950s as a means to measure remote earthquakes and to improve the accuracy for larger events.", "The moment magnitude scale not only measures the amplitude of the shock but also takes into account the seismic moment (total rupture area, average slip of the fault, and rigidity of the rock).", "The Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale, the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale, and the Mercalli intensity scale are based on the observed effects and are related to the intensity of shaking.=== Intensity and magnitude ===The shaking of the earth is a common phenomenon that has been experienced by humans from the earliest of times.", "Before the development of strong-motion accelerometers, the intensity of a seismic event was estimated based on the observed effects.", "Magnitude and intensity are not directly related and calculated using different methods.", "The magnitude of an earthquake is a single value that describes the size of the earthquake at its source.", "Intensity is the measure of shaking at different locations around the earthquake.", "Intensity values vary from place to place, depending on the distance from the earthquake and the underlying rock or soil makeup.The first scale for measuring earthquake magnitudes was developed by Charles Francis Richter in 1935.Subsequent scales (see seismic magnitude scales) have retained a key feature, where each unit represents a ten-fold difference in the amplitude of the ground shaking and a 32-fold difference in energy.", "Subsequent scales are also adjusted to have approximately the same numeric value within the limits of the scale.Although the mass media commonly reports earthquake magnitudes as \"Richter magnitude\" or \"Richter scale\", standard practice by most seismological authorities is to express an earthquake's strength on the moment magnitude scale, which is based on the actual energy released by an earthquake.=== Seismic waves ===Every earthquake produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities:* Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves)* Transverse S-waves (both body waves)* Surface waves – (Rayleigh and Love waves)==== Speed of seismic waves ====Propagation velocity of the seismic waves through solid rock ranges from approx.", "up to , depending on the density and elasticity of the medium.", "In the Earth's interior, the shock- or P-waves travel much faster than the S-waves (approx.", "relation 1.7:1).", "The differences in travel time from the epicenter to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources of earthquakes and structures within the Earth.", "Also, the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.", "'''P-wave speed'''* Upper crust soils and unconsolidated sediments: per second* Upper crust solid rock: per second* Lower crust: per second* Deep mantle: per second.", "'''S-waves speed'''* Light sediments: per second* Earths crust: per second* Deep mantle: per second==== Seismic wave arrival ====As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the Earth's mantle.On average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P- and S-wave '''times 8'''.", "Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure.", "By such analysis of seismograms, the Earth's core was located in 1913 by Beno Gutenberg.S-waves and later arriving surface waves do most of the damage compared to P-waves.", "P-waves squeeze and expand the material in the same direction they are traveling, whereas S-waves shake the ground up and down and back and forth.=== Location and reporting ===Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur.", "The world is divided into 754 Flinn–Engdahl regions (F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity.", "More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions.Standard reporting of earthquakes includes its magnitude, date and time of occurrence, geographic coordinates of its epicenter, depth of the epicenter, geographical region, distances to population centers, location uncertainty, several parameters that are included in USGS earthquake reports (number of stations reporting, number of observations, etc.", "), and a unique event ID.Although relatively slow seismic waves have traditionally been used to detect earthquakes, scientists realized in 2016 that gravitational measurement could provide instantaneous detection of earthquakes, and confirmed this by analyzing gravitational records associated with the 2011 Tohoku-Oki (\"Fukushima\") earthquake." ], [ "Effects", "1755 copper engraving depicting Lisbon in ruins and in flames after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, which killed an estimated 60,000 people.", "A tsunami overwhelms the ships in the harbor.The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following:===Shaking and ground rupture===Damaged buildings in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, January 2010Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures.", "The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation.", "The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes.", "This effect is called site or local amplification.", "It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and the effects of seismic energy focalization owing to the typical geometrical setting of such deposits.Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of major earthquakes.", "Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges, and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any that are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.===Soil liquefaction===Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid.", "Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.", "For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves.===Human impacts===Ruins of the Għajn Ħadid Tower, which collapsed during the 1856 Heraklion earthquakePhysical damage from an earthquake will vary depending on the intensity of shaking in a given area and the type of population.", "Undeserved and developing communities frequently experience more severe impacts (and longer lasting) from a seismic event compared to well-developed communities.", "Impacts may include:* Injuries and loss of life* Damage to critical infrastructure (short and long-term)** Roads, bridges, and public transportation networks** Water, power, sewer and gas interruption** Communication systems* Loss of critical community services including hospitals, police, and fire* General property damage* Collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildingsWith these impacts and others, the aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities, mental consequences such as panic attacks, and depression to survivors, and higher insurance premiums.", "Recovery times will vary based on the level of damage along with the socioeconomic status of the impacted community.===Landslides===Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard.", "Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel is attempting rescue work.===Fires===Fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquakeEarthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines.", "In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started.", "For example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.===Tsunami===The tsunami of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeTsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water—including when an earthquake occurs at sea.", "In the open ocean, the distance between wave crests can surpass , and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour.", "Such tsunamis travel 600–800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth.", "Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes.", "Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded.", "Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.===Floods===Floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes if dams are damaged.", "Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flooding if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake.", "Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly five million people." ], [ "Management", "===Prediction===Earthquake prediction is a branch of the science of seismology concerned with the specification of the time, location, and magnitude of future earthquakes within stated limits.", "Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur.", "Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month.===Forecasting===While forecasting is usually considered to be a type of prediction, earthquake forecasting is often differentiated from earthquake prediction.", "Earthquake forecasting is concerned with the probabilistic assessment of general earthquake hazards, including the frequency and magnitude of damaging earthquakes in a given area over years or decades.", "For well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated.Earthquake warning systems have been developed that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the system's range to seek shelter before the earthquake's impact is felt.===Preparedness===The objective of earthquake engineering is to foresee the impact of earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such structures to minimize the risk of damage.", "Existing structures can be modified by seismic retrofitting to improve their resistance to earthquakes.", "Earthquake insurance can provide building owners with financial protection against losses resulting from earthquakes.", "Emergency management strategies can be employed by a government or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences.Artificial intelligence may help to assess buildings and plan precautionary operations: the Igor expert system is part of a mobile laboratory that supports the procedures leading to the seismic assessment of masonry buildings and the planning of retrofitting operations on them.", "It has been successfully applied to assess buildings in Lisbon, Rhodes, Naples.Individuals can also take preparedness steps like securing water heaters and heavy items that could injure someone, locating shutoffs for utilities, and being educated about what to do when the shaking starts.", "For areas near large bodies of water, earthquake preparedness encompasses the possibility of a tsunami caused by a large earthquake." ], [ "In culture", "===Historical views===An image from a 1557 book depicting an earthquake in Italy in the 4th century BCEFrom the lifetime of the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras in the 5th century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually attributed to \"air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth.\"", "Thales of Miletus (625–547 BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water.", "Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines' (585–526 BCE) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity.", "The Greek philosopher Democritus (460–371 BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes.", "Pliny the Elder called earthquakes \"underground thunderstorms\".===Mythology and religion===In Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggle of the god Loki.", "When Loki, god of mischief and strife, murdered Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom.", "Loki's wife Sigyn stood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison dripped on Loki's face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his bonds, which caused the earth to tremble.In Greek mythology, Poseidon was the cause and god of earthquakes.", "When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with a trident, causing earthquakes and other calamities.", "He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear upon people as revenge.In Japanese mythology, Namazu (鯰) is a giant catfish who causes earthquakes.", "Namazu lives in the mud beneath the earth and is guarded by the god Kashima who restrains the fish with a stone.", "When Kashima lets his guard fall, Namazu thrashes about, causing violent earthquakes.===In popular culture===In modern popular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the memory of great cities laid waste, such as Kobe in 1995 or San Francisco in 1906.Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning.", "For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as in ''Short Walk to Daylight'' (1972), ''The Ragged Edge'' (1968) or ''Aftershock: Earthquake in New York'' (1999).", "A notable example is Heinrich von Kleist's classic novella, ''The Earthquake in Chile'', which describes the destruction of Santiago in 1647.Haruki Murakami's short fiction collection ''After the Quake'' depicts the consequences of the Kobe earthquake of 1995.The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical \"Big One\" expected of California's San Andreas Fault someday, as depicted in the novels ''Richter 10'' (1996), ''Goodbye California'' (1977), ''2012'' (2009) and ''San Andreas'' (2015) among other works.", "Jacob M. Appel's widely anthologized short story, ''A Comparative Seismology'', features a con artist who convinces an elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake is imminent.Contemporary depictions of earthquakes in film are variable in the manner in which they reflect human psychological reactions to the actual trauma that can be caused to directly afflicted families and their loved ones.", "Disaster mental health response research emphasizes the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and key community members, loss of home and familiar surroundings, and loss of essential supplies and services to maintain survival.", "Particularly for children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who can protect, nourish, and clothe them in the aftermath of the earthquake, and to help them make sense of what has befallen them has been shown even more important to their emotional and physical health than the simple giving of provisions.", "As was observed after other disasters involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, recently observed in the 2010 Haiti earthquake, it is also important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or disruption of governmental administration and services, but rather to validate these reactions, to support constructive problem-solving and reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected." ], [ "Outside of earth", "Phenomena similar to earthquakes have been observed in other planets (e.g., ''marsquakes'' on Mars) and on the Moon (see ''moonquakes'')." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * Lists of earthquakes* * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* .", "* .", "* , NUREG/CR-1457.", "* Deborah R. Coen.", "''The Earthquake Observers: Disaster Science From Lisbon to Richter'' (University of Chicago Press; 2012) 348 pages; explores both scientific and popular coverage* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey* IRIS Seismic Monitor – IRIS Consortium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor of Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Emperor of Japan''' or , literally \"ruler of heaven\" or \"heavenly sovereign\", is the hereditary monarch and head of state of Japan.", "The emperor is defined by the Constitution of Japan as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, his position deriving from \"the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power\".", "The Imperial Household Law governs the line of imperial succession.", "Pursuant to his constitutional role as a national symbol, and in accordance with rulings by the Supreme Court of Japan, the emperor is personally immune from prosecution.", "By virtue of his position as the head of the Imperial House, the emperor is also recognized as the head of the Shinto religion, which holds him to be the direct descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu.", "According to tradition, the office of emperor was created in the 7th century BC, but modern scholars believe that the first emperors did not appear until the 5th or 6th centuries AD.The role of the emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler.", "Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, unlike many Western monarchs.", "Japanese emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees.", "For example, between 1192 and 1867, the ''shōguns'', or their ''shikken'' regents in Kamakura (1203–1333), were the ''de facto'' rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the emperor.", "After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the emperor was the embodiment of all sovereign power in the realm, as enshrined in the Meiji Constitution of 1889.Since the enactment of the 1947 constitution, the role of emperor has been relegated to that of a ceremonial head of state without even nominal political powers.", "For example, the emperor is the head of the Japanese honors system, conferring orders, decorations, medals, and awards in the name of the state and on behalf of its people in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet.Since the mid-nineteenth century, the emperor and other members of the imperial family have resided at the Imperial Palace, located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo, the current capital of Japan.", "Earlier, emperors resided in Kyoto, the ancient capital, for nearly eleven centuries.", "The Emperor's Birthday (currently 23 February) is a national holiday.Naruhito is the current emperor of Japan.", "He acceded to the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Akihito, on 1 May 2019.He is the only remaining monarch and head of state in the world who holds the title of Emperor." ], [ "Constitutional role", "Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko seated in the Chamber of the House of Councillors of the National Diet, with members of the imperial family, the cabinet, and prime minister Naoto Kan giving the government's speech in front of the assembled members of parliament (2010)Most constitutional monarchies formally vest executive power in the reigning monarch in their capacity as the head of state, who in turn is bound by either convention or statute to act on the advice of ministers responsible to the duly elected parliament.", "Some monarchies, such as those in Belgium, Denmark, Spain and Thailand, codify this principle by requiring royal acts to be countersigned by a minister in order to take effect, thus passing political responsibility to the minister.", "By contrast, Japan is one of only two such sovereign states where the monarch is not even the ''nominal'' chief executive; the other is Sweden.", "Rather, Article 65 of the Constitution of Japan explicitly vests executive authority in the Cabinet, of which the prime minister is the leader.", "The emperor is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces.", "Instead, the Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 explicitly vests supreme command and control in the prime minister.", "Nevertheless, the emperor remains Japan's internationally recognized head of state.The emperor's fundamental role within the machinery of the Japanese constitution is to perform important representational functions as \"…the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.\"", "He is limited to performing \"acts in matters of state\" as delineated by the Constitution, without even nominal powers related to government.", "Moreover, said acts are only exercised in accordance with the binding advice and consent of the Cabinet, which is collectively responsible to the Diet and thence to the electorate.", "In these respects, the emperor personifies the democratic state, sanctions legitimate authority, guarantees the execution of the public will, and fosters a shared national identity and cultural heritage that transcends party politics.", "In order to maintain his institutional neutrality as Japan's national symbol, he is barred from making political statements.It is the emperor's preeminent constitutional duty to appoint the prime minister as designated by the Diet and the chief justice as designated by the Cabinet.", "However, the emperor does not have the authority to decline the nominations.", "The emperor's other responsibilities, laid down in Article 7 of the Constitution, concern the basic functioning of the state.", "To this end, the emperor, on behalf of the Japanese people:#Promulgates constitutional amendments, laws, cabinet orders, and treaties.#Convokes sessions of the Diet.#Dissolves the House of Representatives.#Proclaims general elections for members of the Diet.#Attests to the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers.#Attests to general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.#Awards state honors.#Attests to instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law.#Receives foreign ambassadors and ministers.#Performs ceremonial functions.Regular ceremonies of the emperor with a constitutional basis are the Imperial Investitures ''(Shinninshiki)'' in the Tokyo Imperial Palace and the Speech from the Throne ceremony in the House of Councillors in the National Diet Building.", "The latter ceremony opens ordinary and extra sessions of the Diet.", "Ordinary sessions are opened each January and also after new elections to the House of Representatives.", "Extra sessions usually convene in the autumn and are opened then." ], [ "Cultural role", "''Utakai Hajime'' poetry competition, chaired by Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun (1950)The ''Tennō'' is regarded as the foremost Shintō priest in terms of religion.", "This sacred duty dates back to the Niiname-sai (新嘗祭, \"tasting of new rice\") imperial harvest festival.", "In this ritual, the emperor presents newly gathered rice to the gods.", "The celebration is known as ''Daijōsai'' (大嘗祭, \"Great Tasting\") and takes place in the first year after the emperor's accession to the throne.", "The historical text ''Nihonshoki'', written in the year 720, has the first mention of this ceremony, whose beginnings are believed to date back even further.", "The event evolved through time to become the Day of Thanksgiving for Labour, a recognized official holiday today.The office of the emperor is also cultural bearer and steward of tradition and culture.", "For example, the ''Utakai Hajime'' is the annual poetry reading competition convened by the emperor.", "The emperor is supported in this function by the empress and other members of the imperial family, who have honorary patronages of many associations and organisations.", "They travel extensively throughout the year within the country to uphold these roles.In sports, the ''Emperor's Cup'' (天皇賜杯, ''Tennō shihai'') is given to a number of competitions such as football, judo, volleyball, and the top division ''yūshō'' winner of a sumo tournament." ], [ "History", "Although the emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the emperor has varied considerably throughout Japanese history.===Origin (7th–8th centuries AD)===In the early 7th century, the emperor had begun to be called the .", "The title of emperor was borrowed from China, being derived from Chinese characters, and was retroactively applied to the legendary Japanese rulers who reigned before the 7th–8th centuries AD.According to the traditional account of the Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded by Emperor Jimmu years ago.", "However most modern scholars agree to regard Jimmu and the nine first emperors as mythical.Modern historians generally believe that most early emperors are largely legendary as there is insufficient material available for verification and study of their lives.", "Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor, may have been a real historical figure, but his dates vary by hundreds of years.", "The emperors from Emperor Keikō to Emperor Ingyō (25–453 AD) are considered as perhaps factual.", "As one strong argument, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (–571 AD), the 29th emperor, is the first for whom contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.Archaeological information about the earliest historical rulers of Japan may be contained in the ancient tombs known as ''kofun'', constructed between the early 3rd century and the early 7th century AD.", "However, since the Meiji period, the Imperial Household Agency has refused to open the ''kofun'' to the public or to archaeologists, citing their desire not to disturb the spirits of the past emperors.", "''Kofun'' period artefacts were also increasingly crucial in Japan as the Meiji government used them to reinforce their authority.", "In 2016, the Imperial Household Agency reversed its position and decided to allow researchers to enter some of the ''kofun'' with limited time and way.=== Disputes and instability (10th century) ===Emperor Go-DaigoThe growth of the samurai class from the 10th century gradually weakened the power of the imperial family over the realm, leading to a time of instability.", "Emperors are known to have come into conflict with the reigning shogun from time to time.", "Some instances, such as Emperor Go-Toba's 1221 rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate and the 1336 Kenmu Restoration under Emperor Go-Daigo, show the power struggle between the Imperial Court in Kyoto and the military governments of Japan.=== Factional control (530s–1867) and ''shōguns'' (1192–1867) ===There have been seven non-imperial families who have controlled Japanese emperors: the Soga (530s–645), the Fujiwara (850s–1070), the Taira (1159–1180s), the Minamoto (1192–1199), the Hōjō (1199–1333), the Ashikaga (1336–1565), and the Tokugawa (1603–1867).", "However, every shogun from the Minamoto, Ashikaga, and Tokugawa families had to be officially recognized by the emperors, who were still the source of sovereignty, although they could not exercise their powers independently from the shogunate.During the major part of 1192 to 1867, political sovereignty of the state was exercised by the ''shōguns'' or their ''shikken'' regents (1203–1333), whose authority was conferred by Imperial warrant.", "When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese (see ''Nanban period''), they described Japanese conditions in analogy, likening the emperor with great symbolic authority, but little political power, to the pope, and the ''shōgun'' to secular European rulers (e.g., the Holy Roman emperor).", "In keeping with the analogy, they even used the term \"emperor\" in reference to the ''shōguns'' and their regents, e.g.", "in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, whom missionaries called \"Emperor Taico-sama\" (from Taikō and the honorific ''sama'').", "A Dutch embassy report used similar terminology in 1691.Empress Go-Sakuramachi was the last ruling empress of Japan and reigned from 1762 to 1771.During the Sakoku period of 1603 to 1868, there was very limited trade between Japan and foreigners.", "The Dutch were the only westerners who had limited access to Japan.=== Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336) ===Emperor Go-Daigo succeeded in 1333 to get back the direct authority directly to the emperor after overthrowing the Kamakura shogunate, with the help of Ashikaga Takauji, a defected Kamakura general.", "The short three-year period during which the power was directly in the hand of the emperor is called the Kenmu Restoration.", "The direct ruling of the emperor proved however inefficient and ultimately failed, with Takauji grabbing political power for himself.===Meiji Restoration (1868)===The first arrival of Emperor Meiji to Edo (1868)In July 1853, Commodore Perry's Black Ships of the US Navy made their first visit to Edo Bay.", "Japan lacked the military and industrial power to prevent it.", "Unequal treaties coerced and took advantage of Japan.", "Consequently, Japan was forcibly opened to foreign trade and the shogunate proved incapable of hindering the \"barbarian\" interlopers, Emperor Kōmei began to assert himself politically.", "By the early 1860s, the relationship between the Imperial Court and the shogunate was changing radically.", "Disaffected domains and ''rōnin'' began to rally to the call of ''sonnō jōi'' (\"revere the emperor, expel the barbarians\").", "The domains of Satsuma and Chōshū, historic enemies of the Tokugawa, used this turmoil to unite their forces and won an important military victory outside of Kyoto against Tokugawa forces.On 9 November 1867, the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu formally stepped down to restore Emperor Meiji to nominal full power.", "The Meiji Constitution was adopted on 11 February 1889.The emperor of Japan became an active ruler with considerable political power over foreign policy and diplomacy which was shared with an elected Imperial Diet.", "The Japanese subjects gained many rights and duties.The constitution described the emperor (in Article 4) as: \"the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty\", and he \"exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution\".", "His rights included to sanction and promulgate laws, to execute them and to exercise \"supreme command of the Army and the Navy\".", "The liaison conference created in 1893 also made the emperor the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters.", "On Meiji's death in 1912 and the accession of his son Taishō, who suffered from ill-health and various disabilities, many of these powers were assumed by the Imperial Diet in an era known as the Taishō Democracy.=== Pacific War (1939–1945)===Emperor Shōwa reigned from 1926 to 1989Emperor Shōwa, known by his personal name as Hirohito in the West, was in power during the Pacific War; he controlled both the sovereign of the state and the imperial forces.", "The role of the emperor as head of the State Shinto religion was exploited during the war, creating an Imperial cult that led to kamikaze bombers and other manifestations of fanaticism.", "This in turn led to the requirement in the Potsdam Declaration for the elimination \"for all time of the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest\".In State Shinto, the emperor was believed to be an (manifest kami or incarnation of a deity).", "Following Japan's surrender, the Allies issued the Shinto Directive separating church and state within Japan.", "In 1946, Hirohito was forced to proclaim the Humanity Declaration, but the declaration excludes the word , including the unusual word instead.", "As such, some experts doubt whether his divinity was renounced.", "Jean Herbert said it would be inadmissible to deny his divine origin.Hirohito was excluded from the postwar Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal.", "Scholars dispute the power he had and the role he played during WWII.", "Hirohito's reign from 1926 until his death in 1989 makes him the longest-lived and longest-reigning historical Japanese emperor, and one of the longest-reigning monarchs in the world.=== Contemporary (1978–present) ===The Emperor of Japan has never visited Yasukuni Shrine since 1978.Hirohito maintained an official boycott of Yasukuni Shrine after it was revealed to him that Class-A war criminals had secretly been enshrined.", "The boycott was continued by his successors, Akihito and Naruhito.By 1979, Emperor Shōwa was the only monarch in the world with the monarchical title \"emperor.\"", "Emperor Shōwa was the longest-reigning historical monarch in Japanese's history and the world's longest reigning monarch until surpassed by King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand in July 2008.According to journalist Makoto Inoue of ''The Nikkei'', Emperor Emeritus Akihito wanted to be closer to the people, rather than be treated like a god or robot.", "Inoue believes that during his reign, he transformed the symbolic role of emperor into a human being.", "In March 2019, the Mainichi reported 87% thought Akihito fulfilled his role as symbol of the state.On April 30, 2019, Emperor Akihito abdicated due to health issues.", "The previous time abdication occurred was Emperor Kōkaku in 1817.Naruhito ascended on May 1, 2019, referred to as ''Kinjō Tennō.", "''==== Current constitution ====In 1947 the post-war became law when it received the emperor's assent on 3 November 1946.It provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights.", "Under its terms, the emperor of Japan is \"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\" and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty.", "It was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and changed Japan's previous Prussian-style Meiji Constitution that granted the emperor theoretically unlimited powers.", "The liberal constitution was inspired by several European states.", "Currently, it is a rigid document and the oldest unamended constitution.=== Realm and territories ===Historically, territorial designations are not a requirement for the position of ''Tennō'' (emperor).", "Rather it is the emperor's symbolic and religious power of authority.", "Since the Kamakura shogunate, the emperor held de jure ownership of the realm.", "Throughout most of medieval Japan, the shogun's legitimate authority was based on being appointed and receiving the power from the emperor even though the shogun was the ''de facto'' ruler.", "The emperor was considered a direct descendant of Amaterasu and of utmost importance in the Shinto religion and sentimental traditions.", "Thus no shogun tried to usurp the emperor, instead they tried to keep the emperor under control and away from politics.", "However, the emperor still had the power to \"control time\" via the Japanese Nengō which names eras on calendars after emperors.During the Kofun period the first central government of the unified state was Yamato in the Kinai region of central Japan.", "The territory of Japan has changed throughout history.", "Its largest extent was the Empire of Japan.", "In 1938 it was .The maximum extent including the home islands and the Japanese colonial empire was in 1942.After its defeat in World War II the empire was dismantled.", "The contemporary territories include the Japanese archipelago and these areas.", "Regardless of territorial changes the emperor remains the formal head of state of Japan.", "During most of history, ''de facto'' power was with shoguns or prime ministers.", "The emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divine harmony than the head of an actual governing administration.", "In Japan, it was more effective for ambitious daimyo (feudal lords) to hold actual power, as such positions were not inherently contradictory to the emperor's position.", "The shoguns and prime ministers derived their legitimacy from the emperor.", "The parliamentary government continues a similar coexistence with the emperor.The first recorded instance of the name ''Nihon'' was between 665 and 703 during the Asuka period.", "This was several centuries after the start of the current imperial line.", "The various names of Japan do not affect the status of the emperor as head of state.=== Education ===The emperors traditionally had an education officer.", "In recent times, Emperor Taishō had Count Nogi Maresuke, Emperor Shōwa had Marshal-Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō, and Emperor Akihito had Elizabeth Gray Vining as well as Shinzō Koizumi as their tutors.Emperors, including his family, had to get an education at Gakushuin University by the Meiji Constitution." ], [ "Reference and naming", "The Japanese language has two words equivalent to the English word \"emperor\": , which refers exclusively to the emperor of Japan, and , which primarily identifies non-Japanese emperors.", "''Sumeramikoto'' (\"the imperial person\") was also used in Old Japanese.", "Emperors used the term ''tennō'' up until the Middle Ages; then, following a period of disuse, again from the 19th century.", "The weakened power of the emperors led to the title ''tennō'' not being used from 1200 to 1840; during this time, living emperors were called ''shujō'' (主上) and deceased ones were called ''in'' (院).", "Other titles that were recorded to be in use were ''kō'' (皇), ''tei'' (帝), ''ō'' (王), all meaning \"prince\" or \"emperor\", and ''tenshi'' (天子), or \"child of heaven\".In English, the term ''mikado'' ( or ), literally meaning \"the honorable gate\" (i.e.", "the gate of the imperial palace, which indicates the person who lives in and possesses the palace; compare ''Sublime Porte'', an old term for the Ottoman government), was once used (as in ''The Mikado'', a 19th-century operetta), but this term is now obsolete.Japanese emperors take on a regnal name, which is the common and polite way to refer to the emperor as a person during their reign.", "Japanese regnal names are more precisely names for a period of time that begins with a historical event, such as the enthronement of an emperor.", "Since Emperor Meiji, it has been customary to have one era per emperor and to rename each emperor after his death using the name of the era over which he presided.", "Before Emperor Meiji, the names of the eras were changed more frequently, and the posthumous names of the emperors were chosen differently.Emperor Akihito giving a New Year's address to the people in 2010Hirohito was never referred to by his name in Japan.", "He was given the posthumous name ''Shōwa Tennō'' after his death, which is the only name that Japanese speakers currently use when referring to him.The current emperor on the throne is typically referred to as ''Tennō Heika'' (, \"His Imperial Majesty the Emperor\"), ''Kinjō Heika'' (, \"His Current Majesty\") or simply ''Tennō'', when speaking Japanese.", "Emperor Akihito received the title ''Daijō Tennō'' (, Emperor Emeritus), often shortened to ''Jōkō'' (), upon his abdication on 30 April 2019, and is expected to be renamed ''Heisei Tennō'' () after his death and will then be referred to exclusively by that name in Japanese.===Origin of the title===Originally, the ruler of Japan was known as either / (''Yamato-ōkimi'', \"Grand King of Yamato\"), / (''Wa-ō''/''Wakoku-ō'', \"King of Wa\", used externally) or (''Ame-no-shita shiroshimesu ōkimi'' or ''Sumera no mikoto'', \"Grand King who rules all under heaven\", used internally) in Japanese and Chinese sources before the 7th century.", "The oldest diplomatic reference to the title (''Tenshi'', Emperor or Son of Heaven) can be found in a diplomatic document sent from Empress Suiko to the Sui Dynasty of China in 607.In this document, Empress Suiko introduced herself to Emperor Yang of Sui as 日出處天子 (''Hi izurutokoro no tenshi'') meaning \"Heavenly son of the land where the sun rises\".", "The oldest documented use of the title (''Tennō'', heavenly emperor) appears on a wooden slat, or ''mokkan'', that was unearthed in Asuka-mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998 and dated back to the reign of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō in the 7th century." ], [ "Marriage traditions", "Masako, empress consort of Japan since 2019Throughout history, Japanese emperors and noblemen appointed a spouse to the position of chief wife, rather than just keeping a harem or an assortment of female attendants.The Japanese imperial dynasty consistently practiced official polygamy until the Taishō period (1912–1926).", "Besides his empress, the emperor could take, and nearly always took, several secondary consorts (\"concubines\") of various hierarchical degrees.", "Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts (Shinnōke, Ōke).", "After a decree by Emperor Ichijō (), some emperors even had two empresses simultaneously (identified by the separate titles ''kōgō'' and ''chūgū'').", "With the help of all this polygamy, the imperial clan could produce more offspring.", "(Sons by secondary consorts were usually recognized as imperial princes, too, and such a son could be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir.", ")Of the eight reigning empresses of Japan, none married or gave birth after ascending the throne.", "Some of them, being widows, had produced children before their reigns.", "In the succession, children of the empress were preferred over sons of secondary consorts.", "Thus it was significant which quarters had preferential opportunities in providing chief wives to imperial princes, i.e.", "supplying future empresses.Apparently, the oldest tradition of official marriages within the imperial dynasty involved marriages between dynasty members, even between half-siblings or between uncle and niece.", "Such marriages were deemed to preserve better the imperial blood; or they aimed at producing children symbolic of a reconciliation between two branches of the imperial dynasty.", "Daughters of other families remained concubines until Emperor Shōmu (701–706)in what was specifically reported as the first elevation of its kindelevated his Fujiwara consort Empress Kōmyō to chief wife.Japanese monarchs have been, as much as others elsewhere, dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and with other monarchs.", "Many such alliances were sealed by marriages.", "However, in Japan such marriages soon became incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations, though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning.", "A repeated pattern saw an imperial son-in-law under the influence of his powerful non-imperial father-in-law.Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries, emperors primarily took women of the Fujiwara clan as their highest-ranking wives – the most probable mothers of future monarchs.", "This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two ''kami'' (Shinto deities): descendants of Amaterasu with descendants of the family ''kami'' of the Fujiwara.", "(Originally, the Fujiwara descended from relatively minor nobility, thus their ''kami'' is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world.)", "To produce imperial children, heirs of the nation, with two-side descent from the two kami, was regarded as desirable – or at least it suited powerful Fujiwara lords, who thus received preference in the imperial marriage-market.", "The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord (his father-in-law or grandfather), the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government.", "These arrangements established the tradition of regents (Sesshō and Kampaku), with these positions held only by a Fujiwara sekke lord.Earlier, the emperors had married women from families of the government-holding Soga lords, and women of the imperial clan, i.e.", "various-degree cousins and often even their own half-sisters.", "Several imperial figures of the 5th and 6th centuries such as Prince Shōtoku (574–622) were children of half-sibling couples.", "Such marriages often served as alliance or succession devices: the Soga lord ensured his domination of a prince who would be put on the throne as a puppet; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents, to strengthen his own and his children's claim to the throne.", "Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches.After a couple of centuries, emperors could no longer take anyone from outside such families as a primary wife, no matter what the potential expediency of such a marriage and the power or wealth offered by such a match.", "Only very rarely did a prince ascend the throne whose mother was not descended from the approved families.", "The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity, but only prescribed the daughters of a restricted circle of families as eligible brides, because they had produced eligible brides for centuries.", "Tradition had become more forceful than law.Fujiwara women often became empresses, while concubines came from less exalted noble families.", "In the last thousand years, sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman have been preferred in the succession.", "The five Fujiwara families, Ichijō, Kujō, Nijō, Konoe, and Takatsukasa, functioned as the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century, even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself.", "Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of emperors.", "The Meiji-era Imperial House Law of 1889 made this restriction on brides for the emperor and crown prince explicit.", "A clause stipulated that daughters of Sekke (the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara) and daughters of the imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides.", "The law was repealed in the aftermath of World War II.", "In 1959 the future Emperor Akihito became the first crown-prince for over a thousand years to marry a consort from outside the previously eligible circle." ], [ "Three Sacred Treasures", "Conjectural images of the Imperial Regalia of JapanIn Japanese mythology, the sacred treasures were bestowed on Ninigi-no-Mikoto, the grandson of the goddess Amaterasu, at the advent of Tenson kōrin.", "Amaterasu sent him to pacify Japan by bringing the three celestial gifts that are used by the emperor.", "The account of Ninigi being sent to earth appears in the .", "The Three Sacred Treasures were inherited by successive Japanese emperors, which are the same as or similar to the sacred treasures in mythology.", "These three gifts signify that the emperor is the descendant of Amaterasu.", "The three sacred treasures are:*Yata no Kagami (kept at the Ise Grand Shrine, with a replica at the central shrine of the Three Palace Sanctuaries)*Yasakani no Magatama (kept at the central shrine of the Three Palace Sanctuaries)*Kusanagi sword (kept at the Atsuta Shrine)During the succession rite (senso, 践祚), possessing the jewel Yasakani no Magatama, the sword Kusanagi and the mirror Yata no Kagami are a testament of the legitimate serving emperor." ], [ "Succession", "Enthronement ceremony of Emperor Naruhito with Prime Minister Shinzo Abe (22 October 2019)The origins of the Japanese imperial dynasty are obscure, and it bases its position on the claim that it has \"reigned since time immemorial\".", "There are no records of any emperor who was not said to have been a descendant of other, yet there is suspicion that Emperor Keitai (c. AD 500) may have been an unrelated outsider, though the sources (Kojiki, Nihon-Shoki) state that he was a male-line descendant of Emperor Ōjin.", "However, his descendants, including his successors, were according to records descended from at least one and probably several imperial princesses of the older lineage.Millennia ago, the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession.", "It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation.", "Today, Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture, which was adopted from Prussia, by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s.The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes.", "Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been:* Women were allowed to succeed (but there existed no known children of theirs whose father did not also happen to be an agnate of the imperial house, thus there is neither a precedent that a child of an imperial woman with a non-imperial man could inherit, nor a precedent forbidding it for children of empresses).", "However, female accession was clearly much more rare than male.", "* Adoption was possible and a much used way to increase the number of succession-entitled heirs (however, the adopted child had to be a child of another member agnate of the imperial house).", "* Abdication was used very often, and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne.", "In those days, the emperor's chief task was priestly (or godly), containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed that after a service of around ten years, the incumbent deserved pampered retirement as an honored former emperor.", "* Primogeniture was not used – rather, in the early days, the imperial house practiced something resembling a system of rotation.", "Very often a brother (or sister) followed the elder sibling even in the case of the predecessor leaving children.", "The \"turn\" of the next generation came more often after several individuals of the senior generation.", "Rotation went often between two or more of the branches of the imperial house, thus more or less distant cousins succeeded each other.", "Emperor Go-Saga even decreed an official alternation between heirs of his two sons, which system continued for a couple of centuries (leading finally to shogun-induced (or utilized) strife between these two branches, the \"southern\" and \"northern\" emperors).", "Towards the end, the alternates were very distant cousins counted in degrees of male descent (but all that time, intermarriages occurred within the imperial house, thus they were close cousins if female ties are counted).", "During the past five hundred years, however, probably because of Confucian influence, inheritance by sons – but not always, or even most often, the eldest son has been the norm.Historically, the succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage.", "Generally, they have been males, though over the reign of one hundred monarchs there have been nine women (one pre-historical and eight historical) as emperor on eleven occasions.Over a thousand years ago, a tradition started that an emperor should ascend relatively young.", "A dynast who had passed his toddler years was regarded suitable and old enough.", "Reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement.", "Thus, a multitude of Japanese emperors have ascended as children, as young as 6 or 8 years old.", "The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child.", "A reign of around 10 years was regarded a sufficient service.", "Being a child was apparently a fine property, to better endure tedious duties and to tolerate subjugation to political power-brokers, as well as sometimes to cloak the truly powerful members of the imperial dynasty.", "Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of emperors abdicated and lived the rest of their lives in pampered retirement, wielding influence behind the scenes.", "Several emperors abdicated to their entitled retirement while still in their teens.", "These traditions show in Japanese folklore, theater, literature, and other forms of culture, where the emperor is usually described or depicted as an adolescent.Before the Meiji Restoration, Japan had eleven reigns of reigning empresses, all of them daughters of the male line of the Imperial House.", "None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an emperor.", "Imperial daughters and granddaughters, however, usually ascended the throne as a sort of a \"stop gap\" measure – if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed.", "Over half of Japanese empresses and many emperors abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule (just past toddlerhood, in some cases).", "Four empresses, Empress Suiko, Empress Kōgyoku (also Empress Saimei), and Empress Jitō, as well as the legendary Empress Jingū, were widows of deceased emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right.", "One, Empress Genmei, was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial.", "The other four, Empress Genshō, Empress Kōken (also Empress Shōtoku), Empress Meishō, and Empress Go-Sakuramachi, were unwed daughters of previous emperors.", "None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne.Article 2 of the Meiji Constitution (the Constitution of the Empire of Japan) stated, \"The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.\"", "The 1889 Imperial Household Law fixed the succession on male descendants of the imperial line, and specifically excluded female descendants from the succession.", "In the event of a complete failure of the main line, the throne would pass to the nearest collateral branch, again in the male line.", "If the empress did not give birth to an heir, the emperor could take a concubine, and the son he had by that concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne.", "This law, which was promulgated on the same day as the Meiji Constitution, enjoyed co-equal status with that constitution.Article 2 of the Constitution of Japan, promulgated in 1947 by influence of the U.S. occupation administration, provides that \"The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet.\"", "The Imperial Household Law of 1947, enacted by the ninety-second and last session of the Imperial Diet, retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law.", "The government of Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru hastily cobbled together the legislation to bring the Imperial Household in compliance with the American-written Constitution of Japan that went into effect in May 1947.In an effort to control the size of the imperial family, the law stipulates that only legitimate male descendants in the male line can be dynasts, that imperial princesses lose their status as imperial family members if they marry outside the imperial family, and that the emperor and other members of the Imperial Family may not adopt children.", "It also prevented branches, other than the branch descending from Taishō, from being imperial princes any longer.===Current status===Succession is now regulated by laws passed by the National Diet.", "The current law excludes women from the succession.", "A change to this law had been considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to Prince Hisahito.Until the birth of Hisahito, son of Prince Akishino, on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem, since Prince Akishino was the only male child to be born into the imperial family since 1965.Following the birth of Princess Aiko, there was public debate about amending the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne.", "In January 2005, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi appointed a special panel composed of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study changes to the Imperial Household Law and to make recommendations to the government.The panel dealing with the succession issue recommended on October 25, 2005, amending the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne.", "On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi devoted part of his annual keynote speech to the controversy, pledging to submit a bill allowing women to ascend the throne to ensure that the succession continues in the future in a stable manner.", "Shortly after the announcement that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi suspended such plans.", "Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.", "On January 3, 2007, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced that he would drop the proposal to alter the Imperial Household Law.Another proposed plan is to allow unmarried men from the abolished collateral branches of the imperial family to rejoin through adoption or marriage.", "This would be an emergency measure to ensure stable succession.", "It does not revise the Imperial Household Law.", "This does not restore the royalty of the 11 collateral branches of the Imperial House that were abolished in October 1947.Crown Prince Akishino was formally declared first in line to the chrysanthemum throne on November 8, 2020." ], [ "Burial traditions", "Entrance of the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Hachiōji, TokyoDuring the Kofun period, so-called \"archaic funerals\" were held for the dead emperors, but only the funerary rites from the end of the period, which the chronicles describe in more detail, are known.", "They were centered around the rite of the ''mogari'' (), a provisional depository between death and permanent burial.Empress Jitō was the first Japanese imperial personage to be cremated (in 703).", "After that, with a few exceptions, all emperors were cremated up to the Edo period.", "For the next 350 years, in-ground burial became the favoured funeral custom.", "Until 1912, the emperors were usually buried in Kyoto.", "From Emperor Taishō onward, the emperors have been buried at the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Tokyo.In 2013, the Imperial Household Agency announced that Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko would be cremated after they die." ], [ "Wealth", "Tokyo Imperial PalaceUntil the end of World War II, the Japanese monarchy was thought to be among the wealthiest in the world.", "Before 1911, no distinction was made between the imperial crown estates and the emperor's personal properties, which were considerable.", "The Imperial Property Law, which came into effect in January 1911, established two categories of imperial properties: the hereditary or crown estates and the personal (\"ordinary\") properties of the imperial family.", "The Imperial Household Minister was given the responsibility for observing any judicial proceedings concerning imperial holdings.", "Under the terms of the law, imperial properties were only taxable in cases where no conflict with the Imperial House Law existed; however, crown estates could only be used for public or imperially-sanctioned undertakings.", "Personal properties of certain members of the imperial family, in addition to properties held for imperial family members who were minors, were exempted from taxation.", "Those family members included the Empress Dowager, the Empress, the Crown Prince and Crown Princess, the Imperial Grandson and the consort of the Imperial Grandson.", "As a result of the poor economic conditions in Japan, of crown lands (about 26% of the total landholdings) were either sold or transferred to government and private-sector interests in 1921.In 1930, the Nagoya Detached Palace (Nagoya Castle) was donated to the city of Nagoya, with six other imperial villas being either sold or donated at the same time.", "In 1939, Nijō Castle, the former Kyoto residence of the Tokugawa shoguns and an imperial palace since the Meiji Restoration, was likewise donated to the city of Kyoto.At the end of 1935, according to official government figures, the Imperial Court owned roughly of landed estates, the bulk of which () were the emperor's private lands, with the total acreage of the crown estates amounting to some ; those landholdings comprised palace complexes, forest and farm lands and other residential and commercial properties.", "The total value of the imperial properties was then estimated at ¥650 million, or roughly US$195 million at prevailing exchange rates.", "This was in addition to the emperor's personal fortune, which amounted to hundreds of millions of yen and included numerous family heirlooms and furnishings, purebred livestock and investments in major Japanese firms, such as the Bank of Japan, other major Japanese banks, the Imperial Hotel and Nippon Yusen.Following Japan's defeat in the Second World War, all of the collateral branches of the imperial family were abolished under the Allied occupation of the country and the subsequent constitutional reforms, forcing those families to sell their assets to private or government owners.", "Staff numbers in the imperial households were slashed from a peak of roughly 6,000 to about 1,000.The imperial estates and the emperor's personal fortune (then estimated at US$17.15 million, or roughly US$625 million in 2017 terms) were transferred to either state or private ownership, excepting of landholdings.", "Since the 1947 constitutional reforms, the imperial family has been supported by an official civil list sanctioned by the Japanese government.", "The largest imperial divestments were the former imperial Kiso and Amagi forest lands in Gifu and Shizuoka prefectures, grazing lands for livestock in Hokkaido and a stock farm in the Chiba region, all of which were transferred to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.", "Imperial property holdings have been further reduced since 1947 after several handovers to the government.", "Today, the primary imperial properties include the two imperial palaces at Tokyo and Kyoto, several imperial villas and a number of imperial farms and game preserves.As of 2017, Akihito has an estimated net worth of US$40 million.", "The wealth and expenditures of the emperor and the imperial family have remained a subject of speculation and were largely withheld from the public until 2003, when Mori Yohei, a former royal correspondent for the ''Mainichi Shimbun'', obtained access to 200 documents through a recently passed public information law.", "Mori's findings, which he published in a book, revealed details of the imperial family's US$240 million civil list (in 2003 values).", "Among other details, the book revealed the imperial family employed a staff of over 1,000 people.", "The total cost of events related to the enthronement of Emperor Naruhito was approximately 16.6 billion yen ($150 million) in 2019.This is 30% higher than Emperor Emeritus Akihito's accession (1990)." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-monarchism in Japan* Chrysanthemum taboo* Controversies regarding the role of the Emperor of Japan* Daijō Tennō* Divine right of kings* Japanese Air Force One* Japanese honors system* Japanese imperial family tree* Japanese official state car* List of emperors of Japan* Reigning Emperor* Sacred king* State Shinto" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Informational notes ====== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* Asakawa, Kan'ichi (1903).", "''The Early Institutional Life of Japan''.", "Tokyo: Shueisha.", ".", "Online, multi-formatted, full-text book at openlibrary.org.", "* Bar-On Cohen, Einat (2012–12).", "\"The Forces of Homology—Hirohito, Emperor of Japan and the 1928 Rites of Succession\".", "''History and Anthropology''.", "'''23''' (4): 425–443..", ".", "* * Alternate link .", "* * Large, Stephen S. (1992).", "''Emperor Hirohito and Shōwa Japan: A Political Biography''.", "London: Routledge.", ".", ".", "* * Pye, Lucian W.; Keene, Donald (2002).", "\"Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852-1912\".", "''Foreign Affairs''.", "'''81''' (5): 217..", ".", "* * Screech, Timon (2006).", "''Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822''.", "London: RoutledgeCurzon.", "; .", "* Shillony, Ben-Ami (2008).", "''The Emperors of Modern Japan''.", "Leiden: Brill.", ".", ".", "* * Titsingh, Isaac (1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran'' ''Annales des empereurs du Japon'' pp.", "411–412, Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland." ], [ "External links", "* Emperor of Japan - World History Encyclopedia* The Imperial Household Agency* List of the Emperors, accompanied with the regents and shoguns during their reign and a genealogical tree of the imperial family* The Emperor of Japan, explanation of the title of Emperor in the context of western terminology* Japan opens imperial tombs for research* Emperor of Japan's New Year Address 2017 (YouTube)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor" ], [ "Introduction", "Gaius Octavianus Caesar \"Augustus\", or simply Augustus, was the first emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.The word '''''emperor''''' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire.", "'''''Empress''''', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules in her own right and name (empress regnant or ''suo jure'').", "Emperors are generally recognized to be of the highest monarchic honor and rank, surpassing kings.", "In Europe, the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of Western Europe.", "The emperor of Japan is the only currently reigning monarch whose title is translated into English as \"Emperor\".Both emperors and kings are monarchs or sovereigns, but both emperor and empress are considered the higher monarchical titles.", "In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation.", "Therefore, a king might be obliged to pay tribute to another ruler, or be restrained in his actions in some unequal fashion, but an emperor should in theory be completely free of such restraints.", "However, monarchs heading empires have not always used the title in all contexts—the British sovereign did not assume the title Empress of the British Empire even during the incorporation of India, though she was declared Empress of India.In Western Europe, the title of Emperor was used exclusively by the Holy Roman Emperor, whose imperial authority was derived from the concept of , i.e., they claimed succession to the authority of the Roman emperors, thus linking themselves to Roman institutions and traditions as part of state ideology.", "Although initially ruling much of Central Europe and northern Italy, by the 19th century, the emperor exercised little power beyond the German-speaking states.Although technically an elective title, by the late 16th century, the imperial title had in practice come to be inherited by the Habsburg Archdukes of Austria and, following the Thirty Years' War, their control over the states (outside the Habsburg monarchy, i.e.", "Austria, Bohemia and various territories outside the empire) had become nearly non-existent.", "However, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of the French in 1804 and was shortly followed by Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, who declared himself Emperor of Austria in the same year.", "The position of Holy Roman Emperor nonetheless continued until Francis II abdicated that position in 1806.In Eastern Europe, the monarchs of Russia also used to wield imperial authority as successors to the Eastern Roman Empire.", "Their status was officially recognized by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547.However, the Russian emperors are better known by their Russian-language title of Tsar even after Peter the Great adopted the title of Emperor of All Russia in 1721.Historians have liberally used \"emperor\" and \"empire\" anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to describe any large state from the past or the present.", "Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the kings of Persia and others, are often considered as the equivalent.", "Sometimes this reference has even extended to non-monarchically ruled states and their spheres of influence, such as the Athenian Empire of the late 5th century BC, the Angevin Empire of the Plantagenets and the Soviet and American \"empires\" of the Cold War era.", "However, such \"empires\" did not need to be headed by an \"emperor\".", "\"Empire\" became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.For purposes of protocol, emperors were once given precedence over kings in international diplomatic relations, but currently, precedence among heads of state who are sovereigns—whether they be kings, queens, emperors, empresses, princes, princesses and, to a lesser degree, presidents—is determined by the duration of time that each one has been continuously in office.", "Outside the European context, \"emperor\" was the translation given to holders of titles who were accorded the same precedence as European emperors in diplomatic terms.", "In reciprocity, these rulers might accredit equal titles in their native languages to their European peers.", "Through centuries of international convention, this has become the dominant rule to identifying an emperor in the modern era." ], [ "Roman and Byzantine emperors", "===Classical Antiquity===''dictator'' Julius Caesar.When Republican Rome turned into a ''de facto'' monarchy in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch.", "Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex (\"king\"), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule.", "Julius Caesar had been Dictator, an acknowledged and traditional office in Republican Rome.", "Caesar was not the first to hold it, but following his assassination the term was abhorred in Rome.Augustus, considered the first Roman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man.", "One of these offices was ''princeps senatus'', (\"first man of the Senate\") and became changed into Augustus' chief honorific, ''princeps civitatis'' (\"first citizen\") from which the modern English word and title prince is descended.", "The first period of the Roman Empire, from 27 BC to AD 284, is called the ''principate'' for this reason.", "However, it was the informal descriptive of ''Imperator'' (\"commander\") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors.", "Previously bestowed on high officials and military commanders who had ''imperium'', Augustus reserved it exclusively to himself as the ultimate holder of all ''imperium''.", "(''Imperium'' is Latin for the authority to command, one of a various types of authority delineated in Roman political thought.", ")Beginning with Augustus, ''Imperator'' appeared in the title of all Roman monarchs through the extinction of the Empire in 1453.After the reign of Augustus' immediate successor Tiberius, being proclaimed ''imperator'' was transformed into the act of accession to the head of state.", "Other honorifics used by the Roman emperors have also come to be synonyms for Emperor:*'''Caesar''' (as, for example, in Suetonius' ''Twelve Caesars'').", "This tradition continued in many languages: in German it became \"Kaiser\"; in certain Slavic languages it became \"Tsar\"; in Hungarian it became \"Császár\", and several more variants.", "The name derived from Julius Caesar's cognomen \"Caesar\": this cognomen was adopted by all Roman emperors, exclusively by the ruling monarch after the Julio-Claudian dynasty had died out.", "In this tradition Julius Caesar is sometimes described as the first Caesar/emperor (following Suetonius).", "This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of Caesar Augustus to the modern era.", "*'''Augustus''' was the honorific first bestowed on Emperor Augustus: on his death it became an official title of his successor and all Roman emperors after him added it to their name.", "Although it had a high symbolic value, something like \"elevated\" or \"sublime\", it was generally not used to indicate the office of ''Emperor'' itself.", "Exceptions include the title of the ''Augustan History'', a semi-historical collection of emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century.", "This title also proved very enduring: after the fall of the Roman Empire, the title would be incorporated into the style of the Holy Roman Emperor, a precedent set by Charlemagne, and its Greek translation ''Sebastos'' continued to be used in the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, although it gradually lost its imperial exclusivity.", "Augustus had (by his last will) granted the feminine form of this honorific (Augusta) to his wife.", "Since there was no \"title\" of Empress(-consort) whatsoever, women of the reigning dynasty sought to be granted this honorific, as the highest attainable goal.", "Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning emperors would receive it.", "*'''Imperator''' (as, for example, in Pliny the Elder's ''Naturalis Historia'').", "In the Roman Republic Imperator meant \"(military) commander\".", "In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, ''Imperator'' was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the Roman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable to field marshal (head or commander of the entire army).", "For example, in AD 15 Germanicus was proclaimed ''Imperator'' during the reign of his adoptive father Tiberius.", "Soon thereafter \"Imperator\" became however a title reserved exclusively for the ruling monarch.", "This led to \"Emperor\" in English and, among other examples, \"Empereur\" in French and \"Mbreti\" in Albanian.", "The Latin feminine form Imperatrix only developed after \"Imperator\" had taken on the connotation of \"Emperor\".", "*'''Autokrator''' (Αὐτοκράτωρ) or '''Basileus''' (βασιλεύς): although the Greeks used equivalents of \"Caesar\" (Καῖσαρ, ''Kaisar'') and \"Augustus\" (in two forms: transliterated as , ''Augoustos'' or translated as , ''Sebastos'') these were rather used as part of the name of the emperor than as an indication of the office.", "Instead of developing a new name for the new type of monarchy, they used (''autokratōr'', only partly overlapping with the modern understanding of \"autocrat\") or (''basileus'', until then the usual name for \"sovereign\").", "''Autokratōr'' was essentially used as a translation of the Latin ''Imperator'' in Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire, but also here there is only partial overlap between the meaning of the original Greek and Latin concepts.", "For the Greeks ''Autokratōr'' was not a military title, and was closer to the Latin ''dictator'' concept (\"the one with unlimited power\"), before it came to mean Emperor.", "''Basileus'' appears not to have been used exclusively in the meaning of \"emperor\" (and specifically, the Roman/Byzantine emperor) before the 7th century, although it was a standard informal designation of the emperor in the Greek-speaking East.", "The title was later applied by the rulers of various Eastern Orthodox countries claiming to be the successors of Rome/Byzantium, such as Georgia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Russia.After the turbulent Year of the Four Emperors in 69, the Flavian dynasty reigned for three decades.", "The succeeding Nervan-Antonian dynasty, ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the empire.", "This epoch became known as the era of the ''Five Good Emperors'', and was followed by the short-lived Severan dynasty.During the Crisis of the 3rd century, barracks emperors succeeded one another at short intervals.", "Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire, the Britannic Empire, and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used ''rex'' more regularly.The Principate (27 BC – 284 AD) period was succeeded by what is known as the Dominate (284 AD – 527 AD), during which Emperor Diocletian tried to put the empire on a more formal footing.", "Diocletian sought to address the challenges of the Empire's now vast geography and the instability caused by the informality of succession by the creation of co-emperors and junior emperors.", "At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the ''imperium'' (see: Tetrarchy).", "In 325 AD Constantine I defeated his rivals and restored single emperor rule, but following his death the empire was divided among his sons.", "For a time the concept was of one empire ruled by multiple emperors with varying territory under their control, however following the death of Theodosius I the rule was divided between his two sons and increasingly became separate entities.", "The areas administered from Rome are referred to by historians the Western Roman Empire and those under the immediate authority of Constantinople called the Eastern Roman Empire or (after the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 AD) the Later Roman or Byzantine Empire.", "The subdivisions and co-emperor system were formally abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 AD following the death of Julius Nepos last Western Emperor and the ascension of Odoacer as the ''de facto'' King of Italy in 476 AD.===Byzantine period=======Before the 4th Crusade====Under Justinian I, reigning in the 6th century, parts of Italy were for a few decades (re)conquered from the Ostrogoths: thus, this famous mosaic, featuring the Byzantine emperor in the center, can be admired at Ravenna.Historians generally refer to the continuing Roman Empire in the east as the Byzantine Empire after Byzantium, the original name of the town that Constantine I would elevate to the Imperial capital as New Rome in AD 330.", "(The city is more commonly called Constantinople and is today named Istanbul).", "Although the empire was again subdivided and a co-emperor sent to Italy at the end of the fourth century, the office became unitary again only 95 years later at the request of the Roman Senate and following the death of Julius Nepos, last Western Emperor.", "This change was a recognition of the reality that little remained of Imperial authority in the areas that had been the Western Empire, with even Rome and Italy itself now ruled by the essentially autonomous Odoacer.These Later Roman \"Byzantine\" emperors completed the transition from the idea of the emperor as a semi-republican official to the emperor as an absolute monarch.", "Of particular note was the translation of the Latin ''Imperator'' into the Greek ''Basileus'', after Emperor Heraclius changed the official language of the empire from Latin to Greek in AD 620.Basileus, a title which had long been used for Alexander the Great was already in common usage as the Greek word for the Roman emperor, but its definition and sense was \"King\" in Greek, essentially equivalent with the Latin ''Rex''.", "Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word \"autokrator\", meaning \"one who rules himself\", or \"monarch\", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin ''dictator''.", "Essentially, the Greek language did not incorporate the nuances of the Ancient Roman concepts that distinguished ''imperium'' from other forms of political power.In general usage, the Byzantine imperial title evolved from simply \"emperor\" (''basileus'') to \"emperor of the Romans\" (''basileus tōn Rōmaiōn'') in the 9th century, to \"emperor and autocrat of the Romans\" (''basileus kai autokratōr tōn Rōmaiōn'') in the 10th.", "In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.One important distinction between the post Constantine I (reigned AD 306–337) emperors and their pagan predecessors was cesaropapism, the assertion that the emperor (or other head of state) is also the head of the Church.", "Although this principle was held by all emperors after Constantine, it met with increasing resistance and ultimately rejection by bishops in the west after the effective end of Imperial power there.", "This concept became a key element of the meaning of \"emperor\" in the Byzantine and Orthodox east, but went out of favor in the west with the rise of Roman Catholicism.The Byzantine Empire also produced three women who effectively governed the state: the Empress Irene and the Empresses Zoe and Theodora.====Latin emperors====In 1204 Constantinople fell to the Venetians and the Franks in the Fourth Crusade.", "Following the tragedy of the horrific sacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new \"Empire of Romania\", known to historians as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, installing Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, as Emperor.", "However, Byzantine resistance to the new empire meant that it was in constant struggle to establish itself.", "Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos succeeded in recapturing Constantinople in 1261.The Principality of Achaea, a vassal state the empire had created in Morea (Greece) intermittently continued to recognize the authority of the crusader emperors for another half century.", "Pretenders to the title continued among the European nobility until circa 1383.====After the 4th Crusade====With Constantinople occupied, claimants to the imperial succession styled themselves as emperor in the chief centers of resistance: The Laskarid dynasty in the Empire of Nicaea, the Komnenid dynasty in the Empire of Trebizond and the Doukid dynasty in the Despotate of Epirus.", "In 1248, Epirus recognized the Nicaean emperors, who subsequently recaptured Constantinople in 1261.The Trapezuntine emperor formally submitted in Constantinople in 1281, but frequently flouted convention by styling themselves emperor back in Trebizond thereafter." ], [ "Holy Roman Empire", "Charles V in the 1550s, after TitianThe ''Emperor'' of the Romans' title was a reflection of the ''translatio imperii'' (''transfer of rule'') principle that regarded the Holy Roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of the Roman Empire in the east, hence the problem of two emperors.From the time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire.", "The prince-electors elected one of their peers as King of the Romans and King of Italy before being crowned by the Pope.", "The emperor could also pursue the election of his heir (usually a son) as King, who would then succeed him after his death.", "This junior king then bore the title of King of the Romans.", "Although technically already ruling, after the election he would be crowned as emperor by the pope.", "The last emperor to be crowned by the pope was Charles V; all emperors after him were technically ''emperors-elect'', but were universally referred to as ''emperor''.The Holy Roman emperor was considered the first among those in power.", "He was also the first defender of Christianity.", "From 1452 to the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (except in the years 1742 to 1745) only members of the House of Habsburg were Holy Roman emperors.", "Karl von Habsburg is currently the head of the House of Habsburg." ], [ "Austrian Empire", "Franz Joseph I of AustriaThe first Austrian Emperor was the last Holy Roman Emperor, Franz II.", "In the face of aggressions by Napoleon, Francis feared for the future of the Holy Roman Empire.", "He wished to maintain his and his family's Imperial status in the event that the Holy Roman Empire should be dissolved, as it indeed was in 1806 when an Austrian-led army suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz.", "After which, the victorious Napoleon proceeded to dismantle the old ''Reich'' by severing a good portion from the empire and turning it into a separate Confederation of the Rhine.", "With the size of his imperial realm significantly reduced, Francis II, ''Holy Roman Emperor'' became Francis I, ''Emperor of Austria''.", "The new imperial title may have sounded less prestigious than the old one, but Francis' dynasty continued to rule from Austria and a Habsburg monarch was still an emperor (''Kaiser''), and not just merely a king (''König''), in name.", "According to the historian Friedrich Heer, the Austrian Habsburg emperor remained an \"auctoritas\" of a special kind.", "He was \"the grandson of the Caesars\", he remained the patron of the Holy Church.The title lasted just a little over one century until 1918, but it was never clear what territory constituted the \"Empire of Austria\".", "When Francis took the title in 1804, the Habsburg lands as a whole were dubbed the ''Kaisertum Österreich''.", "''Kaisertum'' might literally be translated as \"emperordom\" (on analogy with \"kingdom\") or \"emperor-ship\"; the term denotes specifically \"the territory ruled by an emperor\", and is thus somewhat more general than Reich, which in 1804 carried connotations of universal rule.", "Austria proper (as opposed to the complex of Habsburg lands as a whole) had been part of the Archduchy of Austria since the 15th century, and most of the other territories of the Empire had their own institutions and territorial history.", "There were some attempts at centralization, especially during the reign of Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor.", "These efforts were finalized in the early 19th century.", "When the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen (Hungary) were given self-government in 1867, the non-Hungarian portions were called the Empire of Austria.", "They were officially known as the \"Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council (''Reichsrat'')\".", "The title of Emperor of Austria and the associated Empire were both abolished at the end World War I in 1918, when German Austria became a republic and the other kingdoms and lands represented in the Imperial Council established their independence or adhesion to other states.The ''Kaisers'' of the Austrian Empire (1804–1918) were Franz I (1804–1835), Ferdinand I (1835–1848), Franz Joseph I (1848–1916) and Karl I (1916–1918).", "The current head of the House of Habsburg is Karl von Habsburg." ], [ "Emperors of Europe", "Byzantium's close cultural and political interaction with its Balkan neighbors Bulgaria and Serbia, and with Russia (Kievan Rus', then Muscovy) led to the adoption of Byzantine imperial traditions in all of these countries.===Bulgaria===In 913, Simeon I of Bulgaria was crowned Emperor (Tsar, originally more fully Tsesar, ''cěsar''') of his own people by the Patriarch of Constantinople and Imperial regent Nicholas Mystikos outside the Byzantine capital.", "In its final expanded form, under the Second Bulgarian Empire the title read \"Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks\" (Цар и самодържец на всички българи и гърци, ''Car i samodăržec na vsički bălgari i gărci'' in the modern vernacular).", "The Roman component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicated both rule over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans, however this component was never recognised by the Byzantine court.Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government.", "The decade 914–924 was spent in destructive warfare between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict.", "The Bulgarian monarch, who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming the title \"Emperor of the Romans\" (''basileus tōn Rōmaiōn''), was eventually recognized, as \"Emperor of the Bulgarians\" (''basileus tōn Boulgarōn'') by the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lakapenos in 924.Byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of the Bulgarian patriarch was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a Bulgarian-Byzantine dynastic marriage in 927.In the meantime, the Bulgarian imperial title may have been also tacitly confirmed by the pope, as claimed in later Bulgarian diplomatic correspondence.", "The Bulgarian imperial title \"tsar\" was adopted by all Bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule.", "Despite the attempt of Pope Innocent III to limit the Bulgarian monarch to the title of King (''Rex''), Kaloyan of Bulgaria considered himself an Emperor (''Imperator'') and his successor Boril of Bulgaria was specifically accused of improperly using the imperial title by his neighbor, the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders.", "Nevertheless, the Bulgarian imperial title was recognized by its neighbors and trading partners, including Byzantium, Hungary, Serbia, Venice, Genoa, Dubrovnik.", "14th-century Bulgarian literary compositions saw the Bulgarian capital (Tarnovo) as a successor of Rome and Constantinople.After Bulgaria obtained full independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1908, its monarch, who was previously styled ''Knyaz'', Prince, took the traditional title of ''Tsar'', this time translated as King.", "Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the former Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria.===France===The kings of the ''Ancien Régime'' and the July Monarchy used the title ''Empereur de France'' in diplomatic correspondence and treaties with the Ottoman emperor from at least 1673 onwards.", "The Ottomans insisted on this elevated style while refusing to recognize the Holy Roman emperors or the Russian tsars because of their rival claims of the Roman crown.", "In short, it was an indirect insult by the Ottomans to the HRE and the Russians.", "The French kings also used it for Morocco (1682) and Persia (1715).====First French Empire====One of the most famous Imperial coronation ceremonies was that of Napoleon, crowning himself Emperor in the presence of Pope Pius VII (who had blessed the regalia), at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.The painting by David commemorating the event is equally famous: the gothic cathedral restyled ''style Empire'', supervised by the mother of the Emperor on the balcony (a fictional addition, while she had not been present at the ceremony), the pope positioned near the altar, Napoleon proceeds to crown his then wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais as Empress.Napoleon Bonaparte, who was already First Consul of the French Republic (''Premier Consul de la République française'') for life, declared himself '''Emperor of the French''' (''Empereur des Français'') on 18 May 1804, thus creating the French Empire (''Empire Français'').Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on 6 April and again on 11 April 1814.Napoleon's infant son, Napoleon II, was recognized by the Council of Peers, as Emperor from the moment of his father's abdication, and therefore reigned (as opposed to ruled) as Emperor for fifteen days, 22 June to 7 July 1815.====Elba====Since 3 May 1814, the Sovereign Principality of Elba was created as a miniature non-hereditary monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoleon I.", "According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814), Napoleon I was allowed to enjoy the imperial title for life.", "The islands were ''not'' restyled an empire.On 26 February 1815, Napoleon abandoned Elba for France, reviving the French Empire for a Hundred Days; the Allies declared an end to Napoleon's sovereignty over Elba on 25 March 1815, and on 31 March 1815 Elba was ceded to the restored Grand Duchy of Tuscany by the Congress of Vienna.", "After his final defeat, Napoleon was treated as a general by the British authorities during his second exile to Atlantic Isle of St. Helena.", "His title was a matter of dispute with the governor of St Helena, who insisted on addressing him as \"General Bonaparte\", despite the \"historical reality that he had been an emperor\" and therefore retained the title.====Second French Empire====Napoleon I's nephew, Napoleon III, resurrected the title of emperor on 2 December 1852, after establishing the Second French Empire in a presidential coup, subsequently approved by a plebiscite.", "His reign was marked by large scale public works, the development of social policy, and the extension of France's influence throughout the world.", "During his reign, he also set about creating the Second Mexican Empire (headed by his choice of Maximilian I of Mexico, a member of the House of Habsburg), to regain France's hold in the Americas and to achieve greatness for the 'Latin' race.", "Napoleon III was deposed on 4 September 1870, after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.", "The Third Republic followed and after the death of his son Napoleon (IV), in 1879 during the Zulu War, the Bonapartist movement split, and the Third Republic was to last until 1940.The role of head of the House of Bonaparte is claimed by Jean-Christophe Napoléon and Charles Napoléon.===Iberian Peninsula=======Spain====The origin of the title ''Imperator totius Hispaniae'' (Latin for ''Emperor of All Spain'') is murky.", "It was associated with the Leonese monarchy perhaps as far back as Alfonso the Great (''r.''", "866–910).", "The last two kings of its Astur-Leonese dynasty were called emperors in a contemporary source.King Sancho III of Navarre conquered Leon in 1034 and began using it.", "His son, Ferdinand I of Castile also took the title in 1039.Ferdinand's son, Alfonso VI of León and Castile took the title in 1077.It then passed to his son-in-law, Alfonso I of Aragon in 1109.His stepson and Alfonso VI's grandson, Alfonso VII was the only one who actually had an imperial coronation in 1135.The title was not exactly hereditary but self-proclaimed by those who had, wholly or partially, united the Christian northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, often at the expense of killing rival siblings.", "The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom.", "After Alfonso VII's death in 1157, the title was abandoned, and the kings who used it are not commonly mentioned as having been \"emperors\", in Spanish or other historiography.After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the legitimate heir to the throne, Andreas Palaiologos, willed away his claim to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1503.====Portugal====John VI, King of Portugal and the Algarves, Emperor of Brazil.After the independence and proclamation of the Empire of Brazil from the Kingdom of Portugal by Prince Pedro, who became Emperor, in 1822, his father, King John VI of Portugal briefly held the honorific style of Titular Emperor of Brazil and the treatment of ''His Imperial and Royal Majesty'' under the 1825 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, by which Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil.", "The style of Titular Emperor was a life title, and became extinct upon the holder's demise.", "John VI held the imperial title for a few months only, from the ratification of the Treaty in November 1825 until his death in March 1826.During those months, however, as John's imperial title was purely honorific while his son, Pedro I, remained the sole monarch of the Brazilian Empire.", "Duarte Pio is the current head of the House of Braganza.===Great Britain===In the late 3rd century, by the end of the epoch of the ''barracks emperors'' in Rome, there were two Britannic emperors, reigning for about a decade.", "After the end of Roman rule in Britain, the Imperator Cunedda forged the Kingdom of Gwynedd in northern Wales, but all his successors were titled kings and princes.====England====There was no consistent title for the king of England before 1066, and monarchs chose to style themselves as they pleased.", "Imperial titles were used inconsistently, beginning with Athelstan in 930 and ended with the Norman conquest of England.", "Empress Matilda (1102–1167) is the only English monarch commonly referred to as \"emperor\" or \"empress\", but she acquired her title through her marriage to Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor.During the rule of Henry VIII the Statute in Restraint of Appeals declared that 'this realm of England is an Empire...governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the imperial Crown of the same'.", "This was in the context of the divorce of Catherine of Aragon and the English Reformation, to emphasize that England had never accepted the quasi-imperial claims of the papacy.", "Hence England and, by extension its modern successor state, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, is according to English law an Empire ruled by a King endowed with the imperial dignity.", "However, this has not led to the creation of the ''title'' of Emperor in England, nor in Great Britain, nor in the United Kingdom.====United Kingdom====George V, King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, Emperor of IndiaIn 1801, George III rejected the title of Emperor when offered.", "The only period when British monarchs held the title of ''Emperor'' in a dynastic succession started when the title Empress of India was created for Queen Victoria.", "The government led by Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, conferred the additional title upon her by an Act of Parliament, reputedly to assuage the monarch's irritation at being, as a mere Queen, notionally inferior to the emperors of Russia, Germany, and Austria.", "That included her own daughter (Princess Victoria, who was the wife of the reigning German Emperor).", "Hence, \"Queen Victoria felt handicapped in the battle of protocol by not being an Empress herself\".", "The Indian Imperial designation was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding the former Mughal Emperor as suzerain over hundreds of princely states.", "The Indian Independence Act 1947 provided for the abolition of the use of the title \"Emperor of India\" by the British monarch, but this was not executed by King George VI until a royal proclamation on 22 June 1948.Despite this, George VI continued as king of India until 1950 and as king of Pakistan until his death in 1952.The last Empress of India was George VI's wife, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother.===German Empire===Wilhelm II, German Emperor and King of PrussiaUnder the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck's authoritarian ''Realpolitik''.", "Bismarck wanted to unify the rival German states to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany.", "Three wars led to military successes and helped to convince German people to do this: the Second war of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War against the Second French Empire in 1870–71.During the Siege of Paris in 1871, the North German Confederation, supported by its allies from southern Germany, formed the German Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian king Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later.After his death he was succeeded by his son Frederick III who was only emperor for 99 days.", "In the same year his son Wilhelm II became the third emperor within a year.", "He was the last German emperor.", "After the empire's defeat in World War I the empire, called the German Reich, had a president as head of state instead of an emperor.", "The use of the word ''Reich'' was abandoned following World War II.===Russia===Empress Catherine the Great of RussiaIn 1472, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologina, married Ivan III, grand prince of Moscow, who began championing the idea of Russia being the successor to the Byzantine Empire.", "This idea was represented more emphatically in the composition the monk Filofej addressed to their son Vasili III.", "In 1480, after ending Muscovy's dependence on its overlords of the Great Horde, Ivan III began the usage of the titles Tsar and Autocrat (''samoderzhets'').", "His insistence on recognition as such by the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 1489 resulted in the granting of this recognition in 1514 by Emperor Maximilian I to Vasili III.", "His son Ivan IV emphatically crowned himself Tsar of Russia on 16 January 1547.The word \"Tsar\" derives from Latin Caesar, but this title was used in Russia as equivalent to \"King\"; the error occurred when medieval Russian clerics referred to the biblical Jewish kings with the same title that was used to designate Roman and Byzantine rulers — \"Caesar\".On 31 October 1721, Peter I was proclaimed Emperor by the Governing Senate.", "The title used was Latin \"''Imperator''\", which is a westernizing form equivalent to the traditional Slavic title \"''Tsar''\".", "He based his claim partially upon a letter discovered in 1717 written in 1514 from Maximilian I to Vasili III, in which the Holy Roman Emperor used the term in referring to Vasili.A formal address to the ruling Russian monarch adopted thereafter was 'Your Imperial Majesty'.", "The crown prince was addressed as 'Your Imperial Highness'.The title has not been used in Russia since the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II on 15 March 1917.The Russian Empire produced four reigning Empresses, all in the eighteenth century.The role of head of the House of Romanov is claimed by Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia (Great-great-granddaughter of Alexander II of Russia), Prince Andrew Romanoff (great-great-grandson of Nicholas I of Russia), and Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen (Great-grandson of Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia).===Serbia===Emperor of Serbia Dušan the MightyIn 1345, the Serbian King Stefan Uroš IV Dušan proclaimed himself Emperor (Tsar) and was crowned as such at Skopje on Easter 1346 by the newly created Serbian Patriarch, and by the Patriarch of Bulgaria and the autocephalous Archbishop of Ohrid.", "His imperial title was recognized by Bulgaria and various other neighbors and trading partners but not by the Byzantine Empire.", "In its final standardized form, the Serbian imperial title read \"Emperor of Serbs and Greeks\" (цар Срба и Грка, ''car Srba i Grka'' in modern Serbian).", "It was only employed by two monarchs in Serbia, Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and his son Stefan Uroš V, becoming extinct after the latter's death in 1371.A half-brother of Dušan, Simeon Uroš, and then his son Jovan Uroš, claimed the same title, until the latter's abdication in 1373, while ruling as dynasts in Thessaly.", "The \"Greek\" component in the Serbian imperial title indicates both rule over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans.", "A renegade Hungarian-Serb commander, Jovan Nenad, who claimed to be a descendant of Serbian and Byzantine rulers, styled himself Emperor." ], [ "Ottoman Empire", "Agostino Veneziano's engraving of Ottoman emperor Suleiman the Magnificent wearing his Venetian Helmet.Ottoman rulers held many titles and appellations denoting their Imperial status.", "These included: Sultan of Sultans, Padishah, and Hakan.The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:After the Ottoman capture of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman sultans began to style themselves '''Kaysar-i Rum''' (Ceaser of the Romans) as they asserted themselves to be the heirs to the Roman Empire by right of conquest.", "The title was of such importance to them that it led them to eliminate the various Byzantine successor states – and therefore rival claimants – over the next eight years.", "Though the term \"emperor\" was rarely used by Westerners of the Ottoman sultan, it was generally accepted by Westerners that he had imperial status.Harun Osman is currently the head of the Ottoman dynasty." ], [ "Emperors in the Americas", "===Pre-Columbian traditions===Emperor Moctezuma II of the Aztec Empire wearing a tilmàtliThe Aztec and Inca traditions are unrelated to one another.", "Both were conquered under the reign of King Charles I of Spain who was simultaneously emperor-elect of the Holy Roman Empire during the fall of the Aztecs and fully emperor during the fall of the Incas.", "Incidentally by being king of Spain, he was also Roman (Byzantine) emperor in pretence through Andreas Palaiologos.", "The translations of their titles were provided by the Spanish.====Aztec Empire====The only pre-Columbian North American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the ''Huey Tlatoani'' (:es:Huey Tlatoani) of the Mexica city-states of Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan and Texcoco, which along with their allies and tributaries are popularly known as the Aztec Empire (1375–1521).", "''Tlatoani'' is a generic Nahuatl word for \"speaker\"; however, most English translators use \"king\" for their translation, thus rendering ''huey tlatoani'' as ''great king'' or ''emperor.", "''The Triple Alliance was an elected monarchy chosen by the elite.", "The emperors of Tenochtitlan and Texcoco were nominally equals, each receiving two-fifths of tribute from the vassal kingdoms, whereas the emperor of Tlacopan was a junior member and only received one-fifth of the tribute, due to the fact that Tlacopan was a newcomer to the alliance.", "Despite the nominal equality, Tenochtitlan eventually assumed a de facto dominant role in the Empire, to the point that even the emperors of Tlacopan and Texcoco would acknowledge Tenochtitlan's effective supremacy.", "Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés executed Emperor Cuauhtémoc and installed puppet rulers who became vassals for Spain.====Inca Empire====The only pre-Columbian South American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the ''Sapa Inca'' of the Inca Empire (1438–1533).", "Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro, conquered the Inca for Spain, killed Emperor Atahualpa, and installed puppets as well.", "Atahualpa may actually be considered a usurper as he had achieved power by killing his half-brother and he did not perform the required coronation with the imperial crown ''mascaipacha'' by the ''Huillaq Uma'' (high priest).===Post-Columbian Americas=======Brazil====Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil in full regalia at the opening of the General Assembly, by Pedro AméricoWhen Napoleon I ordered the invasion of Portugal in 1807 because it refused to join the Continental System, the Portuguese Braganzas moved their capital to Rio de Janeiro to avoid the fate of the Spanish Bourbons (Napoleon I arrested them and made his brother Joseph king).", "When the French general Jean-Andoche Junot arrived in Lisbon, the Portuguese fleet had already left with all the local elite.In 1808, under a British naval escort, the fleet arrived in Brazil.", "Later, in 1815, the Portuguese Prince Regent (since 1816 King João VI) proclaimed the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, as a union of three kingdoms, lifting Brazil from its colonial status.After the fall of Napoleon I and the Liberal revolution in Portugal, the Portuguese royal family returned to Europe (1821).", "Prince Pedro of Braganza (King João's older son) stayed in South America acting as regent of the local kingdom, but, two years later in 1822, he proclaimed himself Pedro I, first Emperor of Brazil.", "He did, however, recognize his father, João VI, as ''Titular Emperor of Brazil'' —a purely honorific title—until João VI's death in 1826.The empire came to an end in 1889, with the overthrow of Emperor Pedro II (Pedro I's son and successor), when the Brazilian republic was proclaimed.Today the headship of the Imperial House of Brazil is disputed between two branches of the House of Orléans-Braganza.====Haiti====Haiti was declared an empire by its ruler, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who made himself Jacques I, on 20 May 1805.He was assassinated the next year.", "Haiti again became an empire from 1849 to 1859 under Faustin Soulouque.====Mexico====Portrait of Maximilian I of Mexico, by Franz Xaver WinterhalterIn Mexico, the First Mexican Empire was the first of two empires created.", "After the declaration of independence on 15 September 1821, it was the intention of the Mexican parliament to establish a commonwealth whereby the king of Spain, Ferdinand VII, would also be Emperor of Mexico, but in which both countries were to be governed by separate laws and with their own legislative offices.", "Should the king refuse the position, the law provided for a member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the Mexican throne.Ferdinand VII, however, did not recognize the independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of Mexico.", "By request of Parliament, the president of the regency Agustín de Iturbide was proclaimed emperor of Mexico on 12 July 1822 as Agustín I. Agustín de Iturbide was the general who helped secure Mexican independence from Spanish rule, but was overthrown by the Plan of Casa Mata.In 1863, the invading French, under Napoleon III (see above), in alliance with Mexican conservatives and nobility, helped create the Second Mexican Empire, and invited Archduke Maximilian, of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, younger brother of the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef I, to become emperor Maximilian I of Mexico.", "The childless Maximilian and his consort Empress Carlota of Mexico, daughter of Leopold I of Belgium, adopted Agustín's grandsons Agustin and Salvador as his heirs to bolster his claim to the throne of Mexico.", "Maximilian and Carlota made Chapultepec Castle their home, which has been the only palace in North America to house sovereigns.", "After the withdrawal of French protection in 1867, Maximilian was captured and executed by the liberal forces of Benito Juárez.This empire led to French influence in the Mexican culture and also immigration from France, Belgium, and Switzerland to Mexico.", "Maximilian's closest living agnatic relative is Karl von Habsburg, the head of the House of Habsburg." ], [ "Middle East", "In Persia, from the time of Darius the Great, Persian rulers used the title \"King of Kings\" (''Shahanshah'' in Persian) since they had dominion over peoples from the borders of India to the borders of Greece and Egypt.", "Alexander the Great probably crowned himself ''shahanshah'' after conquering Persia, bringing the phrase ''basileus ton basileon'' to Greek.", "It is also known that Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, was named as the king of kings when he made his empire after defeating the Parthians.", "Georgian title \"mephet'mephe\" has the same meaning.The last ''shahanshah'' (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) was ousted in 1979 following the Iranian Revolution.", "''Shahanshah'' is usually translated as ''king of kings'' or simply ''king'' for ancient rulers of the Achaemenid, Arsacid, and Sassanid dynasties, and often shortened to ''shah'' for rulers since the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.", "Iranian rulers were typically regarded in the West as emperors.The title King of Kings takes various forms depending on the language, and was used not only in Iran but also in countries surrounding Iran.", "* ''Šar Šarrāni'', the king of kings form of ''Šar'', used in Assyria, Babylon, etc.", "* ''Shahanshah'', the king of kings form of ''Shah'', used in Iran, Armenia, Kushan, etc.", "* ''Basileus Basileōn'', the king of kings form of ''Basileus'', used in Macedonia, Byzantine, etc.", "* ''Maharajadhiraja'', the king of kings form of ''Maharaja'', used in Gupta, Nepal, etc.", "* ''Sultan of Sultans'', the king of kings form of ''Sultan'', used in Ottoman, Delhi, etc.", "* ''Malik al-Muluk'', the king of kings form of ''Malik'', used in Palmyra, Buyid, etc.", "* ''Mepe-Mepeta'', the king of kings form of ''Mepe'', used in Georgia.", "* ''Nəgusä nägäst'', the king of kings form of ''Negus'', used in Ethiopia." ], [ "Indian subcontinent", "=== Samrajya system ===Chandragupta Maurya, regarded by most historians as the first emperor of the Indian subcontinent.In the Vedic period, there was a federal imperial system called the ''Samrajya system'' and ''Samrat'' (:hi:सम्राट्) was the emperor of that system.Those monarchs, who could bring under subjection many kings like ''Rajan'', claimed the title of ''Samrat''.Chandragupta of the Maurya Empire is referred to as the first emperor of the mostly unified Indian subcontinent.Pravarasena I was the only Vakataka ruler to be called ''Samrat''.The title for an empress is ''Samrajyi (साम्राज्ञी).", "''=== Chakravarti system ===Another type of Indian imperialism was also known as ''Chakravarti system''.The first references to a ''Chakravartin'' as a secular monarch appear in reference to Ashoka of the Maurya Empire.The Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar line claimed ''Chakravartin'' status.The feminine form of ''Chakravarti'' is ''Chakravartini''.=== Delhi Sultanate ===From 1206 to 1526 most of the Indian subcontinent was dominated by the Muslim Delhi Sultanate, whose monarchs used the title Sultan of Sultans.=== Mughal Empire ===Mughal Emperor Akbar in his Durbar.From the 14th century until the 19th century the Indian subcontinent was dominated by predominantly Muslim rulers like the Mughals, whose rulers used the title Shahenshah and Padishah (or Badshah).=== British Raj ===When the British monarchs ruled over India, they adopted the additional title of ''Kaisar-i-Hind'' (transl.", "Emperor of India)." ], [ "Africa", "===Ethiopia===Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974.From 1270 the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia used the title , literally \"King of Kings\".", "The use of the ''king of kings'' style began a millennium earlier in this region, however, with the title being used by the kings of Aksum, beginning with Sembrouthes in the 3rd century.Another title used by this dynasty was .", "translates as Empress, and was used by the only reigning Empress, Zauditu, along with the official title (\"Queen of Kings\").In 1936, the Italian king Victor Emmanuel III claimed the title of Emperor of Ethiopia after Ethiopia was occupied by Italy during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.", "After the defeat of the Italians by the British and the Ethiopians in 1941, Haile Selassie was restored to the throne but Victor Emmanuel did not relinquish his claim until 1943, even though he had no standing to the title.The current head of the Solomonic dynasty is Zera Yacob Amha Selassie.===Central African Empire===In 1976, President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Republic, proclaimed the country to be an autocratic Central African Empire, and made himself Emperor as Bokassa I.", "The expenses of his coronation ceremony actually bankrupted the country.", "He was overthrown three years later and the republic was restored." ], [ "East Asian tradition", "皇帝 is the title of emperors in East Asia.", "An emperor is called ''Huángdì'' in Chinese, ''Hwangje'' in Korean, ''Hoàng đế'' in Vietnamese, and ''Kōtei'' in Japanese, but these are all just their respective pronunciations of the Chinese character 皇帝.", "But, the Japanese call only their emperors with the special title ''Tennō''.The rulers of China and (once Westerners became aware of the role) Japan were always accepted in the West as emperors, and referred to as such.", "The claims of other East Asian monarchies to the title may have been accepted for diplomatic purposes, but it was not necessarily used in more general contexts.===China===Qin Shi HuangThe East Asian tradition is different from the Roman tradition, having arisen separately.", "What links them together is the use of the Chinese logographs 皇 (''huáng'') and 帝 (''dì'') which together or individually are imperial.", "Because of the cultural influence of China, China's neighbors adopted these titles or had their native titles conform in ''hanzi''.", "Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address the emperor as bìxià (陛下, lit.", "the \"Bottom of the Steps\"), corresponding to the Imperial Majesty\"; shèngshàng (聖上, lit.", "Holy Highness); or wànsuì (萬歲, lit.", "\"You, of Ten Thousand Years\").In 221 BC, Ying Zheng, who was king of Qin at the time, proclaimed himself ''Shi Huangdi'' (始皇帝), which translates as \"first emperor\".", "''Huangdi'' is composed of ''huang'' (\"august one\", 皇) and ''di'' (\"sage-king\", 帝), and referred to legendary/mythological sage-emperors living several millennia earlier, of which three were ''huang'' and five were ''di''.", "Thus Ying Zheng became Qin Shi Huang, abolishing the system where the ''huang''/''di'' titles were reserved to dead and/or mythological rulers.", "Since then, the title \"king\" became a lower ranked title, and later divided into two grades.", "Although not as popular, the title 王 ''wang'' (king or prince) was still used by many monarchs and dynasties in China up to the Taipings in the 19th century.", "王 is pronounced ''vương'' in Vietnamese, ''ō'' in Japanese, and ''wang'' in Korean.The imperial title continued in China until the Qing dynasty was overthrown in 1912.The title was briefly revived from 12 December 1915 to 22 March 1916 by President Yuan Shikai and again in early July 1917 when General Zhang Xun attempted to restore last Qing emperor Puyi to the throne.", "Puyi retained the title and attributes of a foreign emperor, as a personal status, until 1924.After the Japanese occupied Manchuria in 1931, they proclaimed it to be the Empire of Manchukuo, and Puyi became emperor of Manchukuo.", "This empire ceased to exist when it was occupied by the Soviet Red Army in 1945.In general, an emperor would have one empress (''Huanghou'', 皇后) at one time, although posthumous entitlement to empress for a concubine was not uncommon.", "The earliest known usage of ''huanghou'' was in the Han dynasty.", "The emperor would generally select the empress from his concubines.", "In subsequent dynasties, when the distinction between wife and concubine became more accentuated, the crown prince would have chosen an empress-designate before his reign.", "Imperial China produced only one reigning empress, Wu Zetian, and she used the same Chinese title as an emperor (''Huangdi'', 皇帝).", "Wu Zetian then reigned for about 15 years (AD 690–705).Under the tributary system of China, monarchs of Korea and Vietnam sometimes called themselves ''emperor'' in their country.", "They introduced themselves as ''king'' for China and other countries (Emperor at home, king abroad).", "In Japan, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu a shogun was granted title of ''King of Japan'' for trade by the Ming emperor.", "However, the Shogun was a subject of the Japanese emperor.", "It was contrary to rules of tributary system, but the Ming emperor connived it for the purpose of suppressing the Wokou.===Japan===Emperor Hirohito (裕仁), or the Shōwa Emperor (昭和天皇), the last Japanese Emperor having ruled with prerogative powers, combined with assumption of divinity (photographed 1926).The earliest emperor recorded in and is Emperor Jimmu, who is said to be a descendant of Amaterasu's grandson Ninigi who descended from Heaven (Tenson kōrin).", "If one believes what is written in , the emperors have an unbroken direct male lineage that goes back more than 2,600 years.In ancient Japan, the earliest titles for the sovereign were either ヤマト大王/大君 (''yamato ōkimi'', Grand King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (''waō''/''wakokuō'', King of Wa, used externally), or 治天下大王 (''amenoshita shiroshimesu ōkimi'', Grand King who rules all under heaven, used internally).In 607, Empress Suiko sent a diplomatic document to China, which she wrote \"the emperor of the land of the rising sun (日出處天子) sends a document to the emperor of the land of the setting sun (日沒處天子)\" and began to use the title emperor externally.", "As early as the 7th century, the word 天皇 (which can be read either as ''sumera no mikoto'', divine order, or as ''tennō'', Heavenly Emperor, the latter being derived from a Tang Chinese term referring to the Pole star around which all other stars revolve) began to be used.", "The earliest use of this term is found on a wooden slat, or ''mokkan'', unearthed in Asuka-mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998.The slat dated back to the reign of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "The reading 'Tennō' has become the standard title for the Japanese sovereign up to the present age.", "The term 帝 (''mikado'', Emperor) is also found in literary sources.In the Japanese language, the word ''tennō'' is restricted to Japan's own monarch; ''kōtei'' (皇帝) is usually used for foreign emperors.", "Historically, retired emperors often kept power over a child-emperor as de facto regent.", "For a long time, a ''shōgun'' (formally the imperial military dictator, but made hereditary) or an imperial regent wielded actual political power.", "In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a figurehead.", "The Meiji Restoration restored practical abilities and the political system under Emperor Meiji.", "The last shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned in 1868.After World War II, all claims of divinity were dropped (see Ningen-sengen).", "The Diet acquired all prerogative powers of the Crown, reverting the latter to a ceremonial role.", "By 1979, after the short-lived Central African Empire (1976–1979), Emperor Shōwa was the only monarch in the world with the title emperor.As of the early 21st century, Japan's succession law prohibits a female from ascending the throne.", "With the birth of a daughter as the first child of the then-Crown Prince Naruhito, Japan considered abandoning that rule.", "However, shortly after the announcement that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, the proposal to alter the Imperial Household Law was suspended by then-Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi.", "On 3 January 2007, as the child turned out to be a son, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced that he would drop the proposal.Emperor Naruhito is the 126th monarch according to Japan's traditional order of succession.", "The second and third in line of succession are Fumihito, Prince Akishino and Prince Hisahito.", "Historically, Japan has had eight reigning empresses who used the genderless title ''Tennō'', rather than the female consort title ''kōgō'' (皇后) or ''chūgū'' (中宮).", "There is ongoing discussion of the Japanese Imperial succession controversy.", "Although current Japanese law prohibits female succession, all Japanese emperors claim to trace their lineage to ''Amaterasu'', the Sun Goddess of the Shintō religion.", "Thus, the emperor is thought to be the highest authority of the Shinto religion, and one of his duties is to perform Shinto rituals for the people of Japan.===Korea===Emperor Gojong of the Korean EmpireSome rulers of Goguryeo (37 BC–AD 668) used the title of ''Taewang'' (), literally translated as \"Greatest King\".", "The title of ''Taewang'' was also used by some rulers of Silla (57 BC–AD 935), including Beopheung and Jinheung.The rulers of Balhae (698–926) internally called themselves ''Seongwang'' (; lit.", "\"Holy King\").The rulers of Goryeo (918–1392) used the titles of emperor and ''Son of Heaven of the East of the Ocean'' ().", "Goryeo's imperial system ended in 1270 with capitulation to the Mongol Empire.In 1897, Gojong, the king of Joseon, proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire (1897–1910), becoming the emperor of Korea.", "He declared the era name of \"Gwangmu\" (), meaning \"Bright and Martial\".", "The Korean Empire lasted until 1910, when it was annexed by the Empire of Japan.===Mongolia===Genghis Khan was the founder and first Great Khan or Emperor of the largest land empire in history, the Mongol Empire.", "His reign as emperor lasted from 1206 to 1227 and he is considered by some to be the greatest conqueror of all time.The title Khagan (khan of khans or grand khan) was held by Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire in 1206; he also formally took the Chinese title ''huangdi'', as \"Genghis Emperor\" ( ).", "Only the Khagans from Genghis Khan to the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 are normally referred to as emperors in English.===Vietnam===Emperor Khải Định, the 12th Emperor of the Nguyễn dynastyĐại Việt Kingdom (40–43, 544–602, 938–1407, 1427–1945) (The first ruler of Vietnam to take the title of Emperor (Hoàng Đế) was the founder of the Early Lý dynasty, Lý Nam Đế, in the year AD 544)Ngô Quyền, the first ruler of Đại Việt as an independent state, used the title ''Vương'' (王, ''King'').", "However, after the death of Ngô Quyền, the country immersed in a civil war known as Anarchy of the 12 Warlords that lasted for over 20 years.", "In the end, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh unified the country after defeating all the warlords and became the first ruler of Đại Việt to use the title ''Hoàng Đế'' (皇帝, ''Emperor'') in 968.Succeeding rulers in Vietnam then continued to use this Emperor title until 1806 when this title was stopped being used for a century.Đinh Bộ Lĩnh was not the first to claim the title of ''Đế'' (帝, ''Emperor'').", "Before him, Lý Bí and Mai Thúc Loan also claimed this title.", "However, their rules were short-lived.The Vietnamese emperors also gave this title to their ancestors who were lords or influential figures in the previous dynasty, as did the Chinese emperors.", "This practice was one of the many indications that Vietnam considered itself an equal to China which remained intact up to the twentieth century.In 1802 the newly established Nguyễn dynasty requested canonization from the Chinese Jiaqing Emperor and received the title ''Quốc Vương'' (國王, ''King of a State)'' and the name of the country as ''Việt Nam'' (越南) instead ''Đại Việt'' (大越).", "To avoid unnecessary armed conflicts, the Vietnamese rulers accepted this in diplomatic relation and used the title Emperor only domestically.", "However, Vietnamese rulers never accepted the vassalage relationship with China and always refused to come to Chinese courts to pay homage to Chinese rulers (a sign of vassalage acceptance).", "China waged a number of wars against Vietnam throughout history, and after each failure, settled for the tributary relationship.", "The Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan waged three wars against Vietnam to force it into a vassalage relationship but after successive failures, Kublai Khan's successor, Temür Khan, finally settled for a tributary relationship with Vietnam.", "Vietnam sent tributary missions to China once in three years (with some periods of disruptions) until the 19th century, Sino-French War France replaced China in control of northern Vietnam.The emperors of the last dynasty of Vietnam continued to hold this title until the French conquered Vietnam.", "The emperor, however, was then a puppet figure only and could easily be disposed of by the French for more pro-France figure.", "Japan took Vietnam from France and the Axis-occupied Vietnam was declared an empire by the Japanese in March 1945.The line of emperors came to an end with Bảo Đại, who was deposed after the war, although he later served as head of state of South Vietnam from 1949 to 1955." ], [ "Fictional uses", "There have been many fictional emperors in movies and books.", "To see a list of these emperors, see Category of fictional emperors and empresses." ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Fine, J. V. A., Jr., ''The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest'', Ann Arbor, 1987.", "* Kaimakamova, M., \"Turnovo – New Constantinople: The Third Rome in the Fourteench-Century Bulgarian Translation of Constantine Manasses' Synopsis Chronike,\" ''The Medieval Chronicle'' 4 (2006) 91–104.online* Mladjov, I. S. R., \"Between Byzantium and Rome: Bulgaria in the aftermath of the Photian Schism,\" ''Byzantine Studies/Études Byzantines'' 4 (n.s.)", "(1999) 173–181.online* Mladjov, I. S. R., \"The Crown and the Veil: Titles, Spiritual Kinship, and Diplomacy in Tenth-Century Bulgaro-Byzantine Relations,\" ''History Compass'' 13 (2015) 171–183.online* Petkov, K., ''The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century'', Leiden, 2008.", "* Prinzing, G., \"Der Brief Kaiser Heinrichs von Konstantinopel vom 13.Januar 1212,\" ''Byzantion'' 43 (1973) 395–431.online" ], [ "External links", "* Ian Mladjov's site at University of Michigan** Monarchs (chronology and genealogy)** Monarchs (more genealogy)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Egalitarianism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Egalitarianism''' (), or '''equalitarianism''', is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds on the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people.", "Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or moral status.", "As such, all citizens of a state should be accorded equal rights and treatment under the law.", "Egalitarian doctrines have supported many modern social movements, including the Enlightenment, feminism, civil rights, and international human rights." ], [ "Forms", "Some specifically focused egalitarian concerns include communism, legal egalitarianism, luck egalitarianism, political egalitarianism, gender egalitarianism, racial equality, equality of opportunity, and Christian egalitarianism.", "Common forms of egalitarianism include political and philosophical.=== Legal egalitarianism ===One argument is that liberalism provides democratic societies with the means to carry out civic reform by providing a framework for developing public policy and providing the correct conditions for individuals to achieve civil rights.==== Equality of person ====The English Bill of Rights of 1689 and the United States Constitution use only the term person in operative language involving fundamental rights and responsibilities, except for a reference to men in the English Bill of Rights regarding men on trial for treason; and a rule of proportional Congressional representation in the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution.As the rest of the Constitution, in its operative language the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution uses the term person, stating that \"nor shall any State deprives any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws\".==== Gender equality ====The motto \"\" was used during the French Revolution and is still used as an official motto of the French government.", "The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen French Constitution is also framed with this basis in equal rights of humankind.The Declaration of Independence of the United States is an example of an assertion of equality of men as \"All men are created equal\" and the wording of men and man is a reference to both men and women, i.e., mankind.", "John Locke is sometimes considered the founder of this form.", "Many state constitutions in the United States also use the rights of man language rather than rights of person since the noun man has always been a reference to and an inclusion of both men and women.The Tunisian Constitution of 2014 provides that \"men and women shall be equal in their rights and duties\".Feminism is informed by egalitarian philosophy, being a gender-focused philosophy of equality.", "Feminism is distinguished from egalitarianism by also existing as a political and social movement.=== Social egalitarianism ===At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years.", "Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are socialism, communism, social anarchism, libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism, and progressivism, some of which propound economic egalitarianism.", "Anti-egalitarianism or elitism is opposition to egalitarianism.==== Economic ====An early example of equality is what might be described as outcome economic egalitarianism is the Chinese philosophy of agriculturalism which held that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon egalitarian self-sufficiency.In socialism, social ownership of means of production is sometimes considered to be a form of economic egalitarianism because in an economy characterized by social ownership the surplus product generated by industry would accrue to the population as a whole as opposed to a class of private owners, thereby granting each increased autonomy and greater equality in their relationships with one another.", "Although the economist Karl Marx is sometimes mistaken to be an egalitarian, Marx eschewed normative theorizing on moral principles altogether.", "Marx did have a theory of the evolution of moral principles concerning specific economic systems.The American economist John Roemer has put forth a new perspective on equality and its relationship to socialism.", "Roemer attempts to reformulate Marxist analysis to accommodate normative principles of distributive justice, shifting the argument for socialism away from purely technical and materialist reasons to one of distributive justice.", "Roemer argues that according to the principle of distributive justice, the traditional definition of socialism is based on the principle that individual compensation is proportional to the value of the labor one expends in production (\"To each according to his contribution\") is inadequate.", "Roemer concludes that egalitarians must reject socialism as it is classically defined for equality to be realized.=== Egalitarianism and non-human animals ===Many philosophers, including Ingmar Persson, Peter Vallentyne, Nils Holtug, Catia Faria and Lewis Gompertz, have argued that egalitarianism implies that the interests of non-human animals must be taken into account as well.", "Philosopher Oscar Horta has further argued that egalitarianism implies rejecting speciesism, ceasing to exploit non-human animals and aiding animals suffering in nature.", "Furthermore, Horta argues that non-human animals should be prioritized since they are worse off than humans.=== Religious and spiritual egalitarianism ======= Christianity ====In 1957, Martin Luther King Jr. quoted Galatians 3:28 (\"There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus\") in a pamphlet opposing racial segregation in the United States.", "He wrote, \"Racial segregation is a blatant denial of the unity which we all have in Christ.\"", "He also alluded to that verse at the end of his 1963 \"I Have a Dream\" speech.", "The verse is cited to support an egalitarian interpretation of Christianity.", "According to Jakobus M. Vorster, the central question debated by theologians is whether the statement about ecclesiastical relationships can be translated into a Christian-ethical norm for all human relationships.", "Vorster argues that it can, and that the verse provides a Christian foundation for the promotion of human rights and equality, in contrast to \"patriarchy, racism and exploitation\" which in his opinion are caused by human sinfulness.", "Karin Neutel notes how some apply the philosophy of Paul's statement to include sexuality, health and race saying \"The original three pairs must have been as relevant in the first century, as the additional categories are today.\"", "She argues that the verse points to a utopian, cosmopolitan community.==== Islam ====The verse 49:13 of The Quran states: \"O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another.", "Indeed, the noblest of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you.", "Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted\".", "Muhammad echoed these egalitarian sentiments, sentiments that clashed with the practices of the pre-Islamic cultures.", "In a review of Louise Marlow's ''Hierarchy and Egalitarianism in Islamic Thought,'' Ismail Poonawala argues the desire for the Arab-Muslim Empire to consolidate power and administer the state rather led to the deemphasis of egalitarian teachings in the Qur'an and by the Prophet.=== Modern egalitarianism theory ===Modern egalitarianism is a theory that rejects the classic definition of egalitarianism as a possible achievement economically, politically, and socially.", "Modern egalitarianism theory, or new egalitarianism, outlines that if everyone had the same opportunity cost, then there would be no comparative advances and no one would gain from trading with each other.", "In essence, the immense gains people receive from trading with each other arise because they are unequal in characteristics and talents—these differences may be innate or developed so that people can gain from trading with each other.===Equitism===The Atlas movement defines equitism as the idea that all groups should have equal rights and benefits.", "The term has been used as the claimed philosophical basis of Telosa, a proposed utopia to be built in the United State by Marc Lore." ], [ "Discussion {{anchor|criticisms}}", "=== Alexander Berkman, Thompson et. al ===Thompson ''et al.''", "theorize that any society consisting of only one perspective, be it egalitarianism, hierarchies, individualist, fatalist or autonomists will be inherently unstable as the claim is that an interplay between all these perspectives are required if each perspective is to be fulfilling.", "Although an individualist according to cultural theory is aversive towards both principles and groups, individualism is not fulfilling if individual brilliance cannot be recognized by groups, or if individual brilliance cannot be made permanent in the form of principles.", "Accordingly, they argue that egalitarians have no power except through their presence, unless they (by definition, reluctantly) embrace principles which enable them to cooperate with fatalists and hierarchies.", "They argue that this means they will also have no individual sense of direction without a group, which could be mitigated by following individuals outside their group, namely autonomists or individualists.", "Alexander Berkman suggests that \"equality does not mean an equal amount but equal opportunity.", "... Do not make the mistake of identifying equality in liberty with the forced equality of the convict camp.", "True anarchist equality implies freedom, not quantity.", "It does not mean that everyone must eat, drink, or wear the same things, do the same work, or live in the same manner.", "Far from it: the very reverse.", "...", "Individual needs and tastes differ, as appetites differ.", "It is an equal opportunity to satisfy them that constitutes true equality.", "... Far from leveling, such equality opens the door for the greatest possible variety of activity and development.", "For human character is diverse.", "\"The cultural theory of risk holds egalitarianism—with fatalism termed as its opposite—as defined by a negative attitude towards rules and principles; and a positive attitude towards group decision-making.", "The theory distinguishes between hierarchists, who are positive towards both rules and groups; and egalitarians, who are positive towards groups, but negative towards rules.", "This is by definition a form of anarchist equality as referred to by Berkman.", "Thus, the fabric of an egalitarian society is held together by cooperation and implicit peer pressure rather than by explicit rules and punishment.=== Marxism ===Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed that an international proletarian revolution would bring about a socialist society which would then eventually give way to a communist stage of social development which would be a classless, stateless, moneyless, humane society erected on common ownership of the means of production and the principle of \"From each according to their ability, to each according to their needs\".", "Marxism rejected egalitarianism in the sense of greater equality between classes, clearly distinguishing it from the socialist notion of the abolition of classes based on the division between workers and owners of productive property.", "Allen Woods finds that Marx's view of classlessness was not the subordination of society to a universal interest such as a universal notion of equality, but it was about the creation of the conditions that would enable individuals to pursue their true interests and desires, making Marx's notion of communist society radically individualistic.Although his position is often confused or conflated with distributive egalitarianism in which only the goods and services resulting from production are distributed according to notional equality, Marx eschewed the entire concept of equality as abstract and bourgeois, preferring to focus on more concrete principles such as opposition to exploitation on materialist grounds and economic logic.=== Murray Rothbard ===In the title essay of his book ''Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Essays'', Murray Rothbard argued that egalitarian theory always results in a politics of statist control because it is founded on revolt against the ontological structure of reality itself.According to Rothbard, individuals are naturally unequal in their abilities, talents, and characteristics.", "He believed that this inequality was not only natural but necessary for a functioning society.", "In his view, people's unique qualities and abilities are what allow them to contribute to society in different ways.Rothbard argued that egalitarianism was a misguided attempt to impose an artificial equality on individuals, which would ultimately lead to societal breakdown.", "He believed that attempts to force equality through government policies or other means would stifle individual freedom and prevent people from pursuing their own interests and passions.Furthermore, Rothbard believed that egalitarianism was rooted in envy and resentment towards those who were more successful or talented than others.", "He saw it as a destructive force that would lead to a culture of mediocrity, where people were discouraged from striving for excellence." ], [ "See also", "* \"All men are created equal\"* Animal rights* Asset-based egalitarianism* Citizen's dividend* Consociationalism* Deep ecology* Discrimination* Economic inequality* Egalitarian social choice rule* Equal consideration of interests* Equal opportunity* Equality of outcome* Feminism* Gift economy* Inequity aversion* Left-wing politics* Legal status of transgender people* LGBT rights by country or territory* Men's rights movement* Men's liberation movement* Meritocracy* Mutualism* Natural rights and legal rights* Political egalitarianism* One man, one vote* Reciprocal altruism* Redistributive justice* Same-sex marriage* Social dividend* Transfeminism* Universal basic income" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''** ** * ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''** ** ** * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Expert witness" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''expert witness''', particularly in common law countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, is a person whose opinion by virtue of education, training, certification, skills or experience, is accepted by the judge as an expert.", "The judge may consider the witness's specialized (scientific, technical or other) opinion about evidence or about facts before the court within the expert's area of expertise, to be referred to as an \"expert opinion\".", "Expert witnesses may also deliver \"expert evidence\" within the area of their expertise.", "Their testimony may be rebutted by testimony from other experts or by other evidence or facts." ], [ "History", "The forensic expert practice is an ancient profession.", "For example, in ancient Babylonia, midwives were used as experts in determining pregnancy, virginity and female fertility.", "Similarly, the Roman Empire recognized midwives, handwriting experts and land surveyors as legal experts.", "The codified use of expert witnesses and the admissibility of their testimony and scientific evidence has developed significantly in the Western court system over the last 250 years.", "The concept of allowing an expert witness to testify in a court setting and provide opinionated evidence on the facts of other witnesses was first introduced by Lord Mansfield in the case of ''Folkes v. Chadd'' in 1782.In this particular case, the court was hearing litigation regarding the silting of Wells Harbor in Norfolk and allowed leading civil engineer, John Smeaton, to provide scientific rationale behind the proposed legislation.", "The decision by the English Court to allow for an expert to provide contextual background and detail on a case is often cited as the root of modern rules on expert testimony." ], [ "Role", "Expert witnesses are called upon in the court system to serve as an objective party to the lawsuit and never function as an advocate for one side or the other.", "Expert witnesses are present in litigation to explain complicated scientific issues, not to influence the jury or judge with fervor.", "The main responsibilities of expert witnesses are to evaluate potential problems, defects, deficiencies, or errors only when able to fully appreciate a process or system.", "Expert witnesses are obligated to study the processes prior to making a survey or postpone the assignment prior to potentially missing the target due to lack of specific condition understanding.", "They are called to testify under the assumption that all the preparation required for a competent evaluation of the process has been made.Typically, experts are relied on for opinions on severity of injury, degree of sanity, cause of failure in a machine or other device, loss of earnings and associated benefits, care costs, and the like.", "In an intellectual property case an expert may be shown two music scores, book texts, or circuit boards and asked to ascertain their degree of similarity.", "In the majority of cases, the expert's personal relation to the defendant is considered and usually adjudged to be irrelevant.The tribunal itself, or the judge, can in some systems call upon experts to technically evaluate a certain fact or action, in order to provide the court with a complete knowledge on the fact/action it is judging.", "The expertise has the legal value of an acquisition of data.", "The results of these experts are then compared to those by the experts of the parties.The expert has a great responsibility, and especially in penal trials, and perjury by an expert is a severely punished crime in most countries.", "The use of expert witnesses is sometimes criticized in the United States because in civil trials, they are often used by both sides to advocate differing positions, and it is left up to a jury to decide which expert witness to believe.", "Although experts are legally prohibited from expressing their opinion of submitted evidence until after they are hired, sometimes a party can surmise beforehand, because of reputation or prior cases, that the testimony will be favorable regardless of any basis in the submitted data; such experts are commonly disparaged as \"hired guns.", "\"=== Qualifications ===An expert witness at the time of trial is qualified by the court and must be re-qualified each time that person comes to trial for the offering of opinions.", "The qualification is given by each trial judge and takes place regardless of prior appearances by a particular expert witness.", "Expert witnesses are those whom the court has deemed qualified to speak on a topic to provide background to anyone on a lay jury.===Duties in United States courts===In high stakes cases multiple experts, in multiple topics, are often retained by each party.", "Although it is still relatively rare, the court itself may also retain its own independent expert.", "In all cases, fees paid to an expert may not be contingent on the outcome of the case.Expert evidence is often the most important component of many civil and criminal cases today.", "Fingerprint examination, blood analysis, DNA fingerprinting, and forensic firearm examination are common kinds of expert evidence heard in serious criminal cases.", "In civil cases, the work of accident analysis, forensic engineers, and forensic accountants is usually important, the latter to assess damages and costs in long and complex cases.", "Intellectual property and medical negligence cases are typical examples.Electronic evidence has also entered the courtroom as critical forensic evidence.", "Audio and video evidence must be authenticated by both parties in any litigation by a forensic expert who is also an expert witness who assists the court in understanding details about that electronic evidence.Voice-mail recordings and closed-circuit television systems produce electronic evidence often used in litigation, more so today than in the past.", "Video recordings of bank robberies and audio recordings of life threats are presented in court rooms by electronic expert witnesses.=== Rules of evidence and code of procedure ======= Hearsay rule ====One important rule that applies to the expert witness but not the percipient witness is the exception to the hearsay rule.", "A percipient witness tells only what he/she actually knows about a case and nothing more.", "Percipient witnesses cannot give opinions nor conjecture regarding a hypothetical set of conditions.", "Conversely, the court does allow an expert to testify about issues that may not be personally known by them.", "This allows the expert to rely upon scientific articles, discussions with colleagues on the subject, testimony read in preparation for testimony in the case and similar pieces of information not personally known to the expert.==== Chain of custody ====It is important that expert witnesses who handle evidence maintain a proper chain of custody such that they are able to authenticate the evidence, prove that it is what they represent it to be, when testifying at trial.", "Most notably in the context of a criminal prosecution, an expert witness who evaluates or examines an item pertinent to an investigation or case evaluation may add an entry to a \"chain of custody\" document, a form that contains the item's description, the time and date of release for all prior custodians of the item, and the time and date of release to the witness.==== Weight of testimony ====In the case of an expert witness, the weight of his/her evidence depends heavily on the foundation support established prior to an opinion being given.", "Examples include educational background, review of scholarly works, field studies and trainings which all lead up to developing a foundation of knowledge for credibility of a testimony.", "Before trial, all experts must prepare a report summarizing their analysis and conclusions and share the report with all other parties.", "This allows other parties to effectively cross-examine the expert." ], [ "Types", "===Testifying experts===If the witness needs to testify in court, the privilege is no longer protected.", "The expert witness's identity and nearly all documents used to prepare the testimony will become discoverable.", "Usually an experienced lawyer will advise the expert not to take notes on documents because all of the notes will be available to the other party.An expert testifying in a United States federal court must satisfy the requirements of Fed.", "R. Evid.", "702.Generally, under Rule 702, an expert is a person with \"scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge\" who can \"assist the trier of fact,\" which is typically a jury.", "A witness who is being offered as an expert must first establish his or her competency in the relevant field through an examination of his or her credentials.", "The opposing attorney is permitted to conduct a voir dire of the witness in order to challenge that witness' qualifications.", "If qualified by the court, then the expert may testify \"in the form of an opinion or otherwise\" so long as: \"(1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case.", "\"Although experts can testify in any case in which their expertise is relevant, criminal cases are more likely to use forensic scientists or forensic psychologists, whereas civil cases, such as personal injury, may use forensic engineers, forensic accountants, employment consultants or care experts.", "Senior physicians – UK, Ireland, and Commonwealth consultants, U.S. attending physicians – are frequently used in both the civil and criminal courts.The Federal Court of Australia has issued guidelines for experts appearing in Australian courts.", "This covers the format of the expert's written testimony as well as their behaviour in court.", "Similar procedures apply in non-court forums, such as the Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission.==== Educating witness ====The educating witness teaches the fact-finder (jury or, in a bench trial, judge) about the underlying scientific theory and instrument implementing theory.", "This witness is an expert witness, called to elicit opinions that a theory is valid and the instruments involved are reliable.", "The witness must be qualified as an expert witness, which may require academic qualifications or specific training.==== Reporting witness ====Called after teaching witness leaves stand.", "Usually the laboratory technician who personally conducted the test.", "Witness will describe both the test and the results.", "When describing test, will venture opinions that proper test procedures were used and that equipment was in good working order.===Non-testifying experts===In the U.S., a party may hire experts to help them evaluate a given case.", "For example, a car maker may hire an experienced mechanic to decide if its cars were built to specification.", "This kind of expert opinion will be protected from discovery by the opposing party.", "In other words, if the expert finds evidence against their client, the opposite party will not automatically gain access to it.", "This privilege is similar to the work-product doctrine (not to be confused with attorney–client privilege).The non-testifying expert can be present at the trial or hearing to aid the attorney in asking questions of other expert witnesses.", "Unlike a testifying expert, a non-testifying expert can be easily withdrawn from a case.", "It is also possible to change a non-testifying expert to a testifying expert before the expert disclosure date." ], [ "United States", "In the United States, under the Federal Rule of Evidence 702 (FRE), an expert witness must be qualified on the topic of testimony.", "In determining the qualifications of the expert, the FRE requires the expert have had specialized education, training, or practical experience in the subject matter relating to the case.", "The expert's testimony must be based on facts in evidence, and should offer opinion about the causation or correlation to the evidence in drawing a conclusion.Experts in the U.S. typically are paid on an hourly basis for their services in investigating the facts, preparing a report, and if necessary, testifying during pre-trial discovery, or at trial.", "Hourly fees range from approximately $200 to $750 or more per hour, varying primarily by the expert's field of expertise, and the individual expert's qualifications and reputation.", "In several fields, such as handwriting analysis, where the expert compares signatures to determine the likelihood of a forgery, and medical case reviews by a physician or nurse, in which the expert goes over hospital and medical records to assess the possibility of malpractice, experts often initially charge a flat fixed fee for their initial report.", "As with the hourly fees discussed previously, the amount of that flat fee varies considerably based on the reviewing expert's field, experience and reputation.In 2017 Kootenai County, Idaho paid nearly $600,000 during the trial over the killing of a Coeur d'Alene police officer, with the public defenders paying approximately $311,000 for seven experts and the prosecutors paying $270,000 for three experts.", "A 2021 survey conducted by SEAK, Inc., a company that helps professionals serve as expert witnesses, revealed a median hourly rate of $500, $400, and $475 for testifying in court, case preparation, and deposition respectively.", "As for the highest amount ever billed for a single case, the median was $24,000 and the mean was just over $62,000.The expert's professional fee, plus his or her related expenses, is generally paid by the party retaining the expert.", "In some circumstance the party who prevails in the litigation may be entitled to recover the amounts paid to its expert from the losing party.===Scientific evidence===In law, '''scientific evidence''' is evidence derived from scientific knowledge or techniques.", "Most forensic evidence, including genetic evidence, is scientific evidence.==== ''Frye'' test ====The ''Frye'' test, coming from the case ''Frye v. United States'' (1923), said that admissible scientific evidence must be a result of a theory that had \"general acceptance\" in the scientific community.", "This test results in uniform decisions regarding admissibility.", "In particular, the judges in ''Frye'' ruled that:: ''Just when a scientific principle or discovery crosses the line between experimental and demonstrable stages is difficult to define.", "Somewhere in this twilight zone the evidential force of the principle must be recognized, and while courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs.", "''In 1923, the case of Frye v. United States instituted significant change to both criminal and civil law by addressing the use of expert witness testimony in conjunction with scientific testimony.", "In Frye v. United States, the defense team attempted to introduce both the results of a polygraph test administered to Frye to determine Frye's innocence as well as the testimony of an expert witness to verify and explain the results.However, the court rejected the expert's testimony, ruling that: \"While courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs.", "\"Through this ruling, the judge's opinion in Frye v. United States set precedent and the standard by which expert witnesses would be utilized in the court system for decades.", "In the federal courts, between 1948 and 1975, Frye was cited 55 times; however, the use and application was not consistent.", "One of the major struggles that came out of this precedent was the application to both civil and criminal cases.", "Many of the courts and judges had trouble interpreting the \"general acceptance\" notion of a particular field in a concise and non-arbitrary manner.", "In 2012, courts in nine states still used the ''Frye'' standard when analyzing state expert witness rules.", "'''The Federal Rules of Evidence'''In 1975, the United States Congress issued the Federal Rules of Evidence.", "FRE 702 was issued to provide a standard for expert witness testimony to be upheld by the United States court system.", "The rule specified that the application of expert witnesses had to be attributed to a person with \"scientific or technical knowledge,\" in conjunction with a list of qualifications that would quality one to be an expert in terms of \"knowledge, skill, experience, training or education\".", "This rule thus clarified the acceptable use of expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases.However, FRE 702 still left some courts in confusion.", "The courts who would use this new rule were confused as to whether FRE 702 served to bolster the \"general acceptance\" ruling in Frye or if FRE 702 was the replacement of this rule.", "For instance, in ''U.S.", "v. Williams'' (1978), the Second Circuit responded that \"the applicable considerations for expert witness testimony are ‘probativeness, materiality, and reliability of the evidence on the one side, and any tendency to mislead, prejudice or confuse the jury on the other.'\"", "The court appeared to reject the previous precedent set by ''Frye''.", "The rationale in the Williams case was later adopted by other federal courts, including the Third Circuit which adopted a \"reliability\" test in 1984.Meanwhile, other federal courts stuck to the ''Frye'' precedent, causing a circuit split which would not be solved until the Supreme Court set a new expert standard in ''Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.'' (1993).==== Daubert standard ====The Daubert standard arose out of the U.S. Supreme Court case ''Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.'' It provides four factors that courts ought to consider when determining whether expert testimony is admissible under the Federal Rules of Evidence:#\"Whether the expert's theory or technique can be (and has been) tested\"#\"Whether the theory or technique has an acceptable known or potential rate of error\"#\"The existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique's operation\"#\"Whether the theory or technique has attained 'general acceptance'\"In 2012, twenty-two states used the ''Daubert'' test when analyzing their own expert witness rules." ], [ "United Kingdom", "=== England and Wales ===In England and Wales, under the Civil Procedure Rules (CPR), an expert witness is required to be independent and address his or her expert report to the court.", "A witness may be jointly instructed by both sides if the parties agree to this, especially in cases where the liability is relatively small.Under the CPR, expert witnesses may be instructed to produce a joint statement detailing points of agreement and disagreement to assist the court or tribunal.", "The meeting is held quite independently of instructing lawyers, and often assists in resolution of a case, especially if the experts review and modify their opinions.", "When this happens, substantial trial costs can be saved when the parties to a dispute agree to a settlement.", "In most systems, the trial (or the procedure) can be suspended in order to allow the experts to study the case and produce their results.", "More frequently, meetings of experts occur before trial.", "Experts charge a professional fee which is paid by the party commissioning the report (both parties for joint instructions) although the report is addressed to the court.", "The fee must not be contingent on the outcome of the case.", "Expert witnesses may be subpoenaed (issued with a witness summons), although this is normally a formality to avoid court date clashes.=== Scotland ===In Scots Law, ''Davie v Magistrates of Edinburgh'' (1953) provides authority that where a witness has particular knowledge or skills in an area being examined by the court, and has been called to court in order to elaborate on that area for the benefit of the court, that witness may give evidence of his/her opinion on that area." ], [ "Comparison of UK and US law", "=== Similarities ======= Purpose ====* ''United Kingdom'': Expert evidence is to furnish the Judge or jury with necessary scientific criteria for testing the accuracy of their conclusions* ''United States'': Expert evidence is admissible on the basis that the knowledge will help the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue==== Qualification ====* ''United Kingdom'': Expert witness is qualified to give evidence, where the court itself cannot form an opinion and special study, skill or experience is required for the purpose* ''United States'': An expert witness is qualified by knowledge, skill, experience or education==== Admissibility of Evidence ====* ''United Kingdom'': Expert evidence must be provided in as much detail as possible in-order to convince the judge that the expert's opinions are well founded* ''United States'': Expert testimony to be based on sufficient facts, data or products of a credible source of test and tried principles and methods=== Differences ======= Conduct ====* ''United Kingdom'': Expert's \"duties to the Court override any obligation to the person from whom they have received instructions or have been paid by\"* ''United States'': Expert's duty is not formally defined under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure /Evidence==== Depositions ====* ''United Kingdom'': Expert evidence is examined before the Judge (or Arbitrator)* ''United States'': Expert evidence can be compelled to deposition==== Ultimate Issues ====* ''United Kingdom'': Expert opinion on ultimate issue is not admissible* ''United States'': Expert opinion on ultimate issue is admissible" ], [ "Turkey", "During a Erdoğan-Gollum comparison trial, a panel of expert witnesses had to decide on the character of Gollum." ], [ "See also", "* Ambush defence* Daubert standard and ''Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.''* Death of an Expert Witness - a novel* Employment consultant* Expert shopping* Forensic accountant* Forensic economics* Forensic engineering* Forensic science* Forensic psychology* Forensic video analysis* Frye standard of evidence* Gibson's law* ''In limine''* ''Jones v Kaney'' — English caselaw abolishing witness immunity from civil action for negligence* ''Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael''* Questioned document examination* ''R v Mohan'' — Canadian case law establishing qualifications for expert witnesses* Saisie-contrefaçon* Traffic collision reconstruction* Ultimate issue" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bronstein, DA, ''Law for the Expert Witness'', CRC Press,2nd Ed (1999).", "* Dwyer, D, ''The Judicial Assessment of Expert Evidence'', Cambridge University Press (2008).", "* * Jasanoff, Sheila, ''Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997).", "* Reynolds, MP and King, PSD, ''The Expert Witness and his Evidence'', Blackwell (1992).", "* Smith, D, ''Being an Effective Expert Witness'', Thames Publishing (1993)." ], [ "External links", "* Expert Testimony in Federal Civil Trials: A Preliminary Analysis (pdf) (Federal Judicial Center, 2000)* Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy.", "''Daubert''-The Most Influential Supreme Court Ruling You've Never Heard Of (pdf)* Kenton K. Yee, Dueling Experts and Imperfect Verification, 28.4 International Review of Law and Economics, 246-255 (2008)* Cole, Simon A. \"", "Where the Rubber Meets the Road: Thinking about Expert Evidence as Expert Testimony\" ( Archive).", "''Villova Law Journal''.", "Villanova University School of Law.", "Volume 52, Issue 4, Article 4.p.", "803-840." ] ]
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[ [ "Endocytosis" ], [ "Introduction", "The different types of endocytosis '''Endocytosis''' is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell.", "The material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which then buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material.", "Endocytosis includes pinocytosis (cell drinking) and phagocytosis (cell eating).", "It is a form of active transport." ], [ "History", "The term was proposed by De Duve in 1963.Phagocytosis was discovered by Élie Metchnikoff in 1882." ], [ "Pathways", "Schematic drawing illustrating clathrin-mediated (left) and clathrin-independent endocytosis (right) of synaptic vesicle membranes.Endocytosis pathways can be subdivided into four categories: namely, receptor-mediated endocytosis (also known as clathrin-mediated endocytosis), caveolae, pinocytosis, and phagocytosis.", "*'''Clathrin-mediated endocytosis''' is mediated by the production of small (approx.", "100 nm in diameter) vesicles that have a morphologically characteristic coat made up of the cytosolic protein clathrin.", "Clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) are found in virtually all cells and form domains of the plasma membrane termed clathrin-coated pits.", "Coated pits can concentrate large extracellular molecules that have different receptors responsible for the receptor-mediated endocytosis of ligands, e.g.", "low density lipoprotein, transferrin, growth factors, antibodies and many others.", ":Study in mammalian cells confirm a reduction in clathrin coat size in an increased tension environment.", "In addition, it suggests that the two apparently distinct clathrin assembly modes, namely coated pits and coated plaques, observed in experimental investigations might be a consequence of varied tensions in the plasma membrane.", "*'''Caveolae''' are the most commonly reported non-clathrin-coated plasma membrane buds, which exist on the surface of many, but not all cell types.", "They consist of the cholesterol-binding protein caveolin (Vip21) with a bilayer enriched in cholesterol and glycolipids.", "Caveolae are small (approx.", "50 nm in diameter) flask-shape pits in the membrane that resemble the shape of a cave (hence the name caveolae).", "They can constitute up to a third of the plasma membrane area of the cells of some tissues, being especially abundant in smooth muscle, type I pneumocytes, fibroblasts, adipocytes, and endothelial cells.", "Uptake of extracellular molecules is also believed to be specifically mediated via receptors in caveolae.From left to right: Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, Receptor-mediated endocytosis.", "**'''Potocytosis''' is a form of receptor-mediated endocytosis that uses caveolae vesicles to bring molecules of various sizes into the cell.", "Unlike most endocytosis that uses caveolae to deliver contents of vesicles to lysosomes or other organelles, material endocytosed via potocytosis is released into the cytosol.", "*'''Pinocytosis''', which usually occurs from highly ruffled regions of the plasma membrane, is the invagination of the cell membrane to form a pocket, which then pinches off into the cell to form a vesicle (0.5–5 µm in diameter) filled with a large volume of extracellular fluid and molecules within it (equivalent to ~100 CCVs).", "The filling of the pocket occurs in a non-specific manner.", "The vesicle then travels into the cytosol and fuses with other vesicles such as endosomes and lysosomes.", "*'''Phagocytosis''' is the process by which cells bind and internalize particulate matter larger than around 0.75 µm in diameter, such as small-sized dust particles, cell debris, microorganisms and apoptotic cells.", "These processes involve the uptake of larger membrane areas than clathrin-mediated endocytosis and caveolae pathway.More recent experiments have suggested that these morphological descriptions of endocytic events may be inadequate, and a more appropriate method of classification may be based upon whether particular pathways are dependent on clathrin and dynamin.", "Dynamin-dependent clathrin-independent pathways include FEME, UFE, ADBE, EGFR-NCE and IL2Rβ uptake.Dynamin-independent clathrin-independent pathways include the CLIC/GEEC pathway (regulated by Graf1), as well as MEND and macropinocytosis.Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the only pathway dependent on both clathrin and dynamin." ], [ "Principal components", "The endocytic pathway of mammalian cells consists of distinct membrane compartments, which internalize molecules from the plasma membrane and recycle them back to the surface (as in early endosomes and recycling endosomes), or sort them to degradation (as in late endosomes and lysosomes).", "The principal components of the endocytic pathway are:*'''Early endosomes''' are the first compartment of the endocytic pathway.", "Early endosomes are often located in the periphery of the cell, and receive most types of vesicles coming from the cell surface.", "They have a characteristic tubulo-vesicular structure (vesicles up to 1 µm in diameter with connected tubules of approx.", "50 nm diameter) and a mildly acidic pH.", "They are principally sorting organelles where many endocytosed ligands dissociate from their receptors in the acid pH of the compartment, and from which many of the receptors recycle to the cell surface (via tubules).", "It is also the site of sorting into transcytotic pathway to later compartments (like late endosomes or lysosomes) via transvesicular compartments (like multivesicular bodies (MVB) or endosomal carrier vesicles (ECVs)).", "*'''Late endosomes''' receive endocytosed material en route to lysosomes, usually from early endosomes in the endocytic pathway, from trans-Golgi network (TGN) in the biosynthetic pathway, and from phagosomes in the phagocytic pathway.", "Late endosomes often contain proteins characteristic of nucleosomes, mitochondria and mRNAs including lysosomal membrane glycoproteins and acid hydrolases.", "They are acidic (approx.", "pH 5.5), and are part of the trafficking pathway of mannose-6-phosphate receptors.", "Late endosomes are thought to mediate a final set of sorting events prior the delivery of material to lysosomes.", "*'''Lysosomes''' are the last compartment of the endocytic pathway.", "Their chief function is to break down cellular waste products, fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and other macromolecules into simple compounds.", "These are then returned to the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.", "To accomplish this, lysosomes use some 40 different types of hydrolytic enzymes, all of which are manufactured in the endoplasmic reticulum, modified in the Golgi apparatus and function in an acidic environment.", "The approximate pH of a lysosome is 4.8 and by electron microscopy (EM) usually appear as large vacuoles (1-2 µm in diameter) containing electron dense material.", "They have a high content of lysosomal membrane proteins and active lysosomal hydrolases, but no mannose-6-phosphate receptor.", "They are generally regarded as the principal hydrolytic compartment of the cell.It was recently found that an eisosome serves as a portal of endocytosis in yeast." ], [ "Clathrin-mediated", "The major route for endocytosis in most cells, and the best-understood, is that mediated by the molecule clathrin.", "This large protein assists in the formation of a coated pit on the inner surface of the plasma membrane of the cell.", "This pit then buds into the cell to form a coated vesicle in the cytoplasm of the cell.", "In so doing, it brings into the cell not only a small area of the surface of the cell but also a small volume of fluid from outside the cell.Coats function to deform the donor membrane to produce a vesicle, and they also function in the selection of the vesicle cargo.", "Coat complexes that have been well characterized so far include coat protein-I (COP-I), COP-II, and clathrin.", "Clathrin coats are involved in two crucial transport steps: (i) receptor-mediated and fluid-phase endocytosis from the plasma membrane to early endosome and (ii) transport from the TGN to endosomes.", "In endocytosis, the clathrin coat is assembled on the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane, forming pits that invaginate to pinch off (scission) and become free CCVs.", "In cultured cells, the assembly of a CCV takes ~ 1min, and several hundred to a thousand or more can form every minute.", "The main scaffold component of clathrin coat is the 190-kD protein called clathrin heavy chain (CHC), which is associated with a 25- kD protein called clathrin light chain (CLC), forming three-legged trimers called triskelions.Vesicles selectively concentrate and exclude certain proteins during formation and are not representative of the membrane as a whole.", "AP2 adaptors are multisubunit complexes that perform this function at the plasma membrane.", "The best-understood receptors that are found concentrated in coated vesicles of mammalian cells are the LDL receptor (which removes LDL from circulating blood), the transferrin receptor (which brings ferric ions bound by transferrin into the cell) and certain hormone receptors (such as that for EGF).At any one moment, about 25% of the plasma membrane of a fibroblast is made up of coated pits.", "As a coated pit has a life of about a minute before it buds into the cell, a fibroblast takes up its surface by this route about once every 50 minutes.", "Coated vesicles formed from the plasma membrane have a diameter of about 100 nm and a lifetime measured in a few seconds.", "Once the coat has been shed, the remaining vesicle fuses with endosomes and proceeds down the endocytic pathway.", "The actual budding-in process, whereby a pit is converted to a vesicle, is carried out by clathrin assisted by a set of cytoplasmic proteins, which includes dynamin and adaptors such as adaptin.Coated pits and vesicles were first seen in thin sections of tissue in the electron microscope by Thomas F Roth and Keith R. Porter.", "The importance of them for the clearance of LDL from blood was discovered by Richard G. Anderson, Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein in 1977.Coated vesicles were first purified by Barbara Pearse, who discovered the clathrin coat molecule in 1976.=== Processes and components ===Caveolin proteins like caveolin-1 (CAV1), caveolin-2 (CAV2), and caveolin-3 (CAV3), play significant roles in the caveolar formation process.", "More specifically, CAV1 and CAV2 are responsible for caveolae formation in non-muscle cells while CAV3 functions in muscle cells.", "The process starts with CAV1 being synthesized in the ER where it forms detergent-resistant oligomers.", "Then, these oligomers travel through the Golgi complex before arriving at the cell surface to aid in caveolar formation.", "Caveolae formation is also reversible through disassembly under certain conditions such as increased plasma membrane tension.", "These certain conditions then depend on the type of tissues that are expressing the caveolar function.", "For example, not all tissues that have caveolar proteins have a caveolar structure ie.", "the blood-brain barrier.Though there are many morphological features conserved among caveolae, the functions of each CAV protein are diverse.", "One common feature among caveolins is their hydrophobic stretches of potential hairpin structures that are made of α-helices.", "The insertion of these hairpin-like α-helices forms a caveolae coat which leads to membrane curvature.", "In addition to insertion, caveolins are also capable of oligomerization which further plays a role in membrane curvature.", "Recent studies have also discovered that polymerase I, transcript release factor, and serum deprivation protein response also play a role in the assembly of caveolae.", "Besides caveolae assembly, researchers have also discovered that CAV1 proteins can also influence other endocytic pathways.", "When CAV1 binds to Cdc42, CAV1 inactivates it and regulates Cdc42 activity during membrane trafficking events.=== Mechanisms ===The process of cell uptake depends on the tilt and chirality of constituent molecules to induce membrane budding.", "Since such chiral and tilted lipid molecules are likely to be in a \"raft\" form, researchers suggest that caveolae formation also follows this mechanism since caveolae are also enriched in raft constituents.", "When caveolin proteins bind to the inner leaflet via cholesterol, the membrane starts to bend, leading to spontaneous curvature.", "This effect is due to the force distribution generated when the caveolin oligomer binds to the membrane.", "The force distribution then alters the tension of the membrane which leads to budding and eventually vesicle formation." ], [ "Gallery", "Endocytosis 3.jpg|Stage 1Endocytosis 4.jpg|Stage 2Endocytosis 5.jpg|Stage 3Endocytosis 6.webm|Endocytosis animation (1)Endocytosis 7.webm|Endocytosis animation (2)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Endocytosis at biologyreference.com* Endocytosis - researching endocytic mechanisms at endocytosis.org* Clathrin-mediated endocytosis ASCB Image & Video Library* Types of Endocytosis (Animation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Ezra Abbot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ezra Abbot''' (April 28, 1819, Jackson, MaineMarch 21, 1884, Cambridge, Massachusetts) was an American biblical scholar." ], [ "Life and writings", "Abbot was born at Jackson, Maine, April 28, 1819; son of Ezra and Phebe Abbot.", "He was educated at Phillips Exeter Academy and graduated from Bowdoin College in 1840.In 1847, at the request of Andrews Norton, he went to Cambridge, Massachusetts where he was principal of a public school until 1856.He was assistant librarian of Harvard University from 1856 to 1872, and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalog, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary catalogs with the grouping of the minor topics under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic catalogue.", "From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard Divinity School.Abbot's studies were chiefly in Southwest Asian languages and textual criticism of the New Testament, though his work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life, appended to W. R. Alger's ''History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages'' (1862), and published separately in 1864.Abbot's publications, though always of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, Unitarian controversial treatises, etc.", "However, he took a more conspicuous and personal part in the preparation (with Baptist scholar Horatio Balch Hackett) of the enlarged American edition of Dr. (afterwards Sir) William Smith's ''Dictionary of the Bible'' (1867–1870), to which he contributed more than 400 articles, as well as greatly improving the bibliographical completeness of the work.", "He was an efficient member of the American revision committee for the Revised Version (1881–1885) of the King James Bible, and helped prepare Caspar René Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised Greek New Testament of Constantin von Tischendorf.He was one of the 32 founding members of the Society of Biblical Literature in 1880.His principal single work, representing his scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was ''The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences'' (1880; 2nd ed.", "by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a lecture.", "In spite of the compression due to its form, this work was up to that time probably the ablest defense, based on external evidence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the most complete treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel." ], [ "Honors", "Abbot was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1861.Though a layman, he received the degree of S.T.D.", "from Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D.", "from Edinburgh in 1884." ], [ "Works", "===Books===* - revised by Ezra Abbot* * * ===Journal articles===*" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution'''* Endnote:**See S. J. Barrows, ''Ezra Abbot'' (Cambridge, Mass., 1884).", "*" ], [ "External links", "**** The historical records of Ezra Abbot are in the Harvard Divinity School Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts." ] ]
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[ [ "Edwin Abbott Abbott" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edwin Abbott Abbott''' (20 December 1838 – 12 October 1926) was an English schoolmaster, theologian, and Anglican priest, best known as the author of the novella ''Flatland'' (1884)." ], [ "Biography", "Edwin Abbott Abbott was the eldest son of Edwin Abbott (1808–1882), headmaster of the Philological School, Marylebone, and his wife, Jane Abbott (1806–1882).", "His parents were first cousins.He was born in London and educated at the City of London School and at St John's College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours of his class in classics, mathematics and theology, and became a fellow of his college.", "In particular, he was 1st Smith's prizeman in 1861.In 1862 he took orders.", "After holding masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster of the City of London School in 1865, at the early age of 26.There, he oversaw the education of future Prime Minister H. H. Asquith.", "Abbott was Hulsean lecturer in 1876.He retired in 1889, and devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits.", "Abbott's open-minded inclinations in theology were prominent both in his educational views and in his books.", "His ''Shakespearian Grammar'' (1870) is a permanent contribution to English philology.", "In 1885, he published a life of Francis Bacon.", "His theological writings include three anonymously published religious romances – ''Philochristus'' (1878), where he tried to raise interest in Gospels reading, ''Onesimus'' (1882), and ''Silanus the Christian'' (1908).More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological discussion ''The Kernel and the Husk'' (1886), ''Philomythus'' (1891), his book ''The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman'' (1892), and his article \"The Gospels\" in the ninth edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', embodying a critical view which caused considerable stir in the English theological world.", "He also wrote ''St Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and Miracles'' (1898), ''Johannine Vocabulary'' (1905), and ''Johannine Grammar'' (1906).Abbott also wrote educational textbooks, one being ''Via Latina: A First Latin Book'' which was published in 1880 and distributed around the world within the education system." ], [ "''Flatland''", "''Flatland'' title page, 1884Abbott's best-known work is his 1884 novella ''Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions'' which describes a two-dimensional world and explores the nature of dimensions.", "It has often been categorized as science fiction although it could more precisely be called \"mathematical fiction\".With the advent of modern science fiction from the 1950s to the present day, ''Flatland'' has seen a revival in popularity, especially among science fiction and cyberpunk fans.", "Many works have been inspired by the novella, including novel sequels and short films." ], [ "Bibliography", "* '' Via Latina: A First Latin Book, Including Accidence, Rules of Syntax, Exercises, Vocabularies and Rules for Construing'' (Seeley, Jackson, and Halliday, revised edition: 1882)* '' Shakespearian Grammar: An Attempt to Illustrate Some of the Differences Between Elizabethan and Modern English, for the Use of Schools'' (Macmillan, 1870)* ''Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions'' (Seeley & Co., 1884)* '' Francis Bacon: An Account of His Life and Works'' (Macmillan, 1885)* '' Philochristus: Memoirs of a Disciple of the Lord'' (Macmillan, 1878)* ''Onesimus: Memoirs of a Disciple of St. Paul'' (Macmillan, 1882)* ''The Kernel and the Husk'' (Macmillan, 1886)* '' Philomythus: An Antidote Against Credulity'' (Macmillan, 1891)* '' The Anglican Career of John Henry Newman|Cardinal Newman'' (Macmillan, 1892)* '' St Thomas of Canterbury: His Death and Miracles'' (Adam and Charles Black, 1898)* '' Johannine Vocabulary: A Comparison of the Words of the Fourth Gospel with Those of the Three'' (Adam and Charles Black, 1905)* '' Johannine Grammar'' (Adam and Charles Black, 1906)* '' Silanus the Christian'' (Adam and Charles Black, 1906)* ''The FourFold Gospel: or, A Harmony of The Four Gospels'' in five volumes, 1913-1917** Volume I: Introduction, 1913" ], [ "See also", "*List of Old Citizens" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "* Dictionary of National Biography" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ** *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * ** * ******* Free audiobook narration of Flatland* Online text of Flatland* Full text of A Shakespearian Grammar on the Tufts University Perseus Digital Library* Thomas Banchoff collection of materials relating to Edwin Abbott Abbott at the Brown University John Hay Library" ] ]
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[ [ "Emma Abbott" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emma Abbott''' (December 9, 1850 – January 5, 1891) was an American operatic soprano and impresario known for her pure, clear voice of great flexibility and volume." ], [ "Early life", "Emma Abbott was born in 1850 in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of the struggling Chicago musician Seth Abbott and his wife, Almira (née Palmer).", "As a child, she and her brother George studied singing, piano, guitar and violin with their father.The family moved to Peoria, Illinois, Emma was eight years of age when, she made her first appearance on the stage, singing at a concert given in her father's office in Peoria.", "In 1854, Professor Abbott was unable to find a sufficient number of music students to make ends meet and the family suffered from financial problems.", "To help out, she and George began performing professionally when Emma was nine years old.", "She made her debut as a guitar player and singer in Peoria, Illinois in 1859, with George on the violin, and was teaching guitar by age thirteen." ], [ "Career", "Emma AbbottIn 1866, she joined an itinerant concert troupe and toured the country.", "While performing on the road she met and was befriended by Clara Louise Kellogg.", "Upon hearing Abbott in a concert in Toledo, Kellogg made it a point to meet her and encourage her to pursue an opera career and gave her a letter of introduction.", "Consequently, Abbott studied in New York City under Achille Errani, and made her concert début there in December 1871.In 1872, Abbott went abroad to study with Antonio Sangiovanni in Milan.", "This was followed by further studies with Mathilde Marchesi, Pierre François Wartel and Enrico Delle Sedie in Paris.", "She appeared in several productions in Paris, earning rave reviews for her fine soprano voice.", "She was awarded a contract with the Royal Opera in London and made her début at Covent Garden as Marie in ''La Fille du régiment'' in 1876.However, her contract was cancelled shortly thereafter when she refused to sing Violetta from Verdi's ''La Traviata'' on moral grounds.", "That same year she secretly married Eugene Wetherell (d. 1889) and they returned to the United States, where she remained for the rest of her life.===Abbott English Opera Company===On February 23, 1877, Abbott made her American operatic début in New York, once again portraying Marie.", "In 1878 she and her husband Eugene Wetherell, organized an opera company known by her name (the Emma Abbott Grand English Opera Company), which toured extensively throughout the United States.", "It was the first opera company formed by a woman in the United States.", "Her husband ran the business end of the company and she managed the artistic side, often starring in the productions.The company garnered a reputation among the public for quality productions and was quite successful.", "Among the notable roles that Abbott sang with the company are Juliette in Gounod's ''Roméo et Juliette'', Virginia in ''Paul et Virginie'', Josephine in ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'', the title role in Flotow's ''Martha'', Amina in Bellini's ''La Sonnambula'', and Violetta in ''La Traviata'', a role to which she apparently no longer objected, however, instead of singing ''Addio del passato'', she made Violetta expire with ''Nearer, my God, to Thee''.Throughout her career, she retained artistic control over her troupe, which sometimes numbered 60.Although the company's repertoire included works from the French, Italian and English operatic literatures, they always performed in English.", "Many of the works were abridged and interpolated songs were commonplace.", "For this reason the company and Abbott were not popular with many music critics who were unhappy with the changes to the standard repertoire.", "However, the company was incredibly popular with the public and was consistently financially successful.", "Abbott herself became known among Americans as 'the people's prima donna'." ], [ "Death", "Abbott continued performing up until her sudden death from pneumonia in Salt Lake City, Utah in 1891, aged 40.She is buried at Oak Grove Cemetery in Gloucester, Massachusetts along with her husband." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * ''The life and professional career of Emma Abbott'' By Martin, Sadie E.| 1891* ''Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607–1896.''", "Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1967.", "* ''Opera and the Golden West: The Past, Present, and Future of Opera in the U.S.A.'' By DiGaetani, John L., 1994.", "* ''Eugene Field & His Age'' By Saum, Lewis O., 2001.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * portrait and short bio" ] ]
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[ [ "Epimetheus (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Epimetheus''' was a Titan in Greek mythology.", "'''Epimetheus''' may also refer to:*Epimetheus (moon), a moon of Saturn*1810 Epimetheus, an asteroid" ], [ "See also", "* ''Epimitheus'', a ballet by Russell Ducker premiered by the Barcelona Ballet" ] ]
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[ [ "Emperor Shōmu" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 45th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Shōmu's reign spanned the years 724 through 749, during the Nara period." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (''imina'') is not clearly known, but he was known as Oshi-hiraki Toyosakura-hiko-no-mikoto.Shōmu was the son of Emperor Monmu and Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito.Shōmu had five consorts and six Imperial sons and daughters.===Events of Shōmu's reign===Shōmu was still a child at the time of his father's death; thus, his grandmother, Empress Gemmei, and aunt, Empress Gensho, occupied the throne before he acceded.", "* '''724''' (''Yōrō 8, 1st month''): In the 9th year of Genshō''-tennō''s reign (元正天皇九年), the empress abdicated; and her nephew received the succession (‘‘senso’’).", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Shōmu is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’).", "* '''January 31, 724''' (''Jinki 1''): The era name is changed to mark the accession of Emperor Shōmu.", "* '''735–737''': A major smallpox epidemic raged throughout Japan, incurring adult mortality rates of about 25% to 35%.Shōmu continued to reside in the Hezei Palace.Shōmu is known as the first emperor whose consort was not born into the imperial household.", "His consort Kōmyō was a non-royal Fujiwara commoner.", "A ritsuryō office was created for the queen-consort, the ''Kogogushiki''; and this bureaucratic innovation continued into the Heian period.====Emperor Shōmu's tour to the eastern provinces====While battle maneuvers of the Fujiwara no Hirotsugu Rebellion were still underway, in Tenpyō 12 10th month (November, 740) Emperor Shōmu left the capital at Heijō-kyō (Nara) and traveled eastward via Horikoshi (堀越頓宮; today Tsuge; 10th month, 29th day: November 22), Nabari (10th month, 30th day: November 23), Ao (安保頓宮; today Aoyama ; 11th month 1st day: November 24) to Kawaguchi in Ichishi District, Ise Province (today part of Tsu, formerly part of Hakusan) where he retreated together with his court to a temporary palace.", "One of his generals was left in command of the capital.", "Presumably Shōmu feared Fujiwara supporters in Nara and was hoping to quell potential uprisings in other parts of the country with his presence.", "After four days travelling through heavy rain and thick mud, the party reached Kawaguchi on Tenpyō 12 11th month, 2nd day (25 November, 740) A couple of days later, they learn of Hirotsugu's execution and that the rebellion had been quelled.Despite the good news, Shōmu did not return to Heijō-kyō immediately, but stayed in Kawaguchi until Tenpyō 12 11th month, 11th day (4 December, 740).", "He continued his journey east, then north via Mino Province and back west along the shores of Lake Biwa to Kuni in Yamashiro Province (today in Kizugawa) which he reached on Tenpyō 12 12th month, 15th day (6 January, 741).", "Places passed along the way included Akasaka (赤坂頓宮; today Suzuka; 11th m. 14th d.: Dec 7）, Asake district (朝明郡; today Yokkaichi; 11th m. 20th d.: Dec 13）, Ishiura (石占頓宮; today Tado; 11th m. 25th d.: Dec 18）, Tagi district (当伎郡; today Yōrō; 11th m. 26th d.: Dec 19）, Fuwa (不破頓宮; today Tarui; 12th m. 1st d.: Dec 23）, Yokokawa (横川頓宮; today Santō or Maihara; 12th m. 6th d.: Dec 28), Inukami (犬上頓宮; today Hikone; 12th m. 7th d.: Dec 29）, Gamō district (蒲生郡; today near Yōkaichi; 12th m. 9th d.: Dec 31）, Yasu (野洲頓宮; today Yasu or Moriyama; 12th m. 10th d.: Jan 1）, Awazu (禾津頓宮; today Ōtsu; 12th m. 11th d.： Jan 2）, Tamanoi (玉井頓宮; today Yamashina-ku, Kyoto; 12th m. 14th d.）.", "Situated among the hills and near a river north of Nara, Kuni was easily defensible.", "In addition, the area was linked with the Minister of the Right, Tachibana no Moroe, while Nara was a center of the Fujiwara clan.", "On Tenpyō 12 12th month, 15 day (6 January, 741) Shōmu proclaimed a new capital at Kuni-kyō.===Timeline===Tōdai-ji* '''724''' (''Jinki 1''): Emperor Shōmu rises to throne.", "* '''740''' (''Tenpyō 12, 8th month''): In the Imperial court in Nara, Kibi no Makibi and Genbō conspire to discredit Fujiwara no Hirotsugu, who is ''Dazai shoni'' in Kyushu.", "* '''740''' (''Tenpyō 12, 9th month''): Hirotsugu rebels in reaction to the growing influence of Genbō and others.", "* '''740''' (''Tenpyō 12, 9th month''): Under the command of Ōno no Azumabito, an Imperial army of 17,000 is sent to Kyushu to stop the potential disturbance.", "* '''740''' (''Tenpyō 12, 10th month''): Hirotsugu is decisively beaten in battle; and he is beheaded in Hizen Province.", "* '''740''' (''Tenpyō 12''): The capital is moved to Kuni-kyō* '''741''' (''Tenpyō 13''): The Emperor calls for nationwide establishment of provincial temples.", "Provincial temples (''\"kokubunji\"'') and provincial nunneries (''\"kokubunniji\"'') were established throughout the country.", "The more formal name for these ''\"kokubunji\"'' was ''\"konkomyo-shitenno-gokoku no tera\"'' (meaning \"temples for the protection of the country by the four guardian deities of the golden light\").", "The more formal name for these ''\"bokubunniji\"'' was ''\"hokke-metuzai no tera\"'' (meaning \"nunneries for eliminating sin by means of the Lotus Sutra\").", "* '''743''' (''Tenpyō 15''): The Emperor issues a rescript to build the ''Daibutsu'' (Great Buddha), later to be completed and placed in Tōdai-ji, Nara.", "* '''743''' (''Tenpyō 15''): The law of Perpetual Ownership of Cultivated Lands (墾田永代私財法) issued* '''744''' (''Tenpyō 16''): In the spring, the court was moved to Naniwa-kyō which then became the new capital.", "* '''745''' (''Tenpyō 17''): The Emperor declares by himself Shigaraki-kyō the capital* '''745''' (''Tenpyō 17''): The capital returns to Heijō-kyō, construction of the Great Buddha resumes.", "* '''749''' (''Tenpyō 21, 4th month''): Shōmu, accompanied by the empress, their children, and all the great men and women of the court, went in procession to Todai-ji.", "The emperor stood before the statue of the Buddha and proclaimed himself to be a disciple of the three jewels, which are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.", "* '''749''' (''Tenpyō 21, 7th month''): After a 25-year reign, Emperor Shōmu abdicates in favor of his daughter, Princess Takano, who would become Empress Kōken.", "After abdication, Shōmu took the tonsure, thus becoming the first retired emperor to become a Buddhist priest.", "Empress Komyo, following her husband's example, also took holy vows in becoming a Buddhist nun.", "* '''752''' (''Tenpyō-shōhō 4, 4th month''): The Eye-Opening Ceremony, presided over by Rōben and celebrating the completion of the Great Buddha, is held at Tōdai-ji.===Legacy===Shōmu, a devout Buddhist, is best remembered for commissioning, in 743, the sixteen-meter high statue of the Vairocana Buddha (the ''Daibutsu'') in Tōdai-ji of Nara.", "At the time, this was such a massive undertaking that later chroniclers accuse him of having completely exhausted the country's reserves of bronze and precious metals.", "In 752, the Shōmu held the Eye-opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha.Earlier in 741, he established the system of provincial temples, making this the closest anyone ever came to declaring Japan a Buddhist nation.", "In addition he commissioned the observance of the ohigan holiday for both spring and autumnal equinox.Emperor Shōmu died at age 56.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor ShōmuThe actual site of Shōmu's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Shōmu's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Sahoyama no minami no misasagi''.", "The tomb site can be visited today in Horenji-cho, Tenri City near Nara City.", "The Imperial tomb of Shōmu's consort, Empress Kōmyō, is located nearby.===Shōsōin===The Shōsō-in (正倉院) is the treasure house of Tōdai-ji Temple in Nara, Japan.It houses about 9.000 artifacts connected to Emperor Shōmu (701–756) and Empress Kōmyō (701–760), as well as arts and crafts of the Tempyō era of Japanese history.Its general importance derives from the fact, that it may be called an ark of Tang dynasty period cultural relics from Japan as well as from the continent: furniture, games, music instruments, clothing/accessories, weaponry, buddhist objects and pieces of writing.See main entry.", "===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Shōmu's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Daijō-daijin'' (720–735), Toneri''-shinnō'' (舎人親王) (9th son of Emperor Tenmu).", "* ''Daijō-daijin'' (737–745), Suzuka''-ō'' (鈴鹿王) (son of Prince Takechi).", "* ''Sadaijin'' (724–729), Nagaya''-ō'' (長屋王) (son of Prince Takechi).", "* ''Sadaijin'' (743–756), Tachibana no Moroe (橘諸兄) (formerly Katsuragi''-ō'', Prince Katsuragi) (half brother of Empress Kōmyō) .", "* ''Udaijin'' (734–737), Fujiwara no Muchimaro (藤原武智麻呂) (son of Fujiwara no Fuhito).", "* ''Naidaijin'', Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成) (son of Fujiwara no Muchimaro).", "* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Fusasaki (藤原房前) (son of Fujiwara no Fuhito)." ], [ "Eras of Shōmu's life", "The years of Shōmu's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "** ''Jinki'' (724–729)* ''Tenpyō'' (729–749)* ''Tenpyō-kanpō'' (749)* ''Tenpyō-shōhō'' (749–757)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "*Empress (Kōgō): Fujiwara Asukabehime (藤原 安宿媛), Fujiwara no Fuhito’s daughter** Second Daughter: Imperial Princess Abe (阿倍内親王) later Empress Kōken**First Son: Prince Motoi (基王, 727–728)*''Bunin'': Agatainukai no Hirotoji (県犬養広刀自, d.762), Agatainukai no Morokoshi's daughter**First Daughter: Imperial Princess Inoe (井上内親王), married to Emperor Kōnin**Third Daughter: Imperial Princess Fuwa (不破内親王, 723-795), married to Prince Shioyaki**Second Son: Imperial Prince Asaka (安積親王, 728–744)*''Bunin'': Nan-dono (南殿, d.748), Fujiwara no Muchimaro’s daughter*''Bunin'': Hoku-dono (北殿, d.760), Fujiwara no Fusasaki’s daughter*''Bunin'': Tachibana-no-Hirooka no Konakachi (橘広岡古那可智, d.759), Tachibana no Sai's daughter" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* Imperial cult* List of Emperors of Japan" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; *** Piggott, Joan R.", "(19970.", "''The Emergence of Japanese Kingship''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Vairocana Buddha at the temple of Todaiji* Photographs of the mausolea of Empress Kōmyō and Emperor Shōmu" ] ]
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[ [ "Emperor Kanmu" ], [ "Introduction", ", or '''Kammu''', was the 50th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Kammu reigned from 781 to 806, and it was during his reign that the scope of the emperor's powers reached its peak." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "thumbKammu's personal name (''imina'') was .", "He was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe (later known as Emperor Kōnin), and was born prior to Shirakabe's ascension to the throne.", "According to the , Yamabe's mother, Yamato no Niigasa (later called Takano no Niigasa), was a 10th generation descendant of Muryeong of Baekje (462-523).After his father became emperor, Kammu's half-brother, Prince Osabe was appointed to the rank of crown prince.", "His mother was Princess Inoe, a daughter of Emperor Shōmu; but instead of Osabe, it was Kammu who was later named to succeed their father.", "After Inoe and Prince Osabe were confined and then died in 775, Osabe's sister – Kammu's half-sister Princess Sakahito – became Kammu's wife.", "Later, when he ascended to the throne in 781, Kammu appointed his young brother, Prince Sawara, whose mother was Takano no Niigasa, as crown prince.", "Hikami no Kawatsugu, a son of Emperor Tenmu's grandson Prince Shioyaki and Shōmu's daughter Fuwa, attempted to carry out a coup d'état in 782, but it failed and Kawatsugu and his mother were sent into exile.", "In 785 Sawara was expelled and died in exile.The Nara period saw the appointment of the first ''shōgun'', Ōtomo no Otomaro by Emperor Kammu in 794 CE.", "The shōgun was the military dictator of Japan with near absolute power over territories via the military.", "Otomaro was declared \"Sei-i Taishōgun\" which means \"Barbarian-subduing Great General\".", "Emperor Kammu granted the second title of shōgun to Sakanoue no Tamuramaro for subduing the Emishi in northern Honshu.Kammu had 16 empresses and consorts, and 32 imperial sons and daughters.", "Among them, three sons would eventually ascend to the imperial throne: Emperor Heizei, Emperor Saga and Emperor Junna.", "Some of his descendants (known as the ''Kammu Taira'' or ''Kammu Heishi'') took the Taira hereditary clan title, and in later generations became prominent warriors.", "Examples include Taira no Masakado, Taira no Kiyomori, and (with a further surname expansion) the Hōjō clan.", "The ''waka'' poet Ariwara no Narihira was one of his grandsons.Kammu is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates , in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Kammu's mausoleum.===Events of Kammu's life===Kammu was an active emperor who attempted to consolidate government hierarchies and functions.", "Kammu appointed Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758–811) to lead a military expedition against the Emishi.", "* '''737''': Kammu was born.", "* '''773''': Received the title of crown prince.", "* '''April 30, 781'''(): In the 11th year of Kōnin's reign, he abdicated; and the succession was received by his son Kammu.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kammu is said to have ascended to the throne.", "During his reign, the capital of Japan was moved from Nara (Heijō-kyō) to Nagaoka-kyō in 784.Shortly thereafter, the capital would be moved again in 794.", "* '''July 28, 782''' (): The ''sadaijin'' Fujiwara no Uona was involved in an incident that resulted in his removal from office and exile to Kyushi.", "Claiming illness, Uona was permitted to return to the capital where he died; posthumously, the order of banishment was burned and his office restored.", "In the same general time frame, Fujiwara no Tamaro was named Udaijin.", "During these days in which the offices of ''sadaijin'' and ''udaijin'' were vacant, the major counselors (the ''dainagon'') and the emperor assumed responsibilities and powers which would have been otherwise delegated.", "* '''783''' (): The ''udaijin'' Tamaro died at the age of 62 years.", "* '''783''' (): Fujiwara no Korekimi became the new ''udaijin'' to replace the late Fujiwara no Tamaro.", "* '''793''' (): Under the leadership of Dengyō, construction began on the Enryaku Temple.", "* '''794''': The capital was relocated again, this time to Heian-kyō, where the palace was named .", "* '''November 17, 794''' (): The emperor traveled by carriage from Nara to the new capital of Heian-kyō in a grand procession.", "This marks the beginning of the Heian period.", "* '''794''' appointed Ōtomo no Otomaro as the first Shōgun \"Sei-i Taishōgun—\"Barbarian-subduing Great General\", together with Sakanoue no Tamuramaro subdues the Emishi in Northern Honshu.", "* '''806''': Kammu died at the age of 70.Kammu's reign lasted for 25 years.===Eras of Kammu's reign===The years of Kammu's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (''nengō'').", "* ''Ten'ō'' (781–82)* ''Enryaku'' (782–806)" ], [ "Politics", "=== Domestic relations ===Earlier Imperial sponsorship of Buddhism, beginning with Prince Shōtoku (574–622), had led to a general politicization of the clergy, along with an increase in intrigue and corruption.", "In 784 Kammu shifted his capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō in a move that was said to be designed to encumber the powerful Nara Buddhist establishments out of state politics—while the capital moved, the major Buddhist temples, and their officials, stayed put.", "Indeed, there was a steady stream of edicts issued from 771 right through the period of Kūkai's studies which, for instance, sought to limit the number of Buddhist priests, and the building of temples.", "However, the move was to prove disastrous and was followed by a series of natural disasters including the flooding of half the city.", "In 785 the principal architect of the new capital, and royal favourite, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu, was assassinated.Meanwhile, Kammu's armies were pushing back the boundaries of his empire.", "This led to an uprising, and in 789 a substantial defeat for Kammu's troops.", "Also in 789 there was a severe drought and famine—the streets of the capital were clogged with the sick, and people avoiding being drafted into the military, or into forced labour.", "Many disguised themselves as Buddhist priests for the same reason.", "Consequently, in 792 Kammu abolished national conscription, replacing it with a system wherein each province formed a militia from the local gentry, however this system vitiated the authority of the Emperor and led to proliferation of private armies.", "Then in 794 Kammu suddenly shifted the capital again, this time to Heian-kyō, which is modern day Kyoto.", "The new capital was started early the previous year, but the change was abrupt and led to even more confusion amongst the populace.", "Kammu's rule witnessed the frontiers of Japan expanding into Izawa and Shiba, under the command of a preeminent commander, Tamura Maro.Politically Kammu shored up his rule by changing the syllabus of the university.", "Confucian ideology still provided the ''raison d'être'' for the Imperial government.", "In 784 Kammu authorised the teaching of a new course based on the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' based on two newly imported commentaries: ''Kung-yang'' and ''Ku-liang''.", "These commentaries used political rhetoric to promote a state in which the Emperor, as \"Son of Heaven\", should extend his sphere of influence to barbarous lands, thereby gladdening the people.", "In 798 the two commentaries became required reading at the government university.=== Foreign relations ======= China ====During his reign, Kammu sponsored the travels of the monks Saichō and Kūkai to China, from where they returned to found the Japanese branches of, respectively, Tendai and Shingon Buddhism.==== Korea ====Muryeong of Baekje, a distant ancestor of Emperor Kanmu and his descendants.Emperor Kanmu showed particular interest and favoritism towards the Korean kingdoms, allowing many immigrants from the peninsula to arrive in Japan and form their own clans.", "He was also very open-minded towards foreign technologies and religions during the Kofun period.He was specifically interested in Baekje (and to an extent, Goguryeo) as his mother was of Baekje descent.Kammu's fixation towards his Baekje heritage became prominent as his mother was not of the Imperial line, but was in fact a royal consort to Emperor Kōnin on top of coming from a clan of foreign (Korean) origin, which could have negatively affected his ascension as emperor and be deemed illegitimate by some.", "To circumvent this, Kammu focused heavily on the mythological aspects of his mother's ancestor, Muryeong of Baekje and Muryeong's own ancestor, Chumo of Goguryeo, emphasizing Chumo's heritage as a grandchild of the god Habaek and Kammu's own lineage that continued it claiming that he was part of the \"heavenly lineage\".", "He mentions this in ''Shoku Nihongi'' when honoring his late mother.In 790, Emperor Kanmu issued a rescript that treated the Kudara no Konikishi clan (a fellow Japanese clan of Baekje descent) as \"relatives by marriage\".", "It was related to the fact that the emperor's mother belonged to the Baekje-originated Yamato no Fuhito clan, who then claimed its roots in the Baekje royal family.", "In addition, according to the Shoku Nihongi, Takano no Niigasa was a 10th-generation descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje through his son Prince Junda (Nihon Shoki, chapter 17), making Emperor Kammu an 11th-generation descendant of Muryeong through maternal lineage.", "The Kudara no Konikishi clan fell under the influence of the southern branch of the Fujiwara clan after Kudara no Konikishi Myōshin had married Fujiwara no Tsugutada around 754.Emperor Kanmu's rescript of 790 aimed to support Myōshin's appointment as lady-in-waiting (尚侍), the highest post among court ladies, due to her similar background with Kammu.A 14th century book called \"''Jinnō Shōtōki''\" by Kitabatake Chikafusa states that a record that claimed of Japan's origin with Korea was lost during Kammu's time, which indicates that such intentions were highly regarded during Emperor Kanmu's reign up until the book's disappearance.It can be deduced that Kammu advocated his Korean ancestry for both political and social reasons at the time, which was later officially recognized by the government coming from the Emperor of Japan." ], [ "Legacy", "In 2001, Japan's emperor Akihito told reporters \"I, on my part, feel a certain kinship with Korea\", given the fact that it is recorded in the ''Chronicles of Japan'' that the Emperor Kammu's (737-803) mother was one of the descendant of King Muryong of Baekje (462-523).", "It was the first time that a Japanese emperor publicly referred to any Korean ancestry in the imperial line.", "According to the ''Shoku Nihongi'', Emperor Kammu's mother, Takano no Niigasa (720–90), is a descendant of Prince Junda, son of Muryeong, who died in Japan in 513 (''Nihon Shoki'', Chapter 17)." ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Kammu's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sadaijin'', Fujiwara no Uona (藤原魚名), 781–82.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Fujiwara no Tamaro (藤原田麿), 783.", "* ''Udaijin'', Ōnakatomi no Kiyomaro (大中臣清麿), 771–81* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Tamaro (藤原田麿), 782–83.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Korekimi (藤原是公), 783–89.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Tsuginawa (藤原継縄), 790–96.", "* ''Udaijin'', Miwa ōkimi or Miwa oh (神王), 798–806* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麻呂) 756–812, 806–12.", "* ''Dainagon''When the daughter of a ''chūnagon'' became the favored consort of the Crown Prince Ate (later known as Heizei''-tennō''), her father's power and position in court was affected.", "Kammu disapproved of Fujiwara no Kusuko, daughter of Fujiwara no Tanetsugu; and Kammu had her removed from his son's household.", "* ''Chūnagon'', Fujiwara no Tadanushi" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Emperor Kammu's Imperial family included 36 children.", "*Empress (''Kōgō''): Fujiwara no Otomuro (藤原乙牟漏), Fujiwara no Yoshitsugu's daughter**First Son: Imperial Prince Ate (安殿親王) later Emperor Heizei**Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Kamino (賀美能親王/神野親王) later Emperor Saga**Imperial Princess Koshi (高志内親王; 789–809), married to Emperor Junna*Madame ''(Bunin later Kōtaigō)'': Fujiwara no Tabiko (藤原旅子), Fujiwara no Momokawa's daughter**Fifth Son: Imperial Prince Ōtomo (大伴親王) later Emperor Junna*''Consort (Hi):'' Imperial Princess Sakahito (酒人内親王), Emperor Kōnin's daughter**First Daughter: Imperial Princess Asahara (朝原内親王; 779–817), 12th ''Saiō'' in Ise Grand Shrine (782–before 796), and married to Emperor Heizei*Madame (''Bunin'''')'': Fujiwara no Yoshiko (藤原吉子; d.807), Fujiwara no Korekimi's daughter**Second Son: Imperial Prince Iyo (伊予親王; 783–807)*Madame ''(Bunin)'' : Tajihi no Mamune (多治比真宗; 769–823), Tajihi no Nagano's daughter**Sixth Son: Imperial Prince Kazurahara (葛原親王; 786–853)**Ninth Son: Imperial Prince Sami (佐味親王; 793–825)**Tenth Son: Imperial Prince Kaya (賀陽親王; 794–871)**Imperial Prince Ōno (大野親王/大徳親王; 798–803)**Imperial Princess Inaba (因幡内親王; d.824)**Imperial Princess Anou (安濃内親王; d.841)*Madame ''(Bunin)'': Fujiwara no Oguso (藤原小屎), Fujiwara no Washitori's daughter**Third Son: Imperial Prince Manta (万多親王; 788–830)*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'' : Ki no Otoio (紀乙魚; d.840), Ki no Kotsuo's daughter*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'' : Kudarao no Kyōhō (百済王教法; d.840), Kudara no Shuntetsu's daughter*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'' : Tachibana no Miiko (橘御井子), daughter of Tachibana no Irii (橘入居)**Imperial Princess Sugawara (菅原内親王; d.825)**Sixteenth Daughter: Imperial Princess Kara (賀楽内親王; d.874)*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'' : Fujiwara no Nakako (藤原仲子), Fujiwara no Ieyori's daughter*Court Lady (''Nyōgo'') : Tachibana no Tsuneko (橘常子; 788–817), Tachibana no Shimadamaro's daughter**Ninth Daughter: Imperial Princess Ōyake (大宅内親王; d.849), married to Emperor Heizei*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Fujiwara no ''Shōshi'' (藤原正子), Fujiwara no Kiyonari's daughter*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Sakanoue no Matako (坂上全子, d.790), Sakanoue no Karitamaro's daughter**Twelfth Daughter: Imperial Princess Takatsu (高津内親王; d.841), married to Emperor Saga*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Sakanoue no Haruko (坂上春子, d.834), Sakanoue no Tamuramaro's daughter**Twelfth Son: Imperial Prince Fujii (葛井親王; 800–850)**Imperial Princess Kasuga (春日内親王; d.833)*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Fujiwara no Kawako (藤原河子, d.838), Fujiwara no Ōtsugu's daughter**Thirteenth Son: Imperial Prince Nakano (仲野親王; 792–867)**Thirteenth Princess: Imperial Princess Ate (安勅内親王; d.855)**Imperial Princess Ōi (大井内親王; d.865)**Imperial Princess Ki (紀内親王; 799–886)**Imperial Princess Yoshihara (善原内親王; d.863)*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Fujiwara no Azumako (藤原東子, d.816), Fujiwara no Tanetsugu's daughter**Imperial Princess Kannabi (甘南備内親王, 800–817), Married to Emperor Heizei*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Fujiwara no ''Heishi/Nanshi'' (藤原平子/南子, d.833), Fujiwara no Takatoshi's daughter**Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Ito (伊都内親王), married to Prince Abo*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Ki no Wakako (紀若子), Ki no Funamori's daughter**Seventh Son: Imperial Prince Asuka (明日香親王, d.834)*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Fujiwara no Kamiko (藤原上子), Fujiwara no Oguromaro's daughter**Imperial Princess Shigeno (滋野内親王, 809–857)*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Tachibana no Tamurako (橘田村子), Tachibana no Irii's daughter**Imperial Princess Ikenoe (池上内親王, d.868)*Court Lady ''(Nyōgo)'': Kawakami no Manu (河上好), Nishikibe no Haruhito's daughter**Imperial Prince Sakamoto (坂本親王, 793–818)*Court Lady (''Nyōgo''): Kudarao no Kyōnin (百済王教仁), Kudara no Bukyō's daughter**Imperial Prince Ōta (大田親王, d.808)*Court Lady (''Nyōgo''): Kudarao no Jōkyō (百済王貞香), Kudara no Kyōtoku's daughter**Imperial Princess Suruga (駿河内親王, 801–820)*Court Lady (''Nyōgo''): Nakatomi no Toyoko (中臣豊子), Nakatomi no Ōio's daughter**Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess Fuse (布勢内親王, d.812), 13th Saiō in Ise Shrine, 797–806*Court lady (''Nyoju''): Tajihi no Toyotsugu (多治比豊継), Tajihi no Hironari's daughter**Nagaoka no Okanari (長岡岡成, d.848), removed from the Imperial Family by receiving the family name from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 787*Court Lady (''Nyoju''):: Kudara no Yōkei (百済永継), Asukabe no Natomaro's daughter**Yoshimine no Yasuyo (良岑安世, 785–830), removed from the Imperial Family by receiving the family name from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 802" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Heian-kyō* Heian Shrine* Kammu Seamount" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Annales des empereurs du Japon'' (''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran'').", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]
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