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[ [ "Elizabeth I" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elizabeth I''' (7 September 153324 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603.She was the last monarch of the House of Tudor.Elizabeth was the only surviving child of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed when Elizabeth was two years old.", "Anne's marriage to Henry was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate.", "Henry restored her to the line of succession when she was ten, via the Third Succession Act 1543.After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to a Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, the Catholic Mary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary.", "Edward's will was set aside within weeks of his death and Mary became queen, deposing and executing Jane.", "During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel.", "She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.", "One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor.", "This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England.", "It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did, and because of this she is sometimes referred to as the \"'''Virgin Queen'''\".", "She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen of Scots.In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and siblings had been.", "One of her mottoes was (\"I see and keep silent\").", "In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution.", "After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570, which in theory released English Catholics from allegiance to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service, run by Francis Walsingham.", "Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain.", "She half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland.", "By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain.As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity.", "A cult of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day.", "Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era.", "The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, and for the defeat of the Spanish Armada.", "Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, who enjoyed more than her fair share of luck.", "Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity.", "Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer (\"Gloriana\") and a dogged survivor (\"Good Queen Bess\") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.", "After the short, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense of national identity." ], [ "Early life", "Elizabeth's parents, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.", "Anne was executed within three years of Elizabeth's birth.Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace on 7 September 1533 and was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Lady Elizabeth Howard.", "She was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy.", "Her mother was Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn.", "At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the English throne.", "Her elder half-sister Mary had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession.", "She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset.", "A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the infant by her uncle George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes.", "Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession.", "Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour.", "Queen Jane died the next year shortly after the birth of their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent to the throne.", "Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.A rare portrait of a teenage Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to William Scrots.", "It was painted for her father in 1546.Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was \"as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life\".", "Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine \"Kat\" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565.Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish.", "By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian.", "Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.", "By the age of 12, she was able to translate her stepmother Catherine Parr's religious work ''Prayers or Meditations'' from English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift.", "From her teenage years and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin and Greek by numerous classical authors, including the ''Pro Marcello'' of Cicero, the ''De consolatione philosophiae'' of Boethius, a treatise by Plutarch, and the ''Annals'' of Tacitus.", "A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed analysis of the handwriting and paper was undertaken.After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.", "Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.", "By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation.", "At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish, and Irish languages in addition to those mentioned above.", "The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she \"possessed these languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue\".", "Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer." ], [ "Thomas Seymour", "Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, may have sexually abused her.Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age of nine.", "Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of Lord Protector Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset.", "The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea.", "There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life.", "Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her, and slapping her on the buttocks.", "Elizabeth rose early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits.", "Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in.", "Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown \"into a thousand pieces\".", "However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs.", "In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person.", "When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.", "Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband.", "She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and \"comfort him in his sorrow\", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need comfort.In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of conspiring to depose his brother Somerset as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.", "Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing.", "Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, \"I do see it in her face that she is guilty\".", "Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549." ], [ "Reign of Mary I", "Mary I and Philip, during whose reign Elizabeth was heir presumptiveThe Old Palace at Hatfield House in Hertfordshire, where Elizabeth lived during Mary's reignEdward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15.His will ignored the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France.", "Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.", "On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long.", "Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform.", "Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Philip of Spain, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic.", "Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.In January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was soon suppressed.", "Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London.", "Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.", "Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her.", "Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.", "Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including William Paget, Baron Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her.", "Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Henry Bedingfeld.", "Crowds cheered her all along the way.On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.", "If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply.", "When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child.", "Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.", "She was a better ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the Dauphin of France.", "When his wife fell ill in 1558, Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.", "This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had returned to live in October 1555.By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government.", "Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558, and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November." ], [ "Accession", "Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with Tudor roses and trimmed with ermineElizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance.", "The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval political theology of the sovereign's \"two bodies\": the body natural and the body politic:As her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour.", "Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were \"wonderfully ravished\".", "The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer John Dee, Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey.", "She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.", "Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry." ], [ "Church settlement", "The ''Pelican Portrait'' by Nicholas Hilliard.", "The pelican was thought to nourish its young with its own blood and served to depict Elizabeth as the \"mother of the Church of England\".Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars.", "She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief.Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England.", "The queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.", "As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments.The House of Commons backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords, particularly from the bishops.", "Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.", "This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers.", "Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear.", "The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559.All public officials were forced to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters by Mary.", "At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of the 1559 ''Book of Common Prayer'' (an adapted version of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme." ], [ "Marriage question", "From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom.", "Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear.", "Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships.", "She considered several suitors until she was about fifty.", "Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.", "While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.", "However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.===Robert Dudley===miniatures of Elizabeth and Leicester, , by Nicholas Hilliard.", "Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death.In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley.", "It was said that his wife Amy was suffering from a \"malady in one of her breasts\" and that the queen would like to marry Robert if his wife should die.", "By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England: \"There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert.\"", "Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's inquest finding of accident, many people suspected her husband of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen.", "Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time.", "However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.", "There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade.", "Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself.", "She raised Dudley to the peerage as Earl of Leicester in 1564.In 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred.", "Still, Dudley always \"remained at the centre of Elizabeth's emotional life\", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.", "He died shortly after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked \"his last letter\" in her handwriting.===Foreign candidates===Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.", "She turned down the hand of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.", "Earlier in Elizabeth's life a Danish match for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, suggested a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but the negotiations had abated in 1551.In the years around 1559 a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered, and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in late 1559.Elizabeth was engaged for a time to Francis, Duke of Anjou.", "The queen called him her \"frog\", finding him \"not so deformed\" as she had been led to expect.For several years she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.", "By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated.", "Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Duke of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.", "This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands.", "Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, and wore a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: \"If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married\".", "Later in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Parliament.", "Members urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death.", "She refused to do either.", "In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566.Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor.", "William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem.", "For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.", "Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that \"a second person, as I have been\" had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor.===Virginity===Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity related to that of the Virgin Mary.", "In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman.", "At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, \"And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin\".", "Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth.", "Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon.", "Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection.", "In 1599, she spoke of \"all my husbands, my good people\".", "''The Procession Picture'', c. 1600, showing Elizabeth I borne along by her courtiersThis claim of virginity was not universally accepted.", "Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in \"filthy lust\" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body.", "Henry IV of France said that one of the great questions of Europe was \"whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no\".A central issue, when it comes to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the queen ever consummated her love affair with Robert Dudley.", "In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments.", "In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell.In 1587, a young man calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast of Spain under suspicion of being a spy.", "The man claimed to be the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being consistent with birth during the 1561 illness.", "He was taken to Madrid for investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and secretary to King Philip II.", "Three letters exist today describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be the story of his life, from birth in the royal palace to the time of his arrival in Spain.", "However, this failed to convince the Spanish: Englefield admitted to King Philip that Arthur's \"claim at present amounts to nothing\", but suggested that \"he should not be allowed to get away, but ... kept very secure.\"", "The king agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again.", "Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as \"impossible\", and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy." ], [ "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Mary, Queen of Scots, who was considered by her French relatives to be rightful Queen of England instead of Elizabeth.Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there.", "She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne.", "Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret.", "Mary boasted being \"the nearest kinswoman she hath\".", "Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north.", "When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.", "Mary refused to ratify the treaty.In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned.", "Both proved unenthusiastic, and in 1565, Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the English throne.", "The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth.", "Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell.", "Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband.", "Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle.", "The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James VI, who had been born in 1566.James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant.", "Mary escaped in 1568 but after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth.", "Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch, but she and her council instead chose to play safe.", "Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.===Catholic cause===Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's spymaster, uncovered several plots against her life.Mary was soon the focus for rebellion.", "In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, and put her on the English throne.", "After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.", "In the belief that the revolt had been successful, Pope Pius V issued a bull in 1570, titled ''Regnans in Excelsis'', which declared \"Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime\" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.", "Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication.", "The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.", "In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with \"the intent\" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, carrying the death penalty.", "From the 1570s missionary priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause of the \"reconversion of England\".", "Many suffered execution, engendering a cult of martyrdom.", "''Regnans in Excelsis'' gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary as the legitimate sovereign of England.", "Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.", "At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.", "By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot.", "Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that \"the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm diverse things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person.\"", "On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.", "After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it without her knowledge.", "The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians." ], [ "Wars and overseas trade", "Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive.", "The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port.", "Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost to France in January 1558.Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy.", "This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.", "She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets.", "An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control.===Netherlands===Elizabeth receiving Dutch ambassadors, 1560s, attributed to Levina TeerlincAfter the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II.", "This followed the deaths in 1584 of the queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Netherlands.", "In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands.", "It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion.", "The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch.", "The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch.", "The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604.The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester.", "Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action.", "Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up a protectorate and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign.", "Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him \"to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy\".", "He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States General.", "Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, which so far she had always declined.", "She wrote to Leicester:Elizabeth's \"commandment\" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby.", "This public humiliation of her \"Lieutenant-General\" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.", "The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers.", "Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign.", "Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587.===Spanish Armada===Portrait from 1586 to 1587, by Nicholas Hilliard, around the time of the voyages of Francis DrakeMeanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586.In 1587 he made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the ''Enterprise of England'', as Philip II had decided to take the war to England.On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands.", "The armada was defeated by a combination of miscalculation, misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast.", "The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland).", "Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command.", "Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August.", "Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speech to the Troops at Tilbury:Portrait commemorating the defeat of the Spanish Armada, depicted in the background.", "Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power.", "One of three known versions of the \"Armada Portrait\".When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced.", "Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle.", "The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England.", "The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.", "However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain.", "The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained.", "Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds, Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair.", "Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, \"to be transported with an haviour of vainglory\".In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the ''English Armada'' or ''Counter Armada'' with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and John Norreys as general.", "The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease and 40 ships sunk or captured.", "The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip II's naval power through the next decade.===France===sixpence struck 1593 identifying Elizabeth as \"by the Grace of God Queen of England, France, and Ireland\"When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support.", "It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563.Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports.The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.", "Peregrine Bertie, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men.", "He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops.", "In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster.", "As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders.", "Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support.", "In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591.In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen.", "The result was just as dismal.", "Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592.Henry abandoned the siege in April.", "As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad.", "\"Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do,\" she wrote of Essex, \"we are ignorant\".===Ireland===Gaelic chieftain O'Neale and the other kerns kneel to Henry Sidney in submission.Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies.", "Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England.", "In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child.", "During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death.", "The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims \"were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same\".", "Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, \"that rude and barbarous nation\", be well treated, but she or her commanders showed no remorse when force and bloodshed served their authoritarian purpose.Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the Nine Years' War, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with Spain, who backed the rebel leader, Hugh O'Neill.", "In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux, to put the revolt down.", "To her frustration, he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders.", "He was replaced by Charles Blount, who took three years to defeat the rebels.", "O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death.", "Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.===Russia===Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI.", "She often wrote to Tsar Ivan the Terrible on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance.", "Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised.", "English merchant and explorer Anthony Jenkinson, who began his career as a representative of the Muscovy Company, became the queen's special ambassador to the court of Tsar Ivan.Upon his death in 1584, Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor I.", "Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England.", "He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Jerome Bowes, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan.", "Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider.", "The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted.", "Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters.", "She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down.===Muslim states===Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud was the Moorish ambassador to Elizabeth in 1600.Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth.", "England established a trading relationship with Morocco in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a papal ban.", "In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur, visited England as an ambassador to the English court, to negotiate an Anglo-Moroccan alliance against Spain.", "Elizabeth \"agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish\".", "Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Sublime Porte, William Harborne, in 1578.For the first time, a treaty of commerce was signed in 1580.Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III.", "In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Protestantism and Islam had \"much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols\", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire.", "To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.===America===In 1583, Humphrey Gilbert sailed west to establish a colony in Newfoundland.", "He never returned to England.", "Gilbert's half-brother Walter Raleigh explored the Atlantic Coast and claimed the territory of Virginia, perhaps named in honour of Elizabeth, the \"Virgin Queen\".", "This territory was much larger than the present-day state of Virginia, extending from New England to the Carolinas.", "In 1585, Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people.", "They landed on Roanoke Island, off present-day North Carolina.", "After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put John White in command.", "When Raleigh returned in 1590, there was no trace of the Roanoke Colony he had left, but it was the first English settlement in North America.===East India Company===The East India Company was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region and China, and received its charter from Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600.For a period of 15 years, the company was awarded a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan.", "James Lancaster commanded the first expedition in 1601.The Company eventually controlled half of world trade and substantial territory in India in the 18th and 19th centuries." ], [ "Later years", "The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign.", "The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war.", "Prices rose and the standard of living fell.", "During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders.", "To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda.", "In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her.Lord Essex was a favourite of Elizabeth I despite his petulance and irresponsibility.One of the causes for this \"second reign\" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called, was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s.", "A new generation was in power.", "With the exception of William Cecil, Baron Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Christopher Hatton in 1591.Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s, now became its hallmark.", "A bitter rivalry arose between Robert Devereux, the Earl of Essex, and Robert Cecil, son of Lord Burghley, with both being supported by their respective adherents.", "The struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred the kingdom's politics.", "The queen's personal authority was lessening, as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Lopez, her trusted physician.", "When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent the doctor's execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war.", "The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment.", "This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601.In her famous \"Golden Speech\" of 30 November 1601 at Whitehall Palace to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess.", "And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us!Portrait attributed to Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger or his studio, c. 1595This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England.", "The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with John Lyly's ''Euphues'' and Edmund Spenser's ''The Shepheardes Calender'' in 1578.During the 1590s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe.", "Continuing into the Jacobean era, the English theatre would reach its peak.", "The notion of a great Elizabethan era depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign.", "They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts.As Elizabeth aged, her image gradually changed.", "She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea, and after the Armada, as Gloriana, the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser's poem.", "Elizabeth gave Edmund Spenser a pension; as this was unusual for her, it indicates that she liked his work.", "Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was.", "In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics.", "Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech.", "André Hurault de Maisse, Ambassador Extraordinary from Henry IV of France, reported an audience with the queen, during which he noticed, \"her teeth are very yellow and unequal ... and on the left side less than on the right.", "Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly.\"", "Yet he added, \"her figure is fair and tall and graceful in whatever she does; so far as may be she keeps her dignity, yet humbly and graciously withal.\"", "Walter Raleigh called her \"a lady whom time had surprised\".Christoffel van Sichem I, Elizabeth, Queen of Great Britain, published 1601The more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her courtiers praised it.", "Elizabeth was happy to play the part, but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance.", "She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him.", "She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility.", "After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies.", "In February 1601, Essex tried to raise a rebellion in London.", "He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February.", "Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events.", "An observer wrote in 1602: \"Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex.\"" ], [ "Death", "Elizabeth's death depicted by Paul Delaroche, 1828Elizabeth's senior adviser, Lord Burghley, died on 4 August 1598.His political mantle passed to his son Robert, who soon became the leader of the government.", "One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession.", "Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Robert Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret.", "He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim.", "Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and \"secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions\".", "The advice worked.", "James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: \"So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort\".", "In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with \"unmistakable if veiled phrases\".Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, with banners of her royal ancestorsThe queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression.", "In February 1603, the death of Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, the niece of her cousin and close friend Lady Knollys, came as a particular blow.", "In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a \"settled and unremovable melancholy\", and sat motionless on a cushion for hours on end.", "When Robert Cecil told her that she must go to bed, she snapped: \"Must is not a word to use to princes, little man.\"", "She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, between two and three in the morning.", "A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James King of England.While it has become normative to record Elizabeth's death as occurring in 1603, following English calendar reform in the 1750s, at the time England observed New Year's Day on 25 March, commonly known as Lady Day.", "Thus Elizabeth died on the last day of the year 1602 in the old calendar.", "The modern convention is to use the old style calendar for the day and month while using the new style calendar for the year.Elizabeth as shown on her tomb at Westminster AbbeyElizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall, on a barge lit with torches.", "At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet.", "In the words of the chronicler John Stow:Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I.", "The Latin inscription on their tomb, , translates to \"Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection\"." ], [ "Legacy", "putti hold the crown above her head.Elizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects, but others were relieved at her death.", "Expectations of King James started high but then declined.", "By the 1620s, there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth.", "Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age.", "James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court.", "The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties, was taken at face value and her reputation inflated.", "Godfrey Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: \"When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive.", "Then was her memory much magnified.\"", "Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance.The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential.", "Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion.", "In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day, and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat.", "Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress.", "Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress.Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth.", "Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea.", "In Ireland, Elizabeth's forces ultimately prevailed, but their tactics stain her record.", "Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies.", "She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad.Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today.", "Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England.", "Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise.", "In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as Francis Bacon put it, to \"make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts\".Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad.", "\"She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island,\" marvelled Pope Sixtus V, \"and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all\".", "Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as Christendom fragmented.", "Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent.", "She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow.", "Some historians have called her lucky; she believed that God was protecting her.", "Priding herself on being \"mere English\", Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule.", "In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:At a time when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church.", "The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate." ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom* Early modern Britain* English Renaissance* Inventory of Elizabeth I* Portraiture of Elizabeth I* Protestant Reformation* Royal Arms of England* Royal eponyms in Canada for Queen Elizabeth I* Royal Standards of England* Tudor period" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations", "=== References ======Works cited ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* in .", "* .", "* .", "* in .", "* .", "* .", "* in .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* in .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Dunn, Jane.", "''Elizabeth and Mary: Cousins, Rivals, Queens''.", "London: HarperCollins Publishers, 2003; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004; New York: Vintage Books, 2005..* Hodges, J. P. ''The Nature of the Lion: Elizabeth I and Our Anglican Heritage'' (London: Faith Press, 1962).", "* Jones, Norman.", "''The Birth of the Elizabethan Age: England in the 1560s'' (Blackwell, 1993)* political biography summarising his multivolume study:** ** ** * * Palliser, D. M. ''The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603'' (1983) survey of social and economic history* Paranque, Estelle.", "''Blood, Fire & Gold: The Story of Elizabeth I & Catherine de Medici''.", "London: Edbury Press, 2022; New York: Hatchette Books.", ".", "* * * Wernham, R. B.", "''Before the Armada: The Growth of English Foreign Policy, 1485–1588'' (1966).", "* ===Primary sources and early histories===* * Susan M. Felch, ed.", "''Elizabeth I and Her Age'' (Norton Critical Editions) (2009); primary and secondary sources, with an emphasis on literature* William Camden.", "''History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth''.", "Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed).", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition.", ".", "* William Camden.", "''Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha.''", "(1615 and 1625.)", "Hypertext edition, with English translation.", "Dana F. Sutton (ed.", "), 2000.Retrieved 7 December 2007.", "* Clapham, John.", "''Elizabeth of England''.", "E. P. Read and Conyers Read (eds).", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951..===Historiography and memory===* Carlson, Eric Josef.", "\"Teaching Elizabeth Tudor with Movies: Film, Historical Thinking, and the Classroom,\" ''Sixteenth Century Journal'', Summer 2007, Vol.", "38 Issue 2, pp.", "419–440* Collinson, Patrick.", "\"Elizabeth I and the verdicts of history,\" ''Historical Research'', Nov 2003, Vol.", "76 Issue 194, pp.", "469–491* * Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds.", "''The Myth of Elizabeth.''(2003).", "* * Greaves, Richard L., ed.", "''Elizabeth I, Queen of England'' (1974), excerpts from historians* Haigh, Christopher, ed.", "''The Reign of Elizabeth I'' (1984), essays by scholars* Howard, Maurice.", "\"Elizabeth I: a sense of place in stone, print and paint\", ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'', December 2004, Vol.", "14, Issue 1, pp.", "261–268* * Montrose, Louis.", "''The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation.''", "(2006).", "* Rowse, A. L. \"Queen Elizabeth and the Historians.\"", "''History Today'' (September 1953) 3#9 pp 630–641.", "* Watkins, John.", "''Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty'' (2002)* Woolf, D. R. \"Two Elizabeths?", "James I and the Late Queen's Famous Memory,\" ''Canadian Journal of History'', August 1985, Vol.", "20 Issue 2, pp.", "167–191" ], [ "External links", "* Elizabeth I at the official website of the British monarchy* Elizabeth I at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Enceladus (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enceladus''' is a moon of Saturn.", "'''Enceladus''' may also refer to:* Gaia Enceladus (or Enceladus Galaxy), the remains of a dwarf galaxy that merged with the Milky Way that was discovered by the Gaia space telescope* Enceladus (giant), one of the Gigantes in Greek mythology* Enceladus (son of Aegyptus), in Greek mythology* , an American cargo ship* Enceladus Nunataks, Saturn Glacier, Alexander Island, Antarctica; the Enceladus ridge* ''Enceladus'' (beetle), a genus of ground beetles in the family Carabidae" ], [ "See also", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Emperor Jimmu" ], [ "Introduction", " was the legendary first emperor of Japan according to the and .", "His ascension is traditionally dated as 660 BC.", "In Japanese mythology, he was a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, through her grandson Ninigi, as well as a descendant of the storm god Susanoo.", "He launched a military expedition from Hyūga near the Seto Inland Sea, captured Yamato, and established this as his center of power.", "In modern Japan, Emperor Jimmu's legendary accession is marked as National Foundation Day on February 11.There is no evidence to suggest that Jimmu existed.", "However, there is a high probability that there was a powerful dynasty in the vicinity of Miyazaki Prefecture during the Kofun period." ], [ "Name and title", "Jimmu is recorded as Japan's first ruler in two early chronicles, (721) and (712).", "gives the dates of his reign as 660–585 BC.", "In the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737–806), the eighth-century scholar Ōmi no Mifune designated rulers before Emperor Ōjin as , a Japanese pendant to the Chinese imperial title ''Tiān-dì'' (天帝), and gave several of them including Jimmu their canonical names.", "Prior to this time, these rulers had been known as ''Sumera no mikoto''/''Ōkimi''.", "This practice had begun under Empress Suiko, and took root after the Taika Reforms with the ascendancy of the Nakatomi clan.Both the and the give Jimmu's name as or .", "''Iware'' indicates a toponym (an old place name in the Nara region) whose precise purport is unclear.", "'-no-Mikoto' is an honorific, indicating divinity, nobility, or royalty.Among his other names were: , and .The Imperial House of Japan traditionally based its claim to the throne on its putative descent from the sun-goddess Amaterasu via Jimmu's great-grandfather Ninigi." ], [ "Consorts and children", "*Consort: , Hosuseri's (Ninigi-no-Mikoto's son) daughter**First son: **Son: **Daughter: Princess Misaki (神武天皇)*Empress: , Kotoshironushi's daughter**Son: **Second son: **Third son: , later Emperor Suizei" ], [ "Legendary narrative", "''Emperor Jimmu'', ukiyo-e by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1880)Emperor Jimmu, from the first National Census book 1920 in JapanIn Japanese mythology, the Age of the Gods is the period before Jimmu's accession.The story of Jimmu seems to rework legends associated with the Ōtomo clan (大伴氏), and its function was to establish that clan's links to the ruling family, just as those of Suijin arguably reflect Mononobe tales and the legends in Ōjin's chronicles seem to derive from Soga clan traditions.", "Jimmu figures as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, Amaterasu via the side of his father, Ugayafukiaezu.", "Amaterasu had a son called Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto and through him a grandson named Ninigi-no-Mikoto.", "She sent her grandson to the Japanese islands where he eventually married Konohana-Sakuya-hime.", "Among their three sons was Hikohohodemi no Mikoto, also called Yamasachi-hiko, who married Toyotama-hime.", "She was the daughter of Ryūjin, the Japanese sea god.", "They had a single son called Hikonagisa Takeugaya Fukiaezu no Mikoto.", "The boy was abandoned by his parents at birth and consequently raised by Tamayori-hime, his mother's younger sister.", "They eventually married and had four sons.", "The last of these, Hikohohodemi, became Emperor Jimmu.===Migration===Depiction of a bearded Jimmu with his bow and the golden kite.", "This 19th-century artwork is by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi.According to the chronicles and , Jimmu's brothers Itsuse no Mikoto, Inahi no Mikoto, and Mikeiri no Mikoto were born in Takachiho, the southern part of Kyūshū in modern-day Miyazaki Prefecture.", "They moved eastward to find a location more appropriate for administering the entire country.", "Jimmu's older brother, Itsuse no Mikoto, originally led the migration, and led the clan eastward through the Seto Inland Sea with the assistance of local chieftain ''''.", "As they reached Naniwa (modern-day Osaka), they encountered another local chieftain, ''Nagasunehiko'' (\"the long-legged man\"), and Itsuse was killed in the ensuing battle.", "Jimmu realized that they had been defeated because they battled eastward against the sun, so he decided to land on the east side of Kii Peninsula and to battle westward.", "They reached Kumano, and, with the guidance of a three-legged crow, ''Yatagarasu'' (\"eight-span crow\"), they moved to Yamato.", "There, they once again battled Nagasunehiko and were victorious.", "The record in the of Emperor Jimmu states that his armed forces defeated a group of before his enthronement.", "The Emishi were an ethnic group who lived in Honshu, particularly the Tōhoku region.In Yamato, Nigihayahi, who also claimed descent from the Takamagahara gods, was protected by Nagasunehiko.", "However, when Nigihayahi met Jimmu, he accepted Jimmu's legitimacy.", "At this point, Jimmu is said to have ascended to the throne of Japan.", "Upon scaling a Nara mountain to survey the Seto Inland Sea he now controlled, Jimmu remarked that it was shaped like the \"heart\" rings made by mating dragonflies, archaically ''akitsu'' 秋津.", "A mosquito then tried to steal Jimmu's royal blood but since Jimmu was a god incarnate Emperor, , a dragonfly killed the mosquito.", "Japan thus received its classical name the Dragonfly Islands, .", "''Unebi Goryō'', the mausoleum of Jimmu in Kashihara Shrine, Kashihara City, Nara PrefectureAccording to the , Jimmu died when he was 126 years old.", "The Emperor's posthumous name literally means \"divine might\" or \"god-warrior\".", "It is generally thought that Jimmu's name and character evolved into their present shape just before the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were chronicled in the .", "There are accounts written earlier than either and that present an alternative version of the story.", "According to these accounts, Jimmu's dynasty was supplanted by that of Ōjin, whose dynasty was supplanted by that of Keitai.", "The and the then combined these three legendary dynasties into one long and continuous genealogy.The traditional site of Jimmu's grave is near Mount Unebi in Kashihara, Nara Prefecture.The inner prayer hall of Kashihara Shrine in Kashihara, Nara, the principal shrine devoted to Jimmu" ], [ "Imperial Era veneration", "Veneration of Jimmu was a central component of the imperial cult that formed following the Meiji Restoration.", "In 1873, a holiday called ''Kigensetsu'' was established on February 11.The holiday commemorated the anniversary of Jimmu's ascension to the throne 2,532 years earlier.", "After World War II, the holiday was criticized as too closely associated with the \"emperor system.\"", "It was suspended from 1948 to 1966, but later reinstated as National Foundation Day.Between 1873 and 1945 an imperial envoy sent offerings every year to the supposed site of Jimmu's tomb.", "In 1890 Kashihara Shrine was established nearby, on the spot where Jimmu was said to have ascended to the throne.Before and during World War II, expansionist propaganda made frequent use of the phrase ''hakkō ichiu'', a term coined by Tanaka Chigaku based on a passage in the discussing Emperor Jimmu.", "Some media incorrectly attributed the phrase to Emperor Jimmu.", "For the 1940 ''Kigensetsu'' celebration, marking the supposed 2,600th anniversary of Jimmu's enthronement, the Peace Tower was constructed in Miyazaki.The same year numerous stone monuments relating to key events in Jimmu's life were erected around Japan.", "The sites at which these monuments were erected are known as Emperor Jimmu Sacred Historical Sites.Prewar 10-sen Japanese stamp, illustrating the and the 2600th anniversary of the EmpireHirohito and Empress Kōjun presiding the celebration of the 2600th anniversary of mythical foundation of the Empire in November 1940In 1940 Japan celebrated the 2600th anniversary of Jimmu's ascension and built a monument to Hakkō ichiu despite the fact that all historians knew Jimmu was a mythical figure.", "In 1941 the Japanese government charged the one historian who dared to challenge Jimmu's existence publicly, Tsuda Sōkichi." ], [ "Historicity", "There is no evidence Jimmu existed, except the mention in the and .", "The dates of Jimmu reigning from 660 BC to 585 BC are improbable, and most modern scholars agree that the traditional founding of the Yamato dynasty in 660 BC is a myth and that Jimmu along with the first nine emperors are legendary.", "The founding of Japan in the year 660 BC was probably created by the writers of to put the date on a kanototori year.However, the stories of Jimmu may reflect real events of the mid to late Yayoi period.", "According to historian Peter Wetzler, Jimmu's conquest of Osaka and Nara may reflect an actual event.", "Still, the dates and many of the details are fictitious.", "Historian Kenneth G. Henshall stated that Jimmu's conquest may also reflect a time when the Yayoi people from continental Asia immigrated in masses starting from Kyushu and moving eastward during the Yayoi period.Since 1945, when the prohibition on questioning the Kojiki and the Nihongi was lifted, documentary research in China and archaeological research in Japan has undermined much of the information in both the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki.", "However, some scholars suggest that there may have been a real person behind Jimmu.", "He could have been a local ruler who conquered the area near Kashihara after 62 BC.", "If he ever was present in Miyazaki, some scholars believe he was there during the first century BC while others say he was there during the third or fourth century AD.The legend of Jimmu is a mixture of myth with some plausible history.", "For example, the sheer complexity of the lineage and mundanity of the legend argues that it could have some basis in reality.", "If Jimmu was wholly fictional, it would have been easier to describe him as a direct descendant of a god.", "The three-legged crow Yatagarasu could be a metaphor.", "The weapons, tactics and route used by Jimmu are plausible.", "The Japanese monarchy still uses the three sacred treasures, although the original sword was reportedly lost around 1185 and the current one may be a replica.", "Emperor Sujin's historicity is considered possible by historians, while Emperor Kinmei is the first verifiable historical figure in the Yamato lineage.", "It could also be that emperors associated themselves with historic or fictional heroic figures in the past to legitimize their reign.He may have been a composite of Suijin and Kentai.", "The Japanese historian Ino Okifu identifies Emperor Jimmu with the Chinese alchemist and explorer Xu Fu (255–195 BC), a hypothesis supported by certain traditions in Japan and regarded as possible by some modern scholars.", "The Yayoi period (300 BC–300 AD), during which significant changes in Japanese metallurgy and pottery occurred, started around the time of his supposed arrival.", "However, the legend of Xu Fu's voyage also has numerous inconsistencies with the linguistic and anthropological history of Japan." ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Modern system of ranked Shinto shrines* Japanese imperial year* National Foundation Day* Jōmon period* Yayoi period* Emishi people* Order of the Golden Kite* King Arthur, a legendary figure from Britain who founded the country similar to Emperor Jimmu" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Brownlee, John S. (1997). ''", "Japanese Historians and the National Myths, 1600–1945: The Age of the Gods''.", "Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.", "* * Earhart, David C. (2007).", "''Certain Victory: Images of World War II in the Japanese Media''.", "Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe.", "* Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (1987).", "''On Understanding Japanese Religion''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "; * * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon (1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* A more detailed profile of Jimmu (archived April 2011)* A detailed summary of Jimmu's descent legend (archived July 2014)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elias Boudinot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elias Boudinot''' ( ; May 2, 1740 – October 24, 1821), a Founding Father of the United States, was a lawyer, statesman, and early abolitionist and women's rights advocate from Elizabeth, New Jersey.", "During the Revolutionary War, Boudinot was an intelligence officer and prisoner-of-war commissary under general George Washington, working to improve conditions for prisoners on both the American and British sides.", "In 1779, he was elected to the Continental Congress and then to its successor, the Congress of the Confederation, serving as President of Congress in 1782—1783, the final years of the war.After being elected to the first, second, and third U.S. Congresses, where he served from 1789—1795, Boudinot was appointed director of the United States Mint by president Washington and held the position through 1805 under the presidencies of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson.", "An advocate for women’s rights, he led a Federalist campaign in New Jersey during the early 1790s to encourage women to become active in politics.", "Boudinot, a devout Presbyterian, spoke out frequently against slavery, both as a member of Congress and as a private citizen.", "In 1816, he helped found the American Bible Society and served as its first president for five years.", "Boudinot was also a member of the board of trustees of Princeton College from 1772-1821, the year of his death." ], [ "Early life and education", "James Sharples, ''Elias Boudinot IV'', Princeton University Art MuseumElias Boudinot was born in Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania on May 2, 1740.His father, Elias Boudinot III, was a merchant and silversmith; he was a neighbor and friend of Benjamin Franklin.", "His mother, Mary Catherine Williams, was born in the British West Indies; her father was from Wales.", "Elias' paternal grandfather, Elie (sometimes called Elias) Boudinot, was the son of Jean Boudinot and Marie Suire of Marans, Aunis, France.", "They were a Huguenot (French Protestant) family who fled to New York about 1687 to avoid the religious persecutions of King Louis XIV.Mary Catherine Williams and Elias Boudinot Sr. were married on August 8, 1729.Over the next twenty years, they had nine children.", "The first, John, was born in the British West Indies-Antigua.", "Of the others, only the younger Elias and his siblings Annis, Mary, and Elisha reached adulthood.", "Annis became one of the first published women poets in the Thirteen Colonies, and her work appeared in leading newspapers and magazines.", "Elisha Boudinot became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey.After studying and being tutored at home, Elias Boudinot went to Princeton, New Jersey to read the law as a legal apprentice to Richard Stockton, an attorney who married Elias' older sister Annis Boudinot.", "Stockton would also become a Founding Father as a signatory to the Declaration of Independence in 1776." ], [ "Career", "In 1760, Boudinot was admitted to the bar, and began his practice in Elizabeth, New Jersey.", "He owned land adjacent to the road from Elizabethtown to Woodbridge Township, New Jersey." ], [ "Marriage and family", "Coat of Arms of Elias BoudinotHannah Stockton Boudinot (1736–1808), by Matthew PrattAfter getting established, on April 21, 1762, Boudinot married Hannah Stockton (1736–1808), Richard's younger sister.", "They had two children, Maria Boudinot, who died at age two, and Susan Vergereau Boudinot.Susan married William Bradford, who became Chief Justice of Pennsylvania and Attorney General under George Washington.", "After her husband's death in 1795, Susan Boudinot Bradford returned to her parents' home to live.", "The young widow edited her father's papers.", "Now held by Princeton University, these provide significant insight into the events of the Revolutionary era.In 1805, Elias, Hannah and Susan moved to a new home in Burlington, New Jersey.", "Hannah died a few years after their move, and Elias lived there for the remainder of his years." ], [ "Later career", "In his later years, Boudinot invested and speculated in land.", "He owned large tracts in Ohio including most of Green Township in what is now the western suburbs of Cincinnati, where there is a street bearing his surname.", "At his death, he willed to the city of Philadelphia for parks and city needs.", "He was buried in the churchyard of St. Mary's Church, Burlington, New Jersey." ], [ "Political career", "Boudinot became a prominent lawyer and his practice prospered.", "As the revolution drew near, he aligned with the Whigs, and was elected to the New Jersey provincial assembly in 1775.In the early stages of the Revolutionary War, he was active in promoting enlistment; several times he loaned money to field commanders to purchase supplies.", "Boudinot helped support the activities of rebel spies.", "After the British occupation of New York City, spies were sent to Staten Island and Long Island, New York to observe and report on movements of specific British garrisons and regiments.On May 5, 1777, General George Washington asked Boudinot to be appointed as commissary general for prisoners.", "Congress through the board of war concurred.", "Boudinot was commissioned as a colonel in the Continental Army for this work.", "He served until July 1778, when competing responsibilities forced him to resign.", "The commissary managed enemy prisoners, and also was responsible for supplying American prisoners who were held by the British.In November 1777, the New Jersey legislature named Boudinot as one of their delegates to the Second Continental Congress.", "His duties as Commissary prevented his attendance, so in May 1778 he resigned.", "By early July he had been replaced and attended his first meeting of the Congress on July 7, 1778.As a delegate, he still continued his concerns for the welfare of prisoners of war.", "His first term ended that year.In 1781, Boudinot returned to the Congress, for a term lasting through 1783.In November 1782, he was elected as President of the Continental Congress for a one-year term.", "The President of Congress was a mostly ceremonial position with no real authority, but the office did require him to handle a good deal of correspondence and sign official documents.", "On April 15, 1783 he signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace.", "When the United States (US) government was formed in 1789, Boudinot was elected from New Jersey to the US House of Representatives.", "He was elected to the second and third congresses as well, where he generally supported the administration.", "He refused to join the expansion of affiliated groups that formed formal political parties.", "He was one of nine representatives to vote against the Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "In 1794, he declined to serve another term, and left Congress in early 1795.In October 1795, President George Washington appointed him as Director of the United States Mint, a position he held through succeeding administrations until he retired in 1805." ], [ "Later public service", "In addition to serving in political office, Elias supported many civic, religious, and educational causes during his life.", "Boudinot served as one of the trustees of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) for nearly half a century, from 1772 until 1821.When the Continental Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia in 1783 while he was president, he moved the meetings to Princeton, where they met in the College's Nassau Hall.On September 24, 1789, the House of Representatives voted to recommend the First Amendment of the newly drafted Constitution to the states for ratification.", "The next day, Congressman Boudinot proposed that the House and Senate jointly request of President Washington to proclaim a day of thanksgiving for \"the many signal favors of Almighty God.\"", "Boudinot said that hecould not think of letting the session pass over without offering an opportunity to all the citizens of the United States of joining, with one voice, in returning to Almighty God their sincere thanks for the many blessings he had poured down upon them.Boudinot was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.A devout Presbyterian, Boudinot supported missions and missionary work.", "He wrote ''The Age of Revelation'' in response to Thomas Paine's ''The Age of Reason.''", "He was one of the founders of the American Bible Society, and after 1816 served as its President.He argued for the rights of black and American Indian citizens, and sponsored students to the Board School for Indians in Connecticut.", "One of these, a young Cherokee named ''Gallegina Uwatie'', also known as ''Buck Watie'', stayed with him in Burlington on his way to the school.", "The two so impressed each other that ''Gallegina'' asked for and was given permission to adopt the statesman's name.", "Later known as Elias Boudinot, he was an editor of the ''Cherokee Phoenix'', the nation's first newspaper, which was published in Cherokee and English." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "* Princeton University Library holds the Boudinot-Stockton papers, as well as many family possessions and portraits.", "* Elias Boudinot Elementary School in Burlington, New Jersey is named after him, as are the following:* Boudinot Street in Philadelphia, located between C and D Streets.", "* Boudinot Avenue in Western Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio home of the original LaRosa's pizzeria.", "* Boudinot Place in Elizabeth, New Jersey* Boudinot Street in Princeton, New Jersey.", "* Boudinot Lane in Franklin Township, New Jersey* Boudinot–Southard Farmstead in Bernards Township, New Jersey" ], [ "Quotes", "* \"Be religiously careful in our choice of all public officers...and judge of the tree by its fruits.", "\"* \"Good government generally begins in the family, and if the moral character of a people once degenerate, their political character must soon follow.", "\"*\"For nearly half a century have I anxiously and critically studied that invaluable treasure the Bible; and I still scarcely ever take it up that I do not find something new – that I do not receive some valuable addition to my stock of knowledge or perceive some instructive fact never observed before.", "In short, were you to ask me to recommend the most valuable book in the world, I should fix on the Bible as the most instructive both to the wise and ignorant.", "Were you to ask me for one affording the most rational and pleasing entertainment to the inquiring mind, I should repeat, it is the Bible; and should you renew the inquiry for the best philosophy or the most interesting history, I should still urge you to look into your Bible.", "I would make it, in short, the Alpha and Omega of knowledge; and be assured, that it is for want of understanding the scriptures, both of the Old and New Testament, that so little value is set upon them by the world at large.\"" ], [ "Archival collections", "The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia has a collection of incoming correspondence and several legal agreements pertaining to land ownership related to Boudinot from 1777–1821 in its holdings.", "The correspondence dating from 1777–1778 almost exclusively deals with the trading and releasing of prisoners." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Elias Boudinot, \"Age of Revelation\"—A Refutation of Thomas Paine's deistic \"Age of Reason\"" ], [ "External links", "* Retrieved on 2009-05-18* Elias Boudinot at The Political Graveyard" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electromagnetic spectrum" ], [ "Introduction", "A diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum, showing various properties across the range of frequencies and wavelengths, as well as the equivalent blackbody temperatureThe '''electromagnetic spectrum''' is the full range of electromagnetic radiation, organized by frequency or wavelength.", "The spectrum is divided into separate bands, with different names for the electromagnetic waves within each band.", "From low to high frequency these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.", "The electromagnetic waves in each of these bands have different characteristics, such as how they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications.Radio waves, at the low-frequency end of the spectrum, have the lowest photon energy and the longest wavelengths—thousands of kilometers, or more.", "They can be emitted and received by antennas, and pass through the atmosphere, foliage, and most building materials.Gamma rays, at the high-frequency end of the spectrum, have the highest photon energies and the shortest wavelengths—much smaller than an atomic nucleus.", "Gamma rays, X-rays, and extreme ultraviolet rays are called ionizing radiation because their high photon energy is able to ionize atoms, causing chemical reactions.", "Visible light and radiation of longer wavelengths are nonionizing; their photons do not have sufficient energy to cause these effects.Throughout most of the electromagnetic spectrum, spectroscopy can be used to separate waves of different frequencies, so that the intensity of the radiation can be measured as a function of frequency or wavelength.", "Spectroscopy is used to study the interactions of electromagnetic waves with matter." ], [ "History and discovery{{anchor|History}}", "Humans have always been aware of visible light and radiant heat but for most of history it was not known that these phenomena were connected or were representatives of a more extensive principle.", "The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, including reflection and refraction.", "Light was intensively studied from the beginning of the 17th century leading to the invention of important instruments like the telescope and microscope.", "Isaac Newton was the first to use the term ''spectrum'' for the range of colours that white light could be split into with a prism.", "Starting in 1666, Newton showed that these colours were intrinsic to light and could be recombined into white light.", "A debate arose over whether light had a wave nature or a particle nature with René Descartes, Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens favouring a wave description and Newton favouring a particle description.", "Huygens in particular had a well developed theory from which he was able to derive the laws of reflection and refraction.", "Around 1801, Thomas Young measured the wavelength of a light beam with his two-slit experiment thus conclusively demonstrating that light was a wave.In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation.", "He was studying the temperature of different colours by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism.", "He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red.", "He theorized that this temperature change was due to \"calorific rays\", a type of light ray that could not be seen.", "The next year, Johann Ritter, working at the other end of the spectrum, noticed what he called \"chemical rays\" (invisible light rays that induced certain chemical reactions).", "These behaved similarly to visible violet light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum.", "They were later renamed ultraviolet radiation.The study of electromagnetism began in 1820 when Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that electric currents produce magnetic fields (Oersted's law).", "Light was first linked to electromagnetism in 1845, when Michael Faraday noticed that the polarization of light traveling through a transparent material responded to a magnetic field (see Faraday effect).", "During the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell developed four partial differential equations (Maxwell's equations) for the electromagnetic field.", "Two of these equations predicted the possibility and behavior of waves in the field.", "Analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light.", "This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave.", "Maxwell's equations predicted an infinite range of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light.", "This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.Maxwell's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a certain type.", "Attempting to prove Maxwell's equations and detect such low frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886, the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus to generate and detect what are now called radio waves.", "Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the speed of light.", "Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light.", "For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin.", "In a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves.", "These new types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen noticed a new type of radiation emitted during an experiment with an evacuated tube subjected to a high voltage.", "He called this radiation \"x-rays\" and found that they were able to travel through parts of the human body but were reflected or stopped by denser matter such as bones.", "Before long, many uses were found for this radiography.The last portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was filled in with the discovery of gamma rays.", "In 1900, Paul Villard was studying the radioactive emissions of radium when he identified a new type of radiation that he at first thought consisted of particles similar to known alpha and beta particles, but with the power of being far more penetrating than either.", "However, in 1910, British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914, Ernest Rutherford (who had named them gamma rays in 1903 when he realized that they were fundamentally different from charged alpha and beta particles) and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, and found that gamma rays were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths.The wave-particle debate was rekindled in 1901 when Max Planck discovered that light is absorbed only in discrete \"quanta\", now called photons, implying that light has a particle nature.", "This idea was made explicit by Albert Einstein in 1905, but never accepted by Planck and many other contemporaries.", "The modern position of science is that electromagnetic radiation has both a wave and a particle nature, the wave-particle duality.", "The contradictions arising from this position are still being debated by scientists and philosophers." ], [ "Range", "Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency ''f'', wavelength λ, or photon energy ''E''.", "Frequencies observed in astronomy range from (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz).", "Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be indefinitely long.", "Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt).", "These relations are illustrated by the following equations::where:* ''c'' = is the speed of light in vacuum* ''h'' = = is the Planck constant.Whenever electromagnetic waves travel in a medium with matter, their wavelength is decreased.", "Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, whatever medium they are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the ''vacuum wavelength'', although this is not always explicitly stated.Generally, electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength into radio wave, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.", "The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength.", "When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum (photon) it carries.Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible wavelength range of 400 nm to 700 nm in a vacuum.", "A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm.", "Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device.", "Spectroscopes are widely used in astrophysics.", "For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave photon that has a wavelength of 21.12 cm.", "Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae and frequencies as high as have been detected from astrophysical sources." ], [ "Regions{{anchor|Bands}}", "The '''electromagnetic spectrum'''A visualization of the electromagnetic spectrum.The types of electromagnetic radiation are broadly classified into the following classes (regions, bands or types):# Gamma radiation# X-ray radiation# Ultraviolet radiation# Visible light (light that humans can see)# Infrared radiation# Microwave radiation# Radio wavesThis classification goes in the increasing order of wavelength, which is characteristic of the type of radiation.There are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light).", "Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it.", "For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is partly based on sources: the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and subnuclear/particle process are always termed gamma rays, whereas X-rays are generated by electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons.", "In general, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so gamma rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist.", "By analogy to electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even though their energy may exceed , whereas there are many (77 known to be less than ) low-energy nuclear transitions (''e.g.", "'', the nuclear transition of thorium-229m), and, despite being one million-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin.The convention that EM radiation that is known to come from the nucleus is always called \"gamma ray\" radiation is the only convention that is universally respected, however.", "Many astronomical gamma ray sources (such as gamma ray bursts) are known to be too energetic (in both intensity and wavelength) to be of nuclear origin.", "Quite often, in high-energy physics and in medical radiotherapy, very high energy EMR (in the > 10 MeV region)—which is of higher energy than any nuclear gamma ray—is not called X-ray or gamma ray, but instead by the generic term of \"high-energy photons\".The region of the spectrum where a particular observed electromagnetic radiation falls is reference frame-dependent (due to the Doppler shift for light), so EM radiation that one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum.", "For example, consider the cosmic microwave background.", "It was produced when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state.", "These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum.", "Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos.", "Class   Wave-length Freq-uency Energy perphoton Ionizingradiation γ Gamma rays   10 pm 30 EHz 124 keV 100 pm 3 EHz 12.4 keV HX Hard X-rays SX Soft X-rays 10 nm 30 PHz 124 eV EUV Extremeultraviolet 121 nm 3 PHz 10.2 eV   NUV Near ultraviolet 400 nm 750 THz  Visible spectrum 700 nm 480 THzInfrared NIR Near infrared 1 μm 300 THz 1.24 eV 10 μm 30 THz 124 meV MIR Mid infrared 100 μm 3 THz 12.4 meV FIR Far infrared 1 mm 300 GHz 1.24 meV Micro-waves EHF Extremely highfrequency 1 cm 30 GHz 124 μeV SHF Super highfrequency 1 dm 3 GHz 12.4 μeV UHF Ultra highfrequency 1 m 300 MHz 1.24 μeV Radiowaves VHF Very highfrequency 10 m 30 MHz 124 neV HF Highfrequency 100 m 3 MHz 12.4 neV MF Mediumfrequency 1 km 300 kHz 1.24 neV LF Lowfrequency 10 km 30 kHz 124 peV VLF Very lowfrequency 100 km 3 kHz 12.4 peV ULF Ultra lowfrequency 1 Mm 300 Hz 1.24 peV SLF Super lowfrequency 10 Mm 30 Hz 124 feV ELF Extremely lowfrequency 100 Mm 3 Hz 12.4 feV Sources: :File:Light spectrum.svg Table shows the lower limits for the specified class===Rationale for names===Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways across the spectrum.", "These types of interaction are so different that historically different names have been applied to different parts of the spectrum, as though these were different types of radiation.", "Thus, although these \"different kinds\" of electromagnetic radiation form a quantitatively continuous spectrum of frequencies and wavelengths, the spectrum remains divided for practical reasons arising from these qualitative interaction differences.+Electromagnetic radiation interaction with matter Region of the spectrum Main interactions with matterRadioCollective oscillation of charge carriers in bulk material (plasma oscillation).", "An example would be the oscillatory travels of the electrons in an antenna.Microwave through far infraredPlasma oscillation, molecular rotationNear infraredMolecular vibration, plasma oscillation (in metals only)VisibleMolecular electron excitation (including pigment molecules found in the human retina), plasma oscillations (in metals only)UltravioletExcitation of molecular and atomic valence electrons, including ejection of the electrons (photoelectric effect)X-raysExcitation and ejection of core atomic electrons, Compton scattering (for low atomic numbers)Gamma raysEnergetic ejection of core electrons in heavy elements, Compton scattering (for all atomic numbers), excitation of atomic nuclei, including dissociation of nucleiHigh-energy gamma raysCreation of particle-antiparticle pairs.", "At very high energies a single photon can create a shower of high-energy particles and antiparticles upon interaction with matter." ], [ "Types of radiation", "===Radio waves===Radio waves are emitted and received by antennas, which consist of conductors such as metal rod resonators.", "In artificial generation of radio waves, an electronic device called a transmitter generates an alternating electric current which is applied to an antenna.", "The oscillating electrons in the antenna generate oscillating electric and magnetic fields that radiate away from the antenna as radio waves.", "In reception of radio waves, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of a radio wave couple to the electrons in an antenna, pushing them back and forth, creating oscillating currents which are applied to a radio receiver.", "Earth's atmosphere is mainly transparent to radio waves, except for layers of charged particles in the ionosphere which can reflect certain frequencies.Radio waves are extremely widely used to transmit information across distances in radio communication systems such as radio broadcasting, television, two way radios, mobile phones, communication satellites, and wireless networking.", "In a radio communication system, a radio frequency current is modulated with an information-bearing signal in a transmitter by varying either the amplitude, frequency or phase, and applied to an antenna.", "The radio waves carry the information across space to a receiver, where they are received by an antenna and the information extracted by demodulation in the receiver.", "Radio waves are also used for navigation in systems like Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational beacons, and locating distant objects in radiolocation and radar.", "They are also used for remote control, and for industrial heating.The use of the radio spectrum is strictly regulated by governments, coordinated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) which allocates frequencies to different users for different uses.===Microwaves===Plot of Earth's atmospheric opacity to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.", "This is the surface-to-space opacity, the atmosphere is transparent to longwave radio transmissions within the troposphere but opaque to space due to the ionosphere.Plot of atmospheric opacity for terrestrial to terrestrial transmission showing the molecules responsible for some of the resonancesMicrowaves are radio waves of short wavelength, from about 10 centimeters to one millimeter, in the SHF and EHF frequency bands.", "Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes.", "Although they are emitted and absorbed by short antennas, they are also absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating.", "Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and visible light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface.", "This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy.", "Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as Wi-Fi.", "The copper cables (transmission lines) which are used to carry lower-frequency radio waves to antennas have excessive power losses at microwave frequencies, and metal pipes called waveguides are used to carry them.", "Although at the low end of the band the atmosphere is mainly transparent, at the upper end of the band absorption of microwaves by atmospheric gases limits practical propagation distances to a few kilometers.Terahertz radiation or sub-millimeter radiation is a region of the spectrum from about 100 GHz to 30 terahertz (THz) between microwaves and far infrared which can be regarded as belonging to either band.", "Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy in the so-called ''terahertz gap'', but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing.", "Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high-frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their electronic equipment.", "Terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by atmospheric gases, making this frequency range useless for long-distance communication.===Infrared radiation===The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz to 400 THz (1 mm – 750 nm).", "It can be divided into three parts:* '''Far-infrared''', from 300 GHz to 30 THz (1 mm – 10 μm).", "The lower part of this range may also be called microwaves or terahertz waves.", "This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids.", "The water in Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere in effect opaque.", "However, there are certain wavelength ranges (\"windows\") within the opaque range that allow partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy.", "The wavelength range from approximately 200 μm up to a few mm is often referred to as Submillimetre astronomy, reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 μm.", "* '''Mid-infrared''', from 30 THz to 120 THz (10–2.5 μm).", "Hot objects (black-body radiators) can radiate strongly in this range, and human skin at normal body temperature radiates strongly at the lower end of this region.", "This radiation is absorbed by molecular vibrations, where the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions.", "This range is sometimes called the ''fingerprint region'', since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound.", "* '''Near-infrared''', from 120 THz to 400 THz (2,500–750 nm).", "Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light.", "The highest frequencies in this region can be detected directly by some types of photographic film, and by many types of solid state image sensors for infrared photography and videography.===Visible light===Above infrared in frequency comes visible light.", "The Sun emits its peak power in the visible region, although integrating the entire emission power spectrum through all wavelengths shows that the Sun emits slightly more infrared than visible light.", "By definition, visible light is the part of the EM spectrum the human eye is the most sensitive to.", "Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another.", "This action allows the chemical mechanisms that underlie human vision and plant photosynthesis.", "The light that excites the human visual system is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.", "A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if it could be seen) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow whilst ultraviolet would appear just beyond the opposite violet end.Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (400–790 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light.", "Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant.", "White light is a combination of lights of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum.", "Passing white light through a prism splits it up into the several colours of light observed in the visible spectrum between 400 nm and 780 nm.If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes the eyes, this results in visual perception of the scene.", "The brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this insufficiently understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit.At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses.", "Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths.", "Optical fiber transmits light that, although not necessarily in the visible part of the spectrum (it is usually infrared), can carry information.", "The modulation is similar to that used with radio waves.===Ultraviolet radiation===ozoneNext in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV).", "In frequency (and thus energy), UV rays sit between the violet end of the visible spectrum and the X-ray range.", "The UV wavelength spectrum ranges from 399 nm to 10 nm and is divided into 3 sections: UVA, UVB, and UVC.UV is the lowest energy range energetic enough to ionize atoms, separating electrons from them, and thus causing chemical reactions.", "UV, X-rays, and gamma rays are thus collectively called ''ionizing radiation''; exposure to them can damage living tissue.", "UV can also cause substances to glow with visible light; this is called ''fluorescence''.", "UV fluorescence is used by forensics to detect any evidence like blood and urine, that is produced by a crime scene.", "Also UV fluorescence is used to detect counterfeit money and IDs, as they are laced with material that can glow under UV.At the middle range of UV, UV rays cannot ionize but can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive.", "Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of middle range UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer.", "UV rays in the middle range can irreparably damage the complex DNA molecules in the cells producing thymine dimers making it a very potent mutagen.", "Due to skin cancer caused by UV, the sunscreen industry was invented to combat UV damage.", "Mid UV wavelengths are called UVB and UVB lights such as germicidal lamps are used to kill germs and also to sterilize water.The Sun emits UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there).", "However, most of the Sun's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere before they reach the surface.", "The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called \"vacuum UV\") are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic oxygen in the air.", "Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200–315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary dioxygen in air to absorb.", "This leaves less than 3% of sunlight at sea level in UV, with all of this remainder at the lower energies.", "The remainder is UV-A, along with some UV-B.", "The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV-A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage.", "However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage.===X-rays===After UV come X-rays, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing.", "However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the Compton effect.", "Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to 'see through' objects with 'thicknesses' less than that equivalent to a few meters of water.", "One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as radiography).", "X-rays are useful as probes in high-energy physics.", "In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena.", "X-rays are also emitted by stellar corona and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae.", "However, X-ray telescopes must be placed outside the Earth's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the atmosphere of Earth is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 g/cm2), equivalent to 10 meters thickness of water.", "This is an amount sufficient to block almost all astronomical X-rays (and also astronomical gamma rays—see below).===Gamma rays===After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Ulrich Villard in 1900.These are the most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their wavelength.", "In astronomy they are valuable for studying high-energy objects or regions, however as with X-rays this can only be done with telescopes outside the Earth's atmosphere.", "Gamma rays are used experimentally by physicists for their penetrating ability and are produced by a number of radioisotopes.", "They are used for irradiation of foods and seeds for sterilization, and in medicine they are occasionally used in radiation cancer therapy.", "More commonly, gamma rays are used for diagnostic imaging in nuclear medicine, an example being PET scans.", "The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy through the effects of Compton scattering." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* Australian Radiofrequency Spectrum Allocations Chart (from Australian Communications and Media Authority)* Canadian Table of Frequency Allocations (from Industry Canada)* U.S.", "Frequency Allocation Chart – Covering the range 3 kHz to 300 GHz (from Department of Commerce)* UK frequency allocation table (from Ofcom, which inherited the Radiocommunications Agency's duties, pdf format)* Flash EM Spectrum Presentation / Tool – Very complete and customizable.", "* Poster \"Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum\" (992 kB)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Expert system" ], [ "Introduction", "Symbolics 3640 Lisp machine: an early (1984) platform for expert systemsIn artificial intelligence, an '''expert system''' is a computer system emulating the decision-making ability of a human expert.Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if–then rules rather than through conventional procedural code.", "The first expert systems were created in the 1970s and then proliferated in the 1980s.", "Expert systems were among the first truly successful forms of artificial intelligence (AI) software.", "An expert system is divided into two subsystems: the inference engine and the knowledge base.", "The knowledge base represents facts and rules.", "The inference engine applies the rules to the known facts to deduce new facts.", "Inference engines can also include explanation and debugging abilities." ], [ "History", "=== Early development ===Soon after the dawn of modern computers in the late 1940s and early 1950s, researchers started realizing the immense potential these machines had for modern society.", "One of the first challenges was to make such machines capable of “thinking” like humans – in particular, making these machines capable of making important decisions the way humans do.", "The medical/healthcare field presented the tantalizing challenge of enabling these machines to make medical diagnostic decisions.Thus, in the late 1950s, right after the information age had fully arrived, researchers started experimenting with the prospect of using computer technology to emulate human decision making.", "For example, biomedical researchers started creating computer-aided systems for diagnostic applications in medicine and biology.", "These early diagnostic systems used patients’ symptoms and laboratory test results as inputs to generate a diagnostic outcome.These systems were often described as the early forms of expert systems.", "However, researchers realized that there were significant limitations when using traditional methods such as flow charts, statistical pattern matching, or probability theory.=== Formal introduction and later developments ===This previous situation gradually led to the development of expert systems, which used knowledge-based approaches.", "These expert systems in medicine were the MYCIN expert system, the Internist-I expert system and later, in the middle of the 1980s, the CADUCEUS.Expert systems were formally introduced around 1965 by the Stanford Heuristic Programming Project led by Edward Feigenbaum, who is sometimes termed the \"father of expert systems\"; other key early contributors were Bruce Buchanan and Randall Davis.", "The Stanford researchers tried to identify domains where expertise was highly valued and complex, such as diagnosing infectious diseases (Mycin) and identifying unknown organic molecules (Dendral).", "The idea that \"intelligent systems derive their power from the knowledge they possess rather than from the specific formalisms and inference schemes they use\" – as Feigenbaum said – was at the time a significant step forward, since the past research had been focused on heuristic computational methods, culminating in attempts to develop very general-purpose problem solvers (foremostly the conjunct work of Allen Newell and Herbert Simon).", "Expert systems became some of the first truly successful forms of artificial intelligence (AI) software.Research on expert systems was also active in Europe.", "In the US, the focus tended to be on the use of production rule systems, first on systems hard coded on top of LISP programming environments and then on expert system shells developed by vendors such as Intellicorp.", "In Europe, research focused more on systems and expert systems shells developed in Prolog.", "The advantage of Prolog systems was that they employed a form of rule-based programming that was based on formal logic.One such early expert system shell based on Prolog was APES.One of the first use cases of Prolog and APES was in the legal area namely, the encoding of a large portion of the British Nationality Act.", "Lance Elliot wrote: \"The British Nationality Act was passed in 1981 and shortly thereafter was used as a means of showcasing the efficacy of using Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques and technologies, doing so to explore how the at-the-time newly enacted statutory law might be encoded into a computerized logic-based formalization.", "A now oft-cited research paper entitled “The British Nationality Act as a Logic Program” was published in 1986 and subsequently became a hallmark for subsequent work in AI and the law.", "\"In the 1980s, expert systems proliferated.", "Universities offered expert system courses and two-thirds of the Fortune 500 companies applied the technology in daily business activities.", "Interest was international with the Fifth Generation Computer Systems project in Japan and increased research funding in Europe.In 1981, the first IBM PC, with the PC DOS operating system, was introduced.", "The imbalance between the high affordability of the relatively powerful chips in the PC, compared to the much more expensive cost of processing power in the mainframes that dominated the corporate IT world at the time, created a new type of architecture for corporate computing, termed the client–server model.", "Calculations and reasoning could be performed at a fraction of the price of a mainframe using a PC.", "This model also enabled business units to bypass corporate IT departments and directly build their own applications.", "As a result, client-server had a tremendous impact on the expert systems market.", "Expert systems were already outliers in much of the business world, requiring new skills that many IT departments did not have and were not eager to develop.", "They were a natural fit for new PC-based shells that promised to put application development into the hands of end users and experts.", "Until then, the main development environment for expert systems had been high end Lisp machines from Xerox, Symbolics, and Texas Instruments.", "With the rise of the PC and client-server computing, vendors such as Intellicorp and Inference Corporation shifted their priorities to developing PC-based tools.", "Also, new vendors, often financed by venture capital (such as Aion Corporation, Neuron Data, Exsys, and many others), started appearing regularly.The first expert system to be used in a design capacity for a large-scale product was the SID (Synthesis of Integral Design) software program, developed in 1982.Written in LISP, SID generated 93% of the VAX 9000 CPU logic gates.", "Input to the software was a set of rules created by several expert logic designers.", "SID expanded the rules and generated software logic synthesis routines many times the size of the rules themselves.", "Surprisingly, the combination of these rules resulted in an overall design that exceeded the capabilities of the experts themselves, and in many cases out-performed the human counterparts.", "While some rules contradicted others, top-level control parameters for speed and area provided the tie-breaker.", "The program was highly controversial but used nevertheless due to project budget constraints.", "It was terminated by logic designers after the VAX 9000 project completion.During the years before the middle of the 1970s, the expectations of what expert systems can accomplish in many fields tended to be extremely optimistic.", "At the beginning of these early studies, researchers were hoping to develop entirely automatic (i.e., completely computerized) expert systems.", "The expectations of people of what computers can do were frequently too idealistic.", "This situation radically changed after Richard M. Karp published his breakthrough paper: “Reducibility among Combinatorial Problems” in the early 1970s.", "Thanks to Karp's work, together with other scholars, like Hubert L. Dreyfus, it became clear that there are certain limitations and possibilities when one designs computer algorithms.", "His findings describe what computers can do and what they cannot do.", "Many of the computational problems related to this type of expert systems have certain pragmatic limitations.", "These findings laid down the groundwork that led to the next developments in the field.In the 1990s and beyond, the term ''expert system'' and the idea of a standalone AI system mostly dropped from the IT lexicon.", "There are two interpretations of this.", "One is that \"expert systems failed\": the IT world moved on because expert systems did not deliver on their over hyped promise.", "The other is the mirror opposite, that expert systems were simply victims of their success: as IT professionals grasped concepts such as rule engines, such tools migrated from being standalone tools for developing special purpose ''expert'' systems, to being one of many standard tools.", "Other researchers suggest that Expert Systems caused inter-company power struggles when the IT organization lost its exclusivity in software modifications to users or Knowledge Engineers.", "In the first decade of the 2000s, there was a \"resurrection\" for the technology, while using the term Rule Based Systems, with significant success stories and adoption.", "Many of the leading major business application suite vendors (such as SAP, Siebel, and Oracle) integrated expert system abilities into their suite of products as a way of specifying business logic – rule engines are no longer simply for defining the rules an expert would use but for any type of complex, volatile, and critical business logic; they often go hand in hand with business process automation and integration environments.=== Current approaches to expert systems ===The limitations of the previous type of expert systems have urged researchers to develop new types of approaches.", "They have developed more efficient, flexible, and powerful approaches in order to simulate the human decision-making process.", "Some of the approaches that researchers have developed are based on new methods of artificial intelligence (AI), and in particular in machine learning and data mining approaches with a feedback mechanism.", "Recurrent neural networks often take advantage of such mechanisms.", "Related is the discussion on the disadvantages section.", "Modern systems can incorporate new knowledge more easily and thus update themselves easily.", "Such systems can generalize from existing knowledge better and deal with vast amounts of complex data.", "Related is the subject of big data here.", "Sometimes these type of expert systems are called \"intelligent systems.", "\"More recently, it can be argued that Expert Systems have moved into the area of business rules and business rules management systems.", "This is discussed by Rolando Hernandez in his blog." ], [ "Software architecture", "Illustrating example of ''backward chaining'' from a 1990 Master's ThesisAn expert system is an example of a knowledge-based system.", "Expert systems were the first commercial systems to use a knowledge-based architecture.", "In general view, an expert system includes the following components: a knowledge base, an inference engine, an explanation facility, a knowledge acquisition facility, and a user interface.", "The knowledge base represents facts about the world.", "In early expert systems such as Mycin and Dendral, these facts were represented mainly as flat assertions about variables.", "In later expert systems developed with commercial shells, the knowledge base took on more structure and used concepts from object-oriented programming.", "The world was represented as classes, subclasses, and instances and assertions were replaced by values of object instances.", "The rules worked by querying and asserting values of the objects.The inference engine is an automated reasoning system that evaluates the current state of the knowledge-base, applies relevant rules, and then asserts new knowledge into the knowledge base.", "The inference engine may also include abilities for explanation, so that it can explain to a user the chain of reasoning used to arrive at a particular conclusion by tracing back over the firing of rules that resulted in the assertion.There are mainly two modes for an inference engine: forward chaining and backward chaining.", "The different approaches are dictated by whether the inference engine is being driven by the antecedent (left hand side) or the consequent (right hand side) of the rule.", "In forward chaining an antecedent fires and asserts the consequent.", "For example, consider the following rule:A simple example of forward chaining would be to assert Man(Socrates) to the system and then trigger the inference engine.", "It would match R1 and assert Mortal(Socrates) into the knowledge base.Backward chaining is a bit less straight forward.", "In backward chaining the system looks at possible conclusions and works backward to see if they might be true.", "So if the system was trying to determine if Mortal(Socrates) is true it would find R1 and query the knowledge base to see if Man(Socrates) is true.", "One of the early innovations of expert systems shells was to integrate inference engines with a user interface.", "This could be especially powerful with backward chaining.", "If the system needs to know a particular fact but does not, then it can simply generate an input screen and ask the user if the information is known.", "So in this example, it could use R1 to ask the user if Socrates was a Man and then use that new information accordingly.The use of rules to explicitly represent knowledge also enabled explanation abilities.", "In the simple example above if the system had used R1 to assert that Socrates was Mortal and a user wished to understand why Socrates was mortal they could query the system and the system would look back at the rules which fired to cause the assertion and present those rules to the user as an explanation.", "In English, if the user asked \"Why is Socrates Mortal?\"", "the system would reply \"Because all men are mortal and Socrates is a man\".", "A significant area for research was the generation of explanations from the knowledge base in natural English rather than simply by showing the more formal but less intuitive rules.As expert systems evolved, many new techniques were incorporated into various types of inference engines.", "Some of the most important of these were:* Truth maintenance.", "These systems record the dependencies in a knowledge-base so that when facts are altered, dependent knowledge can be altered accordingly.", "For example, if the system learns that Socrates is no longer known to be a man it will revoke the assertion that Socrates is mortal.", "* Hypothetical reasoning.", "In this, the knowledge base can be divided up into many possible views, a.k.a.", "worlds.", "This allows the inference engine to explore multiple possibilities in parallel.", "For example, the system may want to explore the consequences of both assertions, what will be true if Socrates is a Man and what will be true if he is not?", "* Uncertainty systems.", "One of the first extensions of simply using rules to represent knowledge was also to associate a probability with each rule.", "So, not to assert that Socrates is mortal, but to assert Socrates ''may'' be mortal with some probability value.", "Simple probabilities were extended in some systems with sophisticated mechanisms for uncertain reasoning, such as Fuzzy logic, and combination of probabilities.", "* Ontology classification.", "With the addition of object classes to the knowledge base, a new type of reasoning was possible.", "Along with reasoning simply about object values, the system could also reason about object structures.", "In this simple example, Man can represent an object class and R1 can be redefined as a rule that defines the class of all men.", "These types of special purpose inference engines are termed classifiers.", "Although they were not highly used in expert systems, classifiers are very powerful for unstructured volatile domains, and are a key technology for the Internet and the emerging Semantic Web." ], [ "Advantages", "The goal of knowledge-based systems is to make the critical information required for the system to work explicit rather than implicit.", "In a traditional computer program the logic is embedded in code that can typically only be reviewed by an IT specialist.", "With an expert system the goal was to specify the rules in a format that was intuitive and easily understood, reviewed, and even edited by domain experts rather than IT experts.", "The benefits of this explicit knowledge representation were rapid development and ease of maintenance.Ease of maintenance is the most obvious benefit.", "This was achieved in two ways.", "First, by removing the need to write conventional code, many of the normal problems that can be caused by even small changes to a system could be avoided with expert systems.", "Essentially, the logical flow of the program (at least at the highest level) was simply a given for the system, simply invoke the inference engine.", "This also was a reason for the second benefit: rapid prototyping.", "With an expert system shell it was possible to enter a few rules and have a prototype developed in days rather than the months or year typically associated with complex IT projects.A claim for expert system shells that was often made was that they removed the need for trained programmers and that experts could develop systems themselves.", "In reality, this was seldom if ever true.", "While the rules for an expert system were more comprehensible than typical computer code, they still had a formal syntax where a misplaced comma or other character could cause havoc as with any other computer language.", "Also, as expert systems moved from prototypes in the lab to deployment in the business world, issues of integration and maintenance became far more critical.", "Inevitably demands to integrate with, and take advantage of, large legacy databases and systems arose.", "To accomplish this, integration required the same skills as any other type of system.Summing up the benefits of using expert systems, the following can be highlighted: # Increased availability and reliability: Expertise can be accessed on any computer hardware and the system always completes responses on time.", "# Multiple expertise: Several expert systems can be run simultaneously to solve a problem.", "and gain a higher level of expertise than a human expert.", "# Explanation: Expert systems always describe of how the problem was solved.", "# Fast response: The expert systems are fast and able to solve a problem in real-time.", "# Reduced cost: The cost of expertise for each user is significantly reduced." ], [ "Disadvantages", "The most common disadvantage cited for expert systems in the academic literature is the knowledge acquisition problem.", "Obtaining the time of domain experts for any software application is always difficult, but for expert systems it was especially difficult because the experts were by definition highly valued and in constant demand by the organization.", "As a result of this problem, a great deal of research in the later years of expert systems was focused on tools for knowledge acquisition, to help automate the process of designing, debugging, and maintaining rules defined by experts.", "However, when looking at the life-cycle of expert systems in actual use, other problems – essentially the same problems as those of any other large system – seem at least as critical as knowledge acquisition: integration, access to large databases, and performance.Performance could be especially problematic because early expert systems were built using tools (such as earlier Lisp versions) that interpreted code expressions without first compiling them.", "This provided a powerful development environment, but with the drawback that it was virtually impossible to match the efficiency of the fastest compiled languages (such as C).", "System and database integration were difficult for early expert systems because the tools were mostly in languages and platforms that were neither familiar to nor welcome in most corporate IT environments – programming languages such as Lisp and Prolog, and hardware platforms such as Lisp machines and personal computers.", "As a result, much effort in the later stages of expert system tool development was focused on integrating with legacy environments such as COBOL and large database systems, and on porting to more standard platforms.", "These issues were resolved mainly by the client–server paradigm shift, as PCs were gradually accepted in the IT environment as a legitimate platform for serious business system development and as affordable minicomputer servers provided the processing power needed for AI applications.Another major challenge of expert systems emerges when the size of the knowledge base increases.", "This causes the processing complexity to increase.", "For instance, when an expert system with 100 million rules was envisioned as the ultimate expert system, it became obvious that such system would be too complex and it would face too many computational problems.", "An inference engine would have to be able to process huge numbers of rules to reach a decision.How to verify that decision rules are consistent with each other is also a challenge when there are too many rules.", "Usually such problem leads to a satisfiability (SAT) formulation.", "This is a well-known NP-complete problem Boolean satisfiability problem.", "If we assume only binary variables, say n of them, and then the corresponding search space is of size 2.Thus, the search space can grow exponentially.There are also questions on how to prioritize the use of the rules in order to operate more efficiently, or how to resolve ambiguities (for instance, if there are too many else-if sub-structures within a single rule) and so on.Other problems are related to the overfitting and overgeneralization effects when using known facts and trying to generalize to other cases not described explicitly in the knowledge base.", "Such problems exist with methods that employ machine learning approaches too.Another problem related to the knowledge base is how to make updates of its knowledge quickly and effectively.", "Also how to add a new piece of knowledge (i.e., where to add it among many rules) is challenging.", "Modern approaches that rely on machine learning methods are easier in this regard.Because of the above challenges, it became clear that new approaches to AI were required instead of rule-based technologies.", "These new approaches are based on the use of machine learning techniques, along with the use of feedback mechanisms.The key challenges that expert systems in medicine (if one considers computer-aided diagnostic systems as modern expert systems), and perhaps in other application domains, include issues related to aspects such as: big data, existing regulations, healthcare practice, various algorithmic issues, and system assessment.Finally, the following disadvantages of using expert systems can be summarized: # Expert systems have superficial knowledge, and a simple task can potentially become computationally expensive.", "# Expert systems require knowledge engineers to input the data, data acquisition is very hard.", "# The expert system may choose the most inappropriate method for solving a particular problem.", "# Problems of ethics in the use of any form of AI are very relevant at present.", "# It is a closed world with specific knowledge, in which there is no deep perception of concepts and their interrelationships until an expert provides them." ], [ "Applications", "Hayes-Roth divides expert systems applications into 10 categories illustrated in the following table.", "The example applications were not in the original Hayes-Roth table, and some of them arose well afterward.", "Any application that is not footnoted is described in the Hayes-Roth book.", "Also, while these categories provide an intuitive framework to describe the space of expert systems applications, they are not rigid categories, and in some cases an application may show traits of more than one category.", "Category Problem addressed Examples Interpretation Inferring situation descriptions from sensor data Hearsay (speech recognition), PROSPECTOR Prediction Inferring likely consequences of given situations Preterm Birth Risk Assessment Diagnosis Inferring system malfunctions from observables CADUCEUS, MYCIN, PUFF, Mistral, Eydenet, Kaleidos, GARVAN-ES1 Design Configuring objects under constraints Dendral, Mortgage Loan Advisor, R1 (DEC VAX Configuration), SID (DEC VAX 9000 CPU) Planning Designing actions Mission Planning for Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Monitoring Comparing observations to plan vulnerabilities REACTOR Debugging Providing incremental solutions for complex problems SAINT, MATHLAB, MACSYMA Repair Executing a plan to administer a prescribed remedy Toxic Spill Crisis Management Instruction Diagnosing, assessing, and correcting student behaviour SMH.PAL, Intelligent Clinical Training, STEAMER Control Interpreting, predicting, repairing, and monitoring system behaviors Real Time Process Control, Space Shuttle Mission Control, Smart Autoclave Cure of CompositesHearsay was an early attempt at solving voice recognition through an expert systems approach.", "For the most part this category of expert systems was not all that successful.", "Hearsay and all interpretation systems are essentially pattern recognition systems—looking for patterns in noisy data.", "In the case of Hearsay recognizing phonemes in an audio stream.", "Other early examples were analyzing sonar data to detect Russian submarines.", "These kinds of systems proved much more amenable to a neural network AI solution than a rule-based approach.CADUCEUS and MYCIN were medical diagnosis systems.", "The user describes their symptoms to the computer as they would to a doctor and the computer returns a medical diagnosis.Dendral was a tool to study hypothesis formation in the identification of organic molecules.", "The general problem it solved—designing a solution given a set of constraints—was one of the most successful areas for early expert systems applied to business domains such as salespeople configuring Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VAX computers and mortgage loan application development.SMH.PAL is an expert system for the assessment of students with multiple disabilities.GARVAN-ES1 was a medical expert system, developed at the Garvan Institute of Medical Research, that provided automated clinical diagnostic comments on endocrine reports from a pathology laboratory.", "It was one of the first medical expert systems to go into routine clinical use internationally and the first expert system to be used for diagnosis daily in Australia.", "The system was written in \"C\" and ran on a PDP-11 in 64K of memory.", "It had 661 rules that were compiled; not interpreted.Mistral is an expert system to monitor dam safety, developed in the 1990s by Ismes (Italy).", "It gets data from an automatic monitoring system and performs a diagnosis of the state of the dam.", "Its first copy, installed in 1992 on the Ridracoli Dam (Italy), is still operational 24/7/365.It has been installed on several dams in Italy and abroad (e.g., Itaipu Dam in Brazil), and on landslide sites under the name of Eydenet, and on monuments under the name of Kaleidos.", "Mistral is a registered trade mark of CESI." ], [ "See also", "* AI winter* CLIPS* Constraint logic programming* Constraint satisfaction* Knowledge engineering* Learning classifier system* Rule-based machine learning" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* .", "* * * ." ], [ "External links", "* * Expert System tutorial on Code Project" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford''' (; 12 April 155024 June 1604) was an English peer and courtier of the Elizabethan era.", "Oxford was heir to the second oldest earldom in the kingdom, a court favourite for a time, a sought-after patron of the arts, and noted by his contemporaries as a lyric poet and court playwright, but his volatile temperament precluded him from attaining any courtly or governmental responsibility and contributed to the dissipation of his estate.Edward de Vere was the only son of John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford, and Margery Golding.", "After the death of his father in 1562, he became a ward of Queen Elizabeth I and was sent to live in the household of her principal advisor, Sir William Cecil.", "He married Cecil's daughter, Anne, with whom he had five children.", "Oxford was estranged from her for five years and refused to acknowledge he was the father of their first child.", "A champion jouster, Oxford travelled widely throughout France and the many states of Italy.", "He was among the first to compose love poetry at the Elizabethan court and was praised as a playwright, though none of the plays known as his survive.", "A stream of dedications praised Oxford for his generous patronage of literary, religious, musical, and medical works, and he patronised both adult and boy acting companies, as well as musicians, tumblers, acrobats and performing animals.He fell out of favour with the Queen in the early 1580s and was exiled from court and briefly imprisoned in the Tower of London when his mistress Anne Vavasour, one of Elizabeth's maids of honour, gave birth to his son in the palace.", "Vavasour, too, was incarcerated, and the affair instigated violent street brawls between Oxford and her kinsmen.", "He was reconciled to the Queen in May 1583 at Theobalds, but all opportunities for advancement had been lost.", "In 1586, the Queen granted Oxford £1,000 annually ($483,607 in 2020 US dollars) to relieve the financial distress caused by his extravagance and the sale of his income-producing lands for ready money.", "After the death of his first wife, Anne Cecil, Oxford married Elizabeth Trentham, one of the Queen's maids of honour, with whom he had an heir, Henry de Vere, Viscount Bulbeck (later 18th Earl of Oxford).", "Oxford died in 1604, having spent the entirety of his inherited estates.Since the 1920s, Oxford has been among the most prominent alternative candidates proposed for the authorship of Shakespeare's works." ], [ "Family and childhood", "The surviving keep of Hedingham Castle, the de Vere family seat since the Norman ConquestEdward de Vere was born heir to the second-oldest extant earldom in England at the de Vere ancestral home, Hedingham Castle, in Essex, northeast of London.", "He was the only son of John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford, and his second wife, Margery Golding and was probably named to honour Edward VI, from whom he received a gilded christening cup.", "He had an older half-sister, Katherine, the child of his father's first marriage to Dorothy Neville, and a younger sister, Mary de Vere.", "Both his parents had established court connections: the 16th Earl accompanying Princess Elizabeth from her house arrest at Hatfield to the throne, and the countess being appointed a maid of honour in 1559.Before his father's death, Edward de Vere was styled Viscount Bulbeck, or Bolebec, and was raised in the Protestant reformed faith.", "Like many children of the nobility, he was raised by surrogate parents, in his case in the household of Sir Thomas Smith.", "At eight he entered Queens' College, Cambridge, as an ''impubes'', or immature fellow-commoner, later transferring to St John's.", "Thomas Fowle, a former fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, was paid £10 annually as de Vere's tutor.His father died on 3 August 1562, shortly after making his will.", "Because he held lands from the Crown by knight service, his son became a royal ward of the Queen and was placed in the household of Sir William Cecil, her secretary of state and chief advisor.", "At 12, de Vere had become the 17th Earl of Oxford, Lord Great Chamberlain of England, and heir to an estate whose annual income, though assessed at approximately £2,500, may have run as high as £3,500 (£ as of )." ], [ "Wardship", "William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, the Queen's Secretary of State and de Vere's father-in-law, c. 1571.While living at the Cecil House, Oxford's daily studies consisted of dancing instruction, French, Latin, cosmography, writing exercises, drawing, and common prayers.", "During his first year at Cecil House, he was briefly tutored by Laurence Nowell, the antiquarian and Anglo-Saxon scholar.", "In a letter to Cecil, Nowell explains: \"I clearly see that my work for the Earl of Oxford cannot be much longer required\", and his departure after eight months has been interpreted as either a sign of the thirteen-year-old Oxford's intractability as a pupil, or an indication that his precocity surpassed Nowell's ability to instruct him.", "In May 1564 Arthur Golding, in his dedication to his ''Th' Abridgement of the Histories of Trogus Pompeius'', attributed to his young nephew an interest in ancient history and contemporary events.In 1563, Oxford's older half-sister, Katherine, then Lady Windsor, challenged the legitimacy of the marriage of de Vere's parents in the Ecclesiastical court.", "His uncle Golding argued that the Archbishop of Canterbury should halt the proceedings since a proceeding against a ward of the Queen could not be brought without prior licence from the Court of Wards and Liveries.Some time before October 1563, Oxford's mother married secondly Charles Tyrrell, a Gentleman Pensioner.", "In May 1565 she wrote to Cecil, urging that the money from family properties set aside by Oxford's father's will for his use during his minority should be entrusted to herself and other family friends, to protect it and to ensure that Oxford would be able to meet the expenses of furnishing his household and suing his livery when he reached his majority; this last would end his wardship, through cancelling his debt with the Court of Wards, and convey to him the powers attached to his titles.", "There is no evidence that Cecil ever replied to her request.", "She died three years later, and was buried beside her first husband at Earls Colne.", "Oxford's stepfather, Charles Tyrrell, died in March 1570.In August 1564 Oxford was among 17 noblemen, knights, and esquires in the Queen's entourage who were awarded the honorary degree of Master of Arts by the University of Cambridge, and he was awarded another by the University of Oxford on a Royal progress in 1566.His future father-in-law, William Cecil, also received honorary degrees of Master of Arts on the same progresses.", "There is no evidence that Oxford ever received a Bachelor of Arts degree.", "In February 1567 he was admitted to Gray's Inn to study law.On 23 July 1567, while practising fencing in the backyard of Cecil House in the Strand, the seventeen-year-old Oxford killed Thomas Brincknell, an under-cook in the Cecil household.", "At the coroner's inquest the next day, the jury, which included Oxford's servant, and Cecil's protégé, the future historian Raphael Holinshed, found that Brincknell, drunk, had deliberately committed suicide by running onto Oxford's blade.", "As a suicide, he was not buried in consecrated ground, and all his worldly possessions were confiscated, leaving his pregnant wife destitute.", "She delivered a stillborn child shortly after Brinknell's death.", "Cecil later wrote that he attempted to have the jury find that Oxford had acted in self-defence.Records of books purchased for Oxford in 1569 attest to his continued interest in history, as well as literature and philosophy.", "Among them were editions of a gilt Geneva Bible, Chaucer, Plutarch, two books in Italian, and folio editions of Cicero and Plato.", "In the same year Thomas Underdown dedicated his translation of the ''Æthiopian History'' of Heliodorus to Oxford, praising his 'haughty courage', 'great skill' and 'sufficiency of learning'.", "In the winter of 1570, Oxford made the acquaintance of the mathematician and astrologer John Dee and became interested in occultism, studying magic and conjuring.In 1569, Oxford received his first vote for membership in the Order of the Garter, but never attained the honour in spite of his high rank and office.", "In November of that year, Oxford petitioned Cecil for a foreign military posting.", "Although the Roman Catholic Revolt of the Northern Earls had broken out that year, Elizabeth refused to grant the request.", "Cecil eventually obtained a position for Oxford under the Earl of Sussex in a Scottish campaign the following spring.", "He and Sussex became staunch mutual supporters at court." ], [ "Coming of age", "Coat of Arms of Edward de Vere from George Baker's ''The composition or making of the moste excellent and pretious oil called oleum magistrale'' (1574) On 12 April 1571, Oxford attained his majority and took his seat in the House of Lords.", "Great expectations attended his coming of age; Sir George Buck recalled predictions that 'he was much more like ... to acquire a new erldome then to wast & lose an old erldom', a prophecy that was never fulfilled.Although formal certification of his freedom from Burghley's control was deferred until May 1572, Oxford was finally granted the income of £666 which his father had intended him to have earlier, but properties set aside to pay his father's debts would not come his way for another decade.", "During his minority as the Queen's ward, one-third of his estate had already reverted to the Crown, much of which Elizabeth had long since settled on Robert Dudley.", "Elizabeth demanded a further payment of £3,000 for overseeing the wardship and a further £4,000 for suing his livery.", "Oxford pledged double the amount if he failed to pay when it fell due, effectively risking a total obligation of £21,000.By 1571, Oxford was a court favourite of Elizabeth's.", "In May, he participated in the three-day tilt, tourney and barrier at which, although he did not win, he was given chief honours in celebration of the attainment of his majority, his prowess winning admiring comments from spectators.", "In August, Oxford attended Paul de Foix, who had come to England to negotiate a marriage between the Protestant Queen Elizabeth and the Catholic Prince François de France, duc d'Anjou, the youngest brother of King Henry III of France of the House of Valois-Angoulême.", "The marriage had been proposed in 1572 as part of the negotiations between England and France to break the power of Spain.", "In November 1579 the husband of Oxford's first cousin Anne Vere, John Stubbs, and William Page had their right hand publicly cut off for the pamphlet critical of the Queen's proposed marriage to Prince François and therefore judged seditious.Oxford's published poetry dates from this period and, along with Edward Dyer he was one of the first courtiers to introduce vernacular verse to the court." ], [ "Marriage", "The Royal Palace of Whitehall where the Earl of Oxford married Anne Cecil, as it appeared about 100 years laterIn 1562, the 16th Earl of Oxford had contracted with Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, for his son Edward to marry one of Huntingdon's sisters; when he reached the age of eighteen, he was to choose either Elizabeth or Mary Hastings.", "However, after the death of the 16th Earl, the indenture was allowed to lapse.", "Elizabeth Hastings later married Edward Somerset, while Mary Hastings died unmarried.In the summer of 1571, Oxford declared an interest in Cecil's 14 year-old daughter, Anne, and received the queen's consent to the marriage.", "Anne had been pledged to Philip Sidney two years earlier, but after a year of negotiations Sidney's father, Sir Henry, was declining in the Queen's favour and Cecil suspected financial difficulties.", "In addition, Cecil had been elevated to the peerage as Lord Burghley in February 1571, thus elevating his daughter's rank, so the negotiations were cancelled.", "Cecil was displeased with the arrangement, given his daughter's age compared to Oxford's, and had entertained the idea of marrying her to the Earl of Rutland instead.", "The marriage was deferred until Anne was fifteen and finally took place at the Palace of Whitehall on 16 December 1571, in a triple wedding with that of Lady Elizabeth Hastings and Edward Somerset, Lord Herbert, and Edward Sutton, 4th Baron Dudley and bride, Mary Howard, with the Queen in attendance.", "The tying of two young English noblemen of great fortune into Protestant families was not lost on Elizabeth's Catholic enemies.", "Burghley gave Oxford for his daughter's dowry land worth £800, and a cash settlement of £3,000.This amount was equal to Oxford's livery fees and was probably intended to be used as such, but the money vanished without a trace.Oxford assigned Anne a jointure of some £669, but even though he was of age and a married man, he was still not in possession of his inheritance.", "After finally paying the Crown the £4,000 it demanded for his livery, he was finally licensed to enter on his lands in May 1572.He was entitled to yearly revenues from his estates and the office of Lord Great Chamberlain of approximately £2,250, but he was not entitled to the income from his mother's jointure until after her death, nor to the income from certain estates set aside until 1583 to pay his father's debts.", "In addition, the fines assessed against Oxford in the Court of Wards for his wardship, marriage, and livery already totalled some £3,306.To guarantee payment, he entered into bonds to the Court totalling £11,000, and two further private bonds for £6,000 apiece.In 1572, Oxford's first cousin and closest relative, the Duke of Norfolk, was found guilty of a Catholic conspiracy against Elizabeth and was executed for treason.", "Oxford had earlier petitioned both the Queen and Burghley on the condemned Norfolk's behalf, to no avail, and it was claimed in a \"murky petition from an unidentified woman\" that he had plotted to provide a ship to assist his cousin's escape attempt to Spain.The following summer, Oxford planned to travel to Ireland; at this point, his debts were estimated at a minimum of £6,000.In the summer of 1574, Elizabeth admonished Oxford \"for his unthriftyness\", and on 1 July he bolted to the continent without permission, travelling to Calais with Lord Edward Seymour, and then to Flanders, \"carrying a great sum of money with him\".", "Coming as it did during a time of expected hostilities with Spain, Mary, Queen of Scots, interpreted his flight as an indication of his Catholic sympathies, as did the Catholic rebels then living on the continent.", "Burghley, however, assured the queen that Oxford was loyal, and she sent two Gentlemen Pensioners to summon him back, under threat of heavy penalties.", "Oxford returned to England by the end of the month and was in London on the 28th.", "His request for a place on the Privy Council was rejected, but the queen's anger was abated and she promised him a licence to travel to Paris, Germany, and Italy on his pledge of good behaviour." ], [ "Foreign travel", "In January 1575 Elizabeth issued a licence to Oxford to travel, and provided him with letters of introduction to foreign monarchs.", "Prior to his departure, he entered into two indentures.", "In the first contract, he sold his manors in Cornwall, Staffordshire and Wiltshire to three trustees for £6,000.In the second, to prevent his estates passing by default to his sister Mary in the event of his dying abroad without heirs, he entailed the lands of the earldom on his first cousin, Hugh Vere.", "The indenture also provided for payment of debts amounting to £9,096, £3,457 of which was still owed to the Queen as expenses for his wardship.Oxford left England in the first week of February 1575, and a month later was presented to the King and Queen of France.", "News that his new wife, Anne, was pregnant had reached him in Paris, and he sent her many extravagant presents in the coming months.", "But somewhere along the way, his mind was poisoned against Anne and the Cecils, and he became convinced that the expected child was not his.", "The elder Cecils loudly voiced their outrage at the rumours, which probably worsened the situation.", "In mid-March he travelled to Strasbourg, and then made his way to Venice, via Milan.", "Although his daughter, Elizabeth, was born at the beginning of July, for unexplained reasons Oxford did not learn of her birth until late September.Oxford remained in Italy for a year, during which he was evidently captivated by Italian fashions in clothing, jewellery and cosmetics.", "He is recorded by John Stow as having introduced various Italian luxury items to the English court which immediately became fashionable, such as embroidered or trimmed scented gloves.", "Elizabeth had a pair of decorated gloves scented with perfume that for many years was known as the \"Earl of Oxford's perfume\".", "Lacking evidence, his interest in higher Italian culture, its literature, music and visual art, is less sure.", "His only recorded judgement about the country itself was unenthusiastic.", "In a letter to Burghley he wrote, \".", "\"In January 1576 Oxford wrote to Lord Burghley from Siena about complaints that had reached him about his creditors' demands, which included the Queen and his sister, and directing that more of his land be sold to pay them.", "He left Venice in March, intending to return home by way of Lyons and Paris; although one later report has him as far south as Palermo in Sicily.", "At this point the Italian financier Benedict Spinola had lent Oxford over £4,000 for his 15-month-long continental tour, while in England over a hundred tradesmen were seeking settlement of debts totalling thousands of pounds.On Oxford's return across the Channel in April 1576, his ship was seized by pirates from Flushing, who took his possessions, stripped him to his shirt, and might have murdered him had not one of them recognized him.On his return, Oxford refused to live with his wife and took rooms at Charing Cross.", "Aside from the unspoken suspicion that Elizabeth was not his child, Burghley's papers reveal a flood of bitter complaints by Oxford against the Cecil family.", "Upon the Queen's request, he allowed his wife to attend the Queen at court, but only when he was not present, and he insisted that she not attempt to speak to him.", "He also stipulated that Burghley must make no further appeals to him on Anne's behalf.", "He was estranged from Anne for five years.In February 1577 it was rumoured that Oxford's sister Mary would marry Lord Gerald Fitzgerald (1559–1580), but by 2 July her name was linked with that of Peregrine Bertie, later Lord Willoughby d'Eresby.", "Bertie's mother, the Duchess of Suffolk, wrote to Lord Burghley that \"my wise son has gone very far with my Lady Mary Vere, I fear too far to turn\".", "Both the Duchess and her husband Richard Bertie first opposed the marriage, and the Queen initially withheld her consent.", "Oxford's own opposition to the match was so vehement that for some time Mary's prospective husband feared for his life.", "On 15 December the Duchess of Suffolk wrote to Burghley describing a plan she and Mary had devised to arrange a meeting between Oxford and his daughter.", "Whether the scheme came to fruition is unknown.", "Mary and Bertie were married sometime before March of the following year." ], [ "Quarrels, plots and scandals", "Oxford had sold his inherited lands in Cornwall, Staffordshire, and Wiltshire prior to his continental tour.", "On his return to England in 1576 he sold his manors in Devonshire; by the end of 1578 he had sold at least seven more.In 1577 Oxford invested £25 in the second of Martin Frobisher's expeditions in search of the Northwest Passage.", "In July 1577, he asked the Crown for the grant of Castle Rising, which had been forfeited to the Crown due to his cousin Norfolk's attainder in 1572.As soon as it was granted to him, he sold it, along with two other manors, and sank some £3,000 into Frobisher's third expedition.", "The 'gold' ore brought back turned out to be worthless, and Oxford lost the entire investment.In the summer of 1578, Oxford attended the Queen's progress through East Anglia.", "The royal party stayed at Lord Henry Howard's residence at Audley End.", "A contretemps occurred during the progress in mid-August when the Queen twice asked Oxford to dance before the French ambassadors, who were in England to negotiate a marriage between the 46-year-old English queen and the younger brother of Henri III of France, the 24 year-old Duke of Anjou.", "Oxford refused, on the grounds that he \"would not give pleasure to Frenchmen\".In April 1578, the Spanish ambassador, Bernardino de Mendoza, had written to King Philip II of Spain that it had been proposed that if Anjou were to travel to England to negotiate his marriage to the Queen, Oxford, Surrey, and Windsor should be hostages for his safe return.", "Anjou himself did not arrive in England until the end of August, but his ambassadors were already in England.", "Oxford was sympathetic to the proposed marriage; Leicester and his nephew Philip Sidney were adamantly opposed to it.", "This antagonism may have triggered the famous quarrel between Oxford and Sidney on the tennis court at Whitehall.", "It is not entirely clear who was playing on the court when the fight erupted; what is undisputed is that Oxford called Sidney a 'puppy', while Sidney responded that \"all the world knows puppies are gotten by dogs, and children by men\".", "The French ambassadors, whose private galleries overlooked the tennis court, were witness to the display.", "Whether it was Sidney who next challenged Oxford to a duel or the other way around, the matter was not taken further, and the Queen personally took Sidney to task for not recognizing the difference between his status and Oxford's.", "Christopher Hatton and Sidney's friend Hubert Languet also tried to dissuade Sidney from pursuing the matter, and it was eventually dropped.", "The specific cause is not known, but in January 1580 Oxford wrote and challenged Sidney; by the end of the month Oxford was confined by the Queen to his chambers, and was not released until early February.Oxford openly quarrelled with the Earl of Leicester at about this time; he was confined to his chamber at Greenwich for some time 'about the libelling between him and my Lord of Leicester'.", "In the summer of 1580, Gabriel Harvey, apparently motivated by a desire to ingratiate himself with Leicester, satirized Oxford's love for things Italian in verses entitled ''Speculum Tuscanismi'' and in ''Three Proper and Witty Familiar Letters''.Although details are unclear, there is evidence that in 1577 Oxford attempted to leave England to see service in the French Wars of Religion on the side of King Henry III.", "Like many members of older established aristocratic families in England, he inclined to Roman Catholicism; and after his return from Italy, he was reported to have embraced the religion, perhaps after a distant kinsman, Charles Arundell, introduced him to a seminary priest named Richard Stephens.", "But just as quickly, by late in 1580 he had denounced a group of Catholics, among them Arundell, Francis Southwell, and Henry Howard, for treasonous activities and asking the Queen's mercy for his own, now repudiated, Catholicism.", "Elizabeth characteristically delayed in acting on the matter and Oxford was detained under house arrest for a short time.Queen Elizabeth I.", "The so-called Phoenix Portrait, c. 1575Leicester is credited by author Alan H. Nelson with having \"dislodged Oxford from the pro-French group\", i.e., the group at court which favoured Elizabeth's marriage to the Duke of Anjou.", "The Spanish ambassador, Mendoza, was also of the view that Leicester was behind Oxford's informing on his fellow Catholics in an attempt to prevent the French marriage.", "Peck concurs, stating that Leicester was \"intent upon rendering Sussex's allies politically useless\".The Privy Council ordered the arrest of both Howard and Arundel; Oxford immediately met secretly with Arundell to convince him to support his allegations against Howard and Southwell, offering him money and a pardon from the Queen.", "Arundell refused this offer, and he and Howard initially sought asylum with Mendoza.", "Only after being assured that they would be placed under house arrest in the home of a Privy Councillor, did the pair give themselves up.", "During the first weeks after their arrest they pursued a threefold strategy: they would admit to minor crimes, attempt to prove Oxford a liar by his offers of money to testify to his accusations, and try to demonstrate that their accuser posed the real danger to the Crown.", "Their allegations against Oxford included atheism, lying, heresy, disobedience to the crown, treason, murder for hire, sexual perversion, habitual drunkenness, vowing to murder various courtiers, and criticizing the Queen for doing \"everything with the worst grace that ever woman did.\"", "Most seriously, Howard and Arundell charged Oxford with serial child rape, claiming he'd abused \"so many boyes it must nedes come out.\"", "Detailed testimony from nearly a dozen victims and witnesses substantiated the charge and included names, dates, and places.", "Two of the six boys named had sought help from adults after Oxford raped them violently and denied them medical care.", "A young cook named Powers reported being subjected to multiple assaults at Hampton Court in the winter of 1577-78, at Whitehall, and in Oxford's Broad Street home.", "Orazio Coquo's account is well documented outside the Howard-Arundel report.", "In testimony to the Venetian Inquisition dated 27 August 1577, Coquo explained that he was singing in the choir at Venice's Santa Maria Formosa on 1 March 1576 when Oxford invited him to work in England as his page.", "Then 15, the boy sought his parents' advice and departed Venice just 4 days later.", "Coquo arrived with Oxford in Dover on 20 April 1576 and fled 11 months later on 20 March 1577, aided by a Milanese merchant who gave him 25 ducats for the journey: He \"told me that I would be corrupted if I remained,\" Orazio testified, \"and he didn't want me to stay there any longer.\"", "When asked whether he sought Oxford's permission before leaving, the boy replied, \"Sirs, no, because he would not have allowed me to leave.", "\"Arundell and Howard cleared themselves of Oxford's accusations, although Howard remained under house arrest into August, while Arundell was not freed until October or November.", "None of the three was ever indicted or tried.", "Neither Arundell nor Howard ever returned to court favour, and after the Throckmorton Plot of 1583 in support of Mary, Queen of Scots, Arundell fled to Paris with Thomas, Lord Paget, the elder brother of the conspirator Charles Paget.", "In the meantime, Oxford won a tournament at Westminster on 22 January.", "His page's speech at the tournament, describing Oxford's appearance as the Knight of the Tree of the Sun, was published in 1592 in a pamphlet entitled ''Plato, Axiochus''.On 14 April 1589 Oxford was among the peers who found Philip Howard, Earl of Arundel, the eldest son and heir of Oxford's cousin, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk, guilty of treason; Arundel later died in prison.", "Oxford later insisted that \"the Howards were the most treacherous race under heaven\" and that \"my Lord Howard was the worst villain that lived in this earth.", "\"During the early 1580s, it is likely that the Earl of Oxford lived mainly at one of his Essex country houses, Wivenhoe, which was sold in 1584.In June 1580 he purchased a tenement and seven acres of land near Aldgate in London from the Italian merchant Benedict Spinola for £2,500.The property, located in the parish of St Botolphs, was known as the Great Garden of Christchurch and had formerly belonged to Magdalene College, Cambridge.", "He also purchased a London residence, a mansion in Bishopsgate known as Fisher's Folly.", "According to Henry Howard, Oxford paid a large sum for the property and renovations to it.Anne Vavasour, maid of honour to Elizabeth I, mother of de Vere's illegitimate sonOn 23 March 1581 Sir Francis Walsingham advised the Earl of Huntingdon that two days earlier Anne Vavasour, one of the Queen's maids of honour, had given birth to a son, and that \"the Earl of Oxford is avowed to be the father, who hath withdrawn himself with intent, as it is thought, to pass the seas\".", "Oxford was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London, as was Anne and her infant, who would later be known as Sir Edward Vere.", "Burghley interceded for Oxford, and he was released from the Tower on 8 June, but he remained under house arrest until some time in July.While Oxford was under house arrest in May, Thomas Stocker dedicated to him his ''Divers Sermons of Master John Calvin'', stating in the dedication that he had been \"brought up in your Lordship's father's house\".", "Oxford was still under house arrest in mid-July, but took part in an Accession Day tournament at Whitehall on 17 November 1581.He was then banished from court until June 1583.He appealed to Burghley to intervene with the Queen on his behalf, but his father-in-law repeatedly put the matter in the hands of Sir Christopher Hatton.", "At Christmas 1581, Oxford was reconciled with his wife, Anne, but his affair with Anne Vavasour continued to have repercussions.", "In March 1582 there was a skirmish in the streets of London between Oxford and Anne's uncle, Sir Thomas Knyvet.", "Oxford was wounded, and his servant killed; reports conflict as to whether Kynvet was also injured.", "There was another fray between Knyvet's and Oxford's retinues on 18 June, and a third six days later, when it was reported that Knyvet had \"slain a man of the Earl of Oxford's in fight\".", "In a letter to Burghley three years later Oxford offered to attend his father-in-law at his house \"as well as a lame man might\"; it is possible his lameness was a result of injuries from that encounter.", "On 19 January 1585 Anne Vavasour's brother Thomas sent Oxford a written challenge; it appears to have been ignored.Meanwhile, the street brawling between factions continued.", "Another of Oxford's men was killed in January, and in March Burghley wrote to Sir Christopher Hatton about the death of one of Knyvet's men, thanking Hatton for his efforts \"to bring some good end to these troublesome matters betwixt my Lord Oxford and Mr Thomas Knyvet\".On 6 May 1583, eighteen months after their reconciliation, Edward and Anne's only son was born, but died the same day.", "The infant was buried at Castle Hedingham three days later.After intervention by Burghley and Sir Walter Raleigh, Oxford was reconciled to the Queen, and his two-year exile from court ended at the end of May on condition of his guarantee of good behaviour.", "However, he never regained his position as a courtier of the first magnitude." ], [ "Theatrical enterprises", "The previous Earl of Oxford had maintained a company of players known as Oxford's Men, which was discontinued by the 17th Earl two years after his father's death.", "Beginning in 1580, Oxford patronised both adult and boy companies and a company of musicians, and also sponsored performances by tumblers, acrobats, and performing animals.", "The new Oxford's Men toured the provinces between 1580 and 1587.Sometime after November 1583, Oxford bought a sublease of the premises used by the boy companies in the Blackfriars, and then gave it to his secretary, the writer John Lyly.", "Lyly installed Henry Evans, a Welsh scrivener and theatrical affectionado, as the manager of the new company of Oxford's Boys, composed of the Children of the Chapel and the Children of Paul's, and turned his talents to playwriting until the end of June 1584, when the original playhouse lease was voided by its owner.", "In 1584–1585, \"the Earl of Oxford's musicians\" received payments for performances in the cities of Oxford and Barnstaple.", "Oxford's Men (also known as Oxford's Players) stayed active until 1602." ], [ "Royal annuity", "On 6 April 1584, Oxford's daughter Bridget was born, and two works were dedicated to him, Robert Greene's ''Gwydonius; The Card of Fancy'', and John Southern's ''Pandora''.", "Verses in the latter work mention Oxford's knowledge of astronomy, history, languages, and music.Oxford's financial situation was steadily deteriorating.", "At this point, he had sold almost all his inherited lands, which cut him off from what had been his principal source of income.", "Moreover, because the properties were security for his unpaid debt to the Queen in the Court of Wards, he had had to enter into a bond with the purchaser, guaranteeing that he would indemnify them if the Queen were to make a claim against the lands to collect on the debt.", "To avoid this eventuality, the purchasers of his estates agreed to pay Oxford's debt to the Court of Wards in instalments.In 1585 negotiations were underway for King James VI of Scotland to come to England to discuss the release of his mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, and in March Oxford was to be sent to Scotland as one of the hostages for James's safety.In 1586, Oxford petitioned the Queen for an annuity to relieve his distressed financial situation.", "His father-in-law made him several large loans, and Elizabeth granted him a £1,000 annuity, to be continued at her pleasure or until he could be provided for otherwise.", "This annuity was later continued by James I.", "De Vere's widow, Elizabeth, petitioned James I for an annuity of £250 on behalf of her 11-year-old son, Henry, to continue the £1,000 annuity granted to de Vere.", "Henry was ultimately awarded a £200 annuity for life.", "James I would continue the grant after her death.Another daughter, Susan, was born on 26 May 1587.On 12 September, another daughter, Frances, is recorded as buried at Edmonton.", "Her birthdate is unknown; presumably, she was between one and three years of age.In July Elizabeth granted the Earl property which had been seized from Edward Jones, who had been executed for his role in the Babington Plot.", "In order to protect the land from Oxford's creditors, the grant was made in the name of two trustees.", "At the end of November it was agreed that the purchasers of Oxford's lands would pay his entire debt of some £3,306 due to the Court of Wards over a five-year period, finishing in 1592.In July and August 1588 England was threatened by the Spanish Armada.", "On 28 July Leicester, who was in overall command of the English land troops, asked for instructions regarding Oxford, stating that \"he seems most willing to hazard his life in this quarrel\".", "The Earl was offered the governorship of the port of Harwich, but he thought it was unworthy and declined the post; Leicester was glad to be rid of him.In December 1588 Oxford had secretly sold his London mansion ''Fisher's Folly'' to Sir William Cornwallis; by January 1591 the author Thomas Churchyard was dealing with rent owing for rooms he had taken in a house on behalf of his patron.", "Oxford wrote to Burghley outlining a plan to purchase the manorial lands of Denbigh, in Wales, if the Queen would consent, offering to pay for them by commuting his £1,000 annuity and agreeing to abandon his suit to regain the Forest of Essex (Waltham Forest), and to deed over his interests in Hedingham and Brets for the use of his children, who were living with Burghley under his guardianship.In the spring of 1591, the plan for the purchasers of his land to discharge his debt to the Court of Wards was disrupted by the Queen's taking extents, or writs allowing a creditor to temporarily seize a debtor's property.", "Oxford complained that his servant Thomas Hampton had taken advantage of these writs by taking money from the tenants for his own use, and had also conspired with another of his servants to pass a fraudulent document under the Great Seal of England.", "The Lord Mayor, Thomas Skinner, was also involved.", "In June, Oxford wrote to Burghley reminding him that he had made an agreement with Elizabeth to relinquish his claim to the Forest of Essex for three reasons, one of which was the Queen's reluctance to punish Skinner's felony, which had caused Oxford to forfeit £20,000 in bonds and statutes.In 1586 Angel Day dedicated ''The English Secretary'', the first epistolary manual for writing model letters in English, to Oxford, and William Webbe praised him as \"most excellent among the rest\" of our poets in his ''Discourse of English Poetry''.", "In 1588 Anthony Munday dedicated to Oxford the two parts of his ''Palmerin d'Oliva''.", "The following year ''The Arte of English Poesie'', attributed to George Puttenham, placed Oxford among a \"crew\" of courtier poets; Puttenham also considered him among the best comic playwrights of the day.", "In 1590 Edmund Spenser addressed to Oxford the third of seventeen dedicatory sonnets which preface ''The Faerie Queene'', celebrating his patronage of poets.", "The composer John Farmer, who was in Oxford's service at the time, dedicated ''The First Set of Divers & Sundry Ways of Two Parts in One'' to him in 1591, noting in the dedication his patron's love of music." ], [ "Remarriage and later life", "His daughter Elizabeth de Vere, who married William Stanley, the 6th Earl of Derby, in January 1594/1595, at the Royal Court at GreenwichOn 5 June 1588 Oxford's wife Anne Cecil died at court of a fever; she was 31.On 4 July 1591 Oxford sold the Great Garden property at Aldgate to John Wolley and Francis Trentham.", "The arrangement was stated to be for the benefit of Francis's sister, Elizabeth Trentham, one of the Queen's Maids of Honour, whom Oxford married later that year.", "On 24 February 1593, at Stoke Newington, she gave birth to his only surviving son, Henry de Vere, Viscount Bulbeck, who was his heir.Between 1591 and 1592 Oxford disposed of the last of his large estates; Castle Hedingham, the seat of his earldom, went to Lord Burghley; it was held in trust for Oxford's three daughters by his first marriage.", "He commissioned his servant, Roger Harlakenden, to sell Colne Priory.", "Harlekenden contrived to undervalue the land, then purchase it (as well as other parcels that were not meant to be sold) under his son's name; the suits Oxford brought against Harlakenden for fraud dragged out for decades and were never settled in his lifetime.Protracted negotiations to arrange a match between his daughter Elizabeth and Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, did not result in marriage; on 19 November 1594, six weeks after Southampton turned 21, 'the young Earl of Southampton, refusing the Lady Vere, payeth £5000 of present money'.", "In January Elizabeth married William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby.", "Derby had promised Oxford his new bride would have £1,000 a year, but the financial provision for her was slow in materializing.His father-in-law, Lord Burghley, died on 4 August 1598 at the age of 78, leaving substantial bequests to Oxford's two unmarried daughters, Bridget and Susan.", "The bequests were structured to prevent Oxford from gaining control of his daughters' inheritances by assuming custody of them.Earlier negotiations for a marriage to William Herbert having fallen through, in May or June 1599 Oxford's 15 year-old daughter Bridget married Francis Norris.", "Susan married Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery.From March to August 1595 Oxford actively importuned the Queen, in competition with Lord Buckhurst, to operate the tin mines in Cornwall.", "He wrote to Burghley, enumerating years of fruitless attempts to amend his financial situation and complained: 'This last year past I have been a suitor to her Majesty that I might farm her tins, giving £3000 a year more than she had made.'", "Oxford's letters and memoranda indicate that he pursued his suit into 1596, and renewed it again three years later, but was ultimately unsuccessful in obtaining the tin monopoly.In October 1595, Oxford wrote to his brother-in-law, Sir Robert Cecil, of friction between himself and the ill-fated Earl of Essex, partly over his claim to property, terming him 'the only person that I dare rely upon in the court'.", "Cecil seems to have done little to further Oxford's interests in the suit.In March he was unable to go to court due to illness, in August he wrote to Burghley from Byfleet, where he had gone for his health: 'I find comfort in this air, but no fortune in the court.'", "In September, he again wrote of ill health, regretting he had not been able to pay attendance to the Queen.", "Two months later Rowland Whyte wrote to Sir Robert Sidney that 'Some say my Lord of Oxford is dead'.", "Whether the rumour of his death was related to the illness mentioned in his letters earlier in the year is unknown.", "Oxford attended his last Parliament in December, perhaps another indication of his failing health.On 28 April 1599 Oxford was sued by the widow of his tailor for a debt of £500 for services rendered some two decades earlier.", "He claimed that not only had he paid the debt, but that the tailor had absconded with 'cloth of gold and silver and other stuff' belonging to him, worth £800.The outcome of the suit is unknown.In July 1600 Oxford wrote requesting Sir Robert Cecil's help in securing an appointment as Governor of the Isle of Jersey, once again citing the Queen's unfulfilled promises to him.", "In February he again wrote for his support, this time for the office of President of Wales.", "As with his former suits, Oxford was again unsuccessful; during this time he was listed on the Pipe rolls as owing £20 for the subsidy.After the abortive Essex rebellion in February 1601, Oxford was 'the senior of the twenty-five noblemen' who rendered verdicts at the trials of Essex and Southampton for treason.", "After Essex's co-conspirator Sir Charles Danvers was executed in March, Oxford became a party to a complicated suit regarding lands which had reverted to the Crown by escheat at Danvers's attainder, a suit opposed by Danvers's kinsmen.", "De Vere continued to suffer from ill health, which kept him from court.", "On 4 December, Oxford was shocked that Cecil, who had encouraged him to undertake the Danvers suit on the Crown's behalf, had now withdrawn his support for it.", "As with all his other suits aimed at improving his financial situation, this last of Oxford's suits to the Queen ended in disappointment." ], [ "Last years", "In the early morning of 24 March 1603, Queen Elizabeth died without naming a successor.", "A few days beforehand, at his house at Hackney, Oxford had entertained the Earl of Lincoln, a nobleman known for erratic and violent behaviour similar to his host's.", "Lincoln reported that after dinner Oxford spoke of the Queen's impending death, claiming that the peers of England should decide the succession, and suggested that since Lincoln had 'a nephew of the blood royal ... Lord Hastings', he should be sent to France to find allies to support this claim.", "Lincoln relayed this conversation to Sir John Peyton, Lieutenant of the Tower, who, knowing how physically and financially infirm Oxford was, refused to take Lincoln's report as a serious threat to King James's accession.Oxford expressed his grief at the late Queen's death, and his apprehension for the future.", "These fears were unfounded; in letters to Cecil in May and June 1603 he again pressed his decades-long claim to have Waltham Forest (Forest of Essex) and the house and park of Havering restored to him, and on 18 July the new King granted his suit.", "On 25 July, Oxford was among those who officiated at the King's coronation, and a month later James confirmed his annuity of £1,000.Long weakened by poor health, Oxford passed custody of the Forest of Essex to his son-in-law Francis Norris and his cousin Sir Francis Vere on 18 June 1604.He died on 24 June of unknown causes at King's Place, Hackney, and was buried on 6 July in the Hackney churchyard of St Augustine's (now the parish of St. John-at-Hackney).", "Oxford's death passed without public or private notice.", "His grave was still unmarked on 25 November 1612 when his widow Elizabeth Trentham signed her will.", "She asked \"to be buried in the Church of Hackney within the Countie of Middlesex, as neare vnto unto the bodie of my said late deare and noble lorde and husband as may bee,\" and she requested that \"there bee in the said Church erected for vs us a tombe fittinge our degree.\"", "The 18th Earl of Oxford failed to fulfil his mother's request, and the location of his parents' graves has been lost to time.", "The absence of a grave marker and an unpublished manuscript written fifteen years after Oxford's death have led to questions regarding his burial place.", "Documentary records including the Hackney registers and the will of Oxford's widow (1612) confirm that he was buried in the church of St Augustine on 4 July 1604.One register lists \"Edward Veare earl of Oxford\" among burials; the other reads, \"Edward deVeare Erle of Oxenford was buryed the 6th daye of Iulye Anno 1604.\"", "A manuscript history of the Vere family (c. 1619) written by Oxford's first cousin, Percival Golding (1579-1635), raises the possibility of a re-interment sometime between 1612 and 1619 at Westminster Abbey:The same manuscript further suggests that Oxford enjoyed an honorary stewardship of the Privy Council in the last year of his life.", "While Nelson disputes his membership on the Council, Oxford's signature appears on a letter dated 8 April 1603 from the Privy Council to the Lord High Treasurer of England." ], [ "Literary reputation", "Eight poems by the Earl of Oxford were published in ''The Paradise of Dainty Devises'' (1576)Oxford's manuscript verses circulated widely in courtly circles.", "Three of his poems, \"When wert thou born desire\", \"My mind to me a kingdom is\", and \"Sitting alone upon my thought\", are among the texts that repeatedly appear in the surviving 16th-century manuscript miscellanies and poetical anthologies.", "His earliest published poem was \"The labouring man that tills the fertile soil\" in Thomas Bedingfield's translation of Cardano's ''Comforte'' (1573).", "Bedingfield's dedication to Oxford is dated 1 January 1572.In addition to his poem, Oxford also contributed a commendatory letter setting forth the reasons why Bedingfield should publish the work.", "In 1576 eight of his poems were published in the poetry miscellany ''The Paradise of Dainty Devises''.", "According to the introduction, all the poems in the collection were meant to be sung, but Oxford's were almost the only genuine love songs in the collection.", "Oxford's \"What cunning can express\" was published in ''The Phoenix Nest'' (1593) and republished in ''England's Helicon'' (1600).", "\"Who taught thee first to sigh alas my heart\" appeared in ''The Teares of Fancie'' (1593).", "''Brittons Bowre of Delight'' (1597) published \"If women could be fair and yet not fond\" under Oxford's name, but the attribution today is not considered certain.Contemporary critics praised Oxford as a poet and a playwright.", "William Webbe names him as \"the most excellent\" of Elizabeth's courtier poets.", "Puttenham's ''The Arte of English Poesie'' (1589), places him first on a list of courtier poets and includes an excerpt from \"When wert thou born desire\" as an example of \"his excellance and wit\".", "Puttenham also says that \"highest praise\" should be given to Oxford and Richard Edwardes for \"Comedy and Enterlude\".", "Francis Meres' ''Palladis Tamia'' (1598) names Oxford first by social rank of 17 playwrights listed who are \"the best for comedy amongst us\", and he also appears first on a list of seven Elizabethan courtly poets \"who honoured Poesie with their pens and practice\" in Henry Peacham's 1622 ''The Compleat Gentleman''.Steven W. May writes that the Earl of Oxford was Elizabeth's \"first truly prestigious courtier poet ... whose precedent did at least confer genuine respectability upon the later efforts of such poets as Sidney, Greville, and Raleigh.\"", "He describes de Vere as a \"competent, fairly experimental poet working in the established modes of mid-century lyric verse\" and his poetry as \"examples of the standard varieties of mid-Elizabethan amorous lyric\".", "May says that Oxford's youthful love lyrics, which have been described as experimental and innovative, \"create a dramatic break with everything known to have been written at the Elizabethan court up to that time\" by virtue of being lighter in tone and metre and more imaginative and free from the moralizing tone of the courtier poetry of the \"drab\" age, which tended to be occasional and instructive.", "and describes one poem, in which the author cries out against \"this loss of my good name\", as a \"defiant lyric without precedent in English Renaissance verse\".", "'''Loss of Good Name'''Excerpt from ''The Paradise of Dainty Devises'' (1576)Framed in the front of forlorn hope, past all recovery,I stayless stand to abide the shock of shame and infamy.My life through lingering long is lodged, in lair of loathsome ways,My death delayed to keep from life, the harm of hapless days;My spirits, my heart, my wit and force, in deep distress are drowned,The only loss of my good name, is of these griefs the ground.", "''Earl of Oxford, before 1576''Oxford was sought after for his literary and theatrical patronage; between 1564 and 1599, twenty-eight works were dedicated to him by authors, including Arthur Golding, John Lyly, Robert Greene, and Anthony Munday.", "Of his 33 dedications, 13 appeared in original or translated works of literature, a higher percentage of literary works than other patrons of similar means.", "His lifelong patronage of writers, musicians, and actors prompted May to term Oxford \"a nobleman with extraordinary intellectual interests and commitments\", whose biography exhibits a \"lifelong devotion to learning\".", "He goes on to say that \"Oxford's genuine commitment to learning throughout his career lends a necessary qualification to Stone's conclusion that de Vere simply squandered the more than 70,000 pounds he derived from selling off his patrimony ... for which some part of this amount de Vere acquired a splendid reputation for nurture of the arts and sciences\"." ], [ "Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship", "Rhys Ifans played Edward de Vere in the 2011 film ''Anonymous''The Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship proposes that the Earl of Oxford wrote the plays and poems traditionally attributed to William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon.", "Though rejected by nearly all academic Shakespeareans, it has been among the most popular alternative Shakespeare authorship theories since the 1920s.The Oxfordian theory was the central theme of the 2011 drama film ''Anonymous'', directed by Roland Emmerich." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * ** * ** * * * * ** * * * ** * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * ** *" ], [ "External links", "* De Vere's Patronage of Theater: ''Patrons and Performances Web Site''* * * Index entry for Edward de Vere at Poets' Corner* Edward de Vere Birthplace – Castle Hedingham" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erinyes" ], [ "Introduction", "Clytemnestra tries to awaken the sleeping Erinyes.", "Detail from an Apulian red-figure bell-krater, 380–370 BC.The '''Erinyes''' ( ; sing.", "'''Erinys''' ; , pl.", "of ), also known as the '''Eumenides''' (commonly known in English as the '''Furies'''), are chthonic goddesses of vengeance in ancient Greek religion and mythology.", "A formulaic oath in the ''Iliad'' invokes them as \"the Erinyes, that under earth take vengeance on men, whosoever hath sworn a false oath\".", "Walter Burkert suggests that they are \"an embodiment of the act of self-cursing contained in the oath\".", "They correspond to the '''Dirae''' in Roman mythology.", "The Roman writer Maurus Servius Honoratus wrote (ca.", "AD 400) that they are called \"Eumenides\" in hell, \"Furiae\" on Earth, and \"Dirae\" in heaven.", "Erinyes are akin to some other Greek deities, called Poenai.According to Hesiod's ''Theogony'', when the Titan Cronus castrated his father, Uranus, and threw his genitalia into the sea, the Erinyes (along with the Giants and the Meliae) emerged from the drops of blood which fell on the Earth (Gaia), while Aphrodite was born from the crests of sea foam.", "Pseudo-Apollodorus also reports this lineage.", "According to variant accounts they are the daughters of Nyx (\"Night\").", "while in Virgil's ''Aeneid'', they are daughters of Pluto (Hades) and Nox (Nyx).", "In some accounts, they were the daughters of Euronymè (a name for Earth) and Cronus, or of Earth and Phorcys (i.e.", "the sea).", "In Orphic literature, they are the daughters of Hades and Persephone.Their number is usually left indeterminate.", "Virgil, probably working from an Alexandrian source, recognized three: Alecto or Alekto (\"endless anger\"), Megaera (\"jealous rage\"), and Tisiphone or Tilphousia (\"vengeful destruction\"), all of whom appear in the ''Aeneid''.", "Dante Alighieri followed Virgil in depicting the same three-character triptych of Erinyes; in Canto IX of the ''Inferno'' they confront the poets at the gates of the city of Dis.", "Whilst the Erinyes were usually described as three maiden goddesses, the Erinys Telphousia was usually a byname for the wrathful goddess Demeter, who was worshipped under the title of Erinys in the Arkadian town of Thelpousa." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''Erinyes'' is of uncertain etymology; connections with the verb ὀρίνειν ''orinein'', \"to raise, stir, excite\", and the noun ἔρις ''eris'', \"strife\" have been suggested; Beekes, pp.", "458–459, has proposed a Pre-Greek origin.", "The word ''Erinys'' in the singular and as a theonym is first attested in Mycenaean Greek, written in Linear B, in the following forms: , ''e-ri-nu'', and , ''e-ri-nu-we''.", "These words are found on the KN Fp 1, KN V 52, and KN Fh 390 tablets." ], [ "Description", "The Erinyes live in Erebus and are more ancient than any of the Olympian deities.", "Their task is to hear complaints brought by mortals against the insolence of the young to the aged, of children to parents, of hosts to guests, and of householders or city councils to suppliants—and to punish such crimes by hounding culprits relentlessly.", "The appearance of the Erinyes differs between sources, though they are frequently described as wearing black.", "Aesychlus' ''Eumenides'' the Priestess of Pythian Apollo compares their monstrosity to that of the gorgon and harpies, but adds that they are wingless, with hatred dripping from their eyes.", "Euripides, on the other hand, gives them wings, as does Virgil.", "They are often evisaged as having snakes in their hair.", "The Erinyes are commonly associated with night and darkness.", "With varying accounts claiming that they are the daughters of Nyx, the goddess of night, they're also associated with darkness in the works of Aeschylus and Euripides in both their physical appearance and the time of day that they manifest.Description of Tisiphone in Statius' Thebaid:So prayed he, and the cruel goddess turned her grim visage to hearken.", "By chance she sat beside dismal Cocytus, and had loosed the snakes from her head and suffered them to lap the sulphurous waters.", "Straightway, faster than fire of Jove or falling stars she leapt up from the gloomy bank: the crowd of phantoms gives way before her, fearing to meet their queen; then, journeying through the shadows and the fields dark with trooping ghosts, she hastens to the gate of Taenarus, whose threshold none may cross and again return.", "Day felt her presence, Night interposed her pitchy cloud and startled his shining steeds; far off towering Atlas shuddered and shifted the weight of heaven upon his trembling shoulders.", "Forthwith rising aloft from Malea’s vale she hies her on the well-known way to Thebes: for on no errand is she swifter to go and to return, not kindred Tartarus itself pleases her so well.", "A hundred horned snakes erect shaded her face, the thronging terror of her awful head; deep within her sunken eyes there glows a light of iron hue, as when Atracian spells make travailing Phoebe redden through the clouds; suffused with venom, her skin distends and swells with corruption; a fiery vapour issues from her evil mouth, bringing upon mankind thirst unquenchable and sickness and famine and universal death.", "From her shoulders falls a stark and grisly robe, whose dark fastenings meet upon her breast: Atropos and Proserpine herself fashion her this garb anew.", "Then both her hands are shaken in wrath, the one gleaming with a funeral torch, the other lashing the air with a live water-snake.Altemps, sleeping Erinyes" ], [ "Cult", "leftPausanias describes a sanctuary in Athens dedicated to the Erinyes under the name Semnai:Hard by the Areopagos the murder court of Athens is a sanctuary of the goddesses which the Athenians call the August, but Hesiod in the Theogony calls them Erinyes (Furies).", "It was Aeschylus who first represented them with snakes in their hair.", "But on the images neither of these nor of any of the under-world deities is there anything terrible.", "There are images of Pluto, Hermes, and Earth, by which sacrifice those who have received an acquittal on the Hill of Ares; sacrifices are also offered on other occasions by both citizens and aliens.", "The ''Orphic Hymns'', a collection of 87 religious poems as translated by Thomas Taylor, contains two stanzas regarding the Erinyes.", "Hymn 68 refers to them as the Erinyes, while hymn 69 refers to them as the Eumenides.", "'''Hymn 69, to the Erinyes:'''Vociferous Bacchanalian Furies Erinyes, hear!", "Ye, I invoke, dread pow'rs, whom all revere; Nightly, profound, in secret who retire, Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megara dire: Deep in a cavern merg'd, involv'd in night, near where Styx flows impervious to the sight; Ever attendant on mysterious rites, furious and fierce, whom Fate's dread law delights; Revenge and sorrows dire to you belong, hid in a savage veil, severe and strong, Terrific virgins, who forever dwell endu'd with various forms, in deepest hell; Aerial, and unseen by human kind, and swiftly coursing, rapid as the mind.", "In vain the Sun with wing'd refulgence bright, in vain the Moon, far darting milder light, Wisdom and Virtue may attempt in vain; and pleasing, Art, our transport to obtain Unless with these you readily conspire, and far avert your all-destructive ire.", "The boundless tribes of mortals you descry, and justly rule with Right's Dike's impartial eye.", "Come, snaky-hair'd, Fates Moirai many-form'd, divine, suppress your rage, and to our rites incline.", "'''Hymn 70, to the Eumenides:'''Hear me, illustrious Furies Eumenides, mighty nam'd, terrific pow'rs, for prudent counsel fam'd; Holy and pure, from Jove terrestrial Zeus Khthonios(Hades) born and Proserpine Phersephone, whom lovely locks adorn: Whose piercing sight, with vision unconfin'd, surveys the deeds of all the impious kind: On Fate attendant, punishing the race (with wrath severe) of deeds unjust and base.", "Dark-colour'd queens, whose glittering eyes, are bright with dreadful, radiant, life-destroying, light: Eternal rulers, terrible and strong, to whom revenge, and tortures dire belong; Fatal and horrid to the human sight, with snaky tresses wand'ring in the night; Either approach, and in these rites rejoice, for ye, I call, with holy, suppliant voice." ], [ "In ancient Greek literature", "Orestes at Delphi, flanked by Athena and Pylades, among the Erinyes and priestesses of the oracle.", "Paestan red-figure bell-krater, c. 330 BC.Myth fragments dealing with the Erinyes are found among the earliest extant records of ancient Greek culture.", "The Erinyes are featured prominently in the myth of Orestes, which recurs frequently throughout many works of ancient Greek literature.===Aeschylus===Featured in ancient Greek literature, from poems to plays, the Erinyes form the Chorus and play a major role in the conclusion of Aeschylus's dramatic trilogy the ''Oresteia''.", "In the first play, ''Agamemnon'', King Agamemnon returns home from the Trojan War, where he is slain by his wife, Clytemnestra, who wants vengeance for her daughter Iphigenia, whom Agamemnon had sacrificed to obtain favorable winds to sail to Troy.", "In the second play, ''The Libation Bearers'', their son Orestes has reached manhood and has been commanded by Apollo's oracle to avenge his father's murder at his mother's hand.", "Returning home and revealing himself to his sister Electra, Orestes pretends to be a messenger bringing the news of his own death to Clytemnestra.", "He then slays his mother and her lover Aegisthus.", "Although Orestes' actions were what Apollo had commanded him to do, Orestes has still committed matricide, a grave sacrilege.", "Because of this, he is pursued and tormented by the terrible Erinyes, who demand yet further blood vengeance.Two Furies, from a nineteenth-century book reproducing an image from an ancient vase.In ''The Eumenides'', Orestes is told by Apollo at Delphi that he should go to Athens to seek the aid of the goddess Athena.", "In Athens, Athena arranges for Orestes to be tried by a jury of Athenian citizens, with her presiding.", "The Erinyes appear as Orestes' accusers, while Apollo speaks in his defense.", "The trial becomes a debate about the necessity of blood vengeance, the honor that is due to a mother compared to that due to a father, and the respect that must be paid to ancient deities such as the Erinyes compared to the newer generation of Apollo and Athena.", "The jury vote is evenly split.", "Athena participates in the vote and chooses for acquittal.", "Athena declares Orestes acquitted because of the rules she established for the trial.", "Despite the verdict, the Erinyes threaten to torment all inhabitants of Athens and to poison the surrounding countryside.", "Athena, however, offers the ancient goddesses a new role, as protectors of justice, rather than vengeance, and of the city.", "She persuades them to break the cycle of blood for blood (except in the case of war, which is fought for glory, not vengeance).", "While promising that the goddesses will receive due honor from the Athenians and Athena, she also reminds them that she possesses the key to the storehouse where Zeus keeps the thunderbolts that defeated the other older deities.", "This mixture of bribes and veiled threats satisfies the Erinyes, who are then led by Athena in a procession to their new abode.", "In the play, the \"Furies\" are thereafter addressed as \"Semnai\" (Venerable Ones), as they will now be honored by the citizens of Athens and ensure the city's prosperity.===Euripides===In Euripides' ''Orestes'' the Erinyes are for the first time \"equated\" with the '''Eumenides''' (Εὐμενίδες, pl.", "of Εὐμενίς; literally \"the gracious ones\", but also translated as \"Kindly Ones\").", "This is because it was considered unwise to mention them by name (for fear of attracting their attention); the ironic name is similar to how Hades, god of the dead is styled Pluton, or Pluto, \"the Rich One\".", "Using euphemisms for the names of deities serves many religious purposes.", "''The Remorse of Orestes'', where he is surrounded by the Erinyes, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1862===Sophocles===In Sophocles's play, ''Oedipus at Colonus'', it is significant that Oedipus comes to his final resting place in the grove dedicated to the Erinyes.", "It shows that he has paid his penance for his blood crime, as well as come to integrate the balancing powers to his early over-reliance upon Apollo, the god of the individual, the sun, and reason.", "He is asked to make an offering to the Erinyes and complies, having made his peace." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aeschylus, \"Oresteia\".", "Trans.", "Lloyd-Jones.", "Lines 788–1047.", "* Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Leiden: E.J.", "Brill.", "* Burkert, Walter, 1977 (tr.", "1985).", "''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press).", "* * Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol.", "1), (Vol.", "2).", "* Graves, Robert; ''The Greek Myths'', Moyer Bell Ltd; Unabridged edition (December 1988), .", "*Hesiod, ''Theogony''.", "trans.", "Hugh G. Evelyn-White.", "1914.Lines 176–206.Online Text: Perseus Project.", "Tufts University.", "* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A. T. Murray, PhD in Two Volumes''.", "Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott.", "''A Greek-English Lexicon''.", "Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of.", "Roderick McKenzie.", "Oxford.", "Clarendon Press.", "1940.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* Littleton, Scott.", "''Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4''.", "Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2005.Google Book Search.", "Web.", "24 October 2011.", "* Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Scull, S. A.", "''Greek Mythology Systematized''.", "Philadelphia: Porter & Coates, 1880.Print.", "* Virgil, ''Aeneid'' vii, 324, 341, 415, 476.", "* Wilk, Stephen R. ''Medusa: Solving the Mystery of the Gorgon''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.Google Book Search.", "Web.", "24 October 2011." ], [ "External links", "* The Theoi Project, \"The Erinyes\"* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Furies)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair" ], [ "Introduction", "George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen.", "'''Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair''', in the County of Aberdeen, in the County of Meath and in the County of Argyll, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.", "It was created on 4 January 1916 for John Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen." ], [ "Family history", "===Baronetcy of Haddo===The Gordon family descends from John Gordon, who fought as a Royalist against the Covenanters in the Civil War.", "In 1642 he was created a baronet, of Haddo in the County of Aberdeen, in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia.", "In 1644 he was found guilty of treason and beheaded, with the baronetcy forfeited.", "The title was restored after the Restoration for his son John, the second Baronet.===Earldom of Aberdeen===The second Baronet died without male issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baronet.", "He was a noted advocate and served as Lord President of the Court of Session and as Lord Chancellor of Scotland.", "On 30 November 1682 he was raised to the Peerage of Scotland as '''Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie''', '''Viscount of Formartine''' and '''Earl of Aberdeen'''.", "He was succeeded by his only surviving son, the second Earl.", "He sat in the House of Lords as a Scottish Representative Peer from 1721 to 1727.On his death the titles passed to his eldest son from his second marriage, the third Earl.", "He was a Scottish Representative Peer from 1747 to 1761 and from 1774 to 1790.===Lord Aberdeen, Prime Minister===The third earl was succeeded by his grandson, the fourth Earl, who was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord Haddo.", "On 1 June 1814 he was created '''Viscount Gordon''', of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, which entitled him to an automatic seat in the House of Lords.", "Lord Aberdeen was a distinguished diplomat and statesman and served as Foreign Secretary from 1828 to 1830 and from 1841 to 1846 and as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1852 to 1855.Aberdeen married firstly Lady Catherine Elizabeth (1784–1812), daughter of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn, and assumed by Royal licence the additional surname of Hamilton in 1818.When Lord Aberdeen died, the titles passed to his eldest son from his second marriage to Harriet Douglas, the fifth Earl.", "He sat as Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Aberdeenshire.", "His eldest son, the sixth Earl, was a sailor and adventurer.", "He was accidentally drowned off the coast of America in 1870, without marrying or having children.===Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair===John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and TemairThe sixth earl of Aberdeen was succeeded by his younger brother, the seventh Earl.", "John Hamilton-Gordon, was a Liberal politician and served as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1886 and from 1905 to 1915 and as Governor General of Canada from 1893 to 1898.On 4 January 1916 he was created '''Earl of Haddo''', in the County of Aberdeen, and '''Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair''', in the County of Aberdeen, in the County of Meath and in the County of Argyll.", "Both titles are in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Marquess, who was a member of the London County Council and served as Lord-Lieutenant of Aberdeenshire.", "He was childless and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Marquess.", "He was notably President of the Federation of British Industries.", "When he died the titles passed to his eldest son, the fourth Marquess.", "He was a member of the Aberdeenshire County Council and Lord-Lieutenant of Aberdeenshire.", "He had four adopted children but no biological issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, the fifth Marquess.", "He was a broadcaster working for the BBC.", "He never married and on his death in 1984 the titles passed to his fourth and youngest brother, the sixth Marquess.", "He was Chairman of The Arts Club.", "the titles are held by his grandson, the eighth Marquess, who succeeded in that year.===Other family members===Numerous other members of the Gordon family have also gained distinction.", "The Hon.", "William Gordon (died 1816), eldest son from the third marriage of the second Earl, was a general in the Army.", "The Hon.", "Cosmo Gordon, second son from the third marriage of the second Earl, was a colonel in the Army.", "The Hon.", "Alexander Gordon (1739–1792), third son from the third marriage of the second Earl, was a Lord of Session from 1788 to 1792 under the judicial title of Lord Rockville.", "His son William Duff-Gordon was Member of Parliament for Worcester.", "In 1815 he succeeded his uncle as second Baron of Halkin according to a special remainder and assumed the additional surname of Duff (see Duff-Gordon baronets for further history of this branch of the family).", "The Hon.", "William Gordon, younger brother of the fourth Earl, was a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy and sat as Member of Parliament for Aberdeenshire.", "The Hon.", "Alexander Gordon (1786–1815), younger brother of the fourth Earl, was a soldier and was killed at the Battle of Waterloo.The Hon.", "Sir Robert Gordon, younger brother of the fourth Earl, was a diplomat and served as British Ambassador to Austria.", "The Hon.", "John Gordon (1792–1869), younger brother of the fourth Earl, was an admiral in the Royal Navy.", "The Hon.", "Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon (1817–1890), eldest son of the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was a general in the Army and sat as Member of Parliament for Aberdeenshire East.", "His eldest son, Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon was also a general in the Army.", "Reverend the Hon.", "Douglas Hamilton-Gordon (1824–1901), third son of the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was Chaplain-in-Ordinary to Queen Victoria and Canon of Salisbury.", "The Hon.", "Arthur Hamilton-Gordon, fourth son of the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was a Liberal politician and was created Baron Stanmore in 1893 (see this title for more information on him and this branch of the family).", "Ishbel Hamilton-Gordon, Marchioness of Aberdeen and Temair, daughter of Dudley Marjoribanks, 1st Baron Tweedmouth, and wife of the first Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, was an author, philanthropist and an advocate of woman's interests.The family seat is Haddo House, Aberdeenshire.", "The title Earl of Haddo is the courtesy title for the Marquess's eldest son and heir, the eldest son of whom uses the courtesy title Viscount of Formartine.", "The Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair are related to the Marquesses of Huntly.", "Sir John Gordon (died c. 1395) of Strathbogie, ancestor of Sir John Gordon, 1st Baronet, was the brother of Elizabeth Gordon.", "She married Sir Alexander Seton (died 1438) and was the mother of Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly (ancestor of the Marquesses of Huntly)." ], [ "Gordon baronets, of Haddo (1642)", "Memorial in Ottawa to Ishbel, Marchioness of Aberdeen, wife of the first Marquess, who was Governor-General of Canada from 1893 to 1898.", "*Sir John Gordon, 1st Baronet (1610–1644)*Sir John Gordon, 2nd Baronet (c. 1632–1665)*Sir George Gordon, 3rd Baronet (1637–1720) (created '''Earl of Aberdeen''' in 1682)" ], [ "Earls of Aberdeen (1682)", ":''Other titles (1st Earl onwards): Viscount of Formartine (Sc 1682), Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie (Sc 1682)'':''Other titles (4th Earl onwards): Viscount Gordon (UK 1814)''* George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen (1637–1720)**George Gordon, Lord Haddo (1674-d. between 1694–1708)* William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen (1679–1745)* George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen, (1722–1801)**George Gordon, Lord Haddo (1764–1791)* George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen (1784–1860) (created '''Viscount Gordon''' in 1814)* George John James Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen (1816–1864)* George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen (1841–1870)* John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen (1847–1934) (created '''Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair''' in 1916)" ], [ "Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair (1916)", ":''Other titles (1st Marquess onwards): Earl of Haddo (UK 1916), Viscount Gordon (UK 1814), Viscount of Formartine (Sc 1682), Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie (Sc 1682)''* John Campbell Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, (1847–1934)* George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1879–1965)* Dudley Gladstone Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1883–1972)* David George Ian Alexander Gordon, 4th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1908–1974)* Archibald Victor Dudley Gordon, 5th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1913–1984)* Alastair Ninian John Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1920–2002)* Alexander George Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1955–2020)* George Ian Alastair Gordon, 8th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (b.", "1983)" ], [ "Present peer", "George Ian Alastair Gordon, 8th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (born 4 May 1983) is the son of the 7th Marquess and his wife Joanna Clodagh Houldsworth.", "Styled formally as Viscount Formartine from 1984, he was educated at Harrow School.", "He was styled as Earl of Haddo between 2002 and 12 March 2020, when he succeeded his father as Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, Earl of Haddo, Earl of Aberdeen, Viscount of Formartine, Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen, Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie, and also as a baronet (Gordon, of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, 1642).As Lord Haddo he married Isabelle Coaten, daughter of David Coaten, and they have four children *Ivo Alexander Ninian Gordon, Earl of Haddo (born 2012), heir apparent*Lord Johnny David Nehemiah Gordon (born 2014)*Lady Christabel Alexandra Lully Gordon (born 2016)*Lord Louis George Solomon Gordon (born 2018)" ], [ "Line of succession", "* 15px ''John Campbell Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1847–1934)''** 15px ''Dudley Gladstone Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1883–1972)''*** 15px ''Alastair Ninian John Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1920–2002)''**** 15px ''Alexander George Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair'' (1955–2020)***** 15px '''George Ian Alastair Gordon, 8th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair''' (born 1983)****** '''(1)''' Ivo Alexander Ninian Gordon, ''Earl of Haddo'' (born 2012)******'''(2)''' ''Lord'' Johnny David Nehemiah Gordon (born 2014)******'''(3)''' ''Lord'' Louis George Solomon Gordon (born 2018)***** '''(4)''' ''Lord'' Sam Dudley Gordon (born 1985)****** '''(5)''' Bertie Raiph Dudley Gordon (born 2016)***** '''(6)''' ''Lord'' Charles David Gordon (born 1990)There are further heirs to the subsidiary Earldom of Aberdeen, including the Duff-Gordon baronets, who are descended from Lord Rockville, a younger son of the second earl." ], [ "See also", "*Baron Stanmore*Duff-Gordon baronets" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*****" ] ]
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[ [ "East Coast Swing" ], [ "Introduction", "East Coast Swing being danced in Montreal in 2022'''East Coast Swing''' ('''ECS''') is a form of social partner dance.", "It belongs to the group of swing dances.", "It is danced under fast swing music, including lindy hop, rock and roll and boogie-woogie.Yerrington and Outland equated East Coast Swing to the New Yorker in 1961.Originally known as \"Eastern Swing\" by Arthur Murray Studios, the name East Coast Swing became more common between 1975 and 1980." ], [ "History", "The dance was created by dance studios including the Arthur Murray dance studios in the 1940s, based on the Lindy Hop.", "Lindy Hop was felt by dance studios to be both too difficult and too unstructured to teach to beginning dancers, but there was market demand for training in swing dance.", "The dance studios had initially dismissed Lindy Hop in particular as a fad.", "East Coast Swing can be referred to by many different names in different regions of the United States and the World.", "It has alternatively been called Eastern Swing, Jitterbug, American Swing, East Coast Lindy, Lindy (not to be confused with Lindy Hop), and Triple Swing (or Triple-step swing).", "Other variants of East Coast Swing that use altered footwork forms are known as Single Swing or \"Single-step Swing\" (where the triple step is replaced by a single step forming a slow, slow, quick, quick rhythm common to Foxtrot), and Double Swing (using a tap-step footwork pattern).East Coast Swing is a rhythm dance that has both 6 and 8 beat patterns.The name ''East Coast Swing'' was coined initially to distinguish the dance from the street form and the new variant used in the competitive ballroom arena (as well as separating the dance from West Coast Swing, which was developed in California).", "While based on Lindy Hop, it does have clear distinctions.", "East Coast Swing is a standardized form of dance developed first for instructional purposes in the Arthur Murray studios, and then later codified to allow for a medium of comparison for competitive ballroom dancers.", "It can be said that there is no right or wrong way to dance it; however, certain styles of the dance are considered correct \"form\" within the technical elements documented and governed by the National Dance Council of America.", "The N.D.C.A.", "oversees all the standards of American Style Ballroom and Latin dances.", "Lindy Hop was never standardized and later became the inspiration for several other dance forms such as: (European) Boogie Woogie, Jive, West Coast Swing and Rock and Roll.In practice on the social dance floor, the six count steps of the East Coast Swing are often mixed with the eight count steps of Lindy Hop, Charleston, and less frequently, Balboa." ], [ "Basic Positions/Moves", "The 5 basic positions/moves are:# Semi-closed Position (normal starter position)# Open Position (most common position used between moves)# Crossovers (most common move)# Wraps (waist wraps or neck wraps)# Hammerlocks" ], [ "Basic technique", "'''Single-step Swing'''East Coast Swing has a 6 count basic step.", "This is in contrast to the meter of most swing music, which has a 4 count basic rhythm.", "In practice, however, the 6-count moves of the east coast swing are often combined with 8-count moves from the Lindy hop, Charleston, and Balboa.Depending on the region and instructor, the basic step of single-step East Coast Swing is either \"rock step, step, step\" or \"step, step, rock step\".", "In both cases, the rock step always starts on the downbeat.For \"rock step, step, step\" the beats, or counts, are the following:Steps for the \"lead\" (traditionally, the man's part) Rock Beat 1 - STEP back with your LEFT foot Step Beat 2 - STEP forward with your RIGHT foot (to where you first started) Step Beat 3 - STEP to the left with your LEFT foot Beat 4 - Begin to shift your weight back to your right foot Step Beat 5 - STEP to the right with your RIGHT foot Beat 6 - Begin to shift your weight to the left and backSteps for the \"follow\" (traditionally, the woman's part which mirrors the lead's part) Rock Beat 1 - STEP back with your RIGHT foot Step Beat 2 - STEP forward with your LEFT foot (to where you first started) Step Beat 3 - STEP to the right with your RIGHT foot Beat 4 - Begin to shift your weight back to your left foot Step Beat 5 - STEP to the left with your LEFT foot Beat 6 - Begin to shift your weight to the right and backFor \"step, step, rock step,\" the rock step occurs on beats 5 and 6, but the overall progression remains the same.The normal steps can be substituted with a triple step or double step \"step-tap\" or \"kick-step\" instead of a single step.", "This is commonly used during songs when a slower tempo makes the single step difficult (an example progression would be \"rock step, triple step, triple step\")." ], [ "Timing", "Because East Coast uses a six step pattern with music employing 4 beats per measure, three measures of music are required to complete two sets of steps, as shown in the following table.", "Music beats (in fours):'''1''' 2 3 4 '''1''' 2 3 4 '''1''' 2 3 4 Music beat incremental:1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 East Coast Triple Step Timing: (1 and 2, 3 and 4, rock step)S 3a4 5 a6 S 3a4 5a6 East Coast Single Step: (1 2 rock step)R  S 3   5 R  S 3   5 The rock step starts on 1, 2 the first triple step starts 3a4 and the second on 5a6.In single time style (used with faster music) the triple steps are replaced by single steps, so two beats of music are used for each single step while each step in the rock (R) step (S) is still completed in one beat, finishing the cycle in six musical beats.", "Some instructors will teach vocalizing the single time style as\" \"Quick.", "Quick.", "Slow.", "Slow. \"", "or \"Back Step.", "Slow.", "Slow.", "\"There is the choice to start with triples or with a rock step, however if you check the above chart where a triple step starts on a 1, 2 you can see that the pattern progresses and wraps back around.", "The choice of starting with a triple or a rock step does have musical consequences as music has phrasing with hits that often happen on 12, or 24 or 36...", "This means that dancers who choose to start with a rock step will probably find themselves on a rock step on every new phrase.", "Those who start with a triple will start with a triple on each new phrase.", "An advantage of starting with the triple step is that dancers can more easily change their foot work right at the start of the musical phrase." ], [ "See also", "*Lindy hop*Charleston*West Coast Swing*Balboa*Jive*Hand dancing" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ernst Kaltenbrunner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernst Kaltenbrunner''' (4 October 1903 – 16 October 1946) was a high-ranking Austrian SS official during the Nazi era and a major perpetrator of the Holocaust.", "After the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in 1942, and a brief period under Heinrich Himmler, Kaltenbrunner was the third Chief of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), which included the offices of Gestapo, Kripo and SD, from January 1943 until the end of World War II in Europe.", "Kaltenbrunner joined the Nazi Party in 1930 and the SS in 1931, and by 1935 he was considered a leader of the Austrian SS.", "In 1938, he assisted in the ''Anschluss'' and was given command of the SS and police force in Austria.", "In January 1943, Kaltenbrunner was appointed chief of the RSHA, succeeding Reinhard Heydrich, who was assassinated in May 1942.A committed anti-Semite, Kaltenbrunner played a pivotal role in orchestrating the Holocaust and Nazi genocide intensified under his leadership.", "He oversaw the coordination of security and law enforcement agencies involved in widespread extermination, the suppression of resistance movements in occupied territories, extensive arrests, deportations, and executions.", "He was the highest-ranking member of the SS to face trial (Himmler having committed suicide in May 1945) at the Nuremberg trials, where he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity.", "Kaltenbrunner was sentenced to death and executed by hanging on 16 October 1946." ], [ "Life", "Kaltenbrunner was born in Ried im Innkreis, Austria, the son of a lawyer, spent his early years and primary education in Raab and later attended the Realgymnasium in Linz.", "Raised in a nationalist family, he was childhood friends with Adolf Eichmann, the infamous SS officer who played a key role in implementing the Nazis' \"Final Solution\" against Europe's Jews.", "After Gymnasium, Kaltenbrunner went on to obtain his PhD in law at Graz University in 1926.Kaltenbrunner worked at a law firm in Salzburg for a year before opening his own law office in Linz.", "He had deep scars on his face reportedly from duelling in his student days, although some sources attribute them to a car accident.On 14 January 1934, Kaltenbrunner married Elisabeth Eder (20 October 1908 – 20 May 2002), who was also a Nazi Party member; the couple had three children.", "In addition to the children from his marriage, Kaltenbrunner had twins, Ursula and Wolfgang (b.", "1945) with his long-time mistress, Gisela Gräfin von Westarp (27 June 1920 – 2 June 1983).", "All the children survived the war." ], [ "SS career", "On 18 October 1930, Kaltenbrunner joined the Nazi Party as member number 300,179.In 1931, he was the ''Bezirksredner'' (district speaker) for the Nazi Party in Upper Austria.", "Kaltenbrunner joined the SS on 31 August 1931; his SS number was 13,039.He first became a ''Rechtsberater'' (legal consultant) for the Nazi Party in 1929 and later held this same position for SS Abschnitt (Section) VIII, beginning in 1932.That same year he began working at his father's law practice, and by 1933 he had become head of the National-Socialist Lawyers' League in Linz.In January 1934, Kaltenbrunner was briefly jailed at the Kaisersteinbruch detention camp with other Nazis for conspiracy by the Engelbert Dollfuss government.", "While there he led a hunger strike which forced the government to release 490 of the party members.", "In 1935, he was jailed again on suspicion of high treason.", "This charge was dropped, but he was sentenced to six months imprisonment for conspiracy and he lost his license to practice law.From mid-1935 Kaltenbrunner was head of the illegal SS Abschnitt VIII in Linz and was considered a leader of the Austrian SS.", "To provide Heinrich Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich and Heinz Jost with new information, Kaltenbrunner repeatedly made trips to Bavaria.", "He would hide on a train and on a ship that travelled to Passau, then return with money and orders for Austrian comrades.", "In 1937 Kaltenbrunner was arrested again by Austrian authorities on charges of heading the illegal Nazi Party organization in Oberösterreich.", "He was released in September.Kaltenbrunner with ''Ordnungspolizei'' officials in Vienna in 1940 following the 1938 ''Anschluss''Acting on orders from Hermann Göring, Kaltenbrunner assisted in bringing about the ''Anschluss'' with Germany (13 March 1938); he was awarded the role of State Secretary for Public Security in the Seyss-Inquart cabinet of 11 to 13 March 1938.Controlled from behind the scenes by Himmler, Kaltenbrunner still led, albeit clandestinely, the Austrian SS as part of his duty to \"coordinate\" and manage the Austrian population – this entailed the Nazification of all aspects of Austrian society.", "Then on 21 March 1938, he was promoted to SS-''Brigadeführer''.", "He was a member of the German ''Reichstag'' from 10 April 1938 until 8 May 1945.Amid this activity, he helped establish the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp near Linz.", "Mauthausen was the first Nazi concentration camp opened in Austria following the ''Anschluss''.", "On 11 September 1938, Kaltenbrunner was promoted to the rank of SS-''Gruppenführer'' (equivalent to a lieutenant general in the German Army) while holding the position of Führer of SS-Oberabschnitt Österreich (re-designated SS-Oberabschnitt Donau in November 1938).", "Also in 1938, he was appointed Higher SS and Police Leader (''Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer''; HSSPF) for ''Oberabschnitt Donau'', which was the primary SS command in Austria (he held that post until 30 January 1943).=== World War II ===Kaltenbrunner, Heinrich Himmler and August Eigruber (in black) inspect Mauthausen concentration camp in 1941, in the company of camp commander Franz Ziereis (center left)Kaltenbrunner with Himmler and Ziereis at Mauthausen in April 1941In June 1940, Kaltenbrunner was appointed Vienna's chief of police and held that additional post for a year.", "In July 1940, he was commissioned as an SS-''Untersturmführer'' into the Waffen-SS Reserve.", "Alongside his many official duties, Kaltenbrunner also developed an intelligence network across Austria, moving southeastwards, which eventually brought him to Himmler's attention for appointment as chief of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) in January 1943.The RSHA was composed of the SiPo (''Sicherheitspolizei''; the combined forces of the Gestapo and Kripo) along with the SD (''Sicherheitsdienst'', Security Service).", "Kaltenbrunner replaced Heydrich, who had been assassinated in June 1942.Kaltenbrunner held this position until the end of World War II.", "Hardly anyone knew Kaltenbrunner, and upon his appointment, Himmler transferred responsibility both for SS personnel and for economics from the RSHA to the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office.", "Nonetheless, Kaltenbrunner was promoted to SS-''Obergruppenführer und General der Polizei'' on 21 June 1943.He also replaced Heydrich as president (serving from 1943 to 1945) of the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC), the organization today known as Interpol.Fearing a collapsing home-front due to the Allied bombing campaigns, and worried that another \"stab-in-the-back\" at home could arise as a result, Kaltenbrunner immediately tightened the Nazi grip within Germany.", "From what historian Anthony Read relates, Kaltenbrunner's appointment as RSHA chief came as a surprise given the other possible candidates like the head of the Gestapo, Heinrich Müller, or even the SD foreign-intelligence chief, Walter Schellenberg.", "Historian Richard Grunberger also added the name of Wilhelm Stuckart, the future minister of the German Interior, as another potential candidate for head of the RSHA; however, he suggests that Kaltenbrunner was most likely selected since he was a comparative \"newcomer\", expected to be more \"pliable\" in Himmler's hands.Like many of the ideological fanatics in the regime, Kaltenbrunner was a committed anti-Semite.", "According to former SS-''Sturmbannführer'' Hans Georg Mayer, Kaltenbrunner was present at a December 1940 meeting among Hitler, Goebbels, Himmler, and Heydrich where it was decided to gas all Jews incapable of heavy physical work.", "Under Kaltenbrunner's command, the genocide of Jews picked up pace as \"the process of extermination was to be expedited and the concentration of the Jews in the Reich itself and the occupied countries were to be liquidated as soon as possible.\"", "Kaltenbrunner stayed constantly informed over the status of concentration-camp activities, receiving periodic reports at his office in the RSHA.To combat homosexuality across the greater Reich, Kaltenbrunner pushed the Ministry of Justice in July 1943 for an edict mandating compulsory castration for anyone found guilty of this offence.", "While this was rejected, he still took steps to get the army to review some 6,000 cases to prosecute homosexuals.During the summer of 1943, Kaltenbrunner conducted his second inspection of the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp.", "While he was there, 15 prisoners were selected to demonstrate for Kaltenbrunner three methods of killing: by a gunshot to the neck, hanging, and gassing.", "After the killings were performed, Kaltenbrunner inspected the crematorium and later the quarry.", "In October 1943, he told Herbert Kappler, the head of German police and security services in Rome, that the \"eradication of the Jews in Italy\" was of \"special interest\" for \"general security\".", "Four days later, Kappler's SS and police units began rounding up and deporting Jews by train to Auschwitz concentration camp.In 1944, during an arranged meeting in Klessheim Castle near Salzburg, when Hitler was in the process of strong-arming Admiral Horthy into a closer integration between Hungary and Nazi Germany, Kaltenbrunner was present for the negotiations and escorted Horthy out once they were over.", "Accompanying Horthy and Kaltenbrunner on the journey back to Hungary, Adolf Eichmann brought with him a special ''Einsatzkommando'' unit to begin the process of rounding up and deporting Hungary's 750,000 Jews.It was said that even Himmler feared him, as Kaltenbrunner was an intimidating figure with his 1.76 to 1.8m height, facial scars, and volatile temper.", "Kaltenbrunner was also a longtime friend of Otto Skorzeny and recommended him for many secret missions, allowing Skorzeny to become one of Hitler's favourite agents.", "Kaltenbrunner also allegedly headed Operation Long Jump, an alleged plan to assassinate Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt in Tehran in 1943.People's Court show trial following the failed 20 July plot in 1944Immediately in the wake of the 20 July Plot on Hitler's life in 1944, Kaltenbrunner was summoned to Hitler's wartime headquarters at the ''Wolfsschanze'' (Wolf's Lair) in East Prussia to begin the investigation into who had planned the assassination attempt.", "Once it was revealed that an attempted military coup against Hitler had been launched, Himmler and Kaltenbrunner had to tread carefully, as the military was not under the jurisdiction of the Gestapo or the SD.", "When the attempt failed, the conspirators were soon identified.", "An estimated 5,000 people were eventually executed, with many more sent to concentration camps.Historian Heinz Höhne counted Kaltenbrunner among the fanatical Hitler loyalists and described him as being committed \"to the bitter end\".", "Field reports from the SD in October 1944 about deteriorating morale in the military prompted Kaltenbrunner to urge the involvement of the RSHA in military court-martial proceedings, but this was rejected by Himmler, who thought it unwise to interfere in ''Wehrmacht'' (military) affairs.", "In December 1944, Kaltenbrunner was granted the additional rank of General of the Waffen-SS.", "On 15 November 1944, he was awarded the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross with Swords.", "In addition, he was awarded the NSDAP Golden Party Badge and the ''Blutorden'' (Blood Order).", "Using his authority as Chief of the RSHA, Kaltenbrunner issued a decree on 6 February 1945 that allowed policemen to shoot \"disloyal\" people at their discretion, without judicial review.On 12 March 1945, a meeting took place in Vorarlberg between Kaltenbrunner and Carl Jacob Burckhardt, president of the International Committee of the Red Cross (1945–48).", "Just over a month later, Himmler was informed that SS-''Obergruppenführer'' (general) Karl Wolff had been negotiating with the Allies for the capitulation of Italy.", "When questioned by Himmler, Wolff explained that he was operating under Hitler's orders and attempting to play separate Allies against one another.", "Himmler believed him, but Kaltenbrunner did not, and told Himmler that an informant claimed that Wolff had also negotiated with Cardinal Schuster of Milan and was about to surrender occupied Italy to the Allies.", "Himmler angrily repeated the allegations; Wolff, feigning offence, challenged Himmler to present these statements to Hitler.", "Unnerved by Wolff's demands, Himmler backed down, and Hitler sent Wolff back to Italy to continue his purported disruption of the Allies.On 18 April 1945, three weeks before the war ended, Himmler named Kaltenbrunner commander-in-chief of the remaining German forces in southern Europe.", "Kaltenbrunner attempted to organize cells for post-war sabotage in the region and Germany but accomplished little.", "Hitler made one of his last appearances on 20 April 1945 outside the subterranean in Berlin, where he pinned medals on boys from the Hitler Youth for their bravery.", "Kaltenbrunner was among those present, but realizing the end was near, he then fled from Berlin.=== Arrest ===On 12 May 1945 Kaltenbrunner was apprehended along with his adjutant, Arthur Scheidler, and two SS guards in a remote cabin at the top of the Totes Gebirge mountains near Altaussee, Austria, by a search party initiated by the 80th Infantry Division, Third U.S. Army.", "Information had been gained from Johann Brandauer, the assistant burgermeister of Altaussee, that the party was hiding out with false papers in the cabin.", "This was supported by an eyewitness sighting by the Altaussee mountain ranger five days earlier.", "Special Agent Robert E. Matteson from the U.S. Army's Counterintelligence Corps Detachment organized and led a patrol consisting of Brandauer, four ex-''Wehrmacht'' soldiers, and a squad of U.S. soldiers to effect the arrest.", "The party climbed over mountainous and glacial terrain for six hours in darkness before arriving at the cabin.", "After a short standoff, all four men exited the cabin and surrendered without a shot fired.", "Kaltenbrunner claimed to be a doctor and offered a false name.", "However, upon their arrival back to town his last mistress, Countess Gisela von Westarp, and the wife (Iris) of his adjutant Arthur Scheidler chanced to spot the men being led away; the ladies called out to both men and embraced them.", "This action resulted in their identification and arrest by U.S. troops.In 2001, Ernst Kaltenbrunner's personal Nazi security seal was found in an Alpine lake in Styria, Austria, 56 years after he had thrown it away to hide his identity.", "The seal was recovered by a Dutch citizen on holiday.", "The seal has the words ''\"Chef der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD\"'' (Chief of the Security Police and SD) engraved on it.", "Experts have examined the seal and believe it was discarded in the final days of the European war in May 1945.=== Nuremberg trials ===Kaltenbrunner testifying as a witness on his own behalf at the International Military Tribunal.At the Nuremberg trials, Kaltenbrunner was charged with conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity.", "Due to the areas over which he exercised responsibility as an SS general and as chief of the RSHA, he was acquitted of crimes against peace, but held responsible for war crimes and crimes against humanity.Kaltenbrunner wheeled into court during the Nuremberg trials after a brain hemorrhage during interrogation.During the initial stages of the Nuremberg trials, Kaltenbrunner was absent because of two episodes of subarachnoid hemorrhage, which required several weeks of recovery time.", "After his health improved, the tribunal denied his request for pardon.", "When he was released from a military hospital he pleaded not guilty to the charges of the indictment against him.", "Kaltenbrunner said all decrees and legal documents that bore his signature were \"rubber-stamped\" and filed by his adjutant(s).", "He also said Gestapo Chief Heinrich Müller had illegally affixed his signature to numerous documents in question.Kaltenbrunner argued in his defence that his position as RSHA chief existed only theoretically and said he was only active in matters of espionage and intelligence.", "He maintained that Himmler, as his superior, was the person culpable for the atrocities committed during his tenure as chief of the RSHA.", "Kaltenbrunner also asserted that he had no knowledge of the Final Solution before 1943 and went on to claim that he protested against the ill-treatment of the Jews to Himmler and Hitler.", "Further denials from Kaltenbrunner included statements that he knew nothing of the Commissar Order and that he never visited Mauthausen concentration camp, despite documentation of his visit.", "At one point, Kaltenbrunner went so far as to avow that ''he'' was responsible for bringing the Final Solution to an end.", "In response to his denials, people in the courtroom laughed.==== Conviction and execution ====On 30 September 1946, the International Military Tribunal (IMT) found Kaltenbrunner not guilty of crimes against peace, but guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity (counts three and four).", "On 1 October 1946, the IMT sentenced him to death by hanging.Kaltenbrunner's body after execution by hanging on 16 October 1946Kaltenbrunner was executed on 16 October 1946, around 1:15 am, in Nuremberg.", "His body, like those of the other nine executed men and that of Hermann Göring (who committed suicide the previous day), was cremated at the Eastern Cemetery in Munich and the ashes were scattered in a tributary of the River Isar.=== Dates of rank ===* SS-''Mann'' – 31 August 1931* SS-''Truppführer'' – 1931* SS-''Sturmhauptführer'' – 25 September 1932* SS-''Standartenführer'' – 20 April 1936* SS-''Oberführer'' – 20 April 1937* SS-''Brigadeführer'' – 21 March 1938* SS-''Gruppenführer'' – 11 September 1938* SS-''Untersturmführer der Reserve der Waffen-SS'' – 1 July 1940* ''Generalleutnant der Polizei'' – 1 April 1941* SS-''Obergruppenführer und General der Polizei'' – 21 June 1943* ''General der Waffen-SS und Polizei'' – 1 December 1944;Awards and decorations* Honour Chevron for the Old Guard (1934)* SS Honour Ring (1938)* Sword of honour of the Reichsführer-SS (1938)* Anschluss Medal (1938)* Sudetenland Medal (1938) with Prague Castle Bar (1939)* Golden Party Badge (1939)* SS Long Service Award For 4, 8, and 12 Years Service* Nazi Party Long Service Award in Bronze and Silver* Blood Order (31 May 1942)* German Cross in Silver (1943)* Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross with Swords (1944)" ], [ "See also", "* Allgemeine SS* Glossary of Nazi Germany* Holocaust (miniseries) – TV production in which Kaltenbrunner is portrayed and played by Hans Meyer.", "* Inside the Third Reich – television film in which Kaltenbrunner is portrayed* List SS-Obergruppenführer" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Kaltenbrunner defense broadcast during Nuremberg Trial, reported by Matthew Halton and broadcast on April 12, 1946; via the archives of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation; 2 m:36s* Testimony of Rudolf Hoess in the Nuremberg Trial* Nuremberg film at IMDB* Seventeen Moments of Spring film at IMDB* Holocaust miniseries at IMDB" ] ]
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[ [ "Engelbert Dollfuss" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Engelbert Dollfuß''' (alternatively: '''Dolfuss''', ; 4 October 1892 – 25 July 1934) was an Austrian politician who served as Chancellor of Austria between 1932 and 1934.Having served as Minister for Forests and Agriculture, he ascended to Federal Chancellor in 1932 in the midst of a crisis for the conservative government.", "This crisis culminated in the Self-elimination of the Austrian Parliament, a coup sparked by resignation of the presiding officers of the National Council.", "Suppressing the Socialist movement in the Austrian Civil War and later banning the Austrian Nazi Party, he cemented the rule of Austrofascism through the ''First of May Constitution'' in 1934.Later that year, Dollfuss was assassinated as part of a failed coup attempt by Nazi agents.", "His successor Kurt Schuschnigg maintained the regime until Adolf Hitler's Anschluss in 1938." ], [ "Early life", "Dollfuss's birthplace in TexingDollfuss was born to a poor, peasant family in the hamlet of Great Maierhof in the commune of St. Gotthard near Texingtal in Lower Austria.", "Young Dollfuss spent his childhood in his step-father's house in the nearby commune of Kirnberg, where he also went to elementary school.", "The local parish priests helped to finance Dollfuss's education, as his parents were unable to do so by themselves alone.", "He attended high school in Hollabrunn.", "After graduating from high school, Dollfuss intended to become a priest, and thus he enrolled at the University of Vienna to study theology, but after a few months changed course and started studying law in 1912.As a student, he earned a livelihood giving lessons.", "He became a member of the Students' Social Movement, a student organisation dedicated to social and charitable work among the workers.As World War I broke out, Dollfuss reported to be recruited in Vienna but was rejected because he was two centimetres shorter than the minimum.", "Fully grown, he was less than in height, and later was nicknamed \"Millimetternich\", a portmanteau of ''Millimeter'' (German for millimetre) and Klemens von Metternich.", "The same day he was rejected in Vienna, Dollfuss went to St. Pölten where the recruiting commission for his district was located and insisted to be recruited, and, even though he did not meet the minimum height standards, he was accepted.", "As a volunteer, he had a right to choose a regiment in which he would serve, and Dollfuss opted for the Tyrolese militia also known as the ''Kaiserschützen''.", "He was soon promoted to the rank of corporal.", "He served for 37 months at the Italian Front, south of Tyrol.", "By 1916 he was promoted to lieutenant.After the war, he was still a student and was employed by the Lower Austrian Peasants' Union, which helped him to secure his material existence, and it was here where Dollfuss gained his first political experience.", "There, he organised peasants to help them recover from the war, as well as shield them from the influences of Marxism.", "Being recognised for his abilities he showed at the Union, he was sent for further studies to Berlin.", "In Berlin, he began to garner dislike for some of his professors, as academia there was substantially influenced by liberalism and socialism.", "In his studies, he devoted himself to the Christian principles of economics.", "In Germany, he became a member of the Federation of German Peasants' Union and of the Preussenkasse – essentially, a central bank for member-cooperatives, where he gained practical experience.", "In Germany, he met his future wife Alwine Glienke, a descendant of a Pomeranian family.", "Dollfuss often met with Carl Sonnenschein, leader of social activities of students and the pioneer of the Catholic movement in Berlin.After returning to Vienna, he was a secretary of the Lower Austrian Peasants' Union.", "He devoted his efforts to consolidate that industry.", "Dollfuss was instrumental in the founding of the regional Chamber of Agriculture of Lower Austria, becoming its secretary and a director; the Federation of Agriculture and the Agricultural Labourers’ Insurance Institute; in organising the new Agrarian policy of Lower Austria and in laying the foundations for the corporative organisation of agriculture.", "A few years later, he was representative of Austria at the International Agrarian Congress, where his proposals made him internationally known in that sphere.", "He was seen as an unofficial leader of the Austrian peasantry.On 1 October 1930 Dollfuss was appointed the president of the Federal Railways, the largest industrial corporation in Austria.", "There, Dollfuss came into contact with all branches of the industry.", "In March 1931, he was appointed Federal Minister of Agriculture and Forestry." ], [ "Chancellor of Austria", "On 10 May 1932, Dollfuss, age 39 and with only one year's experience in the Federal Government, was offered the office of Chancellor by President Wilhelm Miklas, also a member of the Christian-Social Party.", "Dollfuss refused to reply, instead spending the night in his favourite church praying, returning in the morning for a bath and a spartan meal before replying to the President that he would accept the offer.", "Dollfuss was sworn in on 20 May 1932 as head of a coalition government between the Christian-Social Party, the Landbund — a right-wing agrarian party — and Heimatblock, the parliamentary wing of the ''Heimwehr'', a paramilitary ultra-nationalist group.", "The coalition assumed the pressing task of tackling the problems of the Great Depression.", "Much of the Austro-Hungarian Empire's industry had been situated in the areas that became part of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia after World War I as a result of the Treaty of Saint-Germain.", "Postwar Austria was therefore economically disadvantaged.Dollfuss's support in Parliament was marginal; his coalition had only a one-vote majority." ], [ "Dollfuss as dictator of Austria", "Chancellor Dollfuss in Geneva, 1933=== Ascent to power ===In March 1933, a constitutional impasse arose over irregularities in the voting procedure in the Austrian parliament.", "The Social Democratic president of the National Council (the lower house of parliament), Karl Renner, resigned to be able to cast a vote as a parliament member.", "As a consequence, the two vice presidents, belonging to other parties, resigned as well in order to be able to vote.", "Without a president, the parliament could not conclude the session.", "Dollfuss took the three resignations as a pretext to declare that the National Council had become unworkable, and advised President Wilhelm Miklas to issue a decree adjourning it indefinitely.", "When the National Council wanted to reconvene days after the resignation of the three presidents, Dollfuss had police bar entrance to parliament, effectively eliminating democracy in Austria.", "From that point onwards, he governed by emergency decree, effectively seizing dictatorial powers.Dollfuss was concerned that with German National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany from January 1933, the Austrian National Socialists (DNSAP) could gain a significant minority in future elections (according to fascism scholar Stanley G. Payne, should elections have been held in 1933, the DNSAP could have mustered about 25% of the votes – contemporary ''Time'' magazine analysts suggest a higher support of 50%, with a 75% approval rate in the Tyrol region bordering Nazi Germany).", "In addition, the Soviet Union's influence in Europe had increased throughout the 1920s and early 1930s.", "Dollfuss banned the Communist Party of Austria on 26 May 1933 and the DNSAP on 19 June 1933.Under the banner of the Fatherland Front, he later established a one-party dictatorship rule largely modeled after fascism in Italy, banning all other Austrian parties - including the Social Democratic Labour Party (SDAPÖ).", "Social Democrats however continued to exist as an independent organization, nevertheless, though without its paramilitary ''Republikanischer Schutzbund'', which until banned on 31 March 1933 could have mustered tens of thousands against Dollfuss's government.=== Austrofascism ===Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuß wearing the ''Heimwehr'' uniform (1933)Dollfuss modelled Austrofascism according to Catholic corporatist ideals with anti-secularist tones and in a similar way to Italian fascism, dropping Austrian pretenses of unification with Germany as long as the Nazi Party remained in power there.", "In August 1933, Benito Mussolini's regime issued a guarantee of Austrian independence.", "Dollfuss also exchanged \"Secret Letters\" with Mussolini about ways to guarantee Austrian independence.", "Mussolini had an interest in Austria forming a buffer zone against Nazi Germany.", "Dollfuss always stressed the similarity of the régimes of Hitler in Germany and Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union, and was convinced that Austrofascism and Italian fascism could counter totalitarian national-socialism and communism in Europe.In September 1933 Dollfuss merged his Christian Social Party with elements of other nationalist and conservative groups, including the Heimwehr (which encompassed many workers who were unhappy with the radical leadership of the socialist party) to form the ''Vaterländische Front'', though the Heimwehr continued to exist as an independent organization until 1936, when Dollfuss's successor Kurt von Schuschnigg forcibly merged it into the Front, instead creating the unabidingly loyal ''Frontmiliz'' as a paramilitary task-force.", "Dollfuss was shot and wounded in an assassination attempt in October 1933 by Rudolf Dertill, a 22-year-old who had been ejected from the military for his pro-Nazi views, and had joined the Nazi Party in 1932.Dertill was sentenced to five years in prison for attempted murder.", "In the aftermath of the attempted assassination, Dollfuss declared martial law, which allowed for the resumption of capital punishment in Austria.=== Austrian Civil War ===In its drive to eliminate the Social Democrats' ''Schutzbund'', the Dollfuss government searched the homes and meeting places of its members for weapons.", "On 12 February 1934, the Austrian Civil War was sparked by the armed resistance of the Linz branch of the Social Democrats to the search of their party headquarters.", "Word of the fighting in Linz spread quickly, and additional armed conflicts broke out, primarily in Austria's industrial regions and Vienna.", "The ''Schutzbund'' was greatly outnumbered by the police and army, which used artillery against the insurgents.", "In addition, the general strike which had been called to support the uprising failed to materialize.", "The result was the collapse of the rebellion by 15 February, with the deaths of about 350 persons, roughly equally divided between civilians, insurgents, and government forces.", "The Social Democrats were outlawed by the Federal government on 12 February 1934, and their leaders were imprisoned or fled abroad.=== New constitution ===Dollfuss staged a rump parliamentary session with just Fatherland Front members present in April 1934 to have a new constitution approved, effectively the second constitution in the world espousing corporatist ideas (after that of the Portuguese ''Estado Novo'').", "The session retrospectively made all the decrees already passed since March 1933 legal.", "The new constitution became effective on 1 May 1934 and swept away the last remnants of democracy and the system of the First Austrian Republic." ], [ "Assassination", "Grave of Engelbert DollfussDollfuss was assassinated on 25 July 1934 by a group of Austrian Nazis, including Otto Planetta, Franz Holzweber, Ernst Feike, Franz Leeb, Josef Hackl, Ludwig Maitzen, Erich Wohlraab, and Paul Hudl, who entered the Chancellery building and shot him in an attempted ''coup d'état''.", "During mass trials which took place after the coup, Hudl was sentenced to life in prison, while the others were sentenced to death for their involvement.", "Planetta and Holzweber were hanged on 31 July 1934, Feike was hanged on 7 August 1934, and Leeb, Hackl, Maitzen, and Wohlraab were hanged on 13 August 1934.Hudl was released under an amnesty in 1938.In his dying moments, Dollfuss asked for Viaticum, the Eucharist administered to a dying person, but his assassins refused to give it to him.", "Mussolini had no hesitation in attributing the attack to the German dictator: the news reached him at Cesena, where he was examining the plans for a psychiatric hospital.", "Mussolini personally gave the announcement to Dollfuss's widow, who was a guest at his villa in Riccione with her children.", "He also put at the disposal of Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg, who spent a holiday in Venice, a plane that allowed the prince to rush back to Vienna and to face the assailants with his militia, with the permission of President Wilhelm Miklas.Mussolini also mobilised a part of the Italian army on the Austrian border and threatened Hitler with war in the event of a German invasion of Austria to thwart the putsch.", "Then he announced to the world: \"The independence of Austria, for which he has fallen, is a principle that has been defended and will be defended by Italy even more strenuously\", and then replaced in the main square of Bolzano the statue of Walther von der Vogelweide, a Germanic troubadour, with that of Drusus, a Roman general who conquered part of Germany.", "This was the greatest moment of friction between Italian Fascism and National Socialism and Mussolini himself came down several times to reaffirm the differences in the field.The assassination of Dollfuss was accompanied by uprisings in many regions in Austria, resulting in further deaths.", "In Carinthia, a large contingent of northern German Nazis tried to seize power but were subdued by the Italian units nearby.", "At first Hitler was jubilant, but the Italian reaction surprised him.", "Hitler became convinced that he could not face a conflict with the Western European powers, and he officially denied liability, stating his regret for the murder of the Austrian Chancellor.", "He replaced the ambassador to Vienna with Franz von Papen and prevented the conspirators entering Germany, also expelling them from the Austrian Nazi Party.", "The Nazi assassins in Vienna, after declaring the formation of a new government under Austrian Nazi Anton Rintelen, previously exiled by Dollfuss as Austrian Ambassador to Rome, surrendered after threats from the Austrian military of blowing up the Chancellery using dynamite, and were subsequently tried and executed by hanging.", "Kurt Schuschnigg, previously Minister of Education, was appointed new chancellor of Austria after a few days, assuming the office from Dollfuss’s deputy Starhemberg.Out of a population of 6.5 million, approximately 500,000 Austrians were present at Dollfuss's burial in Vienna.", "He is interred in the Hietzing cemetery in Vienna.", "His wife, Alwine Dollfuss (who died in 1973) was later buried beside him.", "Two of his children, Rudolf and Eva, were in Italy as guests of Rachele Mussolini at the time of his death, an event which saw Mussolini himself shed tears over his slain ally." ], [ "In literature", "In Bertolt Brecht's 1941 play ''The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui'', Dollfuss is represented by the character \"Dullfeet\".Gordon Brook Shepard wrote a book in 1961 detailing Dolfuss and his rise to power." ], [ "Works", "* ''Das Kammersystem in der Landwirtschaft Österreichs''.", "Agrarverlag, Wien 1929.", "* Mertha, Rudolf, Dollfuß, Engelbert: ''Die Sozialversicherung in der Landwirtschaft Österreichs nach dem Stande von Ende März 1929''.", "Agrarverlag, Wien 1929.", "* ''Der Führer Bundeskanzler Dr. Dollfuß zum Feste des Wiederaufbaues.", "3 Reden.", "1.Mai 1934''.", "Österr.", "Bundespressedienst, Wien 1934.", "* Tautscher, Anton (Hrsg.", "): ''So sprach der Kanzler.", "Dollfuss’ Vermächtnis.", "Aus seinen Reden''.", "Baumgartner, Wien 1935.", "* Weber, Edmund (Hrsg.", "): ''Dollfuß an Oesterreich.", "Eines Mannes Wort und Ziel''.", "Reinhold, Wien 1935.", "* Maderthaner, Wolfgang (Hrsg.", "): ''„Der Führer bin ich selbst.“ Engelbert Dollfuß – Benito Mussolini.", "Briefwechsel''.", "Löcker, Wien 2004, ." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "=== Books ===*" ] ]
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[ [ "E. T. A. Hoffmann" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann''' (born '''Ernst Theodor Wilhelm Hoffmann'''; 24 January 1776 – 25 June 1822) was a German Romantic author of fantasy and Gothic horror, a jurist, composer, music critic and artist.", "His stories form the basis of Jacques Offenbach's opera ''The Tales of Hoffmann'', in which Hoffmann appears (heavily fictionalized) as the hero.", "He is also the author of the novella ''The Nutcracker and the Mouse King'', on which Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet ''The Nutcracker'' is based.", "The ballet ''Coppélia'' is based on two other stories that Hoffmann wrote, while Schumann's ''Kreisleriana'' is based on Hoffmann's character Johannes Kreisler.Hoffmann's stories highly influenced 19th-century literature, and he is one of the major authors of the Romantic movement." ], [ "Life", "===Youth===Hoffmann's ancestors, both maternal and paternal, were jurists.", "His father, Christoph Ludwig Hoffmann (1736–97), was a barrister in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia), as well as a poet and amateur musician who played the viola da gamba.", "In 1767 he married his cousin, Lovisa Albertina Doerffer (1748–96).", "Ernst Theodor Wilhelm, born on 24 January 1776, was the youngest of three children, of whom the second died in infancy.When his parents separated in 1778, his father went to Insterburg (now Chernyakhovsk) with his elder son, Johann Ludwig Hoffmann (1768–1822), while Hoffmann's mother stayed in Königsberg with her relatives: two aunts, Johanna Sophie Doerffer (1745–1803) and Charlotte Wilhelmine Doerffer (c. 1754–79) and their brother, Otto Wilhelm Doerffer (1741–1811), who were all unmarried.", "The trio raised the youngster.The household, dominated by the uncle (whom Ernst nicknamed ''O Weh''—\"Oh dear!", "\"—in a play on his initials \"O.W.", "\"), was pietistic and uncongenial.", "Hoffmann was to regret his estrangement from his father.", "Nevertheless, he remembered his aunts with great affection, especially the younger, Charlotte, whom he nicknamed ''Tante Füßchen'' (\"Aunt Littlefeet\").", "Although she died when he was only three years old, he treasured her memory (a character in Hoffmann's ''Lebensansichten des Katers Murr'' is named after her) and embroidered stories about her to such an extent that later biographers sometimes assumed her to be imaginary, until proof of her existence was found after World War II.Between 1781 and 1792 he attended the Lutheran school or ''Burgschule'', where he made good progress in classics.", "He was taught drawing by one Saemann, and counterpoint by a Polish organist named Podbileski, who was to be the prototype of Abraham Liscot in ''Kater Murr''.", "Ernst showed great talent for piano-playing, and busied himself with writing and drawing.", "The provincial setting was not, however, conducive to technical progress, and despite his many-sided talents he remained rather ignorant of both classical forms and of the new artistic ideas that were developing in Germany.", "He had, however, read Schiller, Goethe, Swift, Sterne, Rousseau and Jean Paul, and wrote part of a novel titled ''Der Geheimnisvolle''.Around 1787 he became friends with Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel the Younger (1775–1843), the son of a pastor, and nephew of Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel the Elder, the well-known writer friend of Immanuel Kant.", "During the year 1792, both attended some of Kant's lectures at the University of Königsberg.", "Their friendship, although often tested by an increasing social difference, was to be lifelong.In 1794, Hoffmann became enamored of Dora Hatt, a married woman to whom he had given music lessons.", "She was ten years older, and gave birth to her sixth child in 1795.In February 1796, her family protested against his attentions and, with his hesitant consent, asked another of his uncles to arrange employment for him in Glogau (Głogów), Prussian Silesia.===The provinces===From 1796, Hoffmann obtained employment as a clerk for his uncle, Johann Ludwig Doerffer, who lived in Glogau with his daughter Minna.", "After passing further examinations he visited Dresden, where he was amazed by the paintings in the gallery, particularly those of Correggio and Raphael.", "During the summer of 1798, his uncle was promoted to a court in Berlin, and the three of them moved there in August—Hoffmann's first residence in a large city.", "It was there that Hoffmann first attempted to promote himself as a composer, writing an operetta called ''Die Maske'' and sending a copy to Queen Luise of Prussia.", "The official reply advised to him to write to the director of the Royal Theatre, a man named Iffland.", "By the time the latter responded, Hoffmann had passed his third round of examinations and had already left for Posen (Poznań) in South Prussia in the company of his old friend Hippel, with a brief stop in Dresden to show him the gallery.From June 1800 to 1803, he worked in Prussian provinces in the area of Greater Poland and Masovia.", "This was the first time he had lived without supervision by members of his family, and he started to become \"what school principals, parsons, uncles, and aunts call dissolute.", "\"His first job, at Posen, was endangered after Carnival on Shrove Tuesday 1802, when caricatures of military officers were distributed at a ball.", "It was immediately deduced who had drawn them, and complaints were made to authorities in Berlin, who were reluctant to punish the promising young official.", "The problem was solved by \"promoting\" Hoffmann to Płock in New East Prussia, the former capital of Poland (1079–1138), where administrative offices were relocated from Thorn (Toruń).", "He visited the place to arrange lodging, before returning to Posen where he married Mischa (Maria or Marianna Thekla Michalina Rorer, whose Polish surname was Trzcińska).", "They moved to Płock in August 1802.Hoffmann despaired because of his exile, and drew caricatures of himself drowning in mud alongside ragged villagers.", "He did make use, however, of his isolation, by writing and composing.", "He started a diary on 1 October 1803.An essay on the theatre was published in Kotzebue's periodical, ''Die Freimüthige'', and he entered a competition in the same magazine to write a play.", "Hoffmann's was called ''Der Preis'' (\"The Prize\"), and was itself about a competition to write a play.", "There were fourteen entries, but none was judged worthy of the award: 100 Friedrichs d'or.", "Nevertheless, his entry was singled out for praise.", "This was one of the few good times of a sad period of his life, which saw the deaths of his uncle J. L. Hoffmann in Berlin, his Aunt Sophie, and Dora Hatt in Königsberg.At the beginning of 1804, he obtained a post at Warsaw.", "On his way there, he passed through his hometown and met one of Dora Hatt's daughters.", "He was never to return to Königsberg.===Warsaw===Hoffmann assimilated well with Polish society; the years spent in Prussian Poland he recognized as the happiest of his life.", "In Warsaw he found the same atmosphere he had enjoyed in Berlin, renewing his friendship with Zacharias Werner, and meeting his future biographer, a neighbour and fellow jurist called Julius Eduard Itzig (who changed his name to Hitzig after his baptism).", "Itzig had been a member of the Berlin literary group called the ''Nordstern,'' or \"North Star\", and he gave Hoffmann the works of Novalis, Ludwig Tieck, Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano, Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert, Carlo Gozzi and Calderón.", "These relatively late introductions marked his work profoundly.He moved in the circles of August Wilhelm Schlegel, Adelbert von Chamisso, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, Rahel Levin and David Ferdinand Koreff.But Hoffmann's fortunate position was not to last: on 28 November 1806, during the War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte's troops captured Warsaw, and the Prussian bureaucrats lost their jobs.", "They divided the contents of the treasury between them and fled.", "In January 1807, Hoffmann's wife and two-year-old daughter Cäcilia returned to Posen, while he pondered whether to move to Vienna or go back to Berlin.", "A delay of six months was caused by severe illness.", "Eventually the French authorities demanded that all former officials swear allegiance or leave the country.", "As they refused to grant Hoffmann a passport to Vienna, he was forced to return to Berlin.He visited his family in Posen before arriving in Berlin on 18 June 1807, hoping to further his career there as an artist and writer.===Berlin and Bamberg===The next fifteen months were some of the worst in Hoffmann's life.The city of Berlin was also occupied by Napoleon's troops.", "Obtaining only meagre allowances, he had frequent recourse to his friends, constantly borrowing money and still going hungry for days at a time; he learned that his daughter had died.", "Nevertheless, he managed to compose his Six Canticles for ''a cappella'' choir: one of his best compositions, which he would later attribute to Kreisler in ''Lebensansichten des Katers Murr''.Hoffmann's portrait of Kapellmeister KreislerOn 1 September 1808 he arrived with his wife in Bamberg, where he began a job as theatre manager.", "The director, Count Soden, left almost immediately for Würzburg, leaving a man named Heinrich Cuno in charge.", "Hoffmann was unable to improve standards of performance, and his efforts caused intrigues against him which resulted in him losing his job to Cuno.", "He began work as music critic for the ''Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung'', a newspaper in Leipzig, and his articles on Beethoven were especially well received, and highly regarded by the composer himself.", "It was in its pages that the \"Kapellmeister Johannes Kreisler\" character made his first appearance.Hoffmann's breakthrough came in 1809, with the publication of ''Ritter Gluck'', a story about a man who meets, or believes he has met, the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–87) more than twenty years after the latter's death.", "The theme alludes to the work of Jean Paul, who invented the term Doppelgänger the previous decade, and continued to exact a powerful influence over Hoffmann, becoming one of his earliest admirers.", "With this publication, Hoffmann began to use the pseudonym E. T. A. Hoffmann, telling people that the \"A\" stood for ''Amadeus'', in homage to the composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–91).", "However, he continued to use Wilhelm in official documents throughout his life, and the initials E. T. W. also appear on his gravestone.The next year, he was employed at the Bamberg Theatre as stagehand, decorator, and playwright, while also giving private music lessons.He became so enamored of a young singing student, Julia Marc, that his feelings were obvious whenever they were together, and Julia's mother quickly found her a more suitable match.", "When Joseph Seconda offered Hoffmann a position as musical director for his opera company (then performing in Dresden), he accepted, leaving on 21 April 1813.===Dresden and Leipzig===Prussia had declared war against France on 16 March during the War of the Sixth Coalition, and their journey was fraught with difficulties.", "They arrived on the 25th, only to find that Seconda was in Leipzig; on the 26th, they sent a letter pleading for temporary funds.", "That same day Hoffmann was surprised to meet Hippel, whom he had not seen for nine years.The situation deteriorated, and in early May Hoffmann tried in vain to find transport to Leipzig.", "On 8 May, the bridges were destroyed, and his family were marooned in the city.", "During the day, Hoffmann would roam, watching the fighting with curiosity.", "Finally, on 20 May, they left for Leipzig, only to be involved in an accident which killed one of the passengers in their coach and injured his wife.They arrived on 23 May, and Hoffmann started work with Seconda's orchestra, which he found to be of the best quality.", "On 4 June an armistice began, which allowed the company to return to Dresden.", "But on 22 August, after the end of the armistice, the family was forced to relocate from their pleasant house in the suburbs into the town, and during the next few days the Battle of Dresden raged.", "The city was bombarded; many people were killed by bombs directly in front of him.", "After the main battle was over, he visited the gory battlefield.", "His account can be found in ''Vision auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Dresden''.", "After a long period of continued disturbance, the town surrendered on 11 November, and on 9 December the company travelled to Leipzig.On 25 February, Hoffmann quarrelled with Seconda, and the next day he was given notice of twelve weeks.", "When asked to accompany them on their journey to Dresden in April, he refused, and they left without him.", "But during July his friend Hippel visited, and soon he found himself being guided back into his old career as a jurist.===Berlin===Grave of E. T. A. Hoffmann.", "Translated, the inscription reads: E. T. W. Hoffmann, born on 24 January 1776, in Königsberg, died on 25 June 1822, in Berlin, Councillor of the Court of Justice, excellent in his office, as a poet, as a musician, as a painter, dedicated by his friends.At the end of September 1814, in the wake of Napoleon's defeat, Hoffmann returned to Berlin and succeeded in regaining a job at the ''Kammergericht'', the chamber court.", "His opera ''Undine'' was performed by the Berlin Theatre.", "Its successful run came to an end only after a fire on the night of the 25th performance.", "Magazines clamoured for his contributions, and after a while his standards started to decline.", "Nevertheless, many masterpieces date from this time.During the period from 1819, Hoffmann was involved with legal disputes, while fighting ill health.", "Alcohol abuse and syphilis eventually caused weakening of his limbs during 1821, and paralysis from the beginning of 1822.His last works were dictated to his wife or to a secretary.Prince Metternich's anti-liberal programs began to put Hoffmann in situations that tested his conscience.", "Thousands of people were accused of treason for having certain political opinions,and university professors were monitored during their lectures.King Frederick William III of Prussia appointed an Immediate Commission for the investigation of political dissidence; when he found its observance of the rule of law too frustrating, he established a Ministerial Commission to interfere with its processes.", "The latter was greatly influenced by Commissioner Kamptz.", "During the trial of \"Turnvater\" Jahn, the founder of the gymnastics association movement, Hoffmann found himself annoying Kamptz, and became a political target.", "When Hoffmann caricatured Kamptz in a story (''Meister Floh''), Kamptz began legal proceedings.", "These ended when Hoffmann's illness was found to be life-threatening.", "The King asked for a reprimand only, but no action was ever taken.", "Eventually ''Meister Floh'' was published with the offending passages removed.Hoffmann died of syphilis in Berlin on 25 June 1822 at the age of 46.His grave is preserved in the Protestant ''Friedhof III der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde'' (Cemetery No.", "III of the congregations of Jerusalem Church and New Church) in Berlin-Kreuzberg, south of Hallesches Tor at the underground station Mehringdamm." ], [ "Works", "===Literary===Four volume set of Hoffmann's writings*''Fantasiestücke in Callots Manier'' (collection of previously published stories, 1814)**\"Ritter Gluck\", \"Kreisleriana\", \"Don Juan\", \"Nachricht von den neuesten Schicksalen des Hundes Berganza\"**\"Der Magnetiseur\", \"Der goldne Topf\" (revised in 1819), \"Die Abenteuer der Silvesternacht\"*''Die Elixiere des Teufels'' (1815)*''Nachtstücke'' (1817)**\"Der Sandmann\", \"Das Gelübde\", \"Ignaz Denner\", \"Die Jesuiterkirche in G.\"**\"Das Majorat\", \"Das öde Haus\", \"Das Sanctus\", \"Das steinerne Herz\"*''Seltsame Leiden eines Theater-Direktors'' (1819)*''Little Zaches'' (1819)*''Die Serapionsbrüder'' (1819)**\"Der Einsiedler Serapion\", \"Rat Krespel\", \"Die Fermate\", \"Der Dichter und der Komponist\"**\"Ein Fragment aus dem Leben dreier Freunde\", \"Der Artushof\", \"Die Bergwerke zu Falun\", \"Nußknacker und Mausekönig\" (1816)**\" Der Kampf der Sänger\", \"Eine Spukgeschichte\", \"Die Automate\", \"Doge und Dogaresse\"**\"Alte und neue Kirchenmusik\", \"Meister Martin der Küfner und seine Gesellen\", \"Das fremde Kind\"**\"Nachricht aus dem Leben eines bekannten Mannes\", \"Die Brautwahl\", \"Der unheimliche Gast\"**\"Das Fräulein von Scuderi\", \"Spielerglück\" (1819), \"Der Baron von B.", "\"**\"Signor Formica\", \"Zacharias Werner\", \"Erscheinungen\"**\"Der Zusammenhang der Dinge\", \"Vampirismus\", \"Die ästhetische Teegesellschaft\", \"Die Königsbraut\"*''Prinzessin Brambilla'' (1820)*''Lebensansichten des Katers Murr'' (1820)*\"Die Irrungen\" (1820)*\"Die Geheimnisse\" (1821)*\"Die Doppeltgänger\" (1821)*''Meister Floh'' (1822)*\"Des Vetters Eckfenster\" (1822)*''Letzte Erzählungen'' (1825)===Musical=======Vocal music====*Messa d-moll (1805)*Trois Canzonettes à 2 et à 3 voix (1807)*6 Canzoni per 4 voci alla capella (1808)*Miserere b-moll (1809)*In des Irtisch weiße Fluten (Kotzebue), Lied (1811)*Recitativo ed Aria „Prendi l'acciar ti rendo\" (1812)*Tre Canzonette italiane (1812); 6 Duettini italiani (1812)*Nachtgesang, Türkische Musik, Jägerlied, Katzburschenlied für Männerchor (1819–21)====Works for stage====* ''Die Maske'' (libretto by Hoffmann), Singspiel (1799)* ''Die lustigen Musikanten'' (libretto: Clemens Brentano), Singspiel (1804)* Incidental music to Zacharias Werner's tragedy ''Das Kreuz an der Ostsee'' (1805)* ''Liebe und Eifersucht'' (libretto by Hoffmann after Calderón, translated by August Wilhelm Schlegel) (1807)* ''Arlequin'', ballet (1808)* ''Der Trank der Unsterblichkeit'' (libretto: Julius von Soden), romantic opera (1808)* ''Wiedersehn!''", "(libretto by Hoffmann), prologue (1809)* ''Dirna'' (libretto: Julius von Soden), melodrama (1809)* Incidental music to Julius von Soden's drama ''Julius Sabinus'' (1810)* ''Saul, König von Israel'' (libretto: Joseph von Seyfried), melodrama (1811)* ''Aurora'' (libretto: Franz von Holbein), heroic opera (1812)* ''Undine'' (libretto: Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué), ''Zauberoper'' (1816)* ''Der Liebhaber nach dem Tode'' (unfinished)====Instrumental====*Rondo für Klavier (1794/95)*Ouvertura.", "Musica per la chiesa d-moll (1801)*Klaviersonaten: A-Dur, f-moll, F-Dur, f-moll, cis-moll (1805–1808)*Große Fantasie für Klavier (1806)*Sinfonie Es-Dur (1806)*Harfenquintett c-moll (1807)*Grand Trio E-Dur (1809)*Walzer zum Karolinentag (1812)*Teutschlands Triumph in der Schlacht bei Leipzig, (by \"Arnulph Vollweiler\", 1814; lost)*Serapions-Walzer (1818–1821)" ], [ "Assessment", "Statue of \"E. T. A. Hoffmann and his cat\" in BambergHoffmann is one of the best-known representatives of German Romanticism, and a pioneer of the fantasy genre, with a taste for the macabre combined with realism that influenced such authors as Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Nikolai Gogol (1809–1852), Charles Dickens (1812–1870), Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), George MacDonald (1824–1905), Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), Vernon Lee (1856–1935), Franz Kafka (1883–1924) and Alfred Hitchcock (1899–1980).", "Hoffmann's story ''Das Fräulein von Scuderi'' is sometimes cited as the first detective story and a direct influence on Poe's \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\"; Characters from it also appear in the opera ''Cardillac'' by Paul Hindemith.The twentieth-century Russian literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin characterised Hoffmann's works as Menippea, essentially satirical and self-parodying in form, thus including him in a tradition that includes Cervantes, Diderot and Voltaire.Robert Schumann's piano suite Kreisleriana (1838) takes its title from one of Hoffmann's books (and according to Charles Rosen's ''The Romantic Generation'', is possibly also inspired by \"The Life and Opinions of Tomcat Murr\", in which Kreisler appears).", "Jacques Offenbach's masterwork, the opera ''Les contes d'Hoffmann'' (\"The Tales of Hoffmann\", 1881), is based on the stories, principally \"Der Sandmann\" (\"The Sandman\", 1816), \"Rat Krespel\" (\"Councillor Krespel\", 1818), and \"Das verlorene Spiegelbild\" (\"The Lost Reflection\") from ''Die Abenteuer der Silvester-Nacht'' (''The Adventures of New Year's Eve'', 1814).", "''Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober'' (''Little Zaches called Cinnabar'', 1819) inspired an aria as well as the operetta ''Le Roi Carotte'', 1872).", "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet ''The Nutcracker'' (1892) is based on \"The Nutcracker and the Mouse King\", and the ballet ''Coppélia'', with music by Delibes, is based on two eerie Hoffmann stories.Hoffmann also influenced 19th-century musical opinion directly through his music criticism.", "His reviews of Beethoven's Symphony No.", "5 in C minor, Op.", "67 (1808) and other important works set new literary standards for writing about music, and encouraged later writers to consider music as \"the most Romantic of all the arts.\"", "Hoffmann's reviews were first collected for modern readers by Friedrich Schnapp, ed., in ''E.T.A.", "Hoffmann: Schriften zur Musik; Nachlese'' (1963) and have been made available in an English translation in ''E.T.A.", "Hoffmann's Writings on Music, Collected in a Single Volume'' (2004).Hoffmann's drawing of himself, riding on Tomcat Murr and fighting \"Prussian bureaucracy\"Hoffmann strove for artistic polymathy.", "He created far more in his works than mere political commentary achieved through satire.", "His masterpiece novel ''Lebensansichten des Katers Murr'' (''The Life and Opinions of Tomcat Murr'', 1819–1821) deals with such issues as the aesthetic status of true artistry and the modes of self-transcendence that accompany any genuine endeavour to create.", "Hoffmann's portrayal of the character Kreisler (a genius musician) is wittily counterpointed with the character of the tomcat Murr – a virtuoso illustration of artistic pretentiousness that many of Hoffmann's contemporaries found offensive and subversive of Romantic ideals.Hoffmann's literature indicates the failings of many so-called artists to differentiate between the superficial and the authentic aspects of such Romantic ideals.", "The ''self-conscious'' effort to impress must, according to Hoffmann, be divorced from the ''self-aware'' effort to create.", "This essential duality in ''Kater Murr'' is conveyed structurally through a discursive 'splicing together' of two biographical narratives.===Science fiction===While disagreeing with E. F. Bleiler's claim that Hoffmann was \"one of the two or three greatest writers of fantasy\", Algis Budrys of ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' said that he \"did lay down the groundwork for some of our most enduring themes\".Historian Martin Willis argues that Hoffmann's impact on science fiction has been overlooked, saying \"his work reveals a writer dynamically involved in the important scientific debates of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.\"", "Willis points out that Hoffmann's work is contemporary with ''Frankenstein'' (1818) and with \"the heated debates and the relationship between the new empirical science and the older forms of natural philosophy that held sway throughout the eighteenth century.\"", "His \"interest in the machine culture of his time is well represented in his short stories, of which the critically renowned ''The Sandman'' (1816) and ''Automata'' (1814) are the best examples.", "...Hoffmann's work makes a considerable contribution to our understanding of the emergence of scientific knowledge in the early years of the nineteenth century and to the conflict between science and magic, centred mainly on the 'truths' available to the advocates of either practice.", "...Hoffmann's balancing of mesmerism, mechanics, and magic reflects the difficulty in categorizing scientific knowledge in the early nineteenth century.\"" ], [ "In popular culture", "*Robertson Davies invokes Hoffmann as a character (with the pet name of 'ETAH') trapped in Limbo, in his novel ''The Lyre of Orpheus'' (1988).", "*Alexandre Dumas, père translated ''The Nutcracker'' into French, which aided in making the tale popular and widespread.", "*The exotic and supernatural elements in the storyline of Ingmar Bergman's 1982 film ''Fanny and Alexander'' derive largely from the stories of Hoffmann.", "* Freud gives an extensive psychoanalytic analysis of Hoffmann's \"The Sandman\" in his 1919 essay ''Das Unheimliche''.", "* Coppelius is a German classical metal band whose name is taken from a character in Hoffmann's \"The Sandman\".", "The band's 2010 album ''Zinnober'' includes a track titled \"Klein Zaches\".", "* The Russian show ''Puppets'' was cancelled by government officials after an episode in which Vladimir Putin was portrayed as Hoffmann's Klein Zaches." ], [ "See also", "*''The Tales of Hoffmann'' for Offenbach's opera.", "*''The Tales of Hoffmann'' for the film*''Gofmaniada'', a Russian puppet-animated feature film about Hoffmann and several of his stories.", "*German science fiction literature" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ingo Müller: Die Rezeption E.T.A.", "Hoffmanns in der klassischen Musik des 19.bis 21.Jahrhunderts.", "In: “Unheimlich Fantastisch – E.T.A.", "Hoffmann 2022”.", "Begleitbuch zur Ausstellung der Staatsbibliothek Berlin in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Deutschen Romantik-Museum Frankfurt a. M. und der Staatsbibliothek Bamberg, hg.", "von Benjamin Schlodder, Christina Schmitz, Bettina Wagner und Wolfgang Bunzel, Leipzig 2022, ISBN 3959055730 S. 315-322." ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * Hoffmann's Life and Opinions of the Tom Cat Murr* * Compositions of E. T. A. Hoffmann in the digital collection of the Bamberg State Library* E. T. A. Hoffmann entry in ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy''* * Extensively cross-indexed bibliography of Hoffmann's works" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erasmus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus''' (; ; English: '''Erasmus of Rotterdam''' or '''Erasmus'''; 28 October c.1466 – 12 July 1536) was a Dutch Christian humanist, Catholic theologian, educationalist, satirist and philosopher.", "Through his vast number of translations, books, essays, prayers and letters, he is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the Northern Renaissance and one of the major figures of Dutch and Western culture.He was an important figure in classical scholarship who wrote in a spontaneous, copious and natural Latin style.", "As a Catholic priest developing humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament, which raised questions that would be influential in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation.", "He also wrote ''On Free Will,'' ''The Praise of Folly'', ''Handbook of a Christian Knight'', ''On Civility in Children'', ''Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style'' and many other works.Erasmus lived against the backdrop of the growing European religious Reformation.", "He developed a biblical humanistic theology in which he advocated tolerance, concord and free thinking on ''matters of indifference''.", "He remained a member of the Catholic Church all his life, remaining committed to reforming the Church from within.", "He promoted the traditional doctrine of synergism, which some prominent Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin rejected in favor of the doctrine of monergism.", "His middle-road approach disappointed, and even angered, partisans in both camps." ], [ "Biography", "Erasmus's almost 70 years can be divided into four quarters.", "* First was his medieval Dutch childhood, ending with his being orphaned and impoverished; * second, his struggling years as a canon (a kind of monk), a clerk, a priest, a failing and sickly university student, a would-be poet, and a tutor; * third, his flourishing but peripatetic years of increasing focus and productivity following his 1499 contact with a reformist English circle, then with French Franciscan Jean Vitrier and later with the Aldine New Academy in Venice; and * fourth, his final more secure and settled Black Forest years as a prime influencer of European thought through his New Testament and increasing opposition to Lutheranism.===Early life===Statue of Erasmus in Rotterdam.", "Gilded bronze statue by Hendrick de Keyser (1622), replacing a stone (1557), and a wooden (1549).Desiderius Erasmus is reported to have been born in Rotterdam on 27 or 28 October (\"the vigil of Simon and Jude\") in the late-1460s.", "He was named after Erasmus of Formiae, whom Erasmus' father Gerard (Gerardus Helye) personally favored.", "Although associated closely with Rotterdam, he lived there for only four years, never to return afterwards.The year of Erasmus' birth is unclear: in later life he calculated his age as if born in 1466, but frequently his remembered age at major events actually implies 1469.", "(This article currently gives 1466 as the birth year.", "To handle this disagreement, ages are given first based on 1469, then in parentheses based on 1466: e.g., \"20 (or 23)\".", ")His parents could not be legally married: his father, Gerard, was a Catholic priest who may have spent up to six years in the 1450s or 60s in Italy as a scribe and scholar.", "His mother was Margaretha Rogerius (Latinized form of Dutch surname Rutgers), the daughter of a doctor from Zevenbergen.", "She may have been Gerard's housekeeper.", "Although he was born out of wedlock, Erasmus was cared for by his parents, with a loving household and the best education, until their early deaths from the bubonic plague in 1483.His only sibling Peter might have been born in 1463, and some writers suggest Margaret was a widow and Peter was the half-brother of Erasmus; Erasmus on the other side called him his brother.", "There were legal and social restrictions on the careers and opportunities open to the children of unwed parents.Erasmus' own story, in the possibly forged 1524 ''Compendium vitae Erasmi'' was along the lines that his parents were engaged, with the formal marriage blocked by his relatives (presumably a young widow or unmarried mother with a child was not an advantageous match); his father went to Italy to study Latin and Greek, and the relatives mislead Gerard that Margaretha had died, on which news grieving Gerard romantically took Holy Orders, only to find on his return that Margaretha was alive; many scholars dispute this account.In 1471 his father became the vice-curate of the small town of Woerden (where young Erasmus may have attended the local vernacular school to learn to read and write) and in 1476 was promoted to the vice-curate of Gouda.Erasmus was given the highest education available to a young man of his day, in a series of monastic or semi-monastic schools.", "In 1476, at the age of 6 (or 9), his family moved to Gouda and he started at the school of Mr Pieter Winckel, who later became his guardian (and, perhaps, diverted Erasmus and Peter's inheritance.)", "(Historians who date his birth in 1466 have Erasmus in Utrecht at the choir school at this period.", ")In 1478, at the age of 9 (or 12), he and his older brother Peter were sent to one of the best Latin schools in the Netherlands, located at Deventer and owned by the chapter clergy of the Lebuïnuskerk (St. Lebuin's Church).", "Towards the end of his stay there the curriculum was renewed by the new principal of the school, Alexander Hegius, a correspondent of pioneering rhetorician Rudolphus Agricola.", "For the first time in Europe north of the Alps, Greek was taught at a lower level than a university and this is where he began learning it.", "His education there ended when plague struck the city about 1483, and his mother, who had moved to provide a home for her sons, died from the infection.", "Following the death of his parents and 20 students at his school he moved back to his ''patria'' (Rotterdam?)", "where he was supported by Berthe de Heyden, a compassionate widow.", "Hieronymous Bosch, Temptation of St Anthony, triptych (c. 1501), painted in 's-Hertogenbosch, later owned by friend Damião de Gois In 1484, around the age 14 (or 17), he and his brother went to a cheaper grammar school or seminary at 's-Hertogenbosch run by the Brethren of the Common Life.", "He was exposed there to the Devotio moderna movement and the Brethren's famous book The Imitation of Christ but resented the harsh rules and strict methods of the religious brothers and educators.", "The two brothers made an agreement that they would resist the clergy but attend the university; Erasmus longed to study in Italy.", "Instead, Peter left for the Augustinian canonry in Stein, which left Erasmus feeling betrayed.", "Around this time he wrote forlornly to his friend Elizabeth de Heyden \"Shipwrecked am I, and lost, 'mid waters chill'.\"", "He suffered Quartan fever for over a year.", "Eventually Erasmus moved to the same abbey as a postulant in or before 1487, around the age of 16 (or 19.", ")===Vows, ordination and canonry experience===Bust by Hildo Krop (1950) in Gouda, where Erasmus spent his youthPoverty had forced Erasmus into the consecrated life, entering the novitiate in 1487 at the canonry at rural Stein, very near Gouda, South Holland: the ''Chapter of Sion'' community largely borrowed its rule from the larger monkish Congregation of Windesheim.", "In 1488–1490, the surrounding region was plundered badly by armies fighting the Jonker Fransen war of succession and then suffered a famine.", "Erasmus professed his vows as a Canon Regular of St. Augustine there in late 1488 at age 19 (or 22).", "Historian Fr.", "Aiden Gasquet later wrote: \"One thing, however, would seem to be quite clear; he could never have had any vocation for the religious life.", "His whole subsequent history shows this unmistakeably.\"", "According to one Catholic biographer, Erasmus had a spiritual awakening at the monastery.Certain abuses in religious orders were among the chief objects of his later calls to reform the Western Church from within, particularly coerced or tricked recruitment of immature boys (as \"victims of Dominic and Francis and Benedict\"): Erasmus felt he had belonged to this class, joining \"voluntarily but not freely\" and so considered himself, if not morally bound by his vows, certainly legally, socially and honour- bound to keep them, yet to look for his true vocation.While at Stein, 18-(or 21-)year-old Erasmus fell in unrequited love, forming what he called a \"passionate attachment\" (), with a fellow canon, Servatius Rogerus,In Huizinga's view: \"Out of the letters to Servatius there rises the picture of an Erasmus whom we shall never find again—a young man of more than feminine sensitiveness; of a languishing need for sentimental friendship.", "...This exuberant friendship accords quite well with the times and the person.", "...", "Sentimental friendships were as much in vogue in secular circles during the fifteenth century as towards the end of the eighteenth century.", "Each court had its pairs of friends, who dressed alike, and shared room, bed, and heart.", "Nor was this cult of fervent friendship restricted to the sphere of aristocratic life.", "It was among the specific characteristics of the ''devotio moderna''.\"", "and wrote a series of love letters in which he called Rogerus \"half my soul\", writing that \"it was not for the sake of reward or out of a desire for any favour that I have wooed you both unhappily and relentlessly.", "What is itthen?", "Why, that you love him who loves you.\"", "This correspondence contrasts with the generally detached and much more restrained attitude he usually showed in his later life, though he had a capacity to form and maintain deep male friendships, such as with More, Colet, and Ammonio.", "No mentions or sexual accusations were ever made of Erasmus during his lifetime.", "His works notably praise moderate sexual desire in marriage between men and women.In 1493, his Prior arranged for him to leave the Stein house and take up the post of Latin secretary to the ambitious Bishop of Cambrai, Henry of Bergen, on account of his great skill in Latin and his reputation as a man of letters.He was ordained to the Catholic priesthood either on 25 April 1492, or 25 April 1495, at age 25 (or 28.)", "Either way, he did not actively work as a choir priest for very long, though his many works on confession and penance suggests experience of dispensing them.From 1500, he avoided returning to the canonry at Stein even insisting the diet and hours would kill him, though he did stay with other Augustinian communities and at monasteries of other orders in his travels.", "Rogerus, who became prior at Stein in 1504, and Erasmus corresponded over the years, with Rogerus demanding Erasmus return after his studies were complete.", "Nevertheless, the library of the canonry ended up with by far the largest collection of Erasmus' publications in the Gouda region.In 1505 Pope Julius II granted a dispensation from the vow of poverty to the extent of allowing Erasmus to hold certain benefices, and from the control and habit of his order, though he remained a priest and, formally, an Augustinian canon regular the rest his life.", "In 1517 Pope Leo X granted legal dispensations for Erasmus' ''defects of natality'' and confirmed the previous dispensation, allowing the 48-(or 51-)year-old his independence but still, as a canon, capable of holding office as a prior or abbot.Many of Erasmus' convictions seem to spring from his early biography: esteem for the married state and appropriate marriages, support for priestly marriage, concern for improving marriage prospects for females, opposition to inconsiderate rules notably institutional dietary rules, a desire to make education engaging for the participants, interest in classical languages, horror of poverty and spiritual hopelessness, distaste for friars begging when they could study or work, unwillingness to be in the control of authorities, laicism, the need for those in authority to act in the best interest of their charges, a prizing of mercy and peace, an anger over unnecessary war especially between avaricious princes, an awareness of mortality, etc.===Travels===Erasmus traveled widely and regularly, for reasons of poverty, \"escape\" from his Stein canonry (to Cambrai), education (to Paris, Turin), escape from the sweating sickness plague (to Orléans), employment (to England), searching libraries for manuscripts, writing (Brabant), royal counsel (Cologne), patronage, tutoring and chaperoning (North Italy), networking (Rome), seeing books through printing in person (Paris, Venice, Louvain, Basel), and avoiding the persecution of religious fanatics (to Freiburg.)", "He enjoyed horseback riding====Paris====In 1495 with Bishop Henry's consent and a stipend, Erasmus went on to study at the University of Paris in the Collège de Montaigu, a centre of reforming zeal, under the direction of the ascetic Jan Standonck, of whose rigors he complained.", "The university was then the chief seat of Scholastic learning but already coming under the influence of Renaissance humanism.", "For instance, Erasmus became an intimate friend of an Italian humanist Publio Fausto Andrelini, poet and \"professor of humanity\" in Paris.During this time, Erasmus developed a deep aversion to exclusive or excessive Aristotelianism and Scholasticism and started finding work as a tutor/chaperone to visiting English and Scottish aristocrats.====England====Erasmus stayed in England at least three times.", "In between he had periods studying in Paris, Orléans, Leuven and other cities.Erasmus by Hans Holbein the Younger.", "Louvre, Paris.=====First visit - 1499-1500=====In 1499 he was invited to England by William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy, who offered to accompany him on his trip to England.", "His time in England was fruitful in the making of lifelong friendships with the leaders of English thought in the days of King Henry VIII.During his first visit to England in 1499, he studied or taught at the University of Oxford.", "Erasmus was particularly impressed by the Bible teaching of John Colet, who pursued a style more akin to the church fathers than the Scholastics.", "Through the influence of the humanist John Colet, his interests turned towards theology.", "Other distinctive features of Colet's thought that may have influenced Erasmus are his pacifism, reform-mindedness, anti-Scholasticism and pastoral esteem for the sacrament of Confession.This prompted him, upon his return from England to Paris, to intensively study the Greek language, which would enable him to study theology on a more profound level.Erasmus also became fast friends with Thomas More, a young law student considering becoming a monk, whose thought (e.g., on conscience and equity) had been influenced by 14th century French theologian Jean Gerson.Erasmus left London with a full purse from his generous friends, to allow him to complete his studies.", "However, the English Customs officials confiscated all gold and silver, leaving him with nothing except a night fever that lasted several months.=====Second visit - 1505-1506=====Sir Thomas More, by Hans Holbein the YoungerFor Erasmus' second visit, he spent over a year staying at recently married Thomas More's house, now a lawyer and Member of Parliament, honing his translation skills.Erasmus preferred to live the life of an independent scholar and made a conscious effort to avoid any actions or formal ties that might inhibit his individual freedom.", "In England Erasmus was approached with prominent offices but he declined them all, until the King himself offered his support.", "He was inclined, but eventually did not accept and longed for a stay in Italy.=====Third visit - 1510-1515=====In 1510, Erasmus arrived at More's bustling house, was parked in bed to recover from his recurrent illness, and wrote ''The Praise of Folly'', which was to be a best-seller.", "More was at that time the undersheriff of the City of London.After his glorious reception in Italy, Erasmus had returned broke and jobless, with strained relations with former friends and benefactors on the continent, and he regretted leaving Italy, despite being horrified by papal warfare.", "There is a gap in his usually voluminous correspondence: his so-called \"two lost years\", perhaps due to self-censorship of dangerous or disgruntled opinions; he shared lodgings with his friend Andrea Ammonio (Latin secretary to Mountjoy, and the next year, to Henry VIII) provided at the London Austin Friars' compound, skipping out after a disagreement with the friars over rent that caused bad blood.He assisted his friend John Colet by authoring Greek textbooks and securing members of staff for the newly established St Paul's School and was in contact when Colet gave his notorious 1512 Convocation sermon which called for a reformation of ecclesiastical affairs.", "At Colet's instigation, Erasmus started work on ''De copia''.In 1511, the University of Cambridge's Chancellor John Fisher arranged for Erasmus to be the Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity, though Erasmus turned down the option of spending the rest of his life as a professor there.", "He studied and taught Greek and researched and lectured on Jerome.Erasmus mainly stayed at Queens' College while lecturing at the university, between 1511 and 1515.Erasmus' rooms were located in the \"\" staircase of Old Court.", "Despite a chronic shortage of money, he succeeded in mastering Greek by an intensive, day-and-night study of three years, taught by Thomas Linacre, continuously begging in letters that his friends send him books and money for teachers.Erasmus suffered from poor health and was especially concerned with heating, clean air, ventilation, draughts, fresh food and unspoiled wine: he complained about the draughtiness of English buildings.", "He complained that Queens' College could not supply him with enough decent wine (wine was the Renaissance medicine for gallstones, from which Erasmus suffered).", "As Queens' was an unusually humanist-leaning institution in the 16th century, Queens' College Old Library still houses many first editions of Erasmus's publications, many of which were acquired during that period by bequest or purchase, including Erasmus's New Testament translation, which is signed by friend and Polish religious reformer Jan Łaski.During this time, Erasmus encouraged Thomas More's book Utopia (pub.", "1516), perhaps even contributing fragments.", "By this time More was a judge on the poorman's equity court (Master of Requests) and a Privy Counsellor.====France and Brabant====Following his first trip to England, Erasmus returned first to poverty in Paris, where he started to compile the ''Adagio'' for his students, then to Orleans to escape the plague, and then to semi-monastic life, scholarly studies and writing in France, notably at the Benedictine Abbey of Saint Bertin at St Omer (1501,1502) where he wrote the initial version of the ''Enchiridion'' (Handbook of the Christian Knight.)", "A particular influence was his encounter in 1501 with Jean (Jehan) Vitrier, a radical Franciscan who consolidated Erasmus' thoughts against excessive valorization of monasticism, ceremonialism and fasting in a kind of conversion experience, and introduced him to Origen.In 1502, Erasmus went to Brabant, ultimately to the university at Louvain, then back to Paris in 1504.====Italy====In 1506 he was able to accompany and tutor the sons of the personal physician of the English King through Italy to Bologna.His discovery ''en route'' of Lorenzo Valla's ''New Testament Notes'' was a major event in his career and prompted Erasmus to study the New Testament using philology.In 1506 they passed through Turin and he arranged to be awarded the degree of Doctor of Sacred Theology (''Sacra Theologia'') from the University of Turin at age 37 (or 40.)", "Erasmus stayed tutoring in Bologna for a year; in the Winter, Erasmus was present when Pope Julius II entered victorious into the conquered Bologna which he had besieged before.", "Book printed and illuminated at Aldine press, Venice (1501), Horace, ''Works''Erasmus traveled on to Venice, working on an expanded version of his Adagia at the Aldine Press of the famous printer Aldus Manutius, advised him which manuscripts to publish, and was an honorary member of the graecophone Aldine \"New Academy\" ().", "From Aldus he learned the in-person workflow that made him productive at Froben: making last-minute changes, and immediately checking and correcting printed page proofs as soon as the ink had dried.", "Aldus wrote that Erasmus could do twice as much work in a given time as any other man he had ever met.In 1507, according to his letters, he studied advanced Greek in Padua with the Venetian natural philosopher, Giulio Camillo.", "He found employment tutoring and escorting Scottish nobleman Alexander Stewart, the 24-year old Archbishop of St Andrews, through Padua, Florence, and Siena Erasmus made it to Rome in 1509, visiting some notable libraries and cardinals, but having a less active association with Italian scholars than might have been expected.In 1510, William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Lord Mountjoy lured him back to England, now under its new humanist king, paying £10 journey money.", "On his trip back over the Alps, down the Rhein, to England, Erasmus mentally composed ''The Praise of Folly''.====Brabant (Flanders)====His residence at Leuven, where he lectured at the University, exposed Erasmus to much criticism from those ascetics, academics and clerics hostile to the principles of literary and religious reform to which he was devoting his life.", "In 1514, ''en route'' to Basel, he made the acquaintance of Hermannus Buschius, Ulrich von Hutten and Johann Reuchlin who introduced him to the Hebrew language in Mainz.", "In 1514, he suffered a fall from his horse and injured his back.Erasmus may have made several other short visits to England or English territory while living in Brabant.", "Happily for Erasmus, More and Tunstall were posted in Brussels or Antwerp on government missions around 1516, More for six months, Tunstall for longer.", "However, in 1517, his great friend Ammonio died in England of the Sweating Sickness.Erasmus had accepted an honorary position as a Councillor to Charles V with an annuity of 200 guilders, and tutored his brother, the teenage future Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand of Hapsburg.", "At this time he wrote ''The Education of a Christian Prince'' (''Institutio principis Christiani'').In 1517, he supported the foundation at the university of the Collegium Trilingue for the study of Hebrew, Latin, and Greek—after the model of Cisneros' College of the Three Languages at the University of Alcalá—financed by his late friend Hieronymus van Busleyden's will.Field of the Cloth of Gold, w. Henry VIII (British - prev.", "attrib.", "Hans Holbein the Younger)In 1520 he was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold with Guillaume Budé, probably his last meetings with Thomas More and William Warham.", "His friends and former students and old correspondents were the incoming political elite, and he had risen with them.He stayed in various locations including Anderlecht (near Brussels) in the Summer of 1521.====Basel====Desiderius Erasmus dictating to his ammenuensis Gilbert Cousin or Cognatus.", "From a book by Cousin, and itself claimed to be based on fresco in Cousin's house in Nozeroy, Burgundy.", "Engraving possibly by :fr:Claude Luc.", "From 1514, Erasmus regularly traveled to Basel to coordinate the printing of his books with Froben.", "He developed a lasting association with the great Basel publisher Johann Froben and later his son Hieronymus Froben (Eramus' godson) who together published over 200 works with Erasmus, working with expert scholar-correctors who went on to illustrious careers.", "His initial interest in Froben's operation was aroused by his discovery of the printer's folio edition of the ''Adagiorum Chiliades tres'' (Adagia) (1513).", "Froben's work was notable for using the new Roman type (rather than blackletter) and Aldine-like Italic and Greek fonts, as well as elegant layouts using borders and fancy capitals; Hans Holbein (the Younger) cut several woodblock capitals for Erasmus' editions.In 1521 he settled in Basel.", "He was weary of the controversies and hostility at Louvain, and feared being dragged further into the Lutheran controversy.", "He agreed to be the Froben press' literary superintendent writing dedications and prefaces for an annuity and profit share.", "Apart from Froben's production team, he had his own householdwith a formidable housekeeper, stable of horses, and up to eight boarders or paid servants: who acted as assistants, correctors, amanuenses, dining companions, international couriers, and carers.", "It was his habit to sit at times by a ground-floor window, to make it easier to see and be seen by strolling humanists for chatting.In collaboration with Froben and his team, the scope and ambition of Erasmus' ''Annotations'', Erasmus' long-researched project of philological notes of the New Testament along the lines of Valla's ''Adnotations'', had grown to also include a lightly revised Latin Vulgate, then the Greek text, then several edifying essays on methodology, then a highly revised Vulgate—all bundled as his ''Novum testamentum omne'' and pirated individually throughout Europe— then finally his amplified ''Paraphrases''.Pope Adrian VI (1522-1523In 1522, Erasmus' compatriot, former teacher (c. 1502) and friend from University of Louvain unexpectedly became Pope Adrian VI, after having served as Regent (and/or Grand Inquisitor) of Spain for six years.", "Like Erasmus and Luther, he had been influenced by the Brethren of the Common Life.", "He tried to entice Erasmus to Rome.", "His reforms of the Roman Curia which he hoped would meet the objections of many Lutherans were stymied (party because the Holy See was broke), though re-worked at the Council of Trent, and he died in 1523.As the popular and nationalist responses to Luther gathered momentum, the social disorders, which Erasmus dreaded and Luther disassociated himself from, began to appear, including the German Peasants' War (1524–1525), the Anabaptist insurrections in Germany and in the Low Countries, iconoclasm, and the radicalisation of peasants across Europe.", "If these were the outcomes of reform,Erasmus was thankful that he had kept out of it.", "Yet he was ever more bitterly accused of having started the whole \"tragedy\" (as Erasmus dubbed the matter).In 1523, he provided financial support to the impoverished and disgraced former Latin Secretary of Antwerp Cornelius Grapheus, on his release from the newly introduced Inquisition.", "In 1525, a former student of Erasmus who had served at Erasmus' father's former church at Woerden, Jan de Bakker (Pistorius) was the first priest to be executed as a heretic in the Netherlands.", "In 1529, his French translator and friend Louis de Berquin was burnt in Paris, following his condemnation as an anti-Rome heretic by the Sorbonne theologians.====Freiburg====Portrait of Damião de Góis by Albrecht Dürer Following iconoclastic rioting in 1529 led by Œcolampadius his former assistant, the city of Basel definitely adopted the Reformation, and banned the Catholic mass on April 1, 1529.Erasmus left Basel on the 13 April 1529 and departed by ship to the Catholic university town of Freiburg im Breisgau to be under the protection of his former student, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, staying for two years on the top floor of the Whale House, then buying and refurbishing a house of his own, where he took in scholar/assistants as table-boarders such as Cornelius Grapheus' friend Damião de Góis, some of them fleeing persecution.Despite increasing frailty Erasmus continued to work productively, notably on a new ''magnum opus'', his manual on preaching ''Ecclesiastes'', and his small book on preparing for death.", "His boarder for five months, the Portuguese scholar/diplomat Damião de Góis, worked on his lobbying on the plight of the Sámi in Sweden and the Ethiopian church, and stimulated Erasmus' increasing awareness of foreign missions.There are no extant letters between More and Erasmus from the start of More's period as Chancellor until his resignation (1529–1523), almost to the day.", "Erasmus wrote several important non-political works under the surprising patronage of Thomas Bolyn: his ''Ennaratio triplex in Psalmum XXII'' or ''Triple Commentary on Psalm 23'' (1529); his catechism to counter Luther ''Explanatio Symboli'' or ''A Playne and Godly Exposition or Declaration of the Commune Crede'' (1533) which sold out in three hours at the Frankfurt Book Fair, and ''Praeparatio ad mortem'' or ''Preparation for Death'' (1534) which would be one of Erasmus' most popular and most hijacked works.=====Fates of Friends=====William Warham (c.1450–1532), Archbishop of Canterbury, after Hans HolbeinCuthbert Tunstall (1474–1559), Bishop of DurhamIn the 1530s, life became more dangerous for Spanish Erasmians when Erasmus' protector, the Inquisitor General Alonso Manrique de Lara fell out of favour with the royal court and lost power within his own organization to friar-theologians.", "In 1532 Erasmus' friend, ''conversos'' Juan de Vergara (Cisneros' Latin secretary who had worked on the Complutensian Polyglot and published Stunica's criticism of Erasmus,) was arrested by the Spanish Inquisition and had to be ransomed from them by the humanist Archbishop of Toledo Alonso III Fonseca, also a correspondent of Erasmus', who had previously rescued Ignatius of Loyola from them.There was a generational change in the Catholic hierarchy.", "In 1532 his beloved long-time mentor English Primate Warham died of old age.", "In 1534 his distrusted protector Clement IV died, his recent Italian ally Cardinal Cajetan died, and his old ally Cardinal Campeggio retired.As more friends died (in 1533, his friend Pieter Gilles; in 1534, William Blount; in early 1536, Catherine of Aragon;) and as Luther and some Lutherans and some powerful Catholic theologians renewed their personal attacks on Erasmus, his letters are increasingly focused on concerns on the status of friendships and safety as he considered moving from bland Freiburg despite his health.In 1535, Erasmus' friends Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher were executed as pro-Rome traitors by Henry VIII, who Erasmus and More had first met as a boy.", "Despite illness Erasmus wrote the first biography of More (and Fisher), the short, anonymous ''\"Expositio Fidelis'', which Froben published, at the instigation of de Góis.After Erasmus' time, numerous of Erasmus' translators later met similar fates at the hands of Anglican, Catholic and Reformed sectarians and autocrats: including Margaret Pole, William Tyndale, Mary Tudor, Michael Servetus.", "Others, such as Charles V's Latin secretary Juan de Valdés, fled and died in self-exile.Erasmus' friend Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall died in prison under Elizabeth I for refusing the Oath of Supremacy.", "His correspondent Bishop Stephen Gardiner, who Erasmus had known as a teenaged student in Paris and Cambridge, was later imprisoned in the Tower of London for five years under Edward VI for impeding Protestantism.", "Damião de Góis was tried before the Portuguese Inquisition at age 72, detained almost ''incommunicado'', finally exiled to a monastery, and on release perhaps murdered.", "His amanuensis Gilbert Cousin died in prison at age 66, shortly after being arrested on the personal order of Pope Pius V.===Death in Basel===Epitaph for Erasmus in the Basel MinsterWhen his strength began to fail, he finally decided to accept an invitation by Queen Mary of Hungary, Regent of the Netherlands (sister of his former student Archduke Ferdinand I and Emperor Charles V), to move from Freiburg to Brabant.", "In 1535, he moved back to the Froben compound in Basel in preparation (Œcolampadius having died, and private practice of his religion now possible) and saw his last major works such as Ecclesiastes through publication, though he grew more frail.", "On July 12, 1536, he died at an attack of dysentery.", "He had remained loyal to Roman Catholicism, but biographers have disagreed whether to treat him as him as an insider or an outsider.He may not have received or had the opportunity to receive the last rites of the Catholic Church; the contemporary reports of his death do not mention whether he asked for a Catholic priest or not, if any were in Basel.", "His last words, as recorded by his friend and biographer Beatus Rhenanus, were apparently \"Dear God\" ().", "He was buried with great ceremony in the Basel Minster (the former cathedral).", "The Protestant city authorities remarkably allowed his funeral to be an ecumenical Catholic requiem mass.As his heir he instated Bonifacius Amerbach to give seed money to the poor and needy: he had received a dispensation to make a will rather than his wealth reverting to his order, the Chapter of Sion, and had pre-sold his personal library to Jan Łaski.", "One of the eventual recipients was the impoverished Protestant humanist Sebastian Castellio, who had fled from Geneva to Basel, who subsequently translated the Bible into Latin and French, and who worked for the repair of the breach and divide of Christianity in its Catholic, Anabaptist, and Protestant branches." ], [ "Thought and views", "Erasmus had a distinctive manner of thinking, a Catholic historian suggests: one that is capacious in its perception, agile in its judgments, and unsettling in its irony with \"a deep and abiding commitment to human flourishing\" \"In all spheres, his outlook was essentially pastoral.", "\"Erasmus has been called a seminal rather than a consistent or systematic thinker, notably averse to over-extending from the specific to the general; who nevertheless should be taken very seriously as a pastoral and rhetorical theologian, with a philological and historical approach—rather than a metaphysical approach—to interpreting Scripture and interested in the literal and tropological senses.", "French theologian Louis Bouyer commented \"Erasmus was to be one of those who can get no edification from exegesis where they suspect some misinterpretation.", "\"A theologian has written of \"Erasmus’ preparedness completely to satisfy no-one but himself.\"", "He has been called moderate, judicious and constructive even when being critical or when mocking extremes.===Pacifism===Peace, peaceableness and peacemaking, in all spheres from the domestic to the religious to the political, were central distinctives of Erasmus' writing on Christian living and his mystical theology: ''\"the sum and summary of our religion is peace and unanimity\"'' At the Nativity of Jesus ''\"the angels sang not the glories of war, nor a song of triumph, but a hymn of peace.", "\":''Erasmus was not an absolute Pacifist but promoted political Pacificism and religious Irenicism.", "Notable writings on irenicism include ''de Concordia'', ''On the War with the Turks'', ''The Education of a Christian Prince'', ''On Restoring the Concord of the Church'', and ''The Complaint of Peace''.", "Erasmus' ecclesiology of peacemaking held that the church authorities had a divine mandate to settle religious disputes, in an as non-excluding way as possible, including by the preferably-minimal development of doctrine.In the latter, Lady Peace insists on peace as the crux of Christian life and for understanding Christ:A historian has called him \"The 16th Century's Pioneer of Peace Education and a Culture of Peace\".====War====Erasmus had experienced war as a child and was particularly concerned about wars between Christian kings, who should be brothers and not start wars; a theme in his book ''The Education of a Christian Prince.''", "His Adages included ''\"War is sweet to those who have never tasted it.\"''", "('''' from Pindar's Greek.", ")He promoted and was present at the Field of Cloth of Gold, and his wide-ranging correspondence frequently related to issues of peacemaking.", "He saw a key role of the Church in peacemaking by arbitration, and the office of the Pope was necessary to reign in tyrannical princes and bishops.He questioned the practical usefulness and abuses of Just War theory, further limiting it to feasible defensive actions with popular support and that \"war should never be undertaken unless, as a last resort, it cannot be avoided.\"", "In his ''Adages'' he discusses (common translation) \"''A disadvantageous peace is better than a just war''\", which owes to Cicero and John Colet's \"''Better an unjust peace than the justest war.", "''\"Erasmus was extremely critical of the warlike way of important European princes of his era, including some princes of the church.", "He described these princes as corrupt and greedy.", "Erasmus believed that these princes \"collude in a game, of which the outcome is to exhaust and oppress the commonwealth\".", "He spoke more freely about this matter in letters sent to his friends like Thomas More, Beatus Rhenanus and Adrianus Barlandus: a particular target of his criticisms was the Emperor Maximilian I, whom Erasmus blamed for allegedly preventing the Netherlands from signing a peace treaty with Guelders and other schemes to cause wars in order to extract money from his subjects.One of his approaches was to send, and publish, congratulatory and lionizing letters to princes who, though in a position of strength, negotiated peace with neighbours: such as to King Sigismund I the Old of Poland in 1527.====Christian religious toleration====Portrait of Erasmus, after Quinten Massijs (1517)He referred to his irenical disposition in the Preface to On Free Will as a ''secret inclination of nature'' that would make him even prefer the views of the Sceptics over intolerant assertions, though he sharply distinguished ''adiaphora'' from what was uncontentiously explicit in the New Testament or absolutely mandated by Church teaching.", "Concord demanded unity and assent: Erasmus was anti-sectarian as well as non-sectarian.", "To follow the law of love, our intellects must be humble and friendly when making any assertions: he called contention \"earthly, beastly, demonic\" and a good-enough reason to reject a teacher or their followers.", "In Melancthon's view, Erasmus taught charity not faith.Certain works of Erasmus laid a foundation for religious toleration of private opinions and ecumenism.", "For example, in ''De libero arbitrio'', opposing certain views of Martin Luther, Erasmus noted that religious disputants should be temperate in their language, \"because in this way the truth, which is often lost amidst too much wrangling may be more surely perceived.\"", "Gary Remer writes, \"Like Cicero, Erasmus concludes that truth is furthered by a more harmonious relationship between interlocutors.", "\"Erasmus' pacificism included a particular dislike for sedition, which caused warfare:Erasmus had been involved in early attempts to protect Luther and his sympathisers from charges of heresy.", "Erasmus wrote ''Inquisitio de fide'' to limit what should be considered heresy to fractiously agitating against essential doctrines (e.g., those of the Creed), with malice and persistence.", "As with St Theodore the Studite, Erasmus was against the death penalty merely for private or peaceable heresy, or for dissent on non-essentials: \"It is better to cure a sick man than to kill him.\"", "The Church has the duty to protect believers and convert or heal heretics; he invoked Jesus' parable of the wheat and tares.Nevertheless, he allowed the death penalty against violent seditionists, to prevent bloodshed and war: he allowed that the state has the right to execute those who are a necessary danger to public order—whether heretic or orthodox—but noted (e.g., to :fr:Noël Béda) that Augustine had been against the execution of even violent Donatists: Johannes Trapman states that Erasmus' endorsement of suppression of the Anabaptists springs from their refusal to heed magistrates and the criminal violence of the Münster rebellion not because of their heretical views on baptism.", "Despite these concessions to state power, he suggested that religious persecution could still be challenged as inexpedient (ineffective).In a letter to Cardial Lorenzo Campeggio, Erasmus lobbied diplomatically for toleration: \"If the sects could be tolerated under certain conditions (as the Bohemians pretend), it would, I admit, be a grievous misfortune, but one more endurable than war.", "\"====Jews and Turks====While the focus of most of his writing was about peace within Christendom with a sole focus on Europe until his last decade, he was involved in the public policy debate on war with the Ottoman Empire, which was then invading Western Europe, notably in his book ''On the war against the Turks'' (1530), with Pope Leo X promoting going on the offensive with a new crusade.Juan Luis VivesIn common with his times, Erasmus regarded the Jewish and Islamic religions as Christian heresies rather than separate religions, using the inclusive term ''half-Christian'' for the latter.", "However, there is a wide range of scholarly opinion on the extent and nature of antisemitic and anti-Moslem prejudice in his writings: Erasmus scholar Shimon Markish wrote that the charge of antisemitism could not be sustained in Erasmus' public writings, however historian Nathan Ron has found his writing to be harsh and racial in its implications, with contempt and hostility to Islam.", "Biographer James Tracy sees an anti-semitic edge in Erasmus' comments against Johannes Pfefferkorn in the Ruechlin affair, which expresses Erasmus' general \"suspicion of those who, behind the scenes, manipulate influence and opinion for nefarious ends.", "\"Erasmus was not vehemently antisemitic in the way of the later post-Catholic Martin Luther; it was not a topic or theme of his public writing.", "Erasmus claimed not to be personally xenophobic: \"For I am of such a nature that I could love even a Jew, were he a pleasant companion and did not spew out blasphemy against Christ\" however Markish suggests that it is probable Erasmus never actually encountered a (practicing) Jew.Unusually for a Christian theologian of any time, he perceived and championed strong Hellenistic rather than exclusively Hebraic influences on the intellectual milieux of Jesus, Paul and the early church.===== Interpretation caveats: analogy, irony, foils =====* The picture is complicated because when Erasmus wrote of Judaism, he frequently was not referring to contemporary Jews but, by analogy with Second Temple Judaism, to Christians of his time who mistakenly promoted external ritualism over interior piety, notably in the monastic lifestyle.", "Erasmus' pervasive anti-ceremonialism treated the early Church debates on circumcision, food and special days as manifestations of cultural chauvinism by the initial Jewish Christians, a general human characteristic.", "* Erasmus often wrote in a highly ironical idiom, especially in his letters, which makes them prone to different interpretations when taken literally rather than ironically.", "Erasmus chided Ulrich von Hutten's claims that Erasmus was a Lutheran, saying that von Hutten had not detected the irony in Erasmus' public letters enough.", "* Terence J. Martin identifies an \"Erasmian pattern\" that the supposed (by the reader) otherness (of Jews, Turks, Lapplanders, Indians, and even women and heretics) \"provides a foil against which the failures of Christian culture can be exposed and criticized.\"", "Erasmus wrote: we should \"kill the 'Turk' (in us), not the man.", "\"On the subject of slavery, Erasmus characteristically treated it in passing when dealing with tyranny: Christians were not allowed to be tyrants, which slave-owning required, but especially not to be the masters of other Christians.", "Erasmus had various other piecemeal arguments against slavery: for example, that it was not legitimate to have slaves taken in an unjust war, but it was not a subject that occupied him.====Domestic and community peace====Erasmus' emphasis on peacemaking reflects a typical pre-occupation of medieval lay spirituality as historian John Bossy (as summarized by Eamon Duffy) puts it: \"medieval Christianity had been fundamentally concerned with the creation and maintenance of peace in a violent world.", "“Christianity” in medieval Europe denoted neither an ideology nor an institution, but a community of believers whose religious ideal—constantly aspired to if seldom attained—was peace and mutual love.", "\"In marriage, Erasmus' two significant innovations, according to historian Nathan Ron, were that \"matrimony can and should be a joyous bond, and that this goal can be achieved by a relationship between spouses based on mutuality, conversation, and persuasion.", "\"===Religious reform===Erasmus expressed much of his reform program in terms of the proper attitude towards the sacraments, and their ramifications: notably for the underappreciated sacraments of Baptism and Marriage (see ''On the Institution of Christian Marriage'') considered as vocations more than events; and for the mysterious Eucharist, pragmatic Confession, the dangerous Last Rites (writing ''On the Preparation for Death''), and the pastoral Holy Orders (see ''Ecclesiastes''.)", "Historians have noted that Erasmus commended the benefits of immersive, docile scripture-reading in sacramental terms.====Anti-fraternalism====Reacting from his own experiences, Erasmus came to believe that monastic life and institutions no longer served the positive spiritual or social purpose they once may have: in the ''Enchiridion'' he controversially put it \"Monkishness is not piety.\"", "At this time, it was better to live as \"a monk in the world\" than in the monastery.Many of his works contain diatribes against supposed monastic corruption, and particularly against the mendicant friars (Franciscans and Dominicans): these orders also typically ran the university Scholastic theology programs and from whose ranks came his most dangerous enemies.", "He was scandalized by superstitions, such as that if you were buried in a Franciscan habit you would go direct to heaven, crime and child novices.", "He advocated various reforms, including a ban on taking orders until the 30th year, the closure of corrupt and smaller monasteries, respect for bishops, requiring work not begging (reflecting the practice of his own order of Augustinian Canons,) the downplaying of monastic hours, fasts and ceremonies, and a less mendacious approach to gullible pilgrims and tenants.However, he was not in favour of speedy closures: in his account of his pilgrimage to Walsingham, he noted that the funds extracted from pilgrims typically supported houses for the poor and elderly.These ideas widely influenced his generation of humanists, both Catholic and Protestant, and the lurid hyperbolic attacks in his half-satire ''The Praise of Folly'' were later treated by Protestants as objective reports of near-universal corruption.", "Furthermore, \"what is said over a glass of wine, ought not to be remembered and written down as a serious statement of belief,\" such as his proposal to marry all monks to all nuns or to send them all away to fight the Turks and colonize new islands.He believed the only vow necessary for Christians should be the vow of Baptism, and others such as the vows of the evangelical counsels, while admirable in intent and content, were now mainly counter-productive.====Catholic reform====Albrecht Dürer, ''Portrait of Erasmus'', sketch: black chalk on paper, 1520.The Protestant Reformation began in the year following the publication of his pathbreaking edition of the New Testament in Latin and Greek (1516).", "The issues between the reforming and reactionary tendencies of the church, from which Protestantism later emerged, had become so clear that many intellectuals and churchmen could not escape the summons to join the debate.According to historian C. Scott Dixon, Erasmus' not only criticized church failings but questioned many of his Church's basic teachings; however, according to biographer Erika Rummel, \"Erasmus was aiming at the correction of abuses rather than at doctrinal innovation or institutional change.", "\"In theologian Louis Bouyer's interpretation Erasmus' agenda was \"to reform the Church from within by a renewal of biblical theology, based on philological study of the New Testament text, and supported by a knowledge of patristics, itself renewed by the same methods.", "The final object of it all was to nourish...chiefly moral and spiritual reform...\"Erasmus, at the height of his literary fame, was called upon to take one side, but partisanship was foreign to his beliefs, his nature and his habits.", "Despite all his criticism of clerical corruption and abuses within the Western Church, especially at first he sided unambiguously with neither Luther nor the anti-Lutherans publicly (though in private he lobbied assiduously against extremism from both parties), but eventually shunned the breakaway Protestant Reformation movements along with their most radical offshoots.The world had laughed at his satire, ''The Praise of Folly'', but few had interfered with his activities.", "He believed that his work so far had commended itself to the best minds and also to the dominant powers in the religious world.", "Erasmus chose to write in Latin (and Greek), the languages of scholars.", "He did not build a large body of supporters in the unlettered; his critiques reached a small but elite audience.====Disagreement with Luther====Cranach (1520), Portraits of Martin Luther and Philip MelanchthonErasmus and Luther impacted each other greatly.", "Each had misgivings about each other from the beginning (Erasmus on Luther's rash and antagonistic character, Luther on Erasmus' focus on morality rather than grace) but strategically agreed not to be negative about the other in public.The early reformers built their theology by generalizing Erasmus' philological analyses of specific verses in the New Testament: repentance over penance (the basis of the first thesis of the Luther's 95 Theses), justification by imputation, grace as favour or clemency, faith as hoping trust, human transformation over reformation, congregation over church, mystery over sacrament, etc.", "In Erasmus' view, they went too far and irresponsibly fomented bloodshed.Noting Luther's criticism of corruption in the Church, Erasmus at one time described him as \"a mighty trumpet of gospel truth\" while agreeing, \"It is clear that many of the reforms for which Luther calls\" (e.g., the sale of indulgences) \"are urgently needed.\"", "Behind the scenes Erasmus forbade his publisher Froben from handling the works of Luther and tried to keep the reform movement focused on institutional rather than theological issues, yet he also privately wrote to authorities to prevent Luther's persecution.", "In the words of one historian, \"at this earlier period he was more concerned with the fate of Luther than his theology.", "\"Luther hoped for his cooperation in a work which seemed only the natural outcome of Erasmus' own, and spoke with admiration of Erasmus's superior learning.", "In their early correspondence, Luther expressed boundless admiration for all Erasmus had done in the cause of a sound and reasonable Christianity and urged him to join the Lutheran party.", "Erasmus declined to commit himself, arguing his usual \"small target\" excuse, that to do so would endanger the cause of which he regarded as one of his purposes in life.", "Only as an independent scholar could he hope to influence the reform of religion.", "When Erasmus declined to support him, the straightforward Luther became angered that Erasmus was avoiding the responsibility due either to cowardice or a lack of purpose.However, any hesitancy on the part of Erasmus may have stemmed, not from lack of courage or conviction, but rather from a concern over the mounting disorder and violence of the reform movement.", "To Philip Melanchthon in 1524 he wrote:I know nothing of your church; at the very least it contains people who will, I fear, overturn the whole system and drive the princes into using force to restrain good men and bad alike.", "The gospel, the word of God, faith, Christ, and Holy Spirit – these words are always on their lips; look at their lives and they speak quite another language.Though he sought to remain firmly neutral in doctrinal disputes, each side accused him of siding with the other, perhaps because of his perceived influence and what they regarded as his dissembling neutrality, which he regarded as peacemaking accommodation:=====Dispute on free will=====By 1523, and first suggested in a letter from Henry VIII, Erasmus had been convinced that Luther's ideas on necessity/free will were a subject of core disagreement deserving a public airing, and strategized with friends and correspondents on how to respond with proper moderation without making the situation worse for all, especially for the humanist reform agenda.", "He eventually chose a campaign that involved an irenical 'dialogue' \"''The Inquisition of Faith''\", a positive, evangelical model sermon \"''On the Measureless Mercy of God''\", and a gently critical 'diatribe' \"''On Free Will''.", "\"The publication of his brief book ''On Free Will'' initiated what has been called \"The greatest debate of that era\" which still has ramifications today.", "They bypassed discussion on reforms which they both agreed on in general, and instead dealt with authority and biblical justifications of synergism versus monergism in relation to salvation.Luther responded with ''On the Bondage of the Will (De servo arbitrio)'' (1525).Erasmus replied to this in his lengthy two volume ''Hyperaspistes'' and other works, which Luther ignored.", "Apart from the perceived moral failings among followers of the Reformers—an important sign for Erasmus—he also dreaded any change in doctrine, citing the long history of the Church as a bulwark against innovation.", "He put the matter bluntly to Luther:Continuing his chastisement of Luther – and undoubtedly put off by the notion of there being \"no pure interpretation of Scripture anywhere but in Wittenberg\" – Erasmus touches upon another important point of the controversy:==== \"False evangelicals\" ====In 1529, Erasmus wrote \"''An epistle against those who falsely boast they are Evangelicals''\" to Vulturius Neocomus (Gerardus Geldenhouwer).Here Erasmus complains of the doctrines and morals of the Reformers, applying the same critique he had made about public Scholastic disputations:====Sacraments====A test of the Reformation was the doctrine of the sacraments, and the crux of this question was the observance of the Eucharist.", "Erasmus was concerned that the sacramentarians, headed by Œcolampadius of Basel, were claiming Erasmus held views similar to their own in order to try to claim him for their schismatic and \"erroneous\" movement.", "In 1530, Erasmus published a new edition of the orthodox treatise of Algerus against the heretic Berengar of Tours in the eleventh century.", "He added a dedication, affirming his belief in the reality of the Body of Christ after consecration in the Eucharist, commonly referred to as transubstantiation.", "==== Other====Erasmus wrote books against aspects of the teaching, impacts or threats of several other Reformers:* Ulrich von Hutten ''Spongia adversus aspergines Hutteni'' (1523) see below* Martin Bucer ''Responsio ad fratres Inferioris Germaniae ad epistolam apologeticam incerto autoreproditam'' (1530)* Heinrich Eppendorf ''Admonitio adversus mendacium et obstrectationem'' (1530)However, Erasmus maintained friendly relations with other Protestants, notably the irenic Melancthon and Albrecht Duerer.A common accusation, supposedly started by antagonistic monk-theologians, made Erasmus responsible for Martin Luther and the Reformation: \"Erasmus laid the egg, and Luther hatched it.\"", "Erasmus wittily dismissed the charge, claiming that Luther had \"hatched a different bird entirely.\"", "Erasmus-reader Peter Canisius commented: \"Certainly there was no lack of eggs for Luther to hatch.", "\"=== Philosophy and Erasmus ===Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger and workshopErasmus has a problematic standing in the history of philosophy: whether he should be called a philosopher at all,Similarly, John Monfasani reminds us that Erasmus never claimed to be a philosopher, was not trained as a philosopher, and wrote no explicit works of philosophy, although he repeatedly engaged in controversies that crossed the boundary from philosophy to theology.", "His relation to philosophy bears further scrutiny.", "(as, indeed, some question whether he should be considered a theologian either.)", "Erasmus deemed himself to be a rhetorician or grammarian rather than a philosopher.", "He was particularly influenced by satirist and rhetorician Lucian.", "Erasmus' writings shifted \"an intellectual culture from logical disputation about things to quarrels about texts, contexts, and words.", "\"====''Philosophia Christi''====(Not to be confused with his Italian contemporary Chrysostom Javelli's ''Philosophia Christiana''.", ")Erasmus approached classical philosophers theologically and rhetorically: their value was in how they pre-saged, explained or amplified the unique teachings of Christ (particularly the Sermon on the Mount): the ''philosophia Christi''.", "\"A great part of the teaching of Christ is to be found in some of the philosophers, particularly Socrates, Diogenes and Epictetus.", "But Christ taught it much more fully, and exemplified it better...\" (''Paraclesis'') In fact, Christ was \"the very father of philosophy\" (''Anti-Barbieri''.", ")In works such as his ''Enchiridion'', The Education of a Christian Prince and the Colloquies, Erasmus developed his idea of the ''philosophia Christi'', a life lived according to the teachings of Jesus taken as a (spiritual-ethical-social-political-legal) philosophy:In philosopher Étienne Gilson's summary: \"the quite precise goal he pursues is to reject Greek philosophy outside of Christianity, into which the Middle Ages introduced Greek philosophy with the risk of corrupting this Christian Wisdom.", "\"Useful \"philosophy\" needed to be limited to (or re-defined as) the practical and moral: ====Classical====Erasmus syncretistically took phrases, ideas and motifs from many classical philosophers to furnish discussions of Christian themes: academics have identified aspects of his thought as variously Platonist (duality), Cynical (asceticism), Stoic (adiaphora), Epicurean (ataraxia, pleasure as virtue), realist/non-voluntarist,and Isocratic (rhetoric, political education, syncretism.)", "However, his Christianized version of Epicureanism is regarded as his own.Erasmus was sympathetic to a kind of Scepticism:He eschewed metaphysical, epistemological and logical philosophy as found in Aristotle, in particular the curriculum and systematic methods of the post-Aquinas Schoolmen (Scholastics) and their dry, useless Aristoteleanism: \"What has Aristotle to do with Christ?\"", "We should avoid philosophical factionalism and so \"make the whole world Christian.\"", "Indeed, Erasmus thought that Scholastic philosophy actually distracted participants from their proper focus on immediate morality, unless used moderately.", "And, by \"excluding the Platonists from their commentaries, they strangle the beauty of revelation.", "\"Erasmus wrote in terms of a tri-partite nature of man, with the soul the seat of free will:According to theologian George van Kooten, Erasmus was the first modern scholar \"to note the similarities between Plato's ''Symposium'' and John's Gospel\", first in the ''Enchiridion'' then in the ''Adagia'', pre-dating other scholarly interest by 400 years.===Theology of Erasmus===Three key distinctive features of Erasmus' theology are accommodation, inverbation, and ''scopus christi''.", "(''Scopus'' is the unifying reference point, the navigation goal, or the organizing principle of topics.", ")====Accommodation====Historian Manfred Hoffmann has described accommodation as \"the single most important concept in Erasmus' hermeneutic.\"", "For Erasmus, accommodation is a universal concept: humans must accommodate each other, we must accommodate the church and ''vice versa'', and we must take as our model how Christ accommodated the disciples in his interactions with them, and accommodated humans in his incarnation, which in turn merely reflects the eternal mutual accommodation within the Trinity.", "And the primary mechanism of accommodation is language, which mediates between reality and abstraction, which allows disputes of all kinds to be resolved and the gospel to be transmitted: in his New Testament, Erasmus notably translated the Greek ''logos'' in John 1:1 \"In the beginning was the Word\" using Latin ''sermo'' (discourse, conversation, language) not ''verbum'' (word) emphasizing the dynamic and interpersonal communication rather than static principle: more like \"In the beginning was Speech\".In this light, Erasmus' ability to have friendly correspondence with both Thomas More and Thomas Bolyn, and with both Philip Melancthon and Pope Adrian VI, can be seen as outworkings of his theology, rather than slippery insincerity or flattery of potential patrons.", "Similarly, it show the theological basis of his pacificism, and his view of ecclesiastical authorities—from priests like himself to Church Councils—as necessary mediating peace-brokers.====Inverbation====Further to accommodating humans in his Incarnation, Christ accommodated us by ''inverbation'': being captured in the Gospels in a way that we can know him better by reading him (in the awareness of the resurrection) than those who actually heard him speak; this will or may transform us.Since the Gospels become, in effect, like sacraments, reading them becomes a form of prayer which is spoiled by taking single sentences in isolation and using them as syllogisms.", "Instead, learning to understand the genres and literary expression in the New Testament becomes a spiritual exercise.", "Erasmus' has been called rhetorical theology (''theologia rhetorica''.", ")====Scopus christi====In Hoffmann's words, for Erasmus \"Christ is the ''scopus'' of everything\": \"the focus in which both dimensions of reality, the human and the divine, intersect\" and so he himself is the hermeneutical principle of scripture\": \"the middle is the medium, the medium is the mediator, the mediator is the reconciler.\"", "In Erasmus' early ''Enchiridion'' he had given this ''scopus'' in typical medieval terms of an ascent of being to God (vertical), but from the mid-1510s life he moved to an analogy of Copernican planetary circling around Christ the centre (hoizontal) or Columbian navigation towards a destination.One effect is that scriptural interpretation must be done starting with the teachings and interactions of Jesus in the Gospels, with the Sermon on the Mount serving as the starting point, and arguably with the Beatitudes and the Lord's Prayer at the head of the queue.", "This privileges peacemaking, mercy, meekness, purity of heart, hungering after righteousness, poverty of spirit, etc.", "as the unassailable core of Christianity and piety and true theology.The Sermon on the Mount provides the axioms on which every legitimate theology must be built; Erasmus' ''philosophia christi'' treats the primary and initial teaching of Jesus in the first Gospel as a theological methodology.So, for example, \"peacemaking\" is a possible topic for Christian theology; but, from the Beatitude, it must be a starting-, reference- and ending-point when discussing any other theological notions, such as church authority, the Trinity, etc.", "Moreover, Christian theology must only be ''done'' in a peacemaking fashion for peacemaking purposes.", "====Mystical Theology====Another important concept to Erasmus was \"the Folly of the Cross\" (which ''The Praise of Folly'' explored): the view that Truth belongs to the exuberant, perhaps ecstatic, world of what is foolish, strange and unexpected to us, rather than to the cold worlds which intricate scholastic dialectical and syllogistic philosophical argument generate; this produced in Erasmus a profound disinterest in hyper-rationality, and an emphasis on verbal, rhetorical, mystical, pastoral and personal/political moral concerns instead.====Theological Writings====" ], [ "Notable writings", "Erasmus wrote for educated audiences on both Christian subjects and those of general human interest.", "By the 1530s, the writings of Erasmus accounted for 10 to 20 percent of all book sales in Europe.", "\"Undoubtedly he was the most read author of his age.", "\"He usually wrote books in particular classical literary genres with their different rhetorical conventions: complaint, diatribe, dialogue, encomium, epistle, commentary, liturgy, sermon, etc.", "His letter to Ulrich von Hutten on Thomas More's household has been called \"the first real biography in the real modern sense.", "\"His writing method (recommended in ''De copia'' and ''De ratio studii'') was to make notes on whatever he was reading, categorized by theme: he carted these commonplaces in boxes that accompanied him.", "When assembling a new book, he would go through the topics and cross out commonplace notes as he used them.", "This catalog of research notes allowed him to rapidly create books, though woven from the same topics.", "Towards the end of his life, as he lost dexterity, he employed secretaries or amanuenses who performed the assembly or transcription, re-wrote his writing, and in his last decade, recorded his dictation; letters were usually in his own hand, unless formal.=== Adages (1500-1520) ===Entry in ''Adagia'' mentioning ''honorificabilitudinitatibus''With the collaboration of Publio Fausto Andrelini, he made a collection of Latin proverbs and adages, commonly known as the ''Adagia''.", "It includes the adage \"In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king.\"", "He coined the adage \"Pandora's box\", arising through an error in his translation of Hesiod's ''Pandora'' in which he confused ''pithos'' (storage jar) with ''pyxis'' (box).Examples of Adages are: more haste, less speed; a dung beetle hunting an eagle.Erasmus later spent nine months in Venice at the Aldine Press expanding the Adagia to over three thousand entries; in the course of 27 editions, it expanded to over four thousand entries in Basel at the Froben press.", "It \"introduced a fairly wide audience to the actual words and thoughts of the ancients.", "\"=== Handbook of the Christian Soldier (1501) ===His more serious writings begin early with the ''Enchiridion militis Christiani'', the \"Handbook of the Christian Soldier\" (1501 and re-issued in 1518 with an expanded preface – translated into English in 1533 by the young William Tyndale).", "(A more literal translation of ''enchiridion'' – \"dagger\" – has been likened to \"the spiritual equivalent of the modern Swiss Army knife.\")", "In this short work, Erasmus outlines the views of the normal Christian life, which he was to spend the rest of his days elaborating.", "He has been described as \"evangelical in his beliefs and pietistic in his practise.", "\"A Scholar Treads on a Market Woman's Basket of Eggs, marginal drawing by Hans Holbein the Younger in The Praise of Folly: Erasmus is foolishly distracted by a woman.=== The Praise of Folly (1511) ===Erasmus's best-known work is ''The Praise of Folly'', written in 1509, published in 1511 under the double title ''Moriae encomium'' (Greek, Latinised) and ''Laus stultitiae'' (Latin).", "It is inspired by ''De triumpho stultitiae'' written by Italian humanist Faustino Perisauli.", "A satirical attack on superstitions and other traditions of European society in general and in the Western Church in particular, it was dedicated to Sir Thomas More, whose name the title puns.===''de Copia'' (1512) ===''De Copia'' (or ''Foundations of the Abundant Style'' or ''On Copiousness'') is a textbook designed to teach aspects of classical rhetoric: having a large supply of words, phrases and grammatical forms is a gateway to formulating and expressing thoughts, especially for \"forensic oratory\", with mastery and freshness.", "Perhaps as a joke, its full title is \"The twofoldcopia of words and arguments in a double commentary\" ().It was \"the most often printed rhetoric textbook written in the renaissance, with 168 editions between 1512 and 1580.", "\"The first part of the book is about ''verborum'' (words).", "It famously includes 147 variations on \"Your letterpleased me very much\", and 203 variations on \"Always, as long as I live, I shall remember you.", "\"The second part of the book is about ''rerum'' (arguments) to learn critical thinking and advocacy.", "Erasmus advised students to practice the rhetorical techniques of copiousness by writing letters to each other arguing both side of an issue ().=== ''Opuscula plutarchi'' (1514), and ''Apophthegmatum opus'' (1531) ===Handwriting of Erasmus of Rotterdam: Plutarch's ''How to profit from one's enemies''In a similar vein to the ''Adages'' was his translation of Plutarch's ''Moralia'': parts were published from 1512 onwards and collected as the ''Opuscula plutarchi'' (c1514).This was the basis of 1531's ''Apophthegmatum opus'' (Apophthegms), which ultimately contained over 3,000 aphophthegms: \"certainly the fullest and most influential Renaissance collection of Cynic sayings and anecdotes\", particular of Diogenes (from Diogenes Laertius.", ")One of these was published independently, as ''How to tell a Flatterer from a Friend'', dedicated to England's Henry VIII.=== ''Julius exclusus e coelis'' (1514) attrib.", "===''Julius excluded from Heaven'' is a biting satire usually attributed to Erasmus perhaps for private circulation, though he publicly denied writing it, calling its author a fool.", "The recently deceased Pope Julius arrives at the gates of heaven in his armour with his dead army, demanding from St Peter to be let in based on his glory and exploits.", "St Peter turns him away.=== ''Sileni Alcibiadis'' (1515) ===Statue of Silenus in Palazzo Massimo alle TermeHern of Alcibiades, Musei CapitoliniErasmus's ''Sileni Alcibiadis'' is one of his most direct assessments of the need for Church reform.", "It started as a small entry in the 1508 ''Adagia'' citing Plato's Symposium and expanded to several hundred sentences.", "Johann Froben published it first within a revised edition of the ''Adagia'' in 1515, then as a stand-alone work in 1517.", "''Sileni'' is the plural (Latin) form of ''Silenus'', a creature often related to the Roman wine god Bacchus and represented in pictorial art as inebriated, merry revellers, variously mounted on donkeys, singing, dancing, playing flutes, etc.", "In particular, the Sileni that Erasmus referred to were small, coarse, ugly or distasteful carved figures which opened up to reveal a beautiful deity or valuables inside.Alcibiades was a Greek politician in the 5th century BCE and a general in the Peloponnesian War; he figures here more as a character written into some of Plato's dialogues – an externally-attractive, young, debauched playboy whom Socrates tries to convince to seek truth instead of pleasure, wisdom instead of pomp and splendor.The term ''Sileni –'' especially when juxtaposed with the character of Alcibiades – can therefore be understood as an evocation of the notion that something on the inside is more expressive of a person's character than what one sees on the outside.", "For instance, something or someone ugly on the outside can be beautiful on the inside, which is one of the main points of Plato's dialogues featuring ''Alcibiades'' and in the ''Symposium'', in which Alcibiades also appears.On the other hand, Erasmus lists several Sileni and then controversially questions whether Christ is the most noticeable Silenus of them all.", "The Apostles were Sileni since they were ridiculed by others.", "The scriptures are a Silenus too.The work then launches into a biting endorsement of the need for high church officials (especially the Pope) to follow the evangelical counsel of poverty (simplicity): this condemnation of wealth and power was a full two years before the notional start of the Reformation; the church must be able to act as a moderating influence on the ambition and selfishness of princes.=== The Education of a Christian Prince (1516) ===Entry of Francis of France, Emperor Charles V, and Cardinal Farnese (later Pope Paul III) into Paris - 1540 (detail)The ''Institutio principis Christiani'' or \"Education of a Christian Prince''\"'' (Basel, 1516) was written as advice to the young king Charles of Spain (later Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor), to whom the Preface is addressed.", "Erasmus applies the general principles of honor and sincerity to the special functions of the Prince, whom he represents throughout as the servant of the people.===Latin and Greek New Testaments===First page of Preface, Annotations of the New Testament (1521), with characteristic Froben decorationErasmus produced this first edition of his corrected Latin and Greek New Testament in 1516, in Basel at the print of Johann Froben, and took it through multiple revisions and editions.", "An integral and motivating part was the substantial philological annotations.", "Erasmus independently brought out ''Paraphrases'' of the books of the New Testament, suited for a less academic readership.Erasmus had, for his time, relatively little interest in the Old Testament, apart from the Psalms.", "Similarly, he was relatively disinterested in the Book of Revelation, which he did not produce a paraphrase for, and he provocatively reported the doubts in the early Greek church about its status in the canon: Erasmus had none of the apocalypticism of his times which so animated Savonarolan and Protestant rhetoric: only one percent of his ''Annotations'' on the New Testament concerned the Book of Revelation.====New Latin translation====Title page of Erasmus' ''Novum instrumentum omne''Erasmus had been working for years on two related projects to help theologians: philological notes on the Latin and Greek texts and a fresh Latin New Testament.", "He examined all the Latin versions he could find to create a critical text.", "Then he polished the language.", "He declared, \"It is only fair that Paul should address the Romans in somewhat better Latin.\"", "In the earlier phases of the project, he never mentioned a Greek text.While his intentions for publishing a fresh Latin translation are clear, it is less clear why he included the Greek text.", "Though some speculate that he long intended to produce a critical Greek text or that he wanted to beat the Complutensian Polyglot into print, there is no evidence to support this.", "He wrote, \"There remains the New Testament translated by me, with the Greek facing, and notes on it by me.\"", "He further demonstrated the reason for the inclusion of the Greek text when defending his work:So he included the Greek text to permit qualified readers to verify the quality of his Latin version.", "But by first calling the final product ''Novum Instrumentum omne'' (\"All of the New Teaching\") and later ''Novum Testamentum omne'' (\"All of the New Testament\") he also indicated clearly that he considered a text in which the Greek and the Latin versions were consistently comparable to be the essential core of the church's New Testament tradition.====Publication and editions====''Portrait of Johannes Froben'' by HolbeinFirst page of Gospel according to Matthew, Froben (1521)Erasmus said the printing of the first edition was \"precipitated rather than published\", resulting in a number of transcription errors.", "After comparing what writings he could find, Erasmus wrote corrections between the lines of the manuscripts he was using (among which was Minuscule 2) and sent them as proofs to Froben.", "His access to Greek manuscripts was limited compared to modern scholars and he had to rely on Jerome's late-4th century Vulgate to fill in the blanks.His effort was hurriedly published by his friend Johann Froben of Basel in 1516 and thence became the first published Greek New Testament, the ''Novum Instrumentum omne, diligenter ab Erasmo Rot.", "Recognitum et Emendatum''.", "Erasmus used several Greek manuscript sources because he did not have access to a single complete manuscript.", "Most of the manuscripts were, however, late Greek manuscripts of the Byzantine textual family and Erasmus used the oldest manuscript the least because \"he was afraid of its supposedly erratic text.\"", "He also ignored some manuscripts that were at his disposal which are now deemed older and better.In the second (1519) edition, the more familiar term ''Testamentum'' was used instead of ''Instrumentum''.", "Together, the first and second editions sold 3,300 copies.", "By comparison, only 600 copies of the Complutensian Polyglot were ever printed.", "This edition was used by Martin Luther in his German translation of the Bible, written for people who could not understand Latin.", "The first and second edition texts did not include the passage (1 John 5:7–8) that has become known as the Comma Johanneum.", "Erasmus had been unable to find those verses in any Greek manuscript, but one was supplied to him during production of the third edition.", "The third edition of 1522 was probably used by William Tyndale for the first English New Testament (Worms, 1526) and was the basis for the 1550 Robert Stephanus edition used by the translators of the Geneva Bible and King James Version of the English Bible.", "Erasmus published a fourth edition in 1527 containing parallel columns of Greek, Latin Vulgate and Erasmus's Latin texts.", "In this edition Erasmus also supplied the Greek text of the last six verses of Revelation (which he had translated from Latin back into Greek in his first edition) from Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros's ''Biblia Complutensis''.", "In 1535 Erasmus published the fifth (and final) edition which dropped the Latin Vulgate column but was otherwise similar to the fourth edition.", "Later versions of the Greek New Testament by others, but based on Erasmus's Greek New Testament, became known as the ''Textus Receptus''.Erasmus dedicated his work to Pope Leo X as a patron of learning and regarded this work as his chief service to the cause of Christianity.", "Immediately afterwards, he began the publication of his ''Paraphrases of the New Testament'', a popular presentation of the contents of the several books.", "These, like all of his writings, were published in Latin but were quickly translated into other languages with his encouragement.=== The Complaint of Peace (1517) ===Holbein Lady Peace complains about warmongering.", "This book was written at the request of the Burgundian Chancellor, who was then seeking a peace deal with France, to influence the ''zeitgeist''.On the use of battle standards featuring crosses: The final paragraph of ''The Complaint of Peace'' finishes with the command , meaning a voluntary return from madness and unconsciousness:However, the subsequent European wars of religion which accompanied the Reformation resulted in the deaths of between 7 and 18 million Europeans, including up to one third of the population of Germany.===Paraphrases of the New Testament (1517-1524, 1532, 1534)===Title page of Paraphrase of Pauline Epistles(1520) Abraham and Isaac lower right, the goat lower left, God the Father top left, the printer's mark top rightParaphrase (1520s), with initial capital woodcut by Hans HolbeinErasmus described his editorial intent with the Paraphrases of the New Testament as philological rather than theological: \"to fill in the gaps, to soften the abrupt ones, to digest the confused ones, to develop the developed ones, to explain the knotty ones, to add light to the dark ones, to give (Paul's) Hebraicisms a Roman polish ... and thus to moderate παραφρασιννε παραφρόνησις: that is, 'to say otherwise so as not to say otherwise.", "'\"Dedicatory preface ''ad Card.", "Grimanum'' to ''Paraphrase of the Pauline Epistles'', apud He brought out the Paraphrases progressively: Romans (1517), Corinthians (1519), the rest of the Epistles throughout 1520 and 1521, and the four Gospels and Acts from 1522 to 1524.He did not put out a paraphrase of the Book of Revelation.According to Erasmus: \"A paraphrase is not a translation but something looser, a kind of commentary in which the writer and his author retain separate roles.", "\"The Paraphrases allowed Erasmus to amplify the text of the New Testament by integrating philological and theological points from his scholarly ''Annotations'', allowing more of a role for his personal opinions or angles, but in a less scholarly format.", "Unusually, Erasmus gives paraphrases of the speech of Christ in the persona of Christ in the Gospels, and for each Epistle uses the voice of the Apostle, not Erasmus or a neutral third person as is conventional.", "Unlike traditional medieval exegesis, which for some authors treated the whole the scriptures as a single unified document of propositions which, because they had the same divine author, could be mixed and matched as necessary, Erasmus treated each individual book as the literary unit that limited intertextual combination.Erasmus wrote his paraphrases of the Gospels at the same time as his study of Luther's work in preparation for 1524's ''On Free Will'', ''On the Immense Mercy of God'', etc.", "Some scholars see an increased explicit promotion of faith and grace in these paraphrases, with Erasmus attempting to accommodate some of Luther's exegesis, and Protestant thematic requirements, though not their theology.The Paraphrases were very well-received, particularly in England, by most parties.Biographer Roland Bainton nominated this passage as \"the essence of Erasmus\" (its positivity to natural affection has none of the Lutheran total depravity doctrine, and it accords with the Catholic ''analogia entis'' pattern):===Method of True Theology===The ''Ratio seu methodus compendio perveniendi ad veram theologia'' was originally the Preface to the first edition of his New Testament, but was expanded and had a life of its own.=== Familiar Colloquies (1518-1533) ===The ''Colloquia familiaria'' began as simple spoken Latin exercises for schoolboys to encourage fluency in colloquial Latin interaction, but expanded in number, ambition and audience.", "The sensational nature of many of the Colloquies made it a prime target for censorship.Notable Colloquies include the exciting ''Naufragium'' (Shipwreck), the philosophical and path-forging ''The Epicurean'', and the zany catalogue of fantastic animal stories ''Friendship''.For example, ''A Religious Pilgrimage'' deals with many serious subjects humorously, and scandalously includes a letter supposedly written by a Statue of the Virgin Mary, in which, while it first thanks a reformer for following Luther against needlessly invoking saints (where the listed invocations are all for sinful or wordly things), becomes a warning against iconoclasm and stripping altars.", "''Amicitia'' (Friendship) can be considered a sweet companion piece to the vinegary ''Spongia'' of the same year.=== A Sponge to wipe away the Spray of Hutten (1523) ===As a result of his reformatory activities, Erasmus found himself at odds with some reformers and some Catholic churchmen.", "His last years were made difficult by controversies with men toward whom he was sympathetic.Ulrich von Hutten (1988)Notable among these was Ulrich von Hutten, once a friend, a brilliant but erratic genius who had thrown himself into the Lutheran cause (and militant German nationalism.)", "Erasmus claimed that von Hutten, who had a long history of adventure, violence and manslaughter, and had proposed a literal war against the clergy, had extorted money from a Carthusian monastery, highway robbed three Abbots, and cut the ears off two Benedictines.Von Hutten declared that Erasmus, if he had a spark of honesty, would throw himself into Luther's cause and help to subdue the Pope.", "Hutten published a book in 1523 ''Ulrichi ab Hutten cum Erasmo Rotirodamo, Presbytero, Theologo, Expostulatio''.", "In his reply in the same year, ''Spongia adversus aspergines Hutteni'', Erasmus accused von Hutten of having misinterpreted his utterances about reform and reiterates his determination never to break with the Catholic Church.Erasmus returns multiple times to the issue that old friendships should be maintained (not betrayed) and that scholarly expertise should be acknowledged, but that neither of these should imply agreement or endorsement in total or in part with each other's views.", "Nor should the acknowledgement of a strained relationship or the absence of some polite title be construed as necessarily an avowal of an opposing view.", "Erasmus advocated being a moderating friend and a constructive voice of sanity, even to sincere but civil partisans of either side.Historian Francis Aidan Gasquet regarded this book as necessary for understanding Erasmus' true position on Rome, quoting:Erasmus noted that he would not renounce old friends because they took sides for or against Luther, noting that several had changed their minds again.Erasmus' break with the endangering Lutheran poet-scholar-knight von Hutten was complete, even refusing (or making it too difficult) to see him when von Hutten, homeless and dying of syphilis, passed through Basel in 1523 and found refuge with humanists there.===On Free Will (1524)===Erasmus wrote ''On Free Will (De libero arbitrio)'' (1524) against Luther's view on free will: that everything happens by strict necessity.Erasmus lays down both sides of the argument impartially.", "In this controversy Erasmus lets it be seen that, from the thrust of Scripture, he would like to claim more for free will than St. Paul and St. Augustine seem to allow according to Luther's interpretation.", "For Erasmus the essential point is that humans have the freedom of choice, when responding to prior grace (synergism).In response, Luther wrote his ''De servo arbitrio'' (''On the Bondage of the Will'') (1525), which attacked \"''On Free Will''\" and Erasmus himself, going so far as to claim that Erasmus was not a Christian.", "\"Free will does not exist\", according to Luther in that sin makes human beings completely incapable of bringing themselves to God (monergism).Erasmus responded with a lengthy, two-part book ''Hyperaspistes'' (1526–27).Note 7, On the same day as publishing ''De libero arbitrio diatribe sive'' Erasmus also published ''Concio de immensa Dei misericordia'' (Sermon on the Immense Mercy of God) which presented his positive alternative to Lutheranism.===Liturgy of the Virgin Mother venerated at Loreto (1525)===The Translation of the Holy House of Loreto, anonymous, Italian (1510)Editions: 1523, 1525, 1529This liturgy for a Catholic Mass, with sequences and a homily teaching that for Mary, and the Saints, imitation should be the chief part of veneration.", "Fair choir of angels, take up the zither, take up the lyre.", "The Virgin Mother must be celebrated in song, in a virginal ode.", "The angels, joining in the song, will re-echo your voice.", "For they love virgins, being virgins themselves.The liturgy re-framed the existing Marian devotions: as a substitute for mentioning the Holy House of Loreto, he used the meaning of Loreto as 'laurel', as in the champion's laurel wreath.", "The work also may have been intended to demonstrate the proper application of indulgences, as it came with one from the archbishop of Besançon.=== The Tongue (or Language) (1525) ===The writings of Erasmus exhibit a continuing concern with language, and in 1525 he devoted an entire treatise to the subject, ''Lingua''.", "This and several of his other works are said to have provided a starting point for a philosophy of language, though Erasmus did not produce a completely elaborated system.=== On the Institution of Christian Marriage (1526) ===The ''Institutio matrimonii'' was published in 1526 as treatise about marriage, and dedicated to Catherine of Aragon, who had befriended Erasmus and More.", "He did not follow the contemporary mainstream which saw the woman as a subject to the man, but suggested the man was to love the woman similar as he would Christ, who also descended to earth to serve.", "He saw the role of the woman as a ''socia'' (partner) to the man.The relationship should be of ''amicitia'' (sweet and mutual fondness).", "Erasmus suggested that true marriage between devout Christians required a true friendship (contrary to contemporary legal theories that required community consensus or consummation); and because true friendship never dies, divorce of a true marriage was impossible; the seeking of a divorce was a sign that the true friendship (and so the true marriage) never existed and so the divorce should be allowed, after investigation and protecting the individuals.As far as sex in marriage is concerned, Erasmus' gentle, gradualist asceticism promoted that a mutually-agreed celibate marriage, if God had made this doable by the partners, could be the ideal: in theory it allowed more opportunity for spiritual pursuits.", "But he controversially noted=== The Ciceronians (1528) ===The ''Ciceronianus'' came out in 1528, attacking the style of Latin that was based exclusively and fanatically on Cicero's writings.", "Étienne Dolet wrote a riposte titled ''Erasmianus'' in 1535.Erasmus' own Latin style was late classical (i.e., from Terence to Jerome) as far as syntax and grammar, but freely used medievalisms in its vocabulary.===Explanation of the Apostles' Creed (1530)===In his catechism (entitled ''Explanation of the Apostles' Creed'') (1530), Erasmus took a stand against Luther's recent Catechisms by asserting the unwritten Sacred Tradition as just as valid a source of revelation as the Bible, by enumerating the Deuterocanonical books in the canon of the Bible and by acknowledging seven sacraments.", "He identified anyone who questioned the perpetual virginity of Mary as blasphemous.", "However, he supported lay access to the Bible.In a letter to Nikolaus von Amsdorf, Luther objected to Erasmus's catechism and called Erasmus a \"viper\", \"liar\", and \"the very mouth and organ of Satan\".=== The Preacher (1536) ===Erasmus's last major work, published the year of his death, is the ''Ecclesiastes'' or \"Gospel Preacher\" (Basel, 1536), a massive manual for preachers of around a thousand pages.", "Though somewhat unwieldy because Erasmus was unable to edit it properly in his old age, it is in some ways the culmination of all of Erasmus's literary and theological learning and indeed, according to some scholars, the culmination of the previous millennium of preaching manuals since Augustine.", "It offered prospective preachers advice on important aspects of their vocation with abundant reference to classical and biblical sources.It is also notable for calling for a mission program to outside Christendom to usefully occupy friars, castigating that commercial exploitation was prioritized over the Gospel.", "It called out the practice of taking criminal religious convicts and transferring them to the New World as missionaries.=== Patristic Editions ===According to Ernest Barker, \"Besides his work on the New Testament, Erasmus laboured also, and even more arduously, on the early Fathers.", "Among the Latin Fathers he edited the works of St Jerome, St Hilary, and St Augustine; among the Greeks he worked on Irenaeus, Origen and Chrysostom.", "\"==== Alleged forgery ====In 1530, Erasmus, in his fourth edition of the works of Cyprian, introduced a treatise ''De duplici martyrio ad Fortunatum'', which he attributed to Cyprian and presented as having been found by chance in an old library.", "This text, close to the works of Erasmus, both in content (hostility to the confusion between virtue and suffering) and in form, and of which no manuscript is known, contains at least one flagrant anachronism: an allusion to the persecution of Diocletian, persecution that took place long after the death of Cyprian.", "In 1544, the Dominican denounced the work as inauthentic and attributed its authorship to Erasmus or an imitator of Erasmus.", "In the twentieth century, the hypothesis of a fraud by Erasmus was rejected a priori by most of the great Erasmians, for example Percy Stafford Allen, but it is adopted by academics like Anthony Grafton." ], [ "Legacy and evaluations", "Holbein's studies of Erasmus's hands, in silverpoint and chalks, ca.", "1523 (Louvre)Erasmus was given the sobriquet \"Prince of the Humanists\", and has been called \"the crowning glory of the Christian humanists\".", "He has also been called \"the most illustrious rhetorician and educationalist of the Renaissance\".French biographer Désiré Nisard characterized him as a lens or focal point: \"the whole of the Renaissance in Western Europe in the sixteenth century converged towards him.", "\"Erasmus's reputation and the interpretations of his work have varied over time.", "Moderate Catholics recognized him as a leading figure in attempts to reform the Church, while Protestants recognized his initial support for (and, in part, inspiration of) Luther's ideas and the groundwork he laid for the future Reformation, especially in biblical scholarship.", "However, at times he has been viciously criticized, his works suppressed, his expertise corralled, his writings misinterpreted, his thought demonized, and his legacy marginalized.===Erasmianism==='''Erasmians''': Erasmus frequently mentioned that he did not want office nor to be the founder or figurehead of a sect or movement, despite his vigorous branding and self-promotion.", "Nevertheless, historians do identify ''de facto'' \"Erasmians\" (ranging from the early Jesuits to the early reformers, and both Thomas More and William Tyndale)—Christian humanists who picked up on some or other aspects of Erasmus' agenda.", "'''Erasmianism''': This has been described as a \"more intellectual form of spiritualized Christianity\" that is \"an undercurrent of religious thought between Catholicism and Lutheranism.\"", "It had a notable influence in Spain.", "The near election of Reginald Pole as pope in 1546 has been attributed to Erasmianism in the electors.", "However, a precise definition is not possible; it is not, for example, a set of systematic doctrinal propositions.French historian Jean-Claude Margolin has noted an Erasmian stream in French culture putting \"the concrete before the abstract and the ethical before the speculative\", though not without noting that it is not clear whether Erasmus influenced the French or ''vice versa''.", "'''Erasmian Reformation''': Some historians such as Edward Gibbon and Hugh Trevor-Roper have even claimed an \"'Erasmianism after Erasmus,' a secret stream which meandered to and fro across the Catholic/Protestant divide, creating oases of rational thought impartially on either side.\"", "For some, this amounted to a third church: or even that \"Luther's and Calvin's Reformations were minor affairs\" compared to the Reformation of Erasmus and the humanists' which swept away the Middle Ages.", "'''Erasmian liberalism''': This has had an enduring run: described by philosopher Edwin Curley that \"the spirit of Erasmian liberalism was to emphasize the ethical aspects of Christianity at the expense of the doctrinal, to suspend judgment on many theological issues, and to insist that the faith actually required for salvation was a simple and uncontroversial one.", "\"Erasmus has frequently been described as \"proto-liberal\" (both, e.g., in the UK \"Lloyd George\" sense of liberalism as a form of conservatism that wants moderate but real reform to prevent immoderate and destructive revolution, or the ethical sense of socio-economic Socinianism)Protestant historian Roland Bainton is quoted \"no-one did more than Erasmus to break down the theory and practice of the medieval variety of intolerance.\"", "Other popular or scholarly writers have suggested that Erasmus' tolerant but idealistic agenda failed, certainly at the political level, evidenced by the wars and persecutions of the Protestant Reformation.===Educationalist===According to scholar Gerald J. Luhrman, \"the system of secondary education, as developed in a number of European countries, is inconceivable without the efforts of humanist educationalists, particularly Erasmus.", "His ideas in the field of language acquisition were systematized and realized to a large extent in the schools founded by the Jesuits...\"In England, he wrote the first curriculum for St Paul's School and his Latin grammar (written with Lily and Colet) \"continued to be used, in adapted form, into the Twentieth Century.", "\"His system of pronouncing ancient Greek was adopted for teaching in the major Western European nations.Erasmus \"tried to realize a practical goal: a modern education as preparation for administrators from the higher estates.", "\"Erasmus was a key part of the humanist program to get Greek and Hebrew taught at the major Universities, inspired by Cardinal Cisneros' Trilingual College of San Ildefonso/Alcalá (1499/1509) and Bishop John Fisher's establishment of Greek and Hebrew lectures at Cambridge: the Trilingual Colleges at Louvain (1517) and Paris (1530) (where students included Loyola and Calvin) spawned programs in Zurich, Rome, Strasbourg and Oxford (c.1566).Historian and Germanist Fritz Caspari saw education as the core of Erasmus' program:===Writer===The popularity of his books is reflected in the number of editions and translations that have appeared since the sixteenth century.", "Ten columns of the catalogue of the British Library are taken up with the enumeration of the works and their subsequent reprints.", "The greatest names of the classical and patristic world are among those translated, edited, or annotated by Erasmus, including Ambrose, Aristotle, Augustine, Basil, John Chrysostom, Cicero and Jerome.Unveiling of a Dutch statue of Erasmus (1964)===In the Netherlands===In his native Rotterdam, the Erasmus University Rotterdam, Erasmus Bridge, Erasmus MC and Gymnasium Erasmianum have been named in his honor.", "Between 1997 and 2009, one of the main metro lines of the city was named ''Erasmuslijn''.", "The Foundation Erasmus House (Rotterdam), is dedicated to celebrating Erasmus's legacy.", "Three moments in Erasmus's life are celebrated annually.", "On 1 April, the city celebrates the publication of his best-known book ''The Praise of Folly''.", "On 11 July, the ''Night of Erasmus'' celebrates the lasting influence of his work.", "His birthday is celebrated on 28 October.===In Spain===''Enquiridio o manual del caballero Christiano'', translation by Alonso Fernandez, published by Miguel de Eguía (1528) into Spanish of Erasmus' ''Enchiridion''Erasmus became extraordinarily popular and influential in Spain, including in and around the talent pool (often from ''converso'' families) that formed the early Jesuits.", "There were at least 120 translations, editions, or adaptations of Erasmus' writings between 1520 and 1552, though not ''The Praise of Folly''.", "Erasmians and their associates faced, at times, extraordinary pushback from the theologians at Salamanca and Vallodolid, for being associated with the ''alumbrado'' and ''illuminist'' tendencies, with many (notably Ignatius of Loyola, who had lived in the house of publisher Miguel de Eguía at the time the Spanish edition of the ''Enchiridion'' was being published) resorting to exile rather than facing the Inquisition, house arrest, imprisonment or worse.", "However, at times the heads of the Inquisition were themselves Erasmians.", "Erasmus faced a notable semi-secret trial in Vallodolid in 1527, attended by numerous bishops, abbots and theologians.", "Its records still exist.", "It disbanded without condemning Erasmus as a heretic, as most of his contentious beliefs were regarded as respectable by at least some important bishops, and the fanciful interpretations of the accusers did not stand up to scrutiny.From the 1530s, historians note the start of a widespread disenchantment with these ideas: however his ideas and works were circulating enough that even fifty years later Miguel Cervantes' Erasmianism may not have required him to have read any Erasmus.===In Poland===According to historian Howard Louthan \"Few regions embraced Erasmus as enthusiastically as Poland, and nowhere else did he have such a concentration of allies positioned at the highest levels of society including the king himself.\"", "===In England===English translation ''Paraphrase of Erasmus'', 1548Statue (1870), Canterbury CathedralErasmus' grammar, Adages, Copia, and other books continued as the core Latin educational material in England for the following centuries.", "His works and editions (in translation) are regularly connected with William Shakespeare, to Shakespeare's education, inspirations and sources (such as the shipwreck scene in ''The Tempest''.", ")His translated Gospel paraphrases were legally required to be chained for public access in every church, in the reign of Edward VI.After reading Erasmus' 1516 New Testament, Thomas Bilney \"felt a marvellous comfort and quietness,\" and won over his Cambridge friends, future notable bishops, Matthew Parker and Hugh Latimer to reformist biblicism.", "One of William Tyndale's earliest works was his translation of Erasmus' Enchiridion (1522,1533).", "Both Lutheran Tyndale and his Catholic theological opponent Thomas More are considered Erasmians.", "Following their deaths in 1536, Tyndale's English New Testament and anti-Catholic Preface was often printed in diglot editions paired with Erasmus' Latin translation and ''Paraclecis'' or Preface to the Paraphrase of St Matthew, sometimes omitting Tyndale's name.Historian Lucy Wooding argues (in Christopher Haigh's paraphrases) that \"England nearly had a Catholic Reformation along Erasmian lines –but it was cut short by (Queen) Mary’s death and finally torpedoed by the Council of Trent.", "\"The initial Henrican closure of smaller monasteries followed the Erasmian agenda, which was also shared by Catholic humanists such as Reginald Pole; however the later violent closures and iconoclasm were far from Erasmus' program.Historian of literature Cathy Schrank has written that Erasmus' reputation and status changed over the course of the English \"Long Reformation\" from \"being presented as a proto-Reformer, to problematically orthodox, to irenic martyr.", "\"For some Restoration Anglicans, both those promoting enforced anti-extremism and latitudinarians, and into the Age of Enlightenment, Erasmus' moderation represented \"an alternative to the belligerent Protestantism that characterized English political and social discourse\".", "It has been claimed that William of Orange's Toleration Act owed to Erasmus' inspiration.For Edward Gibbon, Erasmus was \"the father of rational theology.", "\"By 1929, G.K. Chesterton could write \"I doubt if any thinking person, of any belief or unbelief, does not wish in his heart that the end of mediaevalism had meant the triumph of the Humanists like Erasmus and More, rather than of the rabid Puritans like Calvin and Knox.", "\"===Catholic===Thomas Aquinas inspiring himself on Free Will from the writings of previous theologians such as Augustine.", "(1652)Erasmus was continually protected by popes, bishops, inquisitors-general, and Catholic kings during his lifetime.", "The following generation of saints and scholars included many influenced by Erasmian humanism or spirituality, notably Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Ávila, and John of Ávila.However, Erasmus attracted enemies in contemporary theologians in Paris, Louvain, Valladolid, Salamanca and Rome, notably Sepúlveda, Stúñica, Edward Lee, Noël Beda (who Erasmus had known in France in the 1490s, but who opposed Greek and Hebrew), as well as Alberto Pío, Prince of Carpi, who read his work with dedicated suspicion.", "These were theologians, usually from the mendicant orders that were Erasmus' particular target (such as Dominicans, Carmelites and Franciscans), who held a positive \"linear view of history\" for theology that privileged recent late-medieval theology and rejected the ''ad fontes'' methodology.", "Erasmus believed the vehemence of the attacks on Luther was a strategem to blacken humanism (and himself) by association, part of the centuries-long power struggle at the universities between scholastic \"theologians\" and humanist \"poets\".", "A particularly powerful opponent of Erasmus was Italian humanist Jerome Aleander, Erasmus' former close friend and bedmate in Venice at the Aldine Press and future cardinal.", "They fell out over Aleander's violent speech against Luther at the Diet of Worms, and with Aleander's identification of Erasmus as \"the great cornerstone of the Lutheran heresy.\"", "They periodically reconciled in warm personal meetings, only to fall into mutual suspicion again when distant.Erasmus spent considerable effort defending himself in writing, which he could not do after his death.The Council of Trent addressed many of the controversies Erasmus had been involved with: including free will, accumulated errors in the Vulgate, and priestly training, and followed his call for a renewed positive focus on the Creed.", "Erasmus' major ethical complaint that a certain kind of scholasticism was \"curiosity\" (useless, vain speculation) and artificially divisive was endorsed in the 4 December 1563 ''Decree Concerning Purgatory'' which recommended the avoidance of speculations and non-essential questions.====Prohibitions====A work of Erasmus censored, perhaps following the inclusion of some works on the Index Librorum ProhibitorumBy the 1560s, there was a marked downturn in reception: at various times and durations, some of Erasmus' works, especially in Protestantized editions, were placed on the various Roman, Dutch, French, Spanish and Mexican Indexes of Prohibited Books, either to not be read, or to be censored and expurgated: each area had different censorship considerations and severity.Erasmus' work had been translated or reprinted throughout Europe, often with Protestantizing revisions and sectarian prefaces.", "Sometimes the works of Martin Luther were sold with the name of Erasmus on the cover.Erasmus' works were prohibited in England under Queen Mary I, from 1555.For the Roman Index as it emerged at the close of the Council of Trent, Erasmus' works were completely banned (1559), mostly unbanned (1564), completely banned again (1590), and then mostly unbanned again with strategic revisions (1596) by the Indexes of successive Popes.", "In the 1559 Index, Erasmus was classed with heretics; however Erasmus was never judicially arraigned, tried or convicted of heresy: the censorship rules established by the Council of Trent targeted not only notorious heretics but also those whose writings \"excited heresy\" (regardless of intent), especially by making Latin translations of the New Testament that vied with (rather than improved or annotated or assisted) the Vulgate.The ''Colloquies'' were especially but not universally frowned on for school use, and many of Erasmus' tendentious prefaces and notes to his scholarly editions required adjustment.", "In Spain's Index, the translation of the ''Enchiridion'' only needed the phrase \"Monkishness is not piety\" removed to become acceptable.By 1896, the Roman Index still listed Erasmus' ''Colloquia'', ''The Praise of Folly'', ''The Tongue'', ''The Institution of Christian Marriage'', and one other as banned, plus particular editions of the ''Adagia'' and ''Paraphrase of Matthew''.", "All other works could be read in suitable expurgated versions.Because Erasmus' scholarly editions were frequently the only sources of Patristic information in print, the strict bans were often impractical, so theologians worked to produce replacement editions building on, or copying, Erasmus' editions.The Jesuits received a dispensation from the Roman Inquisitor General to read and use Erasmus' work (not kept on the open shelves of their libraries), as did priests working near Protestant areas such as Francis de Sales.====Post-Tridentine====Early Dutch Jesuit scholar Peter Canisius (fl.", "1547 - 1597), who produced several works superseding Erasmus', is known to have read, or used phrases from, Erasmus' New Testament (including the Annotations and Notes) and perhaps the Paraphrases, his Jerome biography and complete works, the Adages, the ''Copia'', and the Colloquies: Canisius, having actually read Erasmus, had an ambivalent view on Erasmus that contrasted with the negative line of some of his contemporaries:In contrast, Robert Bellarmine's ''Controversies'' mentions Erasmus (as presented by Erasmus' opponent Albert Pío) negatively over 100 times, categorizing him as a \"forerunner of the heretics\"; though not a heretic.", "Alphonsus Ligouri, who also had not read Erasmus, judged that Erasmus \"died with the character of an unsound Catholic but not a heretic,\" putting it all in the context of a dispute between Theologians and Rhetoricians.His patristic scholarship continued to be valued by academics, as were un-controversial parts of his biblical scholarship, though Catholic biblical scholars started to criticize Erasmus' limited range of manuscripts for his direct New Testament as undermining his premise of correcting the Latin from the \"original\" Greek.The Jesuit mission to China, led by Matteo Ricci, adopted the approach of cultural ''accommodation'' linked to Erasmus.", "The early Jesuits were exposed to Erasmus at their colleges, and their positioning of Confucius echoed Erasmus' positioning of \"Saint\" Socrates.Salesian scholars have noted Erasmus' significant influence on Francis de Sales: \"in the approach and the spirit he (de Sales) took to reform his diocese and more importantly on how individual Christians could become better together,\" his optimism, civility, esteem of marriage.", "and, according to historian Charles Béné, a piety addressed to the laity, the acceptance of mental prayer, and the valuing of pagan wisdom.A famous 17th century Dominican library featured statues of famous churchmen on one side and of famous \"heretics\" (in chains) on the other: those foes including the two leading anti-mendicant Catholic voices William of Saint-Amour (fl.", "1250) and Erasmus.By 1690, Erasmus was also, rather perversely, labelled as the forerunner of the heretical tendecies in the Jansenists.", "From 1648 to 1794 and then 1845 to the present, the mainly-Jesuit Bollandist Society has been progressively publishing ''Lives of the Saints,'' in 61 volumes and supplements.", "Historian John C. Olin notes an accord of approach with the hitherto \"unique\" method, mixing critical standards and devotional/rhetorical purpose, that Erasmus had laid out in his Life of St Jerome.By the 1700s, Erasmus' even indirect influence on Catholic thought had waned.====Twentieth Century====A historian has written that \"a number of Erasmus' modern Catholic critics do not display an accurate knowledge of his writings but misrepresent him, often by relying upon hostile secondary sources,\" naming Yves Congar as an example.A major turning point in the popular Catholic appraisal of Erasmus occurred in 1900 with rosy Benedictine historian (and, later, Cardinal) Francis Aidan Gasquet's ''The Eve of the Reformation'' which included a whole chapter on Erasmus based on a re-reading of his books and letters.", "Gasquet wrote \"Erasmus, like many of his contemporaries, is often perhaps injudicious in the manner in which he advocated reforms.", "But when the matter is sifted to the bottom, it will commonly be found that his ideas are just.", "\"Over the last century, Erasmus has been un-cancelled and his Catholic reputation has gradually started to be rehabilitated: favourable factors may include:* the increasingly active modern historical and theological scholarship on Erasmus suggested chinks in the traditional partisan characterzations of Erasmus;* the retirement of the Roman Index librorum prohibitorum in 1966;John Fisher, after Hans Holbein* increased support for a view of Erasmus that portrays him as a conservative endorsed by and responsive to the hierarchy as much as a maverick, with him voicing and crystallizing mainstream and respectable Catholic thought of his time as much as innovating; and to an extent resuscitating Victorine (the Canons Regular of St Victor) and Cappadocian and patristic approaches.", "* his deep friendships and interactions with two Saint-Martyrs Thomas More and John Fisher,* his acknowledged or retro-fitted influence on perhaps five Doctors of the Church (Ignatius, Theresa of Ávila, John of Ávila, Canisius, de Sales), the positive normalization of his views in influential new orders such as the Jesuits, Oratorians, Redemptorists and Salesians, and an increasing list of exemplary Catholics whose views channel or parallel Erasmus', such as Bartolomé de las Casas' ''De unico vocationis modo'' (1537), and De la Salle's ''Decorum & Civility''; * the acceptance of St John Henry Cardinal Newman's \"development of doctrine\", to some extent a chick hatched from the egg of Erasmus' theological historicism and his appeal to tradition (''sensus fidei fidelium'') on the Eucharist; * the reinvigouration of patristic ''ad fontes'' and a re-surfacing of several ideas associated with Erasmus (but ideas sometimes with a longer, forgotten patrimony, and sometimes from an even more problematic figure than Erasmus) by ressourcement and ''Communio'' theologians, such as **Henri de Lubac** Hans Urs von Balthasar, who ranked Erasmus with Augustine, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas as the great theologians/exegetes; ** Oratorian Louis Bouyer, who wrote that the Method of True Theology (or ''Ratio'') of Erasmus \"represents, for the first time and in admirable fashion, the use of principles and methods entirely adequate to effect a really fruitful renewal of Catholic faith and theology;\" ** Joseph Ratzinger, whose famous Regensberg Address emphasized the fundamental influence of Hellenic philosophy on primitive Christianity.", "* his promotion of the recognition of adiaphora and toleration within bounds was taken up, to an extent, by Pope John XXIII: ''In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas.", "''His ''instrumentalist'' approach to Christian humanism has been compared to that of John Henry Newman and the ''personalism'' of John Paul II, but also has been criticized as treating the Church's doctrines merely as aids to piety.The Catholic scholar Thomas Cummings saw parallels between Erasmus' vision of Church reform and the vision of Church reform that succeeded at the Second Vatican Council.", "Theologian J. Coppens noted the \"Erasmian themes\" of ''Lumen Gentium'' (e.g.", "para 12), such as the ''sensus fidei fidelium'' and the dignity of all the baptized.", "Another scholar writes \"in our days, especially after Vatican II, Erasmus is more and more regarded as an important defender of the Christian religion.\"", "John O'Malley has commented on a certain closeness between Erasmus and ''Dei Verbum''.In 1963, Thomas Merton suggested \"If there had been no Luther, Erasmus would nowbe regarded by everyone as one of the great Doctors of the CatholicChurch.", "I like his directness, his simplicity, and his courage.", "\"Notably, since the 1950s, the Roman Catholic Easter Vigil mass has included a Renewal of Baptismal Promises, an innovation first proposed by Erasmus in his ''Paraphrases''.", "In his 1987 collection ''The Spirituality of Erasmus of Rotterdam'' historian Richard deMolen, later a Catholic priest, called for Erasmus' canonization.===Protestant===Commemorative coins or medals of Erasmus by Göbel, Georg Wilhelm (1790)Protestant views on Erasmus fluctuated depending on region and period, with continual support in his native Netherlands and in cities of the Upper Rhine area.", "However, following his death and in the late sixteenth century, many Reformation supporters saw Erasmus's critiques of Luther and lifelong support for the universal Catholic Church as damning, and second-generation Protestants were less vocal in their debts to the great humanist.There was a tendency to downplay that many of the usages fundamental to Luther, Melancthon and Calvin, such as the forensic imputation of righteousness, grace as divine favour or mercy (rather than a medicine-like substance or habit), faith as trust (rather than a persuasion only), \"repentance\" over \"doing penance\" (as used by Luther in the first theses of the 95 Theses), owed to Erasmus.Luther had attempted a Biblical analogy to justify his dismissal of Erasmus' thought: \"He has done what he was ordained to do: he has introduced the ancient languages, in the place of injurious scholastic studies.", "He will probably die like Moses in the land of Moab…I would rather he would entirely abstain from explaining and paraphrasing the Scriptures, for he is not up to this work…to lead into the land of promise, is not his business…\" \"Erasmus of Rotterdam is the vilest miscreant that ever disgraced the earth…He is a very Caiaphas.\"", "However Erasmus corresponded cordially with Melancthon until the end.Some historians have even said that \"the spread of Lutheranism was checked by Luther’s antagonizing (of) Erasmus and the humanists.", "\"Erasmus' reception is also demonstrable among Swiss Protestants in the sixteenth century: he had an indelible influence on the biblical commentaries of, for example, Konrad Pellikan, Heinrich Bullinger, and John Calvin, all of whom used both his annotations on the New Testament and his paraphrases of same in their own New Testament commentaries.", "Huldrych Zwingli, the founder of the Reformed tradition, had a conversion experience after reading Erasmus' poem,'' 'Jesus' Lament to Mankind.'", "'' Zwingli's moralism, hermeneutics and attitude to patristic authority owe to Erasmus, and contrast with Luther's.Anabaptist scholars have suggested an 'intellectual dependence' of Anabaptists on Erasmus.For evangelical Christianity, Erasmus had a strong influence on Arminius.Erasmus' promotion of the recognition of adiaphora and toleration within bounds was taken up by many kinds of Protestants.Erasmus' Greek New Testament was the basis of the Textus Receptus bibles, which were used for all Protestant bible translations from 1600 to 1900, notably including the Luther Bible and the King James Version.=== Character attacks ===Writers have often explained Erasmus' failure to adopt their favoured position as manifesting some deep character flaw.", "In historian Bruce Mansfield's words, \"a smallness of character in Erasmus stood in the way of his greatness of mind.", "\"Luther's antipathy to Erasmus has continued to more recent times in some Lutheran teachers:The Catholic Encyclopedia (1917) explained \"His inborn vanity and self-complacency were thereby increased almost to the point of becoming a disease; at the same time he sought, often by the grossest flattery, to obtain the favour and material support of patrons or to secure the continuance of such benefits.\"", "According to Catholic historian Joseph Lortz (1962) \"Erasmus remained in the church…but as a half Catholic…indecisive, hesitating, suspended in the middle.", "\"A 1920s American historian wrote \"Erasmus's ambitions, fed by an innate vanity which at times repels by its frank self-seeking, included both fame and fortune\" yet pulls back on another historian's view that his \"irritable self-conceit, shameless importunity,…may lead one to a sense of contempt for the scholar\", pointing out the reality of Erasmus' dire poverty in Paris.", "An inter-war Anglican historian judges \"He is a worm, a pigmy, a sheep able only to bleat when the gospel is destroyed ... Erasmus was a book-man and an invalid.” A Victorian Scottish biographer of Tyndale contrasted Erasmus' weak constitution with the \"more masculine energy\" of Luther and Tyndale.In the 20th century, various pyschoanalyses were made of Erasmus by practitioners: these diagnosed him variously as \"supremely egotistic, neurasthenic, morbidly sensitive, volatile, variable, and vacillating, injudicious, irritable, and querulous, yet always ... a baffling but interesting chararacter\"; a \"volatile neurotic, latent homosexual, hypochondriac, and psychasthenic\"; having \"a form ofnarcissistic character disorder,\" a spiritualized, vengeful, \"paranoid disposition\" driven by \"injured narcissism\", \"repeated persecutory preoccupations...(with) delusional states of paranoia toward the end of his life\", repressed anger directed \"father figures such as prelates and teachers,\" needing a \"sense of victimization\" Huizinga's biography (1924) treats him more sympathically, with phrases such as: a great and sincere need for concord and affection, profoundly in need of (physical and spiritual) purity, a delicate soul (with a delicate constitution), fated to an immoderate love of liberty, having a dangerous fusion between inclination and conviction, restless but precipitate, a continual intermingling of explosion and reserve, fastidious, bashful, coquettish, a white-lier, evasive, suspicious, and feline.", "Yet \"compared with most of his contemporaries he remains moderate and refined.", "\"===Name used===* The European Erasmus Programme of exchange students within the European Union is named after him.", "The Erasmus Programme scholarships enable students to spend up to a year of their university courses in a university in another European country, commemorating Erasmus' impulse to travel.", "* The ''Erasmus Journal of Philosophy and Economics'' is produced at the Erasmus Institute for Philosophy and Economics (EIPE) at the Erasmus University Rotterdam.", "Rotterdam also an Erasmus Bridge.", "* A peer-reviewed annual scholarly journal ''Erasmus Studies'' has been produced since 1981.", "* The Erasmus Prize is one of Europe's foremost recognitions for culture, society or social science.", "It was won by Wikipedia in 2015.", "* The Erasmus Lectures are an annual lecture on religious subjects, given by prominent Christian (mainly Catholic) and Jewish intellectuals, most notably by Joseph Ratzinger in 1988.", "* The Erasmus Building in Luxembourg was completed in 1988 as the first addition to the headquarters of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU).", "The building houses the chambers of the judges of the CJEU's General Court and three courtrooms.", "* Several schools, faculties and universities in the Netherlands and Belgium are named after him, as is Erasmus Hall in Brooklyn, New York, USA.", "* Queens' College, Cambridge, has an Erasmus Tower, Erasmus Building and an Erasmus Room.", "Until the early 20th century, Queens' College used to have a corkscrew that was purported to be \"Erasmus' corkscrew\", which was a third of a metre long; as of 1987, the college still had what it calls \"Erasmus' chair\".", "* From 1997 to 2008, the American University of Notre Dame had an Erasmus Institute.===Intellectual===* Literary theorist Hans Urs von Balthasar listed Erasmus in one of three key intellectual \"events\" in the Germanic age:** Duns Scotus-William of Ockham-Francisco Suárez and Meister Eckhart-Nicholas of Cusa-Ignatius of Loyola** Martin Luther-Erasmus-Shakespeare** Kant-Hegel-Marx* Political journalist Michael Massing has written of the Luther-Erasmus free will debate as creating a fault line in Western thinking: Europe adopted a form of Erasmian humanism while America has been shaped by Luther-inspired individualism.", "* By the coming of the Age of Enlightenment, Erasmus increasingly again became a more widely respected cultural symbol and was hailed as an important figure by increasingly broad groups.", "* In a letter to a friend, Erasmus once had written: \"That you are patriotic will be praised by many and easily forgiven by everyone; but in my opinion it is wiser to treat men and things as though we held this world the common fatherland of all.\"", "Thus, the universalist ideals of Erasmus are sometimes claimed to be important for fixing global governance.", "* Catholic historian Dom David Knowles wrote that a just appreciation of traditional Catholic doctrine was a necessary condition for appreciating Erasmus, \"without which many otherwise gifted writers have repeated meaningless platitudes.", "\"* According to two Dutch historians, \"his legacy irreversibly inspired researchers to a hermeneutical approach that in the end could not but result in irrefutable attacks on the self-evident complete inerrancy of Holy Writ.", "\"=== Quotes ===Erasmus is credited with numerous quotes; many of them are not exactly original to him but are taken from his collections of sayings such as ''Adages'' or ''Apophthegmata''.", "* In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is king.", "''Adages''* The most disadvantageous peace is better than the justest war.", "''Adages''* Bidden or unbidden, God is always there.", "''Adages''* \"When I get a little money I buy books; and if any is left, I buy food and clothes.", "\"* \"Monkishness is not piety\" ''Enchiridion''* \"Christ said (to St Peter) 'Feed my sheep', not 'Devour my sheep'.\"", "*\"All the ups and downs of comedy usually end in marriage.", "It looks as though the Lutheran tragedy will end the same way.", "\"* Martin Luther is \"a snake without a snakecharmer\" ''Hyperaspistes II''* \"If I have my way, the farmer, the smith, the stone-cutter will read him (Christ), prostitutes and pimps will read him, even the Turks will read him.", "…If it be the ploughman guiding his plough, let him chant in his own language the mystic psalms.\"", "Paraphrase of St MatthewHe is also blamed for the mistranslation from Greek of \"to call a bowl a bowl\" as \"to call a spade a spade\", and the rendering of Pandora's \"jar\" as \"box\"." ], [ "Personal", "=== Clothing ===Visitation ''Momento mori'', painter unknown, c.1500, juxtaposing pregnancy and death, with four Augustinan canons regular of the Chapter (Abbey) of Sion.", "Left, with little lion, is St Jerome; right, holding a heart, is St Augustine.", "RijksmuseumUntil Erasmus received his (1505 and 1517) Papal dispensations to wear clerical garb, Erasmus wore versions of the local habit of his order, the Canons regular of St Augustine, Chapter of Sion, which varied by region and house, unless traveling: in general, a white or perhaps black cassock with linen and lace choir rochet for liturgical contexts or ''sarotium'' (scarf), almuce (cape), perhaps with an asymmetrical black cope of cloth or sheepskin (''cacullae'') or long black cloak.From 1505, and certainly after 1517, he dressed as a scholar-priest.", "He preferred warm and soft garments: according to one source, he arranged for his clothing to be stuffed with fur to protect him against the cold, and his habit counted with a collar of fur which usually covered his nape.All Erasmus' portraits show him wearing a knitted scholar's bonnet.=== Signet ring and personal motto ===Signet rings of Erasmus of Rotterdam: Amerbach KabinettErasmus chose the Roman god of borders and boundaries Terminus as a personal symbol and had a signet ring with a herm he thought depicted Terminus carved into a carnelian.", "The herm was presented to him in Rome by his student Alexander Stewart and in reality depicted the Greek god Dionysus.", "The ring was also depicted in a portrait of his by the Flemish painter Quentin Matsys.Terminus by Hans Holbein the YoungerThe herm became part of the Erasmus branding at Froben, and is on his tombstone.", "In the early 1530s, Erasmus was portrayed as Terminus by Hans Holbein the Younger.Quinten Metsys (Massijs), medal commissioned by Desiderius Erasmus.", "1519, bronze, 105 mmHe chose ''Concedo Nulli'' (Lat.", "''I concede to no-one'') as his personal motto.", "The obverse of the medal by Quintin Matsys featured the Terminus herm.", "Mottoes on medals, along the circumference, included \"A better picture of Erasmus is shown in his writing\", and \"Contemplate the end of a long life\" and Horace's \"Death is the ultimate boundary of things,\" which re-casts the motto as a ''memento mori''.===Representations===Portrait of Desiderius Erasmus by Albrecht Dürer, 1526, engraved in Nuremberg, GermanyErasmus frequently gifted portraits and medals with his image to friends and patrons.", "* Hans Holbein painted him at least three times and perhaps as many as seven, some of the Holbein portraits of Erasmus surviving only in copies by other artists.", "Holbein's three profile portraits – two (nearly identical) profile portraits and one three-quarters-view portrait – were all painted in the same year, 1523.Erasmus used the Holbein portraits as gifts for his friends in England, such as William Warham, the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "(Writing in a letter to Warham regarding the gift portrait, Erasmus quipped that \"he might have something of Erasmus should God call him from this place.\")", "Erasmus spoke favourably of Holbein as an artist and person but was later critical, accusing him of sponging off various patrons whom Erasmus had recommended, for purposes more of monetary gain than artistic endeavor.", "There were scores of copies of these portraits made in Erasmus' time.", "* Albrecht Dürer also produced portraits of Erasmus, whom he met three times, in the form of an engraving of 1526 and a preliminary charcoal sketch.", "Concerning the former Erasmus was unimpressed, declaring it an unfavorable likeness of him.", "Nevertheless, Erasmus and Dürer maintained a close friendship, with Dürer going so far as to solicit Erasmus's support for the Lutheran cause, which Erasmus politely declined.", "Erasmus wrote a glowing encomium about the artist, likening him to famous Greek painter of antiquity Apelles.", "Erasmus was deeply affected by his death in 1528.", "* Quentin Matsys produced the earliest known portraits of Erasmus, including an oil painting in 1517 and a medal in 1519.", "* In 1622, Hendrick de Keyser cast a statue of Erasmus in (gilt) bronze replacing an earlier stone version from 1557, itself replacing a wooden one of 1549, possibly a gift from the City of Basel.", "This was set up in the public square in Rotterdam, and today may be found outside the St. Lawrence Church.", "It is the oldest bronze statue in the Netherlands.", "* Actor Ken Bones portrays Erasmus in David Starkey's 2009 documentary series ''Henry VIII: The Mind of a Tyrant''* Canterbury Cathedral, England has a statue of Erasmus on the North Face, placed in 1870.=== Exhumation ===In 1928, the site of Erasmus' grave was dug up, and a body identified in the bones and examined.", "In 1974, a body was dug up in a slightly different location, accompanied by an Erasmus medal.", "Both bodies have been claimed to be Erasmus'.", "However, it is possible neither is." ], [ "Works", "The ''Catalogue of the Works of Erasmus'' (2023) runs to 444 entries (120 pages), almost all from the latter half of his life.===Complete editions===The '' Collected Works of Erasmus'' (or ''CWE'') is an 84 volume set of English translations and commentary from the University of Toronto Press.", "As of May 2023, 66 of 84 volumes have been released.", "The '' Erasmi opera omni'', known as the ''Amsterdam Edition'' or ''ASD'', is a 65 volume set of the original Latin works.", "As of 2022, 59 volumes have been released.===Letters===Erasmus, Letter to George, Duke of Saxony, (1524) giving Erasmus' view of Luther and the ReformationErasmus wrote or answered up to 40 letters per day, usually waking early in the morning and writing them in his own hand.", "Over 3,000 letters exist for a 52-year period, including to and from most Western popes, emperors, kings and their staff, as well as to leading intellectuals, bishops, reformers, fans, friends, and enemies.His letters have been published in translation in the Complete Works of Erasmus.", "This has been accompanied by a three-volume reference book ''Contemporaries of Erasmus'' giving biographies of the over 1900 individuals he corresponded with or mentioned.His private letters were eventually written in the knowledge that they could be intercepted by hostile opponents; he revised and rewrote letters for publication; his letters have a high amount of accommodation of his correspondents' views and strong irony, and a tendency to muddy the waters where danger is involve.===Religious and political===''Enchiridion militis Christiani'' (1503), Spanish translationMarginal drawing of Folly by Hans Holbein in the first edition of Erasmus's ''Praise of Folly'', 1515''A Playne and Godly Exposition or Declaration of the Commune Crede'', 2nd edition, 1533, English translation of ''Symbolum apostolorum''* ''Handbook of a Christian Knight (Enchiridion militis Christiani)'' (1503)* ''Sileni alcibiadis'' (1515)* ''The Education of a Christian Prince (Institutio principis Christiani)'' (1516)* ''The Quarrel of Peace'' (''Querela pacis'') (1517)** (English translation)* ''On the Immense Mercy of God'' (''De immensa misericordia dei'') (1524)* ''On Free Will (De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio)'' (1524)* ''Hyperaspistes'' 2 volumes (1526) * ''The Institution of Christian Marriage'' (''Institutio matrimonii'') (1526)* ''Consultations on the War on the Turks'' (''Consultatio de bello turcis inferendo'') (1530)* ''On the Preparation for Death'' (''De praeparatione ad mortem'') (1533)* ''On the Apostles' Creed'' (''Symbolum apostolorum'')* ''The Preacher (Ecclesiastes)'' (1535)===Comedy and satire===* ''The Praise of Folly (Moriae encomium - Stultitiae laus)'' (1511)** (English translations)* Preface to Plutarch's ''How to tell a Flatterer from a Friend'' (1514) (Dedication to Henry VIII)* ''Julius Excluded from Heaven'' (1514) (attrib.", ")* ''Colloquies (Colloquia)'' (1518)** (English translation )* ''Ciceronianus'' (1528)===Culture and education===* ''Adages (Adagiorum collectanea)'' (1500) all editions usually called ''Adagia''** ''Three Thousand Adages'' (''Adagiorum chilliades tres'') (1508)** ''Four Thousand Adages'' (''Adagiorum ciliades quatuor'') (1520)* ''Foundations of the Abundant Style (De utraque verborum ac rerum copia)'' (1512) often called ''De copia''* ''Introduction to the Eight Parts of Speech'' (''De constructione octo partium prationis'') (1515) - Erasmus' version of Lily's Grammar, sometimes called ''Brevissima Institutio'' * ''Language, or the uses and abuses of language, a most useful book'', (''Lingua, Sive, De Linguae usu atque abusu Liber utillissimus'') (1525)* ''On the Correct Pronunciation of Latin and Greek'' (''De recta Latini Graecique sermonis pronuntiatione'') (1528)* ''On Early Liberal Education for Children'' (''De pueris statim ac liberaliter instituendis'') (1529)* ''On Civility in Children (De civilitate morum puerilium)'' (1530)* ''Apophthegmatum opus'' (1531)** includes ''Opusculi plutarchi'' (c.1514)*** includes ''How to tell a flatterer from a friend''===New Testament===The 1516 edition had Erasmus' corrected Vulgate Latin and Greek versions.", "The subsequent revised editions had Erasmus' new Latin version and the Greek.", "The 1527 edition had both the Vulgate and Erasmus' new Latin with the Greek.", "These were accompanied by substantial annotations, methodological notes and paraphrases, in separate volumes.", "* ''Novum Instrumentum omne'' (1516)** ''Novum Testamentum omne'' (1519, 1522, 1527,1536)* ''In Novum Testamentum annotationes'' (1519, 1522, 1527,1535)* ''Paraphrases of Erasmus'' (1517–1524)** ''The first tome or volume of the Paraphrase of Erasmus vpon the newe testamente'' (1548)===Patristic and classical editions===The title page of the princeps edition of Irenaeus's Against heresies, which was published by Erasmus at Johannes Froben's, Basel, 1526.Froben was keen to exploit Erasmus' name as a brand: for the patristic and classical editions that came out under his name Erasmus was variously commissioning editor, acquisitions editor, and supervising editor often working with others.", "He was usually the primary translator and contributed at least prefaces, notes and biographies.", "* Complete Works of Jerome, nine volumes (1516) with biography, ed.", "ii (1526), ed.", "iii (1537, posthumous)* Complete Works of Cyprian (1520–21)* ''Commentary on the Psalms'' Arnobius the Younger (1522)* Complete Works of Hilary of Poitiers (1523)* ''Against Heresies'', Irenaeus (1526)* Complete Works of Ambrose (and Ambrosiaster), four volumes (1527)* Origens ''Fragments on Matthew'' (1527)* Works of Athanasius of Alexandria (1522–1527) * ''On Grace'' (''De gratia'') Faustus of Riez (1528)* Complete Works of Augustine (1528, 1529)* Works of Lactantius (1529)* Epiphanius (1529)* Complete Works of John Chrysostom, five volumes (1525–1530) with biography* Works of Basil of Caesarea (1530)* Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus (1531)* Complete Works of Origen, two volumes (1536) with biography (posthumous)Late in his publishing career, Erasmus produced editions of two pre-scholastic but post-patristic writers:* ''On the sacrament of the Lord's body and blood'' (''De sacramento corporis et sanguinis Domini'') Alger of Liège (1530)* Commentary on Psalms of Haymo of Halberstadt attrib.", "(1533)Classical writers whose works Erasmus translated or edited include Lucian (1506), Euripides (1508), Pseudo-Cato (1513), Curtius (1517), Suetonius (1518), Cicero (1523), Ovid and Prudentius (1524), Galen (1526), Seneca (1515, 1528), Plutarch (1512–1531), Aristotle (1531, Introduction to edition of Simon Grynaeus), Demosthenes (1532), Terence (1532), Ptolemy (1533), as well as Livy, Pliny, Libanius, Galen, Isocrates and Xenophon.", "Many of the ''Adagia'' translate adages from ancient and classical sources, notably from Aesop; many of ''Apophthegmata'' are from Platonists or Cynics." ], [ "Endmatter", "===Notes======References======Further reading=======Biographies====* * Barker, William (2022).", "''Erasmus of Rotterdam: The Spirit of a Scholar.''", "Reaktion Books* * Christ-von Wedel, Christine (2013).", "''Erasmus of Rotterdam: Advocate of a New Christianity''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press* * * * * in series, ''Harper Torchbacks'', and also in ''The Cloister Library''.", "New York: Harper & Row, 1957.xiv, 266 pp** Dutch original by Huizinga (1924)* * Pennington, Arthur Robert (1875).", "''The Life and Character of Erasmus'', pp. 219.", "* * Tracy, James D. (1997).", "''Erasmus of the Low Countries''.", "Berkeley – Los Angeles – London: University of California Press* Zweig, Stefan (1937).", "''Erasmus of Rotterdam''.", "Translated by Eden and Cedar Paul.", "Garden City Publishing Co., Inc====Topics====* * Bietenholz, Peter G. (2009).", "''Encounters with a Radical Erasmus.", "Erasmus' Work as a Source of Radical Thought in Early Modern Europe''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press* Dart, Ron (2017).", "''Erasmus: Wild Bird''.", "* Dodds, Gregory D. (2010).", "''Exploiting Erasmus: The Erasmian Legacy and Religious Change in Early Modern England''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press* Furey, Constance M. (2009).", "''Erasmus, Contarini, and the Religious Republic of Letters''.", "Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press*Gulik, Egbertus van (2018).", "''Erasmus and His Books''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press* Payne, John B.", "(1970).", "''Erasmus, His Theology of the Sacraments'', Research in Theology* Martin, Terence J.", "(2016). ''", "Truth and Irony - Philosophical Meditations on Erasmus''.", "Catholic University of America Press* MacPhail, Eric (ed) (2023). ''", "A Companion to Erasmus''.", "Leiden and Boston: Brill* Massing, Michael (2022). ''", "Fatal Discord - Erasmus, Luther, and the Fight for the Western Mind''.", "HarperCollins * McDonald, Grantley (2016).", "''Biblical Criticism in Early Modern Europe: Erasmus, the Johannine Comma, and Trinitarian Debate''.", "Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press* Ron, Nathan (2019).", "''Erasmus and the “Other”: On Turks, Jews, and Indigenous Peoples''.", "Palgrave Macmillan Cham* Ron, Nathan (2021).", "''Erasmus: Intellectual of the 16th Century''.", "Palgrave Macmillan Cham* Quinones, Ricardo J.", "(2010).", "''Erasmus and Voltaire: Why They Still Matter''.", "University of Toronto Press, 240 pp.", "Draws parallels between the two thinkers as voices of moderation with relevance today.", "* Winters, Adam.", "(2005).", "''Erasmus' Doctrine of Free Will''.", "Jackson, TN: Union University Press.==== Non-English ====* Bataillon, Marcel (1937) ''Erasme et l'Espagne'' , Librairie Droz (1998) ISBN 2-600-00510-2** ''Erasmo y España: Estudios Sobre la Historia Espiritual del Siglo XVI'' (1950), Fondo de Cultura Económica (1997) ISBN 968-16-1069-5* Garcia-Villoslada, Ricardo (1965) '''Loyola y Erasmo'', Taurus Ediciones, Madrid, Spain.", "* Lorenzo Cortesi (2012) ''Esortazione alla filosofia.", "La Paraclesis di Erasmo da Rotterdam'', Ravenna, SBC Edizioni, * Pep Mayolas (2014) ''Erasme i la construcció catalana d'Espanya'', Barcelona, Llibres de l'Índex====Primary sources====* ''Collected Works of Erasmus'' (U of Toronto Press, 1974–2023).", "84/86 volumes published as of mid 2023; see U. Toronto Press, in English translation* ''The Correspondence of Erasmus'' (U of Toronto Press, 1975–2023), 21/21 volumes down to 1536 are publishedAlso:* Discusses both the Toronto translation and the entirely separate Latin edition published in Amsterdam since 1969===External links===* * * \"'' Desiderius Erasmus''\" entry in Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909 by Joseph Sauer* * ====Non-English====* Index of Erasmus's Opera Omnia (Latin)* Opera (Latin Library)* * * ====Media====* * In Our Time podcast from BBC Radio 4 with Melvyn Bragg, and guests Diarmaid MacCulloch, Eamon Duffy, and Jill Kraye.", "* Desiderius Erasmus: ''\"War is sweet to those who have no experience of it …\" - Protest against Violence and War'' ( Publication series: Exhibitions on the History of Nonviolent Resistance, No.", "1, Editors: Christian Bartolf, Dominique Miething).", "Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin, 2022.PDF* ''Sporen van Erasmus (Traces of Erasmus)'', documentary TV series, 5 episodes," ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Encyclopedia Brown" ], [ "Introduction", " Cover of the first edition of ''Encyclopedia Brown: Boy Detective'' (1963)'''''Encyclopedia Brown''''' is a series of books featuring the adventures of boy detective Leroy Brown, nicknamed \"Encyclopedia\" for his intelligence and range of knowledge.", "The series of 29 children's novels was written (one co-written) by Donald J. Sobol, with the first book published in 1963 and the last published posthumously in 2012.In addition to the main books, the ''Encyclopedia Brown'' series has spawned a comic strip, a TV series, and compilation books of puzzles and games.Sobol's first ''Encyclopedia Brown'' book was written in two weeks; subsequent books took about six months to write.", "Its main publisher was Bantam Skylark." ], [ "Style", "Each book in the ''Encyclopedia Brown'' mystery series is self contained in that the reader is not required to have read earlier books in order to understand the stories.", "The major characters, settings, etc.", "are usually introduced (or reintroduced) in each book.Books featuring Brown are subdivided into a number—usually ten or more—of (possibly interlinked) short stories, each of which presents a mystery.", "The mysteries are intended to be solved by the reader, thanks to the placement of a logical or factual inconsistency somewhere within the text.", "This is very similar to the layout of Donald Sobol's other book series, ''Two-Minute Mysteries''.", "Many of the mysteries involve Brown helping his father, the local police chief, solve a crime: Brown outwitting town bully Bugs Meany, the leader of a gang known as the Tigers; or Brown being aided by Sally Kimball, his partner, close friend, and bodyguard.", "Brown, his father, or Sally invariably solves the case by exposing this inconsistency, detailed in the \"Answers\" section in the back of the book." ], [ "Formula", "Often, these books follow a formula where the first chapter involves Brown solving a case at the dinner table for his father, the local police chief in the fictional seaside town of Idaville in an unspecified state.", "When Chief Brown barely tastes his meal, that is a cue he was handed a difficult case.", "He pulls out his casebook and goes over it with the family.", "Encyclopedia solves these cases by briefly closing his eyes while he thinks deeply, then asking a single question which directly leads to him finding the solution.The second mystery often begins in the Brown garage on Rover Avenue, where Encyclopedia has set up his own detective agency to help neighborhood children solve cases for \"25 cents per day, plus expenses - No case too small.\"", "This second case usually involves the town bully and mischief maker Bugs Meany, leader of a gang who call themselves the Tigers, who, after being foiled, will attempt revenge in the third mystery.In the third mystery, the plot involves Encyclopedia's partner, close friend, and bodyguard, Sally Kimball, the one person under 14 years of age to physically stand up to Bugs.", "She is the only reason neither Bugs nor any of his Tigers ever try to physically attack Encyclopedia.", "Encyclopedia tends to dislike anyone whom Sally has a crush on, possibly indicating that he has a crush on her.", "Also intelligent, Sally once attempted—in the first book of the series—to prove herself smarter than Encyclopedia by stumping him with a mystery of her own creation.", "Ironically, the contest was held at the Tigers' clubhouse, with Bugs and the others cheering him on.", "However, she was beaten in the contest (although Encyclopedia admitted that she almost tricked him), after which she became his friend.", "In subsequent storylines Bugs or his gang usually set up some sort of trap to get Encyclopedia or Sally in trouble.", "However, as in the previous story, they make a key mistake which Encyclopedia exposes.Later cases may find Encyclopedia assisting his father at a crime scene (rarely more serious than larceny, and Encyclopedia is always discreet when helping his father) or interacting with people around town, often exposing scams.", "One such example is a high school dropout and would-be con artist named Wilford Wiggins who spends time trying to dream up schemes to fleece kids out of their money.", "Like Bugs, his schemes have an inconsistency which Encyclopedia exposes.In some cases it is Sally and not Encyclopedia who figures it out because, as she tells Encyclopedia, \"You are a boy.\"", "In other words, she notices things that only a girl would find inconsistent.", "Sally further displays her intelligence in the various mysteries in that she often can deduce who committed the crime, or whether a certain person is lying, but she simply cannot always prove it." ], [ "Legacy", "The ''Encyclopedia Brown'' books have experienced some enduring popularity.In 1976, the Mystery Writers of America honored Sobol and his Encyclopedia Brown series with a special Edgar Award.Educators have used Encyclopedia Brown in classrooms to instruct students in skills such as writing reports.", "In 1986, the Society for Visual Education, Inc. published a filmstrip series with accompanying audio cassette tapes and workbooks for elementary and middle schools' use.", "Four Encyclopedia Brown stories were utilized: \"The Case of the Missing Statue\", \"The Case of the Happy Nephew\", \"The Case of the Kidnapped Pigs\", and \"The Case of the Marble Shooter\".", "According to WorldCat's library catalog listing, \"As super-sleuth Encyclopedia Brown solves four mysteries, he shows students how he fills out his reports, including selecting a topic, gathering information, taking notes, making an outline, and revising and editing.\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "===Comic strip===alt=From December 3, 1978, to September 20, 1980, ''Encyclopedia Brown'' was a daily and Sunday comic strip syndicated by Universal Press Syndicate.", "The artwork was done by Frank Bolle, and Donald J. Sobol was credited as the writer.", "When the strips were collected into books in the mid-1980s, the strip was credited to Elliot Caplin, based on Sobol's characters.", "The strips adapted Sobol stories, both ones that had originally been Encyclopedia Brown tales and ones that had been part of Sobol's syndicated ''Two-Minute Mysteries'' features.===TV series===A live action television series adaptation, also called ''Encyclopedia Brown'', ran on HBO starting in 1989.Scott Bremner played the title role, with Laura Bridge playing Sally.", "The series ran for eight episodes.", "It was produced by Howard David Deutsch and directed by Savage Steve Holland.", "Parts of the series were filmed in Provo, Utah.The series began with an hour-long special, \"The Case of the Missing Time Capsule\", and subsequent six episodes were 30 minutes long.#\"The Case of the Missing Time Capsule\" (hour long special first aired on March 2, 1989, to kick off series and aired over 200 times on HBO) \"Idaville is celebrating its 100th birthday by opening a time capsule left by the town founder.", "But before anyone can discover what riches it contains, the capsule is stolen!", "When E.B.", "and his friend Sally investigate, they find no shortage of suspects.#\"The Case of the Missing U.F.O.\"", "(Case #529) aired first on 3/9/90.Something eerie is going on in Idaville when a flying saucer and flashing lights appear in the night sky.", "Encyclopedia Brown and his side-kick Sally interrupt their relaxing camping getaway to brave the unknown and uncover the mystery of the U.F.O.#\"The Case of the Amazing Race Car\" (case #524) first aired 3/16/1990.Davey looks like a sure winner in a funny car derby, that is, until someone steals his car.", "Encyclopedia Brown steps in to solve the mystery.#\"The Case of the Ghostly Rider\" (case #525) aired 3/23/1990.The ghost of the WildCat Kid has returned to haunt Old Glennville, can EB and Sally with a little help from Bugs Meany save the day?#\"The Case of the Flaming Beauty Queen\" (case #932) first aired 6/5/1990.Encyclopedia Brown investigates who set the fires in the library and whether the case of the hidden money is a scam or not.#\"The Case of the Incredible Culpepper\" first aired 7/10/1990.This episode does not seem to have been released to VHS.", "The big Idaville magic show is spoiled when a mountain lion belonging to The Incredible Culpepper is stolen.", "E.B.", "and Sally are immediately on the case and identify several suspects.", "With their typical detective skills they soon solve the crime and return the lion to Culpepper.", "The magic show finally entertains all the good folks of the town- Thanks to Encyclopedia Brown.", ")#\"The Case of the Burglared Baseball Cards\" (case #523) first aired 9/1/1990.Encyclopedia looks into the late night theft of a priceless collection of baseball cards.#\"Encyclopedia Brown, The Boy Detective in One Minute Mysteries\" released straight to video (This includes 5 of the Encyclopedia Brown stories from the books, \"The Case of the Scattered Cards\", \"The Case of the Foot Warmer\", \"The Case of the Bitter Drink\", “The Case of the Civil War Sword\", and \"The Case of the Great Merko\".", "This was also released to VHS.", ")Many of these episodes were later released on VHS.===Film===In June 2013, Warner Bros. optioned the ''Encyclopedia Brown'' books into a feature film.", "Matt Johnson was in talks to write the movie.", "Roy Lee and Howard David Deutsch (producer of the 1989 ''Encyclopedia Brown'' TV series) and Jonathan Zakin were announced as producing." ], [ "Books", "The ''Encyclopedia Brown'' books, in order of publication (parentheses indicate numbers on original release cover art):# ''Encyclopedia Brown, Boy Detective'' (1963, illustrated by Leonard Shortall , 1982 reissue )# ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Secret Pitch'' (1965, illustrated by Leonard Shortall , reissued in 1976 as ''Encyclopedia Brown Strikes Again'', )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Finds the Clues'' (1966, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Gets His Man'' (1967, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Solves Them All'' (1968, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Keeps the Peace'' (1969, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Saves the Day'' (1970, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Tracks Them Down'' (1971, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Shows the Way'' (1972, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Case'' (1973, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Lends a Hand'' (1974, illustrated by Leonard Shortall , reissued as ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Exploding Plumbing and Other Mysteries'', )# ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Dead Eagles'' (1975, illustrated by Leonard Shortall )# ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Midnight Visitor'' (1977, )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Carries On'' (1980, )# ''Encyclopedia Brown Sets the Pace'' (1981, )# (15) ''Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Cake'' (1982, ) (Co-written with Glenn Andrews)# (16) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Mysterious Handprints'' (1985, )# (17) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Treasure Hunt'' (1988, )# (18) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Disgusting Sneakers'' (1990, )# (19) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Two Spies'' (1995, )# (20) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of Pablo's Nose'' (1996, )# (21) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Sleeping Dog'' (1998, )# (22) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Slippery Salamander'' (2000, )# (23) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Jumping Frogs'' (2003, )# (24) ''Encyclopedia Brown Cracks the Case'' (2007, )# (25) ''Encyclopedia Brown, Super Sleuth'' (2009, )# (26) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Secret UFOs'' (2010, )# (27) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Carnival Crime'' (2011, )# (28) ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Soccer Scheme'' (2012, )===Related works===*''Encyclopedia Brown's Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts'' (1979, )*''Encyclopedia Brown's First Book of Puzzles and Games'' (1980, ) (Note: Jim Razzi is listed as the author, with an acknowledgement of being based upon the Encyclopedia Brown series created by Donald J.", "Sobol.", ")*''Encyclopedia Brown's Second Book of Puzzles and Games'' (1980, ) (Note: Jim Razzi is listed as the author, with an acknowledgement of being based upon the Encyclopedia Brown series created by Donald J.", "Sobol.", ")*''Encyclopedia Brown's Third Book of Puzzles and Games'' (1981, ) (Note: Jim Razzi is listed as the author, with an acknowledgement of being based upon the Encyclopedia Brown series created by Donald J.", "Sobol.", ")*''Encyclopedia Brown's Fourth Book of Puzzles and Games'' (1981, ) (Note: Jim Razzi is listed as the author, with an acknowledgement of being based upon the Encyclopedia Brown series created by Donald J.", "Sobol.", ")*''Encyclopedia Brown's Second Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts'' (1981, )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Crimes'' (1983 )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Spies'' (1984 )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Sports'' (1984 )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Animals'' (1985, )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Third Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts'' (1985, )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Comic Strips #1'' (1985, ) (Note: This is a compilation of the \"Encyclopedia Brown\" newspaper comic strips.", "Elliot Caplin is listed as the author.", "Most of the comics are based on the Donald J. Sobol stories, but there are some original stories too.", ")*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Comic Strips #2'' (1985, ) (Note: This is a compilation of the \"Encyclopedia Brown\" newspaper comic strips.", "Elliot Caplin is listed as the author.", "Most of the comics are based on the Donald J. Sobol stories, but there are some original stories too.)", "*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Cars'' (1987, )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Outdoors'' (1988 )*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Strange But True Crimes'' (1992, )*''Encyclopedia Brown and his Best Cases Ever'' (2013, ) (Note: This book is a commemorative book released in celebration of Encyclopedia Brown's 50th.", "anniversary.", "The book contains a letter from Donald J. Sobol detailing the history of the book series and its creation, as well as 15 cases selected from the previously published books.", ")*The ''Book of Puzzles and Games'' books (four books in all) were sometimes included in ''Encyclopedia Brown'' box sets with the original Encyclopedia Brown mystery books by Sobol.", "*Encyclopedia Brown books have also been released in ebook format, as well as on compact disc and audio cassette tape." ], [ "Solve-It-Yourself Mystery Sweepstakes", "From January 15 to June 30, 1989, a special Solve-It-Yourself Mystery Sweepstakes was held in conjunction with the Encyclopedia Brown books and Bantam Books.", "In the back of specially marked copies of ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Treasure Hunt'', Sobol presented an unsolved mystery for the contestant to solve and submit an answer for a chance to win a prize.", "The mystery for the contest was called \"The Case of the Missing Birthday Gift\", wherein Encyclopedia had to solve the case of a stolen bicycle that was given as a birthday gift to Willie Grant on his tenth birthday.", "The Tigers make an appearance as the suspects in the case; Bugs Meany, Jack Beck, and Rocky Graham all show up at the Tigers' clubhouse.Contestants were allowed to enter as many times as they wished, provided they used a separate envelope for each entry.", "The sweepstakes was only available to US and Canada residents.", "No purchase was necessary, as one could either use the official form in the back of specially marked copies of ''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Treasure Hunt'' or send in a 3\" by 5\" index card with the solution and the contestant's contact information." ], [ "Parodies and tributes", "The satirical newspaper ''The Onion'' ran an article in 2003 titled \"Idaville Detective 'Encyclopedia' Brown Found Dead In Library Dumpster\", which stated that Encyclopedia Brown, now a middle-aged police detective, had been murdered.", "The article parodied the books' tendency to have crimes solved through knowledge of trivia, and ended with Bugs Meany, who was now police commissioner, stating that he had an alibi for the murder in that \"I was at the North Pole watching the penguins.\"", "(Penguins reside almost exclusively south of the Equator, and so there are none in the northern polar regions.", ")Ed Brubaker and Sean Phillips' ''Criminal: Last of the Innocent'' graphic novel features a reference to Encyclopedia Brown, with a grown-up analogue of Encyclopedia featured in the comic, as confirmed by Ed Brubaker himself.The comic strip ''FoxTrot'' ran a 2000 storyline where Jason and Marcus try their hand at being private investigators, out to solve a theft perpetrated on their girlfriends.", "One agency name they tried was \"Encyclopedias Brown And White\" (because Marcus is African-American and Jason is Caucasian), which became the title of ''FoxTrot'''s next book of comics.The protagonist of the 2020 film ''The Kid Detective'' is a former child prodigy detective, now an unsuccessful adult, living in a small town.In ''The Simpsons'' episode \"500 Keys\", the grave of Encyclopedia Brown is shown briefly next to those of Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys, to which Lisa comments \"Jeez, they're dropping like flies\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Encyclopedia Brown at KidsReads.com* Encyclopedia Brown at Thrilling Detective* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Empire" ], [ "Introduction", " Empires and colonies in 1920 following WWI An ''' empire''' is a political unit made up of several territories and peoples, \"usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries\".", "The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) exercises political control over the peripheries.", "Within an empire, different populations have different sets of rights and are governed differently.", "Narrowly defined, an empire is a sovereign state whose head of state is an emperor or empress; but not all states with aggregate territory under the rule of supreme authorities are called empires or are ruled by an emperor; nor have all self-described empires been accepted as such by contemporaries and historians (the Central African Empire, and some Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in early England being examples).There have been \"ancient and modern, centralized and decentralized, ultra-brutal and relatively benign\" empires.", "An important distinction has been between land empires made up solely of contiguous territories, such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Russian Empire; and those created by sea-power, which include territories that are remote from the 'home' country of the empire, such as the Carthaginian Empire or the British Empire.", "Aside from the more formal usage, the word ''empire'' can also refer colloquially to a large-scale business enterprise (e.g.", "a transnational corporation), a political organization controlled by a single individual (a political boss), or a group (political bosses).", "The concept of ''empire'' is associated with other such concepts as ''imperialism'', ''colonialism'', and ''globalization'', with imperialism referring to the creation and maintenance of unequal relationships between nations and not necessarily the policy of a state headed by an emperor or empress.", "''Empire'' is often used as a term to describe overpowering situations causing displeasure." ], [ "Definition", "An empire is an aggregate of many separate states or territories under a supreme ruler or oligarchy.", "This is in contrast to a federation, which is an extensive state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and peoples.", "An empire is a large polity which rules over territories outside of its original borders.Definitions of what physically and politically constitutes an empire vary.", "It might be a state affecting imperial policies or a particular political structure.", "Empires are typically formed from diverse ethnic, national, cultural, and religious components.", "'Empire' and 'colonialism' are used to refer to relationships between a powerful state or society versus a less powerful one; Michael W. Doyle has defined empire as \"effective control, whether formal or informal, of a subordinated society by an imperial society\".Tom Nairn and Paul James define empires as polities that \"extend relations of power across territorial spaces over which they have no prior or given legal sovereignty, and where, in one or more of the domains of economics, politics, and culture, they gain some measure of extensive hegemony over those spaces to extract or accrue value\".", "Rein Taagepera has defined an empire as \"any relatively large sovereign political entity whose components are not sovereign\".The terrestrial empire's maritime analogue is the thalassocracy, an empire composed of islands and coasts which are accessible to its terrestrial homeland, such as the Athenian-dominated Delian League.Furthermore, empires can expand by both land and sea.", "Stephen Howe notes that empires by land can be characterized by expansion over terrain, \"extending directly outwards from the original frontier\" while an empire by sea can be characterized by colonial expansion and empire building \"by an increasingly powerful navy\".However, sometimes an empire is only a semantic construction, such as when a ruler assumes the title of \"emperor\".", "That polity over which the ruler reigns logically becomes an \"empire\", despite having no additional territory or hegemony.", "Examples of this form of empire are the Central African Empire, Mexican Empire, or the Korean Empire proclaimed in 1897 when Korea, far from gaining new territory, was on the verge of being annexed by the Empire of Japan, one of the last to use the name officially.", "Among the last states in the 20th century known as empires in this sense were the Central African Empire, Ethiopia, Vietnam, Manchukuo, Russia, Germany, and Korea.Scholars distinguish empires from nation-states.", "In an empire, there is a hierarchy whereby one group of people (usually, the metropole) has command over other groups of people, and there is a hierarchy of rights and prestige for different groups of people.", "Josep Colomer distinguished between empires and nation-states in the following way:# Empires were vastly larger than states# Empires lacked fixed or permanent boundaries whereas a state had fixed boundaries# Empires had a \"compound of diverse groups and territorial units with asymmetric links with the center\" whereas a state had \"supreme authority over a territory and population\"# Empires had multi-level, overlapping jurisdictions whereas a state sought monopoly and homogenization" ], [ "Characteristics", "Empires originated as different types of states, although they commonly began as powerful monarchies.", "Ideas about empires have changed over time, ranging from public approval to universal distaste.", "Empires are built out of separate units with some kind of diversity – ethnic, national, cultural, religious – and imply at least some inequality between the rulers and the ruled.", "Without this inequality, the system would be seen as a commonwealth.", "Throughout history, the major powers of the world constantly seek to conquer other parts of the world.", "Imperialism is the idea of a major power controlling another nation or land with the intentions to use the native people and resources to help the mother country in any way possible.", "Many empires were the result of military conquest, incorporating the vanquished states into a political union, but imperial hegemony can be established in other ways.", "The Athenian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the British Empire developed at least in part under elective auspices.", "The Empire of Brazil declared itself an empire after separating from the Portuguese Empire in 1822.France has twice transitioned from being called the French Republic to being called the French Empire while it retained an overseas empire.Europeans began applying the designation of \"empire\" to non-European monarchies, such as the Qing Empire and the Mughal Empire, as well as the Maratha Empire, eventually leading to the looser denotations applicable to any political structure meeting the criteria of \"imperium\".", "Some monarchies styled themselves as having greater size, scope, and power than the territorial, politico-military, and economic facts support.", "As a consequence, some monarchs assumed the title of \"emperor\" (or its corresponding translation, ''tsar'', ''empereur'', ''kaiser'', ''shah'' etc.)", "and renamed their states as \"The Empire of ...\".", "Empires were seen as an expanding power, administration, ideas and beliefs followed by cultural habits from place to place.", "Some empires tended to impose their culture on the subject states to strengthen the imperial structure; others opted for multicultural and cosmopolitan policies.", "Cultures generated by empires could have notable effects that outlasted the empire itself.", "Most histories of empires have been hostile, especially if the authors were promoting nationalism.", "Stephen Howe, although himself hostile, listed positive qualities: the guaranteed stability, security, and legal order for their subjects.", "They tried to minimize ethnic and religious antagonism inside the empire.", "The aristocracies that ruled them were often more cosmopolitan and broad-minded than their nationalistic successors.There are two main ways to establish and maintain an imperial political structure: (i) as a territorial empire of direct conquest and control with force or (ii) as a coercive, hegemonic empire of indirect conquest and control with power.", "The former method provides greater tribute and direct political control, yet limits further expansion because it absorbs military forces to fixed garrisons.", "The latter method provides less tribute and indirect control, but avails military forces for further expansion.", "Territorial empires (e.g.", "the Macedonian Empire and Byzantine Empire) tend to be contiguous areas.", "The term, on occasion, has been applied to maritime republics or thalassocracies (e.g.", "the Athenian and British empires) with looser structures and more scattered territories, often consisting of many islands and other forms of possessions which required the creation and maintenance of a powerful navy.", "Empires such as the Holy Roman Empire also came together by electing the emperor with votes from member realms through the Imperial election." ], [ "History of imperialism", "===Bronze and Iron Age empires===Stephen Howe writes that with the exception of the Roman, Chinese and \"perhaps ancient Egyptian states\", early empires seldom survived the death of their founder and were usually limited in scope to conquest and collection of tribute, having little impact on the everyday lives of their subjects.With the exception of Rome, the periods of dissolution following imperial falls were equally short.", "Successor states seldom outlived their founders and disappeared in the next and often larger empire.", "Some empires, like the Neo-Babylonian, Median and Lydian were outright conquered by a larger empire.", "The historical pattern was not a simple rise-and-fall cycle; rather it was rise, fall, and greater rise, or as Raoul Naroll put it, \"expanding pulsation.", "\"Empires were limited in scope to conquest, as Howe observed, but conquest is a considerable scope.", "Many fought to the death to avoid it or to be liberated from it.", "Imperial conquests and attempts of conquest significantly contributed to the list of wars by death toll.", "The imperial impact on subjects can be regarded as \"little,\" but only on those subjects who survived the imperial conquest and rule.", "We cannot ask the inhabitants of Carthage and Masada, for example, whether empire had little impact on their lives, we seldom hear the voices of subject peoples because history is mostly written by winners.", "But one rich primary source of the subject population is the Hebrew Prophetic books.", "The hatred towards the ruling empires expressed in this source makes impression of an impact more serious than estimated by Howe.", "A classical writer and adherent of empire, Orosius explicitly preferred to avoid the views of subject populations.", "And another classical Roman patriot, Lucan confessed that \"words cannot express how bitterly we are hated\" by subject peoples.The earliest known empire appeared in southern Egypt sometime around 3200 BC.", "Southern Egypt was divided by three kingdoms each centered on a powerful city.", "Hierapolis conquered the other two cities over two centuries, and later grew into the country of Egypt.", "The Akkadian Empire, established by Sargon of Akkad (24th century BC), was an early all-Mesopotamian empire which spread into Anatolia, the Levant and Ancient Iran.", "This imperial achievement was repeated by Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria and Hammurabi of Babylon in the 19th and 18th centuries BC.", "In the 15th century BC, the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, ruled by Thutmose III, was ancient Africa's major force upon incorporating Nubia and the ancient city-states of the Levant.", "in China rose the Shang Empire which was succeeded by the Zhou Empire .", "Both equalled or surpassed in territory their contemporary Near Eastern empires such as the Middle Assyrian Empire, Hittite Empire, Egyptian Empire and those of the Mitanni and Elamites.", "The Zhou Empire dissolved in 770 BC into feudal multi-state system which lasted for five and a half centuries until the universal conquest of Qin in 221 BC.", "The first empire comparable to Rome in organization was the Neo-Assyrian Empire (916–612 BC).", "The Median Empire was the first empire within the territory of Persia.", "By the 6th century BC, after having allied with the Babylonians, Scythians and Cimmerians to defeat the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Medes were able to establish their own empire, which was the largest of its day and lasted for about sixty years.===Classical period===The Axial Age (mid-First Millennium BC) witnessed unprecedented imperial expansion in the Indo-Mediterranean region and China.", "The successful and extensive Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), also known as the first Persian Empire, covered Mesopotamia, Egypt, parts of Greece, Thrace, the Middle East, much of Central Asia, and North-Western India.", "It is considered the first great empire in history or the first \"world empire\".", "It was overthrown and replaced by the short-lived empire of Alexander the Great.", "His Empire was succeeded by three Empires ruled by the Diadochi—the Seleucid, Ptolemaic, and Macedonian, which, despite being independent, are called the \"Hellenistic Empire\" by virtue of their similarities in culture and administration.Meanwhile, in the western Mediterranean the Empires of Carthage and Rome began their rise.", "Having decisively defeated Carthage in 202 BC, Rome defeated Macedonia in 200 BC and the Seleucids in 190–189 BC to establish an all-Mediterranean Empire.", "The Seleucid Empire broke apart and its former eastern part was absorbed by the Parthian Empire.", "In 30 BC Rome annexed Ptolemaic Egypt.In India during the Axial Age appeared the Maurya Empire—a geographically extensive and powerful empire, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC.", "The empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya through the help of Chanakya, who rapidly expanded his power westward across central and western India, taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers following the withdrawal by Alexander the Great.", "By 320 BC, the Maurya Empire had fully occupied northwestern India as well as defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.", "Under Emperor Ashoka the Great, the Maurya Empire became the first Indian empire to conquer the whole Indian Peninsula — an achievement repeated only twice, by the Gupta and Mughal Empires.", "In the reign of Ashoka Buddhism spread to become the dominant religion in many parts of the ancient India.In 221 BC, China became an empire when the State of Qin ended the chaotic Warring States period through its conquest of the other six states and proclaimed the Qin Empire (221–207 BC).", "The Qin Empire is known for the construction of the Great Wall of China and the Terracotta Army, as well as the standardization of currency, weights, measures and writing system.", "It laid the foundation for China's first golden age, the Han Empire (202 BC–AD 9, AD 25–220).", "The Han Empire expanded into Central Asia and established trade through the Silk Road.", "Confucianism was, for the first time, adopted as an official state ideology.", "During the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han, the Xiongnu were pacified.", "By this time, only four empires stretched between the Pacific and the Atlantic: the Han Empire of China, the Kushan Empire, the Parthian Empire of Persia, and the Roman Empire.", "The collapse of the Han Empire in AD 220 saw China fragmented into the Three Kingdoms, only to be unified once again by the Jin Empire (AD 266–420).", "The relative weakness of the Jin Empire plunged China into political disunity that would last from AD 304 to AD 589 when the Sui Empire (AD 581–618) reunited China.Map showing the four empires of Eurasia in the 2nd century ADThe Romans were the first people to invent and embody the concept of empire in their two mandates: to wage war and to make and execute laws.", "They were the most extensive Western empire until the early modern period, and left a lasting impact on European society.", "Many languages, cultural values, religious institutions, political divisions, urban centers, and legal systems can trace their origins to the Roman Empire.", "The Roman Empire governed and rested on exploitative actions.", "They took slaves and money from the peripheries to support the imperial center.", "However, the absolute reliance on conquered peoples to carry out the empire's fortune, sustain wealth, and fight wars would ultimately lead to the collapse of the Roman Empire.", "The Romans were strong believers in what they called their \"civilizing mission\".", "This term was legitimized and justified by writers like Cicero who wrote that only under Roman rule could the world flourish and prosper.", "This ideology, that was envisioned to bring a new world order, was eventually spread across the Mediterranean world and beyond.", "People started to build houses like Romans, eat the same food, wear the same clothes and engage in the same games.", "Even rights of citizenship and authority to rule were granted to people not born within Roman territory.The Latin word ''imperium'', referring to a magistrate's power to command, gradually assumed the meaning \"The territory in which a magistrate can effectively enforce his commands\", while the term \"''imperator''\" was originally an honorific meaning \"commander\".", "The title was given to generals who were victorious in battle.", "Thus, an \"empire\" may include regions that are not legally within the territory of a state, but are under either direct or indirect control of that state, such as a colony, client state, or protectorate.", "Although historians use the terms \"Republican Period\" and \"Imperial Period\" to identify the periods of Roman history before and after absolute power was assumed by Augustus, the Romans themselves continued to refer to their government as a republic, and during the Republican Period, the territories controlled by the republic were referred to as \"''Imperium Romanum''\".", "The emperor's actual legal power derived from holding the office of \"consul\", but he was traditionally honored with the titles of ''imperator'' (commander) and ''princeps'' (first man or, chief).", "Later, these terms came to have legal significance in their own right; an army calling their general \"''imperator''\" was a direct challenge to the authority of the current emperor.The legal systems of France and its former colonies are strongly influenced by Roman law.", "Similarly, the United States was founded on a model inspired by the Roman Republic, with upper and lower legislative assemblies, and executive power vested in a single individual, the president.", "The president, as \"commander-in-chief\" of the armed forces, reflects the ancient Roman titles ''imperator princeps''.", "The Roman Catholic Church, founded in the early Imperial Period, spread across Europe, first by the activities of Christian evangelists, and later by official imperial promulgation.===Post-classical period===In Western Asia, the term \"Persian Empire\" came to denote the Iranian imperial states established at different historical periods of pre–Islamic and post–Islamic Persia.In East Asia, various Chinese empires dominated the political, economic and cultural landscapes during this era, the most powerful of which was probably the Tang Empire (618–690, 705–907).", "Other influential Chinese empires during the post-classical period include the Sui Empire (581–618), the Great Liao Empire, the Song Empire, the Western Xia Empire (1038–1227), the Great Jin Empire (1115–1234), the Western Liao Empire (1124–1218), the Great Yuan Empire (1271–1368), and the Great Ming Empire (1368–1644).", "During this period, Japan and Korea underwent voluntary Sinicization.", "The Sui, Tang and Song empires had the world's largest economy and were the most technologically advanced during their time; the Great Yuan Empire was the world's ninth largest empire by total land area; while the Great Ming Empire is famous for the seven maritime expeditions led by Zheng He.The Ajuran Sultanate was a Somali empire in the medieval times that dominated the Indian Ocean trade.", "It was a Somali Muslim sultanate that ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa in the Middle Ages.", "Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars.", "Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from many kingdoms and empires in East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe, Middle East, North Africa and East Africa.In the 7th century, Maritime Southeast Asia witnessed the rise of a Buddhist thallasocracy, the Srivijaya Empire, which thrived for 600 years and was succeeded by the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire that ruled from the 13th to 15th centuries.", "In the Southeast Asian mainland, the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire was centered in the city of Angkor and flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries.", "Following the demise of the Khmer Empire, the Siamese Empire flourished alongside the Burmese and Lan Chang Empires from the 13th through the 18th centuries.In Southeastern and Eastern Europe, during 917, the Eastern Roman Empire, sometimes called the Byzantine Empire, was forced to recognize the Imperial title of Bulgarian ruler Simeon the Great, who were then called Tsar, the first ruler to hold that precise imperial title.", "The Bulgarian Empire, established in the region in 680-681, remained a major power in Southeast Europe until its fall in the late 14th century.", "Bulgaria gradually reached its cultural and territorial apogee in the 9th century and early 10th century under Prince Boris I and Simeon I, when its early Christianization in 864 allowed it to develop into the cultural and literary center of Slavic Europe, as well as one of the largest states in Europe, thus the period is considered the Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture.", "Major events included the development of the Cyrillic script at the Preslav Literary School, declared official in 893, and the establishment of the liturgy in Old Church Slavonic, also called Old Bulgarian.At the time, in the Medieval West, the title \"empire\" had a specific technical meaning that was exclusively applied to states that considered themselves the heirs and successors of the Roman Empire.", "Among these were the \"Byzantine Empire\", which was the actual continuation of the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire, the Carolingian Empire, the largely Germanic Holy Roman Empire, and the Russian Empire.", "Yet, these states did not always fit the geographic, political, or military profiles of empires in the modern sense of the word.", "To legitimise their ''imperium'', these states directly claimed the title of ''Empire'' from Rome.", "The ''sacrum Romanum imperium'' (Holy Roman Empire), which lasted from 800 to 1806, claimed to have exclusively comprehended Christian principalities, and was only nominally a discrete imperial state.", "The Holy Roman Empire was not always centrally-governed, as it had neither core nor peripheral territories, and was not governed by a central, politico-military elite.", "Hence, Voltaire's remark that the Holy Roman Empire \"was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire\" is accurate to the degree that it ignores German rule over Italian, French, Provençal, Polish, Flemish, Dutch, and Bohemian populations, and the efforts of the ninth-century Holy Roman Emperors (i.e., the Ottonians) to establish central control.", "Voltaire's \"nor an empire\" observation applies to its late period.In 1204, after the Fourth Crusade conquered Constantinople, the crusaders established a Latin Empire (1204–1261) in that city, while the defeated Byzantine Empire's descendants established two smaller, short-lived empires in Asia Minor: the Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261) and the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461).Constantinople was retaken in 1261 by the Byzantine successor state centered in Nicaea, re-establishing the Byzantine Empire until 1453, by which time the Turkish-Muslim Ottoman Empire (ca.", "1300–1918), had conquered most of the region.", "The Ottoman Empire was a successor of the Abbasid Empire and it was the most powerful empire to succeed the Abbasi empires at the time, as well as one of the most powerful empires in the world.", "They became the successors after the Abbasid Empire fell from the Mongols (Hülegü Khan).", "The Ottoman Empire centered on modern day Turkey, dominated the eastern Mediterranean, overthrew the Byzantine Empire to claim Constantinople and it would start battering at Austria and Malta, which were countries that were key to central and to south-west Europe respectively — mainly for their geographical location.", "The reason these occurrences of batterings were so important was because the Ottomans were Muslim, and the rest of Europe was Christian, so there was a sense of religious fighting going on.", "This was not just a rivalry of East and West but a rivalry between Christians and Muslims.", "Both the Christians and Muslims had alliances with other countries, and they had problems in them as well.", "The flows of trade and of cultural influences across the supposed great divide never ceased, so the countries never stopped bartering with each other.", "These epochal clashes between civilizations profoundly shaped many people's thinking back then, and continues to do so in the present day.", "Modern hatred against Muslim communities in South-Eastern Europe, mainly in Bosnia and Kosovo, has often been articulated in terms of seeing them as unwelcome residues of this imperialism: in short, as Turks.", "Moreover, Eastern Orthodox imperialism was not re-established until the coronation of Ivan the Terrible as Emperor of Russia in 1547.Likewise, with the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), the Austrian Empire (1804–1867) emerged reconstituted as the Empire of Austria-Hungary (1867–1918), having \"inherited\" the imperium of Central and Western Europe from the losers of said wars.In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan expanded the Mongol Empire to be the largest contiguous empire in the world.", "However, within two generations, the empire was separated into four discrete khanates under Genghis Khan's grandsons.", "One of them, Kublai Khan, conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty with the imperial capital at Beijing.", "One family ruled the whole Eurasian land mass from the Pacific to the Adriatic and Baltic Seas.", "The emergence of the Pax Mongolica had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia.", "The Safavid Empire of Iran was also founded.===Early Modern period===The Islamic gunpowder empires started to develop from the 15th century.", "In the Indian subcontinent, the Delhi Sultanate conquered most of the Indian peninsula and spread Islam across it.", "It later disintegrated with the establishment of the Bengal, Gujarat, and Bahmani Sultanate.", "In the 15th century, the Mughal Empire was founded by Timur and Genghis Khan's direct descendant Babur.", "His successors such Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan extended the empire.", "In the 17th century, Aurangzeb expanded the Mughal Empire, controlling most of the South Asia through Sharia, which became the world's largest economy and leading manufacturing power with a nominal GDP that valued a quarter of world GDP, superior than the combination of Europe's GDP.", "It has been estimated that the Mughal emperors controlled an unprecedented one-fourth of the world's entire economy and was home to one-fourth of the world's population at the time.", "After the death of Aurangzeb, which marks the end of the medieval India and the beginning of European invasion in India, the empire was weakened by Nader Shah's invasion.The Mysore Empire was soon established by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, who allied with Napoleon Bonaparte.", "Other independent empires were also established, such as those ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal and Nizam of Hyderabad.In the pre-Columbian Americas, two Empires were prominent—the Azteca in Mesoamerica and Inca in Peru.", "Both existed for several generations before the arrival of the Europeans.", "Inca had gradually conquered the whole of the settled Andean world as far south as today Santiago in Chile.In Oceania, the Tonga Empire was a lonely empire that existed from the Late Middle Ages to the Modern period.===Colonial empires===All areas of the world that were once part of the Portuguese Empire.", "The Portuguese established in the early 16th century together with the Spanish Empire the first global empire and trade network.In the 15th century, Castile (Spain) landing in the so-called \"New World\" (first, the Americas, and later Australia), along with Portuguese travels around the Cape of Good Hope and along the coast of Africa bordering the southeast Indian Ocean, proved ripe opportunities for the continent's Renaissance-era monarchies to establish colonial empires like those of the ancient Romans and Greeks.", "In the Old World, colonial imperialism was attempted and established on the Canary Islands and Ireland.", "These conquered lands and people became ''de jure'' subordinates of the empire, rather than ''de facto'' imperial territories and subjects.", "Such subjugation often elicited \"client-state\" resentment that the empire unwisely ignored, leading to the collapse of the European colonial imperial system in the late 19th through the mid-20th century.", "Portuguese discovery of Newfoundland in the New World gave way to many expeditions led by England (later Britain), Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic.", "In the 18th century, the Spanish Empire was at its height because of the great mass of goods taken from conquered territory in the Americas (nowadays Mexico, parts of the United States, the Caribbean, most of Central America, and South America) and the Philippines.===Modern period===The British established their first empire (1583–1783) in North America by colonising lands that made up British America, including parts of Canada, the Caribbean and the Thirteen Colonies.", "In 1776, the Continental Congress of the Thirteen Colonies declared itself independent from the British Empire, thus beginning the American Revolution.", "Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacific, and later Africa, with subsequent exploration and conquests leading to the rise of the Second British Empire (1783–1815), which was followed by the Industrial Revolution and Britain's Imperial Century (1815–1914).", "It became the largest empire in world history, encompassing one quarter of the world's land area and one fifth of its population.", "The impacts of this period are still prominent in the current age \"including widespread use of the English language, belief in Protestant religion, economic globalization, modern precepts of law and order, and representative democracy.", "\"The Great Qing Empire of China (1636–1912) was the fifth largest empire in world history by total land area, and laid the foundation for the modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China.", "Apart from having direct control over much of East Asia, the empire also exerted domination over other states through the Chinese tributary system.", "The multiethnic and multicultural nature of the Great Qing Empire was crucial to the subsequent birth of the nationalistic concept of ''zhonghua minzu''.", "The empire reached its peak during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, after which the empire entered a period of prolonged decline, culminating in its collapse as a result of the Xinhai Revolution.The Ashanti Empire (or Confederacy), also Asanteman (1701–1896), was a West African state of the Ashanti, the Akan people of the Ashanti Region, Akanland in modern-day Ghana.", "The Ashanti (or Asante) were a powerful, militaristic and highly disciplined people in West Africa.", "Their military power, which came from effective strategy and an early adoption of European firearms, created an empire that stretched from central Akanland (in modern-day Ghana) to present day Benin and Ivory Coast, bordered by the Dagomba kingdom to the north and Dahomey to the east.", "Due to the empire's military prowess, sophisticated hierarchy, social stratification and culture, the Ashanti empire had one of the largest historiographies of any indigenous Sub-Saharan African political entity.The Sikh Empire (1799–1846) was established in the Punjab region of India.", "The empire collapsed when its founder, Ranjit Singh, died and its army fell to the British.", "During the same period, the Maratha Empire (also known as the Maratha Confederacy) was a Hindu state located in present-day India.", "It existed from 1674 to 1818, and at its peak, the empire's territories covered much of Southern Asia.", "The empire was founded and consolidated by Shivaji.", "After the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, it expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas.", "In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat, which halted the expansion of the empire.", "Later, the empire was divided into a confederacy of states which, in 1818, were lost to the British during the Anglo-Maratha wars.France was a dominant empire possessing many colonies in various locations around the world.", "During Louis XIV's long reign, from 1643 to 1715, France was the leading European power as Europe's most populous, richest and powerful country.", "The Empire of the French (1804–1814), also known as the Greater French Empire or First French Empire, but more commonly known as the Napoleonic Empire, was also the dominant power of much of continental Europe and, it ruled over 90 million people and was the sole power in Europe if not the world as Britain was the only main rival during the early 19th Century.", "From the 16th to the 17th centuries, the First French colonial empire stretched from a total area at its peak in 1680 to over 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi), the second largest empire in the world at the time behind only the Spanish Empire.", "It had many possesstions around the world, mainly in the Americas, Asia and Africa.", "At its peak in 1750, French India had an area of 1.5 million km2 and a totaled population of 100 million people and was the most populous colony under French rule.", "In the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonial empire of France was the second largest in the world behind the British Empire.", "The French colonial empire extended over of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s with a totaled population of 150 million people.", "Including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached at the time, which is 10.0% of the Earth's total land area.", "The total area of the French colonial empire, with the first (mainly in the Americas and Asia) and second (mainly in Africa and Asia), the French colonial empires combined, reached 24,000,000 km2 (9,300,000 sq mi), the second largest in the world (the first being the British Empire).The Empire of Brazil (1822–1889) was the only South American modern monarchy, established by the heir of the Portuguese Empire as an independent nation eventually became an emerging international power.", "The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically diverse.", "In 1889 the monarchy was overthrown in a sudden coup d'état led by a clique of military leaders whose goal was the formation of a republic.The German Empire (1871–1918), another \"heir to the Holy Roman Empire\", arose in 1871." ], [ "Fall of empires", "=== Roman Empire ===The fall of the western half of the Roman Empire is seen as one of the most pivotal points in all of human history.", "This event traditionally marks the transition from classical civilization to the birth of Europe.", "The Roman Empire started to decline at the end of the reign of the last of the Five Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius in 161–180 A.D.", "There is still a debate over the cause of the fall of one of the largest empires in history.", "Piganiol argues that the Roman Empire under its authority can be described as \"a period of terror\", holding its imperial system accountable for its failure.", "Another theory blames the rise of Christianity as the cause, arguing that the spread of certain Christian ideals caused internal weakness of the military and state.", "In the book ''The Fall of the Roman Empire'', by Peter Heather, he contends that there are many factors, including issues of money and manpower, which produce military limitations and culminate in the Roman army's inability to effectively repel invading barbarians at the frontier.", "The Western Roman economy was already stretched to its limit in the 4th and 5th Centuries C.E.", "due to continual conflict and loss of territory which, in turn, generated loss of revenue from the tax base.", "There was also the looming presence of the Persians which, at any time, took a large percentage of the fighting force's attention.", "At the same time the Huns, a nomadic warrior people from the steppes of Asia, are also putting extreme pressure on the German tribes outside of the Roman frontier, which gave the German tribes no other choice, geographically, but to move into Roman territory.", "At this point, without increased funding, the Roman army could no longer effectively defend its borders against major waves of Germanic tribes.", "This inability is illustrated by the crushing defeat at Adrianople in 378 C.E.", "and, later, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 C.E.===Transition from empire===In time, an empire may change from one political entity to another.", "For example, the Holy Roman Empire, a German re-constitution of the Roman Empire, metamorphosed into various political structures (i.e., federalism), and eventually, under Habsburg rule, re-constituted itself in 1804 as the Austrian Empire, an empire of much different politics and scope, which in turn became the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867.The Roman Empire, perennially reborn, also lived on as the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) – temporarily splitting into the Latin Empire, the Empire of Nicaea and the Empire of Trebizond before its remaining territory and centre became part of the Ottoman Empire.", "A similarly persistent concept of empire saw the Mongol Empire become the Khanate of the Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire of China, and the Ilkhanate before resurrection as the Timurid Empire and as the Mughal Empire.", "After 1945 the Empire of Japan retained its Emperor but lost its colonial possessions and became the State of Japan.", "Despite the semantic reference to imperial power, Japan is a ''de jure'' constitutional monarchy, with a homogeneous population of 127 million people that is 98.5 percent ethnic Japanese, making it one of the largest nation-states.An autocratic empire can become a republic (e.g., the Central African Empire in 1979), or it can become a republic with its imperial dominions reduced to a core territory (e.g., Weimar Germany shorn of the German colonial empire (1918–1919), or the Ottoman Empire (1918–1923)).", "The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after 1918 provides an example of a multi-ethnic superstate broken into constituent nation-oriented states: the republics, kingdoms, and provinces of Austria, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czechoslovakia, Ruthenia, Galicia, ''et al''.", "In the aftermath of World War I the Russian Empire also broke up and became reduced to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) before re-forming as the USSR (1922–1991) – sometimes seen as the core of a Soviet Empire.", "The latter also disintegrated in 1989-91.After the Second World War (1939–1945), the deconstruction of colonial empires quickened and became commonly known as decolonisation.", "The British Empire evolved into a loose, multinational Commonwealth of Nations, while the French colonial empire metamorphosed to a Francophone commonwealth.", "The same process happened to the Portuguese Empire, which evolved into a Lusophone commonwealth, and to the former territories of the extinct Spanish Empire, which alongside the Lusophone countries of Portugal and Brazil, created an Ibero-American commowealth.", "France returned the French territory of Kwang-Chou-Wan to China in 1946.The British gave Hong Kong back to China in 1997 after 150 years of rule.", "The Portuguese territory of Macau reverted to China in 1999.Macau and Hong Kong did not become part of the provincial structure of China; they have autonomous systems of government as Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China.France still governs overseas territories (French Guiana, Martinique, Réunion, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Saint Martin, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, Guadeloupe, French Southern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF), Wallis and Futuna, Saint Barthélemy, and Mayotte), and exerts hegemony in Francafrique (\"French Africa\"; 29 francophone countries such as Chad, Rwanda, etc.).", "Fourteen British Overseas Territories remain under British sovereignty.", "Fifteen countries of the Commonwealth of Nations share their head of state, King Charles III, as Commonwealth realms." ], [ "Contemporary usage", "===United States of America===Contemporaneously, the concept of ''empire'' is politically valid, yet is not always used in the traditional sense.", "One of widely discussed cases is the United States.", "Characterizing aspects of the US in regards to its territorial expansion, foreign policy, and its international behavior as \"American Empire\" is common.", "The term \"American Empire\" refers to the United States' cultural ideologies and foreign policy strategies.", "The term is most commonly used to describe the U.S.'s status since the 20th century, but it can also be applied to the United States' world standing before the rise of nationalism in the 20th century.", "The US itself was at one point a colony in the British Empire.", "However, founding fathers such as George Washington noted after the Revolution that the US was an empire in its infancy, and others like Thomas Jefferson agreed, describing the constitution as the perfect foundation for an \"extensive Empire\".", "Jefferson in the 1780s while awaiting the fall of the Spanish empire, said: \"till our population can be sufficiently advanced to gain it from them piece by piece\".Even so, the ideology that the US was founded on anti-imperialist principles has prevented many from acknowledging America's status as an empire.", "This active rejection of imperialist status is not limited to high-ranking government officials, as it has been ingrained in American society throughout its entire history.", "As David Ludden explains, \"journalists, scholars, teachers, students, analysts, and politicians prefer to depict the U.S. as a nation pursuing its own interests and ideals\".", "This often results in imperialist endeavors being presented as measures taken to enhance state security.", "Ludden explains this phenomenon with the concept of \"ideological blinders\", which he says prevent American citizens from realizing the true nature of America's current systems and strategies.", "These \"ideological blinders\" that people wear have resulted in an \"invisible\" American empire of which most American citizens are unaware.", "Besides its anti-imperialist principles, the United States is not traditionally recognized as an empire, because the U.S. adopted a different political system from those that previous empires had used.Despite the anti-imperial ideology and systematic differences, the political objectives and strategies of the United States government have been quite similar to those of previous empires.", "Throughout the 19th century, the United States government attempted to expand its territory by any means necessary.", "Regardless of the supposed motivation for this constant expansion, all of these land acquisitions were carried out by imperialistic means.", "This was done by financial means in some cases, and by military force in others.", "Most notably, the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the Texas Annexation (1845), and the Mexican Cession (1848) highlight the imperialistic goals of the United States during this \"modern period\" of imperialism.", "The U.S. government has stopped adding additional territories, where they permanently and politically take over since the early 20th century, and instead have established 800 military bases as their outposts.", "With this overt but subtile military control of other countries, scholars consider U.S. foreign policy strategies to be imperialistic.", "Academic Krishna Kumar argues that the distinct principles of nationalism and imperialism may result in common practice; that is, the pursuit of nationalism can often coincide with the pursuit of imperialism in terms of strategy and decision making.", "Stuart Creighton Miller posits that the public's sense of innocence about Realpolitik (politics based on practical considerations, rather than ideals) impacts popular recognition of US imperial conduct since it governed other countries via surrogates.", "These surrogates were domestically-weak, right-wing governments that would collapse without US support.", "Former President G. W. Bush's Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld, said: \"We don't seek empires.", "We're not imperialistic; we never have been.\"", "This was said in the context of the international opposition to the Iraq War led by the United States in manner widely regarded as imperial.", "In his book review of ''Empire'' (2000) by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Mehmet Akif Okur posits that since the September 11 attacks in the United States, the international relations determining the world's balance of power (political, economic, military) have been altered.", "With the 2003 invasion of Iraq underway, historian Sidney Lens argued that from its inception, the US has used every means available to dominate foreign peoples and states.", "The same time, Eliot A. Cohen suggested: \"The Age of Empire may indeed have ended, but then an age of American hegemony has begun, regardless of what one calls it.\"", "Some scholars did not bother how to call it: \"When it walks like a duck, talks like a duck, it's a duck.", "\"===European Union===Mehmet Akif Okur finds trends in political science that perceive the contemporary world's order via the re-territorialization of ''political space'', the re-emergence of ''classical imperialist practices'' (such as the duality between those who are \"inside\" and those who are \"outside\"), the deliberate weakening of international organizations, the restructured international economy, economic nationalism, the expanded arming of most countries, the proliferation of nuclear weapon capabilities and the politics of identity emphasizing a state's ''subjective'' perception of its place in the world, as a nation and as a civilization.", "These changes constitute the \"Age of Nation Empires\".", "Nation-empire regionalism claims sovereignty over their respective (regional) political (social, economic, ideologic), cultural, and military spheres and denotes the return of geopolitical power from ''global'' power blocs to ''regional'' power blocs.", "The European Union is one such power bloc.Since the European Union was formed as a polity in 1993, it has established its own currency, its own citizenship, established discrete military forces, and exercises its limited hegemony in the Mediterranean, eastern parts of Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia.", "The big size and high development index of the EU economy often has the ability to influence global trade regulations in its favor.", "The political scientist Jan Zielonka suggests that this behavior is imperial because it coerces its neighbouring countries into adopting its ''European'' economic, legal, and political structures.", "Tony Benn, a left-wing Labour Party MP of the United Kingdom, opposed the European integration policies of the European Union by saying, \"I think they're (the European Union) building an empire there, they want us (the United Kingdom) to be a part of their empire and I don't want that.", "\"=== Russia ===In the aftermath of the annexation of Crimea, political scientist Agnia Grigas argued that Moscow pursues the policy of \"reimperialization.\"", "Two days after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Historian specializing on empires, Niall Ferguson, interpreted the policy of Putin as an attempt to bring back the tsarist Russian Empire.", "By this time, the \"neo-imperialism,\" or \"neo-imperial ambitions\" of Russia became widely claimed.", "When Vladimir Putin denies the reality of the Ukrainian state, says another historian of empires Timothy Snyder, he is speaking the familiar language of empire.", "For five hundred years, European conquerors saw themselves as actors with purpose, and the colonized as instruments to realize the imperial vision.Vladimir Putin himself used to state: \"For Russia to survive, it must remain an empire.\"", "In June 2022, on the 350 anniversary of the birth of the 18th-century Russian tsar Peter the Great, Putin has compared himself to him associating their twin historic quests to win back Russian lands.", "For critics this association implied that Putin's \"complaints about historical injustice, eastward Nato expansion, and other grievances with the west were all a facade for a traditional war of conquest\" and imperialism.", "\"After months of denials that Russia is driven by imperial ambitions in Ukraine, Putin appeared to embrace that mission.\"", "On the same occasion, Mykhailo Podolyak, an adviser to the Ukrainian government, suggested Russia's \"de-imperialization,\" instead of Russia's official war aim of \"de-nazification\" of Ukraine.Later that year, Anne Applebaum approached the new Russian Empire as a fact and opined that this Empire must be defeated.", "Other pundits described the new Russian Empire as a failed attempt because Russia failed to annex the whole of Ukraine." ], [ "Timeline of empires", "The chart below shows a timeline of polities that have been called empires.", "Dynastic changes are marked with a white line.", "* The Roman Empire's timeline listed below includes the Western and Eastern portion.", "* The Empires of Nicaea and Trebizond were Byzantine successor states.", "* The Empire of Bronze Age Egypt is not included in the graph.", "Established by Narmer circa 3000 BC, it lasted as long as China until it was conquered by Achaemenid Persia in 525 BC.", "* Japan is presented for the period of its overseas Empire (1895–1945).", "The original Japanese Empire of \"the Eight Islands\" would be third persistent after Egypt and China.", "* Many Indian empires are also included, though only Mauryans, Guptas, Delhi Sultans, Mughals, and Marathas ruled for large periods in India.ImageSize = width:1600 height:550PlotArea = width:1200 height:450 left:50 bottom:50DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:-800 till:2009TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:-800# there is no automatic collision detection,# so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlapColors= id:red value:redDefine $dx = 20 # shift text to right side of barDefine $dy = -25 # adjust heightPlotData= bar:Persian color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:-728 till: -550 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:-550 till: -330 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:-330 till: -247 shift:($dx,-2) color:Yellow from:-247 till: 224 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:224 till: 651 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:651 till: 821 shift:($dx,-2) color:Blue from:821 till: 873 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:861 till: 1002 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:874 till: 1004 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:934 till: 1055 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:963 till: 1187 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1037 till: 1194 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1077 till: 1231 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1231 till: 1253 shift:($dx,-2) color:Black from:1253 till: 1349 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1349 till: 1370 shift:($dx,-2) color:Pink from:1370 till: 1506 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1378 till: 1501 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1501 till: 1721 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1736 till: 1796 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1751 till: 1794 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1796 till: 1925 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1925 till: 1979 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1979 till: 2000 shift:($dx,-2) color:Green bar:Alexandrian color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:-336 till:-323 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:India color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:-321 till: 1849 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:-321 mark:(line,white) at:-185 mark:(line,white) at:-30 mark:(line,white) at:-35 mark:(line,white) at:220 mark:(line,white) at:543 mark:(line,white) at:606 mark:(line,white) at:724 mark:(line,white) at:760 mark:(line,white) at:848 mark:(line,white) at:973 mark:(line,white) at:1206 mark:(line,white) at:1251 mark:(line,white) at:1336 mark:(line,white) at:1526 mark:(line,white) at:1540 mark:(line,white) at:1556 mark:(line,white) at:1674 mark:(line,white) at:1779 mark:(line,white) bar: China color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize: 7 from:-221 till: 1911 shift:($dx,-2) color: red at:220 mark:(line,white) at:265 mark:(line,white) at:280 mark:(line,white) at:420 mark:(line,white) at:589 mark:(line,white) at:618 mark:(line,white) at:907 mark:(line,white) at:960 mark:(line,white) at:907 mark:(line,white) at:1125 mark:(line,white) at:1279 mark:(line,white) at:1271 mark:(line,white) at:1368 mark:(line,white) at:1644 mark:(line,white) bar:Japan color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1871 till:1945 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Ethiopia color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1137 till:1974 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Roman color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:-27 till:476 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:68 mark:(line,white) at:69 mark:(line,white) at:96 mark:(line,white) at:192 mark:(line,white) at:235 mark:(line,white) at:284 mark:(line,white) at:364 mark:(line,white) at:392 mark:(line,white) at:455 mark:(line,white) from:306 till:1204 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:363 mark:(line,white) at:364 mark:(line,white) at:457 mark:(line,white) at:518 mark:(line,white) at:602 mark:(line,white) at:610 mark:(line,white) at:711 mark:(line,white) at:717 mark:(line,white) at:803 mark:(line,white) at:813 mark:(line,white) at:820 mark:(line,white) at:867 mark:(line,white) at:1056 mark:(line,white) at:1057 mark:(line,white) at:1059 mark:(line,white) at:1081 mark:(line,white) at:1185 mark:(line,white) from:1204 till:1261 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1261 till:1453 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red bar:Bulgarian color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:913 till:1018 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:997 mark:(line,white) at:1280 mark:(line,white) at:1292 mark:(line,white) at:1299 mark:(line,white) at:1300 mark:(line,white) at:1323 mark:(line,white) from:1185 till:1422 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red bar:Holy-Rоman color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:962 till:1024 shift:($dx,-2) color:red from:1027 till:1125 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1133 till:1137 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1155 till:1197 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1209 till:1215 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1220 till:1250 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1312 till:1313 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1328 till:1347 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1355 till:1378 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1433 till:1437 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1452 till:1740 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red from:1742 till:1806 shift:($dx,$dy) color:red at:1745 mark:(line,white) at:1765 mark:(line,white) bar:Latin color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1204 till:1261 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Trebizond color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1204 till:1461 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Ajuran color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1300 till:1700 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Ottoman color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1299 till:1922 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Portuguese color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1415 till:1910 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:1580 mark:(line,white) at:1640 mark:(line,white) bar:Spanish color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1492 till:1976 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Russian color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1480 till:1917 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:1598 mark:(line,white) at:1605 mark:(line,white) at:1606 mark:(line,white) at:1610 mark:(line,white) at:1612 mark:(line,white) bar:Swedish color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1611 till:1718 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:French color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1804 till:1814 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:1815 mark:(line,red) from:1852 till:1870 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Austrian color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1804 till:1918 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:German color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1871 till:1918 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:Italian color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1882 till:1960 shift:($dx,-2) color:red bar:British color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1677 till:1998 shift:($dx,-2) color:red at:1677 mark:(line,white) at:1998 mark:(line,white) bar:Brazilian color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7 from:1822 till:1889 shift:($dx,-2) color:red" ], [ "Theoretical research", "===Empire versus nation state===Empires have been the dominant international organization in world history:Similarly, Anthony Pagden, Eliot A. Cohen, Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper estimate that \"empires have always been more frequent, more extensive political and social forms than tribal territories or nations have ever been.\"", "Many empires endured for centuries, while the age of the ancient Egyptian, Chinese and Japanese Empires is counted in millennia.", "\"Most people throughout history have lived under imperial rule.", "\"Political scientist Hedley Bull wrote that \"in the broad sweep of human history ... the form of states system has been the exception rather than the rule\".", "His colleague Robert Gilpin confirmed this conclusion for the pre-modern period:Historian Michael Doyle who undertook an extensive research on empires extended the observation into the modern era:The author of ''The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background'', Hans Kohn, acknowledged that it was the opposite idea—of imperialism—that was, perhaps, the most influential single idea for two millennia, the ordering of human society through unified dominion and common civilization.===Universal empire===Expert on warfare Quincy Wright generalized on what he called \"universal empire\"—empire unifying all the contemporary system:German Sociologist Friedrich Tenbruck finds that the macro-historic process of imperial expansion gave rise to global history in which the formations of universal empires were most significant stages.", "A later group of political scientists, working on the phenomenon of the current unipolarity, in 2007 edited research on several pre-modern civilizations by experts in respective fields.", "The overall conclusion was that the balance of power was inherently unstable order and usually soon broke in favor of imperial order.", "Yet before the advent of the unipolarity, world historian Arnold Toynbee and political scientist Martin Wight had drawn the same conclusion with an unambiguous implication for the modern world:The earliest thinker to approach the phenomenon of universal empire from a theoretical point of view was Polybius (2:3):Johann Gottlieb Fichte, having witnessed the battle at Jena in 1806 when Napoleon overwhelmed Prussia, described what he perceived as a deep historical trend:Fichte's later compatriot, Geographer Alexander von Humboldt, in the mid-Nineteenth century observed a macro-historic trend of imperial growth in both Hemispheres: \"Men of great and strong minds, as well as whole nations, acted under influence of one idea, the purity of which was utterly unknown to them.", "\"The imperial expansion filled the world .", "Two famous contemporary observers—Frederick Turner and Halford Mackinder described the event and drew implications, the former predicting American overseas expansion and the latter stressing that the world empire is now in sight.In 1870, Argentine diplomat, jurist and political theorist Juan Bautista Alberdi described imperial consolidation.", "As von Humboldt, he found this trend unplanned and irrational but evident beyond doubt in the \"unwritten history of events.\"", "He linked this trend to the recent Evolution theory: Nations gravitate towards the formation of a single universal society.", "The laws that lead the nations in that direction are the same natural laws that has formed societies and are part of evolution.", "These evolutionary laws exist disregarding whether men recognize them.Similarly, Friedrich Ratzel observed that the \"drive toward the building of continually larger states continues throughout the entirety of history\" and is active in the present.", "He drew \"Seven Laws of Expansionism\".", "His seventh law stated: \"The general trend toward amalgamation transmits the tendency of territorial growth from state to state and increases the tendency in the process of transmission.\"", "He commented on this law to make its meaning clear: \"There is on this small planet sufficient space for only one great state.", "\"Two other contemporaries—Kang Youwei and George Vacher de Lapouge—stressed that imperial expansion cannot indefinitely proceed on the definite surface of the globe and therefore world empire is imminent.", "Kang Youwei in 1885 believed that the imperial trend will culminate in the contest between Washington and Berlin and Vacher de Lapouge in 1899 estimated that the final contest will be between Russia and America in which America is likely to triumph.The above envisaged contests indeed took place, known to us as World War I and II.", "Writing during the Second, political scientists Derwent Whittlesey, Robert Strausz-Hupé and John H. Herz concluded: \"Now that the earth is at last parceled out, consolidation has commenced.\"", "In \"this world of fighting superstates there could be no end to war until one state had subjected all others, until world empire had been achieved by the strongest.", "This undoubtedly is the logical final stage in the geopolitical theory of evolution.", "\"Writing in the last year of the War, American Theologian Parley Paul Wormer, German Historian Ludwig Dehio,and Hungarian-born writer Emery Reves drew similar conclusions.", "Fluctuating but persistent movement occurred through the centuries toward ever greater unity.", "The forward movement toward ever larger unities continues and there is no reason to conclude that it has come to an end.", "More likely, the greatest convergence of all time is at hand.", "\"Possibly this is the deeper meaning of the savage world conflicts\" of the 20th century.The famous ''Anatomy of Peace'' by Reves, written and published in 1945, supposed that without the industrial power of the United States, Hitler already might have established world empire.", "Proposing world federalism, the book warned: Every dynamic force, every economic and technological reality, every \"law of history\" and logic \"indicates that we are on the verge of a period of empire building,\" which is \"the last phase of the struggle for the conquest of the world.\"", "As an elimination contest, one of the three remaining powers or a combination \"will achieve by force that unified control made mandatory by the times we live in… Anyone of three, by defeating the other two, would conquer and rule the world.\"", "If we fail to institute a unified control over the world in democratic way, the \"iron law of history\" would compel us to wage wars until world empire is finally attained through conquest.", "Since the former way is improbable due human blindness, we should precipitate the unification by conquest as quickly as possible and start the restoration of human liberties within the world empire.=== Atomic bomb and empire ===Reves added \"Postscript\" to the ''Anatomy'', opening: \"A few weeks after the publication of this book, the first atomic bomb exploded over the city of Hiroshima…\" This new physical fact however has changed nothing in the political situation.", "The world empire remains inevitable and nothing else in the book would have been said differently had it been written after August 6, 1945.Not much chance we have to establish world government before the next horrible war between the two superpowers and whoever is victorious would establish the world empire.", "The book sold an exceptional 800,000 copies in thirty languages, was endorsed by Albert Einstein and numerous other prominent figures, and in 1950 Reves was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.", "The year after the War and in the first year of the nuclear age, Einstein and British Philosopher Bertrand Russell, known as prominent pacifists, outlined for the near future a perspective of world empire (world government established by force).", "Einstein believed that, unless world government is established by agreement, an imperial world government would come by war or wars.", "Russell expected a third World War to result in a world government under the empire of the United States.", "Three years later, another prominent pacifist, Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr, generalized on the ancient Empires of Egypt, Babylon, Persia and Greece to imply for the modern world: \"The analogy in present global terms would be the final unification of the world through the preponderant power of either America or Russia, whichever proved herself victorious in the final struggle.", "\"Russian colleague of Russell and Neighbour, Georgy Fedotov, wrote in 1945: All empires are but stages on the way to the sole Empire which must swallow all others.", "The only question is who will build it and on which foundations.", "Universal unity is the only alternative to annihilation.", "Unity by conference is utopian but unity by conquest by the strongest Power is not and probably the uncompleted in this War will be completed in the next.", "\"Pax Atlantica\" is the best of possible outcomes.Originally drafted as a secret study for the Office of Strategic Services (the precursor of the CIA) in 1944 and published as a book three years later, ''The Struggle for the World...'' by James Burnham concludes: If either of the two Superpowers wins, the result would be a universal empire which in our case would also be a world empire.", "The historical stage for a world empire had already been set prior to and independently of the discovery of atomic weapons but these weapons make a world empire inevitable and imminent.", "\"The atomic weapons ... will not permit the world to wait.\"", "Only a world empire can establish monopoly on atomic weapons and thus guarantee the survival of civilization.", "A world empire \"is in fact the objective of the Third World War which, in its preliminary stages, has already began\".", "The issue of a world empire \"will be decided, and in our day.", "In the course of the decision, both of the present antagonists may, it is true, be destroyed, but one of them must be.\"", "The next year, world historian Crane Brinton similarly supposed that the bomb may in the hands of a very skillful and lucky nation prove to be the weapon that permits that nation to unify the world by imperial conquest, to do what Napoleon and Hitler failed to do.", "Combined with other \"wonders of science,\" it would permit a quick and easy conquest of the world.", "In 1951, Hans Morgenthau concluded that the \"best\" outcome of World War III would be world empire:Expert on earlier civilizations, Toynbee, further developed the subject of World War III leading to world empire:The year this volume of A Study of History was published, US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles announced \"a knock-out blow\" as an official doctrine, a detailed Plan was elaborated and ''Fortune'' magazine mapped the design.", "Section VIII, \"Atomic Armaments\", of the famous National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68), approved by President Harry Truman in 1951, uses the term \"blow\" 17 times, mostly preceded by such adjectives as \"powerful\", \"overwhelming\", or \"crippling\".", "Another term applied by the strategists was \"Sunday punch\".A pupil of Toynbee, William McNeill, associated with the case of ancient China, which \"put a quietus upon the disorders of the warring states by erecting an imperial bureaucratic structure ...", "The warring states of the Twentieth century seem headed for a similar resolution of their conflicts.\"", "The ancient \"resolution\" McNeill evoked was one of the most sweeping universal conquests in world history, performed by Qin in 230–221 BC.", "Chinese classic Sima Qian (d. 86 BC) described the event (6:234): \"Qin raised troops on a grand scale\" and \"the whole world celebrated a great bacchanal\".", "Herman Kahn of the RAND Corporation criticized an assembled group of SAC officers for their war plan (SIOP-62).", "He did not use the term bacchanal but he coined on the occasion an associating word: \"Gentlemen, you do not have a war plan.", "You have a ''war orgasm''!\"", "History did not completely repeat itself but it passed close.===Circumscription theory===According to the circumscription theory of Robert Carneiro, \"the more sharply circumscribed area, the more rapidly it will become politically unified.\"", "The Empires of Egypt, China and Japan are named the most durable political structures in human history.", "Correspondingly, these are the three most circumscribed civilizations in human history.", "The Empires of Egypt (established by Narmer c. 3000 BC) and China (established by Cheng in 221 BC) endured for over two millennia.", "German Sociologist Friedrich Tenbruck, criticizing the Western idea of progress, emphasized that China and Egypt remained at one particular stage of development for millennia.", "This stage was universal empire.", "The development of Egypt and China came to a halt once their empires \"reached the limits of their natural habitat\".", "Sinology does not recognize the Eurocentric view of the \"inevitable\" imperial fall; Egyptology and Japanology pose equal challenges.Carneiro explored the Bronze Age civilizations.", "Stuart J. Kaufman, Richard Little and William Wohlforth researched the next three millennia, comparing eight civilizations.", "They conclude: The \"rigidity of the borders\" contributed importantly to hegemony in every concerned case.", "Hence, \"when the system's borders are rigid, the probability of hegemony is high\".The circumscription theory was stressed in the comparative studies of the Roman and Chinese Empires.", "The circumscribed Chinese Empire recovered from all falls, while the fall of Rome, by contrast, was fatal.", "\"What counteracted this imperial tendency in Europe ... was a countervailing tendency for the geographical boundaries of the system to expand.\"", "If \"Europe had been a closed system, some great power would eventually have succeeded in establishing absolute supremacy over the other states in the region\".In the 1945 book, ''The Precarious Balance'', on four centuries of the European power struggle, Ludwig Dehio explained the durability of the European states system by its overseas expansion: \"Overseas expansion and the system of states were born at the same time; the vitality that burst the bounds of the Western world also destroyed its unity.\"", "In a more famous 1945 book, Reves similarly argued that the era of outward expansion is forever closed and the historic trend of expansion will result in direct collision between the remaining powers.", "Edward Carr causally linked the end of the overseas outlet for imperial expansion and World Wars.", "In the nineteenth century, he wrote during the Second World War, imperialist wars were waged against \"primitive\" peoples.", "\"It was silly for European countries to fight against one another when they could still ... maintain social cohesion by continuous expansion in Asia and Africa.", "Since 1900, however, this has no longer been possible: \"the situation has radically changed\".", "Now wars are between \"imperial powers.\"", "Hans Morgenthau wrote that the very imperial expansion into relatively empty geographical spaces in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries, in Africa, Eurasia, and western North America, deflected great power politics into the periphery of the earth, thereby reducing conflict.", "For example, the more attention Russia, France and the United States paid to expanding into far-flung territories in imperial fashion, the less attention they paid to one another, and the more peaceful, in a sense, the world was.", "But by the late nineteenth century, the consolidation of the great nation-states and empires of the West was consummated, and territorial gains could only be made at the expense of one another.", "John H. Herz outlined one \"chief function\" of the overseas expansion and the impact of its end:Some later commentators drew similar conclusions:The opportunity for any system to expand in size seems almost a necessary condition for it to remain balanced, at least over the long haul.", "Far from being impossible or exceedingly improbable, systemic hegemony is likely under two conditions: \"when the boundaries of the international system remain stable and no new major powers emerge from outside the system.\"", "With the system becoming global, further expansion is precluded.", "The geopolitical condition of \"global closure\" will remain to the end of history.", "Since \"the contemporary international system is global, we can rule out the possibility that geographic expansion of the system will contribute to the emergence of a new balance of power, as it did so many times in the past.\"", "As Quincy Wright had put it, \"this process can no longer continue without interplanetary wars.", "\"One of leading experts on world-system theory, Christopher Chase-Dunn, noted that the circumscription theory is applicable for the global system, since the global system is circumscribed.", "In fact, within less than a century of its circumscribed existence the global system overcame the centuries-old balance of power and reached the unipolarity.", "Given \"constant spatial parameters\" of the global system, its unipolar structure is neither historically unusual nor theoretically surprising.Randall Schweller theorized that a \"closed international system\", such as the global became a century ago, would reach \"entropy\" in a kind of thermodynamic law.", "Once the state of entropy is reached, there is no going back.", "The initial conditions are lost forever.", "Stressing the curiosity of the fact, Schweller writes that since the moment the modern world became a closed system, the process has worked in only one direction: from many poles to two poles to one pole.", "Thus unipolarity might represent the entropy—stable and permanent loss of variation—in the global system.===Present===Al Udeid Air Base in QatarChalmers Johnson argues that the US global network of hundreds of military bases already represents a global empire in its initial form:Simon Dalby associates the network of bases with the Roman imperial system:Kenneth Pomeranz and Harvard Historian Niall Ferguson share the above-cited views: \"With American military bases in over 120 countries, we have hardly seen the end of empire.\"", "This \"vast archipelago of US military bases … far exceeds 19th-century British ambitions.", "Britain's imperium consisted of specific, albeit numerous, colonies and clients; the American imperial vision is much more global…\"Another Harvard Historian Charles S. Maier opens his ''Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors'' with these words: \"What a substratum for empire!", "Compared with which, the foundation of the Macedonian, the Roman and the British, sink into insignificance.", "\"One of the most accepted distinctions between earlier empires and the American Empire is the latter's \"global\" or \"planetary\" scope.", "French former Foreign Minister Hubert Vedrine wondered: \"The situation is unprecedented: What previous empire subjugated the entire world...?\"", "The quests for universal empire are old but the present quest outdoes the previous in \"the notable respect of being the first to actually be global in its reach.\"", "Another historian Paul Kennedy, who wrote prediction talks of the imminent US \"imperial overstretch,\" in 2002 acknowledged about the present world system:Walter Russell Mead observes that the United States attempts to repeate \"globally\" what the ancient empires of Egypt, China and Rome had each accomplished on a regional basis.", "Professor Emeritus of Sociology at the University of Leeds, Zygmunt Bauman, concludes that due to its planetary dimension, the new empire cannot be drawn on a map:''Times Atlas of Empires'' numbers 70 empires in the world history.", "Niall Ferguson lists numerous parallels between them and the United States.", "He concludes: \"To those who would still insist on American exceptionalism, the historian of empires can only retort: as exceptional as all the other 69 empires.\"", "Fareed Zakaria stressed one element not exceptional for the American Empire—the concept of exceptionalism.", "All dominant empires thought they were special.===Future===In 1945, Historian Ludwig Dehio predicted global unification due to the circumscription of the global system, although he did not use this term.", "Being global, the system can neither expand nor be subject to external intrusion as the European states system had been for centuries:Fifteen years later, Dehio confirmed his hypothesis: The European system owed its durability to its overseas outlet.", "\"But how can a multiple grouping of world states conceivably be supported from outside in the framework of a finite globe?", "\"During the same time, Quincy Wright developed a similar concept.", "Balance-of-power politics has aimed less at preserving peace than at preserving the independence of states and preventing the development of world empire.", "In the course of history, the balance of power repeatedly reemerged, but on ever-wider scale.", "Eventually, the scale became global.", "Unless we proceed to \"interplanetary wars,\" this pattern can no longer continue.", "In spite of significant reversals, the \"trend towards world unity\" can \"scarcely be denied.\"", "World unity appears to be \"the limit toward which the process of world history seems to tend.", "\"The same \"interplanetary\" motif is present also in the Anatomy of Peace: The era of outward expansion is forever closed.", "\"Until and unless we are able to communicate with another planet, the theater of human history will be limited to geographically determined, constant and known dimensions.\"", "The historic trend of expansion will result in direct collision between the remaining powers.", "Multiplied by modern technology, the centripetal forces will accomplish what the greatest empires of the past failed.", "\"For the first time in human history, one power can conquer and rule the world.", "\"The \"Father of American Anthropology,\" Franz Boas, known for his historical particularism and cultural relativism, outlined the \"inexorable laws of history\" by which political units grow larger in size and smaller in number.", "The process began in the earliest times and has continued almost always in the same direction.", "In the long run, the tendency to unification has been more powerful than of disintegration.", "\"Thus the history of mankind shows us the grand spectacle of the grouping of man in units of ever increasing size.\"", "The progress in the direction of unification has been so regular and so marked that we must needs conclude that the same tendencies will govern our history in the future.", "Today the unity of the world is not less conceivable than the modern nations were in the early history.", "The practical difficulties that stand in the way of the formation of still larger units count for nothing before the \"inexorable laws of history.", "\"Five later scholars—Hornell Hart, Raoul Naroll, Louis Morano, Rein Taagepera and the author of the circumscription theory Robert Carneiro—researched expanding imperial cycles.", "All argued that these cycles represent an historical trend leading to world empire.", "Naroll and Carneiro also found this outcome \"close at hand,\" c. 2200 and 2300 respectively.The founder of the Paneuropean Union, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, writing yet in 1943, drew a more specific and immediate future imperial project: After the War America is bound \"to take over the command of the skies.\"", "The danger of \"the utter annihilation of all enemy towns and lands\" can \"only be prevented by the air superiority of a single power ... America's air role is the only alternative to intercontinental wars.\"", "Despite his outstanding anti-imperialism, Coudenhove-Kalergi detailed:Coudenhove-Kalergi envisaged a kind of Pax Americana modeled on \"Pax Romana\":This period would be necessary transitory stage before World State is eventually established, though he did not specify how the last transformation is expected to occur.", "Coudenhove-Kalergi's follower in the teleological theory of World State, Toynbee, supposed the traditional way of universal conquest and emphasized that the world is ripe for conquest: \"...Hitler's eventual failure to impose peace on the world by the force of arms was due, not to any flaw in his thesis that the world was ripe for conquest, but to an accidental combination of incidental errors in his measures...\" But \"in falling by so narrow a margin to win the prize of world-dominion for himself, Hitler had left the prize dangling within the reach of any successor capable of pursuing the same aims of world-conquest with a little more patience, prudence, and tact.\"", "With his \"revolution of destruction,\" Hitler has performed the \"yeoman service\" for \"some future architect of a ''Pax Ecumenica''... For a post-Hitlerian empire-builder, Hitler's derelict legacy was a gift of the Gods.", "\"The next \"architect of a Pax Ecumenica,\" known more commonly as Pax Americana, demonstrated \"more patience, prudence, and tact.\"", "Consequently, as President Dwight Eisenhower put it, the NATO allies became \"almost psychopathic\" whenever anyone talked about a US withdrawal, and the reception of his successor John F. Kennedy in Berlin was \"almost hysterical,\" as Chancellor Conrad Adenauer characterized it.", "John Ikenberry finds that the Europeans wanted a stronger, more formal and more imperial system than the United States was initially willing to provide.", "In the end the United States settled for this \"form of empire—a Pax Americana with formal commitments to Europe.\"", "According to a much debated thesis, the United States became \"empire by invitation.\"", "The period discussed in the thesis (1945–1952) ended precisely the year Toynbee theorized on \"some future architect of a Pax Ecumenica.", "\"Dissociating America from Rome, Eisenhower gave a pessimistic forecast.", "In 1951, before he became President, he had written on West Europe: \"We cannot be a modern Rome guarding the far frontiers with our legions if for no other reason than that these are not, politically, our frontiers.", "What we must do is to assist these West European peoples.\"", "Two years later, he wrote: When it was decided to deploy US divisions to Europe, no one had \"for an instant\" thought that they would remain there for \"several decades\"—that the United States could \"build a sort of Roman Wall with its own troops and so protect the world.", "\"Eisenhower assured Soviet first secretary Nikita Khrushchev on Berlin in 1959: \"Clearly we did not contemplate 50 years in occupation there.\"", "It lasted, remarks Marc Trachtenberg, from July 1945 to September 1994, 10 months short of 50 years.", "Notably, when the US troops eventually left, they left eastward.", "Confirming the theory of the \"empire by invitation,\" with their first opportunity East European states extended the \"invitation.", "\"Chalmers Johnson regards the global military reach of the United States as empire in its \"initial\" form.", "Dimitri Simes finds that most of the world sees the United States as a \"nascent\" imperial power.", "Some scholars concerned how this empire would look in its ultimate form.", "The ultimate form of empire was described by Michael Doyle in his ''Empires''.", "It is empire in which its two main components—the ruling core and the ruled periphery—merged to form one integrated whole.", "At this stage the ''empire'' as defined ceases to exist and becomes ''world state''.", "Doyle examplifies the transformation on the case of the Roman Emperor Caracalla whose legislation in AD 212 extended the Roman citizenship to all inhabitants of the Mediterranean world.Doyle's case of the Roman Empire had also been evoked by Susan Strange in her 1988 article, \"The Future of the American Empire.\"", "Strange emphasized that the most persistent empires were those which best managed to integrate the ruling core and the peripheral allies.", "The article is partly a reply on the published a year earlier bestseller The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers which predicted imminent US \"imperial overstretch.\"", "Strange found this outcome unlikely, stressing the fact that the peripheral allies have been successfully recruited into the American Empire.Envisaging a world empire of either the United States or the Soviet Union (whoever is victorious in World War III), Bertrand Russell projected the Roman scenario too: \"Like the Romans, they will, in the course of time, extend citizenship to the vanquished.", "There will then be a true world state, and it will be possible to forget that it will have owed its origin to conquest.\"", "International Relations scholar Alexander Wendt supposes world empire by universal conquest and subsequent consolidation, provided the conquering power recognizes all conquered members.", "For his example he also invokes the Roman Empire.To the case of Caracalla, Toynbee added the Abbasid cosmopolitan reformation of 750 AD.", "Both \"were good auguries for the prospect that, in a post-Modern chapter of Western history, a supranational commonwealth originally based on the hegemony of a paramount power over its satellites might eventually be put on the sounder basis of a constitutional partnership in which all the people of all the partner states would have their fare share in the conduct of common affairs.", "\"Crane Brinton expected that the world empire would not be built instantly but not as slowly as Rome, for much in the modern world has been speeded up.", "Charles Galton Darwin, a grandson of the father of Evolution Theory, suggested that China, as an isolated and enduring civilization, seems to provide the most relevant model for the global future.", "As the Chinese Empire, the regions of the world, periodically albeit more rarely, will be united by force into an uneasy world-empire, which will endure for a period until it falls.", "Along China, Ostrovsky mentions Egypt as a model for the future but, by contrast, estimates that the intermediate periods of the global empire will be shorter and rarer." ], [ "See also", "* Linguistic imperialism* List of medieval great powers* Military globalization* Nomadic empire=== Lists ===* List of empires* List of largest empires* List of former sovereign states* List of transcontinental countries* List of Hindu empires and dynasties" ], [ "References", "; Citations" ], [ "Cited sources and further reading", "* , review of ; ; * * * * * * * * * Written for the United Nations Research Institute on Development, UNRISD, Geneva.", "* * * * , Rev.", "by Mary Q. Innis; foreword by Marshall McLuhan.", "* * * * * , examines the Roman, Ottoman, Habsburg, Russian, British and French empires.", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Index of Colonies and Possessions* Modernization of the Empire.", "Social and Cultural Aspects of Modernization Processes in Russia * Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order, Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.", "61–93." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Final Solution" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Final Solution''' (, ) or the '''Final Solution to the Jewish Question''' (, ) was a Nazi plan for the genocide of individuals they defined as Jews during World War II.", "The \"Final Solution to the Jewish question\" was the official code name for the murder of all Jews within reach, which was not restricted to the European continent.", "This policy of deliberate and systematic genocide starting across German-occupied Europe was formulated in procedural and geopolitical terms by Nazi leadership in January 1942 at the Wannsee Conference held near Berlin, and culminated in the Holocaust, which saw the murder of 90% of Polish Jews, and two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe.The nature and timing of the decisions that led to the Final Solution is an intensely researched and debated aspect of the Holocaust.", "The program evolved during the first 25 months of war leading to the attempt at \"murdering every last Jew in the German grasp\".", "Christopher Browning, a historian specializing in the Holocaust, wrote that most historians agree that the Final Solution cannot be attributed to a single decision made at one particular point in time.", "\"It is generally accepted the decision-making process was prolonged and incremental.\"", "In 1940, following the Fall of France, Adolf Eichmann devised the Madagascar Plan to move Europe's Jewish population to the French colony, but the plan was abandoned for logistical reasons, mainly a naval blockade.", "There were also preliminary plans to deport Jews to Palestine and Siberia.", "In 1941, Raul Hilberg wrote that in the first phase of the mass-murder of Jews, the mobile killing units began to pursue their victims across occupied eastern territories; in the second phase, stretching across all of German-occupied Europe, the Jewish victims were sent on death trains to centralized extermination camps built for the purpose of systematic murder of Jews." ], [ "Background", "Hitler's prophecy speech in the Reichstag, 30 January 1939The term \"Final Solution\" was a euphemism used by the Nazis to refer to their plan for the annihilation of the Jewish people.", "Some historians argue that the usual tendency of the German leadership was to be extremely guarded when discussing the Final Solution.", "For example, Mark Roseman wrote that euphemisms were \"their normal mode of communicating about murder\".", "However, Jeffrey Herf has argued that the role of euphemisms in Nazi propaganda has been exaggerated, and in fact Nazi leaders often made direct threats against Jews.", "For example, during his speech of 30 January 1939, Hitler threatened \"the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe\".From gaining power in January 1933 until the outbreak of war in September 1939, the Nazi persecution of the Jews in Germany was focused on intimidation, expropriating their money and property, and encouraging them to emigrate.", "According to the Nazi Party policy statement, Jews and the Romani people were the only \"alien people in Europe\".", "In 1936, the Bureau of Romani Affairs in Munich was taken over by Interpol and renamed the Center for Combating the Gypsy Menace.", "Introduced at the end of 1937, the \"final solution of the Gypsy Question\" entailed round-ups, expulsions, and incarceration of Romani in concentration camps built at, until this point, Dachau, Buchenwald, Flossenbürg, Mauthausen, Natzweiler, Ravensbruck, Taucha and Westerbork.", "After the Anschluss with Austria in 1938, Central Offices for Jewish Emigration were established in Vienna and Berlin to increase Jewish emigration, without covert plans for their forthcoming annihilation.The outbreak of war and the invasion of Poland brought a population of 3.5 million Polish Jews under the control of the Nazi and Soviet security forces, and marked the start of the Holocaust in Poland.", "In the German-occupied zone of Poland, Jews were forced into hundreds of makeshift ghettos, pending other arrangements.", "Two years later, with the launch of Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the German top echelon began to pursue Hitler's new anti-Semitic plan to eradicate, rather than expel, Jews.", "Hitler's earlier ideas about forcible removal of Jews from the German-controlled territories to achieve ''Lebensraum'' were abandoned after the failure of the air campaign against Britain, initiating a naval blockade of Germany.", "''Reichsführer-SS'' Heinrich Himmler became the chief architect of a new plan, which came to be called ''The Final Solution to the Jewish question''.", "On 31 July 1941, ''Reichsmarschall'' Hermann Göring wrote to Reinhard Heydrich (Himmler's deputy and chief of the RSHA), authorising him to make the \"necessary preparations\" for a \"total solution of the Jewish question\" and coordinate with all affected organizations.", "Göring also instructed Heydrich to submit concrete proposals for the implementation of the new projected goal.Broadly speaking, the extermination of Jews was carried out in two major operations.", "With the onset of Operation Barbarossa, mobile killing units of the SS, the ''Einsatzgruppen'', and Order Police battalions were dispatched to the occupied Soviet Union for the express purpose of murdering all Jews.", "During the early stages of the invasion, Himmler himself visited Białystok at the beginning of July 1941, and requested that, \"as a matter of principle, any Jew\" behind the German-Soviet frontier was to be \"regarded as a partisan\".", "His new orders gave the SS and police leaders full authority for the mass-murder behind the front lines.", "By August 1941, all Jewish men, women, and children were shot.", "In the second phase of annihilation, the Jewish inhabitants of central, western, and south-eastern Europe were transported by Holocaust trains to camps with newly built gassing facilities.", "Raul Hilberg wrote: \"In essence, the killers of the occupied USSR moved to the victims, whereas outside this arena, the victims were brought to the killers.", "The two operations constitute an evolution not only chronologically, but also in complexity.\"", "Massacres of about one million Jews occurred before plans for the Final Solution were fully implemented in 1942, but it was only with the decision to annihilate the entire Jewish population that extermination camps such as Auschwitz II Birkenau and Treblinka were fitted with permanent gas chambers to murder large numbers of Jews in a relatively short period of time.The villa at 56–58 Am Großen Wannsee, where the Wannsee Conference was held, is now a memorial and museum.The plans to exterminate all the Jews of Europe were formalized at the Wannsee Conference, held at an SS guesthouse near Berlin, on 20 January 1942.The conference was chaired by Heydrich and attended by 15 senior officials of the Nazi Party and the German government.", "Most of those attending were representatives of the Interior Ministry, the Foreign Ministry, and the Justice Ministry, including Ministers for the Eastern Territories.", "At the conference, Heydrich indicated that approximately 11,000,000 Jews in Europe would fall under the provisions of the \"Final Solution\".", "This figure included not only Jews residing in Axis-controlled Europe, but also the Jewish populations of the United Kingdom and of neutral nations (Switzerland, Ireland, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, and European Turkey).", "Eichmann's biographer David Cesarani wrote that Heydrich's main purpose in convening the conference was to assert his authority over the various agencies dealing with Jewish issues.", "\"The simplest, most decisive way that Heydrich could ensure the smooth flow of deportations\" to death camps, according to Cesarani, \"was by asserting his total control over the fate of the Jews in the Reich and the east\" under the single authority of the RSHA.", "A copy of the minutes of this meeting was found by the Allies in March 1947; it was too late to serve as evidence during the first Nuremberg Trial, but was used by prosecutor General Telford Taylor in the subsequent Nuremberg Trials.After the end of World War II, surviving archival documents provided a clear record of the Final Solution policies and actions of Nazi Germany.", "They included the Wannsee Conference Protocol, which documented the co-operation of various German state agencies in the SS-led Holocaust, as well as some 3,000 tons of original German records captured by Allied armies, including the ''Einsatzgruppen'' reports, which documented the progress of the mobile killing units assigned, among other tasks, to murder Jewish civilians during the attack on the Soviet Union in 1941.The evidential proof which documented the mechanism of the Holocaust was submitted at Nuremberg." ], [ "Phase one: death squads of Operation Barbarossa", "The Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union codenamed Operation Barbarossa, which commenced on 22 June 1941, set in motion a \"war of annihilation\" which quickly opened the door to the systematic mass murder of European Jews.", "For Hitler, Bolshevism was merely \"the most recent and most nefarious manifestation of the eternal Jewish threat\".", "On 3 March 1941, Wehrmacht Joint Operations Staff Chief Alfred Jodl repeated Hitler's declaration that the \"Jewish-Bolshevik intelligentsia would have to be eliminated\" and that the forthcoming war would be a confrontation between two completely opposing cultures.", "In May 1941, Gestapo leader Heinrich Müller wrote a preamble to the new law limiting the jurisdiction of military courts in prosecuting troops for criminal actions because: \"This time, the troops will encounter an especially dangerous element from the civilian population, and therefore, have the right and obligation to secure themselves.", "\"Himmler note 18 December 1941: ''als Partisanen auszurotten''Himmler and Heydrich assembled a force of about 3,000 men from Security Police, Gestapo, Kripo, SD, and the Waffen-SS, as the so-called \"special commandos of the security forces\" known as the ''Einsatzgruppen'', to eliminate both communists and Jews in occupied territories.", "These forces were supported by 21 battalions of Orpo Reserve Police under Kurt Daluege, adding up to 11,000 men.", "The explicit orders given to the Order Police varied between locations, but for Police Battalion 309 participating in the first mass murder of 5,500 Polish Jews in the Soviet-controlled Białystok (a Polish provincial capital), Major Weiss explained to his officers that Barbarossa is a war of annihilation against Bolshevism, and that his battalions would proceed ruthlessly against all Jews, regardless of age or sex.After crossing the Soviet demarcation line in 1941, what had been regarded as exceptional in the Greater Germanic Reich became a normal way of operating in the east.", "The crucial taboo against the murder of women and children was breached not only in Białystok but also in Gargždai in late June.", "By July, significant numbers of women and children were being murdered behind all front-lines not only by the Germans but also by the local Ukrainian and Lithuanian auxiliary forces.", "On 29 July 1941, at a meeting of SS officers in Vileyka (Polish Wilejka, now Belarus), the ''Einsatzgruppen'' had been given a dressing-down for their low execution figures.", "Heydrich himself issued an order to include the Jewish women and children in all subsequent shooting operations.", "Accordingly, by the end of July the entire Jewish population of Vileyka, men, women and children, were murdered.", "Around 12 August, no less than two-thirds of the Jews shot in Surazh were women and children of all ages.", "In late August 1941 the ''Einsatzgruppen'' murdered 23,600 Jews in the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre.", "A month later, the largest mass shooting of Soviet Jews took place on 29–30 September in the ravine of Babi Yar, near Kyiv, where more than 33,000 Jewish people of all ages were systematically machine-gunned.", "In mid-October 1941, HSSPF South, under the command of Friedrich Jeckeln, had reported the indiscriminate murder of more than 100,000 people.By the end of December 1941, before the Wannsee Conference, over 439,800 Jewish people had been murdered, and the Final Solution policy in the east became common knowledge within the SS.", "Entire regions were reported \"free of Jews\" by the ''Einsatzgruppen''.", "Addressing his district governors in the General Government on 16 December 1941, Governor-General Hans Frank said: \"But what will happen to the Jews?", "Do you believe they will be lodged in settlements in Ostland?", "In Berlin, we were told: why all this trouble; we cannot use them in the Ostland or the Reichskommissariat either; liquidate them yourselves!\"", "Two days later, Himmler recorded the outcome of his discussion with Hitler.", "The result was: \"''als Partisanen auszurotten''\" (\"exterminate them as partisans\").", "Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer wrote that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.", "Within two years, the total number of shooting victims in the east had risen to between 618,000 and 800,000 Jews.===''Bezirk Bialystok'' and ''Reichskommissariat Ostland''===Several scholars have suggested that the Final Solution began in the newly formed district of ''Bezirk Bialystok''.", "The German army took over Białystok within days.", "On Friday, 27 June 1941, the Reserve Police Battalion 309 arrived in the city and set the Great Synagogue on fire with hundreds of Jewish men locked inside.", "The burning of the synagogue was followed by a frenzy of murders both inside the homes around the Jewish neighbourhood of Chanajki, and in the city park, lasting until night time.", "The next day, some 30 wagons of dead bodies were taken to mass graves.", "As noted by Browning, the murders were led by a commander \"who correctly intuited and anticipated the wishes of his Führer\" without direct orders.", "For reasons unknown, the number of victims in the official report by Major Weis was cut in half.", "The next mass-shooting of Polish Jews within the newly formed ''Reichskommissariat Ostland'' took place in two days of 5–7 August in occupied Pińsk, where over 12,000 Jews were murdered by the ''Waffen SS'', not the ''Einsatzgruppen''.", "An additional 17,000 Jews perished there in a ghetto uprising crushed a year later with the aid of Belorusian Auxiliary Police.An Israeli historian Dina Porat claimed that the Final Solution, i.e.", ": \"the systematic overall physical extermination of Jewish communities one after the other—began in Lithuania\" during the massive German chase after the Red Army across the ''Reichskommissariat Ostland''.", "The subject of the Holocaust in Lithuania has been analysed by Konrad Kweit from USHMM who wrote: \"Lithuanian Jews were among the first victims of the Holocaust beyond the eastern borders of occupied Poland.", "The Germans carried out the mass executions ... signaling the beginning of the 'Final Solution'.\"", "About 80,000 Jews were murdered in Lithuania by October (including in formerly Polish Wilno) and about 175,000 by the end of 1941 according to official reports.===''Reichskommissariat Ukraine''===Within one week from the start of Operation Barbarossa, Heydrich issued an order to his ''Einsatzgruppen'' for the on-the-spot execution of all Bolsheviks, interpreted by the SS to mean all Jews.", "One of the first indiscriminate massacres of men, women, and children in Reichskommissariat Ukraine took the lives of over 4,000 Polish Jews in occupied Łuck on 2–4 July 1941, murdered by ''Einsatzkommando'' 4a assisted by the Ukrainian People's Militia.", "Formed officially on 20 August 1941, the ''Reichskommissariat Ukraine''—stretching from prewar east-central Poland to Crimea—had become operational theatre of the ''Einsatzgruppe'' C. Within the Soviet Union proper, between 9 July 1941 and 19 September 1941 the city of Zhytomyr was made ''Judenfrei'' in three murder operations conducted by German and Ukrainian police in which 10,000 Jews perished.", "In the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre of 26–28 August 1941 some 23,600 Jews were shot in front of open pits (including 14,000–18,000 people expelled from Hungary).", "After an incident in Bila Tserkva in which 90 small children left behind had to be shot separately, Blobel requested that Jewish mothers hold them in their arms during mass shootings.", "Long before the conference at Wannsee, 28,000 Jews were shot by SS and Ukrainian military in Vinnytsia on 22 September 1941, followed by the 29 September massacre of 33,771 Jews at Babi Yar.", "In Dnipropetrovsk, on 13 October 1941 some 10,000–15,000 Jews were shot.", "In Chernihiv, 10,000 Jews were murdered and only 260 Jews were spared.", "In mid-October, during the Krivoy-Rog massacre of 4,000–5,000 Soviet Jews the entire Ukrainian auxiliary police force actively participated.", "In the first days of January 1942 in Kharkiv, 12,000 Jews were murdered, but smaller massacres continued in this period on daily basis in countless other locations.", "In August 1942 in the presence of only a few German SS men over 5,000 Jews were massacred in Polish Zofjówka by the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police leading to the town's complete sweep from existence.===''Distrikt Galizien''===Historians find it difficult to determine precisely when the first concerted effort at annihilation of all Jews began in the last weeks of June 1941 during Operation Barbarossa.", "Dr. Samuel Drix (''Witness to Annihilation''), Jochaim Schoenfeld (''Holocaust Memoirs''), and several survivors of the Janowska concentration camp, who were interviewed in the film ''Janovska Camp at Lvov'', among other witnesses, have argued that the Final Solution began in Lwów (Lemberg) in ''Distrikt Galizien'' of the General Government during the German advance across Soviet-occupied Poland.", "Statements and memoirs of survivors emphasize that, when Ukrainian nationalists and ''ad hoc'' Ukrainian People's Militia (soon reorganized as the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police) began to murder women and children, rather than only male Jews, the \"Final Solution\" had begun.", "Witnesses have said that such murders happened both prior to and during the pogroms reportedly triggered by the NKVD prisoner massacre.", "The question of whether there was some coordination between the Lithuanian and Ukrainian militias remains open (i.e.", "collaborating for a joint assault in Kovno, Wilno, and Lwów).The murders continued uninterrupted.", "On 12 October 1941, in Stanisławów, some 10,000–12,000 Jewish men, women, and children were shot at the Jewish cemetery by the German uniformed SS-men and Ukrainian Auxiliary Police during the so-called \"\" ''(de)''.", "The shooters began firing at 12 noon and continued without stopping by taking turns.", "There were picnic tables set up on the side with bottles of vodka and sandwiches for those who needed to rest from the deafening noise of gunfire.", "It was the single largest massacre of Polish Jews in ''Generalgouvernement'' prior to mass gassings of ''Aktion Reinhard'', which commenced at Bełżec in March 1942.Notably, the extermination operations in Chełmno had begun on 8 December 1941, one-and-a-half months before Wannsee, but Chełmno—located in ''Reichsgau Wartheland''—was not a part of Reinhard, and neither was Auschwitz-Birkenau functioning as an extermination center until November 1944 in Polish lands annexed by Hitler and added to Germany proper.The conference at Wannsee gave impetus to the so-called ''second sweep'' of the Holocaust by the bullet in the east.", "Between April and July 1942 in Volhynia, 30,000 Jews were murdered in death pits with the help of dozens of newly formed Ukrainian ''Schutzmannschaft''.", "Owing to good relations with the Ukrainian ''Hilfsverwaltung'', these auxiliary battalions were deployed by the SS also in Russia Center, Russia South, and in Byelorussia; each with about 500 soldiers divided into three companies.", "They participated in the extermination of 150,000 Volhynian Jews alone, or 98 percent of the Jewish inhabitants of the entire region.", "In July 1942 the Completion of the Final Solution in the General Government territory which included ''Distrikt Galizien'', was ordered personally by Himmler.", "He set the initial deadline for 31 December 1942." ], [ "Phase two: deportations to extermination camps", "Nazi extermination camps marked with black and white skulls.", "General Government territory: centre, ''Distrikt Galizien'': lower–right.", "Death camp at Auschwitz: lower–left (in ''Provinz Oberschlesien''), Nazi-Soviet line in redWhen the Wehrmacht invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the area of the General Government was enlarged by the inclusion of regions that had been annexed by the Soviet Union since the 1939 invasion.", "The murders of Jews from the Łódź Ghetto in the ''Warthegau'' district began in early December 1941 with the use of gas vans (approved by Heydrich) at the Kulmhof extermination camp.", "Victims were misled under the deceptive guise of \"Resettlement in the East\", organised by SS Commissioners, which was also tried and tested at Chełmno.", "By the time the European-wide Final Solution was formulated two months later, Heydrich's RSHA had already confirmed the effectiveness of industrial murder by exhaust fumes, and the strength of deception.Construction work on the first killing centre at Bełżec in occupied Poland began in October 1941, three months before the Wannsee Conference.", "The new facility was operational by March the following year.", "By mid-1942, two more death camps had been built on Polish lands: Sobibór operational by May 1942, and Treblinka operational in July.", "From July 1942, the mass murder of Polish and foreign Jews took place at Treblinka as part of Operation Reinhard, the deadliest phase of the Final Solution.", "More Jews were murdered at Treblinka than at any other Nazi extermination camp apart from Auschwitz.", "By the time the mass killings of Operation Reinhard ended in 1943, roughly two million Jews in German-occupied Poland had been murdered.", "The total number of people murdered in 1942 in Lublin/Majdanek, Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka was 1,274,166 by Germany's own estimation, not counting Auschwitz II Birkenau nor ''Kulmhof''.", "Their bodies were buried in mass graves initially.", "Both Treblinka and Bełżec were equipped with powerful crawler excavators from Polish construction sites in the vicinity, capable of most digging tasks without disrupting surfaces.", "Although other methods of extermination, such as the cyanic poison Zyklon B, were already being used at other Nazi killing centres such as Auschwitz, the ''Aktion Reinhard'' camps used lethal exhaust gases from captured tank engines.The ''Holocaust by bullets'' (as opposed to the ''Holocaust by gas'') went on in the territory of occupied Poland in conjunction with the ghetto uprisings, irrespective of death camps' quota.", "In two weeks of July 1942, the Słonim Ghetto revolt, crushed with the help of Latvian, Lithuanian, and Ukrainian ''Schutzmannschaft'', cost the lives of 8,000–13,000 Jews.", "The second largest mass shooting (to that particular date) took place in late October 1942 when the insurgency was suppressed in the Pińsk Ghetto; over 26,000 men, women and children were shot with the aid of Belarusian Auxiliary Police before the ghetto's closure.", "During the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (the largest single revolt by Jews during World War II), 13,000 Jews were killed in action before May 1943.Numerous other uprisings were quelled without impacting the pre-planned Nazi deportations actions.About two-thirds of the overall number of victims of the Final Solution were murdered before February 1943, which included the main phase of the extermination programme in the West launched by Eichmann on 11 June 1942 from Berlin.", "The Holocaust trains run by the Deutsche Reichsbahn and several other national railway systems delivered condemned Jewish captives from as far as Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Moravia, Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, and even Scandinavia.", "The cremation of exhumed corpses to destroy any evidence left behind began in early spring and continued throughout summer.", "The nearly completed clandestine programme of murdering all deportees was explicitly addressed by Heinrich Himmler in his Posen speeches made to the leadership of the Nazi Party on 4 October and during a conference in Posen (Poznan) of 6 October 1943 in occupied Poland.", "Himmler explained why the Nazi leadership found it necessary to murder Jewish women and children along with the Jewish men.", "The assembled functionaries were told that the Nazi state policy was \"the extermination of the Jewish people\" as such.On 19 October 1943, five days after the prisoner revolt in Sobibór, Operation Reinhard was terminated by Odilo Globocnik on behalf of Himmler.", "The camps responsible for the murder of nearly 2,700,000 Jews were soon closed.", "Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka were dismantled and ploughed over before spring.", "The operation was followed by the single largest German massacre of Jews in the entire war carried out on 3 November 1943; with approximately 43,000 prisoners shot one-by-one simultaneously in three nearby locations by the Reserve Police Battalion 101 hand-in-hand with the Trawniki men from Ukraine.", "Auschwitz alone had enough capacity to fulfill the Nazis' remaining extermination needs.===Auschwitz II Birkenau===Unlike Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, and Lublin-Majdanek, which were built in the occupied General Government territory inhabited by the largest concentrations of Jews, the killing centre at Auschwitz subcamp of Birkenau operated in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany directly.", "The new gas chambers at Bunker I were finished around March 1942 when the Final Solution was officially launched at Belzec.", "Until mid June, 20,000 Silesian Jews were murdered there using Zyklon B.", "In July 1942, Bunker II became operational.", "In August, another 10,000–13,000 Polish Jews from Silesia were murdered, along with 16,000 French Jews declared 'stateless', and 7,700 Jews from Slovakia.The infamous 'Gate of Death' at Auschwitz II for the incoming freight trains was built of brick and cement mortar in 1943, and the three-track rail spur was added.", "Until mid-August, 45,000 Thessaloniki Jews were murdered in a mere six months, including over 30,000 Jews from Sosnowiec (Sosnowitz) and Bendzin Ghettos.", "The spring of 1944 marked the beginning of the last phase of the Final Solution at Birkenau.", "The new big ramps and sidings were constructed, and two freight elevators were installed inside Crematoria II and III for moving the bodies faster.", "The size of the ''Sonderkommando'' was nearly quadrupled in preparation for the Special Operation Hungary (''Sonderaktion Ungarn'').", "In May 1944, Auschwitz-Birkenau became the site of one of the two largest mass murder operations in modern history, after the ''Großaktion Warschau'' deportations of the Warsaw Ghetto inmates to Treblinka in 1942.It is estimated that until July 1944 approximately 320,000 Hungarian Jews were gassed at Birkenau in less than eight weeks.", "The entire operation was photographed by the SS.", "In total, between April and November 1944, Auschwitz II received over 585,000 Jews from over a dozen regions as far as Greece, Italy, and France, including 426,000 Jews from Hungary, 67,000 from Łódź, 25,000 from Theresienstadt, and the last 23,000 Jews from the General Government.", "Auschwitz was liberated by the Red Army on 27 January 1945, when the gassing had already stopped." ], [ "Historiographic debate about the decision", "Historians disagree as to when and how the Nazi leadership decided that the European Jews should be exterminated.", "The controversy is commonly described as the functionalism versus intentionalism debate which began in the 1960s, and subsided thirty years later.", "In the 1990s, the attention of mainstream historians moved away from the question of top executive orders triggering the Holocaust and focused on factors that were overlooked earlier, such as personal initiative and ingenuity of countless functionaries in charge of the killing fields.", "No written evidence of Hitler ordering the Final Solution has ever been found to serve as a \"smoking gun\", and therefore, this one particular question remains unanswered.Hitler made numerous predictions regarding the Holocaust of the Jews of Europe prior to the beginning of World War II.", "During a speech given on 30 January 1939, on the sixth anniversary of his accession to power, Hitler said:Raul Hilberg, in his book ''The Destruction of the European Jews'', was the first historian to systematically document and analyse the Nazi project to murder every Jew in Europe.", "The book was initially published in 1961, and issued in an enlarged version in 1985.Hilberg's analysis of the steps that led to the destruction of European Jews revealed that it was \"an administrative process carried out by bureaucrats in a network of offices spanning a continent\".", "Hilberg divides this bureaucracy into four components or hierarchies: the Nazi Party, the civil service, industry, and the Wehrmacht armed forces—but their cooperation is viewed as \"so complete that we may truly speak of their fusion into a machinery of destruction\".", "For Hilberg, the key stages in the destruction process were: definition and registration of the Jews; expropriation of property; concentration into ghettoes and camps; and, finally, annihilation.", "Hilberg gives an estimate of 5.1 million as the total number of Jews murdered.", "He breaks this figure down into three categories: Ghettoization and general privation: over 800,000; open-air shootings: over 1,300,000; extermination camps: up to 3,000,000.With respect to the \"functionalism versus intentionalism\" debate about a master plan for the Final Solution, or the lack thereof, Hilberg posits what has been described as \"a kind of structural determinism\".", "Hilberg argues that \"a destruction process has an inherent pattern\" and the \"sequence of steps in a destruction process is thus determined\".", "If a bureaucracy is motivated \"to inflict maximum damage upon a group of people\", it is \"inevitable that a bureaucracy—no matter how decentralized its apparatus or how unplanned its activities—should push its victims through these stages\", culminating in their annihilation.In his monograph, ''The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942'', Christopher Browning argues that Nazi policy toward the Jews was radicalized twice: in September 1939, when the invasion of Poland implied policies of mass expulsion and massive loss of Jewish lives; and in spring 1941, when preparation for Operation Barbarossa involved the planning of mass execution, mass expulsion, and starvation—to dwarf what had happened in Jewish Poland.Browning believes that the \"Final Solution as it is now understood—the systematic attempt to murder every last Jew within the German grasp\" took shape during a five-week period, from 18 September to 25 October 1941.During this time, the sites of the first extermination camps were selected, different methods of murder were tested, Jewish emigration was forbidden, and 11 transports departed for Łódź as a temporary holding station.", "Of this period, Browning writes, \"The vision of the Final Solution had crystallised in the minds of the Nazi leadership, and was being turned into reality.\"", "This was the peak of Nazi victories against the Soviet Army on the Eastern Front, and, according to Browning, the stunning series of German victories led to both an expectation that the war would soon be won, and the planning of the final destruction of the \"Jewish-Bolshevik enemy\".Browning describes the creation of the extermination camps, which were responsible for the largest number of murders in the Final Solution, as bringing together three separate developments within Nazi Germany: the concentration camps which had been established in Germany since 1933; an expansion of the gassing technology of the Nazi euthanasia programme to provide a murder technique of greater efficiency and psychological detachment; and the creation of \"factories of death\" to be fed endless streams of victims by mass uprooting and deportation that utilized the experience and personnel from earlier population resettlement programmes—especially the HSSPF and Adolf Eichmann's RSHA for \"Jewish affairs and evacuations\".Peter Longerich argues that the search for a finite date on which the Nazis embarked upon the extermination of the Jews is futile, in his book ''Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews'' (2011).", "Longerich writes: \"We should abandon the notion that it is historically meaningful to try to filter the wealth of available historical material and pick out a single decision\" that led to the Holocaust.Timothy Snyder writes that Longerich \"grants the significance of Greiser's murder of Jews by gas at Chełmno in December 1941\", but also detects a significant moment of escalation in spring 1942, which includes \"the construction of the large death factory at Treblinka for the destruction of the Warsaw Jews, and the addition of a gas chamber to the concentration camp at Auschwitz for the murder of the Jews of Silesia\".", "Longerich suggests that it \"was only in the summer of 1942, that mass killing was finally understood as the realization of the Final Solution, rather than as an extensively violent preliminary to some later program of slave labor and deportation to the lands of a conquered USSR\".", "For Longerich, to see mass-murder as the Final Solution was an acknowledgement by the Nazi leadership that there would not be a German military victory over the USSR in the near future.David Cesarani emphasises the improvised, haphazard nature of Nazi policies in response to changing war time conditions in his overview, ''Final Solution: The Fate of the European Jews 1933–49'' (2016).", "\"Cesarani provides telling examples\", wrote Mark Roseman, \"of a lack of coherence and planning for the future in Jewish policy, even when we would most expect it.", "The classic instance is the invasion of Poland in 1939, when not even the most elementary consideration had been given to what should happen to Poland's Jews either in the shorter or longer term.", "Given that Poland was home to the largest Jewish population in the world, and that, in a couple of years, it would house the extermination camps, this is remarkable.", "\"Whereas Browning places the Nazi plan to exterminate the Jews in the context of the Wehrmacht victories on the Eastern front, Cesarani argues that the German subsequent realisation that there would be no swift victory over the Soviet Union \"scuppered the last territorial 'solution' still on the table: expulsion to Siberia\".", "Germany's declaration of war on the United States on 11 December 1941, \"meant that holding European Jews hostage to deter the US from entering the conflict was now pointless\".", "Cesarani concludes, the Holocaust \"was rooted in anti-Semitism, but it was shaped by war\".", "The fact that the Nazis were, ultimately, so successful in murdering between five and six million Jews was not due to the efficiency of Nazi Germany or the clarity of their policies.", "\"Rather, the catastrophic rate of killing was due to German persistence ... and the duration of the murderous campaigns.", "This last factor was largely a consequence of allied military failure.", "\"Reichstag session of 11 December 1941: Adolf Hitler declares war on the United States of America.The entry of the U.S. into the War is also crucial to the time-frame proposed by Christian Gerlach, who argued in his 1997 thesis that the Final Solution decision was announced on 12 December 1941, when Hitler addressed a meeting of the Nazi Party (the ''Reichsleiter'') and of regional party leaders (the ''Gauleiter'').", "The day after Hitler's speech, on 13 December 1941, Joseph Goebbels wrote in his diary:Cesarani notes that by 1943, as the military position of the German forces deteriorated, the Nazi leadership became more openly explicit about the Final Solution.", "In March, Goebbels confided to his diary: \"On the Jewish question especially, we are in it so deeply that there is no getting out any longer.", "And that is a good thing.", "Experience teaches that a movement and a people who have burned their bridges fight with much greater determination and fewer constraints than those that have a chance of retreat.", "\"When Himmler addressed senior SS personnel and leading members of the regime in the Posen speeches on 4 October 1943, he used \"the fate of the Jews as a sort of blood bond to tie the civil and military leadership to the Nazi cause\"." ], [ "See also", "* Höfle Telegram with arrivals for the camps of ''Einsatz Reinhardt''* History of the Jews during World War II* Korherr Report written in 1943 on the progress of the Final Solution* Never again* Porajmos, Romani genocide during World War II* Timeline of the Holocaust – The genocide of Jewish people by Nazi Germany, under the rule of Adolf Hitler" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * Newer edition by Univ.", "of Nebraska Press / Yad Vashem 2007.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *Reitlinger, Gerald Roberts.", "1953.", "''The Final Solution: The Attempt to Exterminate the Jews of Europe 1939–1945.''", "London: Valentine Mitchell.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Website of the House of the Wannsee Conference* The Development of the \"Final Solution\" – lecture from Dr. David Silberklang, Yad Vashem* Elimination of the Jewish National Home in Palestine: The Einsatzkommando of the Panzer army Africa, 1942 by Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers* Death Decree: Göring directive officially launches the Final Solution" ] ]
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[ [ "Eusebius (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eusebius''' (; Greek Εὐσέβιος \"pious\" from ''eu'' (εὖ) \"well\" and ''sebein'' (σέβειν) \"to respect\") may refer to:* Eusebius of Laodicea (died 268), bishop of Laodicea* Pope Eusebius (died 310), Pope in 309 or 310* Eusebius (AD 263 – 339; Eusebius of Caesarea and Eusebius Pamphili): Christian exegete, historian and polemicist.", "* Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341), bishop of Berytus, Nicomedia and Constantinople, leader of Arianism* Eusebius (consul 347) (died c. 350), Roman consul in 347* Saint Eusebius of Rome (died 357), priest and martyr* Eusebius (consul 359), Roman consul in 359* Eusebius of Emesa (300–360), bishop of Emesa* Eusebius (praepositus sacri cubiculi), under Constantius II (died 361 AD)* Eusebius of Gaza (died c. 362), early Christian martyr* Saint Eusebius of Vercelli (283–371), bishop of Vercelli, opponent of Arianism* Saint Eusebius of Samosata (died 4th-century), bishop of Samosata* Saint Eusebius the Hermit (4th century), solitary monk of Syria* Eusebius of Myndus (4th century), Neoplatonist philosopher* Eusebius (sophist) (4th century), Roman sophist* Saint Eusebius of Cremona (died c. 423), monk, pre-congregational saint, and disciple of Jerome* Saint Eusebius (bishop of Milan) (died 462), archbishop of Milan* Eusebius (consul 489), Roman consul in 489 and 493* Eusebius of Dorylaeum (5th century), bishop of Dorylaeum, opponent of Nestorianism and Monophysitism* Eusebius, bishop of Paris until his death in 555* Eusebius of Alexandria (6th century), Christian author* Eusebius of Thessalonika (6th or 7th century), bishop of Thessalonika during the time of Pope Gregory the Great* Hwaetberht (died c. 740s), Abbot of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Priory, who wrote under the pen-name of ''Eusebius''* Eusebius of Angers (died 1081), bishop of Angers* Eusebius of Esztergom, c. 1200-1270) Hungarian priest, hermit, founder of the Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit* Karl Eusebius of Liechtenstein (1611–1684), the second prince of Liechtenstein* Eusebius, pen name of Edmund Rack (1735–1787)* Eusebius, one of the ''personae'' of Robert Schumann (1810–1856)* Eusebius Barnard (1802–1865), American minister and abolitionist'''Eusebius''' is also the name of:* Jerome (347–420), Christian scholar and church father, whose full name was ''Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus''" ], [ "See also", "* Eusebia (disambiguation)* Eusebio (disambiguation)* Eusebeia (Greek: εὐσέβεια), a Greek philosophical and Biblical concept meaning inner piety, spiritual maturity, or godliness." ] ]
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[ [ "Eurystheus" ], [ "Introduction", "''Hercule apporte à Eurysthée la ceinture de la reine des Amazones'' by Daniel SarrabatIn Greek mythology, '''Eurystheus''' (; , ) was king of Tiryns, one of three Mycenaean strongholds in the Argolid, although other authors including Homer and Euripides cast him as ruler of Argos." ], [ "Family", "Eurystheus was the son of King Sthenelus and Nicippe (also called Antibia or Archippe), and he was a grandson of the hero Perseus.", "His sisters were Alcyone and Medusa (Astymedusa).", "Eurystheus married Antimache, daughter of Amphidamas of Arcadia.", "Their children were Admete, Alexander, Iphimedon, Eurybius, Mentor, Perimedes and Eurypylus." ], [ "Mythology", "=== Labours of Heracles ===In the contest of wills between Hera and Zeus over whose candidate would be hero, fated to defeat the remaining creatures representing an old order and bring about the reign of the Twelve Olympians, Eurystheus was Hera's candidate and Heracles—though his name implies that at one archaic stage of myth-making he had carried \"Hera's fame\"—was the candidate of Zeus.", "The arena for the actions that would bring about this deep change are the Twelve Labors imposed on Heracles by Eurystheus.", "The immediate necessity for the Labours of Heracles is as penance for Heracles' murder of his own family, in a fit of madness, which had been sent by Hera; however, further human rather than mythic motivation is supplied by mythographers who note that their respective families had been rivals for the throne of Mycenae.", "Details of the individual episodes may be found in the article on the Labours of Heracles, but Hera was connected with all of the opponents Heracles had to overcome.Heracles' human stepfather Amphitryon was also a grandson of Perseus, and since Amphitryon's father (Alcaeus) was older than Eurystheus' father (Sthenelus), he might have received the kingdom, but Sthenelus had banished Amphitryon for accidentally killing (a familiar mytheme) the eldest son in the family (Electryon).", "When, shortly before his son Heracles was born, Zeus proclaimed the next-born descendant of Perseus should get the kingdom, Hera thwarted his ambitions by delaying Alcmene's labour and having her candidate Eurystheus born prematurely at seven months.storage jar as Heracles brings him the Erymanthian boar.", "Side A from a red-figure kylix by Oltos, ca.", "510 BC, (Louvre)|left Heracles' first task was to slay the Nemean Lion and bring back its skin, which Heracles decided to wear.", "Eurystheus was so scared by Heracles' fearsome guise that he hid in a subterranean bronze winejar, and from that moment forth all labors were communicated to Heracles through a herald, Copreus.For his second labour, to slay the Lernaean Hydra, Heracles took with him his nephew, Iolaus, as a charioteer.", "When Eurystheus found out that Heracles' nephew had helped him he declared that the labour had not been completed alone and as a result did not count towards the ten labours set for him.Eurystheus' third task did not involve killing a beast, but capturing one alive—the Ceryneian Hind, a golden-horned hind or doe sacred to Artemis.", "Heracles knew that he had to return the hind, as he had promised, to Artemis, so he agreed to hand it over on the condition that Eurystheus himself come out and take it from him.", "Eurystheus did come out, but the moment Heracles let the hind go, she sprinted back to her mistress, and Heracles departed, saying that Eurystheus had not been quick enough.When Heracles returned with the Erymanthian Boar, Eurystheus was again frightened and hid in his jar, begging Heracles to get rid of the beast; Heracles obliged.The fifth labour proposed by Eurystheus was to clear out the numerous stables of Augeias.", "Striking a deal with Augeias, Heracles proposed a payment of a tenth of Augeias' cattle if the labour was completed successfully.", "Not believing the task feasible, Augeias agreed, asking his son Phyleus to witness.Heracles rerouted two nearby rivers (Alpheis and Peneios) through the stable, clearing out the dung rapidly.", "When Augeias learned of Heracles' bargain for the task, he refused payment.", "Heracles brought the case to court, and Phyleus testified against his father.", "Enraged, Augeias banished both Phyleus and Heracles from the land before the court had cast their vote.", "However, Eurystheus refused to credit the labour to Heracles, as he had performed it for payment.", "So Heracles went and drove Augeias out of the kingdom and installed Phyleus as king.", "Heracles then took his tenth of the cattle and left them to graze in a field by his home.For his sixth labour, Heracles had to drive the Stymphalian Birds off the marshes they plagued.", "He did so, shooting down several birds with his Hydra-poisoned arrows and bringing them back to Eurystheus as proof.For his seventh labour, Heracles captured the Cretan Bull.", "He used a lasso and rode it back to his cousin.", "Eurystheus offered to sacrifice the bull to Hera his patron, who hated Heracles.", "She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles.", "The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull.When Heracles brought back the man-eating Mares of Diomedes successfully, Eurystheus dedicated the horses to Hera and allowed them to roam freely in the Argolid.", "Bucephalus, Alexander the Great's horse, was said to be descended from these mares.To acquire the belt of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, was Heracles' ninth task.", "This task was at the request of Eurystheus' daughter, Admete.", "For the tenth labour, he stole the cattle of the giant Geryon, which Eurystheus then sacrificed to Hera.To extend what may have once been ten Labours to the canonical dozen, it was said that Eurystheus didn't count the Hydra, as he was assisted, nor the Augean stables, as Heracles received payment for his work.", "For the eleventh labour, Heracles had to obtain the Apples of the Hesperides; he convinced their father, the Titan Atlas, to help him, but did his share of work by temporarily holding up the sky in the Titan's stead.", "For his final labour, he was to capture Cerberus, the three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to Hades.", "When he managed to bring the struggling animal back, the terrified Eurystheus hid in his jar one more time, begging Heracles to leave for good and take the dog with him.===Death===After Heracles died, Eurystheus remained bitter over the indignity the hero had caused him.", "He attempted to destroy Heracles' many children (the Heracleidae, led by Hyllus), who fled to Athens.", "He attacked the city but was soundly defeated, and Eurystheus and his sons were killed.", "Though it is widely told that Hyllus killed Eurystheus, the stories about the killer of Eurystheus and the fate of his corpse vary, but the Athenians believed the burial site of Eurystheus remained on their soil and served to protect the country against the descendants of Heracles, who traditionally included the Spartans and Argives.After Eurystheus' death, the brothers Atreus and Thyestes, whom he had left in charge during his absence, took over the city, the former exiling the latter and assuming the kingship, while Tiryns returned to the kingship of Argos." ], [ "Eurystheus in Euripides", "Eurystheus was a character in ''Heracleidae'', a play by Euripides.", "Macaria, one of the daughters of Heracles, and her brothers and sisters hid from Eurystheus in Athens, which was ruled by King Demophon.", "As Eurystheus prepared to attack, an oracle told Demophon that he would win if and only if a noble woman was sacrificed to Persephone.", "Macaria volunteered for the sacrifice and a spring was named the Macarian spring in her honor.", "Eurystheus speaks prophetically of his burial within Attica, claiming that he will be an anti-hero of sorts, though one who will eventually protect the Athenians." ], [ "In popular culture", "* Eurystheus appears in the 1958 film ''Hercules'' and is portrayed by Italian actor Arturo Dominici.", "In contrast to the character's mythology, the Eurystheus depicted in the film is only a supporting character seen as a criminal recruited to kill King Aeson of Iolcus.", "During the film's climax, he is confronted and strangled to death by Hercules' chain lasso.", "* Eurystheus appears in the 1960 film ''Goliath and the Dragon,'' portrayed by Broderick Crawford.", "In this second known film appearance, he is depicted as a warlord set on conquering Thebes and becoming its new king.", "He sets Hercules on a dangerous mission (reminiscent of the Twelfth Labor of Hercules), believing the hero will perish and leave Thebes defenseless without its champion.", "Eurystheus is later killed in a dungeon scene with Hercules after being pushed by a slave girl into an open pit of snakes.", "* Eurystheus appears in the 2014 film ''Hercules,'' portrayed by Joseph Fiennes.", "Here, Eurystheus (depicted as King of Athens in 361 BC, when the city was actually a democracy) is responsible for the death of Hercules' family, rather than Hercules under Hera's spell, having drugged Hercules and sent three black wolves to attack him.", "The wolves killed Hercules' family, though Hercules believed that it was he who killed his own family.", "Hercules avenges his family by stabbing Eurystheus to death with his own dagger." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Apollodorus, ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.ISBN 0-674-99135-4.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "*Diodorus Siculus, ''The Library of History'' translated by Charles Henry Oldfather.", "Twelve volumes.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989.Vol.", "3.Books 4.59–8.Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site*Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica.", "Vol 1-2''.", "Immanel Bekker.", "Ludwig Dindorf.", "Friedrich Vogel.", "in aedibus B. G. Teubneri.", "Leipzig.", "1888-1890.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "*Euripides, ''Heracleidae'' with an English translation by David Kovacs.", "Cambridge.", "Harvard University Press.", "1994.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "*Kerenyi, Karl.", "''The Heroes of the Greeks''.", "New York: Thames and Hudson, 1959.", "*Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library*Pausanias, ''Graeciae Descriptio.''", "''3 vols''.", "Leipzig, Teubner.", "1903.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "*Strabo, ''The Geography of Strabo.''", "Edition by H.L.", "Jones.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "*Strabo, ''Geographica'' edited by A. Meineke.", "Leipzig: Teubner.", "1877.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "*Tzetzes, John, ''Book of Histories,'' Book II-IV translated by Gary Berkowitz from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826.Online version at theio.com" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Effects unit" ], [ "Introduction", "A pedalboard allows a performer to create a ready-to-use chain of multiple pedals to achieve certain types of sounds.", "Signal chain order: tuner, compressor, octave generator, wah-wah pedal, overdrive, distortion, fuzz, EQ and tremolo.An '''effects unit''', '''effects processor''', or '''effects pedal''' is an electronic device that alters the sound of a musical instrument or other audio source through audio signal processing.Common sound effects include distortion/overdrive, often used with electric guitar in electric blues and rock music; dynamic effects such as volume pedals and compressors, which affect loudness; filters such as wah-wah pedals and graphic equalizers, which modify frequency ranges; modulation effects, such as chorus, flangers and phasers; pitch effects such as pitch shifters; and time effects, such as reverb and delay, which create echoing sounds and emulate the sound of different spaces.Most modern effects use solid-state electronics or digital signal processors.", "Some effects, particularly older ones such as Leslie speakers and spring reverbs, use mechanical components or vacuum tubes.", "Effects are often used as stompboxes, typically placed on the floor and controlled with footswitches.", "They may also be built into guitar amplifiers, instruments (such as the Hammond B-3 organ), tabletop units designed for DJs and record producers, and rackmounts, and are widely used as audio plug-ins in such common formats as VST, AAX, and AU.Musicians, audio engineers and record producers use effects units during live performances or in the studio, typically with electric guitar, bass guitar, electronic keyboard or electric piano.", "While effects are most frequently used with electric or electronic instruments, they can be used with any audio source, such as acoustic instruments, drums, and vocals." ], [ "Terminology", "Various type of guitar and bass effect pedals.An effects unit is also called an ''effect box'', ''effects device'', ''effects processor'' or simply an ''effect''.", "The abbreviation ''F/X'' or ''FX'' is sometimes used.", "A pedal-style unit may be called a ''stomp box'', ''stompbox'', ''effects pedal'' or ''pedal''.", "Unprocessed audio coming into an effects unit is referred to as ''dry'', while the processed audio output is referred to as ''wet''.A musician bringing many pedals to a live show or recording session often mounts the pedals on a guitar pedalboard, to reduce set-up and tear-down time and, for pedalboards with lids, protect the pedals during transportation.", "When a musician has multiple effects in a rack mounted road case, this case may be called an ''effects rack'' or ''rig''.", "When rackmounted effects are mounted in a roadcase, this also speeds up a musician's set-up and tear-down time, because all of the effects can be connected together inside the rack case." ], [ "Form factors", "Effects units are available in a variety of form factors.", "Stompboxes are used in both live performance and studio recording.", "Rackmount devices saw a heavy usage during the later 20th century, due to their superior processing power and desirable tones as compared to pedal-style units.", "However, by the 21st century, with the advent of digital plugins and more powerful stompboxes for live usage, the use of rack-mounted effect units has declined.", "An effects unit can consist of analog or digital electronics or a combination of the two.", "During a live performance, the effect is plugged into the electrical ''signal'' path of the instrument.", "In the studio, an instrument or another sound source — possibly an auxiliary output of a mixer or a DAW — is patched into the effect.", "Whatever the form factor, effects units are part of a studio or musician's outboard gear.=== Stompboxes ===Ibanez Tube Screamer TS9 overdrive pedalStompboxes are small plastic or metal chassis that usually lie on the floor or in a pedalboard to be operated by the user's feet.", "Pedals are often rectangle-shaped, but there are a range of other shapes (e.g., the circular Fuzz Face).", "Typical simple stompboxes have a single footswitch, one to three potentiometers for controlling the effect, and a single LED that indicates if the effect is on.", "A typical distortion or overdrive pedal's three potentiometers, for example, control the level or intensity of the distortion effect, the tone of the effected signal and the output level of the effected signal.", "Depending on the type of pedal, the potentiometers may control different parameters of the effect.", "For a chorus effect, for example, the knobs may control the depth and speed of the effect.", "Complex stompboxes may have multiple footswitches, many knobs, additional switches or buttons that are operated with the fingers, and an alphanumeric LED display that indicates the status of the effect with short acronyms (e.g., DIST for \"distortion\").An example of an ''effects chain''.", "An '''''' is formed by connecting two or more stompboxes forming a signal chain.", "Effect chains are typically created between the guitar and the amp or between the preamplifier and the power amp.", "When a pedal is off or inactive, the electric audio signal coming into the pedal diverts onto a ''bypass'', an unaltered ''dry'' signal that continues on to other effects down the chain.", "In this way, a musician can combine effects within a chain in a variety of ways without having to reconnect boxes during a performance.A ''controller'' or ''effects management system'' lets the musician create multiple effect chains, so they can select one or several chains by tapping a single switch.", "The switches are usually organized in a row or a simple grid.It is common to put compression, wah and overdrive pedals at the start of the chain; modulation (chorus, flanger, phase shifter) in the middle; and time-based units (delay/echo, reverb at the end.", "When using many effects, unwanted noise and hum can be introduced into the sound.", "Some performers use a noise gate pedal at the end of a chain to reduce unwanted noise and hum introduced by overdrive units or vintage gear.===Rackmounts===Rackmounted effects in road cases.", "These road cases have the front protective panels removed so the units can be operated.", "The protective panels are put back on and latched shut to protect the effects during transportation.Eventide HE3000 Ultra-Harmonizer pictured here displays the entire name of an effect or setting, which helps users to find their preferred settings and effects.Rackmount effects units are typically built in a thin metal chassis with ''rack ears'' designed to be screw-mounted into the rack rails of a 19-inch rack that is standard to the music technology industry.", "Rackmount effects have a standardized 19-inch width, and height of 1 or more rack unit(s).", "Devices that are less than 19 inches wide can sometimes be made rackmount-compatible via special rackmount adapters.A rackmount effects unit may contain electronic circuitry identical to a stompbox's, although its circuits are typically more complex.", "Unlike stompboxes, rackmounts usually have several different types of effects.", "Rackmount effects units are controlled by knobs, switches or buttons on their front panel, and often remote-controllable by a MIDI digital control interface or pedal-style ''foot controller''.Rackmount effects units are most commonly used in recording studios and front of house live sound mixing situations.", "Musicians may use them in place of stompboxes, as use of a rack can offer space for conveniently mounting additional rackmount equipment or accessories.", "Rackmounted effects units are typically mounted in a rack, which may be housed within a road case, a durable case with removable access panels that protect the equipment within during transportation.", "Because of this, rackmount effect units are not always designed with durable protective features such as corner protectors which are used on stompboxes and amps that are designed to be transported as standalone units.===Multi-effects and tabletop units===Boss ME-5 multi-effects from 1988 included several pedal effects in one unit, with the ability to write and recall presets.A multi-effects (MFX) device is a single electronics effects pedal or rackmount device that contains many different electronic effects.", "multi-effects devices allow users to ''preset'' combinations of different effects, allowing musicians quick on-stage access to different effects combinations.", "Multi-effects units typically have a range of distortion, chorus, flanger, phaser, delay, looper and reverb effects.", "Pedal-style multi-effects range from fairly inexpensive stompboxes that contain two pedals and a few knobs to control the effects to large, expensive floor units with many pedals and knobs.", "Rack-mounted multi-effects units may be mounted in the same rack as preamplifiers and power amplifiers.A tabletop unit is a type of multi-effects device that sits on a desk and is controlled manually.", "One such example is the Pod guitar amplifier modeler.", "Digital effects designed for DJs are often sold in tabletop models, so that the units can be placed alongside a DJ mixer, turntables and scratching gear.===Built-in units===A 1968 Fender Bandmaster amplifier.", "Note the four inputs, two for regular sound and two which are run through the onboard tremolo effect unit.Effects are often incorporated into instrument amplifiers and even some types of instruments.", "Electric guitar amplifiers typically have built-in reverb, chorus and distortion, while acoustic guitar and keyboard amplifiers tend to only have built-in reverb.", "Some acoustic instrument amplifiers have reverb, chorus, compression and equalization (bass and treble) effects.", "Vintage guitar amps typically have tremolo and vibrato effects, and sometimes reverb.", "The Fender Bandmaster Reverb amp, for example, had built-in reverb and vibrato.", "Built-in effects may offer the user less control than standalone pedals or rackmounted units.", "For example, on some lower- to mid-priced bass amplifiers, the only control on the audio compression effect is a button or switch to turn it on or off, or a single knob.", "In contrast, a pedal or rackmounted unit would typically provide ratio, threshold and attack controls or other options to allow the user additional control over the compression.Some guitar amplifiers have built-in multi-effects units or digital amplifier modeling effects.", "Bass amplifiers are less likely to have built-in effects, although some may have a compressor/limiter or fuzz bass effect.Instruments with built-in effects include Hammond organs, electronic organs, electronic pianos and digital synthesizers.", "Built-in effects for keyboards typically include reverb, chorus and, for Hammond organ, vibrato.", "Many clonewheel organs include an overdrive effect.", "Occasionally, acoustic-electric and electric guitars will have built-in effects, such as a preamp or equalizer." ], [ "History", "===Studio effects and early stand-alone units===The earliest sound effects were strictly used in studio productions.", "Microphones placed in echo chambers with specially designed acoustic properties simulated the sound of live performances in different environments.", "In the mid to late 1940s, recording engineers and experimental musicians such as Les Paul began manipulating reel-to-reel recording tape to create echo effects and unusual, futuristic sounds.", "In 1948, DeArmond released the Trem-Trol, the first commercially available stand-alone effects unit.", "This device produced a tremolo by passing an instrument's electrical signal through a water-based electrolytic fluid.", "Most stand-alone effects of the 1950s and early 1960s such as the Gibson GA-VI vibrato unit and the Fender reverb box, were expensive and impractical, requiring bulky transformers and high voltages.", "The original stand-alone units were not especially in-demand as many effects came built into amplifiers.", "The first popular stand-alone was the 1958 Watkins Copicat, a relatively portable tape echo effect made famous by the British band, The Shadows.===Amplifiers===Fender Vibrolux Reverb amp and a ROSS ampEffects built into tube-powered guitar amplifiers were the first effects that musicians used regularly outside the studio.", "From the late 1940s onward, the Gibson began including vibrato circuits in combo amplifiers that incorporated one or more speakers with the amp.", "The 1950 Ray Butts EchoSonic amp was the first to feature a tape echo, which quickly became popular with guitarists such as Chet Atkins, Carl Perkins, Scotty Moore, Luther Perkins, and Roy Orbison.", "Both Premier and Gibson built amplifiers with spring reverb.", "Fender began manufacturing the tremolo amps Tremolux in 1955 and Vibrolux in 1956.Distortion was not an effect originally intended by amplifier manufacturers, but could often easily be achieved by ''overdriving'' the power supply in early tube amplifiers.", "In the 1950s, guitarists began deliberately increasing gain beyond its intended levels to achieve ''warm'' distorted sounds.", "Among the first musicians to experiment with distortion were Willie Johnson of Howlin' Wolf, Goree Carter, Joe Hill Louis, Ike Turner, Guitar Slim, and Chuck Berry.In 1954, Pat Hare produced heavily distorted power chords for several recordings (including James Cotton's \"Cotton Crop Blues\"), creating \"a grittier, nastier, more ferocious electric guitar sound,\" accomplished by turning the volume knob on his amplifier \"all the way to the right until the speaker was screaming.\"", "Link Wray's 1958 recording \"Rumble\" inspired young musicians such as Pete Townshend of The Who, Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin, Jeff Beck, Dave Davies of The Kinks, and Neil Young to explore distortion by various means.", "In 1966, the British company Marshall Amplification began producing the Marshall 1963, a guitar amplifier capable of producing the distorted ''crunch'' that rock musicians were starting to seek.===Stompboxes===The Fuzz Face effect pedalThe electronic transistor finally made it possible to fit effects circuitry into highly portable stompbox units.", "Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, allowing for much more compact formats and greater stability.", "The first transistorized guitar effect was the 1962 Maestro Fuzz Tone pedal, which became a sensation after its use in the 1965 Rolling Stones hit \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\".Warwick Electronics manufactured the first wah-wah pedal, The Clyde McCoy, in 1967 and that same year Roger Mayer developed the first octave effect, which Jimi Hendrix named \"Octavio\".", "Upon first hearing the Octavia, Hendrix reportedly rushed back to the studio and immediately used it to record the guitar solos on \"Purple Haze\" and \"Fire\".", "In 1968, Univox began marketing Shin-ei's Uni-Vibe pedal, an effect designed by noted audio engineer Fumio Mieda that mimicked the odd phase shift and chorus effects of the Leslie rotating speakers used in Hammond organs.", "The pedals soon became favorite effects of guitarists Jimi Hendrix and Robin Trower.", "In 1976, Roland subsidiary Boss Corporation released the CE-1 Chorus Ensemble, the first chorus pedal, created by taking a chorus circuit from an amplifier and putting it into a stompbox.", "By the mid-1970s a variety of solid-state effects pedals including flangers, chorus pedals, ring modulators and phase shifters were available.Boss pedals connected together.In the 1980s, digital rackmount units began replacing stompboxes as the effects format of choice.", "Often musicians would record ''dry'', unaltered tracks in the studio and effects would be added in post-production.", "The success of Nirvana's 1991 album ''Nevermind'' helped to re-ignite interest in stompboxes.", "Some grunge guitarists would chain several fuzz pedals together and plug them into a tube amplifier.", "Throughout the 1990s, musicians committed to a lo-fi aesthetic such as J Mascis of Dinosaur Jr., Stephen Malkmus of Pavement and Robert Pollard of Guided by Voices continued to use analog effects pedals.Effects and effects units—stompboxes in particular—have been celebrated by pop and rock musicians in album titles, songs and band names.", "The Big Muff, a fuzzbox manufactured by Electro-Harmonix, is commemorated by the Depeche Mode song \"Big Muff\" and the Mudhoney EP ''Superfuzz Bigmuff''.", "Nine Inch Nails, Pink Floyd, George Harrison, They Might Be Giants and Joy Division are among the many musicians who have referenced effects units in their music." ], [ "Techniques{{anchor|Types}}", "===Distortion===Clipping an instrument's audio signal produces distortionDistortion, overdrive, and fuzz effects units add a ''warm'', ''gritty'', or ''fuzzy'' character to an audio signal by re-shaping or clipping it, which distorts the shape of its waveform by flattening its peaks, creating ''warm'' sounds by adding harmonics or ''gritty'' sounds by adding inharmonic overtones.", "Distortion effects are sometimes called gain effects, as distorted guitar sounds were first achieved by increasing the gain of tube amplifiers.While distortion effects units produce perfectly flattened peaks or ''hard'' clipping, overdrive effects units produce ''soft'' tube-like distortion by compressing the waveform without completely flattening it.", "Much like guitar tube amplifiers, overdrive effects units are capable of producing ''clean'' sounds at lower volumes and distorted ''warm'' sounds at higher volumes.Notable examples of distortion and overdrive effects units include the Boss DS-1 Distortion, Ibanez Tube Screamer, Marshall ShredMaster, MXR Distortion +, and Pro Co RAT.A fuzz pedal, or fuzzbox, is a type of overdrive effects unit that clips a signal until it is nearly a squarewave, resulting in a heavily distorted or ''fuzzy'' sound.", "Fuzzboxes may contain frequency multiplier circuitry to achieve a harsh timbre by adding complex harmonics.", "The Rolling Stones' song \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\", with a fuzz effect featured prominently on the main electric guitar riff played by Keith Richards, greatly popularized the use of fuzz effects.", "Fuzz bass (also called bass overdrive) is a style of playing the electric bass that produces a buzzy, overdriven sound via a tube or transistor amp or by using a fuzz or overdrive pedal.Notable examples of fuzz effect units include the: Arbiter Fuzz Face, Electro-Harmonix Big Muff, Shin-ei Companion FY-2, Univox Super-Fuzz, Vox Tone Bender, Z.Vex Fuzz Factory.While distortion effect units are most associated with electric and bass guitar, they are also commonly used on keyboard instruments (i.e.", "synthesizers, combo and tonewheel organs, electric piano), as well as drums and vocals.===Dynamics===A rack of rackmount audio compressors in a recording studio.", "From top to bottom: Retro Instruments/Gates STA level; Spectra Sonic; Dbx 162; Dbx 165; Empirical Labs Distressor; Smart Research C2; Chandler Limited TG1; Daking FET (91579); and Altec 436c.Also called volume and amplitude effects, dynamics effects modify the volume of an instrument.", "Dynamics effects were among the first effects introduced to guitarists.", "''Boost/volume pedal'': When activated, a ''boost'' or ''clean boost'' pedal amplifies the volume of an instrument by increasing the amplitude of its audio signal.", "These units are generally used for ''boosting'' volume during solos and preventing signal loss in long effects chains.", "A guitarist switching from rhythm guitar to lead guitar for a guitar solo may use a boost to increase the volume of their solo.Volume effects: Electro-Harmonix LPB-1, Fender Volume Pedal, MXR Micro Amp, Ernie Ball Volume Pedal.", "Treadle-based volume pedals are used by electric instrument players (guitar, bass, keyboards) to adjust the volume of their instrument with one foot while their hands are being used to play their instrument.", "Treadle-style volume pedals are often also used to create swelling effects by removing the attack of a note or chord, as popularised by pedal steel guitar players.", "This enables electric guitar and pedal steel players to imitate the soft swelling sound that an orchestra string section can produce, in which a note or chord starts very softly and then grows in volume.", "Treadle-based volume pedals do not usually have batteries or require external power.", "''Compressor'': Compressors make loud sounds quieter and quiet sounds louder by decreasing or ''compressing'' the dynamic range of an audio signal.", "A compressor is often used to stabilize volume and alter the sound of a note's ''attack''.", "With extreme settings of its controls, a compressor can function as a limiter.Compressor effects: Keeley Compressor, MXR Dyna Comp, Boss CS-3 Compression Sustainer.", "''Noise gate'': Noise gates attenuate hum, hiss, and static in the signal by greatly diminishing the volume when the signal falls below a set threshold.", "Noise gates are expanders—meaning that, unlike compressors, they increase the dynamic range of an audio signal to make quiet sounds even quieter.", "If used with extreme settings and combined with reverb, they can create unusual sounds, such as the gated drum effect used in 1980s pop songs, a style popularized by the Phil Collins song ''In the Air Tonight''.Noise gate effects: Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor.===Filter===Peter Frampton's Talk box.Filter effects alter the frequency content of an audio signal that passes through them by either boosting or weakening specific frequencies or frequency regions.", "''Equalizer'': An equalizer is a set of linear filters that strengthen (\"boost\") or weaken (\"cut\") specific frequency regions.", "While basic home stereos often have equalizers for two bands, to adjust bass and treble, professional graphic equalizers offer much more targeted control over the audio frequency spectrum.", "Audio engineers use highly sophisticated equalizers to eliminate unwanted sounds, make an instrument or voice more prominent, and enhance particular aspects of an instrument's tone.Equalizer effects: Boss GE-7 Equalizer, MXR 10-band EQ Pedal.Thomas Organ Cry Baby Wah-wah pedal (1970) manufactured by JEN.", "''Talk box'': A talk box directs the sound from an electric guitar or synthesizer into the mouth of a performer using a tube, allowing the sound to be shaped into vowels and consonants with movements of the mouth.", "The modified sound is then picked up by a microphone.", "In this way the guitarist is able create the effect that the guitar \"licks\" are \"talking\".", "Some famous uses of the talkbox include Bon Jovi's \"Livin' on a Prayer\", Stevie Wonder's \"Black Man\", Mötley Crüe's \"Kickstart My Heart\", Joe Walsh's \"Rocky Mountain Way\", Alice in Chains's \"Man in the box\" and Peter Frampton's \"Show Me the Way\".Talk boxes: Dunlop HT1 Heil Talk Box, Rocktron Banshee.", "''Wah-wah'': A wah-wah pedal creates vowel-like sounds by altering the frequency spectrum produced by an instrument—i.e., how loud it is at each separate frequency—in what is known as a \"spectral glide\" or \"sweep\".The device is operated by a foot treadle that opens and closes a potentiometer.", "Wah-wah pedals are often used by funk and rock guitarists.Wah effects: Dunlop Cry Baby, Morley Power Wah, Vox V846 Wah.", "''Auto-wah'': A filter effect that is controlled by the volume of the input signal.", "The most common filter type used for this effect pedal is the low-pass filter, although many pedal designs include a toggle for band-pass or high-pass filters as well.", "Additionally, most envelope filters pedal boxes can switch between a down filter mode and an up filter.", "This effect is commonly used in funk, reggae and jam band music.Envelope filter effects: Musitronics Mu-Tron III, Electro-Harmonix Q-Tron Plus, DOD Envelope Filter 440===Modulation===''Modulation'', in general electronics, means the altering of signal strength.", "In audio devices, modulation is a control feature that varies the strength of some effect over time to alter tonal properties.", "Some modulation effects mix (\"modulate\") an instrument's audio signal with a signal generated by the effect called a carrier wave.", "Other modulation effects split an instrument's audio signal in two, altering one portion of the signal and mixing it with the unaltered portion.", "''Chorus'': Chorus pedals mimic the effect choirs and string orchestras produce naturally, by having slight variations in timbre and pitch, by mixing sounds with slight differences in timbre and pitch.", "A chorus effect splits the instrument-to-amplifier audio signal, and adds a slight delay and frequency variations or ''vibrato'' to part of the signal while leaving the rest unaltered.", "A well-known usage of chorus is the lead guitar in \"Come As You Are\" by Nirvana.Chorus effects: Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble, Electro-Harmonix Small Clone, TC Electronic Stereo Chorus.", "''Flanger'': A flanger creates a \"whooshing\" \"jet plane\" or \"spaceship\" sound, simulating a studio effect that was first produced by recording a track on two synchronized tapes and periodically slowing one tape by pressing the edge of its reel (the \"flange\").", "When the two tapes' audio signals are later mixed, a comb filter effect can be heard.", "Flanger units add a variably delayed version of the audio signal to the original or signal, creating a comb filter or Doppler effect.", "Some famous uses of flanger effects include \"Walking on the Moon\" by The Police, the intro to \"Ain't Talkin' 'Bout Love\" by Van Halen, and \"Barracuda\" by Heart.Flanger effects: Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress, MXR Flanger, Boss BF-3 Flanger.An MXR-101 Phaser pedal''Phaser'': A phaser or \"phase shifter\" creates a slight rippling effect—amplifying some aspects of the tone while diminishing others—by splitting an audio signal in two and altering the phase of one portion.", "Three well-known examples of phaser are the two handed tapping part on the Van Halen instrumental \"Eruption\" and the keyboard parts on Billy Joel's \"Just the Way You Are\" and Paul Simon's \"Slip Slidin' Away\".Phase shift effects: Uni-Vibe, Electro-Harmonix Small Stone, MXR Phase 90.", "''Ring modulator'': A ring modulator produces a resonant, metallic sound by mixing an instrument's audio signal with a carrier wave generated by the device's internal oscillator.", "The original sound wave is suppressed and replaced by a \"ring\" of inharmonic higher and lower pitches or \"sidebands\".", "A notable use of ring modulation is the guitar in the Black Sabbath song \"Paranoid\".Ring modulator effects: Moogerfooger MF-102 Ring Modulator.", "''Tremolo'': A tremolo effect produces a slight, rapid variation in the volume of a note or chord.", "The \"tremolo effect\" should not be confused with the misleadingly-named ''tremolo bar'', a device on a guitar bridge that creates a vibrato or pitch-bending effect.", "In transistorized effects, a tremolo is produced by modulating an instrument's audio signal with a sub-audible carrier wave in such a way that generates amplitude variations in the sound wave.", "Tremolo effects are built-in effects in some vintage guitar amplifiers.", "The guitar intro in the Rolling Stones' \"Gimme Shelter\" features a tremolo effect.Tremolo effects: Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator, Fender Tremolux.", "''Slicer'': Combines a modulation sequence with a noise gate or envelope filter to create a percussive and rhythmic effect like a helicopter.", "''Vibrato'': Vibrato effects produce slight, rapid variations in pitch, mimicking the fractional semitone variations produced naturally by opera singers and violinists when they are prolonging a single note.", "Vibrato effects often allow the performer to control the rate of the variation as well as the difference in pitch (e.g.", "\"depth\").", "A vibrato with an extreme \"depth\" setting (e.g., half a semitone or more) will produce a dramatic, ululating sound.", "In transistorized effects, vibrato is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal with a carrier wave in such a way that generates frequency variations in the sound wave.", "Guitarists often use the terms ''vibrato'' and \"tremolo\" misleadingly.", "A so-called \"vibrato unit\" in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a \"tremolo arm\" or \"whammy bar\" on a guitar produces vibrato.Vibrato effects: Boss VB-2 Vibrato.===Pitch/frequency===An Electro-Harmonix Polyphonic Octaver Generator (POG).Pitch/frequency effects modify pitch by altering the frequency of a sound wave or sound signal or adding new harmonies.", "''Pitch shifter and harmonizer''\" A pitch shifter (also called an \"octaver\" for effects that shift pitch by an octave) raises or lowers (e.g.", "\"transposes\") each note a performer plays by a pre-set interval.", "For example, a pitch shifter set to increase the pitch by a fourth will raise each note four diatonic intervals above the notes actually played.", "Simple, less expensive pitch shifters raise or lower the pitch by one or two octaves, while more sophisticated and expensive devices offer a range of interval alterations.", "A pitch shifter can be used by an electric guitarist to play notes that would normally only be available on an electric bass.", "As well, a bass player with a four string electric bass can use an octave pedal to obtain low notes that would normally only be obtainable with a five-string bass with a low \"B\" string.A harmonizer is a type of sophisticated pitch shifter that combines the altered pitch with the original pitch to create a two note harmony based on the original pitch, or even with some pedals, three note harmony.", "Some hamonizers are able to create chorus-like effects by adding very tiny shifts in pitch.Pitch shift effects: DigiTech Whammy, Electro-Harmonix POG.===Time-based===Time-based effects delay the sound signal, add reverb or echos, or, if a long delay is possible, enable musicians to record \"loops\".A vintage Echoplex EP-2 delay effect''Delay/echo'': Delay/echo units produce an echo effect by adding a duplicate instrument-to-amplifier electrical signal to the original signal at a slight time-delay.", "The effect can either be a single echo called a \"slap\" or \"slapback\", or multiple echos.", "A well-known use of delay is the lead guitar in the U2 song \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", and also the opening riff of \"Welcome to the Jungle\" by Guns N' Roses.Delay effects: Boss DD-3 Digital Delay, MXR Carbon Copy, Electro-Harmonix Deluxe Memory Man, Line 6 DL4, Roland RE-201.", "''Looper pedal'': A looper pedal or \"phrase looper\" allows a performer to record and later replay a phrase, riff or passage from a song.", "Loops can be created on the spot during a performance (live looping) or they can be pre-recorded.", "By using a looper pedal, a singer-guitarist in a one person band can play the backing chords (or riffs) to a song, loop them with the pedal, and then sing and do a guitar solo over the chords.", "Some units allow a performer to layer multiple loops, enabling the performer to create the effect of a full band.", "The first loop effects were created with reel-to-reel tape using a tape loop.", "High-end boutique tape loop effects are still used by some studio producers who want a vintage sound.", "Digital loop effects recreate this effect using an electronic memory.Folded line spring reverberation''Reverb'': Reverb units simulate the spacious sounds produced naturally in a huge stone cathedral (or other acoustic space such as a hall or room).", "This is done by creating a large number of echoes that gradually fade away in volume or \"decay\".", "One early technique for creating a reverb effect was to send an amplified signal of the music via a speaker to another room with reflective surfaces, such as a tile bathroom, and then record the natural reverberations that were produced.", "A plate reverb system uses an electromechanical transducer to create vibrations in a plate of metal.", "Spring reverb systems, which are often used in guitar amplifiers, use a transducer to create vibrations in a spring.", "Digital reverb effects use various signal processing algorithms to create the reverb effect, often by using multiple feedback delay circuits.", "Rockabilly and surf guitar are two genres that make heavy use of reverb.Reverb effects: Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail, Fender Reverb Unit.===Feedback/sustain===''Audio feedback'': Audio feedback is an effect produced when amplified sound is picked up by a microphone or guitar pickup and played back through a guitar amplifier, initiating a \"feedback loop\", which usually consists of high-pitched sound.", "Feedback that occurs from a vocal mic into a PA system is almost always avoided.", "However, in some styles of rock music, electric guitar players intentionally create feedback by playing their instrument directly in front of a heavily amplified, distorted guitar amplifier's speaker enclosure.", "The creative use of feedback effects was pioneered by guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix in the 1960s.", "This technique creates sustained, high-pitched overtones and unusual sounds not possible through regular playing techniques.", "Guitar feedback effects can be difficult to perform, because it is difficult to determine the sound volume and guitar position relative to a guitar amp's loudspeaker necessary for achieving the desired feedback sound.", "Guitar feedback effects are used in a number of rock genres, including psychedelic rock, heavy metal music and punk rock.An EBow guitar string resonator.EBow is a brand name of Heet Sound Products, of Los Angeles, California, for a small, handheld, battery-powered resonator.", "The Ebow was invented by Greg Heet, as a way to make a note on an electric guitar string resonate continuously, creating an effect that sounds similar to a bowed violin note or a sustained pipe organ note.", "The resonator uses a pickup – inductive string driver – feedback circuit, including a sensor coil, driver coil, and amplifier, to induce forced string resonance.", "The Ebow brand resonator is monophonic, and drives only one string at a time.Other handheld and mounted guitar and bass resonators have been on the market since the early 1990s, produced in Germany under the SRG brand, which ceased production in 2016, and were available in both monophonic (one string at a time) and polyphonic (multiple strings at a time) models, which included multiple onboard trigger switch effects, such as HPF (high pass filter) for enhancing harmonics and producing feedback effects, and LPF (low pass filter), producing a bass boost with a cello sound on heavy gauge strings.", "Later EBow models, such as the plus Ebow, contain a mode slide switch on the back, which allows the player to either produce just sustain or overtone feedback in addition to sustain.", "Pedals such as the Boss DF-2 and FB-2 use an internally generated signal matched to the pitch of the guitar that can be sustained indefinitely by depressing the pedal.", "Many compressor pedals are often also marketed as \"sustainer pedals\".", "As a note is sustained, it loses energy and volume due to diminishing vibration in the string.", "The compressor pedal boosts its electrical signal to the specified dynamic range, slightly prolonging the duration of the note.", "This, combined with heavy distortion and the close proximity of the guitar and the speaker cabinet, can lead to infinite sustain at higher volumes.===Other effects===''Envelope follower'': An envelope follower activates an effect once a designated volume is reached.", "One effect that uses an envelope follower is the ''auto-wah'', which produces a \"wah\" effect depending on how loud or soft the notes are being played.A Line 6 modeling amplifier shown from above.", "Note the various amplifier and speaker emulations selectable via the rotary knob on the left.", "''Guitar amplifier modeling'': Amplifier modeling is a digital effect that replicates the sound of various amplifiers, most often vintage tube amplifiers and famous brands of speaker cabinets (e.g., the Ampeg SVT 8x10\" bass cabinet).", "Sophisticated modeling effects can simulate different types of speaker cabinets (e.g., the sound of an 8x10\" cabinet) and miking techniques.", "A rotary speaker simulator mimics the doppler and chorus effect sound of a vintage Leslie speaker system by replicating its volume and pitch modulations, overdrive capacity and phase shifts.", "''Pitch correction/vocal effects'': Pitch correction effects use signal-processing algorithms to re-tune faulty intonation in a vocalist's performance or create unusual vocoder-type vocal effects.", "One of the best known examples of this is Autotune, a software program and effect unit which can be used to both correct pitch (it moves a pitch to the nearest semitone), and add vocal effects.", "Some stompbox-style vocal pedals contain multiple effects, such as reverb and pitch correction.", "''Simulators'': Simulators enable electric guitars to mimic the sound of other instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric bass and sitar.", "Pick up simulators used on guitars with single-coil pick ups replicate the sound of guitars with humbucker pick ups, or vice versa.", "A de-fretter is a bass guitar effect that simulates the sound of a fretless bass.", "The effect uses an envelope-controlled filter and voltage-controlled amplifier to \"soften\" a note's attack both in volume and timbre.", "''Bitcrusher filters'': Bitcrushers rely on conversion of the audio signal into a digital format (ADC) and the reduction of sound fidelity by utilising bit (and sometimes sample) rates low enough to cause significant colouration and filtering within the audible frequency range.A rotating Leslie speaker in a clear plastic cabinet.", "Typically, the Leslie is mounted in a wooden cabinet.", "''Rotating speakers'' are specially constructed amplifier or loudspeakers used to create special audio effects using the Doppler effect by rotating the speakers or a sound-directing duct.", "The rotating speaker creates a chorus-type effect.", "Named after its inventor, Donald Leslie, it is particularly associated with the Hammond organ but is used with a variety of instruments as well as vocals.", "The Hammond/Leslie combination has become an element in many genres of music.", "The Leslie Speaker and the Hammond Organ brands are currently owned by Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation.The ''Korg Kaoss Pad'' is a small touchpad MIDI controller, sampler, and effects processor for audio and musical instruments, made by Korg.", "The Kaoss Pad's touchpad can be used to control its internal effects engine, which can be applied to a line-in signal or to samples recorded from the line-in.", "Effects types include pitch shifting, distortion, filtering, wah-wah, tremolo, flanging, delay, reverberation, auto-panning, gating, phasing, and ring modulation.The Kaoss Pad can also be used as a MIDI controller." ], [ "Bass effects", "A selection of bass effect pedals at a music store.Bass effects are electronic effects units that are designed for use with the low pitches created by an electric bass or for an upright bass used with a bass amp or PA system.", "Two examples of bass effects are fuzz bass and bass chorus.", "Some bass amplifiers have built-in effects, such as overdrive or chorus.", "Upright bassists in jazz, folk, blues and similar genres may use a bass preamplifier, a small electronic device that matches the impedance between the piezoelectric pickup and the amp or PA system.", "Bass preamps also allow for the gain of the signal to be boosted or cut.", "Some models also offer equalization controls, a compressor, and a DI box connection." ], [ "Boutique pedals", "T-Rex brand \"Mudhoney\" overdrive pedal.Boutique pedals are designed by smaller, independent companies and are typically produced in limited quantities.", "Some may even be hand-made, with hand-soldered connections.", "These pedals are mainly distributed online or through mail-order, or sold in a few music stores.", "They are often more expensive than mass-produced pedals and offer higher-quality components, innovative designs, in-house-made knobs, and hand-painted artwork or etching.", "Some boutique companies focus on re-creating classic or vintage effects.Some boutique pedal manufacturers include: BJFE, Pete Cornish, Emlyn Crowther, Death By Audio, Robert Keeley, Roger Linn, Roger Mayer, Strymon, T-Rex Engineering, ToadWorks, and Z.Vex Effects.===Modification===There is also a niche market for modifying or \"modding\" effects.", "Typically, vendors provide either custom modification services or sell new effects pedals they have already modified.", "The Ibanez Tube Screamer, Boss DS-1, Pro Co RAT and DigiTech Whammy are some of the most often-modified effects.", "Common modifications include value changes in capacitors or resistors, adding true-bypass so that the effect's circuitry is no longer in the signal path, substituting higher-quality components, replacing the unit's original operational amplifiers (op-amps), or adding functions to the device, such as allowing additional control of some factor or adding another output jack." ], [ "Other pedals and rackmount units", "Some rock and pop guitarists and bassists use \"stompbox\" format electronic tuners.", "Not all stompboxes and rackmounted electronic devices designed for musicians are effects.", "Strobe tuner and regular electronic tuner pedals indicate whether a guitar string is too sharp or flat.", "Stompbox-format tuner pedals route the electric signal for the instrument through the unit via a 1/4\" patch cable.", "These pedal-style tuners usually have an output so that the signal can be plugged into a guitar amp to produce sound.", "Rackmount power conditioner devices deliver a voltage of the proper level and characteristics to enable equipment to function properly (e.g., by providing transient impulse protection).", "A rackmounted wireless receiver unit is used to enable a guitarist or bassist to move around on stage without being connected to a cable.", "A footswitch pedal such as the \"A/B\" pedal routes a guitar signal to an amplifier or enables a performer to switch between two guitars, or between two amplifiers.This footswitch ''controls'' an effect (distortion), but it is not an effects pedal as the case does not contain effects circuitry; it is just a switch.Guitar amplifiers and electronic keyboards may have switch pedals for turning built-in reverb and distortion effects on and off; the pedals contain only a switch, with the circuitry for the effect being housed in the amplifier chassis.", "Some musicians who use rackmounted effects or laptops employ a MIDI controller pedalboard or armband remote controls to trigger sound samples, switch between different effects or control effect settings.", "A pedal keyboard uses pedals, but it is not an effect unit; it is a foot-operated keyboard in which the pedals are typically used to play basslines." ], [ "See also", "* — a list of non-electronic audio effects* :Category:Audio effects* Frequency divider* Frequency mixer* Nonlinear filter* Outboard gear — effects units used in the context of audio mixing* Sound effect* Vintage musical equipment" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enron" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enron Corporation''' was an American energy, commodities, and services company based in Houston, Texas.", "It was founded by Kenneth Lay in 1985 as a merger between Lay's Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth, both relatively small regional companies.", "Before its bankruptcy on December 2, 2001, Enron employed approximately 20,600 staff and was a major electricity, natural gas, communications, and pulp and paper company, with claimed revenues of nearly $101 billion during 2000.", "''Fortune'' named Enron \"America's Most Innovative Company\" for six consecutive years.At the end of 2001, it was revealed that Enron's reported financial condition was sustained by an institutionalized, systematic, and creatively planned accounting fraud, known since as the Enron scandal.", "Enron has become synonymous with willful corporate fraud and corruption.", "The scandal also brought into question the accounting practices and activities of many corporations in the United States and was a factor in the enactment of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002.The scandal also affected the greater business world by causing, together with even larger fraudulent bankruptcy WorldCom, the dissolution of the Arthur Andersen accounting firm, which had been Enron and WorldCom's main auditor for years.Enron filed for bankruptcy in the Southern District of New York in late 2001 and selected Weil, Gotshal & Manges as its bankruptcy counsel.", "It ended its bankruptcy in November 2004, pursuant to a court-approved plan of reorganization.", "A new board of directors changed the name of Enron to '''Enron Creditors Recovery Corp.''', and emphasized reorganizing and liquidating certain operations and assets of the pre-bankruptcy Enron.", "On September 7, 2006, Enron sold its last remaining subsidiary, Prisma Energy International, to Ashmore Energy International Ltd. (now AEI).", "It is the largest bankruptcy, due specifically to fraud, of all time." ], [ "History", "===Pre-merger origins (1925–1985)=======InterNorth====One of Enron's primary predecessors was InterNorth, which was formed in 1930, in Omaha, Nebraska, just a few months after Black Tuesday.", "The low cost of natural gas and the cheap supply of labor during the Great Depression helped to fuel the company's early beginnings, doubling in size by 1932.Over the next 50 years, Northern expanded even more as it acquired many energy companies.", "It was reorganized in 1979 as the main subsidiary of a holding company, InterNorth, a diversified energy and energy-related products firm.", "Although most of the acquisitions conducted were successful, some ended poorly.", "InterNorth competed with Cooper Industries unsuccessfully over a hostile takeover of Crouse-Hinds Company, an electrical products manufacturer.", "Cooper and InterNorth feuded in numerous suits during the course of the takeover that were eventually settled after the transaction was completed.", "The subsidiary Northern Natural Gas operated the largest pipeline company in North America.", "By the 1980s, InterNorth became a major force for natural gas production, transmission, and marketing as well as for natural gas liquids, and was an innovator in the plastics industry.", "In 1983, InterNorth merged with the Belco Petroleum Company, a Fortune 500 oil exploration and development company founded by Arthur Belfer.====Houston Natural Gas====The Houston Natural Gas (HNG) corporation was initially formed from the Houston Oil Co. in 1925 to provide gas to customers in the Houston market through the building of gas pipelines.", "Under the leadership of CEO Robert Herring from 1967 to 1981, the company took advantage of the unregulated Texas natural gas market and the commodity surge in the early 1970s to become a dominant force in the energy industry.", "Toward the end of the 1970s, HNG's luck began to run out with rising gas prices forcing clients to switch to oil.", "In addition, with the passing of the Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978, the Texas market was less profitable and as a result, HNG's profits fell.", "After Herring's death in 1981, M.D.", "Matthews briefly took over as CEO in a 3-year stint with initial success, but ultimately, a big dip in earnings led to his exit.", "In 1984, Kenneth Lay succeeded Matthews and inherited the troubled conglomerate.====Merger====With its conservative success, InterNorth became a target of corporate takeovers, the most prominent originating with Irwin Jacobs.", "InterNorth CEO Sam Segnar sought a friendly merger with HNG.", "In May 1985, Internorth acquired HNG for $2.3 billion, 40% higher than the current market price.", "The combined assets of the two companies created the second largest gas pipeline system in the US at that time.", "Internorth's north-south pipelines that served Iowa and Minnesota complemented HNG's Florida and California east-west pipelines well.===Post-merger rise (1985–1991)===1400 Smith Street, the former headquarters of Enron in Downtown Houston, Texas (now occupied by Chevron Corporation)The company was initially named '''HNG/InterNorth Inc.''', even though InterNorth was technically the parent.", "At the outset, Segnar was CEO but was soon fired by the board of directors to name Lay to the post.", "Lay moved its headquarters back to Houston and set out to find a new name, spending more than $100,000 in focus groups and consultants before Enteron was suggested.", "The name was eventually dismissed over its apparent likening to an intestine and shortened to Enron.", "(The distinctive logo was one of the final projects of legendary graphic designer Paul Rand before his death in 1996.)", "Enron still had some lingering problems left over from its merger, however the company had to pay Jacobs, who was still a threat, over $350 million and reorganize the company.", "Lay sold off any parts of the company that he believed didn't belong in the long-term future of Enron.", "Lay consolidated all the gas pipeline efforts under the Enron Gas Pipeline Operating Company.", "In addition, it ramped up its electric power and natural gas efforts.", "In 1988 and 1989, the company added power plants and cogeneration units to its portfolio.", "In 1989, Jeffrey Skilling, then a consultant at McKinsey & Company, came up with the idea to link natural gas to consumers in more ways, effectively turning natural gas into a commodity.", "Enron adopted the idea and called it the \"Gas Bank\".", "The division's success prompted Skilling to join Enron as the head of the Gas Bank in 1991.Another major development inside Enron was a pivot to overseas operations with a $56 million loan in 1989 from the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) for a power plant in Argentina.====Timeline (1985–1992)=========1980s=====* New regulations gradually create a market-pricing system for natural gas.", "Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Order 436 (1985) provides blanket approval for pipelines that choose to become common carriers transporting gas intrastate.", "FERC Order 451 (1986) deregulates the wellhead, and FERC Order 490 (April 1988) authorizes producers, pipelines, and others to terminate gas sales or purchases without seeking prior FERC approval.", "As a result of these orders, more than 75% of gas sales are conducted through the spot market, and unprecedented market volatility exists.======July 1985======* Houston Natural Gas, run by Kenneth Lay merges with InterNorth, a natural gas company in Omaha, Nebraska, to form an interstate and intrastate natural gas pipeline with approximately 37,000 miles of pipeline.======November 1985======* Lay is appointed chairman and chief executive of the combined company.", "The company chooses the name Enron.=====1986=====* Company moves headquarters to Houston, where Ken Lay lives.", "Enron is both a natural gas and oil company.", "* ''Enron's vision:'' To become the premier natural gas pipeline in America.=====1987=====* Enron Oil, Enron's petroleum marketing operation, reports a loss of $85 million in 8-K filings.", "True loss of $142–190 million is concealed until 1993.Two top Enron Oil executives in Valhalla, New York, plead guilty to charges of fraud and filing false tax returns.", "One serves time in prison.=====1988=====* The company's major strategy shift – to pursue unregulated markets in addition to its regulated pipeline business – is decided in a gathering that became known as the ''Come to Jesus'' meeting.", "* Enron enters the UK energy market following privatization of the electricity industry there.", "It becomes the first U.S. company to construct a power plant, Teesside Power Station, in Great Britain.=====1989=====* Enron launches ''Gas Bank'', later run by CEO Jeff Skilling in 1990, which allows gas producers and wholesale buyers to purchase gas supplies and hedge the price risk at the same time.", "* Enron begins offering financing to oil and gas producers.", "* Transwestern Pipeline Company, owned by Enron, is the first merchant pipeline in the US to stop selling gas and become a transportation-only pipeline.=====1990=====* Enron launches plan to expand US natural gas business abroad.", "* Enron becomes a natural gas market maker.", "Begins trading futures and options on the New York Mercantile Exchange and over-the-counter market using financial instruments such as swaps and options.", "* Ken Lay and Rich Kinder hire Jeff Skilling from McKinsey & Company to become CEO of ''Enron Gas Services'', Enron's \"Gas Bank\".", "Enron Gas Services eventually morphs into ''Enron Capital and Trade Resources'' (ECT).", "* Jeff Skilling hires Andrew Fastow from the banking industry; he starts as account director and quickly rises within the ranks of ECT.=====1991=====* Enron adopts mark-to-market accounting practices, reporting income and value of assets at their replacement cost.", "* Rebecca Mark becomes chairman and CEO of Enron Development Corp., a unit formed to pursue international markets.", "* Andy Fastow forms the first of many off-balance-sheet partnerships for legitimate purposes.", "Later, off-balance-sheet partnerships and transactions will become a way for money-losing ventures to be concealed and income reporting to be accelerated.=====1992=====* Enron acquires Transportadora de Gas del Sur.===1991–2000===Over the course of the 1990s, Enron made a few changes to its business plan that greatly improved the perceived profitability of the company.", "First, Enron invested heavily in overseas assets, specifically energy.", "Another major shift was the gradual transition of focus from a producer of energy to a company that acted more like an investment firm and sometimes a hedge fund, making profits off the margins of the products it traded.", "These products were traded through the Gas Bank concept, now called the Enron Finance Corp. and headed by Skilling.====Operations as a trading firm====With the success of the Gas Bank trading natural gas, Skilling looked to expand the horizons of his division, Enron Capital & Trade.", "Skilling hired Andrew Fastow in 1990 to help.====Entrance into the retail energy market====Starting in 1994 under the Energy Policy Act of 1992, Congress allowed states to deregulate their electricity utilities, allowing them to be opened for competition.", "California was one such state to do so.", "Enron, seeing an opportunity with rising prices, was eager to jump into the market.", "In 1997, Enron acquired Portland General Electric (PGE).", "Although an Oregon utility, it had the potential to begin serving the massive California market since PGE was a regulated utility.", "The new Enron division, Enron Energy, ramped up its efforts by offering discounts to potential customers in California starting in 1998.Enron Energy also began to sell natural gas to customers in Ohio and wind power in Iowa.", "However, the company ended its retail endeavor in 1999 as it was revealed it was costing upwards of $100 million a year.====Data management====As fiber optic technology progressed in the 1990s, multiple companies, including Enron, attempted to make money by \"keeping the continuing network costs low\", which was done by owning their own network.", "In 1997, FTV Communications LLC, a limited liability company formed by Enron subsidiary FirstPoint Communications, Inc., constructed a 1,380 mile fiber optic network between Portland and Las Vegas.", "In 1998, Enron constructed a building in a rundown area of Las Vegas near E Sahara, right over the \"backbone\" of fiber optic cables providing service to technology companies nationwide.", "The location had the ability to send \"the entire Library of Congress anywhere in the world within minutes\" and could stream \"video to the whole state of California\".", "The location was also more protected from natural disasters than areas such as Los Angeles or the East Coast.", "According to ''Wall Street Daily'', \"Enron had a secret\", it \"wanted to trade bandwidth like it traded oil, gas, electricity, etc.", "It launched a secret plan to build an enormous amount of fiber optic transmission capacity in Las Vegas ... it was all part of Enron's plan to essentially own the internet.\"", "Enron sought to have all US internet service providers rely on their Nevada facility to supply bandwidth, which Enron would sell in a fashion similar to other commodities.In January 2000, Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling announced to analysts that they were going to open trading for their own \"high-speed fiber-optic networks that form the backbone for Internet traffic\".", "Investors quickly bought Enron stock following the announcement \"as they did with most things Internet-related at the time\", with stock prices rising from $40 per share in January 2000 to $70 per share in March, peaking at $90 in the summer of 2000.Enron executives obtained windfall gains from the rising stock prices, with a total of $924 million of stocks sold by high-level Enron employees between 2000 and 2001.The head of Enron Broadband Services, Kenneth Rice, sold 1 million shares himself, earning about $70 million in returns.", "As prices of existing fiber optic cables plummeted due to the vast oversupply of the system, with only 5% of the 40 million miles being active wires, Enron purchased the inactive \"dark fibers\", expecting to buy them at low cost and then make a profit as the need for more usage by internet providers increased, with Enron expecting to lease its acquired dark fibers in 20-year contracts to providers.", "However, Enron's accounting would use estimates to determine how much their dark fiber would be worth when \"lit\" and apply those estimates to their current income, adding exaggerated revenue to their accounts since transactions were not yet made and it was not known if the cables would ever be active.", "Enron's trading with other energy companies within the broadband market was its attempt to lure large telecommunications companies, such as Verizon Communications, into its broadband scheme to create its own new market.By the second quarter of 2001, Enron Broadband Services was reporting losses.", "On March 12, 2001, a proposed 20-year deal between Enron and Blockbuster Inc. to stream movies on demand over Enron's connections was canceled, with Enron shares dropping from $80 per share in mid-February 2001 to below $60 the week after the deal was killed.", "The branch of the company that Jeffrey Skilling \"said would eventually add $40 billion to Enron's stock value\" added only about $408 million in revenue for Enron in 2001, with the company's broadband arm closed shortly after its meager second-quarter earnings report in July 2001.Following the bankruptcy of Enron, telecommunications holdings were sold for \"pennies on the dollar\".", "In 2002, Rob Roy of Switch Communications purchased Enron's Nevada facility in an auction attended only by Roy.", "Enron's \"fiber plans were so secretive that few people even knew about the auction.\"", "The facility was sold for only $930,000.Following the sale, Switch expanded to control \"the biggest data center in the world\".====Overseas expansion====Enron, seeing stability after the merger, began to look overseas for new possible energy opportunities in 1991.Enron's first such opportunity was a natural gas power plant utilizing cogeneration that the company built near Middlesbrough, UK.", "The power plant was so large it could produce up to 3% of the United Kingdom's electricity demand with a capacity of over 1,875 megawatts.", "Seeing the success in England, the company developed and diversified its assets worldwide under the name of Enron International (EI), headed by former HNG executive Rebecca Mark.", "By 1994, EI's portfolio included assets in The Philippines, Australia, Guatemala, Germany, France, India, Argentina, the Caribbean, China, England, Colombia, Turkey, Bolivia, Brazil, Indonesia, Norway, Poland, and Japan.", "The division was producing a large share of earnings for Enron, contributing 205% of earnings in 1996.Mark and EI believed the water industry was the next market to be deregulated by authorities.", "Seeing the potential, they searched for ways to enter the market, similar to PGE.In 1998, Enron International acquired Wessex Water for $2.88 billion.", "Wessex Water became the core asset of a new company, Azurix, which expanded to other water companies.", "After Azurix's promising IPO in June 1999, Enron \"sucked out over $1 billion in cash while loading it up with debt\", according to Bethany McLean and Peter Elkind, authors of ''The Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron''.", "Additionally, British water regulators required Wessex to cut its rates by 12% starting in April 2000, and an upgrade was required of the utility's aging infrastructure, estimated at costing over a billion dollars.", "By the end of 2000 Azurix had an operating profit of less than $100 million and was $2 billion in debt.", "In August 2000, after Azurix stock took a plunge following its earnings report, Mark resigned from Azurix and Enron.", "Azurix assets, including Wessex, were eventually sold by Enron.===Misleading financial accounts===In 1990, Enron's chief operating officer Jeffrey Skilling hired Andrew Fastow, who was well acquainted with the burgeoning deregulated energy market that Skilling wanted to exploit.", "In 1993, Fastow began establishing numerous limited liability special-purpose entities, a common business practice in the energy industry.", "However, it also allowed Enron to transfer some of its liabilities off its books, allowing it to maintain a robust and generally increasing stock price and thus keep its critical investment grade credit ratings.Enron was originally involved in transmitting and distributing electricity and natural gas throughout the US.", "The company developed, built, and operated power plants and pipelines while dealing with rules of law and other infrastructures worldwide.", "Enron owned a large network of natural gas pipelines, which stretched coast to coast and border to border including Northern Natural Gas, Florida Gas Transmission, Transwestern Pipeline Company, and a partnership in Northern Border Pipeline from Canada.", "The states of California, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island had already passed power deregulation laws by July 1996, the time of Enron's proposal to acquire Portland General Electric corporation.", "During 1998, Enron began operations in the water sector, creating the Azurix Corporation, which it part-floated on the New York Stock Exchange during June 1999.Azurix failed to become successful in the water utility market, and one of its major concessions, in Buenos Aires, was a large-scale money-loser.Enron grew wealthy due largely to marketing, promoting power, and having a high stock price.", "Enron was named \"America's Most Innovative Company\" by ''Fortune'' for six consecutive years, from 1996 to 2001.It was on the ''Fortune''s \"100 Best Companies to Work for in America\" list during 2000, and had offices that were stunning in their opulence.", "Enron was hailed by many, including labor and the workforce, as an overall great company, praised for its large long-term pensions, benefits for its workers, and extremely effective management until the exposure of its corporate fraud.", "The first analyst to question the company's success story was Daniel Scotto, an energy market expert at BNP Paribas, who issued a note in August 2001 entitled ''Enron: All stressed up and no place to go'' which encouraged investors to sell Enron stocks, although he only changed his recommendation on the stock from \"buy\" to \"neutral\".As was later discovered, many of Enron's recorded assets and profits were inflated, wholly fraudulent, or nonexistent.", "One example was in 1999 when Enron promised to repay Merrill Lynch's investment with interest in order to show a profit on its books.", "Debts and losses were put into entities formed offshore that were not included in the company's financial statements; other sophisticated and arcane financial transactions between Enron and related companies were used to eliminate unprofitable entities from the company's books.The company's most valuable asset and the largest source of honest income, the 1930s-era Northern Natural Gas company, was eventually purchased by a group of Omaha investors who relocated its headquarters to their city; it is now a unit of Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway Energy.", "NNG was established as collateral for a $2.5 billion capital infusion by Dynegy Corporation when Dynegy was planning to buy Enron.", "When Dynegy examined Enron's financial records carefully, they repudiated the deal and dismissed their CEO, Chuck Watson.", "The new chairman and CEO, the late Daniel Dienstbier, had been president of NNG and an Enron executive at one time and was forced out by Ken Lay.", "Dienstbier was an acquaintance of Warren Buffett.", "NNG continues to be profitable now." ], [ "2001 accounting scandals", "In 2001, after a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures perpetrated throughout the 1990s involving Enron and its auditor Arthur Andersen that bordered on fraud, Enron filed for the then largest Chapter 11 bankruptcy in history (since surpassed by those of Worldcom during 2002 and Lehman Brothers during 2008), resulting in $11 billion in shareholder losses.Stock Price of Enron from August 2000 to January 2002As the scandal progressed, Enron share prices decreased from US$90 during the summer of 2000, to just pennies.", "Enron's demise occurred after the revelation that much of its profit and revenue were the result of deals with special-purpose entities (limited partnerships which it controlled).", "This maneuver allowed many of Enron's debts and losses to disappear from its financial statements.Enron filed for bankruptcy on December 2, 2001.In addition, the scandal caused the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the Big Five of the world's accounting firms.", "The company was found guilty of obstruction of justice in 2002 for destroying documents related to the Enron audit.", "Since the SEC is not allowed to accept audits from convicted felons, Andersen was forced to stop auditing public companies.", "Although the conviction was dismissed in 2005 by the Supreme Court, the damage to the Andersen name has prevented it from recovering or reviving itself as a viable business even on a limited scale.Enron also withdrew a naming-rights deal with the Houston Astros Major League Baseball club for its new stadium, which was known formerly as Enron Field (now Minute Maid Park).===Accounting practices===Enron used a variety of deceptive and fraudulent tactics and accounting practices to cover its fraud in reporting Enron's financial information.", "Special-purpose entities were created to mask significant liabilities from Enron's financial statements.", "These entities made Enron seem more profitable than it actually was, and created a dangerous spiral in which, each quarter, corporate officers would have to perform more and more financial deception to create the illusion of billions of dollars in profit while the company was actually losing money.", "This practice increased their stock price to new levels, at which point the executives began to work on insider information and trade millions of dollars worth of Enron stock.", "The executives and insiders at Enron knew about the offshore accounts that were hiding losses for the company; the investors, however, did not.", "Chief Financial Officer Andrew Fastow directed the team that created the off-books companies and manipulated the deals to provide himself, his family, and his friends with hundreds of millions of dollars in guaranteed revenue, at the expense of the corporation for which he worked and its stockholders.Arthur Andersen employees, from left, Michael C. Odom, Nancy Temple, Dorsey Baskin Jr., and C.E.", "Andrews are sworn in as they appear before a House Committee on January 24, 2002.In 1999, Enron initiated EnronOnline, an Internet-based trading operation, which was used by virtually every energy company in the United States.", "By promoting the company's aggressive investment strategy, Enron's president and chief operating officer Jeffrey Skilling helped make Enron the biggest wholesaler of gas and electricity, trading over $27 billion per quarter.", "The corporation's financial claims, however, had to be accepted at face value.", "Under Skilling, Enron adopted mark-to-market accounting, in which anticipated future profits from any deal were tabulated as if currently real.", "Thus, Enron could record gains from what over time might turn out to be losses, as the company's fiscal health became secondary to manipulating its stock price on Wall Street during the so-called Tech boom.", "But when a company's success is measured by undocumented financial statements, actual balance sheets are inconvenient.", "Indeed, Enron's unscrupulous actions were often gambles to keep the deception going and so increase the stock price.", "An advancing price meant a continued infusion of investor capital on which debt-ridden Enron in large part subsisted (much like a financial \"pyramid\" or \"Ponzi scheme\").", "Attempting to maintain the illusion, Skilling verbally attacked Wall Street analyst Richard Grubman, who questioned Enron's unusual accounting practice during a recorded conference telephone call.", "When Grubman complained that Enron was the only company that could not release a balance sheet along with its earnings statements, Skilling replied, \"Well, thank you very much, we appreciate that ...", "asshole.\"", "Though the comment was met with dismay and astonishment by press, Wall Street analysts and public, it became an inside joke among many Enron employees, mocking Grubman for his perceived meddling rather than Skilling's offensiveness.===Post-bankruptcy===Enron initially planned to retain its three domestic pipeline companies as well as most of its overseas assets.", "However, before emerging from bankruptcy, Enron sold its domestic pipeline companies as CrossCountry Energy for $2.45 billion and later sold other assets to Vulcan Capital Management.Enron sold its last business, Prisma Energy, during 2006, leaving Enron asset-less.", "During early 2007, its name was changed to Enron Creditors Recovery Corporation.", "Its goal is to repay the old Enron's remaining creditors and end Enron's affairs.", "In December 2008, it was announced that Enron's creditors would receive $7.2 billion from the company's liquidation, or approximately 17 percent of the debts owed by the company.", "After Citigroup and JP Morgan Chase were sued for their role in abetting Enron's practices with loans, the two companies agreed to give billions of dollars to Enron's creditors.", "By May 2011, $21.8 billion had been distributed to the creditors, totaling 53 percent of Enron's debts at the time of bankruptcy.", "Enron Creditors Recovery Corporation was ultimately dissolved on November 28, 2016.Azurix, the former water utility part of the company, remains under Enron ownership, although it is currently asset-less.", "It is involved in several litigations against the government of Argentina claiming compensation relating to the negligence and corruption of the local governance during its management of the Buenos Aires water concession in 1999, which resulted in substantial amounts of debt (approx.", "$620 million) and the eventual collapse of the branch.Soon after emerging from bankruptcy in November 2004, Enron's new board of directors sued 11 financial institutions for helping Lay, Fastow, Skilling and others hide Enron's true financial condition.", "The proceedings were dubbed the \"megaclaims litigation\".", "Among the defendants were Royal Bank of Scotland, Deutsche Bank and Citigroup.", ", Enron has settled with all of the institutions, ending with Citigroup.", "Enron was able to obtain nearly $7.2 billion to distribute to its creditors as a result of the megaclaims litigation.", "As of December 2009, some claim and process payments were still being distributed.Enron has been featured since its bankruptcy in popular culture, including in The Simpsons episodes ''That '90s Show'' (Homer buys Enron stock while Marge chooses to keep her own Microsoft shares) and Special Edna, which features a scene of an Enron-themed amusement park ride.", "The 2007 film ''Bee Movie'' also featured a joke reference to a parody company of Enron called \"Honron\" (a play on the words honey and Enron).", "The 2003 documentary ''The Corporation'' made frequent references to Enron post-bankruptcy, calling the company a \"bad apple\"." ], [ "Insider trading scandal", "===Peak and decline of stock price===During August 2000, Enron's stock price attained its greatest value, closing at $90 on the 23rd.", "At this time Enron executives, who possessed inside information on the hidden losses, began to sell their stock.", "At the same time, the general public and Enron's investors were told to buy the stock.", "Executives told the investors that the stock would continue to increase until it attained possibly the $130 to $140 range, while secretly unloading their shares.As executives sold their shares, the price began to decrease.", "Investors were told to continue buying stock or hold steady if they already owned Enron because the stock price would rebound in the near future.", "Kenneth Lay's strategy for responding to Enron's continuing problems was his demeanor.", "As he did many times, Lay would issue a statement or make an appearance to calm investors and assure them that Enron was doing well.", "In March 2001 an article by Bethany McLean appeared in ''Fortune'' magazine noting that no one understood how the company made money and questioning whether Enron stock was overvalued.By August 15, 2001, Enron's stock price had decreased to $42.Many of the investors still trusted Lay and believed that Enron would rule the market.", "They continued to buy or retain their stock as the equity value decreased.", "As October ended, the stock had decreased to $15.Many considered this a great opportunity to buy Enron stock because of what Lay had been telling them in the media.Lay was accused of selling more than $70 million worth of stock at this time, which he used to repay cash advances on lines of credit.", "He sold another $29 million worth of stock in the open market.", "Also, Lay's wife, Linda, was accused of selling 500,000 shares of Enron stock totaling $1.2 million on November 28, 2001.The money earned from this sale did not go to the family but rather to charitable organizations, which had already received pledges of contributions from the foundation.", "Records show that Mrs. Lay made the sale order sometime between 10:00 and 10:20 am.", "News of Enron's problems, including the millions of dollars in losses they hid, became public about 10:30 that morning, and the stock price soon decreased to less than one dollar.Former Enron executive Paula Rieker was charged with criminal insider trading and sentenced to two years probation.", "Rieker obtained 18,380 Enron shares for $15.51 a share.", "She sold that stock for $49.77 a share in July 2001, a week before the public was told what she already knew about the $102 million loss.", "In 2002, after the tumultuous fall of Enron's external auditor, and management consultant, Andersen LLP, former Andersen Director, John M. Cunningham coined the phrase, \"We have all been Enroned.", "\"The fallout resulted in both Lay and Skilling being convicted of conspiracy, fraud, and insider trading.", "Lay died before sentencing, Skilling got 24 years and 4 months and a $45 million penalty (later reduced).", "Fastow was sentenced to six years of jail time, and Lou Pai settled out of court for $31.5 million." ], [ "California's deregulation and subsequent energy crisis", "In October 2000, Daniel Scotto, the most renowned utility analyst on Wall Street, suspended his ratings on all energy companies conducting business in California because of the possibility that the companies would not receive full and adequate compensation for the deferred energy accounts used as the basis for the California Deregulation Plan enacted during the late 1990s.", "Five months later, Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) was forced into bankruptcy.", "Republican Senator Phil Gramm, husband of Enron Board member Wendy Gramm and also the second-largest recipient of campaign contributions from Enron, succeeded in legislating California's energy commodity trading deregulation.", "Despite warnings from prominent consumer groups which stated that this law would give energy traders too much influence over energy commodity prices, the legislation was passed in December 2000.As the periodical Public Citizen reported, \"Because of Enron's new, unregulated power auction, the company's 'Wholesale Services' revenues quadrupled – from $12 billion in the first quarter of 2000 to $48.4 billion in the first quarter of 2001.", "\"After the passage of the deregulation law, California had a total of 38 Stage 3 rolling blackouts declared, until federal regulators intervened in June 2001.These blackouts occurred as a result of a poorly designed market system that was manipulated by traders and marketers, as well as from poor state management and regulatory oversight.", "Subsequently, Enron traders were revealed as intentionally encouraging the removal of power from the market during California's energy crisis by encouraging suppliers to shut down plants to perform unnecessary maintenance, as documented in recordings made at the time.", "These acts contributed to the need for rolling blackouts, which adversely affected many businesses dependent upon a reliable supply of electricity, and inconvenienced a large number of retail customers.", "This scattered supply increased the price, and Enron traders were thus able to sell power at premium prices, sometimes up to a factor of 20 × its normal peak value.The callousness of the traders' attitude toward ratepayers was documented in an evidence tape of a conversation regarding the matter, and sarcastically referencing the confusion of retiree voters in Florida's Miami-Dade County in the November 2000, presidential election.", "\"They're fucking taking all the money back from you guys?", "All the money you guys stole from those poor grandmothers in California?", "\"\"Yeah, Grandma Millie man.", "But she's the one who couldn't figure out how to fucking vote on the butterfly ballot.\"", "(Laughing from both sides.", ")\"Yeah, now she wants her fucking money back for all the power you've charged right up, jammed right up her ass for fucking $250 a megawatt-hour.", "\"The traders had been discussing the efforts of the Snohomish PUD in Northwestern Washington state to recover the massive overcharges that Enron had engineered.", "Morgan Stanley, which had taken Enron's place in the lawsuit, fought the release of the documents that the PUD had sought to make its case, but were being withheld by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission." ], [ "Former management and corporate governance", ":Corporate leadership and central management* Kenneth Lay: chairman, and chief executive officer* Jeffrey Skilling: president, chief operating officer, and CEO (February–August 2001)* Andrew Fastow: chief financial officer* Richard Causey: chief accounting officer* Rebecca Mark-Jusbasche: CEO of Enron International and Azurix* Lou Pai: CEO of Enron Energy Services* Forrest Hoglund: CEO of Enron Oil and Gas* Dennis Ulak: president of Enron Oil and Gas International* Jeffrey Sherrick: president of Enron Global Exploration & Production Inc.* Richard Gallagher: head of Enron Wholesale Global International Group* Kenneth \"Ken\" Rice: CEO of Enron Wholesale and Enron Broadband Services* J. Clifford Baxter: CEO of Enron North America* Sherron Watkins: head of Enron Global Finance* Jim Derrick: Enron general counsel* Mark Koenig: head of Enron Investor Relations* Joan Foley: head of Enron Human Resources* Richard Kinder: president and COO of Enron (1990 – December 1996);* Greg Whalley: president and COO of Enron (August 2001–bankruptcy)* Jeff McMahon: CFO of Enron (October 2001-bankruptcy):Board of Directors of Enron Corporation* Kenneth Lay: chairman of the board* Robert A. Belfer* Norman P. Blake Jr.* Ronnie C. Chan* John H. Duncan* Wendy L. Gramm* Ken L. Harrison* Robert K. Jaedicke* Charles A. LeMaistre* John Mendelsohn* Jerome J. Meyer* Richard K. Gallagher* Paulo V. Ferraz Pereira* Frank Savage:* John A. Urquhart* John Wakeham* Herbert S. Winokur Jr." ], [ "Products", "Enron traded in more than 30 different products, including oil and LNG transportation, broadband, principal investments, risk management for commodities, shipping / freight, streaming media, and water and wastewater.", "Products traded on EnronOnline in particular included petrochemicals, plastics, power, pulp and paper, steel, and weather risk management.", "Enron was also an extensive futures trader, including sugar, coffee, grains, hogs, and other meat futures.", "At the time of its bankruptcy filing in December 2001, Enron was structured into seven distinct business units.===Online marketplace services===* EnronOnline (commodity trading platform).", "* ClickPaper (transaction platform for pulp, paper, and wood products).", "* EnronCredit (the first global online credit department to provide live credit prices and enable business-to-business customers to hedge credit exposure instantly via the Internet).", "* ePowerOnline (customer interface for Enron Broadband Services).", "* Enron Direct (sales of fixed-price contracts for gas and electricity; Europe only).", "* EnergyDesk (energy-related derivatives trading; Europe only).", "* NewPowerCompany (online energy trading, joint venture with IBM and AOL).", "* Enron Weather (weather derivatives).", "* DealBench (online business services).", "* Water2Water (water storage, supply, and quality credits trading).", "* HotTap (customer interface for Enron's U.S. gas pipeline businesses).", "* Enromarkt (business-to-business pricing and information platform; Germany only).===Broadband services===* Enron Intelligent Network (broadband content delivery).", "* Enron Media Services (risk management services for media content companies).", "* Customizable Bandwidth Solutions (bandwidth and fiber products trading).", "* Streaming Media Applications (live or on-demand Internet broadcasting applications).===Energy and commodities services===* Enron Power (electricity wholesaling).", "* Enron Natural Gas (natural gas wholesaling).", "* Enron Clean Fuels (biofuel wholesaling).", "* Enron Pulp and Paper, Packaging, and Lumber (risk management derivatives for the forest products industry).", "* Enron Coal and Emissions (coal wholesaling and offsets trading).", "* Enron Plastics and Petrochemicals (price risk management for polymers, olefins, methanol, aromatics, and natural gas liquids).", "* Enron Weather Risk Management (Weather Derivatives).", "* Enron Steel (financial swap contracts and spot pricing for the steel industry).", "* Enron Crude Oil and Oil Products (petroleum hedging).", "* Enron Wind Power Services (wind turbine manufacturing and wind farm operation).", "* MG Plc.", "(U.K. metals merchant).", "* Enron Energy Services (Selling services to industrial end users).", "* Enron International (operation of all overseas assets).===Capital and risk management services=======Commercial and industrial outsourcing services====* Commodity Management.", "* Energy Asset Management.", "* Energy Information Management.", "* Facility Management.", "* Capital Management.", "* Azurix Inc. (water utilities and infrastructure).====Project development and management services====* Energy Infrastructure Development (developing, financing, and operation of power plants and related projects).", "* Enron Global Exploration & Production Inc. (upstream oil and natural gas international development).", "* Elektro Electricidade e Servicos SA (Brazilian electric utility).", "* Northern Border Pipeline.", "* Houston Pipeline.", "* Transwestern Pipeline.", "* Florida Gas Transmission.", "* Northern Natural Gas Company.", "* Natural Gas Storage.", "* Compression Services.", "* Gas Processing and Treatment.", "* Engineering, Procurement, and Construction Services.", "* EOTT Energy Inc. (oil transportation).Enron manufactured gas valves, circuit breakers, thermostats, and electrical equipment in Venezuela by means of INSELA SA, a 50–50 joint venture with General Electric.", "Enron owned three paper and pulp products companies: Garden State Paper, a newsprint mill; as well as Papiers Stadacona and St. Aurelie Timberlands.", "Enron had a controlling stake in the Louisiana-based petroleum exploration and production company Mariner Energy.=== EnronOnline ===Enron opened EnronOnline, an electronic trading platform for energy commodities, on November 29, 1999.Conceptualized by the company's European Gas Trading team, it was the first web-based transaction system that allowed buyers and sellers to buy, sell, and trade commodity products globally.", "It allowed users to do business only with Enron.", "The site allowed Enron to transact with participants in the global energy markets.", "The main commodities offered on EnronOnline were natural gas and electricity, although there were 500 other products including credit derivatives, bankruptcy swaps, pulp, gas, plastics, paper, steel, metals, freight, and TV commercial time.", "At its maximum, more than $6 billion worth of commodities were transacted by means of EnronOnline every day, but specialists questioned how Enron reported trades and calculated its profits, saying that the same fraudulent accounting that was rampant at Enron's other operations may have been used in trading.After Enron's bankruptcy in late 2001, EnronOnline was sold to the Swiss financial giant UBS.", "Within a year, UBS abandoned its efforts to relaunch the division and closed it in November 2002.=== Enron International ==='''Enron International''' ('''EI''') was Enron's wholesale asset development and asset management business.", "Its primary emphasis was developing and building natural gas power plants outside North America.", "Enron Engineering and Construction Company (EECC) was a wholly owned subsidiary of Enron International and built almost all of Enron International's power plants.", "Unlike other business units of Enron, Enron International had a strong cash flow at the bankruptcy filing.", "Enron International consisted of all of Enron's foreign power projects, including ones in Europe.The company's Teesside plant was one of the largest gas-fired power stations in the world, built and operated by Enron from 1989, and produced 3 percent of the United Kingdom's energy needs.", "Enron owned half of the plant's equity, with the remaining 50 percent split between four regional electricity companies.==== Management ====Rebecca Mark was the CEO of Enron International until she resigned to manage Enron's newly acquired water business, Azurix, in 1997.Mark had a major role in the development of the Dabhol project in India, Enron's largest international endeavor.==== Projects ====Enron International constructed power plants and pipelines across the globe.", "Some are presently still operating, including the massive Teesside plant in England.", "Others, like a barge-mounted plant off Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic, cost Enron money through lawsuits and investment losses.", "Puerto Plata was a barge-mounted power plant next to the hotel ''Hotelero del Atlantico''.", "When the plant was activated, winds blew soot from the plant onto the hotel guests' meals, blackening their food.", "The winds also blew garbage from nearby slums into the plant's water-intake system.", "For some time the only solution was to hire men who would row out and push the garbage away with their paddles.", "Through mid-2000 the company collected a paltry $3.5 million from a $95 million investment.", "Enron also had other investment projects in Europe, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Mexico, Jamaica, Venezuela, elsewhere in South America and across the Caribbean.==== India ====Around 1992 Indian experts came to the United States to find energy investors to help with India's energy shortage problems.", "During December 1993, Enron finalized a 20-year power-purchase contract with the Maharashtra State Electricity Board.", "The contract allowed Enron to construct a massive 2,015 megawatt power plant on a remote volcanic bluff south of Mumbai through a two-phase project called Dabhol Power Station.", "Construction would be completed in two phases, and Enron would form the Dabhol Power Company to help manage the plant.", "The power project was the first step in a $20 billion scheme to help rebuild and stabilize India's power grid.", "Enron, GE (which was selling turbines to the project), and Bechtel (which was actually constructing the plant), each contributed 10% equity with the remaining 90% covered by the MSEB In 1996, when India's Congress Party was no longer in power, the Indian government assessed the project as being excessively expensive and refused to pay for the plant and stopped construction.", "The MSEB was required by contract to continue to pay Enron plant maintenance charges, even if no power was purchased from the plant.", "The MSEB determined that it could not afford to purchase the power (at Rs.", "8 per unit kWh) charged by Enron.", "The plant operator was unable to find alternate customers for Dabhol power due to the absence of a free market in the regulated structure of utilities in India.By 2000, the Dabhol plant was almost complete and Phase 1 had begun producing power.", "Enron as a whole, however, was heavily overextended, and in the summer of that year Mark and all the key executives at Enron International were asked to resign from Enron in an effort to reshape the company and get rid of asset businesses.", "Shortly thereafter a payment dispute with MSEB ensued, and Enron issued a stop-work order on the plant in June 2001.From 1996 until Enron's bankruptcy in 2001 the company tried to revive the project and revive interest in India's need for the power plant without success.", "By December 2001 the Enron scandal and bankruptcy cut short any opportunity to revive the construction and complete the plant.", "In 2005, an Indian government-run company, Ratnagiri Gas and Power, was set up to finish construction on the Dabhol facility and operate the plant.==== Project summer ====During the summer of 2001, Enron made an attempt to sell a number of Enron International's assets, many of which were not sold.", "The public and media believed it was unknown why Enron wanted to sell these assets, suspecting it was because Enron was in need of cash.", "Employees who worked with company assets were told in 2000 that Jeff Skilling believed that business assets were an outdated means of a company's worth, and instead he wanted to build a company based on \"intellectual assets\".=== Enron Global Exploration & Production, Inc. ==='''Enron Global Exploration & Production Inc. (EGEP)''' was an Enron subsidiary that was born from the split of domestic assets via EOG Resources (formerly Enron Oil and Gas EOG) and international assets via EGEP (formerly Enron Oil and Gas Int'l, Ltd EOGIL).", "Among the EGEP assets were the Panna-Mukta and the South Tapti fields, discovered by the Indian state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), which operated the fields initially.December 1994, a joint venture began between ONGC (40%), Enron (30%) and Reliance (30%).Mid-year of 2002, British Gas (BG) completed the acquisition of EGEP's 30% share of the Panna-Mukta and Tapti fields for $350 million, a few months before Enron filed bankruptcy." ], [ "Enron Prize for Distinguished Public Service", "During the mid-1990s, Enron established an endowment for the Enron Prize for Distinguished Public Service, awarded by Rice University's Baker Institute to \"recognize outstanding individuals for their contributions to public service\".", "Recipients were:* 1995: Colin Powell.", "* 1997: Mikhail Gorbachev.", "* 1999 (early): Eduard Shevardnadze.", "* 1999 (late): Nelson Mandela.", "* 2001: Alan Greenspan.Greenspan, because of his position as the Fed chairman, was not at liberty to accept the $10,000 honorarium, the $15,000 sculpture, nor the crystal trophy, but only accepted the \"honor\" of being named an Enron Prize recipient.", "The situation was further complicated because a few days earlier, Enron had filed paperwork admitting it had falsified financial statements for five years.", "Greenspan did not mention Enron a single time during his speech.", "At the ceremony, Ken Lay stated, \"I'm looking forward to our first woman recipient.\"", "The next morning, it was reported in the ''Houston Chronicle'' that no decision had been made on whether the name of the prize would be changed.", "19 days after the prize was awarded to Greenspan, Enron declared bankruptcy.In early 2002, Enron was awarded Harvard's (in)famous Ig Nobel Prize for \"Most Creative Use of Imaginary Numbers\".", "The various former members of the Enron management team all refused to accept the award in person, although no reason was given at the time." ], [ "Enron's influence on politics", "* George W. Bush, sitting U.S. president at the time of Enron's collapse, received $312,500 to his campaigns and $413,800 to his presidential war chest and inaugural fund.", "* Dick Cheney, sitting U.S. vice president at the time of Enron's collapse, met with Enron executives six times to develop a new energy policy.", "He refused to show minutes to Congress.", "* John Ashcroft, the attorney general at the time, recused himself from the DOJ's investigation into Enron due to receiving $57,499 when running for a senate seat in 2000.", "* Lawrence Lindsay, White House Economic Advisor at the time, made $50,000 as a consultant with Enron before moving to the White House in 2000.", "* Karl Rove, White House senior advisor at the time, waited five months before selling $100,000 of Enron stock.", "* Marc F. Racicot, Republican National Committee chairman nominee at the time, was handpicked by George W. Bush to serve as a lawyer with Bracewell LLP, a firm that lobbied for Enron." ], [ "See also", "* ''Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room'', an award-winning 2005 documentary film that examines the collapse of the Enron Corporation* Enron Scandal: Greed Led to Corporate Catastrophe* ''The Crooked E: The Unshredded Truth About Enron'', a television movie aired by CBS in January 2003 based on the book ''Anatomy of Greed'' by Brian Cruver* ''Pipe Dreams: Greed, Ego, and the Death of Enron'', a book by Robert Bryce* ''ENRON'', a 2009 play by British playwright Lucy Prebble* Dot-com bubble* Theranos* FTX" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " Enron Corporation" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Robert Bryce, ''Pipe Dreams: Greed, Ego, and the Death of Enron'' (PublicAffairs, 2002) .", "* Lynn Brewer, Matthew Scott Hansen, ''House of Cards, Confessions of An Enron Executive'' (Virtualbookworm.com Publishing, 2002) .", "* Kurt Eichenwald, ''Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story'' (Broadway Books, 2005) .", "* Peter C. Fusaro, Ross M. Miller, ''What Went Wrong at Enron: Everyone's Guide to the Largest Bankruptcy in U.S. History'' (Wiley, 2002), .", "* Loren Fox, ''Enron: The Rise and Fall''.", "(Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003).", "* Judith Haney ''Enron's Bust: Was it the result of Over-Confidence or a Confidence Game?''", "USNewsLink/ December 13, 2001.", "* Marc Hodak, ''The Enron Scandal'', Organizational Behavior Research Center Papers (SSRN), June 4, 2007.", "* Bethany McLean, Peter Elkind, ''The Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron'' (Portfolio, 2003) .", "* * Mimi Swartz, Sherron Watkins, ''Power Failure: The Inside Story of the Collapse of Enron'' (Doubleday, 2003) .", "* Daniel Scotto \"American Financial Analyst: The First Analyst to recommend the selling of Enron Stock\".", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* .", "* Portland General Electric Company* Northern Natural Gas Company* Enron's Code of Ethics, TheSmokingGun.com* * \"The Fall of Enron\", HBS Research paper* FBI Web Site* ===Data===* Yahoo!", ": Enron Corp. Company Profile* Enron Creditors Recovery Corp.", "Profile, Hoovers.com* Enron Creditors Recovery Corp. profile, Google Finance* Enron Chronology * (Contains the ENRON historical stock quotes from 1997 to 2002.)" ] ]
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[ [ "Eusebius of Alexandria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eusebius of Alexandria''' () is a 6th-century Christian author to whom certain extant homilies are attributed." ], [ "Biography", "Nothing is known of the author.", "In all events, he was not a patriarch of Alexandria, as is affirmed in an early biography, written by one Johannes, a notary, and stating that Eusebius was called by Cyril to be his successor in the episcopate.There has been much dispute regarding the details of his life and the age in which he lived.", "Galland (Vet.", "Patr.", "Biblioth., VIII, 23) says: \"de Eusebio qui vulgo dicitur episcopus Alexandræ incerta omnia\" (Concerning Eusebius, commonly called bishop of Alexandria there is nothing sure).", "His writings have been attributed to Eusebius of Emesa, Eusebius of Cæsarea, and others.", "According to an old biography said to have been written by his notary, the monk John, and discovered by Cardinal Mai, he lived in the fifth century and led a monastic life near Alexandria.", "The fame of his virtues attracted the attention of Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, who visited him with his clergy, and in 444, when dying, had him elected his successor, and consecrated him bishop, though much against his will.", "Eusebius displayed great zeal in the exercise of his office and did much good by his preaching.", "Among those he converted was a certain Alexander, a man of senatorial rank.", "After having ruled his see for seven or, according to another account, for twenty years, he made Alexander his successor and retired to the desert, whence Cyril had summoned him and there died in the odor of sanctity.While Mai seems to have established the existence of a Eusebius of Alexandria who lived in the fifth century, it had been objected than neither the name of Eusebius or his successor Alexander, appears in the list of the occupants of that ancient see.", "Dioscurus is mentioned as the immediate successor of Cyril.", "Nor does the style of the homilies seem on the whole in keeping with the age of Cyril.", "It may be noted, however, that the biographer of Eusebius expressly states that the Cyril in question is the great opponent of Nestorius.", "Various solution of the difficulty have been proposed.", "Thilo thinks that the authorship of the homilies is to be assigned either to a certain monk – one of four brothers 3 of the fifth century, or to a presbyter and court chaplain of Justinian I, who took an active part in the theological strifes of the sixth century.", "Mai suggests that after the death of Cyril, there were two bishops at Alexandria, Dioscurus, the Monophysite leader, and Eusebius, the head of the Catholic party.", "The homilies cover a variety of subjects, and the author is one of the earliest patristic witnesses to the doctrine regarding the descent of Christ into Hell.", "A list of homilies with the complete text is given by Mai.", "They may also be found in Migne, which was published with an introduction by Rand in \"Modern Philology\", II, 261." ], [ "Works", "These homilies enjoyed some renown in the Eastern Church in the sixth and seventh centuries.The discourses belong probably to the fifth or sixth century, and possibly originated in Alexandria.", "They deal with the life of Jesus of Nazareth and with questions of ecclesiastical life and practise, which they resolve in a monastic-ascetic way.", "Their literary character is not quite clear; while most of them are adapted for public delivery, not a few bear the character of ecclesiastical pronouncements.", "They are now in print except four included among John Chrysostom's works.", "The fragments preserved in the so-called ''Sacra parallela'' are to be found in Karl Holl's ''Fragmente vornicänischer Kirchenväter.''", "A homily concerning the observance of Sunday is attributed by Zahn to Eusebius of Emesa." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Eusebius of Angers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eusebius''' ('''Bruno''') '''of Angers''' (died September 1, 1081) was bishop of Angers, France.He first appears in the historical record as bishop of Angers at the synod of Rheims in 1049, and for a long time had been an adherent of Berengar's doctrine of the Lord's Supper.", "As such he was highly regarded by Berengar himself and by his opponents Theodwin of Liège, Durand of Troarne, and Humbert of Mourmoutiers.", "But when he recognized the strength of the opposition, he favored a compromise; at any rate he advised Berengar is 1054 to swear to the formula presented to him.Nevertheless, Berengar considered him his friend many years later and requested him to silence a certain Galfrid Martini or to arrange a disputation.", "In his reply Eusebius not only regretted the whole controversy, but also stated that he would abide by the words of the Bible, according to which the bread and wine after the consecration become the body and blood of the Lord (see transubstantiation); if one asks how this can take place, the answer must be that it is not according to the order of nature but in accordance with the divine omnipotence; at any rate one must be careful not to give offense to the plain Christian.", "The epistle is a downright renunciation of Berengar in case he should still maintain his view.In favor of the supposition that Eusebius changed his opinion from deference to the Count of Anjou, the decided opponent of Berengar and his doctrine, it can be adduced that he did not defend Berengar against the hostilities of the court, and that for a long time he sided with this violent prince.", "It is also possible that the fact impressed itself upon Eusebius that the religious consciousness of the time more and more opposed Berengar.", "Our knowledge, however, is too fragmentary to pass a very accurate sentence." ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Eusebius" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eusebius of Caesarea''' (; ; 260/265 – 30 May 339), also known as '''Eusebius Pamphilus''' (from the ), was a Greek, or Palestinian historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist.", "In about AD 314 he became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima in the Roman province of Syria Palaestina.", "Together with Pamphilus, he was a scholar of the biblical canon and is regarded as one of the most learned Christians during late antiquity.", "He wrote ''Demonstrations of the Gospel'', ''Preparations for the Gospel'' and ''On Discrepancies between the Gospels'', studies of the biblical text.", "As \"Father of Church History\" (not to be confused with the title of Church Father), he produced the ''Ecclesiastical History'', ''On the Life of Pamphilus'', the ''Chronicle'' and ''On the Martyrs''.", "He also produced a biographical work on Constantine the Great, the first Christian Roman emperor, who was ''Augustus'' between AD 306 and AD 337." ], [ "Sources", "Little is known about the life of Eusebius.", "His successor at the See of Caesarea, Acacius, wrote a ''Life of Eusebius'', a work that has since been lost.", "Eusebius' own surviving works probably only represent a small portion of his total output.", "Beyond notices in his extant writings, the major sources are the 5th-century ecclesiastical historians Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and the 4th-century Christian author Jerome.", "There are assorted notices of his activities in the writings of his contemporaries Athanasius, Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Alexander of Alexandria.", "Eusebius' pupil, Eusebius of Emesa, provides some incidental information." ], [ "Early life", "Most scholars date the birth of Eusebius to some point between AD 260 and 265.He was most likely born in or around Caesarea Maritima.", "Nothing is known about his parents.", "He was baptized and instructed in the city, and lived in Syria Palaestina in 296, when Diocletian's army passed through the region (in the ''Life of Constantine'', Eusebius recalls seeing Constantine traveling with the army).Eusebius was made presbyter by Agapius of Caesarea.", "Some, like theologian and ecclesiastical historian John Henry Newman, understand Eusebius' statement that he had heard Dorotheus of Tyre \"expound the Scriptures wisely in the Church\" to indicate that Eusebius was Dorotheus' pupil while the priest was resident in Antioch; others, like the scholar D. S. Wallace-Hadrill, deem the phrase too ambiguous to support the contention.Through the activities of the theologian Origen (185/6–254) and the school of his follower Pamphilus (later 3rd century – 309), Caesarea became a center of Christian learning.", "Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information, or which churches were using which gospels, regarding the texts which became the New Testament.", "The information used to create the late-fourth-century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the ''Ecclesiastical History'' HE of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen's list at HE 6:25.Eusebius got his information about what texts were accepted by the third-century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.On his deathbed, Origen had made a bequest of his private library to the Christian community in the city.", "Together with the books of his patron Ambrosius, Origen's library (including the original manuscripts of his works) formed the core of the collection that Pamphilus established.", "Pamphilus also managed a school that was similar to (or perhaps a re-establishment of) that of Origen.", "Pamphilus was compared to Demetrius of Phalerum and Pisistratus, for he had gathered Bibles \"from all parts of the world\".", "Like his model Origen, Pamphilus maintained close contact with his students.", "Eusebius, in his history of the persecutions, alludes to the fact that many of the Caesarean martyrs lived together, presumably under Pamphilus.Soon after Pamphilus settled in Caesarea (''ca''.", "280s), he began teaching Eusebius, who was then somewhere between twenty and twenty-five.", "Because of his close relationship with his schoolmaster, Eusebius was sometimes called ''Eusebius Pamphili'': \"Eusebius, son of Pamphilus\".", "The name may also indicate that Eusebius was made Pamphilus' heir.", "Pamphilus gave Eusebius a strong admiration for the thought of Origen.", "Neither Pamphilus nor Eusebius knew Origen personally; Pamphilus probably picked up Origenist ideas during his studies under Pierius (nicknamed \"Origen Junior\") in Alexandria.Eusebius' ''Preparation for the Gospel'' bears witness to the literary tastes of Origen: Eusebius quotes no comedy, tragedy, or lyric poetry, but makes reference to all the works of Plato and to an extensive range of later philosophic works, largely from Middle Platonists from Philo to the late 2nd century.", "Whatever its secular contents, the primary aim of Origen and Pamphilus' school was to promote sacred learning.", "The library's biblical and theological contents were more impressive: Origen's ''Hexapla'' and ''Tetrapla''; a copy of the original Aramaic version of the Gospel of Matthew; and many of Origen's own writings.", "Marginal comments in extant manuscripts note that Pamphilus and his friends and pupils, including Eusebius, corrected and revised much of the biblical text in their library.", "Their efforts made the hexaplaric Septuagint text increasingly popular in Syria and Palestine.", "Soon after joining Pamphilus' school, Eusebius started helping his master expand the library's collections and broaden access to its resources.", "At about this time Eusebius compiled a ''Collection of Ancient Martyrdoms'', presumably for use as a general reference tool.Amba GeshanIn the 290s, Eusebius began work on his most important work, the ''Ecclesiastical History'', a narrative history of the Church and Christian community from the Apostolic Age to Eusebius' own time.", "At about the same time, he worked on his ''Chronicle'', a universal calendar of events from the Creation to, again, Eusebius' own time.", "He completed the first editions of the ''Ecclesiastical History'' and ''Chronicle'' before 300." ], [ "Bishop of Caesarea", "Icon of Eusebius of Caesarea as a Saint in Medieval Armenian Manuscript from Isfahan, PersiaEusebius succeeded Agapius as Bishop of Caesarea soon after 313 and was called on by Arius who had been excommunicated by his bishop Alexander of Alexandria.", "An episcopal council in Caesarea pronounced Arius blameless.", "Eusebius enjoyed the favor of the Emperor Constantine.", "Because of this he was called upon to present the creed of his own church to the 318 attendees of the Council of Nicaea in 325.However, the anti-Arian creed from Palestine prevailed, becoming the basis for the Nicene Creed.The theological views of Arius, that taught the subordination of the Son to the Father, continued to be controversial.", "Eustathius of Antioch strongly opposed the growing influence of Origen's theology as the root of Arianism.", "Eusebius, an admirer of Origen, was reproached by Eustathius for deviating from the Nicene faith.", "Eusebius prevailed and Eustathius was deposed at a synod in Antioch.However, Athanasius of Alexandria became a more powerful opponent and in 334 he was summoned before a synod in Caesarea (which he refused to attend).", "In the following year, he was again summoned before a synod in Tyre at which Eusebius of Caesarea presided.", "Athanasius, foreseeing the result, went to Constantinople to bring his cause before the Emperor.", "Constantine called the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius.", "Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end of 335.Eusebius remained in the Emperor's favour throughout this time and more than once was exonerated with the explicit approval of the Emperor Constantine.", "After the Emperor's death (), Eusebius wrote the ''Life of Constantine'', an important historical work because of eyewitness accounts and the use of primary sources." ], [ "Works", "Armenian translation of Chronicon.", "13th century manuscriptOf the extensive literary activity of Eusebius, a relatively large portion has been preserved.", "Although posterity suspected him of Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispensable by his method of authorship; his comprehensive and careful excerpts from original sources saved his successors the painstaking labor of original research.", "Hence, much has been preserved, quoted by Eusebius, which otherwise would have been lost.The literary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole the course of his life.", "At first, he occupied himself with works on biblical criticism under the influence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of Tyre of the School of Antioch.", "Afterward, the persecutions under Diocletian and Galerius directed his attention to the martyrs of his own time and the past, and this led him to the history of the whole Church and finally to the history of the world, which, to him, was only a preparation for ecclesiastical history.Then followed the time of the Arian controversies, and dogmatic questions came into the foreground.", "Christianity at last found recognition by the State; and this brought new problems – apologies of a different sort had to be prepared.", "Lastly, Eusebius wrote eulogies in praise of Constantine.", "To all this activity must be added numerous writings of a miscellaneous nature, addresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works that extended over the whole of his life and that include both commentaries and an important treatise on the location of biblical place names and the distances between these cities.===''Onomasticon''======Biblical text criticism===Eusebius's canon tables were often included in Early Medieval Gospel booksEusebius depicted in the page preceding his Eusebian Canons in the ancient Garima GospelsPamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the textual criticism of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament and especially of the New Testament.", "An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to Jerome, was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus.", "For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the pericopes that belong together.", "These canon tables or \"Eusebian canons\" remained in use throughout the Middle Ages, and illuminated manuscript versions are important for the study of early medieval art, as they are the most elaborately decorated pages of many Gospel books.", "Eusebius detailed in ''Epistula ad Carpianum'' how to use his canons.===''Chronicle''===The ''Chronicle'' ( (''Pantodape historia'')) is divided into two parts.", "The first part, the ''Chronography'' ( (''Chronographia'')), gives an epitome of universal history from the sources, arranged according to nations.", "The second part, the ''Canons'' ( (''Chronikoi kanones'')), furnishes a synchronism of the historical material in parallel columns, the equivalent of a parallel timeline.The work as a whole has been lost in the original Greek, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work, especially George Syncellus.", "The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation.", "The loss of the Greek originals has given the Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius' ''Chronicle'', of which only a few fragments exist in Greek, has been preserved entirely in Armenian, though with lacunae.", "The ''Chronicle'' as preserved extends to the year 325.===''Church History''===In his ''Church History'' or ''Ecclesiastical History'', Eusebius wrote the first surviving history of the Christian Church as a chronologically ordered account, based on earlier sources, complete from the period of the Apostles to his own epoch.", "The time scheme correlated the history with the reigns of the Roman Emperors, and the scope was broad.", "Included were the bishops and other teachers of the Church, Christian relations with the Jews and those deemed heretical, and the Christian martyrs through 324.Although its accuracy and biases have been questioned, it remains an important source on the early church due to Eusebius's access to materials now lost.===''Life of Constantine''===Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'' (''Vita Constantini'') is a eulogy or panegyric, and therefore its style and selection of facts are affected by its purpose, rendering it inadequate as a continuation of the ''Church History.''", "As the historian Socrates Scholasticus said, at the opening of his history which was designed as a continuation of Eusebius, \"Also in writing the life of Constantine, this same author has but slightly treated of matters regarding Arius, being more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor than on an accurate statement of facts.\"", "The work was unfinished at Eusebius' death.", "Some scholars have questioned the Eusebian authorship of this work.", "==== Conversion of Constantine according to Eusebius ====Writing after Constantine had died, Eusebius claimed that the emperor himself had recounted to him that some time between the death of his father – the ''augustus'' Constantius – and his final battle against his rival Maxentius as ''augustus'' in the West, Constantine experienced a vision in which he and his soldiers beheld a Christian symbol, \"a cross-shaped trophy formed from light\", above the sun at midday.", "Attached to the symbol was the phrase \"by this conquer\" (), a phrase often rendered into Latin as \"''in hoc signo vinces''\".", "In a dream that night \"the Christ of God appeared to him with the sign which had appeared in the sky, and urged him to make himself a copy of the sign which had appeared in the sky, and to use this as a protection against the attacks of the enemy.\"", "Eusebius relates that this happened \"on a campaign he Constantine was conducting somewhere\".", "It is unclear from Eusebius's description whether the shields were marked with a Christian cross or with a ''chi-rho'', a staurogram, or another similar symbol.The Latin text ''De mortibus persecutorum'' contains an early account of the 28 October 312 Battle of the Milvian Bridge written by Lactantius probably in 313, the year following the battle.", "Lactantius does not mention a vision in the sky but describes a revelatory dream on the eve of battle.", "Eusebius's work of that time, his ''Church History'', also makes no mention of the vision.", "The Arch of Constantine, constructed in AD 315, neither depicts a vision nor any Christian insignia in its depiction of the battle.", "In his posthumous biography of Constantine, Eusebius agrees with Lactantius that Constantine received instructions in a dream to apply a Christian symbol as a device to his soldiers' shields, but unlike Lactantius and subsequent Christian tradition, Eusebius does not date the events to October 312 and does not connect Constantine's vision and dream-vision with the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.===Minor historical works===Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier period and a biography of Pamphilus.", "The martyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has been preserved almost completely in parts.", "It contained:* an epistle of the congregation of Smyrna concerning the martyrdom of Polycarp;* the martyrdom of Pionius;* the martyrdoms of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonike;* the martyrdoms in the congregations of Vienne and Lyon;* the martyrdom of Apollonius.Of the life of Pamphilus, only a fragment survives.", "A work on the martyrs of Palestine in the time of Diocletian was composed after 311; numerous fragments are scattered in legendaries which have yet to be collected.", "The life of Constantine was compiled after the death of the emperor and the election of his sons as Augusti (337).", "It is more a rhetorical eulogy on the emperor than a history but is of great value on account of numerous documents incorporated into it.===Apologetic and dogmatic works===To the class of apologetic and dogmatic works belong:* The ''Apology for Origen'', the first five books of which, according to the definite statement of Photius, were written by Pamphilus in prison, with the assistance of Eusebius.", "Eusebius added the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus.", "We possess only a Latin translation of the first book, made by Rufinus.", "* A treatise against Hierocles (a Roman governor), in which Eusebius combated the former's glorification of Apollonius of Tyana in a work entitled ''A Truth-loving Discourse'' (Greek: ''Philalethes logos''); in spite of manuscript attribution to Eusebius, however, it has been argued (by Thomas Hagg and more recently, Aaron Johnson) that this treatise \"Against Hierocles\" was written by someone other than Eusebius of Caesarea.", "* ''Praeparatio evangelica'' (''Preparation for the Gospel''), commonly known by its Latin title, which attempts to prove the excellence of Christianity over every pagan religion and philosophy.", "The ''Praeparatio'' consists of fifteen books which have been completely preserved.", "Eusebius considered it an introduction to Christianity for pagans.", "But its value for many later readers is more because Eusebius studded this work with so many lively fragments from historians and philosophers which are nowhere else preserved.", "Here alone is preserved Pyrrho's translation of the Buddhist Three marks of existence upon which Pyrrho based Pyrrhonism.", "Here alone is a summary of the writings of the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the Ugaritic tables.", "Here alone is the account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth book of Euhemerus' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods.", "And here almost alone is preserved writings of the neo-Platonist philosopher Atticus along with so much else.", "* ''Demonstratio evangelica'' (''Proof of the Gospel'') is closely connected to the ''Praeparatio'' and comprised originally twenty books of which ten have been completely preserved as well as a fragment of the fifteenth.", "Here Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus Christ.", "The work was probably finished before 311;* Another work which originated in the time of the persecution, entitled ''Prophetic Extracts'' (''Eclogae propheticae'').", "It discusses in four books the Messianic texts of Scripture.", "The work is merely the surviving portion (books 6–9) of the ''General elementary introduction'' to the Christian faith, now lost.", "The fragments given as the Commentary on Luke in the PG have been claimed to derive from the missing tenth book of the General Elementary Introduction (see D. S. Wallace-Hadrill); however, Aaron Johnson has argued that they cannot be associated with this work.", "* The treatise ''On Divine Manifestation'' or ''On the Theophania'' (''Peri theophaneias''), of unknown date.", "It treats of the incarnation of the Divine Logos, and its contents are in many cases identical with the ''Demonstratio evangelica.''", "Only fragments are preserved in Greek, but a complete Syriac translation of the ''Theophania'' survives in an early 5th-century manuscript.", "Samuel Lee, the editor (1842) and translator (1843) of the Syriac ''Theophania,'' thought that the work must have been written \"after the general peace restored to the Church by Constantine, and before either the 'Praeparatio,' or the 'Demonstratio Evangelica,' was written ...It appears probable ... therefore, that this was one of the first productions of Eusebius, if not the first after the persecutions ceased.\"", "Hugo Gressmann, noting in 1904 that the ''Demonstratio'' seems to be mentioned at IV.", "37 and V. 1, and that II.", "14 seems to mention the extant practice of temple prostitution at Hieropolis in Phoenica, concluded that the ''Theophania'' was probably written shortly after 324.Others have suggested a date as late as 337.", "* A polemical treatise against Marcellus of Ancyra, the ''Against Marcellus'', dating from about 337;* A supplement to the last-named work, also against Marcellus, entitled ''Ecclesiastical Theology'', in which he defended the Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party of Athanasius.A number of writings, belonging in this category, have been entirely lost.===Exegetical and miscellaneous works===All of the exegetical works of Eusebius have suffered damage in transmission.", "The majority of them are known to us only from long portions quoted in Byzantine catena-commentaries.", "However these portions are very extensive.", "Extant are:* An enormous Commentary on the Psalms;* A commentary on Isaiah, discovered more or less complete in a manuscript in Florence early in the 20th century and published 50 years later;* Small fragments of commentaries on Romans and 1 Corinthians.Eusebius also wrote a work ', ''On the Differences of the Gospels'' (including solutions).", "This was written for the purpose of harmonizing the contradictions in the reports of the different Evangelists.", "This work was recently (2011) translated into the English language by David J. Miller and Adam C. McCollum and was published under the name ''Eusebius of Caesarea: Gospel Problems and Solutions''.", "The original work was also translated into Syriac, and lengthy quotations exist in a ''catena'' in that language, and also in Arabic catenas.Eusebius also wrote treatises on the biblical past; these three treatises have been lost.", "They were:* A work on the Greek equivalents of Hebrew Gentilic nouns;* A description of old Judea with an account of the loss of the ten tribes;* A plan of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon.The addresses and sermons of Eusebius are mostly lost, but some have been preserved, e.g., a sermon on the consecration of the church in Tyre and an address on the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of Constantine (336).Most of Eusebius' letters are lost.", "His letters to Carpianus and Flacillus exist complete.", "Fragments of a letter to the empress Constantia also exists." ], [ "Doctrine", "Eusebius is fairly unusual in his preterist, or fulfilled, eschatological view.", "Saying \"the Holy Scriptures foretell that there will be unmistakable signs of the Coming of Christ.", "Now there were among the Hebrews three outstanding offices of dignity, which made the nation famous, firstly the kingship, secondly that of prophet, and lastly the high priesthood.", "The prophecies said that the abolition and complete destruction of all these three together would be the sign of the presence of the Christ.", "And that the proofs that the times had come, would lie in the ceasing of the Mosaic worship, the desolation of Jerusalem and its Temple, and the subjection of the whole Jewish race to its enemies.", "...The holy oracles foretold that all these changes, which had not been made in the days of the prophets of old, would take place at the coming of the Christ, which I will presently shew to have been fulfilled as never before in accordance with the predictions\" (''Demonstratio Evangelica'' VIII).From a dogmatic point of view, Eusebius is related in his views to Origen.", "Like Origen, he started from the fundamental thought of the absolute sovereignty (''monarchia'') of God.", "God is the cause of all beings.", "But he is not merely a cause; in him everything good is included, from him all life originates, and he is the source of all virtue.", "God sent Christ into the world that it may partake of the blessings included in the essence of God.", "Eusebius expressly distinguishes the Son as distinct from Father as a ray is also distinct from its source the sun.Eusebius held that men were sinners by their own free choice and not by the necessity of their natures.", "Eusebius said:The Creator of all things has impressed a natural law upon the soul of every man, as an assistant and ally in his conduct, pointing out to him the right way by this law; but, by the free liberty with which he is endowed, making the choice of what is best worthy of praise and acceptance, he has acted rightly, not by force, but from his own free-will, when he had it in his power to act otherwise, As, again, making him who chooses what is worst, deserving of blame and punishment, because he has by his own motion neglected the natural law, and becoming the origin and fountain of wickedness, and misusing himself, not from any extraneous necessity, but from free will and judgment.", "The fault is in him who chooses, not in God.", "For God has not made nature or the substance of the soul bad; for he who is good can make nothing but what is good.", "Everything is good which is according to nature.", "Every rational soul has naturally a good free-will, formed for the choice of what is good.", "But when a man acts wrongly, nature is not to be blamed; for what is wrong, takes place not according to nature, but contrary to nature, it being the work of choice, and not of nature.A letter Eusebius is supposed to have written to Constantine's daughter Constantina, refusing to fulfill her request for images of Christ, was quoted in the decrees (now lost) of the Iconoclast Council of Hieria in 754, and later quoted in part in the rebuttal of the Hieria decrees in the Second Council of Nicaea of 787, now the only source from which some of the text is known.", "The authenticity or authorship of the letter remains uncertain.=== Nicene Creed ===In the June 2002 issue of the ''Church History'' journal, Pier Franco Beatrice reports that Eusebius testified that the word ''homoousios'' (consubstantial) \"was inserted in the Nicene Creed solely by the personal order of Constantine.", "\"However, the council evidently did not force the insertion of the word and instead adopted a text related to the confession of Jerusalem.", "The role of Constantine remained uncertain during the council." ], [ "Assessment", "* Socrates Scholasticus (a 5th-century Christian historian), writing in his own ''Church History'', criticized the ''Life of Constantine'', stating that Eusebius was \"more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor, than on an accurate statement of facts\".", "*Edward Gibbon openly distrusted the writings of Eusebius concerning the number of martyrs, by noting a passage in the shorter text of the ''Martyrs of Palestine'' attached to the ''Ecclesiastical History'' (Book 8, Chapter 2) in which Eusebius introduces his description of the martyrs of the Great Persecution under Diocletian with: \"Wherefore we have decided to relate nothing concerning them except the things in which we can vindicate the Divine judgment.", "...We shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity.\"", "In the longer text of the same work, chapter 12, Eusebius states: \"I think it best to pass by all the other events which occurred in the meantime: such as ... the lust of power on the part of many, the disorderly and unlawful ordinations, and the schisms among the confessors themselves; also the novelties which were zealously devised against the remnants of the Church by the new and factious members, who added innovation after innovation and forced them in unsparingly among the calamities of the persecution, heaping misfortune upon misfortune.", "I judge it more suitable to shun and avoid the account of these things, as I said at the beginning.", "\"* When his own honesty was challenged by his contemporaries, Gibbon appealed to a chapter heading in Eusebius' ''Praeparatio evangelica'' (Book XII, Chapter 31) in which Eusebius discussed \"that it will be necessary sometimes to use falsehood as a remedy for the benefit of those who require such a mode of treatment.", "\"* Although Gibbon refers to Eusebius as the \"gravest\" of the ecclesiastical historians, he also suggests that Eusebius was more concerned with the passing political concerns of his time than with his duty as a reliable historian.", "* Jacob Burckhardt (19th century cultural historian) dismissed Eusebius as \"the first thoroughly dishonest historian of antiquity\".", "* Other critics of Eusebius' work cite the panegyrical tone of the ''Vita'', plus the omission of internal Christian conflicts in the ''Canones'', as reasons to interpret his writing with caution.Alternate views have suggested that Gibbon's dismissal of Eusebius is inappropriate:* With reference to Gibbon's comments, Joseph Barber Lightfoot (late 19th century theologian and former Bishop of Durham) pointed out that Eusebius' statements indicate his honesty in stating what he was not going to discuss, and also his limitations as a historian in not including such material.", "He also discusses the question of accuracy.", "\"The manner in which Eusebius deals with his very numerous quotations elsewhere, where we can test his honesty, is a sufficient vindication against this unjust charge.\"", "Lightfoot also notes that Eusebius cannot always be relied on: \"A far more serious drawback to his value as a historian is the loose and uncritical spirit in which he sometimes deals with his materials.", "This shows itself in diverse ways.", "He is not always to be trusted in his discrimination of genuine and spurious documents.", "\"* Averil Cameron (professor at King's College London and Oxford) and Stuart Hall (historian and theologian), in their recent translation of the ''Life of Constantine'', point out that writers such as Burckhardt found it necessary to attack Eusebius in order to undermine the ideological legitimacy of the Habsburg empire, which based itself on the idea of Christian empire derived from Constantine, and that the most controversial letter in the ''Life'' has since been found among the papyri of Egypt.", "* In ''Church History'' (Vol.", "59, 1990), Michael J. Hollerich (assistant professor at the Jesuit Santa Clara University, California) replies to Burckhardt's criticism of Eusebius, that \"Eusebius has been an inviting target for students of the Constantinian era.", "At one time or another they have characterized him as a political propagandist, a good courtier, the shrewd and worldly adviser of the Emperor Constantine, the great publicist of the first Christian emperor, the first in a long succession of ecclesiastical politicians, the herald of Byzantinism, a political theologian, a political metaphysician, and a caesaropapist.", "It is obvious that these are not, in the main, neutral descriptions.", "Much traditional scholarship, sometimes with barely suppressed disdain, has regarded Eusebius as one who risked his orthodoxy and perhaps his character because of his zeal for the Constantinian establishment.\"", "Hollerich concludes that \"the standard assessment has exaggerated the importance of political themes and political motives in Eusebius's life and writings and has failed to do justice to him as a churchman and a scholar\".While many have shared Burckhardt's assessment, particularly with reference to the ''Life of Constantine'', others, while not pretending to extol his merits, have acknowledged the irreplaceable value of his works which may principally reside in the copious quotations that they contain from other sources, often lost." ], [ "Veneration", "Relic of St. Eusebius of Caesarea from the Shrine of All Saints in St. Martha's Catholic Church in Morton Grove, IllinoisThe earliest recorded feast day of Eusebius is found in the earliest known Syrian Martyrology dating to the year 411 translated by William Wright.", "The Martyrology lists his feast day as May 30.Eusebius continues to be venerated as a Saint by the modern-day Syrian Orthodox Church as well, with a feast day on February 29 according to the official calendar of Saints created by Corbishop Rajan Achen.Eusebius was long venerated in the Roman Catholic Church.", "Bishop J.B. Lightfoot writes in his entry for St. Eusebius in Henry Wace's ''Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century AD, with an Account of Principal Sects and Heresies'' (1911) that \"in the Martyrologium Romanum itself he held his place for centuries\" and in \"Gallican service-books the historian is commemorated as a saint.\"", "However, Lightfoot notes that in \"the revision of this Martyrology under Gregory XIII his name was struck out, and Eusebius of Samosata was substituted, under the mistaken idea that Caesarea had been substituted for Samosata by a mistake.\"", "The Roman Catholic author Henri Valois includes in his translations on Eusebius' writings testimonies of ancient authors in favor and against Eusebius, to which in the favor category he includes evidence of Eusebius in several martyrologies and being called a \"Blessed\" dating back to Victorius of Aquitaine.", "Valois includes both Usuardus and Notker, who list his feast as June 21 in the Roman Martyrology, and a Gallican breviary is included for June 21 that reads as follows:A bone fragment relic of Eusebius within its original reliquary is on display at the Shrine of All Saints located within St. Martha's Catholic Church in Morton Grove, Illinois." ], [ "Bibliography", "* Eusebius of Caesarea.", "** ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'') first seven books , eighth and ninth book , tenth book , epilogue .", "*** Migne, J.P., ed.", "''Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta'' (in Greek).", "''Patrologia Graeca'' 19–24.Paris, 1857.Online at Khazar Skeptik and Documenta Catholica Omnia.", "Accessed 4 November 2009.", "*** McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans.", "''Church History''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent and CCEL.", "Accessed 28 September 2009.", "*** Williamson, G.A., trans.", "''Church History''.", "London: Penguin, 1989.", "** ''Contra Hieroclem'' (''Against Hierocles'').", "** ''Onomasticon'' (''On the Place-Names in Holy Scripture'').", "*** Klostermann, E., ed.", "''Eusebius' Werke'' 3.1 (''Die griechischen christlichen Schrifsteller der ersten (drei) Jahrhunderte'' 11.1.Leipzig and Berlin, 1904).", "Online at the Internet Archive.", "Accessed 29 January 2010.", "*** Wolf, Umhau, trans.", "''The Onomasticon of Eusebius Pamphili: Compared with the version of Jerome and annotated''.", "Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1971.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed 29 January 2010.", "*** Taylor, Joan E., ed.", "''Palestine in the Fourth Century.", "The Onomasticon by Eusebius of Caesarea,'' translated by Greville Freeman-Grenville, and indexed by Rupert Chapman III (Jerusalem: Carta, 2003).", "** ''De Martyribus Palestinae'' (''On the Martyrs of Palestine'').", "*** McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans.", "''Martyrs of Palestine''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent and CCEL.", "Accessed June 9, 2009.", "*** Cureton, William, trans.", "''History of the Martyrs in Palestine by Eusebius of Caesarea, Discovered in a Very Antient Syriac Manuscript''.", "London: Williams & Norgate, 1861.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed September 28, 2009.", "** ''Praeparatio Evangelica'' (''Preparation for the Gospel'').", "** ''Demonstratio Evangelica'' (''Demonstration of the Gospel'').", "** ''Theophania'' (''Theophany'').", "** ''Laudes Constantini'' (''In Praise of Constantine'') 335.", "*** Migne, J.P., ed.", "''Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta'' (in Greek).", "''Patrologia Graeca'' 19–24.Paris, 1857.Online at Khazar Skeptik .", "Accessed 4 November 2009.", "*** Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''Oration in Praise of Constantine''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 19 October 2009.", "** ''Vita Constantini'' (''The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine'') ''ca''.", "336–39.", "*** Migne, J.P., ed.", "''Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta'' (in Greek).", "''Patrologia Graeca'' 19–24.Paris, 1857.Online at Khazar Skeptik .", "Accessed 4 November 2009.", "*** Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''Life of Constantine''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "1.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 9 June 2009.", "*** Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans.", "''Life of Constantine''.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.", "* Gregory Thaumaturgus.", "''Oratio Panegyrica''.", "** Salmond, S.D.F., trans.", "From ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'', Vol.", "6.Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 31 January 2010.", "* Jerome.", "** ''Chronicon'' (''Chronicle'') ''ca''.", "380.", "*** Fotheringham, John Knight, ed.", "''The Bodleian Manuscript of Jerome's Version of the Chronicle of Eusebius''.", "Oxford: Clarendon, 1905.Online at the Internet Archive.", "Accessed 8 October 2009.", "*** Pearse, Roger, ''et al''., trans.", "''The Chronicle of St. Jerome'', in ''Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts''.", "Tertullian, 2005.Online at Tertullian.", "Accessed 14 August 2009.", "** ''de Viris Illustribus'' (''On Illustrious Men'') 392.", "*** Herding, W., ed.", "''De Viris Illustribus'' (in Latin).", "Leipzig: Teubner, 1879.Online at Internet Archive.", "Accessed 6 October 2009.", "*** ''Liber de viris inlustribus'' (in Latin).", "''Texte und Untersuchungen'' 14.Leipzig, 1896.", "*** Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans.", "''De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men)''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "3.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent.", "Accessed 15 August 2009.", "** ''Epistulae'' (''Letters'').", "*** Fremantle, W.H., G. Lewis and W.G.", "Martley, trans.", "''Letters''.", "From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol.", "6.Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.", "Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893.Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.", "Online at New Advent and CCEL.", "Accessed 19 October 2009.", "* Origen.", "**''De Principiis'' (''On First Principles'')." ], [ "See also", "* Church Fathers* Constantine I and Christianity* Early Christianity* Fifty Bibles of Constantine* 4th century in Lebanon* Travelogues of Palestine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * Sabrina Inowlocki & Claudio Zamagni (eds), ''Reconsidering Eusebius: Collected papers on literary, historical, and theological issues'' (Leiden, Brill, 2011) (Vigiliae Christianae, Supplements, 107).", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "===Primary sources===* ''Church History'' (Eusebius); ''The Life of Constantine'' (Eusebius), online at ccel.org.", "* ''History of the Martyrs in Palestine'' (Eusebius), English translation (1861) William Cureton.", "Website ''tertullian.org''.", "* Eusebius of Caesarea, The Gospel Canon Tables* Eusebius, Six extracts from the ''Commentary on the Psalms''.", "* ''Opera Omnia'' by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes complete Greek text of Eusebius' works* * ===Secondary sources===* \"Eusebius\" in ''New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1917)* \"Eusebius of Caesarea\" at the ''Tertullian Project''* Extensive bibliography at ''EarlyChurch.org''* Chronological list of Eusebius's writings" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Empiricism" ], [ "Introduction", "In philosophy, '''empiricism''' is an epistemological view which holds that true knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience.", "It is one of several competing views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism.", "Empiricism emphasizes the central role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions.", "Empiricists may argue that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sensory experiences.", "Historically, empiricism was associated with the \"blank slate\" concept (''tabula rasa''), according to which the human mind is \"blank\" at birth and develops its thoughts only through later experience.", "Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments.", "It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on ''a priori'' reasoning, intuition, or revelation.Empiricism, often used by natural scientists, believes that \"knowledge is based on experience\" and that \"knowledge is tentative and probabilistic, subject to continued revision and falsification\".", "Empirical research, including experiments and validated measurement tools, guides the scientific method." ], [ "Etymology", "The English term ''empirical'' derives from the Ancient Greek word ἐμπειρία, ''empeiria'', which is cognate with and translates to the Latin ''experientia'', from which the words ''experience'' and ''experiment'' are derived." ], [ "Background", "A central concept in science and the scientific method is that conclusions must be ''empirically'' based on the evidence of the senses.", "Both natural and social sciences use working hypotheses that are testable by observation and experiment.", "The term ''semi-empirical'' is sometimes used to describe theoretical methods that make use of basic axioms, established scientific laws, and previous experimental results to engage in reasoned model building and theoretical inquiry.Philosophical empiricists hold no knowledge to be properly inferred or deduced unless it is derived from one's sense-based experience.", "In epistemology (theory of knowledge) empiricism is typically contrasted with rationalism, which holds that knowledge may be derived from reason independently of the senses, and in the philosophy of mind it is often contrasted with innatism, which holds that some knowledge and ideas are already present in the mind at birth.", "However, many Enlightenment rationalists and empiricists still made concessions to each other.", "For example, the empiricist John Locke admitted that some knowledge (e.g.", "knowledge of God's existence) could be arrived at through intuition and reasoning alone.", "Similarly, Robert Boyle, a prominent advocate of the experimental method, held that we also have innate ideas.", "At the same time, the main continental rationalists (Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz) were also advocates of the empirical \"scientific method\"." ], [ "History", "===Early empiricism===Between 600 and 200 BCE, the Vaisheshika school of Hindu philosophy, founded by the ancient Indian philosopher Kanada, accepted perception and inference as the only two reliable sources of knowledge.", "This is enumerated in his work ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra''.", "The Charvaka school held similar beliefs, asserting that perception is the only reliable source of knowledge while inference obtains knowledge with uncertainty.The earliest Western proto-empiricists were the empiric school of ancient Greek medical practitioners, founded in 330 BCE.", "Its members rejected the doctrines of the dogmatic school, preferring to rely on the observation of ''phantasiai'' (i.e., phenomena, the appearances).", "The Empiric school was closely allied with the Pyrrhonist school of philosophy, which made the philosophical case for their proto-empiricism.", "The notion of ''tabula rasa'' (\"clean slate\" or \"blank tablet\") connotes a view of mind the as an originally blank or empty recorder (Locke used the words \"white paper\") on which experience leaves marks.", "This denies that humans have innate ideas.", "The notion dates back to Aristotle, :Aristotle's explanation of how this was possible was not strictly empiricist in a modern sense, but rather based on his theory of potentiality and actuality, and experience of sense perceptions still requires the help of the active ''nous''.", "These notions contrasted with Platonic notions of the human mind as an entity that pre-existed somewhere in the heavens, before being sent down to join a body on Earth (see Plato's ''Phaedo'' and ''Apology'', as well as others).", "Aristotle was considered to give a more important position to sense perception than Plato, and commentators in the Middle Ages summarized one of his positions as \"''nihil in intellectu nisi prius fuerit in sensu''\" (Latin for \"nothing in the intellect without first being in the senses\").This idea was later developed in ancient philosophy by the Stoic school, from about 330 BCE.", "Stoic epistemology generally emphasizes that the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the outside world is impressed upon it.", "The doxographer Aetius summarizes this view as \"When a man is born, the Stoics say, he has the commanding part of his soul like a sheet of paper ready for writing upon.", "\"Ibn Sina (Avicenna) from 1271===Islamic Golden Age and Pre-Renaissance (5th to 15th centuries CE)===During the Middle Ages (from the 5th to the 15th century CE) Aristotle's theory of ''tabula rasa'' was developed by Islamic philosophers starting with Al Farabi (), developing into an elaborate theory by Avicenna (c.  980 – 1037 CE) and demonstrated as a thought experiment by Ibn Tufail.", "For Avicenna (Ibn Sina), for example, the ''tabula rasa'' is a pure potentiality that is actualized through education, and knowledge is attained through \"empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts\" developed through a \"syllogistic method of reasoning in which observations lead to propositional statements which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts\".", "The intellect itself develops from a material intellect (''al-'aql al-hayulani''), which is a potentiality \"that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (''al-'aql al-fa'il''), the state of the human intellect in conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge\".", "So the immaterial \"active intellect\", separate from any individual person, is still essential for understanding to occur.In the 12th century CE, the Andalusian Muslim philosopher and novelist Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail (known as \"Abubacer\" or \"Ebu Tophail\" in the West) included the theory of ''tabula rasa'' as a thought experiment in his Arabic philosophical novel, ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'' in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child \"from a ''tabula rasa'' to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society\" on a desert island, through experience alone.", "The Latin translation of his philosophical novel, entitled ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of ''tabula rasa'' in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''.A similar Islamic theological novel, ''Theologus Autodidactus'', was written by the Arab theologian and physician Ibn al-Nafis in the 13th century.", "It also dealt with the theme of empiricism through the story of a feral child on a desert island, but departed from its predecessor by depicting the development of the protagonist's mind through contact with society rather than in isolation from society.During the 13th century Thomas Aquinas adopted into scholasticism the Aristotelian position that the senses are essential to the mind.", "Bonaventure (1221–1274), one of Aquinas' strongest intellectual opponents, offered some of the strongest arguments in favour of the Platonic idea of the mind.===Renaissance Italy===In the late renaissance various writers began to question the medieval and classical understanding of knowledge acquisition in a more fundamental way.", "In political and historical writing Niccolò Machiavelli and his friend Francesco Guicciardini initiated a new realistic style of writing.", "Machiavelli in particular was scornful of writers on politics who judged everything in comparison to mental ideals and demanded that people should study the \"effectual truth\" instead.", "Their contemporary, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) said, \"If you find from your own experience that something is a fact and it contradicts what some authority has written down, then you must abandon the authority and base your reasoning on your own findings.", "\"Significantly, an empirical metaphysical system was developed by the Italian philosopher Bernardino Telesio which had an enormous impact on the development of later Italian thinkers, including Telesio's students Antonio Persio and Sertorio Quattromani, his contemporaries Thomas Campanella and Giordano Bruno, and later British philosophers such as Francis Bacon, who regarded Telesio as \"the first of the moderns.” Telesio's influence can also be seen on the French philosophers René Descartes and Pierre Gassendi.The decidedly anti-Aristotelian and anti-clerical music theorist Vincenzo Galilei (c. 1520 – 1591), father of Galileo and the inventor of monody, made use of the method in successfully solving musical problems, firstly, of tuning such as the relationship of pitch to string tension and mass in stringed instruments, and to volume of air in wind instruments; and secondly to composition, by his various suggestions to composers in his ''Dialogo della musica antica e moderna'' (Florence, 1581).", "The Italian word he used for \"experiment\" was ''esperimento''.", "It is known that he was the essential pedagogical influence upon the young Galileo, his eldest son (cf.", "Coelho, ed.", "''Music and Science in the Age of Galileo Galilei''), arguably one of the most influential empiricists in history.", "Vincenzo, through his tuning research, found the underlying truth at the heart of the misunderstood myth of 'Pythagoras' hammers' (the square of the numbers concerned yielded those musical intervals, not the actual numbers, as believed), and through this and other discoveries that demonstrated the fallibility of traditional authorities, a radically empirical attitude developed, passed on to Galileo, which regarded \"experience and demonstration\" as the ''sine qua non'' of valid rational enquiry.===British empiricism===Thomas Hobbes'''British empiricism''', a retrospective characterization, emerged during the 17th century as an approach to early modern philosophy and modern science.", "Although both integral to this overarching transition, Francis Bacon, in England, first advocated for empiricism in 1620, whereas René Descartes, in France, laid the main groundwork upholding rationalism around 1640.", "(Bacon's natural philosophy was influenced by Italian philosopher Bernardino Telesio and by Swiss physician Paracelsus.)", "Contributing later in the 17th century, Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza are retrospectively identified likewise as an empiricist and a rationalist, respectively.", "In the Enlightenment of the late 17th century, John Locke in England, and in the 18th century, both George Berkeley in England and David Hume in Scotland, all became leading exponents of empiricism, hence the dominance of empiricism in British philosophy.", "The distinction between rationalism and empiricism was not formally made until Immanuel Kant, in Germany, around 1780, who sought to merge the two views.In response to the early-to-mid-17th-century \"continental rationalism\", John Locke (1632–1704) proposed in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (1689) a very influential view wherein the ''only'' knowledge humans can have is ''a posteriori'', i.e., based upon experience.", "Locke is famously attributed with holding the proposition that the human mind is a ''tabula rasa'', a \"blank tablet\", in Locke's words \"white paper\", on which the experiences derived from sense impressions as a person's life proceeds are written.", "There are two sources of our ideas: sensation and reflection.", "In both cases, a distinction is made between simple and complex ideas.", "The former are unanalysable, and are broken down into primary and secondary qualities.", "Primary qualities are essential for the object in question to be what it is.", "Without specific primary qualities, an object would not be what it is.", "For example, an apple is an apple because of the arrangement of its atomic structure.", "If an apple were structured differently, it would cease to be an apple.", "Secondary qualities are the sensory information we can perceive from its primary qualities.", "For example, an apple can be perceived in various colours, sizes, and textures but it is still identified as an apple.", "Therefore, its primary qualities dictate what the object essentially is, while its secondary qualities define its attributes.", "Complex ideas combine simple ones, and divide into substances, modes, and relations.", "According to Locke, our knowledge of things is a perception of ideas that are in accordance or discordance with each other, which is very different from the quest for certainty of Descartes.Bishop George BerkeleyA generation later, the Irish Anglican bishop George Berkeley (1685–1753) determined that Locke's view immediately opened a door that would lead to eventual atheism.", "In response to Locke, he put forth in his ''Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'' (1710) an important challenge to empiricism in which things ''only'' exist either as a ''result'' of their being perceived, or by virtue of the fact that they are an entity doing the perceiving.", "(For Berkeley, God fills in for humans by doing the perceiving whenever humans are not around to do it.)", "In his text ''Alciphron'', Berkeley maintained that any order humans may see in nature is the language or handwriting of God.", "Berkeley's approach to empiricism would later come to be called subjective idealism.Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776) responded to Berkeley's criticisms of Locke, as well as other differences between early modern philosophers, and moved empiricism to a new level of skepticism.", "Hume argued in keeping with the empiricist view that all knowledge derives from sense experience, but he accepted that this has implications not normally acceptable to philosophers.", "He wrote for example, \"Locke divides all arguments into demonstrative and probable.", "On this view, we must say that it is only probable that all men must die or that the sun will rise to-morrow, because neither of these can be demonstrated.", "But to conform our language more to common use, we ought to divide arguments into demonstrations, proofs, and probabilities—by ‘proofs’ meaning arguments from experience that leave no room for doubt or opposition.\"", "And,Hume divided all of human knowledge into two categories: ''relations of ideas'' and ''matters of fact'' (see also Kant's analytic-synthetic distinction).", "Mathematical and logical propositions (e.g.", "\"that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides\") are examples of the first, while propositions involving some contingent observation of the world (e.g.", "\"the sun rises in the East\") are examples of the second.", "All of people's \"ideas\", in turn, are derived from their \"impressions\".", "For Hume, an \"impression\" corresponds roughly with what we call a sensation.", "To remember or to imagine such impressions is to have an \"idea\".", "Ideas are therefore the faint copies of sensations.David Hume's empiricism led to numerous philosophical schools.Hume maintained that no knowledge, even the most basic beliefs about the natural world, can be conclusively established by reason.", "Rather, he maintained, our beliefs are more a result of accumulated ''habits'', developed in response to accumulated sense experiences.", "Among his many arguments Hume also added another important slant to the debate about scientific method—that of the problem of induction.", "Hume argued that it requires inductive reasoning to arrive at the premises for the principle of inductive reasoning, and therefore the justification for inductive reasoning is a circular argument.", "Among Hume's conclusions regarding the problem of induction is that there is no certainty that the future will resemble the past.", "Thus, as a simple instance posed by Hume, we cannot know with certainty by inductive reasoning that the sun will continue to rise in the East, but instead come to expect it to do so because it has repeatedly done so in the past.Hume concluded that such things as belief in an external world and belief in the existence of the self were not rationally justifiable.", "According to Hume these beliefs were to be accepted nonetheless because of their profound basis in instinct and custom.", "Hume's lasting legacy, however, was the doubt that his skeptical arguments cast on the legitimacy of inductive reasoning, allowing many skeptics who followed to cast similar doubt.===Phenomenalism===Most of Hume's followers have disagreed with his conclusion that belief in an external world is ''rationally'' unjustifiable, contending that Hume's own principles implicitly contained the rational justification for such a belief, that is, beyond being content to let the issue rest on human instinct, custom and habit.", "According to an extreme empiricist theory known as phenomenalism, anticipated by the arguments of both Hume and George Berkeley, a physical object is a kind of construction out of our experiences.", "Phenomenalism is the view that physical objects, properties, events (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events.", "Ultimately, only mental objects, properties, events, exist—hence the closely related term subjective idealism.", "By the phenomenalistic line of thinking, to have a visual experience of a real physical thing is to have an experience of a certain kind of group of experiences.", "This type of set of experiences possesses a constancy and coherence that is lacking in the set of experiences of which hallucinations, for example, are a part.", "As John Stuart Mill put it in the mid-19th century, matter is the \"permanent possibility of sensation\".Mill's empiricism went a significant step beyond Hume in still another respect: in maintaining that induction is necessary for ''all'' meaningful knowledge including mathematics.", "As summarized by D.W. Hamlin:Mill's empiricism thus held that knowledge of any kind is not from direct experience but an inductive inference from direct experience.", "The problems other philosophers have had with Mill's position center around the following issues: Firstly, Mill's formulation encounters difficulty when it describes what direct experience is by differentiating only between actual and possible sensations.", "This misses some key discussion concerning conditions under which such \"groups of permanent possibilities of sensation\" might exist in the first place.", "Berkeley put God in that gap; the phenomenalists, including Mill, essentially left the question unanswered.", "In the end, lacking an acknowledgement of an aspect of \"reality\" that goes beyond mere \"possibilities of sensation\", such a position leads to a version of subjective idealism.", "Questions of how floor beams continue to support a floor while unobserved, how trees continue to grow while unobserved and untouched by human hands, etc., remain unanswered, and perhaps unanswerable in these terms.", "Secondly, Mill's formulation leaves open the unsettling possibility that the \"gap-filling entities are purely possibilities and not actualities at all\".", "Thirdly, Mill's position, by calling mathematics merely another species of inductive inference, misapprehends mathematics.", "It fails to fully consider the structure and method of mathematical science, the products of which are arrived at through an internally consistent deductive set of procedures which do not, either today or at the time Mill wrote, fall under the agreed meaning of induction.The phenomenalist phase of post-Humean empiricism ended by the 1940s, for by that time it had become obvious that statements about physical things could not be translated into statements about actual and possible sense data.", "If a physical object statement is to be translatable into a sense-data statement, the former must be at least deducible from the latter.", "But it came to be realized that there is no finite set of statements about actual and possible sense-data from which we can deduce even a single physical-object statement.", "The translating or paraphrasing statement must be couched in terms of normal observers in normal conditions of observation.", "There is, however, no ''finite'' set of statements that are couched in purely sensory terms and can express the satisfaction of the condition of the presence of a normal observer.", "According to phenomenalism, to say that a normal observer is present is to make the hypothetical statement that were a doctor to inspect the observer, the observer would appear to the doctor to be normal.", "But, of course, the doctor himself must be a normal observer.", "If we are to specify this doctor's normality in sensory terms, we must make reference to a second doctor who, when inspecting the sense organs of the first doctor, would himself have to have the sense data a normal observer has when inspecting the sense organs of a subject who is a normal observer.", "And if we are to specify in sensory terms that the second doctor is a normal observer, we must refer to a third doctor, and so on (also see the third man).===Logical empiricism===Logical empiricism (also ''logical positivism'' or ''neopositivism'') was an early 20th-century attempt to synthesize the essential ideas of British empiricism (e.g.", "a strong emphasis on sensory experience as the basis for knowledge) with certain insights from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob Frege and Ludwig Wittgenstein.", "Some of the key figures in this movement were Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick and the rest of the Vienna Circle, along with A. J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach.The neopositivists subscribed to a notion of philosophy as the conceptual clarification of the methods, insights and discoveries of the sciences.", "They saw in the logical symbolism elaborated by Frege (1848–1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) a powerful instrument that could rationally reconstruct all scientific discourse into an ideal, logically perfect, language that would be free of the ambiguities and deformations of natural language.", "This gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudoproblems and other conceptual confusions.", "By combining Frege's thesis that all mathematical truths are logical with the early Wittgenstein's idea that all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies, they arrived at a twofold classification of all propositions: the \"analytic\" (''a priori'') and the \"synthetic\" (''a posteriori'').", "On this basis, they formulated a strong principle of demarcation between sentences that have sense and those that do not: the so-called \"verification principle\".", "Any sentence that is not purely logical, or is unverifiable, is devoid of meaning.", "As a result, most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical problems came to be considered pseudoproblems.In the extreme empiricism of the neopositivists—at least before the 1930s—any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) that expresses direct observations or perceptions.", "In later years, Carnap and Neurath abandoned this sort of ''phenomenalism'' in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge into the language of an objective spatio-temporal physics.", "That is, instead of translating sentences about physical objects into sense-data, such sentences were to be translated into so-called ''protocol sentences'', for example, \"''X'' at location ''Y'' and at time ''T'' observes such and such\".", "The central theses of logical positivism (verificationism, the analytic–synthetic distinction, reductionism, etc.)", "came under sharp attack after World War II by thinkers such as Nelson Goodman, W. V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty.", "By the late 1960s, it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course, though its influence is still significant among contemporary analytic philosophers such as Michael Dummett and other anti-realists.===Pragmatism===In the late 19th and early 20th century, several forms of pragmatic philosophy arose.", "The ideas of pragmatism, in its various forms, developed mainly from discussions between Charles Sanders Peirce and William James when both men were at Harvard in the 1870s.", "James popularized the term \"pragmatism\", giving Peirce full credit for its patrimony, but Peirce later demurred from the tangents that the movement was taking, and redubbed what he regarded as the original idea with the name of \"pragmaticism\".", "Along with its ''pragmatic theory of truth'', this perspective integrates the basic insights of empirical (experience-based) and rational (concept-based) thinking.Charles Sanders PeirceCharles Peirce (1839–1914) was highly influential in laying the groundwork for today's empirical scientific method.", "Although Peirce severely criticized many elements of Descartes' peculiar brand of rationalism, he did not reject rationalism outright.", "Indeed, he concurred with the main ideas of rationalism, most importantly the idea that rational concepts can be meaningful and the idea that rational concepts necessarily go beyond the data given by empirical observation.", "In later years he even emphasized the concept-driven side of the then ongoing debate between strict empiricism and strict rationalism, in part to counterbalance the excesses to which some of his cohorts had taken pragmatism under the \"data-driven\" strict-empiricist view.Among Peirce's major contributions was to place inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning in a complementary rather than competitive mode, the latter of which had been the primary trend among the educated since David Hume wrote a century before.", "To this, Peirce added the concept of abductive reasoning.", "The combined three forms of reasoning serve as a primary conceptual foundation for the empirically based scientific method today.", "Peirce's approach \"presupposes that (1) the objects of knowledge are real things, (2) the characters (properties) of real things do not depend on our perceptions of them, and (3) everyone who has sufficient experience of real things will agree on the truth about them.", "According to Peirce's doctrine of fallibilism, the conclusions of science are always tentative.", "The rationality of the scientific method does not depend on the certainty of its conclusions, but on its self-corrective character: by continued application of the method science can detect and correct its own mistakes, and thus eventually lead to the discovery of truth\".William JamesIn his Harvard \"Lectures on Pragmatism\" (1903), Peirce enumerated what he called the \"three cotary propositions of pragmatism\" (L: ''cos, cotis'' whetstone), saying that they \"put the edge on the maxim of pragmatism\".", "First among these, he listed the peripatetic-thomist observation mentioned above, but he further observed that this link between sensory perception and intellectual conception is a two-way street.", "That is, it can be taken to say that whatever we find in the intellect is also incipiently in the senses.", "Hence, if theories are theory-laden then so are the senses, and perception itself can be seen as a species of abductive inference, its difference being that it is beyond control and hence beyond critique—in a word, incorrigible.", "This in no way conflicts with the fallibility and revisability of scientific concepts, since it is only the immediate percept in its unique individuality or \"thisness\"—what the Scholastics called its ''haecceity''—that stands beyond control and correction.", "Scientific concepts, on the other hand, are general in nature, and transient sensations do in another sense find correction within them.", "This notion of perception as abduction has received periodic revivals in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research, most recently for instance with the work of Irvin Rock on ''indirect perception''.Around the beginning of the 20th century, William James (1842–1910) coined the term \"radical empiricism\" to describe an offshoot of his form of pragmatism, which he argued could be dealt with separately from his pragmatism—though in fact the two concepts are intertwined in James's published lectures.", "James maintained that the empirically observed \"directly apprehended universe needs ... no extraneous trans-empirical connective support\", by which he meant to rule out the perception that there can be any value added by seeking supernatural explanations for natural phenomena.", "James' \"radical empiricism\" is thus ''not'' radical in the context of the term \"empiricism\", but is instead fairly consistent with the modern use of the term \"empirical\".", "His method of argument in arriving at this view, however, still readily encounters debate within philosophy even today.John Dewey (1859–1952) modified James' pragmatism to form a theory known as instrumentalism.", "The role of sense experience in Dewey's theory is crucial, in that he saw experience as unified totality of things through which everything else is interrelated.", "Dewey's basic thought, in accordance with empiricism, was that reality is determined by past experience.", "Therefore, humans adapt their past experiences of things to perform experiments upon and test the pragmatic values of such experience.", "The value of such experience is measured experientially and scientifically, and the results of such tests generate ideas that serve as instruments for future experimentation, in physical sciences as in ethics.", "Thus, ideas in Dewey's system retain their empiricist flavour in that they are only known ''a posteriori''." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Endnotes" ], [ "References", "* Achinstein, Peter, and Barker, Stephen F. (1969), ''The Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the Philosophy of Science'', Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.", "* Aristotle, \"On the Soul\" (''De Anima''), W. S. Hett (trans.", "), pp.", "1–203 in ''Aristotle, Volume 8'', Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1936.", "* Aristotle, ''Posterior Analytics''.", "* Barone, Francesco (1986), ''Il neopositivismo logico'', Laterza, Roma Bari* Berlin, Isaiah (2004), ''The Refutation of Phenomenalism'', Isaiah Berlin Virtual Library.", "* Bolender, John (1998), \"Factual Phenomenalism: A Supervenience Theory\"', ''Sorites'', no.", "9, pp. 16–31.", "* Chisolm, R. (1948), \"The Problem of Empiricism\", ''Journal of Philosophy'' 45, 512–17.", "* Dewey, John (1906), ''Studies in Logical Theory''.", "* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', \"Empiricism\", vol.", "4, p. 480.", "* Hume, D., ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.", "), Oxford University Press, London, UK, 1975.", "* Hume, David.", "\"An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding\", in ''Enquiries Concerning the Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals'', 2nd edition, L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.", "), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1902.Gutenberg press full-text* James, William (1911), ''The Meaning of Truth''.", "* Keeton, Morris T. (1962), \"Empiricism\", pp.", "89–90 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.", "), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.", "* Leftow, Brian (ed., 2006), ''Aquinas: Summa Theologiae, Questions on God'', pp.", "vii ''et seq''.", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"Development of Aristotle's Thought\", vol.", "1, pp. 153ff.", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"George Berkeley\", vol.", "1, p. 297.", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"Empiricism\", vol.", "2, p. 503.", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"Mathematics, Foundations of\", vol.", "5, pp. 188–89.", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"Axiomatic Method\", vol.", "5, pp. 192ff.", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"Epistemological Discussion\", subsections on \"A Priori Knowledge\" and \"Axioms\".", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"Phenomenalism\", vol.", "6, p. 131.", "* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1969), \"Thomas Aquinas\", subsection on \"Theory of Knowledge\", vol.", "8, pp. 106–07.", "* Marconi, Diego (2004), \"Fenomenismo\"', in Gianni Vattimo and Gaetano Chiurazzi (eds.", "), ''L'Enciclopedia Garzanti di Filosofia'', 3rd edition, Garzanti, Milan, Italy.", "* Markie, P. (2004), \"Rationalism vs. Empiricism\" in Edward D. Zalta (ed.", "), ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Eprint.", "* Maxwell, Nicholas (1998), ''The Comprehensibility of the Universe: A New Conception of Science'', Oxford University Press, Oxford.", "* Mill, J.S., \"An Examination of Sir William Rowan Hamilton's Philosophy\", in A.J.", "Ayer and Ramond Winch (eds.", "), ''British Empirical Philosophers'', Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, 1968.", "* Morick, H. (1980), ''Challenges to Empiricism'', Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, IN.", "* Peirce, C.S., \"Lectures on Pragmatism\", Cambridge, Massachusetts, March 26 – May 17, 1903.Reprinted in part, ''Collected Papers'', CP 5.14–212.Published in full with editor's introduction and commentary, Patricia Ann Turisi (ed.", "), ''Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard \"Lectures on Pragmatism\"'', State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1997.Reprinted, pp.", "133–241, Peirce Edition Project (eds.", "), ''The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913)'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998.", "* Rescher, Nicholas (1985), ''The Heritage of Logical Positivism'', University Press of America, Lanham, MD.", "* Rock, Irvin (1983), ''The Logic of Perception'', MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "* Rock, Irvin, (1997) ''Indirect Perception'', MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "* Runes, D.D.", "(ed., 1962), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.", "* Sini, Carlo (2004), \"Empirismo\", in Gianni Vattimo et al.", "(eds.", "), ''Enciclopedia Garzanti della Filosofia''.", "* Solomon, Robert C., and Higgins, Kathleen M. (1996), ''A Short History of Philosophy'', pp. 68–74.", "* Sorabji, Richard (1972), ''Aristotle on Memory''.", "* Thornton, Stephen (1987), ''Berkeley's Theory of Reality'', Eprint* Vanzo, Alberto (2014), \"From Empirics to Empiricists\", ''Intellectual History Review'', 2014, Eprint available here and here.", "* Ward, Teddy (n.d.), \"Empiricism\", Eprint.", "* Wilson, Fred (2005), \"John Stuart Mill\", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.", "), ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Eprint." ], [ "External links", "***** Empiricist Man" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Estampie" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''estampie''' (, Occitan and , ) is a medieval dance and musical form which was a popular instrumental and vocal form in the 13th and 14th centuries.", "The name was also applied to poetry." ], [ "Musical form", "The estampie is similar in form to the lai, consisting of a succession of repeated notes.", "According to Johannes de Grocheio, there were both vocal and instrumental estampies (for which he used the Latin calque \"stantipes\"), which differed somewhat in form.Grocheio calls the sections in both the French vocal and instrumental estampie ''puncta'' (singular ''punctus''), Each ''puncta'' has a pair of lines that repeat the same melody, in the form::''aa, bb, cc, etc.", "''.The two statements of the melody in each punctus differ only in their endings, described as ''apertum'' (\"open\") and ''clausum'' (\"closed\") by Grocheio, who believed that six ''puncta'' were standard for the stantipes (his term for the estampie), though he was aware of stantipes with seven ''puncta''.", "The structure can therefore be diagrammed as::''a+x, a+y; b+w, b+z; etc.", "''.In an instrumental estampie, the open and closed endings of the puncta are the same each time, so that the end of the ''punctum'' serves as the refrain, in the form:''a+x, a+y; b+x, b+y, c+x, c+y, etc.", "''In comparison to other dance forms, Grocheio considered the instrumental estampie \"complicated,\" with ''puncta'' of varying lengths This is in contrast to the more regular verse length of the ductia.", "There are also more ''puncta'' in an estampie than in a ductia.", "He further states that this difficulty captivates the attention of both the players and listeners because of these complications.", "According to Grocheio, the vocal estampie begins with a refrain, which is repeated at the end of each stanza, with text and melody independent of the stanza.", "However, surviving songs do not include a section labeled as a refrain, so some scholars suggest that a convention must have existed for choosing lines to use as a refrain.", "Like the instrumental form, the vocal dance was complicated enough to require concentration, which helps to distract young people from wicked thoughts." ], [ "History", "The estampie is the first known genre of medieval era dance music which continues to exist today.", "The earliest reported example of this musical form is the song \"Kalenda maya\", written by the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras (1180–1207), possibly to a preexisting melody.", "14th century examples include ''estampies'' with subtitles such as \"Isabella\" and \"Tre fontane\"." ], [ "Instrumentation", "Sources for individual songs do not generally indicate what instruments were used.", "However, according to Grocheio, the ''vielle'' was the supreme instrument of the period, and the ''stantipes'', together with the cantus coronatus and ductia, were the principal forms played on ''vielles'' before the wealthy in their celebration.", "Though the estampie is generally monophonic, there are also two-voice compositions in the form of an estampie, such as the two for keyboard in the Robertsbridge Fragment.", "The French estampie was performed in a lively triple meter, a primary division of three beats to the bar." ], [ "Dance" ], [ "Etymology", "According to the ''OED'', the name comes from the Provençal ''estampida'', feminine of ''estampit'', the past participle of ''estampir'' \"to resound\"." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * L. Hibberd.", "\"Estampie and Stantipes\".", "''Speculum'' XIX, 1944, 222-249.", "* Pierre Aubry.", "''Estampies et danses royales; les plus anciens textes de musique instrumentale au Moyen-Âge'' (1906).", "Genève : Minkoff, 1975 (reprint).", ".", "* Willi Apel.", "''Harvard Dictionary of Music'' (1970) Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.* * C. Schima.", "''Die Estampie'' (1995) .", "See also Estampie Schima* * * * * * .", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Experimental cancer treatment" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Experimental cancer treatments''' are mainstream medical therapies intended to treat cancer by improving on, supplementing or replacing conventional methods (surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and immunotherapy).", "However, researchers are still trying to determine whether these treatments are safe and effective treatments.", "Experimental cancer treatments are normally available only to people who participate in formal research programs, which are called ''clinical trials''.", "Occasionally, a seriously ill person may be able to access an experimental drug through an expanded access program.", "Some of the treatments have regulatory approval for treating other conditions.", "Health insurance and publicly funded health care programs normally refuse to pay for experimental cancer treatments.The entries listed below vary between theoretical therapies to unproven controversial therapies.", "Many of these treatments are alleged to help against only specific forms of cancer.", "It is not a list of treatments widely available at hospitals." ], [ "Studying treatments for cancer", "The twin goals of research are to determine whether the treatment actually works (called efficacy) and whether it is sufficiently safe.", "Regulatory processes attempt to balance the potential benefits with the potential harms, so that people given the treatment are more likely to benefit from it than to be harmed by it.Medical research for cancer begins much like research for any disease.", "In organized studies of new treatments for cancer, the pre-clinical development of drugs, devices, and techniques begins in laboratories, either with isolated cells or in small animals, most commonly rats or mice.", "In other cases, the proposed treatment for cancer is already in use for some other medical condition, in which case more is known about its safety and potential efficacy.Clinical trials are the study of treatments in humans.", "The first-in-human tests of a potential treatment are called Phase I studies.", "Early clinical trials typically enroll a very small number of patients, and the purpose is to identify major safety issues and the ''maximum tolerated dose'', which is the highest dose that does not produce serious or fatal adverse effects.", "The dose given in these trials may be far too small to produce any useful effect.", "In most research, these early trials may involve healthy people, but cancer studies normally enroll only people with relatively severe forms of the disease in this stage of testing.", "On average, 95% of the participants in these early trials receive no benefit, but all are exposed to the risk of adverse effects.", "Most participants show signs of optimism bias (the irrational belief that they will beat the odds).Later studies, called Phase II and Phase III studies, enroll more people, and the goal is to determine whether the treatment actually works.", "Phase III studies are frequently randomized controlled trials, with the experimental treatment being compared to the current best available treatment rather than to a placebo.", "In some cases, the Phase III trial provides the best available treatment to all participants, in addition to some of the patients receiving the experimental treatment." ], [ "Bacterial treatments", "Chemotherapeutic drugs have a hard time penetrating tumors to kill them at their core because these cells may lack a good blood supply .", "Researchers have been using anaerobic bacteria, such as ''Clostridium novyi'', to consume the interior of oxygen-poor tumours.", "These should then die when they come in contact with the tumor's oxygenated sides, meaning they would be harmless to the rest of the body.", "A major problem has been that bacteria do not consume all parts of the malignant tissue.", "However, combining the therapy with chemotherapeutic treatments can help to solve this problem.Another strategy is to use anaerobic bacteria that have been transformed with an enzyme that can convert a non-toxic prodrug into a toxic drug.", "With the proliferation of the bacteria in the necrotic and hypoxic areas of the tumor, the enzyme is expressed solely in the tumor.", "Thus, a systemically applied prodrug is metabolised to the toxic drug only in the tumor.", "This has been demonstrated to be effective with the nonpathogenic anaerobe ''Clostridium sporogenes''." ], [ "Drug therapies", "===HAMLET (human alpha-lactalbumin made lethal to tumor cells)===HAMLET (human alpha-lactalbumin made lethal to tumor cells) is a molecular complex derived from human breast milk that kills tumor cells by a process resembling programmed cell death (apoptosis).", ", it had been tested in humans with skin papillomas and bladder cancer.===p53 activation therapy===Several drug therapies are being developed based on p53, the tumour suppressor gene that protects the cell in response to damage and stress.", "It is analogous to deciding what to do with a damaged car: p53 brings everything to a halt, and then decides whether to fix the cell or, if the cell is beyond repair, to destroy the cell.", "This protective function of p53 is disabled in most cancer cells, allowing them to multiply without check.", "Restoration of p53 activity in tumours (where possible) has been shown to inhibit tumour growth and can even shrink the tumour.As p53 protein levels are usually kept low, one could block its degradation and allow large amounts of p53 to accumulate, thus stimulating p53 activity and its antitumour effects.", "Drugs that utilize this mechanism include nutlin and MI-219, which are both in phase I clinical trials.", ", there are also other drugs that are still in the preclinical stage of testing, such as RITA and MITA.===BI811283===BI811283 is a small molecule inhibitor of the aurora B kinase protein being developed by Boehringer Ingelheim for use as an anti-cancer agent.", ", BI 811283 is currently in the early stages of clinical development and is undergoing first-in-human trials in patients with solid tumors and Acute Myeloid Leukaemia.=== Itraconazole ===Itraconazole, sometimes abbreviated ITZ, is an antifungal medication used to treat a number of fungal infections.", "Recent research works suggest itraconazole (ITZ) could also be used in the treatment of cancer by inhibiting the hedgehog pathway in a similar way to Sonidegib.===Selective androgen receptor modulators===The majority of breast cancers are androgen receptor (AR) positive and SARMs may help treat these cancers, although promising results have only been obtained with cancers that are both estrogen receptor (ER) positive and AR positive.", "Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) were historically used successfully to treat AR positive breast cancer, but were phased out after the development of anti-estrogen therapies, due to androgenic side effects and concerns about aromatization to estrogen.", "SARMs have some of the same therapeutic effects as AAS, but fewer side effects, and they cannot be aromatized.", "Although a trial on AR positive triple negative breast cancer was ended early due to lack of efficacy, ostarine showed benefits in some patients with ER+, AR+ metastatic breast cancer in a phase II study.", "In patients with more than 40 percent AR positivity as determined by immunohistochemistry, the clinical benefit rate (CBR) was 80 percent and the objective response rate (ORR) was 48 percent—which was considered promising given that the patients had advanced disease and had been heavily pretreated.", "In 2022, the FDA granted fast track designation to ostarine for AR+, ER+, HER2- metastatic breast cancer.", "SARMs have also shown antitumor effects in prostate cancer." ], [ "Gene therapy", "Introduction of tumor suppressor genes into rapidly dividing cells has been thought to slow down or arrest tumor growth.", "Adenoviruses are a commonly utilized vector for this purpose.", "Much research has focused on the use of adenoviruses that cannot reproduce, or reproduce only to a limited extent, within the patient to ensure safety via the avoidance of cytolytic destruction of noncancerous cells infected with the vector.", "However, new studies focus on adenoviruses that can be permitted to reproduce, and destroy cancerous cells in the process, since the adenoviruses' ability to infect normal cells is substantially impaired, potentially resulting in a far more effective treatment.Another use of gene therapy is the introduction of enzymes into these cells that make them susceptible to particular chemotherapy agents; studies with introducing thymidine kinase in gliomas, making them susceptible to aciclovir, are in their experimental stage." ], [ "Epigenetic options", "Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene activity that are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence, often a result of environmental or dietary damage to the histone receptors within the cell.", "Current research has shown that epigenetic pharmaceuticals could be a putative replacement or adjuvant therapy for currently accepted treatment methods such as radiation and chemotherapy, or could enhance the effects of these current treatments.", "It has been shown that the epigenetic control of the proto-onco regions and the tumor suppressor sequences by conformational changes in histones directly affects the formation and progression of cancer.", "Epigenetics also has the factor of reversibility, a characteristic that other cancer treatments do not offer.Some investigators, like Randy Jirtle, PhD, of Duke University Medical Center, think epigenetics may ultimately turn out to have a greater role in disease than genetics." ], [ "Telomerase deactivation therapy", "Because most malignant cells rely on the activity of the protein telomerase for their immortality, it has been proposed that a drug that inactivates telomerase might be effective against a broad spectrum of malignancies.", "At the same time, most healthy tissues in the body express little if any telomerase, and would function normally in its absence.", "Currently, inositol hexaphosphate, which is available over-the-counter, is undergoing testing in cancer research due to its telomerase-inhibiting abilities.A number of research groups have experimented with the use of telomerase inhibitors in animal models, and as of 2005 and 2006 phase I and II human clinical trials are underway.", "Geron Corporation is currently conducting two clinical trials involving telomerase inhibitors.", "One uses a vaccine (GRNVAC1) and the other uses a lipidated oligonucleotide (GRN163L)." ], [ "Radiation therapies", "===Photodynamic therapy===Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is generally a non-invasive treatment using a combination of light and a photosensitive drug, such as 5-ALA, Foscan, Metvix, padeliporfin (Tookad, WST09, WST11), Photofrin, or Visudyne.", "The drug is triggered by light of a specific wavelength.===Hyperthermiatic therapy===Localized and whole-body application of heat has been proposed as a technique for the treatment of malignant tumours.", "Intense heating will cause denaturation and coagulation of cellular proteins, rapidly killing cells within a tumour.More prolonged moderate heating to temperatures just a few degrees above normal (39.5 °C) can cause more subtle changes.", "A mild heat treatment combined with other stresses can cause cell death by apoptosis.", "There are many biochemical consequences to the heat shock response within the cell, including slowed cell division and increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation therapy.", "The purpose of overheating the tumor cells is to create a lack of oxygen so that the heated cells become overacidified, which leads to a lack of nutrients in the tumor.", "This in turn disrupts the metabolism of the cells so that cell death (apoptosis) can set in.", "In certain cases chemotherapy or radiation that has previously not had any effect can be made effective.", "Hyperthermia alters the cell walls by means of so-called heat shock proteins.", "The cancer cells then react very much more effectively to the cytostatics and radiation.", "If hyperthermia is used conscientiously it has no serious side effects.There are many techniques by which heat may be delivered.", "Some of the most common involve the use of focused ultrasound (FUS or HIFU), microwave heating, induction heating, magnetic hyperthermia, and direct application of heat through the use of heated saline pumped through catheters.", "Experiments with carbon nanotubes that selectively bind to cancer cells have been performed.", "Lasers are then used that pass harmlessly through the body, but heat the nanotubes, causing the death of the cancer cells.", "Similar results have also been achieved with other types of nanoparticles, including gold-coated nanoshells and nanorods that exhibit certain degrees of 'tunability' of the absorption properties of the nanoparticles to the wavelength of light for irradiation.", "The success of this approach to cancer treatment rests on the existence of an 'optical window' in which biological tissue (i.e., healthy cells) are completely transparent at the wavelength of the laser light, while nanoparticles are highly absorbing at the same wavelength.", "Such a 'window' exists in the so-called near-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.", "In this way, the laser light can pass through the system without harming healthy tissue, and only diseased cells, where the nanoparticles reside, get hot and are killed.Magnetic Hyperthermia makes use of magnetic nanoparticles, which can be injected into tumours and then generate heat when subjected to an alternating magnetic field.One of the challenges in thermal therapy is delivering the appropriate amount of heat to the correct part of the patient's body.", "A great deal of current research focuses on precisely positioning heat delivery devices (catheters, microwave, and ultrasound applicators, etc.)", "using ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, as well as of developing new types of nanoparticles that make them particularly efficient absorbers while offering little or no concerns about toxicity to the circulation system.", "Clinicians also hope to use advanced imaging techniques to monitor heat treatments in real time—heat-induced changes in tissue are sometimes perceptible using these imaging instruments.", "In magnetic hyperthermia or magnetic fluid hyperthermia method, it will be easier to control temperature distribution by controlling the velocity of ferrofluid injection and size of magnetic nanoparticles.===Noninvasive cancer heat treatment===Heat treatment involves using radio waves to heat up tiny metals that are implanted in cancerous tissue.", "Gold nanoparticles or carbon nanotubes are the most likely candidate.", "Promising preclinical trials have been conducted, although clinical trials may not be held for another few years.Another method that is entirely non-invasive referred to as Tumor Treating Fields has already reached clinical trial stage in many countries.", "The concept applies an electric field through a tumour region using electrodes external to the body.", "Successful trials have shown the process effectiveness to be greater than chemotherapy and there are no side-effects and only negligible time spent away from normal daily activities.", "This treatment is still in very early development stages for many types of cancer.High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is still in investigatory phases in many places around the world.", "In China it has CFDA approval and over 180 treatment centres have been established in China, Hong Kong, and Korea.", "HIFU has been successfully used to treat cancer to destroy tumours of the bone, brain, breast, liver, pancreas, rectum, kidney, testes, and prostate.", "Several thousand patients have been treated with various types of tumours.", "HIFU has CE approval for palliative care for bone metastasis.", "Experimentally, palliative care has been provided for cases of advanced pancreatic cancer.", "High-energy therapeutic ultrasound could increase higher-density anti-cancer drug load and nanomedicines to target tumor sites by 20x fold higher than traditional target cancer therapy." ], [ "Cold atmospheric plasma treatment", "Cold atmospheric plasma or CAP for short is an emerging modality for the treatment of solid tumors Recently, cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) indicated promising anti-neoplastic effects on several tumors, e.g.", "melanoma, glioma, and pancreatic cancer cells 5, 6, 7, and therefore could be an efficient method for anti-cancer treatment in clinical urology in the future.", "One example of an experimental technology utilizing Cold Atmospheric plasma is Theraphi" ], [ "Electromagnetic treatments", "Tumor Treating Fields is a novel FDA-approved cancer treatment therapy that uses alternating electric field to disturb the rapid cell division exhibited by cancer cells." ], [ "Complementary and alternative treatments", "Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments are the diverse group of medical and healthcare systems, practices, and products that are not part of conventional medicine and have not been proven to be effective.", "''Complementary medicine'' usually refers to methods and substances used along with conventional medicine, while ''alternative medicine'' refers to compounds used instead of conventional medicine.", "CAM use is common among people with cancer.Most complementary and alternative medicines for cancer have not been rigorously studied or tested.", "Some alternative treatments that have been proven ineffective continue to be marketed and promoted." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Questionable Cancer Therapies\"* clinicaltrials.gov" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emission" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emission''' may refer to:" ], [ "Chemical products", "* Emission of air pollutants, notably:**Flue gas, gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue** Exhaust gas, flue gas generated by fuel combustion** Emission of greenhouse gases, which absorb and emit radiant energy within the thermal infrared range* Emission standards, limits on pollutants that can be released into the environment* Emissions trading, a market-based approach to pollution control" ], [ "Electromagnetic radiation", "* Emission spectrum, the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation generated by molecular electrons making transitions to lower energy states* Thermal emission, electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of particles in matter* List of light sources, including both natural and artificial processes that emit light* Emission (radiocommunications), a radio signal (usually modulated) emitted from a radio transmitter* Emission coefficient, a coefficient in the power output per unit time of an electromagnetic source* Emission line, or \"spectral line\", a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum* Emission nebula, a cloud of ionized gas emitting light of various colors* Emission theory (relativity), a competing theory for the special theory of relativity, explaining the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment* Emission theory (vision), the proposal that visual perception is accomplished by rays of light emitted by the eyes" ], [ "Other uses", "* Thermionic emission, the flow of charged particles called thermions from a charged metal or a charged metal oxide surface, archaically known as the Edison effect* Ejaculation, the ejection of semen from the penis; also, specifically:** Nocturnal emission, ejaculation experienced during sleep* Noise, emission* Exhalation of air, especially in the context of musical instruments" ], [ "See also", "* Emissions control (disambiguation)* Emitter (disambiguation)* Emit (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Environmental movement in the United States" ], [ "Introduction", "1970s US postage stamp blockPeople's Climate March (2017)The organized environmental movement is represented by a wide range of non-governmental organizations or NGOs that seek to address environmental issues in the United States.", "They operate on local, national, and international scales.", "Environmental NGOs vary widely in political views and in the ways they seek to influence the environmental policy of the United States and other governments.", "The environmental movement today consists of both large national groups and also many smaller local groups with local concerns.", "Some resemble the old U.S. conservation movement - whose modern expression is The Nature Conservancy, Audubon Society and National Geographic Society - American organizations with a worldwide influence.", "Increasingly that movement is organized around addressing climate change in the United States alongside interrelated issues like climate justice and broader environmental justice issues." ], [ "Issues" ], [ "Scope of the movement", "* The early Conservation movement, which began in the late 19th century, included fisheries and wildlife management, water, soil conservation and sustainable forestry.", "Today it includes sustainable yield of natural resources, preservation of wilderness areas and biodiversity.", "* The modern Environmental movement, which began in the 1960s with concern about air and water pollution, became broader in scope to include all landscapes and human activities.", "See List of environmental issues.", "* Environmental health movement dating at least to Progressive Era (the 1890s - 1920s) urban reforms including clean water supply, more efficient removal of raw sewage and reduction in crowded and unsanitary living conditions.", "Today Environmental health is more related to nutrition, preventive medicine, ageing well and other concerns specific to the human body's well-being.", "* Sustainability movement which started in the 1980s focused on Gaia theory, value of Earth and other interrelations between human sciences and human responsibilities.", "Its spinoff deep ecology was more spiritual but often claimed to be science.", "* Environmental justice is a movement that began in the U.S. in the 1980s and seeks an end to environmental racism.", "Often, low-income and minority communities are located close to highways, garbage dumps, and factories, where they are exposed to greater pollution and environmental health risk than the rest of the population.", "The Environmental Justice movement seeks to link \"social\" and \"ecological\" environmental concerns, while at the same time keeping environmentalists conscious of the dynamics in their own movement, i.e.", "racism, sexism, homophobia, classicism, and other malaises of the dominant culture.As public awareness and the environmental sciences have improved in recent years, environmental issues have broadened to include key concepts such as \"sustainability\" and also new emerging concerns such as ozone depletion, global warming, acid rain, land use and biogenetic pollution.Environmental movements often interact or are linked with other social movements, e.g.", "for peace, human rights, and animal rights; and against nuclear weapons and/or nuclear power, endemic diseases, poverty, hunger, etc.Some US colleges are now going green by signing the \"President's Climate Commitment,\" a document that a college President can sign to enable said colleges to practice environmentalism by switching to solar power, etc.+ Membership of selected US environmental organizations (thousands) 1971 1981 1992 1997 2004 Sierra Club (1892) 124 246 615 569 736 National Audubon Society (1905) 115 400 600 550 550 National Parks Conservation Association (1919) 49 27 230 375 375 Izaak Walton League (1922) 54 48 51 42 45 Wilderness Society (1935) 62 52 365 237 225 National Wildlife Federation (1936) 540 818 997 650 650 Defenders of Wildlife (1947) 13 50 77 215 463 The Nature Conservancy (1951) 22 80 545 865 972 WWF-US (1961) n.a.", "n.a.", "970 1,200 1,200 Environmental Defense Fund (1967) 20 46 175 300 350 Friends of the Earth (US) (1969) 7 25 30 20 35 Natural Resources Defense Council (1970) 5 40 170 260 450 Greenpeace USA (1975) n.a.", "n.a.", "2,225 400 250" ], [ "History", "Early European settlers came to the United States brought from Europe the concept of the commons.", "In the colonial era, access to natural resources was allocated by individual towns, and disputes over fisheries or land use were resolved at the local level.", "Changing technologies, however, strained traditional ways of resolving disputes of resource use, and local governments had limited control over powerful special interests.", "For example, the damming of rivers for mills cut off upriver towns from fisheries; logging and clearing of forest in watersheds harmed local fisheries downstream.", "In New England, many farmers became uneasy as they noticed clearing of the forest changed stream flows and a decrease in bird population which helped control insects and other pests.", "These concerns become widely known with the publication of Man and Nature (1864) by George Perkins Marsh.", "The environmental impact method of analysis is generally the main mode for determining what issues the environmental movement is involved in.", "This model is used to determine how to proceed in situations that are detrimental to the environment by choosing the way that is least damaging and has the fewest lasting implications.===Conservation movement===Conservation first became a national issue during the progressive era's conservation movement (1890s - 1920s).", "The early national conservation movement shifted emphasis to scientific management which favored larger enterprises and control began to shift from local governments to the states and the federal government.", "(Judd) Some writers credit sportsmen, hunters and fishermen with the increasing influence of the conservation movement.", "In the 1870s sportsman magazines such as American Sportsmen, Forest and Stream, and Field and Stream are seen as leading to the growth of the conservation movement.", "(Reiger) This conservation movement also urged the establishment of state and national parks and forests, wildlife refuges, and national monuments intended to preserve noteworthy natural features.Conservation groups focus primarily on an issue that's origins are rooted in general expansion.", "As Industrialization became more prominent as well as the increasing trend towards Urbanization the conservative environmental movement began.", "Contrary to popular belief conservation groups are not against expansion in general, instead, they are concerned with efficiency with resources and land development.===Progressive era===The conservation policies of Theodore RooseveltTheodore Roosevelt and his close ally George Bird Grinnell, were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market hunting.", "This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction.", "Roosevelt recognized that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient.", "In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government.", "The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources.", "To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the Boone and Crockett Club in 1887.The club was made up of the best minds and influential men of the day.", "The Boone and Crockett Club's contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.", "As president, Theodore Roosevelt became a prominent conservationist, putting the issue high on the national agenda.", "He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, Gifford Pinchot.", "Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving natural resources and is considered to be the nation's first conservation President.", "He encouraged the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed under federal protection.", "Roosevelt set aside more Federal land for national parks and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined.Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments.", "He also established the first 51 Bird Reserves, four Game Preserves, and 150 National Forests, including Shoshone National Forest, the nation's first.", "The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately .Gifford Pinchot had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture.", "In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves.", "Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision.", "In 1907, Roosevelt designated of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the Conference of Governors held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use.", "Roosevelt delivered the opening address: \"Conservation as a National Duty.", "\"In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with John Muir, who had a very different view of conservation and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests.", "Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the Mariposa Grove and Yosemite Valley to the National Park Service.", "While Muir wanted nature preserved for the sake of pure beauty, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, \"to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees.\"", "Muir and the Sierra Club vehemently opposed the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite in order to provide water to the city of San Francisco.", "Roosevelt and Pinchot supported the dam, as did President Woodrow Wilson.", "The Hetch Hetchy dam was finished in 1923 and is still in operation, but the Sierra Club still wants to tear it down.Other influential conservationists of the Progressive Era included George Bird Grinnell (a prominent sportsman who founded the Boone and Crockett Club), the Izaak Walton League and John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club in 1892.Conservationists organized the National Parks Conservation Association, the Audubon Society, and other groups that still remain active.===New Deal===Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1933–45), like his cousin Theodore Roosevelt, was an ardent conservationist.", "He used numerous programs of the departments of Agriculture and Interior to end wasteful land-use, mitigate the effects of the Dust Bowl, and efficiently develop natural resources in the West.", "One of the most popular of all New Deal programs was the Civilian Conservation Corps (1933–1943), which sent two million poor young men to work in rural and wilderness areas, primarily on conservation projects.===Post-1945===After World War II increasing encroachment on wilderness land evoked the continued resistance of conservationists, who succeeded in blocking a number of projects in the 1950s and 1960s, including the proposed Bridge Canyon Dam that would have backed up the waters of the Colorado River into the Grand Canyon National Park.The Inter-American Conference on the Conservation of Renewable Natural Resources met in 1948 as a collection of nearly 200 scientists from all over the Americans forming the trusteeship principle that:\"No generation can exclusively own the renewable resources by which it lives.", "We hold the commonwealth in trust for prosperity, and to lessen or destroy it is to commit treason against the future\"====Beginning of the modern movement====Earth Day flagDuring the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, several events occurred which raised the public awareness of harm to the environment caused by man.", "In 1954, the 23 man crew of the Japanese fishing vessel ''Lucky Dragon'' was exposed to radioactive fallout from a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll.", "By 1969, the public reaction to an ecologically catastrophic oil spill from an offshore well in California's Santa Barbara Channel, Barry Commoner's protest against nuclear testing, along with Rachel Carson's 1962 book ''Silent Spring'', and Paul R. Ehrlich's ''The Population Bomb'' (1968) all added anxiety about the environment.", "Pictures of Earth from space emphasized that the earth was small and fragile.As the public became more aware of environmental issues, concern about air pollution, water pollution, solid waste disposal, dwindling energy resources, radiation, pesticide poisoning (particularly use of DDT as described in Carson's influential ''Silent Spring''), noise pollution, and other environmental problems engaged a broadening number of sympathizers.", "That public support for environmental concerns was widespread became clear in the Earth Day demonstrations of 1970.Several books after the middle of the 20th century contributed to the rise of American environmentalism (as distinct from the longer-established conservation movement), especially among college and university students and the more literate public.", "One was the publication of the first textbook on ecology, ''Fundamentals of Ecology,'' by Eugene Odum and Howard Odum, in 1953.Another was the appearance of the Carson's 1962 best-seller ''Silent Spring.''", "Her book brought about a whole new interpretation of pesticides by exposing their harmful effects in nature.", "From this book, many began referring to Carson as the \"mother of the environmental movement\".", "Another influential development was a 1965 lawsuit, ''Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission,'' opposing the construction of a power plant on Storm King Mountain in New York (state), which is said to have given birth to modern United States environmental law.", "The wide popularity of ''The Whole Earth Catalogs'', starting in 1968, was quite influential among the younger, hands-on, activist generation of the 1960s and 1970s.", "Recently, in addition to opposing environmental degradation and protecting wilderness, an increased focus on coexisting with natural biodiversity has appeared, a strain that is apparent in the movement for sustainable agriculture and in the concept of Reconciliation Ecology.During his time as U.S President, Lyndon Johnson would sign over 300 environment protection measures into law.", "This was credited as forming the legal basis of the modern environmental movement.====Wilderness preservation====In the modern wilderness preservation movement, important philosophical roles are played by the writings of John Muir who had been activist in the late 19th and early 20th century.", "Along with Muir perhaps most influential in the modern movement is Henry David Thoreau who published Walden in 1854.Also important was forester and ecologist Aldo Leopold, one of the founders of the Wilderness Society in 1935, who wrote a classic of nature observation and ethical philosophy, ''A Sand County Almanac'', (1949).There is also a growing movement of campers and other people who enjoy outdoor recreation activities to help preserve the environment while spending time in the wilderness.====Anti-nuclear movement====The anti-nuclear movement in the United States consists of more than 80 anti-nuclear groups that have acted to oppose nuclear power or nuclear weapons, or both, in the United States.", "These groups include the Abalone Alliance, Clamshell Alliance, Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, Nuclear Information and Resource Service, and Physicians for Social Responsibility.", "The anti-nuclear movement has delayed construction or halted commitments to build some new nuclear plants, and has pressured the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to enforce and strengthen the safety regulations for nuclear power plants.Anti-nuclear protests reached a peak in the 1970s and 1980s and grew out of the environmental movement.", "Campaigns which captured national public attention involved the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, Diablo Canyon Power Plant, Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant, and Three Mile Island.", "On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race.", "It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history.", "International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on June 20, 1983 at 50 sites across the United States.There were many Nevada Desert Experience protests and peace camps at the Nevada Test Site during the 1980s and 1990s.More recent campaigning by anti-nuclear groups has related to several nuclear power plants including the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Power Plant, Indian Point Energy Center, Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, Pilgrim Nuclear Generating Station, Salem Nuclear Power Plant, and Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant.", "There have also been campaigns relating to the Y-12 Nuclear Weapons Plant, the Idaho National Laboratory, proposed Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, the Hanford Site, the Nevada Test Site, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and transportation of nuclear waste from the Los Alamos National Laboratory.Some scientists and engineers have expressed reservations about nuclear power, including: Barry Commoner, S. David Freeman, John Gofman, Arnold Gundersen, Mark Z. Jacobson, Amory Lovins, Arjun Makhijani, Gregory Minor, Joseph Romm and Benjamin K. Sovacool.", "Scientists who have opposed nuclear weapons include Linus Pauling and Eugene Rabinowitch.Protest about the Love Canal contamination by a resident, ca.", "1978====Antitoxics groups====Antitoxics groups are a subgroup that is affiliated with the Environmental Movement in the United States, that is primarily concerned with the effects that cities and their by-products have on humans.", "This aspect of the movement is a self-proclaimed \"movement of housewives\".", "Concern around the issues of groundwater contamination and air pollution rose in the early 1980s and individuals involved in antitoxics groups claim that they are concerned for the health of their families.A prominent case can be seen in the Love Canal Homeowner's association (LCHA); in this case, a housing development was built on a site that had been used for toxic dumping by the Hooker Chemical Company.", "As a result of this dumping, the residents had symptoms of skin irritation, Lois Gibbs, a resident of the development, started a grassroots campaign for reparations.", "Eventual success led to the government having to purchase homes that were sold in the development.====Federal legislation in the 1970s====Prior to the 1970s the protection of basic air and water supplies was a matter mainly left to each state.", "During the 1970s, the primary responsibility for clean air and water shifted to the federal government.", "Growing concerns, both environmental and economic, from cities and towns as well as sportsman and other local groups, and senators such as Maine's Edmund S. Muskie, led to the passage of extensive legislation, notably the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.Other legislation included the 1970 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which established the Council on Environmental Quality; the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1977, which became known as the Clean Water Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as the Superfund Act (1980).", "These laws regulated public drinking water systems, toxic substances, pesticides, and ocean dumping; and protected wildlife, wilderness, and wild and scenic rivers.", "Moreover, the new laws provide for pollution research, standard setting, contaminated site cleanup, monitoring, and enforcement.The creation of these laws led to a major shift in the environmental movement.", "Groups such as the Sierra Club shifted focus from local issues to becoming a lobby in Washington and new groups, for example, the Natural Resources Defense Council and Environmental Defense, arose to influence politics as well.", "(Larson)===Renewed focus on local action===In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan sought to curtail the scope of environmental protection taking steps such as appointing James G. Watt.", "The major environmental groups responded with mass mailings which led to increased membership and donations.", "When industry groups lobbied to weaken regulation and a backlash against environmental regulations, the so-called wise use movement gained importance and influence.", "(Larson)===\"Post-environmentalism\"===In 2004, with the environmental movement seemingly stalled, some environmentalists started questioning whether \"environmentalism\" was even a useful political framework.", "According to a controversial essay titled \" The Death of Environmentalism \" (Michael Shellenberger and Ted Nordhaus, 2004) American environmentalism has been remarkably successful in protecting the air, water, and large stretches of wilderness in North America and Europe, but these environmentalists have stagnated as a vital force for cultural and political change.Shellenberger and Nordhaus wrote, \"Today environmentalism is just another special interest.", "Evidence for this can be found in its concepts, its proposals, and its reasoning.", "What stands out is how arbitrary environmental leaders are about what gets counted and what doesn't as 'environmental.'", "Most of the movement's leading thinkers, funders, and advocates do not question their most basic assumptions about who we are, what we stand for, and what it is that we should be doing.\"", "Their essay was followed by a speech in San Francisco called \"Is Environmentalism Dead?\"", "by former Sierra Club President, Adam Werbach, who argued for the evolution of environmentalism into a more expansive, relevant and powerful progressive politics.", "Werbach endorsed building an environmental movement that is more relevant to average Americans and controversially chose to lead Wal-Mart's effort to take sustainability mainstream.These \"post-environmental movement\" thinkers argue that the ecological crises the human species faces in the 21st century are qualitatively different from the problems the environmental movement was created to address in the 1960s and 1970s.", "They argue that climate change and habitat destruction are global and more complex, therefore demanding far deeper transformations of the economy, the culture and political life.", "The consequence of environmentalism's outdated and arbitrary definition, they argue, is a political irrelevancy.These \"politically neutral\" groups tend to avoid global conflicts and view the settlement of inter-human conflict as separate from regard for nature – in direct contradiction to the ecology movement and peace movement which have increasingly close links: while Green Parties, Greenpeace, and groups like the ACTivist Magazine regard ecology, biodiversity, and an end to non-human extinction as an absolute basis for peace, the local groups may not, and see a high degree of global competition and conflict as justifiable if it lets them preserve their own local uniqueness.", "However, such groups tend not to \"burn out\" and to sustain for long periods, even generations, protecting the same local treasures.Local groups increasingly find that they benefit from collaboration, e.g.", "on consensus decision-making methods, or making simultaneous policy, or relying on common legal resources, or even sometimes a common glossary.", "However, the differences between the various groups that make up the modern environmental movement tend to outweigh such similarities, and they rarely co-operate directly except on a few major global questions.", "In a notable exception, over 1,000 local groups from around the country united for a single day of action as part of the Step It Up 2007 campaign for real solutions to global warming.Groups such as The Bioregional Revolution are calling on the need to bridge these differences, as the converging problems of the 21st century they claim compel the people to unite and to take decisive action.", "They promote bioregionalism, permaculture, and local economies as solutions to these problems, overpopulation, global warming, global epidemics, and water scarcity, but most notably to \"peak oil\" – the prediction that the country is likely to reach a maximum in global oil production which could spell drastic changes in many aspects of the residents' everyday lives." ], [ "Environmental rights", "Many environmental lawsuits turn on the question of who has standing; are the legal issues limited to property owners, or does the general public have a right to intervene?", "Christopher D. Stone's 1972 essay, \"Should trees have standing?\"", "seriously addressed the question of whether natural objects themselves should have legal rights, including the right to participate in lawsuits.", "Stone suggested that there was nothing absurd in this view, and noted that many entities now regarded as having legal rights were, in the past, regarded as \"things\" that were regarded as legally rightless; for example, aliens, children and women.", "His essay is sometimes regarded as an example of the fallacy of hypostatization.One of the earliest lawsuits to establish that citizens may sue for environmental and aesthetic harms was Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, decided in 1965 by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals.", "The case helped halt the construction of a power plant on Storm King Mountain in New York State.", "See also United States environmental law and David Sive, an attorney who was involved in the case.Conservation biology is an important and rapidly developing field.", "One way to avoid the stigma of an \"ism\" was to evolve early anti-nuclear groups into the more scientific Green Parties, sprout new NGOs such as Greenpeace and Earth Action, and devoted groups to protecting global biodiversity and preventing global warming and climate change.", "But in the process, much of the emotional appeal, and many of the original aesthetic goals were lost.", "Nonetheless, these groups have well-defined ethical and political views, backed by science." ], [ "Criticisms{{anchor|Criticisms_of_the_environmental_movement}}", "Some people are skeptical of the environmental movement and feel that it is more deeply rooted in politics than science.", "Although there have been serious debates about climate change and effects of some pesticides and herbicides that mimic animal sex steroids, science has shown that some of the claims of environmentalists have credence.Novelist Michael Crichton appeared before the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works on September 28, 2005, to address concerns and recommended the employment of double-blind experimentation in environmental research.", "Crichton suggested that because environmental issues are so political in nature, policymakers need neutral, conclusive data to base their decisions on, rather than conjecture and rhetoric, and double-blind experiments are the most efficient way to achieve that aim.A consistent theme acknowledged by both supporters and critics (though more commonly vocalized by critics) of the environmental movement is that we know very little about the Earth we live in.", "Most fields of environmental studies are relatively new, and therefore what research we have is limited and does not date far enough back for us to completely understand long-term environmental trends.", "This has led a number of environmentalists to support the use of the precautionary principle in policy-making, which ultimately asserts that we don't know how certain actions may affect the environment and because there is reason to believe they may cause more harm than good we should refrain from such actions.===Elitist===In the December 1994 ''Wild Forest Review,'' Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair wrote \"The mainstream environmental movement was elitist, highly paid, detached from the people, indifferent to the working class, and a firm ally of big government.…The environmental movement is now accurately perceived as just another well-financed and cynical special interest group, its rancid infrastructure supported by Democratic Party operatives and millions in grants from corporate foundations.", "\"===Wilderness myth===Historians have criticized the modern environmental movement for having romantic idealizations of wilderness.", "William Cronon writes \"wilderness serves as the unexamined foundation on which so many of the quasi-religious values of modern environmentalism rest.\"", "Cronon claims that \"to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness, to just that extent we give ourselves permission to evade responsibility for the lives we actually lead.", "\"Similarly Michael Pollan has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute.", "In his book ''Second Nature,'' Pollan writes that \"once a landscape is no longer 'virgin' it is typically written off as fallen, lost to nature, irredeemable.", "\"===Debates within the movement===Within the environmental movement, an ideological debate has taken place between those with an ecocentric viewpoint and an anthropocentric viewpoint.", "The anthropocentric view has been seen as the conservationist approach to the environment with nature viewed, at least in part, as a resource to be used by man.", "In contrast to the conservationist approach the ecocentric view, associated with John Muir, Henry David Thoreau and William Wordsworth referred to as the preservationist movement.", "This approach sees nature in a more spiritual way.", "Many environmental historians consider the split between John Muir and Gifford Pinchot.", "During the preservation/conservation debate, the term preservationist becomes to be seen as a pejorative term.While the ecocentric view focused on biodiversity and wilderness protection the anthropocentric view focuses on urban pollution and social justice.", "Some environmental writers, for example, William Cronon have criticized the ecocentric view as have a dualist view as a man being separate from nature.", "Critics of the anthropocentric viewpoint contend that the environmental movement has been taken over by so-called leftist with an agenda beyond environmental protection." ], [ "Environmentalism and politics", "Demonstrator encouraging to vote for the environmentEnvironmentalists gained popularity in American politics after the creation or strengthening of numerous US environmental laws, including the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and the formation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970.These successes were followed by the enactment of a series of laws regulating waste including the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act; Toxic substances, (Toxic Substances Control Act); Pesticides (FIFRA: Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act); clean-up of polluted sites (Superfund); protection of endangered species (Endangered Species Act).Fewer environmental laws have been passed in the last decade as corporations and other conservative interests have increased their influence over American politics.", "Corporate cooperation against environmental lobbyists has been organized by the Wise Use group.", "At the same time, many environmentalists have been turning toward other means of persuasion, such as working with business, community, and other partners to promote sustainable development.", "Since the 1970s, coalitions and interests groups have directed themselves along the democrat and republican party lines.Much environmental activism is directed towards conservation as well as the prevention or elimination of pollution.", "However, conservation movements; ecology movements; peace movements; green parties; green- and eco-anarchists often subscribe to very different ideologies, while supporting the same goals as those who call themselves \"environmentalists\".", "To outsiders, these groups or factions can appear to be indistinguishable.As human population and industrial activity continue to increase, environmentalists often find themselves in serious conflict with those who believe that human and industrial activities should not be overly regulated or restricted, such as some libertarians.Environmentalists often clash with others, particularly corporate interests, over issues of the management of natural resources, like in the case of the atmosphere as a \"carbon dump\", the focus of climate change, and global warming controversy.", "They usually seek to protect commonly owned or unowned resources for future generations.===Radical environmentalism===While most environmentalists are often mainstream and peaceful, other groups are more radical in their approach.", "Adherents of radical environmentalism and ecological anarchism are involved in direct action campaigns to protect the environment.", "Some campaigns have employed controversial tactics including sabotage, blockades, and arson, while most use peaceful protests such as marches, tree sitting, and the like.", "There is substantial debate within the environmental movement as to the acceptability of these tactics, but almost all environmentalists condemn violent actions that can harm humans." ], [ "Clashes by police", "In 2023, for the first time in the history of the United States, the police killed an environmental activist during a protest.", "The protesters were camping in Atlanta's South River Forest, a natural area that the City of Atlanta and Police planned to raze in order to erect a police training facility to be called \"Cop City.\"", "Police attacked protesters on 18 January 2023.One protester, Tortuguita or, Manuel Esteban Páez Terán was killed and seven more were arrested." ], [ "See also", "* History of the environmental movement in the United States* ''Earth Days'', a 2009 documentary feature film about the start of the environmental movement in the United States.", "* Environmentalism (Critique of George W. Bush's politics)* Environmental issues in the United States* Environmental racism* List of American non-fiction environmental writers* List of anti-nuclear protests in the United States* Metal roof* Sex ecology" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bosso, Christopher.", "''Environment, Inc.: From Grassroots to Beltway''.", "Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 2005* Bosso, Christopher, and Deborah Guber.", "\"Maintaining Presence: Environmental Advocacy and the Permanent Campaign.\"", "pp.", "78–99 in ''Environmental Policy: New Directions for the Twenty First Century'', 6th ed., eds.", "Norman Vig and Michael Kraft.", "Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2006* Brinkley, Douglas.", "''Silent Spring Revolution: John F. Kennedy, Rachel Carson, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon, and the Great Environmental Awakening'' (2022) excerpt* Brinkley, Douglas.", "''The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America'' (2009)* Carter, Neil.", "''The Politics of the Environment: Ideas, Activism, Policy'', 2nd ed.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007* Davies, Kate.", "(2013). ''", "The Rise of the U.S. Environmental Health Movement''.", "Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield* Daynes, Byron W. and Glen Sussman, ''White House Politics and the Environment: Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush'' (2010) .", "* * * * Hays, Samuel P. ''Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency'' (Harvard University Press, 1959).", "* Hays, Samuel P. ''Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985'' (1989)** Hays, Samuel P. 'A History of Environmental Politics Since 1945'' (2000), abridged version* Huffman, James L. “A History of Forest Policy in the United States.” ''Environmental Law'' 8#2 (1978): 239-280.", "* Judd, Richard W. ''Common Lands and Common People: The Origins of Conservation in Northern New England'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).", "* Kline, Benjamin.", "''First Along the River: A brief history of the U.S. environmental movement'' (4th ed.", "2011)* * Reiger, John F. ''American Sportsmen and the Origins of Conservation'' (2000)* * Spears, Ellen Griffith.", "''Rethinking the American Environmental Movement Post-1945'' (Routledge, 2019).", "* * Tresner, Erin.", "2009.", "\"Factors Affecting States' Ranking on the 2007 Forbes List of America's Greenest States\" (Applied Research Project, Texas State University.", "online)" ], [ "External links", "* The Emerging Environmental Majority by Christina Larson* The Illusion of Preservation.", "Harvard Forestry* State of Denial* The Unlikely Environmentalists* Worldchanging - Leading online magazine about environmental sustainability* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Environment* Essays on environmental teachings of major religions* The State of the Environmental Movement Thoreau Institute* ''History of the environmental movement'' - Jeremiah Hall* ''A Fierce Green Fire: The Battle for a Living Planet'' - Documentary film directed and written by Mark Kitchell.", "Explores 50 years of environmental activism in the USA.", "Inspired by the book of the same name by Philip Shabecoff." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Environmentalist" ], [ "Introduction", "Dominique Voynet, 2008An '''environmentalist''' is a person who is concerned with and/or advocates for the protection of the environment.", "An environmentalist can be considered a supporter of the goals of the environmental movement, \"a political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities\".", "An environmentalist is engaged in or believes in the philosophy of environmentalism or one of the related philosophies.John MuirThe environmental movement has a number of subcommunities, with different approaches and focuses – each developing distinct movements and identities.", "Environmentalists are sometimes referred to by critics with informal or derogatory terms such as \"greenie\" and \"tree-hugger\", with some members of the public associating the most radical environmentalists with these derogatory terms." ], [ "Types", "The environmental movement contains a number of subcommunities, that have developed with different approaches and philosophies in different parts of the world.", "Notably, the early environmental movement experienced a deep tension between the philosophies of conservation and broader environmental protection.", "In recent decades the rise to prominence of environmental justice, indigenous rights and key environmental crises like the climate crises, has led to the development of other environmentalist identities.", "Environmentalists can be describe as one of the following:=== Climate activists ===The public recognition of the climate crisis and emergence of the climate movement in the beginning of the 21st century led to a distinct group of activists.", "Activations like the School Strike for Climate and Fridays for Future, have led to a new generation of youth activists like Greta Thunberg, Jamie Margolin and Vanessa Nakate who have created a global youth climate movement.=== Conservationists ===One notable strain of environmentalism, comes from the philosophy of the conservation movement.", "Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it distinct from human interaction.", "The conservation movement is associated with the early parts of the environmental movement of the 19th and 20th century.=== Environmental defenders ====== Greens ===The adoption of environmentalist into a distinct political ideology led to the development of political parties called \"green parties\", typically with a leftist political approach to overlapping issues of environmental and social wellbeing.=== Water protectors ===" ], [ "Notable environmentalists", " Sir David Attenborough in May 2003Peter Garrett campaigning for the 2004 Australian federal electionAl Gore, 2007Hunter Lovins, 2007Sergio Rossetti Morosini, 2017Phil Radford, 2011Hakob Sanasaryan campaignning against illegal construction of a new ore-processing facility in Sotk, 2011Greta Thunberg, 2018Kevin Buzzacott (Aboriginal activist) in Adelaide 2014Some of the notable environmentalists who have been active in lobbying for environmental protection and conservation include:*Mariano Abarca (Mexican activist, assassinated in 2009)*Edward Abbey (writer, activist, philosopher)* Ansel Adams (photographer, writer, activist)*Bayarjargal Agvaantseren (Mongolian conservationist)* Qazi Kholiquzzaman Ahmad (environmental activist and economist of Bangladesh)* David Attenborough (broadcaster, naturalist)*John James Audubon (naturalist)* Sundarlal Bahuguna (environmentalist)* Seyyed Hossein Nasr (writer, philosopher)* Vic Barrett (climate activist)* Patriarch Bartholomew I (priest)* David Bellamy (botanist)*Ng Cho-nam (Hong Kong environmentalist and Associate Professor of Geography at University of Hong Kong)* Thomas Berry (priest, historian, philosopher)* Wendell Berry (farmer, philosopher)* Chandi Prasad Bhatt (Gandhian environmentalist)* Murray Bookchin (anarchist, philosopher, social ecologist)* Wendy Bowman, Australian environmental activist* Stewart Brand (writer, founder of Whole Earth Catalog)* David Brower (writer, activist)* Molly Burhans (cartographer, activist)* Tahir Qureshi Mangrove Man or Mangroves Hero of Pakistan.", "Pakistani environmentalist.", "* Lester Brown (environmentalist)* Kevin Buzzacott (Aboriginal activist)* Michelle Dilhara (actress)* Helen Caldicott (medical doctor)* Joan Carling (Filipino human rights defender) * Rachel Carson (biologist, writer)* Charles III (King of the Commonwealth Realms)* Chevy Chase (comedian)* Barry Commoner (biologist, politician)* Mike Cooley (engineer, trade unionist)* Jacques-Yves Cousteau (explorer, ecologist)* Faiza Darkhani (c. 1992), Afghani environmentalist, women's rights activist, and educator* John Denver (musician)* Leonardo DiCaprio (actor)* René Dubos (microbiologist)* Paul R. Ehrlich (population biologist)* Hans-Josef Fell (German Green Party member)* Jane Fonda (actor)* Rolf Gardiner (rural revivalist)* Peter Garrett (musician, politician)* Al Gore (politician, former Vice President of the United States)*Tom Hanks (actor)* James Hansen (scientist)* Rebecca Harrell Tickell (filmmaker, actress, activist)* Denis Hayes (environmentalist and solar power advocate)* Nicolas Hulot (journalist and writer)* Robert Hunter (journalist, co-founder and first president of Greenpeace)* Tetsunari Iida (sustainable energy advocate)* Jorian Jenks (English farmer)* Kathy Jetn̄il-Kijiner (poet and climate activist)* Huey D. Johnson (environmentalist)* Naomi Klein (writer, activist)* Winona LaDuke (environmentalist)*A. Carl Leopold (plant physiologist)* Aldo Leopold (ecologist)* Charles Lindbergh (aviator)* James Lovelock (scientist)* Amory Lovins (energy policy analyst)* Hunter Lovins (environmentalist)* Mark Lynas (journalist, activist)* Desmond Majekodunmi (environmentalist)* Xiuhtezcatl Martinez (activist)* Peter Max (graphic designer)* Michael McCarthy (naturalist, newspaper journalist, newspaper columnist, and author)* Bill McKibben (writer, activist)* David McTaggart (activist)* Mahesh Chandra Mehta (lawyer, environmentalist)* Chico Mendes (activist)* George Monbiot (journalist)* Sergio Rossetti Morosini (naturalist, activist)* John Muir (naturalist, activist)* Luke Mullen (actor, filmmaker, environmentalist/activist)* Hilda Murrell (botanist, activist)* Ralph Nader (activist)* Gaylord Nelson (politician)* Okefenokee Joe (singer, songwriter, TV host, environmentalist)* Yolanda Ortiz (chemist), Argentine environmentalist* Eugene Pandala (architect, environmentalist, natural and cultural heritage conservator)* Medha Patkar (activist)* Alan Pears (environmental consultant and energy efficiency pioneer)* River Phoenix (actor, musician, activist)* Jonathon Porritt (politician)* Phil Radford (environmental, clean energy and democracy advocate, Greenpeace Executive Director)* Bonnie Raitt (musician)* Clovis Razafimalala (Malagasy environmentalist)* Theodore Roosevelt (former President of the United States)* Hakob Sanasaryan (biochemist, activist)* Ken Saro-Wiwa (writer, television producer, activist)* Shimon Schwarzschild (writer, activist)* Vandana Shiva (environmental activist)* Swami Sundaranand (yogi, photographer, author and mountaineer)* David Suzuki (scientist, broadcaster)* Candice Swanepoel (model)* Shōzō Tanaka (politician and activist)* Saalumarada Thimmakka* Henry David Thoreau (writer, philosopher)* Greta Thunberg (activist)* Jo Valentine (politician and activist)* Harvey Wasserman (journalist, activist)* Paul Watson (activist and lecturer)* Franz Weber (environmentalist and animal welfare activist)* Henry Williamson (naturalist, writer)*Wangari Maathai (Kenyan environmentalist, Nobel Laureate)*Aniebiet Inyang Ntui (Nigerian professor and environmental advocate)*Vanessa Nakate (Ugandan youth climate justice activist, UN SDG 13 Young Leader)*Nyombi Morris (Ugandan youth environmental activist, CNN Environmentalist of tomorrow)*Yusuf Baluch (Climate Justice Activist)" ], [ "Extension", "In recent years, there are not only environmentalists for natural environment but also environmentalists for human environment.", "For instance, the activists who call for \"mental green space\" by getting rid of disadvantages of internet, cable TV, and smartphones have been called \"info-environmentalists\"." ], [ "See also", "Nancy Pelosi meets with the 2016 Goldman Environmental Prize recipients – six individuals who have made a profound impact in their communities and throughout the world by fighting for environmental justice.", "*Environmentalism* Global 500 Roll of Honour* Grantham Prize for Excellence in Reporting on the Environment* Heroes of the Environment* Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement*Conservationist**Conservation movement**Conservation ethic**Ecology movement*Goldman Environmental Prize*Green libertarianism* Ecofascism*Green conservatism*List of peace activists*List of people associated with renewable energy*List of pro-nuclear environmentalists* Greenpeace*School strike for climate" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Environmentalist - News blog by Greenpeace." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eastern Orthodox Church" ], [ "Introduction", "Christ Pantocrator'', sixth century, Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai; the oldest known icon of Christ, in one of the oldest monasteries in the world.The '''Eastern Orthodox Church''', officially the '''Orthodox Catholic Church''', and also called the '''Greek Orthodox Church''' or simply the '''Orthodox Church''', is the second-largest Christian church, with approximately 220 million baptised members.", "It operates as a communion of autocephalous churches, each governed by its bishops via local synods.", "The church has no central doctrinal or governmental authority analogous to the head of the Catholic Church (the pope).", "Nevertheless, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is recognised by them as ''primus inter pares'' (\"first among equals\"), a title formerly given to the patriarch of Rome.", "As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played an especially prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe.Eastern Orthodox theology is based on the Scriptures and holy tradition, which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the seven ecumenical councils, and the teaching of the Church Fathers.", "The church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles.", "It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition.", "Its patriarchates, descending from the pentarchy, and other autocephalous and autonomous churches, reflect a variety of hierarchical organisation.", "It recognises seven major sacraments, of which the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in synaxis.", "The church teaches that through consecration invoked by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ.", "The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the God-bearer and honoured in devotions.The Churches of Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch—except for some breaks of communion such as the Photian schism or the Acacian schism—shared communion with the Church of Rome until the East–West Schism in 1054.The 1054 schism was the culmination of mounting theological, political, and cultural disputes, particularly over the authority of the pope, between those churches.", "Before the Council of Ephesus in AD 431, the Church of the East also shared in this communion, as did the various Oriental Orthodox Churches before the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, all separating primarily over differences in Christology.The Eastern Orthodox Church is the primary religious denomination in Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Greece, Belarus, Serbia, Bulgaria, Moldova, Georgia, North Macedonia, Cyprus, and Montenegro.", "Roughly half of Eastern Orthodox Christians live in the post-Soviet states, mostly in Russia.", "The communities in the former Byzantine regions of North Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean are among the oldest Orthodox communities from the Middle East, which are decreasing due to forced migration driven by increased religious persecution.", "Eastern Orthodox communities outside Western Asia, Asia Minor, Caucasia and Eastern Europe, including those in North America, Western Europe, and Australia, have been formed through diaspora, conversions, and missionary activity." ], [ "Name and characteristics", "=== Definition ===The Eastern Orthodox Church is defined as the Eastern Christians which recognise the seven ecumenical councils and usually are in communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Patriarchate of Alexandria, the Patriarchate of Antioch, and the Patriarchate of Jerusalem.", "The Eastern Orthodox churches \"are defined positively by their adherence to the dogmatic definitions of the seven ecumenical councils, by the strong sense of not being a sect or a denomination but simply continuing the Christian church, and, despite their varied origins, by adherence to the Byzantine rite\".", "Those churches are negatively defined by their rejection of papal immediate and universal supremacy.The seven ecumenical councils recognised by the Eastern Orthodox churches are: Nicaea I, Constantinople I, Ephesus, Chalcedon, Constantinople II, Constantinople III, and Nicaea II.", "Those churches consider the Quinisext Council \"shares the ecumenical authority of Constantinople III.", "\"By an agreement that appears to be in place in the Eastern Orthodox world, possibly the council held in 879 to vindicate the Patriarch Photius will at some future date be recognized as the eighth ecumenical council\" by the Eastern Orthodox Church.Western Rite Orthodoxy exists both outside and inside Eastern Orthodoxy.", "Within Eastern Orthodoxy, it is practised by a vicariate of the Antiochian Orthodox church.=== Name ===In keeping with the church's teaching on universality and with the Nicene Creed, Eastern Orthodox authorities such as Raphael of Brooklyn have insisted that the full name of the church has always included the term \"Catholic\", as in \"Holy Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Church\".The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the \"Orthodox Catholic Church\".", "It is the name by which the church refers to itself and which is issued in its liturgical or canonical texts.", "Eastern Orthodox theologians refer to the church as Catholic.", "This name and longer variants containing \"Catholic\" are also recognised and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Eastern Orthodox writers.", "The catechism of Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow published in the 19th century is titled: ''The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church'' ().From ancient times through the first millennium, Greek was the most prevalent shared language in the demographic regions where the Byzantine Empire flourished, and Greek, being the language in which the New Testament was written, was the primary liturgical language of the church.", "For this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as \"Greek\" (in contrast to the \"Roman\" or \"Latin\" church, which used a Latin translation of the Bible), even before the Great Schism of 1054.After 1054, \"Greek Orthodox\" or \"Greek Catholic\" marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople, much as \"Catholic\" did for communion with the Catholic Church.In Hungarian, the church is still commonly called \"Eastern Greek\" ().", "This identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time.", "Missionaries brought Eastern Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken.", "In addition, struggles between Rome and Constantinople to control parts of Southeastern Europe resulted in the conversion of some churches to the Catholic Church, which then also used \"Greek Catholic\" to indicate their continued use of the Byzantine rites.", "Today, only a minority of Eastern Orthodox adherents use Greek as the language of worship.", "\"Eastern\", then, indicates the geographical element in the church's origin and development, while \"Orthodox\" indicates the faith, as well as communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.", "There are additional Christian churches in the east that are in communion with neither the Catholic Church nor the Eastern Orthodox Church, who tend to be distinguished by the category named \"Oriental Orthodox\".", "While the Eastern Orthodox Church continues officially to call itself \"Catholic\", for reasons of universality, the common title of \"Eastern Orthodox Church\" avoids casual confusion with the Catholic Church.=== Orthodoxy ===Emperor Constantine presents a representation of the city of Constantinople as tribute to an enthroned Mary and baby Jesus in this church mosaic (Hagia Sophia, ).The first known use of the phrase \"the catholic Church\" (''he katholike ekklesia'') occurred in a letter written about AD 110 from one Greek church to another (Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans).", "The letter states: \"Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there is the universal katholike Church.\"", "Thus, almost from the beginning, Christians referred to the Christian Church as the \"one, holy, catholic (from the Greek καθολική, 'according to the whole, universal') and apostolic Church\".", "The Eastern Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same early church.A number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim: the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church, and the Oriental Orthodox.", "In the Eastern Orthodox view, the Assyrians and Orientals left the Orthodox Church in the years following the Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (431) and the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon (451), respectively, in their refusal to accept those councils' Christological definitions.", "Similarly, the churches in Rome and Constantinople separated in an event known as the East–West Schism, traditionally dated to the year 1054, although it was more a gradual process than a sudden break.To all these churches, the claim to catholicity (universality, oneness with the ancient Church) is important for multiple doctrinal reasons that have more bearing internally in each church than in their relation to the others, now separated in faith.", "The meaning of holding to a faith that is true is the primary reason why anyone's statement of which church split off from which other has any significance at all; the issues go as deep as the schisms.", "The depth of this meaning in the Eastern Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word \"Orthodox\" itself, a union of Greek ''orthos'' (\"straight\", \"correct\", \"true\", \"right\") and ''doxa'' (\"common belief\", from the ancient verb δοκέω-δοκῶ which is translated \"to believe\", \"to think\", \"to consider\", \"to imagine\", \"to assume\").The dual meanings of ''doxa'', with \"glory\" or \"glorification\" (of God by the church and of the church by God), especially in worship, yield the pair \"correct belief\" and \"true worship\".", "Together, these express the core of a fundamental teaching about the inseparability of belief and worship and their role in drawing the church together with Christ.", "All Slavic churches use the title ''Pravoslavie'' (), meaning \"correctness of glorification\", to denote what is in English ''Orthodoxy'', while the Georgians use the title ''Martlmadidebeli''.The term \"Eastern Church\" (the geographic east in the East–West Schism) has been used to distinguish it from western Christendom (the geographic West, which at first came to designate the Catholic communion, later also the various Protestant and Anglican branches).", "\"Eastern\" is used to indicate that the highest concentrations of the Eastern Orthodox Church presence remain in the eastern part of the Christian world, although it is growing worldwide.", "Orthodox Christians throughout the world use various ethnic or national jurisdictional titles, or more inclusively, the title \"Eastern Orthodox\", \"Orthodox Catholic\", or simply \"Orthodox\".What unites Orthodox Christians is the catholic faith as carried through holy tradition.", "That faith is expressed most fundamentally in scripture and worship, and the latter most essentially through baptism and in the Divine Liturgy.The lines of even this test can blur, however, when differences that arise are not due to doctrine, but to recognition of jurisdiction.", "As the Eastern Orthodox Church has spread into the west and over the world, the church as a whole has yet to sort out all the inter-jurisdictional issues that have arisen in the expansion, leaving some areas of doubt about what is proper church governance.", "Moreover, as in the ancient church persecutions, the aftermath of persecutions of Christians in communist nations has complicated some issues of governance that have yet to be completely resolved.All members of the Eastern Orthodox Church profess the same faith, regardless of race or nationality, jurisdiction or local custom, or century of birth.", "Holy tradition encompasses the understandings and means by which that unity of faith is transmitted across boundaries of time, geography, and culture.", "It is a continuity that exists only inasmuch as it lives within Christians themselves.", "It is not static, nor an observation of rules, but rather a sharing of observations that spring both from within and also in keeping with others, even others who lived lives long past.", "The church proclaims the Holy Spirit maintains the unity and consistency of holy tradition to preserve the integrity of the faith within the church, as given in the scriptural promises.Orthodoxy asserts that its shared beliefs, and its theology, exist within holy tradition and cannot be separated from it, and that their meaning is not expressed in mere words alone; that doctrine cannot be understood unless it is prayed; and that it must also be lived in order to be prayed, that without action, the prayer is idle, empty, and in vain, and therefore the theology of demons.=== Catholicity ===An icon of Saint John the Baptist, 14th century, North MacedoniaThe Eastern Orthodox Church considers itself to be both orthodox and catholic.", "The doctrine of the Catholicity of the Church, as derived from the Nicene Creed, is essential to Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology.", "The term ''Catholicity of the Church'' (Greek ) is used in its original sense, as a designation for the universality of the Christian Church, centred around Christ.", "Therefore, the Eastern Orthodox notion of catholicity is not centred around any singular see, unlike the Catholic Church which has one earthly centre.Due to the influence of the Catholic Church in the west, where the English language itself developed, the words \"catholic\" and \"catholicity\" are sometimes used to refer to that church specifically.", "However, the more prominent dictionary sense given for general use is still the one shared by other languages, implying breadth and universality, reflecting comprehensive scope.", "In a Christian context, the Christian Church, as identified with the original church founded by Christ and his apostles, is said to be catholic (or universal) in regard to its union with Christ in faith.Just as Christ is indivisible, so are union with him and faith in him, whereby the Christian Church is \"universal\", unseparated, and comprehensive, including all who share that faith.", "Orthodox bishop Kallistos Ware has called that \"simple Christianity\".", "That is the sense of early and patristic usage wherein the church usually refers to itself as the \"Catholic Church\", whose faith is the \"Orthodox faith\".", "It is also the sense within the phrase \"one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church\", found in the Nicene Creed, and referred to in Orthodox worship, e.g.", "in the litany of the catechumens in the Divine Liturgy.With the mutual excommunications of the East–West Schism in 1054, the churches in Rome and Constantinople each viewed the other as having departed from the true church, leaving a smaller but still-catholic church in place.", "Each retained the \"Catholic\" part of its title, the \"''Roman'' Catholic Church\" (or Catholic Church) on the one hand, and the \"''Orthodox'' Catholic Church\" on the other, each of which was defined in terms of inter-communion with either Rome or Constantinople.", "While the Eastern Orthodox Church recognises what it shares in common with other churches, including the Catholic Church, it sees catholicity in terms of complete union in communion and faith, with the Church throughout all time, and the sharing remains incomplete when not shared fully." ], [ "History", "=== Early Church ===An early Christian \"Ichthys\" (''fish'') inscription from ancient Ephesus|210x210pxPaul and the Apostles travelled extensively throughout the Roman Empire, including Asia Minor, establishing churches in major communities, with the first churches appearing in Jerusalem and the Holy Land, then in Antioch, Ethiopia, Egypt, Rome, Alexandria, Athens, Thessalonica, Illyricum, and Byzantium, which centuries later would become prominent as the New Rome.", "Christianity encountered considerable resistance in the Roman Empire, mostly because its adherents refused to comply with the demands of the Roman state—often even when their lives were threatened—by offering sacrifices to the pagan gods.", "Despite persecution, skepticism, and initial social stigma, the Christian Church spread, particularly following the conversion of Emperor Constantine I in AD 312.By the fourth century, Christianity was present in numerous regions well beyond the Levant.", "A number of influential schools of thought had arisen, particularly the Alexandrian and Antiochian philosophical approaches.", "Other groups, such as the Arians, had also managed to gain influence.", "However, their positions caused theological conflicts within the church, thus prompting the Emperor Constantine to call for a great ecumenical synod in order to define the church's position against the growing, often widely diverging, philosophical and theological interpretations of Christianity.", "He made it possible for this council to meet not only by providing a location, but by offering to pay for the transportation of all the existing bishops of the church.", "Most modern Christian churches regard this synod, commonly called the First Council of Nicaea or more generally the First Ecumenical Council, as of major importance.=== Ecumenical councils ===An icon depicting the Emperor Constantine and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381Several doctrinal disputes from the fourth century onwards led to the calling of ecumenical councils.", "In the Orthodox Church, an ecumenical council is the supreme authority that can be invoked to resolve contested issues of the faith.", "As such, these councils have been held to resolve the most important theological matters that came to be disputed within the Christian Church.", "Many lesser disagreements were resolved through local councils in the areas where they arose, before they grew significant enough to require an ecumenical council.There are seven councils authoritatively recognised as ecumenical by the Eastern Orthodox Church:# The First Ecumenical Council was convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325 and presided over by the Patriarch Alexander of Alexandria, with over 300 bishops condemning the view of Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.# The Second Ecumenical Council was held at Constantinople in 381, presided over by the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, with 150 bishops, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.# The Third Ecumenical Council is that of Ephesus in 431, presided over by the Patriarch of Alexandria, with 250 bishops, which affirmed that Mary is truly \"Birthgiver\" or \"Mother\" of God (''Theotokos''), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius.# The Fourth Ecumenical Council is that of Chalcedon in 451, Patriarch of Constantinople presiding, 500 bishops, affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching.# The Fifth Ecumenical Council is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship of the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the alleged teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.# The Sixth Ecumenical Council is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites.# The Seventh Ecumenical Council was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787, known as the second of Nicaea.", "It supports the veneration of icons while forbidding their worship.", "It is often referred to as \"The Triumph of Orthodoxy\".There are also two other councils which are considered ecumenical by some Eastern Orthodox:* The Fourth Council of Constantinople was called in 879.It restored Photius to his See in Constantinople and condemned any alteration of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381.", "* The Fifth Council of Constantinople was actually a series of councils held between 1341 and 1351.It affirmed the hesychastic theology of Gregory Palamas and condemned the philosopher Barlaam of Calabria.=== Other major councils ===In addition to these councils, there have been a number of other significant councils meant to further define the Eastern Orthodox position.", "They are the Synods of Constantinople, in 1484, 1583, 1755, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of Iași in 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem in 1672.Another council convened in June 2016 to discuss many modern phenomena, other Christian confessions, Eastern Orthodoxy's relation with other religions and fasting disciplines.=== Roman/Byzantine Empire ===The Hagia Sophia, the largest church in the world and patriarchal basilica of Constantinople for nearly a thousand years, later converted into a mosque, then a museum, then back to a mosqueConstantinople is generally considered to be the centre and the \"cradle of Orthodox Christian civilisation\".", "From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.", "Eastern Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of the Byzantine Empire and continued to flourish in Ukraine and Russia, after the fall of Constantinople.", "Numerous autocephalous churches were established in Europe: Greece, Georgia, Ukraine, as well as in Russia and Asia.In the 530s the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) was built in Constantinople under Emperor Justinian I.", "Beginning with subsequent Byzantine architecture, Hagia Sophia became the paradigmatic Orthodox church form and its architectural style was emulated by Ottoman mosques a thousand years later.", "Being the episcopal see of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople, it remained the world's largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520.Hagia Sophia has been described as \"holding a unique position in the Christian world\", and architectural and cultural icon of Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox civilisation, and it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and is said to have \"changed the history of architecture\".=== Early schisms ===There are the \"Nestorian\" churches resulted from the reaction of the Council of Ephesus (431), which are the earliest surviving Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., the First Council of Nicaea (325) and the First Council of Constantinople (381) as legitimate.", "\"Nestorian\" is an outsider's term for a tradition that predated the influence of Nestorius, the origin of which might lie in certain sections of the School of Antioch or via Nestorius' teachers Theodore of Mopsuestia or Diodore of Tarsus.", "The modern incarnation of the \"Nestorian Church\" is commonly referred to as \"the Assyrian Church\" or fully as the Assyrian Church of the East.The church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the Council of Chalcedon (451), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of Jesus.", "Eventually this led to each group anathematising the other.", "Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs (by accepting the Council of Chalcedon) are known today as the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, where the adjective \"Greek\" refers to their ties to the Greek-speaking culture of the Byzantine Empire.Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon were the majority in Egypt.", "Today they are known as the Coptic Orthodox Church, having maintained a separate patriarchate.", "The Coptic Orthodox Church is currently the largest Christian church in Egypt and in the whole Middle East.", "There was also a similar, albeit smaller scale, split in Syria (Patriarchate of Antioch), which resulted in the separation of the Syriac Orthodox Church from the Byzantine Patriarchate of Antioch.Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called \"Oriental Orthodox\" to distinguish them from the \"Eastern Orthodox\", who accepted the Council of Chalcedon.", "Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as \"non-Chalcedonians\", or \"anti-Chalcedonians\".", "The Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term \"miaphysite\", to denote the \"united\" nature of Jesus (two natures united into one) consistent with Cyril's theology: \"The term union ... signifies the concurrence in one reality of those things which are understood to be united\" and \"the Word who is ineffably united with it in a manner beyond all description\" (Cyril of Alexandria, ''On the Unity of Christ'').", "This is also defined in the Coptic liturgy, where it is mentioned \"He made it his humanity one with his divinity without mingling, without confusion and without alteration\", and \"His divinity parted not from his humanity for a single moment nor a twinkling of an eye.\"", "They do not accept the teachings of Eutyches, or Eutychianism.", "Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church.=== Conversion of South and East Slavs ===In the ninth and tenth centuries, Christianity made great inroads into pagan Europe, including Bulgaria (864) and later Kievan Rus' (988).", "This work was made possible by Cyril and Methodius of Thessaloniki, two brothers chosen by Byzantine emperor Michael III to fulfil the request of Rastislav of Moravia for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language.", "Cyril and Methodius began translating the divine liturgy, other liturgical texts, and the Gospels along with some other scriptural texts into local languages; with time, as these translations were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language Church Slavonic was created.", "Originally sent to convert the Slavs of Great Moravia, Cyril and Methodius were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese; their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD 886 and emigrated to Bulgaria.Princess Olga in Constantinople'', a miniature from the ''Radziwiłł Chronicle''After the Christianisation of Bulgaria in 864, the disciples of Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, the most important being Clement of Ohrid and Naum of Preslav, were of great importance to the Orthodox faith in the First Bulgarian Empire.", "In a short time they managed to prepare and instruct the future Bulgarian clergy into the biblical texts and in AD 870 the Fourth Council of Constantinople granted the Bulgarians the oldest organised autocephalous Slavic Orthodox Church, which shortly thereafter became Patriarchate.", "The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of the East Slavs.", "A major event in this effort was the development of the Cyrillic script in Bulgaria, at the Preslav Literary School in the ninth century; this script, along with the liturgical Old Church Slavonic, also called Old Bulgarian, was declared official in Bulgaria in 893.The work of Cyril and Methodius and their disciples had a major impact on the Serbs as well.", "They accepted Christianity collectively along familial and tribal lines, a gradual process that occurred between the seventh and ninth centuries.", "In commemoration of their baptisms, each Serbian family or tribe began to celebrate an exclusively Serbian custom called Slava (patron saint) in a special way to honour the saint on whose day they received the sacrament of baptism.", "It is the most solemn day of the year for all Serbs of the Orthodox faith and has played a role of vital importance in the history of the Serbian people.", "Slava remains a celebration of the conversion of the Serbian people, which the church blessed and proclaimed a church institution.The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Greek, the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire, or Latin, as the Roman priests did.", "Perhaps the greatest legacy of their efforts is the Russian Orthodox Church, which is the largest of the Orthodox churches.=== Great Schism (1054) ===In the 11th century, what was recognised as the Great Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople, which led to separation between the Church of the West, the Catholic Church, and the Eastern Byzantine churches, now the Orthodox.", "There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Roman Pope involved in the split, but these were greatly exacerbated by political factors of both Church and state, and by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks.", "Regarding papal supremacy, the Eastern half grew disillusioned with the Pope's centralisation of power, as well as his blatant attempts of excluding the Eastern half in regard to papal approvals.", "It had previously been the case that the emperor would have a say when a new Pope was elected, but towards the high Middle Ages, the Christians in Rome were slowly consolidating power and removing Byzantine influence.", "However, even before this exclusionary tendency from the West, well before 1054, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church were in perpetual conflict, particularly during the periods of Eastern iconoclasm and the Photian schism.sacking the city of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Orthodox controlled Byzantine Empire, in 1204The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204; the final break with Rome occurred circa 1450.The sacking of Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day.", "In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, which had also been strongly condemned by the Pope at the time, Innocent III; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople.", "However, many items stolen during this time, such as holy relics and riches, are still held in various European cities, particularly Venice.Reunion was attempted twice, at the 1274 Second Council of Lyon and the 1439 Council of Florence.", "The Council of Florence briefly reestablished communion between East and West, which lasted until after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.In each case, however, the councils were rejected by the Orthodox people as a whole, and the union of Florence also became very politically difficult after Constantinople came under Ottoman rule.", "However, in the time since, several local Orthodox Christian churches have renewed union with Rome, known as the Eastern Catholic Churches.", "Recent decades have seen a renewal of ecumenical spirit and dialogue between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.=== Greek Church under Ottoman rule ===The Byzantine Empire never fully recovered from the sack of Constantinople in 1204.Over the next two centuries, it entered a precipitous decline in both territory and influence.", "In 1453, a much-diminished Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Empire, ending what was once the most powerful state in the Orthodox Christian world, if not in all Christendom.", "By this time Egypt, another major centre of Eastern Christianity, had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries; most Eastern Orthodox communities across southeastern Europe gradually came under Ottoman rule by the 16th century.Under the Ottomans, the Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous ''millet''.", "The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the ''Rûm'', an Ottoman administrative unit meaning \"Roman\", which encompassed all Orthodox subjects of the Empire regardless of ethnicity.", "While legally subordinate to Muslims and subject to various restrictions, the Orthodox community was generally tolerated and left to govern its own internal affairs, both religiously and legally.", "Until the empire's dissolution in the early 20th century, Orthodox Christians would remain the largest non-Muslim minority, and at times among the wealthiest and most politically influential.Greek Orthodox massacred during the Greek Genocide in Smyrna in 1922During the period 1914–1923 in Asia Minor (Anatolia) the Greek Genocide took place by the Ottomans as a result of the Greeks invading Turkey and the ensuing Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).", "During the Greek Genocide, many Orthodox Christians were persecuted and killed.", "The culmination of the martyrdom was the Asia Minor Catastrophe with the killing of a large number of Orthodox.", "Among them, 347 clergymen of the Smyrna region and Metropolitan of Smyrna Chrysostomos were tortured and killed.", "The period 1923–1924 was followed by the obligatory population exchange between Greece and Turkey.=== Russian Orthodox Church in the Russian Empire ===Uspenski Cathedral, a main cathedral of the Finnish Orthodox Church in Helsinki, Finland, was built under Imperial Russia.By the time most Orthodox communities came under Muslim rule in the mid 15th century, Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia, which had maintained close cultural and political ties with the Byzantine Empire; roughly two decades after the fall of Constantinople, Ivan III of Russia married Sophia Palaiologina, a niece of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI, and styled himself Tsar (\"Caesar\") or ''imperator''.", "In 1547, his grandson Ivan IV, a devout Orthodox Christian, cemented the title as \"Tsar of All Rus\", establishing Russia's first centralised state with divinely appointed rulers.", "In 1589, the Patriarchate of Constantinople granted autocephalous status to Moscow, the capital of what was now the largest Orthodox Christian polity; the city thereafter referred to itself as the Third Rome —the cultural and religious heir of Constantinople.Until 1666, when Patriarch Nikon was deposed by the tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church had been independent of the State.", "In 1721, the first Russian Emperor, Peter I, abolished completely the patriarchate and effectively made the church a department of the government, ruled by a most holy synod composed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the Emperor himself.", "Over time, Imperial Russia would style itself a protector and patron of all Orthodox Christians, especially those within the Ottoman Empire.For nearly 200 years, until the Bolsheviks' October Revolution of 1917, the Russian Orthodox Church remained, in effect, a governmental agency and an instrument of tsarist rule.", "It was used to varying degrees in imperial campaigns of Russification, and was even allowed to levy taxes on peasants.", "The church's close ties with the state came to a head under Nicholas I (1825–1855), who explicitly made Orthodoxy a core doctrine of imperial unity and legitimacy.", "The Orthodox faith became further tied to Russian identity and nationalism, while the church was further subordinated to the interests of the state.", "Consequently, Russian Orthodox Church, along with the imperial regime to which it belonged, came to be presented as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries.=== Eastern Orthodox churches under Communist rule ===After the October Revolution of 1917, part of the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church fled abroad to escape Bolshevik persecutions, founding an independent church in exile, which reunified with its Russian counterpart in 2007.Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals.", "In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort.", "By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active.", "However, in 1959, Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches.", "It is estimated that 50,000 clergy had been executed between the revolution and the end of the Khrushchev era.", "Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB.", "By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active.Albania was the only state to have declared itself officially fully atheist.", "In some other Communist states such as Romania, the Romanian Orthodox Church as an organisation enjoyed relative freedom and even prospered, albeit under strict secret police control.", "That, however, did not rule out demolishing churches and monasteries as part of broader systematisation (urban planning), and state persecution of individual believers.", "As an example of the latter, Romania stands out as a country which ran a specialised institution where many Orthodox (along with people of other faiths) were subjected to psychological punishment or torture and mind control experimentation in order to force them give up their religious convictions.", "However, this was only supported by one faction within the regime, and lasted only three years.", "The Communist authorities closed down the prison in 1952, and punished many of those responsible for abuses (twenty of them were sentenced to death).=== Post-Communism to 21st century ===Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the subsequent Fall of Communist governments across the Orthodox world, there has been marked growth in Christian Orthodoxy, particularly in Russia.", "According to the Pew Research Religion & Public Life Project, between 1991 and 2008, the share of Russian adults identifying as Orthodox Christian rose from 31 per cent to 72 per cent, based on analysis of three waves of data (1991, 1998 and 2008) from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP), a collaborative effort involving social scientists in about 50 countries.Pew research conducted in 2017 found a doubling in the global Orthodox population since the early 20th century, with the greatest resurgence in Russia.", "In the former Soviet Union—where the largest Orthodox communities live—self-identified Orthodox Christians generally report low levels of observance and piety: In Russia, only 6% of Orthodox Christian adults reported attending church at least weekly, 15% say religion is \"very important\" in their lives, and 18% say they pray daily; other former Soviet republics display similarly low levels of religious observance.==== Moscow–Constantinople schisms =========1996=====Since 1923, the Orthodox Church of Estonia separated from the Russian Orthodox Church due to the imprisonment of Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow, and the church in the Republic of Estonia falling out of communication with the Russian Church.", "They petitioned to be placed under direct control of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, operating as an autonomous church.", "In 1944 the Soviet Union annexed Estonia and outlawed the Orthodox Church of Estonia, forcefully bringing their churches back under the control of the Moscow Patriarch.", "However, the church's Primate, Metropolitan Aleksander, fled to Sweden with 21 clergymen and 8,000 followers and established a synod there operating there throughout the Cold War.In 1993, the synod of the Orthodox Church of Estonia in Exile was re-registered and on 20 February 1996, Bartholomew I of Constantinople restored the church's position as subordinate to Constantinople, not Moscow.", "Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow, who had been born in Estonia, rejected this loss of territory, and severed ties with Patriarch Bartholomew on February 23, removing his name from the diptychs.", "The two sides would then negotiate in Zürich, and a settlement was reached on 16 May 1996.In it, the ethnically Estonian population of Estonia would be under the jurisdiction of the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church, while the ethnically Russian population of Estonia would be under the jurisdiction of the Estonian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate.", "After signing the document the Russian Church restored communion with the Orthodox Church.=====2018=====Since the Baptism of Rus' in 867 the Orthodox church in Ukraine was led by the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus' who was subordinate to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and was largely governed by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth since the territory was conquered in the Galicia–Volhynia Wars, ending in 1392.Poland-Lithuania lost the territory to Russia as part of the peace deal of the Great Northern War in 1654.In 1686 Dionysius IV of Constantinople transferred the territory to the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'.", "In 1924, Orthodox churches in Ukraine besides the Metropolitan of Kyiv were placed under the jurisdiction of the Polish Orthodox Church by the Ecumenical Patriarch as an autonomous church, however, the Russian Church never agreed to nor recognised this transfer, mostly due to Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow and most of the Russian Church's leaders being imprisoned by Soviet officials.", "The Soviet Union, initially, had a policy of repression against the Orthodox Church, regardless of its denomination.", "However, after the start of the Nazi Invasion of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin transformed the Russian Church into a propaganda tool to intensify patriotic support for the war effort.", "Following Soviet victory in the war, various autonomous and Independent Orthodox churches around eastern Europe were forcefully integrated or reintegrated into the Russian Church, including the church in Ukraine.", "Many of the church's leaders at this time were installed and closely monitored by the NKVD to ensure the church's support for the Soviet Union.This situation led to the rise of rival, anti-Russian and anti-Soviet churches within Ukraine, including the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church (UAOC), founded in 1917 which declared itself the restored autonomous church that existed prior to 1686 but had been eradicated within Soviet Ukraine by the 1930s.", "The church was largely supported by Ukrainian émigrés and diaspora, and was restored as a legally recognised church by the Ukrainian government in 1991.In 1992, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate (UOC-KP) came into existence, being founded by members of the Russian Church defrocked for insubordination, alongside support with the Ukrainian émigré community.", "The church submitted a request for Ukrainian autocephaly at its founding synod in Kyiv in 1992.The Ecumenical Patriarchate unveiled documents in support of Ukrainian autocephaly, Gazeta.ua (14 September 2018).", "These churches were competing with the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (UOC-MP), the Russian Church in Ukraine.On 11 October 2018, the Holy Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople revoked the Russian Church's letter of issue, allowing them to ordain the Metropolitan of Kyiv, re-established a stauropegion in Kyiv, and lifted the Russian Church's excommunication of members of the UAOC and the UOC-KP.", "In response, on 15 October, the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church severed all ties with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and barred all members of the Russian Church from receiving communion or sacraments from any churches with ties to the Ecumenical Patriarchate.", "On 15 December 2018, the UAOC and UOC-KP voted to merge in the Unification council of the Eastern Orthodox churches of Ukraine, forming the restored Orthodox Church of Ukraine, with Epiphanius I of Ukraine, of the UOC-KP, becoming the first primate of the unified church.", "On 5 January 2019, Bartholomew I signed the official tomos that granted autocephaly to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine.In addition to severing ties with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Russian Church has also severed communion with Archbishop Ieronymos II of Athens primate of the Church of Greece, Patriarch Theodore II of Alexandria, and Archbishop Chrysostomos II of Cyprus.", "In response to the severing of ties with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox Churches in Western Europe (AROCWE), voted to dissolve itself, although the vote failed, it resulted in a split in AROCWE, with several churches leaving to form the \"Vicariate of Russian Tradition of the Metropolis of France\", while , head of the AROCWE, personally joined the Russian Church.", "Additionally, during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the UOC-MP severed all ties with the Russian Church." ], [ "Organisation and leadership", "A timeline showing the main autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, from an Eastern Orthodox point of view, up to 2022The Canonical territories of the main autocephalous and autonomous Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions as of 2022The Eastern Orthodox Church is a fellowship of autocephalous (Greek for self-headed) churches, with the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople recognised as having ''primus inter pares'' status.", "The patriarch of Constantinople has the honour of primacy, but his title is only first among equals and has no real authority over churches other than the Constantinopolitan and set out prerogatives interpreted by the ecumenical patriarch, though at times the office of the ecumenical patriarch has been accused of Constantinopolitan or Eastern papism.The Eastern Orthodox Church considers Jesus Christ to be the head of the church and the church to be his body.", "It is believed that authority and the grace of God is directly passed down to Orthodox bishops and clergy through the laying on of hands—a practice started by the apostles, and that this unbroken historical and physical link is an essential element of the true church (Acts 8:17, 1 Tim 4:14, Heb 6:2).", "The Eastern Orthodox assert that apostolic succession requires apostolic faith, and bishops without apostolic faith, who are in heresy, forfeit their claim to apostolic succession.", "Orthodox churches differentiate themselves from other Christian churches by practising \"ritual and liturgy...rich in mystery and symbolism\", similar to their views on the sacraments.The Eastern Orthodox communion is organised into several regional churches, which are either autocephalous (\"self-headed\") or lower-ranking autonomous (the Greek term for \"self-governing\") church bodies unified in theology and worship.", "These include the fourteen autocephalous churches of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Georgia, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Serbia, Russia, Greece, Poland, Romania, Albania, and the Czech Republic and Slovakia, which were officially invited to the Pan-Orthodox Council of 2016; the Orthodox Church in America formed in 1970; the autocephalous Orthodox Church of Ukraine created in 2019; and the Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric, granted autocephaly by Serbian Orthodox Church in 2022; as well as a number of autonomous churches.", "Each church has a ruling bishop and a holy synod to administer its jurisdiction and to lead the Eastern Orthodox Church in the preservation and teaching of the apostolic and patristic traditions and church practices.Each bishop has a territory (see) over which he governs.", "His main duty is to make sure the traditions and practices of the Eastern Orthodox Church are preserved.", "Bishops are equal in authority and cannot interfere in the jurisdiction of another bishop.", "Administratively, these bishops and their territories are organised into various autocephalous groups or synods of bishops who gather together at least twice a year to discuss the state of affairs within their respective sees.", "While bishops and their autocephalous synods have the ability to administer guidance in individual cases, their actions do not usually set precedents that affect the entire Eastern Orthodox Church.", "Bishops are almost always chosen from the monastic ranks and must remain unmarried.=== Church councils ===Oldest extant manuscript of the 256x256pxThe ecumenical councils followed a democratic form, with each bishop having one vote.", "Though present and allowed to speak before the council, members of the Imperial Roman/Byzantine court, abbots, priests, deacons, monks and laymen were not allowed to vote.", "The primary goal of these great synods was to verify and confirm the fundamental beliefs of the Great Christian Church as truth, and to remove as heresy any false teachings that would threaten the Christian Church.", "The pope of Rome at that time held the position of ''primus inter pares'' (\"first among equals\") and, while he was not present at any of the councils, he continued to hold this title until the East–West Schism of 1054.Other councils have helped to define the Eastern Orthodox position, specifically the Quinisext Council, the Synods of Constantinople, 879–880, 1341, 1347, 1351, 1583, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of Iași, 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, 1672; the Pan-Orthodox Council, held in Greece in 2016, was the only such Eastern Orthodox council in modern times.According to Eastern Orthodox teaching the position of \"first among equals\" gives no additional power or authority to the bishop that holds it, but rather that this person sits as organisational head of a council of equals (like a president).One of the decisions made by the First Council of Constantinople (the second ecumenical council, meeting in 381) and supported by later such councils was that the Patriarch of Constantinople should be given equal honour to the Pope of Rome since Constantinople was considered to be the \"New Rome\".", "According to the third canon of the second ecumenical council: \"Because Constantinople is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome\".The 28th canon of the fourth ecumenical council clarified this point by stating: \"For the Fathers rightly granted privileges to the throne of Old Rome because it was the royal city.", "And the One Hundred and Fifty most religious Bishops (i.e.", "the second ecumenical council in 381) actuated by the same consideration, gave equal privileges to the most holy throne of New Rome, justly judging that the city which is honoured with the Sovereignty and the Senate, and enjoys equal privileges with the old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical matters also be magnified as she is.", "\"Because of the schism, the Eastern Orthodox no longer recognise the primacy of the pope of Rome.", "The patriarch of Constantinople therefore, like the Pope before him, now enjoys the title of \"first among equals\".=== Adherents ===Percentage distribution of Eastern Orthodox Christians by countryThe most reliable estimates currently available number Eastern Orthodox adherents at around 220 million worldwide, making Eastern Orthodoxy the second largest Christian communion in the world after the Catholic Church.According to the 2015 Yearbook of International Religious Demography, as of 2010, the Eastern Orthodox population was 4% of the global population, declining from 7.1% in 1910.The study also found a decrease in proportional terms, with Eastern Orthodox Christians making up 12.2% of the world's total Christian population in 2015 compared to 20.4% a century earlier.", "A 2017 report by the Pew Research Center reached similar figures, noting that Eastern Orthodoxy has seen slower growth and less geographic spread than Catholicism and Protestantism, which were driven by colonialism and missionary activity across the world.Over two-thirds of all Eastern Orthodox members are concentrated in Southern Europe, Eastern Europe and Russia, with significant minorities in Central Asia and the Levant.", "However, Eastern Orthodoxy has become more globalised over the last century, seeing greater growth in Western Europe, the Americas, and parts of Africa; churches are present in the major cities of most countries.", "Adherents constitute the largest single religious community in Russia—which is home to roughly half the world's Eastern Orthodox Christians—and are the majority in Ukraine, Romania, Belarus, Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Moldova, Georgia, North Macedonia, Cyprus, and Montenegro; communities also dominate the disputed territories of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Transnistria.", "Significant Eastern Orthodox minorities exist in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Albania, Syria, and many other countries.Eastern Orthodox Christianity is the fastest growing religion in certain Western countries, primarily through labour migration from Eastern Europe, and to a lesser degree conversion.", "Ireland saw a doubling of its Eastern Orthodox population between 2006 and 2011.Spain and Germany have the largest communities in Western Europe, at roughly 1.5 million each, followed by Italy with around 900,000 and France with between 500,000 and 700,000.In the Americas, four countries have over 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians: Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and the United States; all but the latter had fewer than 20,000 at the turn of the 20th century.", "The U.S. has seen its community more than quadruple since 1910, from 460,000 to 1.8 million as of 2017; consequently, the number of Eastern Orthodox parishes has been growing, with a 16% increase between 2000 and 2010.Turkey, which for centuries once had one of the largest Eastern Orthodox communities, saw its overall Christian population fall from roughly one-fifth in 1914 to 2.5% in 1927.This was predominantly due to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which saw most Christian territories become independent nations.", "The remaining Christian population was reduced further by large-scale genocides against the Armenian, Greek, Assyrian communities; subsequent population exchanges between Greece and Turkey and Bulgaria and Turkey; and associated emigration of Christians to foreign countries (mostly in Europe and the Americas).", "Today, only 0.2% of Turkey's population represent either Jews or various Christian denominations (320,000)." ], [ "Theology", "=== Trinity ===Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in the Trinity, three distinct, divine persons (''hypostases''), without overlap or modality among them, who each have one divine essence (''ousia'', Greek: οὐσία)—uncreated, immaterial, and eternal.", "These three persons are typically distinguished by their relation to each other.", "The Father is eternal and not begotten and does not proceed from any, the Son is eternal and begotten of the Father, and the Holy Spirit is eternal and proceeds from the Father.", "Orthodox doctrine regarding the Trinity is summarised in the Nicene Creed.Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in a monotheistic conception of God (God is only one), which is both transcendent (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and immanent (involved in the material universe).", "In discussing God's relationship to his creation, Eastern Orthodox theology distinguishes between God's eternal essence, which is totally transcendent, and his ''uncreated energies'', which is how he reaches humanity.", "The God who is transcendent and the God who touches mankind are one and the same.", "That is, these energies are not something that proceed from God or that God produces, but rather they are God himself: distinct, yet inseparable from God's inner being.", "This view is often called Palamism.In understanding the Trinity as \"one God in three persons\", \"three persons\" is not to be emphasised more than \"one God\", and vice versa.", "While the three persons are distinct, they are united in one divine essence, and their oneness is expressed in community and action so completely that they cannot be considered separately.", "For example, their salvation of mankind is an activity engaged in common: \"Christ became man by the good will of the Father and by the cooperation of the Holy Spirit.", "Christ sends the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father, and the Holy Spirit forms Christ in our hearts, and thus God the Father is glorified.\"", "Their \"communion of essence\" is \"indivisible\".", "Trinitarian terminology—essence, hypostasis, etc.—are used \"philosophically\", \"to answer the ideas of the heretics\", and \"to place the terms where they separate error and truth.\"", "The words do what they can do, but the nature of the Trinity in its fullness is believed to remain beyond man's comprehension and expression, a holy mystery that can only be experienced.=== Sin, salvation, and the incarnation ===John of DamascusWhen Eastern Orthodox Christians refer to fallen nature they are not saying that human nature has become evil in itself.", "Human nature is still formed in the image of God; humans are still God's creation, and God has never created anything evil, but fallen nature remains open to evil intents and actions.", "It is sometimes said among Eastern Orthodox that humans are \"inclined to sin\"; that is, people find some sinful things attractive.", "It is the nature of temptation to make sinful things seem the more attractive, and it is the fallen nature of humans that seeks or succumbs to the attraction.", "Orthodox Christians reject the Augustinian position that the descendants of Adam and Eve are actually guilty of the original sin of their ancestors.Since the fall of man, then, it has been mankind's dilemma that no human can restore his nature to union with God's grace; it was necessary for God to effect another change in human nature.", "Eastern Orthodox Christians believe that Christ Jesus was both God and Man absolutely and completely, having two natures indivisibly: eternally begotten of the Father in his divinity, he was born in his humanity of a woman, Mary, by her consent, through descent of the Holy Spirit.", "He lived on earth, in time and history, as a man.", "As a man he also died, and went to the place of the dead, which is Hades.", "But being God, neither death nor Hades could contain him, and he rose to life again, in his humanity, by the power of the Holy Spirit, thus destroying the power of Hades and of death itself.Through Christ's destruction of Hades' power to hold humanity hostage, he made the path to salvation effective for all the righteous who had died from the beginning of time—saving many, including Adam and Eve, who are remembered in the church as saints.=== Resurrection of Christ ===Russian Orthodox icon of the Resurrection|273x273pxThe Eastern Orthodox Church understands the death and resurrection of Jesus to be real historical events, as described in the gospels of the New Testament.=== Christian life ===Church teaching is that Eastern Orthodox Christians, through baptism, enter a new life of salvation through repentance whose purpose is to share in the life of God through the work of the Holy Spirit.", "The Eastern Orthodox Christian life is a spiritual pilgrimage in which each person, through the imitation of Christ and ''hesychasm'', cultivates the practice of unceasing prayer.", "Each life occurs within the life of the church as a member of the body of Christ.", "It is then through the fire of God's love in the action of the Holy Spirit that each member becomes more holy, more wholly unified with Christ, starting in this life and continuing in the next.", "The church teaches that everyone, being born in God's image, is called to theosis, fulfilment of the image in likeness to God.", "God the creator, having divinity by nature, offers each person participation in divinity by cooperatively accepting His gift of grace.The Eastern Orthodox Church, in understanding itself to be the Body of Christ, and similarly in understanding the Christian life to lead to the unification in Christ of all members of his body, views the church as embracing all Christ's members, those now living on earth, and also all those through the ages who have passed on to the heavenly life.", "\"In general,\" Eastern Orthodox Christianity sees the Church \"as a purely mystical body, the understanding of which cannot be attained through the development of a rational or natural theology.", "\"The church includes the Christian saints from all times, and also judges, prophets and righteous Jews of the first covenant, Adam and Eve, even the angels and heavenly hosts.", "In Eastern Orthodox services, the earthly members together with the heavenly members worship God as one community in Christ, in a union that transcends time and space and joins heaven to earth.", "This unity of the church is sometimes called the ''communion of the saints''.==== Eastern Orthodox Order of Saint Benedict ====The '''Order of Saint Benedict''' is an affiliation of monastics of the Eastern Orthodox Church who strive to live according to the Rule of St Benedict.", "The equivalent monastic order in the Catholic Church is known as the Order of Saint Benedict, abbreviated as OSB.Within the United States, the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America has at least one Benedictine monastery.Several Benedictine monastic houses, ''sketes'' and hermitages fit within the Russian Orthodox Church outside of Russia, all of which are ''stavropegial'' directly under the Metropolitan.", "An oblate programme exists for Orthodox laity Saint Benedict Russian Orthodox Church in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.=== Virgin Mary and other saints ===Our Lady of Tinos is the major Marian shrine in Greece.The Theotokos of Vladimir, one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of the Virgin MaryThe Eastern Orthodox Church believes death and the separation of body and soul to be unnatural—a result of the Fall of Man.", "They also hold that the congregation of the church comprises both the living and the dead.", "All persons currently in heaven are considered to be saints, whether their names are known or not.", "There are, however, those saints of distinction whom God has revealed as particularly good examples.", "When a saint is revealed and ultimately recognised by a large portion of the church a service of official recognition (glorification) is celebrated.This does not \"make\" the person a saint; it merely recognises the fact and announces it to the rest of the church.", "A day is prescribed for the saint's celebration, hymns composed and icons created.", "Numerous saints are celebrated on each day of the year.", "They are venerated (shown great respect and love) but not worshipped, for worship is due God alone (this view is also held by the Oriental Orthodox and Catholic churches).", "In showing the saints this love and requesting their prayers, the Eastern Orthodox manifest their belief that the saints thus assist in the process of salvation for others.Pre-eminent among the saints is the Virgin Mary (commonly referred to as ''Theotokos'' or ''Bogoroditsa'': \"Mother of God\").", "In Eastern Orthodox theology, the Mother of God is the fulfilment of the Old Testament archetypes revealed in the Ark of the Covenant (because she carried the New Covenant in the person of Christ) and the burning bush that appeared before Moses (symbolising the Mother of God's carrying of God without being consumed).The Eastern Orthodox believe that Christ, from the moment of his conception, was both fully God and fully human.", "Mary is thus called the ''Theotokos'' or ''Bogoroditsa'' as an affirmation of the divinity of the one to whom she gave birth.", "It is also believed that her virginity was not compromised in conceiving God-incarnate, that she was not harmed and that she remained forever a virgin.", "Scriptural references to \"brothers\" of Christ are interpreted as kin, given that the word \"brother\" was used in multiple ways, as was the term \"father\".", "Due to her unique place in salvation history, Mary is honoured above all other saints and especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through her.The Eastern Orthodox Church regards the bodies of all saints as holy, made such by participation in the holy mysteries, especially the communion of Christ's holy body and blood, and by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within the church.", "Indeed, that persons and physical things can be made holy is a cornerstone of the doctrine of the Incarnation, made manifest also directly by God in Old Testament times through his dwelling in the Ark of the Covenant.", "Thus, physical items connected with saints are also regarded as holy, through their participation in the earthly works of those saints.", "According to church teaching and tradition, God himself bears witness to this holiness of saints' relics through the many miracles connected with them that have been reported throughout history since biblical times, often including healing from disease and injury.=== Eschatology ===Byzantine mosaic from Torcello CathedralOrthodox Christians believe that when a person dies the soul is temporarily separated from the body.", "Though it may linger for a short period on Earth, it is ultimately escorted either to paradise (Abraham's bosom) or the darkness of Hades, following the Temporary Judgment.", "Orthodox do not accept the doctrine of Purgatory, which is held by Catholicism.", "The soul's experience of either of these states is only a \"foretaste\"—being experienced only by the soul—until the Final Judgment, when the soul and body will be reunited.The Eastern Orthodox believe that the state of the soul in Hades can be affected by the love and prayers of the righteous up until the Last Judgment.", "For this reason the Church offers a special prayer for the dead on the third day, ninth day, fortieth day, and the one-year anniversary after the death of an Orthodox Christian.", "There are also several days throughout the year that are set aside for general commemoration of the departed, sometimes including nonbelievers.", "These days usually fall on a Saturday, since it was on a Saturday that Christ lay in the Tomb.The Eastern Orthodox believe that after the Final Judgment:* All souls will be reunited with their resurrected bodies.", "* All souls will fully experience their spiritual state.", "* Having been perfected, the saints will forever progress towards a deeper and fuller love of God, which equates with eternal happiness.=== Bible ===''David glorified by the women of Israel'' from the Paris Psalter, example of the Macedonian art (Byzantine) (sometimes called the Macedonian Renaissance)The official Bible of the Eastern Orthodox Church contains the Septuagint text of the Old Testament, with the Book of Daniel given in the translation by Theodotion.", "The Patriarchal Text is used for the New Testament.", "Orthodox Christians hold that the Bible is a verbal icon of Christ, as proclaimed by the 7th ecumenical council.", "They refer to the Bible as holy scripture, meaning writings containing the foundational truths of the Christian faith as revealed by Christ and the Holy Spirit to its divinely inspired human authors.", "Holy scripture forms the primary and authoritative written witness of holy tradition and is essential as the basis for all Orthodox teaching and belief.Once established as holy scripture, there has never been any question that the Eastern Orthodox Church holds the full list of books to be venerable and beneficial for reading and study, even though it informally holds some books in higher esteem than others, the four gospels highest of all.", "Of the subgroups significant enough to be named, the \"Anagignoskomena\" (ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα, \"things that are read\") comprises ten of the Old Testament books rejected in the Protestant canon, but deemed by the Eastern Orthodox worthy to be read in worship services, even though they carry a lesser esteem than the 39 books of the Hebrew canon.", "The lowest tier contains the remaining books not accepted by either Protestants or Catholics, among them, Psalm 151.Though it is a psalm, and is in the book of psalms, it is not classified as being within the Psalter (the first 150 psalms).In a very strict sense, it is not entirely orthodox to call the holy scripture the \"Word of God\".", "That is a title the Eastern Orthodox Church reserves for Christ, as supported in the scriptures themselves, most explicitly in the first chapter of the gospel of John.", "God's Word is not hollow, like human words.", "\"God said, 'let there be light'; and there was light.", "\"The Eastern Orthodox Church does not subscribe to the Protestant doctrine of ''sola scriptura''.", "The church has defined what Scripture is; it also interprets what its meaning is.", "Christ promised: \"When He, the Spirit of truth, has come, He will guide you into all truth\".Scriptures are understood to contain historical fact, poetry, idiom, metaphor, simile, moral fable, parable, prophecy and wisdom literature, and each bears its own consideration in its interpretation.", "While divinely inspired, the text still consists of words in human languages, arranged in humanly recognisable forms.", "The Eastern Orthodox Church does not oppose honest critical and historical study of the Bible." ], [ "Liturgy", "Fresco of Basil the Great, in the church of Saint Sophia, Ohrid.", "The saint is shown consecrating the Gifts during the Divine Liturgy which bears his name.|282x282px=== Church calendar ===Lesser cycles also run in tandem with the annual ones.", "A weekly cycle of days prescribes a specific focus for each day in addition to others that may be observed.=== Church services ======= Music and chanting ====Chanters singing on the kliros at the Church of St. George, Patriarchate of ConstantinopleThe church has developed eight modes or tones (see Octoechos) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast day, or other considerations of the Typikon.", "There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures." ], [ "Traditions", "=== Art and architecture ===An illustration of the traditional interior of an Orthodox churchThe Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinity on New York City's Upper East Side is the largest Orthodox Christian church in the Western Hemisphere.=== Local customs ===Shards of pottery vases on the street, after being thrown from the windows of nearby houses.", "A Holy Saturday tradition in Corfu.|alt=Locality is also expressed in regional terms of churchly jurisdiction, which is often also drawn along national lines.", "Many Orthodox churches adopt a national title (e.g.", "Albanian Orthodox, Bulgarian Orthodox, Antiochian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Ukrainian Orthodox, etc.)", "and this title can identify which language is used in services, which bishops preside, and which of the typica is followed by specific congregations.", "In the Middle East, Orthodox Christians are usually referred to as ''Rum'' (\"Roman\") Orthodox, because of their historical connection with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire." ], [ "Holy mysteries (sacraments)", "Those things which in the West are often termed sacraments or sacramentals are known among the Eastern Orthodox as the \"sacred mysteries\".While the Catholic Church numbers seven sacraments, and many Protestant groups list two (baptism and the Eucharist) or even none, the Eastern Orthodox do not limit the number.", "However, for the sake of convenience, catechisms will often speak of the seven great mysteries.", "Among these are Holy Communion (the most direct connection), baptism, Chrismation, confession, unction, matrimony, and ordination.", "But the term also properly applies to other sacred actions such as monastic tonsure or the blessing of holy water, and involves fasting, almsgiving, or an act as simple as lighting a candle, burning incense, praying or asking God's blessing on food.=== Baptism ===An Eastern Orthodox baptismBaptism is the mystery which transforms the old and sinful person into a new and pure one; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given.", "Through baptism a person is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "During the service, water is blessed.", "The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times in the name of the Trinity.", "This is considered to be a death of the \"old man\" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, in emergencies any Eastern Orthodox Christian can baptise.=== Chrismation ===Chrismation (sometimes called confirmation) is the mystery by which a baptised person is granted the gift of the Holy Spirit through anointing with Holy Chrism.", "It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so Chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.A baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christian is a full member of the church and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.The creation of Chrism may be accomplished by any bishop at any time, but usually is done only once a year, often when a synod of bishops convenes for its annual meeting.", "Some autocephalous churches get their chrism from others.", "Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament, even when an instrument such as a brush is used.=== Holy Communion (Eucharist) ===alt=Communion is given only to baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession.", "The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon, called a \"cochlear\", directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice.", "From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive holy communion.=== Marriage ===The wedding of Tsar Nicholas II of RussiaFrom the Orthodox perspective, marriage is one of the holy mysteries or sacraments.", "As well as in many other Christian traditions, for example in Catholicism, it serves to unite a woman and a man in eternal union and love before God, with the purpose of following Christ and his Gospel and raising up a faithful, holy family through their holy union.", "The church understands marriage to be the union of one man and one woman, and certain Orthodox leaders have spoken out strongly in opposition to the civil institution of same-sex marriage.Greek Orthodox weddingJesus said that \"when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven\" (Mk 12:25).", "For the Orthodox Christian this passage should not be understood to imply that Christian marriage will not remain a reality in the Kingdom, but points to the fact that relations will not be \"fleshy\", but \"spiritual\".", "Love between wife and husband, as an icon of relationship between Christ and church, is eternal.The church does recognise that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces.", "For the Eastern Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offence resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners.", "Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the church towards sinful man.=== Holy orders ===Eastern Orthodox subdeacon being ordained to the diaconate.", "The bishop has placed his omophorion and right hand on the head of the candidate and is reading the ''Prayer of Cheirotonia''.Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry and it is common for such members of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see clerical celibacy).", "This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who do not remarry and become nuns when their children are grown.", "Only men are allowed to receive holy orders, although deaconesses had both liturgical and pastoral functions within the church.In 2016, the Patriarchate of Alexandria decided to reintroduce the order of deaconess.", "In February 2017, Patriarch Theodoros II consecrated five women to be deaconesses within the Patriarchate of Alexandria." ], [ "Interfaith relations", "The consecration of Reginald Heber Weller as an Anglican bishop at the Cathedral of St. Paul the Apostle in the Episcopal Diocese of Fond du Lac, with Anthony Kozlowski of the Polish National Catholic Church and Tikhon, then Bishop of the Aleutians and Alaska (along with his chaplains John Kochurov and Sebastian Dabovich) of the Russian Orthodox Church presentPope Francis and Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, 2014=== Relations with other Christians ===In 1920, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, published an encyclical \"addressed 'To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly founded League of Nations\".", "This gesture was instrumental in the foundation of the World Council of Churches (WCC); as such, almost all Eastern Orthodox churches are members of the WCC and \"Orthodox ecclesiastics and theologians serve on its committees\".", "Kallistos Ware, a British metropolitan bishop of the Orthodox Church, has stated that ecumenism \"is important for Orthodoxy: it has helped to force the various Orthodox churches out of their comparative isolation, making them meet one another and enter into a living contact with non-Orthodox Christians.", "\"Hilarion Alfeyev, then the Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and head of external relations for the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, stated that Orthodox and Evangelical Protestant Christians share the same positions on \"such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage\" and desire \"vigorous grassroots engagement\" between the two Christian communions on such issues.", "In that regard, the differences between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communions have not been improved in any relevant way.", "Dogmatic and liturgical polarities have been significant, even and especially in recent times.", "A pertinent point of contention between the monarchically papal, administratively centralised Catholic Church and the decentralised confederation of Orthodox churches is the theological significance of the Virgin Mary.", "During his visit to Georgia in October 2016, Pope Francis was snubbed by most Orthodox Christians as he led mass before a practically empty Mikheil Meskhi Stadium in Tbilisi.The Oriental Orthodox Churches are not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, despite their similar names.", "Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the two churches began in the mid-20th century, and, notably, in the 19th century, when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time; he left his church under the guidance of the Coptic Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria.In 2019, the Primate of the OCU Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine Epiphanius stated that \"theoretically\" the Orthodox Church of Ukraine and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church could in the future unite into a united church around the Kyiv throne.", "In 2019, the Primate of the UGCC, Major Archbishop of Kyiv-Galicia Sviatoslav, stated that every effort should be made to restore the original unity of the Kyivan Church in its Orthodox and Catholic branches, saying that the restoration of Eucharistic communion between Rome and Constantinople is not a utopia.Notwithstanding certain overtures by both Catholic and Eastern Orthodox leaders, the majority of Orthodox Christians, as well as Catholics, are not in favour of communion between their churches, with only a median of 35 per cent and 38 per cent, respectively, claiming support.=== Relations with Islam ===Constantinople Massacre of April 1821: a religious persecution of the Greek population of Constantinople under the Ottomans.", "Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople was executed.According to Bat Ye'or, Christians under Islamic rule were denied equality of rights since they were forced to pay the ''jizya'' poll tax.In 2007, Metropolitan Alfeyev expressed the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam and Christianity in Russia, as the two religions have never had religious wars in Russia." ], [ "Constituencies", "The various autocephalous and autonomous synods of the Eastern Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another.", "In addition, some schismatic churches not in any communion exist, with all three groups identifying as Eastern Orthodox.The Pan-Orthodox Council, Kolymvari, Crete, Greece, June 2016Another group of non-mainstream Eastern Orthodox Christians are referred True Orthodoxy or Old Calendarists; they are those who, without authority from their parent churches, have continued to use the old Julian calendar, and split from their parent church.The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) has united in 2007 with the Moscow Patriarchate; these two churches had separated from each other in the 1920s due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile Soviet regime.Another group called the Old Believers, separated in 1666 from the official Russian Orthodox Church as a protest against church rite reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow.=== Main communion ===Cathedral of Evangelismos, AlexandriaThe Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of 15 autocephalous—that is, administratively completely independent—regional churches, plus the Orthodox Church in America and two Ukrainian Orthodox Churches.", "The Orthodox Church in America is recognised as autocephalous only by the Russian, Bulgarian, Georgian, Polish and Czech-Slovak churches.", "In December 2018, representatives of two unrecognised Ukrainian Orthodox churches, along with two metropolitans of the recognised, but self-declared autocephalous Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate, proclaimed the formation of the unified Orthodox Church of Ukraine.", "On 5 January 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine received its ''tomos'' of autocephaly (decree which defines the conditions of a church's independence) from the Ecumenical Patriarchate and thus received a place in the diptych.Patriarchate of Peć in Kosovo, the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church from the 14th century, when its status was upgraded into a patriarchateEach church has defined geographical boundaries of its jurisdiction and is ruled by its council of bishops or synod presided by a senior bishop–its primate (or first hierarch).", "The primate may carry the honorary title of patriarch, metropolitan (in the Slavic tradition) or archbishop (in the Greek tradition).Each regional church consists of constituent eparchies (or dioceses) ruled by a bishop.", "Some churches have given an eparchy or group of eparchies varying degrees of autonomy (self-government).", "Such autonomous churches maintain varying levels of dependence on their mother church, usually defined in a ''tomos'' or other document of autonomy.Below is a list of the 15 autocephalous Orthodox churches forming the main body of Orthodox Christianity, all of which are titled equal to each other, but the Ecumenical Patriarchate is titled the ''first among equals''.", "Based on the definitions, the list is in the order of precedence and alphabetical order where necessary, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well.", "The liturgical title of the primate is in italics.", "* Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (''Archbishop of Constantinople-New Rome and First Among Equals Patriarch'')** Autonomous Orthodox Church of Finland (''Archbishop of Helsinki and All Finland'', formerly ''Archbishop of Karelia and All Finland'')** Self-governing Orthodox Church of Crete (''Archbishop of Crete'')** Self-governing monastic community of Mount Athos** Self-governing Orthodox Church of Korea (''Metropolitan of Seoul and All Korea'')* Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria (''the Pope and Patriarch of the Great City of Alexandria, Libya, Pentapolis, Ethiopia, all the land of Egypt, and all Africa'')* Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch (''Patriarch of Antioch and all the East'')* Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem (''Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Holy Land, Syria, Arabia, beyond the Jordan River, Cana of Galilee, and Sacred Zion'')** Autonomous Church of Mount Sinai (''Archbishop of Choreb, Sinai, and Raitha'')* Russian Orthodox Church (''Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia'')** Autonomous Orthodox Church in Japan (''Archbishop of Tokyo and Metropolitan of All Japan'')** Exarchate of Belarus (''Metropolitan of Minsk and Slutsk, Patriarchal Exarch of All Belarus'')** Self-governing Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (''Metropolitan of Eastern America and New York, First Hierarch of the Russian church abroad'')* Serbian Orthodox Church (''Archbishop of Peć, Metropolitan of Belgrade and Karlovci, and Serbian Patriarch'')* Bulgarian Orthodox Church (''Metropolitan of Sofia and Patriarch of All Bulgaria'')* Romanian Orthodox Church (''Archbishop of Bucharest, Metropolitan of Muntenia and Dobrudja, Locum Tenens of the Throne of Caesarea of Cappadocia, and Patriarch of Romania'')** Autonomous Romanian Orthodox Metropolis of the Americas (''Romanian Orthodox Archbishop of the United States of America and Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan of the Americas'')* Georgian Orthodox Church (''Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, the Archbishop of Mtskheta-Tbilisi and Metropolitan bishop of Abkhazia and Pitsunda'')* Church of Cyprus (''Archbishop of New Justiniana and all Cyprus'')* Church of Greece (''Archbishop of Athens and all Greece'')* Albanian Orthodox Church (''Archbishop of Tirana, Durres and all Albania'')* Polish Orthodox Church (''Metropolitan of Warsaw and all Poland'' or ''Archbishop of Warsaw and Metropolitan of All Poland)''* Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia (''Archbishop of Prague, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia or the Archbishop of Presov, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia'')* Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric (''Metropolitan of Skopje and Archbishop of Ohrid and Macedonia and of Justiniana Prima'')Within the main body of Eastern Orthodoxy there are unresolved internal issues as to the autonomous or autocephalous status or legitimacy of the following Orthodox churches, particularly between those stemming from the Russian Orthodox or Constantinopolitan churches:* Orthodox Church in America (''Archbishop of Washington, Metropolitan of All America and Canada'') – Autocephaly not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate.", "* Self-governing Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (''Metropolitan of Tallinn and all Estonia'') – Recognised only by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, opposed only by the Russian Orthodox Church.", "* Self-governing Estonian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (''Metropolitan of Tallinn and all Estonia'') – Not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate.", "* Autonomous Bessarabian Orthodox Church in Moldova (''Archbishop of Chișinău, Metropolitan of Bessarabia and Exarch of the Territories'') of the Romanian Orthodox Church – Territory claimed by the Russian Orthodox Church.", "* Autonomous Moldovan Orthodox Church (''Metropolitan of Chișinău and all Moldova'') of the Russian Orthodox Church – Jurisdiction disputed by the Romanian Orthodox Church.", "* Orthodox Church of Ukraine (''Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine'') – Recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, Church of Greece, Church of Cyprus, and Patriarchate of Alexandria as of October 2020, opposed by the Russian, Antiochian, Czech and Slovak, Serbian and Polish Orthodox Churches, and the Orthodox Church in America.", "* Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), self-governing by declaration which later got approved and recognised by the Georgian Orthodox Church – jurisdiction disputed with the Orthodox Church of Ukraine, which nearly all Churches continued to recognise as part of ROC.", "* Latvian Orthodox Church (''Metropolitan of Riga and all Latvia'') holding autocephaly prior to 1941, forcibly integrated in 1941 as a result of the Soviet occupation and annexation of the Baltic states to become a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church, with the Ecumenical Patriarchate accepting this situation in 1978; in 2022, the Latvian Parliament (the Saeima) declared the restoration of autocephaly of the LOC from the ROC, due of security reasons.", "=== Traditionalist groups ======= True Orthodox ====True Orthodoxy has been separated from the mainstream communion over issues of ecumenism and calendar reform since the 1920s.", "The movement rejects the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Moscow Patriarchate, and all churches which are in communion with them, accusing them of heresy and placing themselves under bishops who do the same thing.", "They adhere to the use of the Julian calendar, claiming that the calendar reform in the 1920s is in contradiction with the ecumenical councils.", "There is no official communion of True Orthodox; and they often are local groups and are limited to a specific bishop or locality.==== Old calendarists ======== Old Believers ====Paschal procession by Russian Orthodox Old-Rite ChurchOld Believers are groups which do not accept the liturgical reforms which were carried out within the Russian Orthodox Church by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow in the 17th century.", "Although all of the groups of Old Believers emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reforms, they do not constitute a single monolithic body.", "Despite their emphasis on invariable adherence to the pre-Nikonian traditions, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups which profess different interpretations of church tradition and they are often not in communion with each other (some groups even practise re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst).=== Churches not in communion with other churches ===Churches with irregular or unresolved canonical status are entities that have carried out episcopal consecrations outside of the norms of canon law or whose bishops have been excommunicated by one of the 14 autocephalous churches.", "These include nationalist and other schismatic bodies such as the Abkhazian Orthodox Church." ], [ "See also", "* Byzantine art* Byzantine literature* Byzantine dress* Byzantine music* Chalcedonian Christianity* Christianization of Bulgaria* Ecclesiastical differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church* Theological differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church* Emanation (Eastern Orthodoxy)* Greek Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon* History of Christianity* History of Christian theology* History of Eastern Orthodox Christian theology* Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy* List of Eastern Orthodox churches in Australia* Moscow–Constantinople schism (2018)* Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece (33–717)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* (Introduction by C. S. Lewis)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ====Tertiary reference works====* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * Krindatch, Alexei D.", "ed., ''Atlas of American Orthodox Christian Churches'' (Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2011) online.", "* * * * * * * * * * Scouteris, Constantine, '' A Brief Outline of the Orthodox Church, Ἐκκλησιαστικός Φάρος, 65 (2004), pp.", "60–75.", "''* Orthodox Dictionary at Kursk Root Hermitage of the Birth of the Most Holy Theotokos* An Online Orthodox Catechism published by the Russian Orthodox Church*" ], [ "External links", "* A repository with scientific papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Orthodox Church in English and in German" ] ]
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[ [ "Eusebius of Nicomedia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eusebius of Nicomedia''' (; ; died 341) was an Arian priest who baptized Constantine the Great on his deathbed in 337.A fifth-century legend evolved that Pope Sylvester I was the one to baptize Constantine, but this is dismissed by scholars as a forgery 'to amend the historical memory of the Arian baptism that the emperor received at the end of his life, and instead to attribute an unequivocally orthodox baptism to him.'", "He was a bishop of Berytus (modern-day Beirut) in Phoenicia.", "He was later made the bishop of Nicomedia, where the Imperial court resided.", "He lived finally in Constantinople from 338 up to his death." ], [ "Influence in the Imperial family and the Imperial court", "Distantly related to the imperial family of Constantine, he owed his progression from a less significant Levantine bishopric to the most important episcopal see to his influence at court, and the great power he wielded in the church was derived from that source.", "In fact, during his time in the imperial court, the Eastern court and the major positions in the Eastern Church were held by Arians or Arian sympathizers.", "With the exception of a short period of eclipse, he enjoyed the confidence both of Constantine and Constantius II.", "He also served as the tutor of the later Emperor Julian the Apostate; and it was he who might have baptized Constantine the Great on May 22, 337 owing to his familial relationship with the emperor.", "Also during his time in the imperial court, Arianism became more popular with the royal family.", "It can be logically surmised that Eusebius had a huge hand in the acceptance of Arianism in the Constantinian household.", "The Arian influence grew so strong during his tenure in the imperial court that it was not until the end of the Constantinian dynasty and the appointment of Theodosius I that Arianism lost its influence in the empire.It was of particular interest that Eusebius was nearly persecuted because of his close relationship to the Emperor Licinius while serving as bishop of Nicomedia during Licinius' reign." ], [ "Relationship with Arius", "Like Arius, he was a pupil of Lucian of Antioch, and it is probable that he held the same views as Arius from the very beginning; he was also one of Arius' most fervent supporters who encouraged Arius.", "It was also because of this relationship that he was the first person whom Arius contacted after the latter was excommunicated from Alexandria by Alexander I of Alexandria in 321.Apparently, Arius and Eusebius were close enough and Eusebius powerful enough that Arius was able to put his theology down in writing.", "He afterward modified his ideas somewhat, or perhaps he only yielded to the pressure of circumstances; but he was, if not the teacher, at all events the leader and organizer of the Arian council.At the First Council of Nicaea in 325, he signed the Confession, but only after a long and desperate opposition in which he was said to \"subscribe with hand only, not heart\" according to ancient sources.", "It was a huge blow to the Arian party since it was surmised that the participants in the First Council of Nicaea were evenly split between non-Arians and Arians.", "His defense of Arius angered the emperor, and a few months after the council he was sent into exile due to his continual contacts with Arius and his followers.", "After the lapse of three years, he succeeded in regaining the imperial favor by convincing Constantine that Arius and his views do not conflict with the proclaimed Nicene Creed.", "After his return in 329, he brought the whole machinery of the state government into action in order to impose his views upon the Church." ], [ "Political and religious career", "In complement to his theological interests, Eusebius was a skilled politician.", "Upon his return, he regained the lost ground resulting from the First Council of Nicaea, established alliances with other groups such as the Melitians and expelled many opponents.He was described by modern historians as an \"ambitious intriguer\" and a \"consummate political player\".", "He was also described by ancient sources as a high-handed person who was also aggressive in his dealings; he also used his allies to spy on his opponents.He was able to dislodge and exile three key opponents who espoused the First Council of Nicaea: Eustathius of Antioch in 330, Athanasius of Alexandria in 335 and Marcellus of Ancyra in 336.This was no small feat since Athanasius was regarded as a \"man of God\" by Constantine, and both Eustathius and Athanasius held top positions in the church.Another major feat was his appointment as the Patriarch of Constantinople by expelling Paul I of Constantinople; Paul would eventually return as Patriarch after Eusebius's death.Even outside the empire, Eusebius had great influence.", "He brought Ulfilas into the Arian priesthood and sent the latter to convert the heathen Goths.Eusebius baptised Constantine the Great in his villa in Nicomedia, on May 22, 337 just before the death of the Emperor." ], [ "Death and aftermath", "He died at the height of his power in the year 341.He was so influential that even after his death, Constantius II heeded his and Eudoxus of Constantinople's advice to attempt to convert the Roman Empire to Arianism by creating Arian Councils and official Arian Doctrines.It was because of Eusebius that \"On the whole, Constantine and his successors made life pretty miserable for Church leaders committed to the Nicene decision and its Trinitarian formula.", "\"Eusebius of Nicomedia is not to be confused with his contemporary Eusebius of Caesarea, the author of well-known early books of Church History." ], [ "See also", "*Synod of Gangra" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "Correspondence of Eusebius of Nicomedia:* Arius to Eusebius* Eusebius to Arius* Eusebius to Paulinus of Tyre* Eusebius to the Council of Nicaea* Constantine on Eusebius' deposition* Eusebius' confession of faith" ] ]
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[ [ "Edo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edo''' (), also romanized as '''Jedo''', '''Yedo''' or '''Yeddo''', is the former name of Tokyo.Edo, formerly a (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the ''de facto'' capital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate.", "Edo grew to become one of the largest cities in the world under the Tokugawa.After the Meiji Restoration in 1868 the Meiji government renamed Edo as ''Tokyo'' (, \"Eastern Capital\") and relocated the Emperor from the historic capital of Kyoto to the city.", "The era of Tokugawa rule in Japan from 1603 to 1868 is known as the Edo period." ], [ "History", "=== Before Tokugawa ===Before the 10th century, there is no mention of Edo in historical records, but for a few settlements in the area.", "Edo first appears in the Azuma Kagami chronicles, that name for the area being probably used since the second half of the Heian period.", "Its development started in late 11th century with a branch of the called the , coming from the banks of the then-Iruma River, present day upstream of Arakawa river.", "A descendant of the head of the Chichibu clan settled in the area and took the name , likely based on the name used for the place, and founded the Edo clan.", "Shigetsugu built a fortified residence, probably around the tip of the Musashino terrace, which would become the Edo castle.", "Shigetsugu's son, , took the Taira's side against Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1180 but eventually surrendered to Minamoto and became a gokenin for the Kamakura shogunate.", "At the fall of the shogunate in the 14th century, the Edo clan took the side of the Southern court, and its influence declined during the Muromachi period.In 1456, a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of the Uesugi clan, started to build a castle on the former fortified residence of the Edo clan and took the name Ōta Dōkan.", "Dōkan lived in this castle until his assassination in 1486.Under Dōkan, with good water connections to Kamakura, Odawara and other parts of Kanto and the country, Edo expanded in a jokamachi, with the castle bordering a cove opening into Edo Bay (current Hibiya Park) and the town developing along the Hirakawa River that was flowing into the cove, as well as the stretch of land on the eastern side of the cove (roughly where current Tokyo Station is) called .", "Some priests and scholars fleeing Kyoto after the Ōnin War came to Edo during that period.After the death of Dōkan, the castle became one of strongholds of the Uesugi clan, which fell to the Later Hōjō clan at the battle of Takanawahara in 1524, during the expansion of their rule over the Kantō area.", "When the Hōjō clan was finally defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1590, the Kanto area was given to rule to Toyotomi's senior officer Tokugawa Ieyasu, who took his residence in Edo.=== Tokugawa era ===Famous places of Edo in 1803Tokugawa Ieyasu emerged as the paramount warlord of the Sengoku period following his victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in October 1600.He formally founded the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603 and established his headquarters at Edo Castle.", "Edo became the center of political power and ''de facto'' capital of Japan, although the historic capital of Kyoto remained the ''de jure'' capital as the seat of the emperor.", "Edo transformed from a fishing village in Musashi Province in 1457 into the largest metropolis in the world with an estimated population of 1,000,000 by 1721.alt=Painted scroll of a great fire, with people trying to escapeEdo was repeatedly and regularly devastated by fires, the Great fire of Meireki in 1657 being the most disastrous, with an estimated 100,000 victims and a vast portion of the city completely burnt.", "At the time, the population of Edo was around 300,000, and the impact of the fire was tremendous.", "The fire destroyed the central keep of Edo Castle, which was never rebuilt, and it influenced the urban planning afterwards to make the city more resilient with many empty areas to break spreading fires and wider streets.", "Reconstruction efforts expanded the city east of the Sumida River, and some ''daimyō'' residences were relocated to give more space to the city, especially in the direct vicinity of the shogun's residence, giving birth to a large green space beside the castle, present-day Fukiage gardens of the Imperial Palace.", "During the Edo period, there were about 100 major fires mostly begun by accident and often quickly escalating and spreading through neighborhoods of wooden ''nagaya'' which were heated with charcoal fires.alt=Small, sepia-colored map of Edo in the 1840sIn 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown in the Meiji Restoration by supporters of Emperor Meiji and his Imperial Court in Kyoto, ending Edo's status as the ''de facto'' capital of Japan.", "However, the new Meiji government soon renamed Edo to ''Tōkyō'' (東京, \"Eastern Capital\") and the city became the formal capital of Japan when the emperor moved his residence to the city." ], [ "Urbanism", "Very quickly after its inception, the shogunate undertook major works in Edo that drastically changed the topography of the area, notably under the nationwide program of major civil works involving the now pacified ''daimyō'' workforce.", "The Hibiya cove facing the castle was soon filled after the arrival of Ieyasu, the Hirakawa river was diverted, and several protective moats and logistical canals were dug (including the Kanda river), to limit the risks of flooding.", "Landfill works on the bay began, with several areas reclaimed during the duration of the shogunate (notably the Tsukiji area).", "East of the city and of the Sumida River, a massive network of canals was dug.Fresh water was a major issue, as direct wells would provide brackish water because of the location of the city over an estuary.", "The few fresh water ponds of the city were put to use, and a network of canals and underground wooden pipes bringing freshwater from the western side of the city and the Tama River was built.", "Some of this infrastructure was used until the 20th century.=== General layout of the city ===The city was laid out as a castle town around Edo Castle, which was positioned at the tip of the Musashino terrace.", "The area in the immediate proximity of the castle consisted of samurai and ''daimyō'' residences, whose families lived in Edo as part of the ''sankin-kōtai'' system; the ''daimyō'' made journeys in alternating years to Edo and used the residences for their entourages.", "The location of each residence was carefully attributed depending on their position as ''tozama'', ''shinpan'' or ''fudai''.", "It was this extensive organization of the city for the samurai class which defined the character of Edo, particularly in contrast to the two major cities of Kyoto and Osaka, neither of which were ruled by a ''daimyō'' or had a significant samurai population.", "Kyoto's character was defined by the Imperial Court, the court nobles, its Buddhist temples and its history; Osaka was the country's commercial center, dominated by the ''chōnin'' or the merchant class.", "On the contrary, the samurai and ''daimyō'' residences occupied up to 70% of the area of Edo.", "On the east and northeast sides of the castle lived the including the ''chōnin'' in a much more densely populated area than the samurai class area, organized in a series of gated communities called ''machi'' (町, \"town\" or \"village\").", "This area, Shitamachi (下町, \"lower town\" or \"lower towns\"), was the center of urban and merchant culture.", "Shomin also lived along the main roads leading in and out of the city.", "The Sumida River, then called the Great River (大川, ''Ōkawa''), ran on the eastern side of the city.", "The shogunate's official rice-storage warehouses and other official buildings were located here.Nihonbashi in Edo, ''ukiyo-e'' print by Hiroshige|alt=Illustration of people crossing the wooden Edo BridgeThe marked the center of the city's commercial center and the starting point of the gokaidō (thus making it the de facto \"center of the country\").", "Fishermen, craftsmen and other producers and retailers operated here.", "Shippers managed ships known as ''tarubune'' to and from Osaka and other cities, bringing goods into the city or transferring them from sea routes to river barges or land routes.The northeastern corner of the city was considered dangerous in the traditional ''onmyōdō'' cosmology and was protected from evil by a number of temples including Sensō-ji and Kan'ei-ji, one of the two tutelary Bodaiji temples of the Tokugawa.", "A path and a canal, a short distance north of Sensō-ji, extended west from the Sumida riverbank leading along the northern edge of the city to the Yoshiwara pleasure district.", "Previously located near Ningyōchō, the district was rebuilt in this more remote location after the great fire of Meireki.", "Danzaemon, the hereditary position head of ''eta,'' or outcasts, who performed \"unclean\" works in the city resided nearby.Temples and shrines occupied roughly 15% of the surface of the city, equivalent to the living areas of the townspeople, with however an average of one-tenth of its population.", "Temples and shrines were spread out over the city.", "Besides the large concentration in the northeast side to protect the city, the second Bodaiji of the Tokugawa, Zōjō-ji occupied a large area south of the castle.=== Housing ======= Military caste ====The samurai and ''daimyōs'' residential estates varied dramatically in size depending on their status.", "Some daimyōs could have several of those residences in Edo.", "The , was the main residence while the lord was in Edo and was used for official duties.", "It was not necessarily the largest of his residences, but the most convenient to commute to the castle.", "The upper residence also acted as the representative embassy of the domain in Edo, connecting the shogunate and the clan.", "The shogunate did not exercise its investigative powers inside the precincts of the residential estate of the upper residence, which could also act as a refuge.", "The estate of the upper residence was attributed by the shogunate according to the status of the clan and its relation with the Shogun.", "The , a bit further from the castle, could house the heir of the lord, his servants from his fief when he was in Edo for the sankin-kotai alternate residency, or be a hiding residence if needed.", "The , if there was any, was on the outskirts of town, more of a pleasure retreat with gardens.", "The lower residence could also be used as a retreat for the lord if a fire had devastated the city.", "Some of the powerful ''daimyōs'' residences occupied vast grounds of several dozens of hectares.", "Maintenance and operations of those residential estates could be extremely expensive.", "Samurai in service of a specific clan would normally live in the residence of their lord.The samurais, in direct service of the Shogun, would have their own residences, usually located behind the castle on the Western side in the Banchō area.==== Shonin ====Typical housing district in backstreetsIn a strict sense of the word, ''chōnin'' were only the townspeople who owned their residence, which was actually a minority.", "The ''shonin'' population mainly lived in semi-collective housings called , multi-rooms wooden dwellings, organized in enclosed , with communal facilities, such as wells connected to the city's fresh water distribution system, garbage collection area and communal bathrooms.", "A typical ''machi'' was of rectangular shape and could have a population of several hundred.", "''Chōnin''-room exhibit at the alt=Museum room with wood furniture and cooking utensils in centerThe ''machi'' had curfew for the night with closing and guarded gates called opening on the in the ''machi''.", "Two floor buildings and larger shops, reserved to the higher-ranking members of the society, were facing the main street.", "A ''machi'' would typically follow a grid pattern and smaller streets, , were opening on the main street, also with (sometimes) two-floor buildings, shop on the first floor, living quarter on the second floor, for the more well-off residents.", "Very narrow streets accessible through small gates called , would enter deeper inside the ''machi'', where single floor ''nagayas'', the were located.", "Rentals and smaller rooms for lower ranked ''shonin'' were located in those back housings.Edo was nicknamed the , depicting the large number and diversity of those communities, but the actual number was closer to 1,700 by the 18th century." ], [ "Government and administration", "Edo's municipal government was under the responsibility of the ''rōjū'', the senior officials which oversaw the entire ''bakufu'' – the government of the Tokugawa shogunate.", "The administrative definition of Edo was called .The ''Kanjō-bugyō'' (finance commissioners) were responsible for the financial matters of the shogunate, whereas the ''Jisha-Bugyō'' handled matters related to shrines and temples.", "The were ''samurai'' (at the very beginning of the shogunate daimyōs, later hatamoto) officials appointed to keep the order in the city, with the word designating both the heading magistrate, the magistrature and its organization.", "They were in charge of Edo's day-to-day administration, combining the role of police, judge and fire brigade.", "There were two offices, the South Machi-Bugyō and the North Machi-Bugyō, which had the same geographical jurisdiction in spite of their name but rotated roles on a monthly basis.", "Despite their extensive responsibilities, the teams of the Machi-Bugyō were rather small, with 2 offices of 125 people each.", "The Machi-Bugyō did not have jurisdiction over the samurai residential areas, which remained under the shogunate direct rule.", "The geographical jurisdiction of the Machi-Bugyō did not exactly coincide with the Gofunai, creating some complexity on the handling on the matters of the city.The Machi-bugyō oversaw the numerous Machi where shonin lived through representatives called .", "Each Machi had a Machi leader called , who reported to a who himself was in charge of several Machis." ], [ "See also", "* Edo society* Fires in Edo* 1703 Genroku earthquake* Edokko (native of Edo)* History of Tokyo* Iki (a Japanese aesthetic ideal)* Asakusa" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2014).", "''100 Famous Views of Edo''.", "Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books.", "ASIN: B00HR3RHUY* Gordon, Andrew.", "(2003).", "''A Modern History of Japan from Tokugawa Times to the Present.''", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "/ (cloth); /.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard.", "(1956).", "''Kyoto: the Old Capital, 794–1869.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Sansom, George.", "(1963).", "''A History of Japan: 1615–1867''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press.", "/.", "* Akira Naito (Author), Kazuo Hozumi.", "''Edo, the City that Became Tokyo: An Illustrated History''.", "Kodansha International, Tokyo (2003).", "* Alternate spelling from 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' article." ], [ "External links", "* A Trip to Old Edo* Fukagawa Edo Museum* Map of Bushū Toshima District, Edo from 1682" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Explosive" ], [ "Introduction", " Demonstration of the explosive properties of three different explosives; four explosions are demonstrated.", "Three are conducted on a solid marble base, and one is conducted on the demonstrator's hand; each is initiated by a glowing wooden stick.An '''explosive''' (or '''explosive material''') is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure.", "An '''explosive charge''' is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may either be composed solely of one ingredient or be a mixture containing at least two substances.The potential energy stored in an explosive material may, for example, be* chemical energy, such as nitroglycerin or grain dust* pressurized gas, such as a gas cylinder, aerosol can, or BLEVE* nuclear energy, such as in the fissile isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239Explosive materials may be categorized by the speed at which they expand.", "Materials that detonate (the front of the chemical reaction moves faster through the material than the speed of sound) are said to be \"high explosives\" and materials that deflagrate are said to be \"low explosives\".", "Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity.", "Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a relatively small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives and materials that are relatively insensitive are secondary or tertiary explosives.A wide variety of chemicals can explode; a smaller number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives.", "The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, or prone to decomposition or degradation over short time spans.In contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding.The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp.", "Certain materials—dusts, powders, gases, or volatile organic liquids—may be simply combustible or flammable under ordinary conditions, but become explosive in specific situations or forms, such as dispersed airborne clouds, or confinement or sudden release." ], [ "History", "The Great Western Powder Company of Toledo, Ohio, a producer of explosives, seen in 1905Early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times.", "At its roots, the history of chemical explosives lies in the history of gunpowder.", "During the Tang dynasty in the 9th century, Taoist Chinese alchemists were eagerly trying to find the elixir of immortality.", "In the process, they stumbled upon the explosive invention of black powder made from coal, saltpeter, and sulfur in 1044.Gunpowder was the first form of chemical explosives and by 1161, the Chinese were using explosives for the first time in warfare.", "The Chinese would incorporate explosives fired from bamboo or bronze tubes known as bamboo firecrackers.", "The Chinese also inserted live rats inside the bamboo firecrackers; when fired toward the enemy, the flaming rats created great psychological ramifications—scaring enemy soldiers away and causing cavalry units to go wild.The first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847.Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867 and gelignite (the latter two being sophisticated stabilized preparations of nitroglycerin rather than chemical alternatives, both invented by Alfred Nobel).", "World War I saw the adoption of TNT in artillery shells.", "World War II saw extensive use of new explosives (see List of explosives used during World War II).In turn, these have largely been replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4 and PETN.", "However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof and malleable." ], [ "Applications", "===Commercial===A video on safety precautions at blast sitesThe largest commercial application of explosives is mining.", "Whether the mine is on the surface or is buried underground, the detonation or deflagration of either a high or low explosive in a confined space can be used to liberate a fairly specific sub-volume of a brittle material (rock) in a much larger volume of the same or similar material.", "The mining industry tends to use nitrate-based explosives such as emulsions of fuel oil and ammonium nitrate solutions, mixtures of ammonium nitrate prills (fertilizer pellets) and fuel oil (ANFO) and gelatinous suspensions or slurries of ammonium nitrate and combustible fuels.In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding (explosion welding).", "A thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal.", "Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive.", "At one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated.", "The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force.", "The explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive.", "Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers.A video describing how to safely handle explosives in minesAs the length of time the shock wave spends at any point is small, we can see mixing of the two metals and their surface chemistries, through some fraction of the depth, and they tend to be mixed in some way.", "It is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached.", "Hence, the mass of the now \"welded\" bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers.There are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles.===Military======Civilian======Safety===" ], [ "Types", "===Chemical===international pictogram for explosive substancesAn explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a large exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive entropy change (great quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, thereby constituting a thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly.", "Thus, explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in chemical bonds.", "The energetic stability of the gaseous products and hence their generation comes from the formation of strongly bonded species like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and (di)nitrogen, which contain strong double and triple bonds having bond strengths of nearly 1 MJ/mole.", "Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing –NO2, –ONO2 and –NHNO2 groups that, when detonated, release gases like the aforementioned (e.g., nitroglycerin, TNT, HMX, PETN, nitrocellulose).An explosive is classified as a low or high explosive according to its rate of combustion: low explosives burn rapidly (or deflagrate), while high explosives detonate.", "While these definitions are distinct, the problem of precisely measuring rapid decomposition makes practical classification of explosives difficult.", "The speed of sound at sea level (343 m/sec) is generally accepted as the distinction between low explosive and high explosive.Traditional explosives mechanics is based on the shock-sensitive rapid oxidation of carbon and hydrogen to carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water in the form of steam.", "Nitrates typically provide the required oxygen to burn the carbon and hydrogen fuel.", "High explosives tend to have the oxygen, carbon and hydrogen contained in one organic molecule, and less sensitive explosives like ANFO are combinations of fuel (carbon and hydrogen fuel oil) and ammonium nitrate.", "A sensitizer such as powdered aluminum may be added to an explosive to increase the energy of the detonation.", "Once detonated, the nitrogen portion of the explosive formulation emerges as nitrogen gas and toxic nitric oxides.====Decomposition====The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take years, days, hours, or a fraction of a second.", "The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability standpoint.", "Of more interest are the other two rapid forms besides decomposition: deflagration and detonation.====Deflagration====In deflagration, decomposition of the explosive material is propagated by a flame front which moves slowly through the explosive material at speeds less than the speed of sound within the substance (which is usually higher than 340 m/s or 1240 km/h in most liquid or solid materials) in contrast to detonation, which occurs at speeds greater than the speed of sound.", "Deflagration is a characteristic of low explosive material.====Detonation====This term is used to describe an explosive phenomenon whereby the decomposition is propagated by a shock wave traversing the explosive material at speeds greater than the speed of sound within the substance.", "The shock front is capable of passing through the high explosive material at supersonic speeds, typically thousands of metres per second.===Exotic===In addition to chemical explosives, there are a number of more exotic explosive materials, and exotic methods of causing explosions.", "Examples include nuclear explosives, and abruptly heating a substance to a plasma state with a high-intensity laser or electric arc.Laser- and arc-heating are used in laser detonators, exploding-bridgewire detonators, and exploding foil initiators, where a shock wave and then detonation in conventional chemical explosive material is created by laser- or electric-arc heating.", "Laser and electric energy are not currently used in practice to generate most of the required energy, but only to initiate reactions." ], [ "Properties", "To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for a particular use, its physical properties must first be known.", "The usefulness of an explosive can only be appreciated when the properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood.", "Some of the more important characteristics are listed below:===Sensitivity===Sensitivity refers to the ease with which an explosive can be ignited or detonated, i.e., the amount and intensity of shock, friction, or heat that is required.", "When the term sensitivity is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion.", "The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat.", "Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity relate to:* '''Impact''' – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped onto the material to cause it to explode.", "* '''Friction''' – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the amount of pressure applied to the material in order to create enough friction to cause a reaction.", "* '''Heat''' – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which decomposition of the material occurs.Specific explosives (usually but not always highly sensitive on one or more of the three above axes) may be idiosyncratically sensitive to such factors as pressure drop, acceleration, the presence of sharp edges or rough surfaces, incompatible materials, or even—in rare cases—nuclear or electromagnetic radiation.", "These factors present special hazards that may rule out any practical utility.Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose.", "The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired.", "The explosive lenses around nuclear charges are also designed to be highly insensitive, to minimize the risk of accidental detonation.===Sensitivity to initiation===The index of the capacity of an explosive to be initiated into detonation in a sustained manner.", "It is defined by the power of the detonator which is certain to prime the explosive to a sustained and continuous detonation.", "Reference is made to the Sellier-Bellot scale that consists of a series of 10 detonators, from n. 1 to n. 10, each of which corresponds to an increasing charge weight.", "In practice, most of the explosives on the market today are sensitive to an n. 8 detonator, where the charge corresponds to 2 grams of mercury fulminate.===Velocity of detonation===The velocity with which the reaction process propagates in the mass of the explosive.", "Most commercial mining explosives have detonation velocities ranging from 1800 m/s to 8000 m/s.", "Today, velocity of detonation can be measured with accuracy.", "Together with density it is an important element influencing the yield of the energy transmitted for both atmospheric over-pressure and ground acceleration.", "By definition, a \"low explosive\", such as black powder, or smokeless gunpowder has a burn rate of 171–631 m/s.", "In contrast, a \"high explosive\", whether a primary, such as detonating cord, or a secondary, such as TNT or C-4, has a significantly higher burn rate about 6900–8092 m/s.===Stability==='''Stability ''' is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration.The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:* '''Chemical constitution.'''", "In the strictest technical sense, the word \"stability\" is a thermodynamic term referring to the energy of a substance relative to a reference state or to some other substance.", "However, in the context of explosives, stability commonly refers to ease of detonation, which is concerned with chemical kinetics (i.e., rate of decomposition).", "It is perhaps best, then, to differentiate between the terms thermodynamically stable and kinetically stable by referring to the former as \"inert.\"", "Contrarily, a kinetically unstable substance is said to be \"labile.\"", "It is generally recognized that certain groups like nitro (–NO2), nitrate (–ONO2), and azide (–N3), are intrinsically labile.", "Kinetically, there exists a low activation barrier to the decomposition reaction.", "Consequently, these compounds exhibit high sensitivity to flame or mechanical shock.", "The chemical bonding in these compounds is characterized as predominantly covalent and thus they are not thermodynamically stabilized by a high ionic-lattice energy.", "Furthermore, they generally have positive enthalpies of formation and there is little mechanistic hindrance to internal molecular rearrangement to yield the more thermodynamically stable (more strongly bonded) decomposition products.", "For example, in lead azide, Pb(N3)2, the nitrogen atoms are already bonded to one another, so decomposition into Pb and N21 is relatively easy.", "* '''Temperature of storage.'''", "The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures.", "All standard military explosives may be considered to have a high degree of stability at temperatures from –10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which its rate of thermal decomposition decomposition rapidly accelerates and stability is reduced.", "As a rule of thumb, most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures above 70 °C.", "* '''Exposure to sunlight.'''", "When exposed to the ultraviolet rays of sunlight, many explosive compounds containing nitrogen groups rapidly decompose, affecting their stability.", "* '''Electrical discharge.'''", "Electrostatic or spark sensitivity to initiation is common in a number of explosives.", "Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to cause a reaction, even detonation, under some circumstances.", "As a result, safe handling of explosives and pyrotechnics usually requires proper electrical grounding of the operator.===Power, performance, and strength===The term '''power''' or '''performance''' as applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work.", "In practice it is defined as the explosive's ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e., fragment projection, air blast, high-velocity jet, underwater shock and bubble energy, etc.).", "Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use.", "Of the tests listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are common to most testing programs, and the others support specific applications.", "* '''Cylinder expansion test.'''", "A standard amount of explosive is loaded into a long hollow cylinder, usually of copper, and detonated at one end.", "Data is collected concerning the rate of radial expansion of the cylinder and the maximum cylinder wall velocity.", "This also establishes the Gurney energy or 2''E''.", "* '''Cylinder fragmentation.'''", "A standard steel cylinder is loaded with explosive and detonated in a sawdust pit.", "The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed.", "* '''Detonation pressure (Chapman–Jouguet condition).'''", "Detonation pressure data derived from measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive charges of a standard size.", "* '''Determination of critical diameter.'''", "This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave.", "The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed.", "* '''Massive-diameter detonation velocity.'''", "Detonation velocity is dependent on loading density (c), charge diameter, and grain size.", "The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting explosive phenomena does not include the diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation velocity, for a massive diameter.", "This procedure requires the firing of a series of charges of the same density and physical structure, but different diameters, and the extrapolation of the resulting detonation velocities to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of a massive diameter.", "* '''Pressure versus scaled distance.'''", "A charge of a specific size is detonated and its pressure effects measured at a standard distance.", "The values obtained are compared with those for TNT.", "* '''Impulse versus scaled distance.'''", "A charge of a specific size is detonated and its impulse (the area under the pressure-time curve) measured as a function of distance.", "The results are tabulated and expressed as TNT equivalents.", "* '''Relative bubble energy (RBE).'''", "A 5 to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric gauges measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy.", "::The RBE may be defined as ''K''''x'' 3::RBE = ''K''''s''::where ''K'' = the bubble expansion period for an experimental (''x'') or a standard (''s'') charge.===Brisance===In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to \"break\"), which is distinguished and separate from their total work capacity.", "This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, and the like.", "The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure (power) is a measure of its brisance.", "Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia.The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT.", "No test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to gauge relative brisance.", "True values for comparison require field experiments.===Density===Density of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume.", "Several methods of loading are available, including pellet loading, cast loading, and press loading, the choice being determined by the characteristics of the explosive.", "Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80–99% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive.", "High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to internal friction.", "However, if density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive.", "Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power of the warhead.", "It is possible to compress an explosive beyond a point of sensitivity, known also as ''dead-pressing'', in which the material is no longer capable of being reliably initiated, if at all.===Volatility===Volatility is the readiness with which a substance vaporizes.", "Excessive volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents.", "Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling.===Hygroscopicity and water resistance===The introduction of water into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive.", "Hygroscopicity is a measure of a material's moisture-absorbing tendencies.", "Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions.", "Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass.", "When the moisture content evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction.", "Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container.Explosives considerably differ from one another as to their behavior in the presence of water.", "Gelatin dynamites containing nitroglycerine have a degree of water resistance.", "Explosives based on ammonium nitrate have little or no water resistance as ammonium nitrate is highly soluble in water and is hygroscopic.===Toxicity===Many explosives are toxic to some extent.", "Manufacturing inputs can also be organic compounds or hazardous materials that require special handling due to risks (such as carcinogens).", "The decomposition products, residual solids, or gases of some explosives can be toxic, whereas others are harmless, such as carbon dioxide and water.Examples of harmful by-products are:* Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, and barium from primers (observed in high-volume firing ranges)* Nitric oxides from TNT* Perchlorates when used in large quantities\"Green explosives\" seek to reduce environment and health impacts.", "An example of such is the lead-free primary explosive copper(I) 5-nitrotetrazolate, an alternative to lead azide.", "One variety of a green explosive is CDP explosives, whose synthesis does not involve any toxic ingredients, consumes carbon dioxide while detonating and does not release any nitric oxides into the atmosphere when used.===Explosive train===Explosive material may be incorporated in the explosive train of a device or system.", "An example is a pyrotechnic lead igniting a booster, which causes the main charge to detonate.===Volume of products of explosion===The most widely used explosives are condensed liquids or solids converted to gaseous products by explosive chemical reactions and the energy released by those reactions.", "The gaseous products of complete reaction are typically carbon dioxide, steam, and nitrogen.", "Gaseous volumes computed by the ideal gas law tend to be too large at high pressures characteristic of explosions.", "Ultimate volume expansion may be estimated at three orders of magnitude, or one liter per gram of explosive.", "Explosives with an oxygen deficit will generate soot or gases like carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which may react with surrounding materials such as atmospheric oxygen.", "Attempts to obtain more precise volume estimates must consider the possibility of such side reactions, condensation of steam, and aqueous solubility of gases like carbon dioxide.By comparison, CDP detonation is based on the rapid reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon with the abundant release of energy.", "Rather than produce typical waste gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and nitric oxides, CDP is different.", "Instead, the highly energetic reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon vaporizes and pressurizes excess dry ice at the wave front, which is the only gas released from the detonation.", "The velocity of detonation for CDP formulations can therefore be customized by adjusting the weight percentage of reducing agent and dry ice.", "CDP detonations produce a large amount of solid materials that can have great commercial value as an abrasive:Example – CDP Detonation Reaction with Magnesium: XCO2 + 2Mg → 2MgO + C + (X-1)CO2The products of detonation in this example are magnesium oxide, carbon in various phases including diamond, and vaporized excess carbon dioxide that was not consumed by the amount of magnesium in the explosive formulation.===Oxygen balance (OB% or ''Ω'')===Oxygen balance is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized.", "If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance.", "The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed.", "The sensitivity, strength, and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maxima as oxygen balance approaches zero.Oxygen balance applies to traditional explosives mechanics with the assumption that carbon is oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide during detonation.", "In what seems like a paradox to an explosives expert, Cold Detonation Physics uses carbon in its most highly oxidized state as the source of oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide.", "Oxygen balance, therefore, either does not apply to a CDP formulation or must be calculated without including the carbon in the carbon dioxide.===Chemical composition===A chemical explosive may consist of either a chemically pure compound, such as nitroglycerin, or a mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer, such as black powder or grain dust and air.====Pure compounds====Some chemical compounds are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the point of detonation.", "Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy.", "* '''Nitroglycerin''': A highly unstable and sensitive liquid* '''Acetone peroxide''': A very unstable white organic peroxide* '''TNT''': Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation* '''Cellulose nitrate''': A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on nitration level and conditions* '''RDX''', '''PETN''', '''HMX''': Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives** '''C-4''' (or Composition C-4): An RDX plastic explosive plasticized to be adhesive and malleableThe above compositions may describe most of the explosive material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages of other substances.", "For example, dynamite is a mixture of highly sensitive nitroglycerin with sawdust, powdered silica, or most commonly diatomaceous earth, which act as stabilizers.", "Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle; aluminium powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effects.", "Explosive compounds are also often \"alloyed\": HMX or RDX powders may be mixed (typically by melt-casting) with TNT to form Octol or Cyclotol.====Oxidized fuel====An oxidizer is a pure substance (molecule) that in a chemical reaction can contribute some atoms of one or more oxidizing elements, in which the fuel component of the explosive burns.", "On the simplest level, the oxidizer may itself be an oxidizing element, such as gaseous or liquid oxygen.", "* '''Black powder''': Potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur* '''Flash powder''': Fine metal powder (usually aluminium or magnesium) and a strong oxidizer (e.g.", "potassium chlorate or perchlorate)* '''Ammonal''': Ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder* '''Armstrong's mixture''': Potassium chlorate and red phosphorus.", "This is a very sensitive mixture.", "It is a primary high explosive in which sulfur is substituted for some or all of the phosphorus to slightly decrease sensitivity.", "* Cold Detonation Physics: Combinations of carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice (an untraditional oxygen source), and powdered reducing agents (fuel) like magnesium and aluminum.", "* '''Sprengel explosives''': A very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly reactive fuel, although in practice the name was most commonly applied to mixtures of chlorates and nitroaromatics.", "** '''ANFO''': Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil** '''Cheddites''': Chlorates or perchlorates and oil** '''Oxyliquits''': Mixtures of organic materials and liquid oxygen** '''Panclastites''': Mixtures of organic materials and dinitrogen tetroxide===Availability and cost===The availability and cost of explosives are determined by the availability of the raw materials and the cost, complexity, and safety of the manufacturing operations." ], [ "Classification", "===By sensitivity=======Primary====A '''primary explosive''' is an explosive that is extremely sensitive to stimuli such as impact, friction, heat, static electricity, or electromagnetic radiation.", "Some primary explosives are also known as contact explosives.", "A relatively small amount of energy is required for initiation.", "As a very general rule, primary explosives are considered to be those compounds that are more sensitive than PETN.", "As a practical measure, primary explosives are sufficiently sensitive that they can be reliably initiated with a blow from a hammer; however, PETN can also usually be initiated in this manner, so this is only a very broad guideline.", "Additionally, several compounds, such as nitrogen triiodide, are so sensitive that they cannot even be handled without detonating.", "Nitrogen triiodide is so sensitive that it can be reliably detonated by exposure to alpha radiation; it is the only explosive for which this is true.", "Primary explosives are often used in detonators or to trigger larger charges of less sensitive secondary explosives.", "Primary explosives are commonly used in blasting caps and percussion caps to translate a physical shock signal.", "In other situations, different signals such as electrical or physical shock, or, in the case of laser detonation systems, light, are used to initiate an action, i.e., an explosion.", "A small quantity, usually milligrams, is sufficient to initiate a larger charge of explosive that is usually safer to handle.Examples of primary high explosives are:* Acetone peroxide* Alkali metal ozonides* Ammonium permanganate* Ammonium chlorate* Azidotetrazolates* Azoclathrates* Benzoyl peroxide* Benzvalene* 3,5-Bis(trinitromethyl)tetrazole* Chlorine oxides* Copper(I) acetylide* Copper(II) azide* Cumene hydroperoxide* CXP CycloProp(-2-)enyl Nitrate (or CPN)* Cyanogen azide* Cyanuric triazide* Diacetyl peroxide* 1-Diazidocarbamoyl-5-azidotetrazole* Diazodinitrophenol* Diazomethane* Diethyl ether peroxide* 4-Dimethylaminophenylpentazole* Disulfur dinitride* Ethyl azide* Explosive antimony* Fluorine perchlorate* Fulminic acid* Halogen azides:** Fluorine azide** Chlorine azide** Bromine azide** Iodine azide* Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine* Hydrazoic acid* Hypofluorous acid* Lead azide* Lead styphnate* Lead picrate* Manganese heptoxide* Mercury(II) fulminate* Mercury nitride* Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide* Nickel hydrazine nitrate* Nickel hydrazine perchlorate* Nitrogen trihalides:** Nitrogen trichloride** Nitrogen tribromide** Nitrogen triiodide* Nitroglycerin* Nitronium perchlorate* Nitrosyl perchlorate* Nitrotetrazolate-''N''-oxides* Pentazenium hexafluoroarsenate* Peroxy acids* Peroxymonosulfuric acid* Selenium tetraazide* Silicon tetraazide* Silver azide* Silver acetylide* Silver fulminate* Silver nitride* Tellurium tetraazide* ''tert''-Butyl hydroperoxide* Tetraamine copper complexes* Tetraazidomethane* Tetrazene explosive* Tetrazoles* Titanium tetraazide* Triazidomethane* Oxides of xenon:** Xenon dioxide** Xenon oxytetrafluoride** Xenon tetroxide** Xenon trioxide====Secondary====A '''secondary explosive''' is less sensitive than a primary explosive and requires substantially more energy to be initiated.", "Because they are less sensitive, they are usable in a wider variety of applications and are safer to handle and store.", "Secondary explosives are used in larger quantities in an explosive train and are usually initiated by a smaller quantity of a primary explosive.Examples of secondary explosives include TNT and RDX.====Tertiary===='''Tertiary explosives''', also called '''blasting agents''', are so insensitive to shock that they cannot be reliably detonated by practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead require an intermediate explosive booster of secondary explosive.", "These are often used for safety and the typically lower costs of material and handling.", "The largest consumers are large-scale mining and construction operations.Most tertiaries include a fuel and an oxidizer.", "ANFO can be a tertiary explosive if its reaction rate is slow.===By velocity=======Low====Low explosives (or low-order explosives) are compounds wherein the rate of decomposition proceeds through the material at less than the speed of sound.", "The decomposition is propagated by a flame front (deflagration) which travels much more slowly through the explosive material than a shock wave of a high explosive.", "Under normal conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimetres per second to approximately .", "It is possible for them to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation.", "This can happen under higher pressure (such as when gunpowder deflagrates inside the confined space of a bullet casing, accelerating the bullet to well beyond the speed of sound) or temperature.A low explosive is usually a mixture of a combustible substance and an oxidant that decomposes rapidly (deflagration); however, they burn more slowly than a high explosive, which has an extremely fast burn rate.Low explosives are normally employed as propellants.", "Included in this group are petroleum products such as propane and gasoline, gunpowder (including smokeless powder), and light pyrotechnics, such as flares and fireworks, but can replace high explosives in certain applications, including in gas pressure blasting.====High====High explosives (HE, or high-order explosives) are explosive materials that detonate, meaning that the explosive shock front passes through the material at a supersonic speed.", "High explosives detonate with explosive velocity of about .", "For instance, TNT has a detonation (burn) rate of approximately 6.9 km/s (22,600 feet per second), detonating cord of 6.7 km/s (22,000 feet per second), and C-4 about 8.0 km/s (26,000 feet per second).", "They are normally employed in mining, demolition, and military applications.", "The term ''high explosive'' is in contrast with the term ''low explosive'', which explodes (deflagrates) at a lower rate.High explosives can be divided into two explosives classes differentiated by sensitivity: primary explosive and secondary explosive.", "Although tertiary explosives (such as ANFO at 3,200 m/s) can technically meet the explosive velocity definition, they are not considered high explosives in regulatory contexts.Countless high-explosive compounds are chemically possible, but commercially and militarily important ones have included NG, TNT, TNP, TNX, RDX, HMX, PETN, TATP, TATB, and HNS.===By physical form===Explosives are often characterized by the physical form that the explosives are produced or used in.", "These use forms are commonly categorized as:* Pressings* Castings* Plastic or polymer bonded* Plastic explosives, a.k.a.", "putties* Rubberized* Extrudable* Binary* Blasting agents* Slurries and gels* Dynamites===Shipping label classifications===Shipping labels and tags may include both United Nations and national markings.United Nations markings include numbered Hazard Class and Division (HC/D) codes and alphabetic Compatibility Group codes.", "Though the two are related, they are separate and distinct.", "Any Compatibility Group designator can be assigned to any Hazard Class and Division.", "An example of this hybrid marking would be a consumer firework, which is labeled as 1.4G or 1.4S.Examples of national markings would include United States Department of Transportation (U.S.", "DOT) codes.====United Nations (UN) GHS Hazard Class and Division====GHS Explosives transport pictogramThe UN GHS Hazard Class and Division (HC/D) is a numeric designator within a hazard class indicating the character, predominance of associated hazards, and potential for causing personnel casualties and property damage.", "It is an internationally accepted system that communicates using the minimum amount of markings the primary hazard associated with a substance.Listed below are the Divisions for Class 1 (Explosives):* '''1.1''' Mass Detonation Hazard.", "With HC/D 1.1, it is expected that if one item in a container or pallet inadvertently detonates, the explosion will sympathetically detonate the surrounding items.", "The explosion could propagate to all or the majority of the items stored together, causing a mass detonation.", "There will also be fragments from the item's casing and/or structures in the blast area.", "* '''1.2''' Non-mass explosion, fragment-producing.", "HC/D 1.2 is further divided into three subdivisions, HC/D 1.2.1, 1.2.2 and 1.2.3, to account for the magnitude of the effects of an explosion.", "* '''1.3''' Mass fire, minor blast or fragment hazard.", "Propellants and many pyrotechnic items fall into this category.", "If one item in a package or stack initiates, it will usually propagate to the other items, creating a mass fire.", "* '''1.4''' Moderate fire, no blast or fragment.", "HC/D 1.4 items are listed in the table as explosives with no significant hazard.", "Most small arms ammunition (including loaded weapons) and some pyrotechnic items fall into this category.", "If the energetic material in these items inadvertently initiates, most of the energy and fragments will be contained within the storage structure or the item containers themselves.", "* '''1.5''' mass detonation hazard, very insensitive.", "* '''1.6''' detonation hazard without mass detonation hazard, extremely insensitive.To see an entire UNO Table, browse Paragraphs 3–8 and 3–9 of NAVSEA OP 5, Vol.", "1, Chapter 3.====Class 1 Compatibility Group====Compatibility Group codes are used to indicate storage compatibility for HC/D Class 1 (explosive) materials.", "Letters are used to designate 13 compatibility groups as follows.", "* '''A''': Primary explosive substance (1.1A).", "* '''B''': An article containing a primary explosive substance and not containing two or more effective protective features.", "Some articles, such as detonator assemblies for blasting and primers, cap-type, are included.", "(1.1B, 1.2B, 1.4B).", "* '''C''': Propellant explosive substance or other deflagrating explosive substance or article containing such explosive substance (1.1C, 1.2C, 1.3C, 1.4C).", "These are bulk propellants, propelling charges, and devices containing propellants with or without means of ignition.", "Examples include single-based propellant, double-based propellant, triple-based propellant, and composite propellants, solid propellant rocket motors and ammunition with inert projectiles.", "* '''D''': Secondary detonating explosive substance or black powder or article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance, in each case without means of initiation and without a propelling charge, or article containing a primary explosive substance and containing two or more effective protective features.", "(1.1D, 1.2D, 1.4D, 1.5D).", "* '''E''': Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance without means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1E, 1.2E, 1.4E).", "* '''F''' containing a secondary detonating explosive substance with its means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) or without a propelling charge (1.1F, 1.2F, 1.3F, 1.4F).", "* '''G''': Pyrotechnic substance or article containing a pyrotechnic substance, or article containing both an explosive substance and an illuminating, incendiary, tear-producing or smoke-producing substance (other than a water-activated article or one containing white phosphorus, phosphide or flammable liquid or gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1G, 1.2G, 1.3G, 1.4G).", "Examples include Flares, signals, incendiary or illuminating ammunition and other smoke and tear producing devices.", "* '''H''': Article containing both an explosive substance and white phosphorus (1.2H, 1.3H).", "These articles will spontaneously combust when exposed to the atmosphere.", "* '''J''': Article containing both an explosive substance and flammable liquid or gel (1.1J, 1.2J, 1.3J).", "This excludes liquids or gels which are spontaneously flammable when exposed to water or the atmosphere, which belong in group H. Examples include liquid or gel filled incendiary ammunition, fuel-air explosive (FAE) devices, and flammable liquid fueled missiles.", "* '''K''': Article containing both an explosive substance and a toxic chemical agent (1.2K, 1.3K)* '''L''' Explosive substance or article containing an explosive substance and presenting a special risk (e.g., due to water-activation or presence of hypergolic liquids, phosphides, or pyrophoric substances) needing isolation of each type (1.1L, 1.2L, 1.3L).", "Damaged or suspect ammunition of any group belongs in this group.", "* '''N''': Articles containing only extremely insensitive detonating substances (1.6N).", "* '''S''': Substance or article so packed or designed that any hazardous effects arising from accidental functioning are limited to the extent that they do not significantly hinder or prohibit fire fighting or other emergency response efforts in the immediate vicinity of the package (1.4S)." ], [ "Regulation", "The legality of possessing or using explosives varies by jurisdiction.", "Various countries around the world have enacted explosives law and require licenses to manufacture, distribute, store, use, possess explosives or ingredients.===Netherlands===In the Netherlands, the civil and commercial use of explosives is covered under the ''Wet explosieven voor civiel gebruik'' (explosives for civil use Act), in accordance with EU directive nr.", "93/15/EEG (Dutch).", "The illegal use of explosives is covered under the ''Wet Wapens en Munitie'' (Weapons and Munition Act) (Dutch).===UK===The new Explosives Regulations 2014 (ER 2014) came into force on 1 October 2014 and defines \"explosive\" as:===United States===During World War I, numerous laws were created to regulate war related industries and increase security within the United States.", "In 1917, the 65th United States Congress created many laws, including the ''Espionage Act of 1917'' and ''Explosives Act of 1917''.The ''Explosives Act of 1917'' (session 1, chapter 83, ) was signed on 6 October 1917 and went into effect on 16 November 1917.The legal summary is \"An Act to prohibit the manufacture, distribution, storage, use, and possession in '''time of war''' of explosives, providing regulations for the safe manufacture, distribution, storage, use, and possession of the same, and for other purposes\".", "This was the first federal regulation of licensing explosives purchases.", "The act was deactivated after World War I ended.After the United States entered World War II, the Explosives Act of 1917 was reactivated.", "In 1947, the act was deactivated by President Truman.The ''Organized Crime Control Act of 1970'' () transferred many explosives regulations to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) of the Department of Treasury.", "The bill became effective in 1971.Currently, regulations are governed by Title 18 of the United States Code and Title 27 of the Code of Federal Regulations:* \"Importation, Manufacture, Distribution and Storage of Explosive Materials\" (18 U.S.C.", "Chapter 40).", "* \"Commerce in Explosives\" (27 C.F.R.", "Chapter II, Part 555).Many states restrict the possession, sale, and use of explosives.", "* Alabama Code Title 8 Chapter 17 Article 9* Alaska State Code Chapter 11.61.240 & 11.61.250 * Arizona State Code Title 13 Chapter 31 Articles 01 through 19 * Arkansas State Code Title 5 Chapter 73 Article 108* California Penal Code Title 2 Division 5* Colorado (Colorado statutes are copyrighted and require purchase before reading.", ")* Connecticut Statutes Volume 9 Title 29 Chapters 343–355* Delaware Code Title 16 Part VI Chapters 70 & 71* Florida Statutes Title XXXIII Chapter 552* Georgia Code Title 16 Chapter 7 Articles 64–97 (Repealed by Ga. L. 1996)* Hawaii Administrative Rules Title 12 Subtitle 8 Part 1 Chapter 58 AND Hawaii Revised Statutes* Illinois Explosives Act 225 ILCS 210* Michigan Penal Code Chapter XXXIII Section 750.200 – 750.212a* Minnesota* Mississippi Code Title 45 Chapter 13 Article 3 Section 101–109* New York: Health and safety regulations restrict the quantity of black powder a person may store and transport.", "* Wisconsin Chapter 941 Subchapter 4-31" ], [ "List", "===Compounds=======Acetylides====* CUA, DCA, AGA====Fulminates====* HCNO, AUF, HGF, PTF, KF, AGF====Nitro====* '''MonoNitro:''' NGA, NE, NM, NP, NS, NU* '''DiNitro''': DDNP, DNB, DNEU, DNN, DNP, DNPA, DNPH, DNR, DNPD, DNPA, DNC, DPS, DPA, EDNP, KDNBF, BEAF, DADNE* '''TriNitro:''' RDX, DATB, TATB, PBS, PBP, TNAL, TNAS, TNB, TNBA, SA, MC, TNEF, TNOC, TNOF, TNP, TNT, TNN, TNPG, TNR, BTNEN, BTNEC, API, TNS* '''TetraNitro''': Tetryl, HMX* '''HexaNitro''': HNS, HNIW* '''HeptaNitro''': HNC* '''OctaNitro:''' ONC====Nitrates====* '''Mononitrates:''' AN, BAN, CAN, MAN, NAN, UN* '''Dinitrates:''' DEGDN, EDDN, EDNA, EGDN, HDN, TEGDN, TAOM* '''Trinitrates:''' BTTN, TMOTN, NG* '''Tetranitrates:''' ETN, PETN, TNOC* '''Pentanitrates:''' XPN* '''Hexanitrates:''' CHN, MHN====Amines====* '''Tertiary Amines:''' NTBR, NTCL, NTI, NTS, SEN, AGN* '''Diamines:''' DSDN* '''Azides:''' CNA, CYA, CLA, CUA, EA, FA, HA, PBA, AGA, NAA, RBA, SEA, SIA, TEA, TAM, TIA* '''Tetramines:''' TZE, TZO, AA* '''Pentamines:''' PZ* '''Octamines:''' OAC, ATA====Peroxides====* AP (TATP), CHP, DAP, DBP, DEP, HMTD, MEKP, TBHP, TMDD====Oxides====* XOTF, XDIO, XTRO, XTEO====Unsorted====* Alkali metal Ozonides* Ammonium chlorate* Ammonium perchlorate* Ammonium permaganate* Azidotetrazolates* Azoclathrates* Benzvalene* Chlorine oxides* DMAPP* Fluorine perchlorate* Fulminating gold* * Fulminating silver (several substances)* Hexafluoroantimonate* Hexafluoroarsenate* Hypofluorous acid* Manganese heptoxide* Mercury nitride* Nitronium perchlorate* Nitrotetrazolate-N-Oxides* Peroxy acids* Peroxymonosulfuric acid* Tetramine copper complexes* Tetrasulfur tetranitride===Mixtures===* Aluminum Orphorite, Amatex, Amatol, Ammonal, Armstrong's mixture, ANFO, ANNMAL, Astrolite* Baranol, Baratol, Ballistite, Butyl tetryl* Carbonite, Composition A, Composition B, Composition C, Composition 1, Composition 2, Composition 3, Composition 4, Composition 5, Composition H6, Cordtex, Cyclotol* CDP Formulations* Danubit, Detasheet, Detonating cord, Dualin, Dunnite, Dynamite* Ecrasite, Ednatol* Flash powder* Gelignite, Gunpowder* Hexanite, Hydromite 600* Kinetite* Minol* Octol, Oxyliquit* Panclastite, Pentolite, Picratol, PNNM, Pyrotol* Schneiderite, Semtex, Shellite* Tannerit simply, Tannerite, Titadine, Tovex, Torpex, Tritonal===Elements and isotopes===* Alkali metals* Explosive antimony* Plutonium-239* Uranium-235" ], [ "See also", "* Blast injury* Detection dog* Flame speed* Improvised explosive device* Insensitive munition* Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions* Nuclear weapon* Orica; largest supplier of commercial explosives* TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook* Total body disruption" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===U.S.", "Government===* ''Explosives and Demolitions'' FM 5–250; U.S. Department of the Army; 274 pp.", "; 1992.", "* ''Military Explosives'' TM 9–1300–214; U.S. Department of the Army; 355 pp.", "; 1984.", "* ''Explosives and Blasting Procedures Manual''; U.S. Department of Interior; 128 pp.", "; 1982.", "* ''Safety and Performance Tests for Qualification of Explosives''; Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command; NAVORD OD 44811.Washington, DC: GPO, 1972.", "* ''Weapons Systems Fundamentals''; Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command.", "NAVORD OP 3000, vol.", "2, 1st rev.", "Washington, DC: GPO, 1971.", "* ''Elements of Armament Engineering – Part One''; Army Research Office.", "Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Materiel Command, 1964.", "* Hazardous Materials Transportation Plaecards; USDOT.===Institute of Makers of Explosives===* ''Safety in the Handling and Use of Explosives'' SLP 17; Institute of Makers of Explosives; 66 pp.", "; 1932 / 1935 / 1940.", "* ''History of the Explosives Industry in America''; Institute of Makers of Explosives; 37 pp.", "; 1927.", "* ''Clearing Land of Stumps''; Institute of Makers of Explosives; 92 pp.", "; 1917.", "* ''The Use of Explosives for Agricultural and Other Purposes''; Institute of Makers of Explosives; 190 pp.", "; 1917.", "* ''The Use of Explosives in making Ditches''; Institute of Makers of Explosives; 80 pp.", "; 1917.===Other historical===* ''Farmers' Hand Book of Explosives''; duPont; 113 pp.", "; 1920.", "* ''A Short Account of Explosives''; Arthur Marshall; 119 pp.", "; 1917.", "* ''Historical Papers on Modern Explosives''; George MacDonald; 216 pp.", "; 1912.", "* ''The Rise and Progress of the British Explosives Industry''; International Congress of Pure and Applied Chemistry; 450 pp.", "; 1909.", "* ''Explosives and their Power''; M. Berthelot; 592 pp.", "; 1892." ], [ "External links", "Listed in alphabetical order:* Blaster Exchange – Explosives Industry Portal* Class 1 Hazmat Placards* Explosives Academy* Explosives info* Journal of Energetic Materials* Military Explosives* The Explosives and Weapons Forum* Why high nitrogen density in explosives?", "* YouTube video demonstrating blast wave in slow motion" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enter the Dragon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Enter the Dragon''''' () is a 1973 martial arts film directed by Robert Clouse from a story written by Michael Allin.", "It stars Bruce Lee, John Saxon and Jim Kelly.", "It was Lee's final completed film appearance before his death on 20 July 1973 at the age of 32.An American-Hong Kong co-production, it premiered in Los Angeles on 19 August 1973, one month after Lee's death.", "''Enter the Dragon'' was estimated to have grossed over worldwide (estimated to be the equivalent of over adjusted for inflation ), against a budget of $850,000.It is one of the most successful martial arts films ever and is widely regarded as one of the greatest martial arts films of all time.", "In 2004, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".", "Among the first films to combine martial arts action with spy film elements and the emerging blaxploitation genre, its success led to a series of similar productions combining the martial arts and blaxploitation genres.", "Its themes generated scholarly debate about the changes taking place within post-colonial Asian societies following the end of World War II.", "''Enter the Dragon'' is also considered one of the most influential action films of all time, with its success contributing to mainstream worldwide interest in the martial arts as well as inspiring numerous fictional works, including action films, television shows, action games, comic books, manga and anime." ], [ "Plot", "Lee, a highly proficient martial artist and instructor from Hong Kong, is approached by Braithwaite, a British intelligence agent investigating a suspected crime lord named Han.", "Lee is persuaded to attend a high-profile martial arts tournament on Han's private island to gather evidence that will prove Han's involvement in drug trafficking and prostitution.", "Shortly before his departure, Lee also learns that O'Hara, the man responsible for his sister's death, is working as Han's bodyguard on the island.", "Also fighting in the competition are Roper, an indebted gambling addict, and fellow Vietnam War veteran Williams.At the end of the first day, Han gives strict orders to the competitors not to leave their rooms.", "Lee makes contact with covert operative Mei-ling and sneaks into Han's underground compound, looking for evidence.", "He is discovered by several guards, but manages to escape.", "The next morning, Han orders his giant enforcer Bolo to kill the guards in public for failing in their duties.", "After the execution, the competition resumes with Lee facing O'Hara.", "During the fight, Han warns O'Hara to step down as Lee beats him in humiliating fashion.", "Lee then kills him after he attacks Lee with a pair of broken bottles, getting justice for his sister's murder.", "Embarrassed, Han abruptly ends the day's competition after stating that O'Hara's treachery has disgraced them.", "Han confronts Williams, who had also left his room the previous night to exercise.Han believes Williams to have knowledge of the intruder and after a destructive brawl, beats Williams to death with his iron prosthetic hand.", "Han then reveals his drug operation to Roper, hoping that he will join his organisation.", "Han also implicitly threatens to imprison Roper, along with all the other martial artists who joined Han's tournaments in the past, if Roper will not join his operation.", "Despite being initially intrigued, Roper reluctantly accepts after learning of Williams's fate.", "Lee sneaks out again that night and manages to send a message to Braithwaite, but he is captured after a prolonged battle with the guards.", "The next morning, Han arranges for Roper to fight Lee, but Roper refuses.", "As a punishment, Roper has to fight Bolo instead, whom he manages to overpower and beat after a grueling battle.Enraged by the unexpected failure, Han commands his remaining men to kill Lee and Roper.", "Facing insurmountable odds, they are soon aided by the island's prisoners and the other invited martial artists, who had been freed by Mei-ling.", "Han escapes and is pursued by Lee, who finally corners him in his museum.", "After a brutal fight, Han runs away into a hidden mirror room.", "The mirrors initially give Han an advantage, but Lee smashes all the room's mirrors to reveal Han's location and eventually kills him.", "Lee returns outside to the main battle, which is now over.", "Han's surviving men are arrested, his girls are killed and Tania, who had become Roper's lover, is killed during the battle too.", "Bruised and bloodied, Lee and Roper exchange a weary thumbs-up as the military finally arrives to take control of the island." ], [ "Cast", "* Bruce Lee as Lee, a martial artist who instructs pupils at the Shaolin Temple.", "He is given an assignment to infiltrate Han's island.", "* John Saxon as Roper, a martial artist and gambling addict who is invited to Han's island.", "* Jim Kelly as Williams, a martial artist who is invited to Han's island.", "He and Roper were fellow veterans that served in the Vietnam War.", "This was Kelly's breakout role.", "* Ahna Capri as Tania, Han's secretary who coordinates the ladies on Han's island.", "* Shih Kien as Han (voice dubbed by Keye Luke), a crime lord and renegade Shaolin monk who organizes a martial arts tournament with hopes of recruiting talent to his underground drug operations.", "He has an artificial left hand to which he can attach various weapons, including a claw and a set of blades.", "* Bob Wall as O'Hara, Han's bodyguard, noted for a facial scar over his left eye.", "He was responsible for the attack on Lee's family and sister.", "Wall previously appeared as a different character in ''The Way of the Dragon'' and would later appear as a third character in ''Game of Death''.", "* Angela Mao Ying as Su-lin, Lee's sister.", "* Betty Chung as Mei-ling, an operative who is working undercover as one of Han's ladies.", "* Geoffrey Weeks as Braithwaite, a British Intelligence agent who briefs Lee on the mission.", "* Yang Sze as Bolo, Han's enforcer.", "Sze is better known as Bolo Yeung.", "* Peter Archer as Parsons, an arrogant New Zealand martial artist who is invited to Han's island.", "* Sammo Hung (uncredited) as Lee's opponent in the opening scene.", "* Jackie Chan (uncredited) as a minor henchman.", "* Yuen Wah (uncredited) as a tournament fighter.", "Yuen also served as Lee's stuntman in the film.", "* Roy Chiao (uncredtied) as the Shaolin abbot* Pat E. Johnson (uncredited) as lead thug on golf course who tries to get Roper to pay up on money he owes to Freddy." ], [ "Production", "Due to the success of his earlier films, Warner Bros. began helping Bruce Lee with the film in 1972.They brought in producers Fred Weintraub and Paul Heller.", "The film was produced on a tight production budget of $850,000.Fighting sequences were staged by Bruce Lee.=== Writing ===The screenplay title was originally named ''Blood and Steel''.", "The story features heroic protagonist who are Asian, white, and black, as the producers wanted a film that would appeal to the widest possible international audience.", "The scene in which Lee states that his style is \"Fighting Without Fighting\" is based upon a famous anecdote involving the 16th century samurai Tsukahara Bokuden.=== Casting ===Rod Taylor was first choice for playing the down-on-his-luck martial artist Roper.", "Director Robert Clouse had already worked with Taylor in the 1970 film ''Darker than Amber''.", "However, Taylor was dropped after Bruce Lee deemed him to be too tall for the role.", "John Saxon, who was a black belt in Judo and Shotokan Karate (he studied under grandmaster Hidetaka Nishiyama for three years), became the preferred choice.", "During contractual negotiations, Saxon's agent told the film's producers that if they wanted him they would have to change the plot so that the character of Williams is killed instead of Roper.", "They agreed and the script was changed.", "In a six decade career, the character would become one of Saxon's best known roles.Rockne Tarkington was originally cast in the role of Williams.", "However, he unexpectedly dropped out days before the production was about to begin in Hong Kong.", "Producer Fred Weintraub knew that karate world champion Jim Kelly had a training dojo in Crenshaw, Los Angeles, so he hastily arranged a meeting.", "Weintraub was immediately impressed, and Kelly was cast in the film.", "The success of Kelly's appearance launched his career as a star: after ''Enter the Dragon'', he signed a three-film deal with Warner Bros and went on to make several martial arts-themed blaxploitation films in the 1970s.Jackie Chan has uncredited roles as various guards during the fights with Lee.", "However, Yuen Wah was Lee's main stunt double for the film, responsible for the gymnastics stunts such as the cartwheels and jumping back flip in the opening fight.Sammo Hung also has an uncredited role in the opening fight scene against Lee at the start of the film.A rumor surrounding the making of ''Enter The Dragon'' claims that actor Bob Wall did not like Bruce Lee and that their fight scenes were not choreographed.", "However, Wall has denied this, stating he and Lee were good friends.=== Filming ===The film was shot on location in Hong Kong.", "In keeping with local film-making practices, scenes were filmed without sound: dialogue and sound effects were added or dubbed in during post-production.", "Bruce Lee, after he had been goaded or challenged, fought several real fights with the film's extras and some set intruders during filming.", "The scenes on Han's Island were filmed at a residence known as Palm Villa near the coastal town of Stanley.", "The villa is now demolished and the area heavily redeveloped around Tai Tam Bay where the martial artists were filmed coming ashore.=== Soundtrack ===Argentinian musician Lalo Schifrin composed the film's musical score.", "While Schifrin was widely known at the time for his jazz scores, he also incorporated funk and traditional film score elements into the film's soundtrack.", "He composed the score by sampling sounds from China, Korea, and Japan.", "The soundtrack has sold over 500,000 copies, earning a gold record." ], [ "Release", "=== Marketing ===''Enter the Dragon'' was heavily advertised in the United States before its release.", "The budget for advertising was over .", "It was unlike any promotional campaign that had been seen before, and was extremely comprehensive.", "To advertise the film, the studio offered free Karate classes, produced thousands of illustrated flip books, comic books, posters, photographs, and organized dozens of news releases, interviews, and public appearances for the stars.", "''Esquire'', ''The Wall Street Journal'', ''Time'', and ''Newsweek'' all wrote stories on the film.=== Box office ===''Enter the Dragon'' was one of the most successful films of 1973.Upon release in Hong Kong, the film grossed , which was huge business for the time, but less than Lee's previous 1972 films ''Fist of Fury'' and ''The Way of the Dragon''.In North America, the film was receiving offers of from American distributors by April 1973 for the distribution rights, several months before release.", "Upon its limited release in August 1973 in four theaters in New York, the film entered the weekly box office charts at number 17 with a gross of in 3 days.", "Upon its expansion the following week, it topped the charts for two weeks.", "Over the next four weeks, it remained in the top 10 while competing with other kung fu films, including ''Lady Kung Fu'', ''The Shanghai Killers'' and ''Deadly China Doll'' which held the top spot for one week each.In October, ''Enter the Dragon'' regained the top spot in its eighth week.", "It sold tickets and grossed from its initial US release, making it the year's fourth highest-grossing film in the market.", "It was repeatedly re-released throughout the 1970s, with each re-release entering the top five in the box office charts.", "The film's US gross had increased to by 1982, and more than (equivalent to $ million adjusted for inflation) by 1998.In Europe, the film initially monopolized several London West End cinemas for five weeks, before becoming a sellout success across Britain and the rest of Europe.", "In Spain, it was the seventh top-grossing film of 1973, selling 2,462,489 tickets.", "In France, it was one of the top five highest-grossing films of 1974 (above two other Lee films, ''The Way of the Dragon'' at and ''Fist of Fury'' at ), with 4,444,582 ticket sales.", "In Germany, it was one of the top 10 highest-grossing films of 1974, with ticket sales.", "In Greece, the film earned in its first year of release.In Japan, it was the second highest-grossing film of 1974 with distributor rental earnings of .", "In South Korea, the film sold 229,681 tickets in the capital city of Seoul.", "In India, the movie was released in 1975 and opened to full houses; in one Bombay theater, New Excelsior, it had a packed 32-week run.", "The film was also a success in Iran, where there was a theater which played it daily up until the 1979 Iranian Revolution.Against a tight budget of $850,000, the film grossed upon its initial 1973 worldwide release, making it one of the world's highest-grossing films of all time up until then.", "The film went on to have multiple re-releases around the world over the next several decades, significantly increasing its worldwide gross.", "The film went on to gross over internationally by 1981, making it the highest-grossing martial arts film of all time.", "It was reportedly still among the all-time highest-grossing films in 1990.By 1998, it had grossed more than worldwide.", ", it has grossed an estimated total of over worldwide, having earned more than 400 times its original budget.", "The film's cost-to-profit ratio makes it one of the most commercially successful and profitable films of all time.", "Adjusted for inflation, the film's worldwide gross is estimated to be the equivalent of over .=== Critical reception ===Upon release, the film initially received mixed reviews from several critics, including a favorable review from ''Variety'' magazine.", "The film eventually went on to be well-received by most critics, and it is widely regarded as one of the best films of 1973.Critics have referred to ''Enter the Dragon'' as \"a low-rent James Bond thriller\", a \"remake of ''Dr.", "No''\" with elements of Fu Manchu.", "J.C. Maçek III of PopMatters wrote, \"Of course the real showcase here is the obvious star here, Bruce Lee, whose performance as an actor and a fighter are the most enhanced by the perfect sound and video transfer.", "While Kelly was a famous martial artist and a surprisingly good actor and Saxon was a famous actor and a surprisingly good martial artist, Lee proves to be a master of both fields.", "\"Many acclaimed newspapers and magazines reviewed the film.", "''Variety'' described it as \"rich in the atmosphere\", the music score as \"a strong asset\" and the photography as \"interesting\".", "''The New York Times'' gave the film a rave review: \"The picture is expertly made and well-meshed; it moves like lightning and brims with color.", "It is also the most savagely murderous and numbing hand-hacker (not a gun in it) you will ever see anywhere.", "\"The film holds an 88% approval rating on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes based on 78 reviews, with an average rating of 7.80/10.The site's critical consensus reads, \"Badass to the max, ''Enter the Dragon'' is the ultimate kung-fu movie and fitting (if untimely) Bruce Lee swan song.\"", "On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100 based on reviews from 16 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".", "In 2004, the film was deemed \"culturally significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.", "''Enter the Dragon'' was selected as the best martial arts film of all time, in a 2013 poll of ''The Guardian'' and ''The Observer'' critics.", "The film also ranks No.", "474 on ''Empire'' magazine's 2008 list of ''The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time''.=== Home video ===''Enter the Dragon'' has remained one of the most popular martial arts films since its premiere and has been released numerous times worldwide on multiple home video formats.", "For almost three decades, many theatrical and home video versions were censored for violence, especially in the West.", "In the U.K. alone, at least four different versions have been released.", "Since 2001, the film has been released uncut in the U.K. and most other territories.", "Most DVDs and Blu-rays come with a wide range of extra features in the form of documentaries, interviews, etc.", "In 2013, a second, remastered HD transfer appeared on Blu-ray, billed as the \"40th Anniversary Edition\".In 2020, new 2K digital restorations of the theatrical cut and special edition were included as part of the ''Bruce Lee: His Greatest Hits'' box set by The Criterion Collection (under licensed from Warner Bros. Home Entertainment through the physical home media joint venture in US and Canada named Studio Distribution Services, LLC.", "and Fortune Star Media Limited), which featured all of Lee's films, as well as ''Game of Death II''." ], [ "Legacy", "The film has been parodied and referenced in places such as the 1976 film ''The Pink Panther Strikes Again'', the satirical publication ''The Onion'', the Japanese game-show ''Takeshi's Castle'', and the 1977 John Landis comedy anthology film ''The Kentucky Fried Movie'' (in its lengthy \"A Fistful of Yen\" sequence, basically a comedic, note for note remake of ''Dragon'') and also in the film ''Balls of Fury''.", "It was also parodied on television in ''That '70s Show'' during the episode \"Jackie Moves On\" with regular character Fez taking on the Bruce Lee role.", "Several clips from the film are comically used during the theatre scene in ''The Last Dragon''.", "Lee's martial arts films were broadly lampooned in the recurring ''Almost Live!''", "sketch ''Mind Your Manners with'' ''Billy Quan''.", "Indian director Ram Gopal Varma directed the martial-arts film titled ''Ladki: Dragon Girl'' heavily inspired by Enter the Dragon.In August 2007, the now-defunct Warner Independent Pictures announced that television producer Kurt Sutter would be remaking the film as a noir-style thriller entitled ''Awaken the Dragon'' with Korean singer-actor Rain starring.", "It was announced in September 2014 that Spike Lee would work on the remake.", "In March 2015, Brett Ratner revealed that he wanted to make the remake.", "In July 2018, David Leitch was in early talks to direct the remake.", "As of 2024, there are no further updates on this project.", "=== Cultural impact ===''Enter the Dragon'' has been cited as one of the most influential action films of all time.", "Sascha Matuszak of ''Vice'' called it the most influential kung fu film and said it \"is referenced in all manner of media, the plot line and characters continue to influence storytellers today, and the impact was particularly felt in the revolutionizing way the film portrayed African-Americans, Asians and traditional martial arts.\"", "Joel Stice of ''Uproxx'' called it \"arguably the most influential Kung Fu movie of all time.\"", "Kuan-Hsing Chen and Beng Huat Chua cited its fight scenes as influential as well as its \"hybrid form and its mode of address\" which pitches \"an elemental story of good against evil in such a spectacle-saturated way\".", "Hollywood filmmaker Quentin Tarantino cited ''Enter the Dragon'' as a formative influence on his career.According to Scott Mendelson of ''Forbes'', ''Enter the Dragon'' contains spy film elements similar to the ''James Bond'' franchise.", "''Enter the Dragon'' was the most successful action-spy film to not be part of the ''James Bond'' franchise; ''Enter the Dragon'' had an initial global box office comparable to the ''James Bond'' films of that era, and a lifetime gross surpassing every ''James Bond'' film up until ''GoldenEye'' (1995).", "Mendelson argues that, had Lee lived after ''Enter the Dragon'' was released, the film had the potential to launch an action-spy film franchise starring Lee that could have rivalled the success of the ''James Bond'' franchise.The film had an impact on mixed martial arts (MMA).", "In the opening fight sequence, where Lee fights Sammo Hung, Lee demonstrated elements of what would later become known as MMA.", "Both fighters wore what would later become common mixed martial arts clothing items, including kempo gloves and small shorts, and the fight ends with Lee utilizing an armbar (then used in judo and jiu-jitsu) to submit Hung.", "According to UFC Hall of Fame fighter Urijah Faber, \"that was the moment\" that MMA was born.The ''Dragon Ball'' manga and anime franchise, debuted in 1984, was inspired by ''Enter the Dragon'', which ''Dragon Ball'' creator Akira Toriyama was a fan of.", "The title ''Dragon Ball'' was also inspired by ''Enter the Dragon'', and the piercing eyes of Goku's Super Saiyan transformation was based on Bruce Lee's paralyzing glare.", "''Enter the Dragon'' inspired early beat 'em up brawler games.", "It was cited by game designer Yoshihisa Kishimoto as a key inspiration behind Technōs Japan's brawler ''Nekketsu Kōha Kunio-kun'' (1986), released as ''Renegade'' in the West.", "Its spiritual successor ''Double Dragon'' (1987) also drew inspiration from ''Enter the Dragon'', with the game's title being a homage to the film.", "''Double Dragon'' also features two enemies named Roper and Williams, a reference to the two characters Roper and Williams from ''Enter the Dragon''.", "The sequel ''Double Dragon II: The Revenge'' (1988) includes opponents named Bolo and Oharra.", "''Enter the Dragon'' was the foundation for fighting games.", "The film's tournament plot inspired numerous fighting games including the ''Tekken'' series.", "The ''Street Fighter'' video game franchise, debuted in 1987, was inspired by ''Enter the Dragon'', with the gameplay centered around an international fighting tournament, and each character having a unique combination of ethnicity, nationality and fighting style.", "''Street Fighter'' went on to set the template for all fighting games that followed.", "The little-known 1985 Nintendo arcade game ''Arm Wrestling'' contains voice leftovers from the film, as well as their original counterparts.", "The popular fighting game ''Mortal Kombat'' borrows multiple plot elements from ''Enter the Dragon'', as does its movie adaptation." ], [ "See also", "* Bruce Lee filmography" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Enter the Dragon'' essay by Michael Sragow at National Film Registry* ''Enter the Dragon'' essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 694-696* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Exothermic process" ], [ "Introduction", "Explosions are some of the most violent exothermic reactions.In thermodynamics, an '''exothermic process''' () is a thermodynamic process or reaction that releases energy from the system to its surroundings, usually in the form of heat, but also in a form of light (e.g.", "a spark, flame, or flash), electricity (e.g.", "a battery), or sound (e.g.", "explosion heard when burning hydrogen).", "The term ''exothermic'' was first coined by 19th-century French chemist Marcellin Berthelot.The opposite of an exothermic process is an endothermic process, one that absorbs energy usually in the form of heat.", "The concept is frequently applied in the physical sciences to chemical reactions where chemical bond energy is converted to thermal energy (heat)." ], [ "Two types of chemical reactions", "Exothermic and endothermic describe two types of chemical reactions or systems found in nature, as follows:=== Exothermic===After an exothermic reaction, more energy has been released to the surroundings than was absorbed to initiate and maintain the reaction.", "An example would be the burning of a candle, wherein the sum of calories produced by combustion (found by looking at radiant heating of the surroundings and visible light produced, including the increase in temperature of the fuel (wax) itself, which is converted to hot CO2 and water vapor) exceeds the number of calories absorbed initially in lighting the flame and in the flame maintaining itself (some energy is reabsorbed and used in melting, then vaporizing the wax, etc.", "but is far outstripped by the energy released when in CO2 and H2O are produced).===Endothermic===In an endothermic reaction or system, energy is taken from the surroundings in the course of the reaction, usually driven by a favorable entropy increase in the system.", "An example of an endothermic reaction is a first aid cold pack, in which the reaction of two chemicals, or dissolving of one in another, requires calories from the surroundings, and the reaction cools the pouch and surroundings by absorbing heat from them.Photosynthesis, the process that allows plants to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugar and oxygen, is an endothermic process: plants absorb radiant energy from the sun and use it in an endothermic, otherwise non-spontaneous process.", "The chemical energy stored can be freed by the inverse (spontaneous) process: combustion of sugar, which gives carbon dioxide, water and heat (radiant energy)." ], [ "Energy release", "Exothermic refers to a transformation in which a closed system releases energy (heat) to the surroundings, expressed by:When the transformation occurs at constant pressure and without exchange of electrical energy, heat is equal to the enthalpy change, i.e.", ":while at constant volume, according to the first law of thermodynamics it equals internal energy () change, i.e.", ":In an adiabatic system (i.e.", "a system that does not exchange heat with the surroundings), an otherwise exothermic process results in an increase in temperature of the system.In exothermic chemical reactions, the heat that is released by the reaction takes the form of electromagnetic energy or kinetic energy of molecules.", "The transition of electrons from one quantum energy level to another causes light to be released.", "This light is equivalent in energy to some of the stabilization energy of the energy for the chemical reaction, i.e.", "the bond energy.", "This light that is released can be absorbed by other molecules in solution to give rise to molecular translations and rotations, which gives rise to the classical understanding of heat.", "In an exothermic reaction, the activation energy (energy needed to start the reaction) is less than the energy that is subsequently released, so there is a net release of energy." ], [ "Examples", "An exothermic thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide.", "The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake.Some examples of exothermic processes are:* Combustion of fuels such as wood, coal and oil/petroleum* The thermite reaction* The reaction of alkali metals and other highly electropositive metals with water* Condensation of rain from water vapor* Mixing water and strong acids or strong bases* The reaction of acids and bases* Dehydration of carbohydrates by sulfuric acid* The setting of cement and concrete* Some polymerization reactions such as the setting of epoxy resin* The reaction of most metals with halogens or oxygen* Nuclear fusion in hydrogen bombs and in stellar cores (to iron) * Nuclear fission of heavy elements* The reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid* Respiration (breaking down of glucose to release energy in cells)" ], [ "Implications for chemical reactions", "Chemical exothermic reactions are generally more spontaneous than their counterparts, endothermic reactions.In a thermochemical reaction that is exothermic, the heat may be listed among the products of the reaction." ], [ "See also", "* Calorimetry* Chemical thermodynamics* Differential scanning calorimetry* Endergonic* Endergonic reaction* Exergonic* Exergonic reaction* Endothermic reaction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* http://chemistry.about.com/b/a/184556.htm Observe exothermic reactions in a simple experiment" ] ]
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[ [ "Elihu Yale" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elihu Yale''' (5 April 1649 – 8 July 1721) was a British-American colonial administrator and philanthropist.", "Although born in Boston, Massachusetts, he only lived in America as a child, spending the rest of his life in England, Wales, and India.", "He became a clerk for the East India Company at Fort St. George (later Madras), and eventually rose to President of the settlement.", "He later lost that position under charges of corruption for self-dealing and had to pay a fine.", "In 1699, he returned to Britain with a considerable fortune, around £200,000, mostly made by selling diamonds, and spent his time and wealth in philanthropy and art collecting.", "He is best remembered as the primary benefactor of Yale College (now Yale University), which was named in his honor, following a sizable donation of books, portrait, and textiles under the request of Rev.", "Cotton Mather, a Harvard graduate.", "No descendants of his have survived past his grandchildren." ], [ "Early life", "Wrexham, the estate became Erddig Hall, initially bought by Chancellor David Yale of ChesterBorn in Boston, Massachusetts, to David Yale (1613–1690), a wealthy Boston merchant and attorney to Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick, and Ursula Knight; he was the grandson of Ann Yale (born Lloyd), daughter of Bishop George Lloyd.", "After the death of her first husband, Thomas Yale Sr. (1587–1619), son of Chancellor David Yale, she remarried to Governor Theophilus Eaton, Ambassador to the court of Denmark.", "Governor Eaton was the co-founder of two of the Thirteen British Colonies, which are represented on the Flag of the United States, mainly through the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the New Haven Colony, and was the brother of Nathaniel Eaton, Harvard's first Headmaster and President designate, at the founding of Harvard in 1636.His son, Samuel Eaton, the uncle of Elihu, was implied in the foundation of Harvard as well, being one of the seven founders of the Harvard Corporation, the governing board and charter that incorporated Harvard in 1650.It was they, along with Elihu's uncle and aunt, Thomas Yale, Jr, and Anne Yale, Jr, who brought the reconstituted Eaton/Yale family to America, while other members of the family stayed in England.", "Their estates in Wales were Plas-yn-Yale and Plas Grono, and Elihu's brother was London merchant Thomas Yale, later Ambassador to the King of Siam for the East India Company.Elihu's father, David Yale, would later come from London to New Haven Colony with his stepfather, Theophilus Eaton, in 1639.He moved to Boston in 1641 and met and married Elihu Yale's mother, Ursula, in 1643.In 1652, at the age of three, Elihu Yale left New England, never to return, as David Yale took his family back to London.", "While documentation of this period is sparse, a letter suggests that David Yale remained a successful merchant and settled his family in the Hanseatic merchant district \"Steelyard Court\".", "In 1662, at the age of thirteen, Elihu Yale entered the private school of William Dugard, but Dugard died a few months after Elihu Yale enrolled.", "Elihu Yale likely lived through the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London." ], [ "East India Company", "In 1670, at the age of 21, Elihu Yale became a clerk for the East India Company and served an apprenticeship in London in the Leadenhall Street office.", "It is possible that Elihu Yale had business training in his father's merchant counting house, and his father's connections helped him get the job.", "The following year in 1671, Yale was one of twenty men chosen as \"Writers\" in India.", "Elihu Yale was bonded for £500 with the help of his father and his brother David.", "For 20 years Yale served the East India Company.", "In 1684, he became the first president of Fort St George, the company's post at Madras (now Chennai), India.", "He succeeded a number of agents from Sir Andrew Cogan to William Gyfford.", "Yale was instrumental in the development of the Government General Hospital, housed at Fort St George.", "Yale also oversaw the acquisition of the strategically important Fort St. David.", "Yale amassed a fortune while working for the company, largely through secret contracts with Madras merchants, against the East India Company's directive.", "By 1692, his repeated flouting of East India Company regulations and growing embarrassment at his illegal profiteering resulted in his being relieved of the post of governor." ], [ "Tenure as President of Madras", "Elihu Yale, metal coin, by engraver John ObrissetFort St George, Madras, by artist Gerard VanderguchtSt Mary's Church, MadrasElihu Yale was re-appointed as President of Madras of Fort St George on 26 July, 1687.During that year, following a personal dispute with the King of Siam, Gov.", "Yale commanded the Anglo-Siamese War against King Narai the Great and his chief minister, Constantine Phaulkon, who were scheming with Louis XIV of Versailles to increase French influence in the region.", "He sent warships and sought retaliation against Englishmen who changed sides.", "During this time, his brother Thomas Yale became Ambassador to the King of Siam, and brought back a letter from the Emperor of Japan to be delivered to King Charles II of England.", "Elihu would entertain at his house the French Ambassador and musketeer, Count Claude de Forbin, drinking to the health of the royal families of England and France.", "He then implemented an order which required the English at Fort St George to make all attempts at procurement of the town of Santhome on lease.", "To this effect, Chinna Venkatadri was sent to negotiate with the local governor on 4 August 1687.The mission was successful and Venkatadri assumed sovereignty over Santhome for a period of three years.", "Notwithstanding the vehement protests of the Portuguese inhabitants of Santhome, the English gained absolute control over all lands up to St Thomas Mount for a period of three years.In September 1687, the Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb took Golconda after the Siege of Golconda, defeating Sultan Abul Hasan Qutb Shah.", "The Mughals took the Sultan of Golconda prisoner and annexed the state.", "The newly designated Mughal Subedar of the province immediately sent a letter to the British authorities at Fort St George demanding that the English at Madras acknowledge the overlordship of the Mughal Emperor.", "The English complied willingly.", "Yale sent a letter to general Mahabat Khan and complied with the ceremonial performances of Prince Muhammad Kam Bakhsh and prime minister Asad Khan.", "Aurangazeb guaranteed the independence of Madras, but in return demanded that the English supply troops in the event of a war against the Marathas.", "It was around this time that Yale's three-year-old son David Yale died and was interred in the Madras cemetery.The records of this period mention a flourishing slave trade in Madras.", "After English merchants began to kidnap young children and deport them to distant parts of the world, the administration of Fort St George stepped in and introduced laws to curb the practice.", "On 2 February 1688, Elihu Yale decreed that slaves should be examined by the judges of the choultry before being transported.", "Transportation of young children, in particular, was made unlawful.", "Beyond this, the nature of Yale's involvement in the slave trade remains disputed.", "A blog post by a Yale history Ph.D. candidate and manager of the Yale Slavery and Abolition Portal notes that he permitted a law that at least ten slaves should be carried on every ship bound for Europe and in his capacity as judge he also on several occasions sentenced so-called \"black criminals\" to whipping and enslavement.", "On the other hand, according to Steven Pincus, a former Yale professor of history and current professor at the University of Chicago, Yale was never a slave trader and never owned slaves – and in fact opposed the slave trade during his time as President of Madras.During Yale's presidency, a plan for setting up a corporation in Madras was conceived by Sir Josiah Child, the Governor of the East India Company, in a letter addressed to the factors at Madras on 28 September 1687.Three months later, Child and his deputy had an audience with King James II of England, and as per the ensuing discussions, a charter was issued by the King on 30 December 1687 which established the Corporation of Madras.", "The corporation was established to restrain the powers of Gov.", "Yale, and became the oldest corporation in India, and second oldest municipal body in the world after the City of London.", "The charter came into effect on 29 September 1688, and a Corporation was established comprising a Mayor, 12 Aldermen, 60-100 Burgesses and sergeants.", "Nathaniel Higginson, who was then the second member of the Council of Fort St George, took office as the Mayor of Madras.In August 1689, a French fleet appeared near the coast of Ceylon compelling the Governor of Pulicat Lawrence Pitt who was on high seas to seek protection within the bastions of Fort St George.", "Throughout the year 1690, French naval ships from Pondicherry ravaged the coast in order to drive the English and the Dutch out of the East Indies but were unsuccessful.", "They eventually withdrew from their enterprise when faced with heavy losses.", "It was also during this time that the English purchased the town of Tegnapatnam from the Marathas.Fort St George, Chennai=== Accusations of corruption and removal ===As president of Fort St George, Yale purchased territory for private purposes with East India Company funds, including a fort at Devanampattinam (now Cuddalore).", "Yale imposed high taxes for the maintenance of the colonial garrison and town, resulting in an unpopular regime and several revolts by Indians, brutally quelled by garrison soldiers.", "Yale was also notorious for arresting and trying Indians on his own private authority, including the hanging of a stable boy who had absconded with a Company horse.Charges of corruption were brought against Elihu Yale in the last years of his presidency.", "He was eventually removed in 1692 and replaced with Nathaniel Higginson as the President of Madras." ], [ "Return to Britain", "Portrait of Elihu Yale, diamond merchant, next to his London manor on the left, possibly by artist Michael Dahl, gifted by Ambassador Joseph Verner Reed Jr. and Sr.Latimer House by George LipscombYale returned to Britain in 1699, with a fortune that amounted to £200,000, mostly made by selling diamonds from the Golconda mines and the Kollur mines, in Southern India.", "Notable diamonds from these mines included the Orlov Diamond, belonging to Prince Grigory Orlov and Catherine the Great, the Black Orlov, belonging to Russian princesses, the Hope Diamond, belonging to Louis XIV and Thomas Hope, the Wittelsbach-Graff Diamond, belonging to the Habsburgs and Wittelsbachs, and many others.", "Along with Sir Jean Chardin and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, the traveling merchant of Louis XIV of Versailles, Yale was among the most important European diamond traders in the world, as nearly all diamonds came from India during that period.", "In relation to GDP, his fortune amounted to 1/4 % of the United Kingdom's GDP at the time, which translates to nearly 6 billion British pounds in 2021 money.", "He kept doing business with his friends Governor Thomas Pitt, grandfather of the Prime Minister of Britain, and Sir Charles Cotterell, during the era where London became the international trading centre of diamonds, dislodging Portugal and the Netherlands.", "He spent the rest of his life at Plas Grono on the Erddig estate, a mansion in Wrexham, Wales, bought by his father, and at his main London residence in Queen's Square.", "Initially named \"Devonshire Square\", neighbors included the Duke of Powis at Powis House, Lord Chancellor Bathurst, Queen Anne and her son, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, artists Charles Burney and Jonathan Richardson, and others.", "He had four houses in London as well as several coach houses and stables to store his vast art collection of more than 10,000 items consisting of 7,000 paintings, jewels, pictures, books, watches, swords, and other items.", "A famous object of his collection was one of the Jewels of Mary, Queen of Scots as well as a painting from Dutch painter Adriaen van der Werff, who painted for the Medici family.", "Other notable artists whose works were part of his collection were Bruegel, Van Dyck, Dürer, Rubens and Rembrandt.", "He also leased Latimer House from his son-in-law, Lord James Cavendish, son of the 1st Duke of Devonshire, to accommodate his daughter Ursula.", "Elihu was later elected High Sheriff of Denbighshire in Wales, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1717, under the then President, Sir Isaac Newton.", "Yale's candidature was introduced by Sir Hans Sloan, founder of the British Museum, and compeer of Voltaire and Benjamin Franklin.", "In the same year, Yale was asked by Isaac Newton to deal with the donations from the estate of Dr. Thomas Paget." ], [ "Marriage and children", "North family of Glemham Hall, by artist Peter Vanderbank, Katherine Yale married with Sir Dudley North's sonChatsworth House, of the Cavendish family, Anne Yale married the son of the 1st Duke of Devonshire, member of the \"Immortal Seven\"After Jacques de Paiva's death in 1687, a Portuguese Jewish diamond merchant and mines owner, Elihu Yale fell in love with his widow Hieronima de Paiva and brought her to live with him, causing quite a scandal within Madras’s colonial society.", "Elihu Yale and Hieromima de Paiva had a son.", "The son died in South Africa.Elihu Yale was previously married to Catherine Elford in 1680, widow of Joseph Hynmers, second-in-command of Fort St George, India as Deputy Governor for the East India Company.", "Her father was wealthy Levant merchant Walter Elford, son of Turkey merchant Walter Sr., the step-nephew of Admiral Sir Francis Drake of Buckland Abbey, the explorer, and the half-brother of Sir Francis Drake, the MP.", "Walter Elford Sr. was among the pioneers of the English Coffee Houses on Exchange Alley, next to the Royal Exchange, owning the Great Coffee House (Turk's Head) until the Great Fire of London, and was featured in Samuel Pepys's diaries.", "Catherine Elford's maternal grandfather was merchant Richard Chambers, Alderman and Sheriff of the City of London, family of Sir Amyas Bampfylde of Poltimore House and Barrington Court.Their wedding took place at St Mary's Church, at Fort St George, where Yale was a vestryman and treasurer.", "The marriage was the first registered at the church.", "They had 4 children together.David Yale (died 1687) died young.Katherine Yale (died 1715) married Dudley North of Glemham Hall, son of Sir Dudley North of Camden Place, and grandson of Dudley North, 4th Baron North of Kirtling Tower.", "He was a cousin of Francis North, 1st Earl of Guilford of Wroxton Abbey and a grandson of Anne Montagu of Boughton House, member of the Ducal House of Montagu.", "Their daughter Anne North would marry Nicholas Herbert, member of the Ducal House of Herbert, son of the 8th Earl of Pembroke, Thomas Herbert of Wilton House and his first wife, Margaret Sawyer of Highclere Castle while one of their sons, William Dudley North, would marry Lady Barbara Herbert, daughter of Thomas and his second wife, Barbara Herbert, Countess of Pembroke.", "Nicholas's only daughter, Barbara, would marry the 2nd Earl of Aldborough, Edward Stratford, member of the House of Stratford.Anne Yale (died 1734), married Lord James Cavendish of Staveley Hall, member of the Ducal House of Cavendish, son of William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire of Chatsworth House and Lady Mary Butler, member of the Ducal House of Butler and daughter of James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde of Kilkenny Castle.", "James was also a grandson of Countess Elizabeth Cecil of Hatfield House, member of the Salisbury's House of Cecil, a great-grandson of Countess Catherine Howard of Audley End House, member of the Ducal House of Howard, and a nephew of John Cecil, 5th Earl of Exeter of Burghley House, member of the Exeter's House of Cecil.Ursula Yale (died 1721), died childless at Latimer House, the house was rented by Elihu Yale from his son-in-law Lord James Cavendish, husband of Anne Yale, and is buried in the small church on the estate, St Mary Magdalene." ], [ "Death", "St Giles' ChurchYale died on 8 July 1721 in London.", "His body was buried in the churchyard of the parish church of St Giles' Church, Wrexham, Wales.", "His tomb is inscribed with these lines:In Boston, Massachusetts, a tablet to Yale was erected in 1927 at Scollay Square, near the site of Yale's birth.", "Yale president Arthur Twining Hadley penned the inscription, which reads: \"On Pemberton Hill, 255 Feet North of This Spot, Was Born on April Fifth 1649 Elihu Yale, Governor of Madras, Whose Permanent Memorial in His Native Land is the College That Bears His Name.", "\"At his death, with no proper will, his heirs-at-law inherited the Plas Grono estate and sold it to Sir George Wynne of Leswood Hall, designed by Francis Smith, an architect of Aston Hall and Sutton Scarsdale Hall." ], [ "Yale University", "The portrait of King George I of Britain gifted by Elihu Yale to Yale College as its initial endowmentElihu Yale (center), the 2nd Duke, and Lord Cavendish, attended by a child slave.Collier's magazine showing Yale University foundersIn 1718, Cotton Mather contacted Yale and asked for his help.", "Mather represented a small institution of learning that had been founded in 1701 in Old Saybrook, Connecticut, as the Collegiate School of Connecticut, which needed money for a new building.", "In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton sent to the college a copy of his book ''Principia'', on Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation, and in 1718, Elihu Yale sent Mather 417 books, a portrait of King George I of Britain, and nine bales of goods.", "These last were sold by the school for £800.In gratitude, officials named the new building Yale; eventually the entire institution became Yale College.Yale was also a vestryman and treasurer of St Mary's Church at Fort St George.", "On 6 October 1968, the 250th anniversary of the naming of Yale College for Elihu Yale, the classmates of Chester Bowles, then the American ambassador to India and a graduate of Yale (1924), donated money for lasting improvements to the church and erected a plaque to commemorate the occasion.", "In 1970, a portrait of him, ''Elihu Yale seated at table with the Second Duke of Devonshire and Lord James Cavendish'', later renamed Elihu Yale with Members of his Family and an Enslaved Child, was donated to the Yale Center for British Art from Chatsworth House.", "A portrait, painted during the 18th century, was also given to Yale University by U.S President Dwight D. Eisenhower.On 5 April 1999, Yale University recognised the 350th anniversary of Yale's birthday.", "An article that year in ''American Heritage'' magazine rated Elihu Yale the \"most overrated philanthropist\" in American history, arguing that the college that became Yale University was successful largely because of the generosity of a man named Jeremiah Dummer, but that the trustees of the school did not want it known by the name \"Dummer College\".In her article for ''The Atlantic'' about Skull and Bones, a secret society at Yale University, Alexandra Robbins alleges that Yale's headstone was stolen years ago from its proper setting in Wrexham.", "She further alleges that the tombstone is now displayed in a glass case in a room with purple walls.=== Slave trade ===One of Elihu Yale's responsibilities as president of Fort St George was overseeing its slave trade, though he was never a slave trader, opposed the slave trade, and imposed several restrictions on it during his tenure.", "In 2016, Elizabeth Kuebler-Wolf wrote in the ''Journal of Global History'' that Yale enslaved one or two people as household servants, citing Hiram Bingham's 1939 book ''Elihu Yale''.", "In 2021, the Associated Press wrote that there is no evidence that Yale had enslaved anyone, although his relatives in New Haven likely did.In 2014, Yale history graduate student Joseph Yannielli argued that he benefited from the trade because it was among his responsibilities as president, and wrote of Yale: \"On two separate occasions, he sentenced “black Criminalls” accused of burglary to suffer whipping, branding, and foreign enslavement\", citing \"Records of Fort St. George: Diary and Consultation Book of 1688 (Madras: Superintendent Government Press, 1916), 30, 137; Records of Fort St. George: Diary and Consultation Book of 1689 (Madras: Superintendent Government Press, 1916), 99.\"", "He added that although Yale \"probably did not own any of these people – the majority were held as the property of the East India Company – he certainly profited both directly and indirectly from their sale\"." ], [ "Ancestry", "Fitzgerald dynasty of Corsygedol, granted by Prince Llywelyn the Great, during the 13th centuryPlas yn Iâl, seat of the Yales, c.1795The ancestry of the Yale family can be traced back from Chancellor Thomas Yale, born 1525, to many Royal and noble houses of Britain as descendants of the Royal House of Mathrafal, the Royal House of Aberffraw, the Royal House of Plantagenet, the Princely House of Powys Fadog, the Tudors of Penmynydd and many others.", "For the House of Mathrafal, and Powys Fadog, it was through Tudur ap Gruffudd, Lord of Gwyddelwern and brother of the last native Prince of Wales, Owain Glyndŵr, while for the House of Aberffraw, and the Tudors of Penmynydd, it was through Elen Ferch Tomos, the mother of Owain.", "From these families they inherited Lordships and estates, such as Plas yn Iâl (Yale).The Coat of arms of the Yales came originally in the family from Osborn Fitzgerald, Lord of Ynys-m-Maengwyn and Corsygedol, of which they were the direct descendants, and was used to create the coat of arms of Yale College.", "Osborn Fitzgerald was a member of the House of Fitzgerald through the Earls of Desmond.", "He made the trip from Ireland to Wales during the thirteenth century with Gruffydd ab Ednyved Vychan, son of Seneschal Ednyfed Fychan, and was granted Lordships by the Prince of North Wales, Llywelyn the Great.", "He was the progenitor of many houses in Wales, including the House of Yale, co-representative of the Sovereign Dynasties of Powys, North Wales, and South Wales, having inherited the claims of Owain Glyndwr, Prince of Wales.", "The House of Yale is, on the paternal side, a cadet branch of the Royal House of Mathrafal, through the Princes of Powys Fadog, and a cadet branch of the Fitzgerald dynasty, through the Merioneth House of Corsygedol.", "Their Fitzgerald ancestor was lord Gerald of Windsor, son of baron Walter FitzOtho, 1st Governor of Windsor Castle for William the Conqueror, and were cousins of the Tudors through Tudur ap Gruffudd and Owain Glyndwr of the Mathrafal dynasty.The family estate at Plas yn Iâl (\"Iâl\" is anglicised as \"Yale\"), North Wales, of which the family took the name, was inherited from Baron Elissau ab Gruffydd, a member of the Royal House of Mathrafal and descendant of the Royal House of Plantagenet, when he married Margaret, the heiress of Plas yn Yale, in the Lordship of Bromfield and Yale.", "Her ancestor, Lord Mostyn, was granted the estate by the Prince of Wales, Owain Gwynedd, for his services at the Battle of Crogen in 1165.Elissau ab Gruffydd was the grandfather of Chancellor Thomas Yale, who was the first to adopt definitively the Yale surname, and had, as his ancestor, Prince Gruffudd Fychan I, the Lord of Yale.", "The estate was originally called Allt Llwyn Dragon, which means Dragon's Grove Hill." ], [ "Cultural references", "*''Elihu'' later became the name of a \"senior society\" founded in 1903 at Yale.", "*Tom Wolfe, who earned a Ph.D. in American Studies from Yale, named the African-American Atlanta police chief in ''A Man in Full'' Elihu Yale.", "*Yale College, a former college in Wrexham, Wales, which has since merged with Coleg Cambria, was also named after Elihu Yale.", "*Theodore Roosevelt's son Quentin kept a hyacinth macaw named Eli Yale." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bingham, Hiram (1939).", "''Elihu Yale: The American Nabob of Queen Square''.", "New York, NY: Dodd, Mead & Company.", "* Scarisbrick, Diana and Zucker, Benjamin (2014).", "''Elihu Yale: Merchant, Collector & Patron''.", "London.", "Thames & Hudson Ltd.", ".", "* Yale, Rodney Horace (1908).", "''Yale Genealogy and History of Wales''.", "Beatrice, Nebraska, U.S.A. Milburn & Scott Company.", "Listed in Worldcat and archived at the Internet Archive." ], [ "External links", "**Elihu Yale collection (MS 566).", "Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Émile Baudot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot''' (; 11 September 1845 – 28 March 1903), French telegraph engineer and inventor of the first means of digital communication Baudot code, was one of the pioneers of telecommunications.", "He invented a multiplexed printing telegraph system that used his code and allowed multiple transmissions over a single line.", "The baud unit was named after him." ], [ "Early life", "Baudot was born in Magneux, Haute-Marne, France, the son of farmer Pierre Emile Baudot, who later became the mayor of Magneux.", "His only formal education was at his local primary school, after which he carried out agricultural work on his father's farm before joining the French Post & Telegraph Administration as an apprentice operator in 1869.The telegraph service trained him in the Morse telegraph and also sent him on a four-month course of instruction on the Hughes printing telegraph system, which was later to inspire his own system.After serving briefly during the Franco-Prussian War, he returned to civilian duties in Paris in 1872." ], [ "Telegraphy", "The Telegraph Service encouraged Baudot to develop—on his own time—a system for time-multiplexing several telegraph messages using Hughes teleprinters.", "He realised that with most printing telegraphs of the period the line is idle for most of the time, apart from the brief intervals when a character is transmitted.", "Baudot devised one of the first applications of time-division multiplexing in telegraphy.", "Using synchronized clockwork-powered switches at the transmitting and receiving ends, he was able to transmit five messages simultaneously; the system was officially adopted by the French Post & Telegraph Administration five years later.Baudot invented his telegraph code in 1870 and patented it in 1874.It was a 5-bit code, with equal on and off intervals, which allowed telegraph transmission of the Roman alphabet, punctuation and control signals.", "By 1874 or 1875 (various sources give both dates) he had also perfected the electromechanical hardware to transmit his code.", "His inventions were based on the printing mechanism from Hughes' instrument, a distributor invented by Bernard Meyer in 1871, and the five-unit code devised by Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber.", "Baudot combined these, together with original ideas of his own, to produce a complete multiplex system." ], [ "Baudot system", "Baudot keyboard, ''Journal télégraphique'' 1884On 17 June 1874 Baudot patented his first printing telegraph (Patent no.", "103,898 \"Système de télégraphie rapide\"), in which the signals were translated automatically into typographic characters.", "Baudot's hardware had three main parts: the keyboard, the distributor, and a paper tape.Each operator - there were as many as four - was allocated a single sector.", "The keyboard had just five piano type keys, operated with two fingers of the left hand and three fingers of the right hand.", "The five unit code was designed to be easy to remember.", "Once the keys had been pressed they were locked down until the contacts again passed over the sector connected to that particular keyboard, when the keyboard was unlocked ready for the next character to be entered, with an audible click (known as the \"cadence signal\") to warn the operator.", "Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute.The receiver was also connected to the distributor.", "The signals from the telegraph line were temporarily stored on a set of five electromagnets, before being decoded to print the corresponding character on paper tape.Accurate operation of this system depended on the distributor at the transmitting end keeping in synchronization with the one at the receiving end and operators only sending characters when the contacts passed over their allocated sector.", "This could be achieved at a speed of 30 wpm by strictly observing the \"cadence\" of rhythm of the system when the distributor gave the operator the use of the line." ], [ "First use", "The Baudot system was accepted by the French Telegraph Administration in 1875, with the first online tests of his system occurring between Paris and Bordeaux on 12 November 1877.At the end of 1877, the Paris-Rome line, which was about , began operating a duplex Baudot.The Baudot apparatus was shown at the Paris Exposition Universelle (1878) and won him the Exposition's gold medal, as well as bringing his system to worldwide notice." ], [ "Later career", "After the first success of his system, Baudot was promoted to Controller in 1880, and was named Inspector-Engineer in 1882.In July 1887 he conducted successful tests on the Atlantic telegraph cable between Weston-super-Mare and Waterville, Nova Scotia operated by the Commercial Company, with a double Baudot installed in duplex, the Baudot transmitters and receivers substituted for the recorder.On 8 August 1890 he established communications between Paris, Vannes, and Lorient over a single wire.", "On 3 January 1894 he installed a triplex apparatus on the telegraph between Paris and Bordeaux that had previously been operating with some difficulty on the Hughes telegraph system.", "On 27 April 1894 he established communications between the Paris stock exchange and the Milan stock exchange, again over a single wire, using his new invention, the retransmitter.In 1897 the Baudot system was improved by switching to punched tape, which was prepared offline like the Morse tape used with the Wheatstone and Creed systems.", "A tape reader, controlled by the Baudot distributor, then replaced the manual keyboard.", "The tape had five rows of holes for the code, with a sixth row of smaller holes for transporting the tape through the reader mechanism.", "Baudot's code was later standardised as International Telegraph Alphabet Number One.Baudot received little help from the French Telegraph Administration for his system, and often had to fund his own research, even having to sell the gold medal awarded by the 1878 Exposition Universelle in 1880.The Baudot telegraph system was employed progressively in France, and then was adopted in other countries, Italy being the first to introduce it, in its inland service, in 1887.The Netherlands followed in 1895, Switzerland in 1896, and Austria and Brazil in 1897.The British Post Office adopted it for a simplex circuit between London and Paris during 1897, then used it for more general purposes from 1898.In 1900 it was adopted by Germany, by Russia in 1904, the British West Indies in 1905, Spain in 1906, Belgium in 1909, Argentina in 1912, and Romania in 1913." ], [ "Final years", "Baudot married Marie Josephine Adelaide Langrognet on 15 January 1890.She died only three months later, on 9 April 1890.Soon after starting work with the telegraph service, Baudot began to suffer physical discomfort and was frequently absent from work for this reason, for as long as a month on one occasion.", "His condition affected him for the rest of his life, until he died on 28 March 1903, at Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine, near Paris, at the age of 57." ], [ "Mimault patent suit", "In 1874, French telegraph operator Louis Victor Mimault patented a telegraph system using five separate lines to transmit.", "After his patent was rejected by the Telegraph Administration, Mimault modified his device to incorporate features from the Meyer telegraph and obtained a new patent which was also rejected.", "In the meantime, Baudot had patented his prototype telegraph a few weeks earlier.Mimault claimed priority of invention over Baudot and brought a patent suit against him in 1877.The Tribunal Civil de la Seine, which reviewed testimony from three experts unconnected with the Telegraph Administration, found in favor of Mimault and accorded him priority of invention of the Baudot code and ruled that Baudot's patents were simply improvements of Mimault's.", "Neither inventor was satisfied with this judgment, which was eventually rescinded with Mimault being ordered to pay all legal costs.Mimault became unnerved because of the decision, and after an incident where he shot at and wounded two students of the École Polytechnique (charges for which were dropped), he demanded a special act to prolong the duration of his patents, 100,000 Francs, and election to the Légion d'honneur.", "A commission directed by Jules Raynaud (head of telegraph research) rejected his demands.", "Upon hearing the decision, Mimault shot and killed Raynaud, and was sentenced to 10 years of forced labour and 20 years of exile." ], [ "Honors", "*1881 - Diploma of Honor from the International Electrical Exposition.", "*1882 - Gold medal from the Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale (SEIN)*1889 - Ampere Medal from SEIN*1878 - Knight's Cross of the Légion d'honneur*1882 - Knight of the Order of Leopold*1884 - Knight of the Order of Franz Joseph of Austria.", "*1891 - Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy*1898 - Promoted to Officier of the Légion d'honneur*1900 - Knight of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy)*1901 - Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy*A street in the 17th arrondissement of Paris was named after Baudot, but it no longer exists.", "*In 1926 the International Telegraph Communications Advisory Committee of the International Telecommunication Union met in Berlin and immortalized Baudot by designating the baud - shortened from his name - as the unit of telegraph transmission speed.", "*In 1949, the French Post Office issued a series of stamps with his portrait.", "By mistake, the year of his birth was given as 1848, not the correct 1845.The stamp was corrected and reprinted with a different color.", "However, the erroneous stamps still circulate among philatelists and have greater value than the corrected stamps." ], [ "See also", "*Baudot code" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* ITU historical figures listing* http://ecoledemagneux.pagesperso-orange.fr/page5.html* http://www.utc.fr/~tthomass/Themes/Unites/Hommes/bau/Emile%20Baudot.pdf* http://www.hallikainen.org/cuesta/et153/StudentPapers/Baudot/Jung.html* http://www.history-computer.com/Dreamers/Baudot.html" ] ]
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[ [ "Economic security" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Economic security''' or financial security is the condition of having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and in the foreseeable future.", "It includes:* probable continued solvency* predictability of the future cash flow of a person or other economic entity, such as a country* employment security or job securityWithout such security, people may experience its opposite: economic insecurity and resulting economic anxiety.Financial security more often refers to individual and family money management and savings.", "Economic security tends to include the broader effect of a society's production levels and monetary support for non-working citizens." ], [ "Components of individual economic security", "In the United States, children's economic security is indicated by the income level and employment security of their families or organizations.", "Economic security of people over 50 years old is based on Social Security benefits, pensions and savings, earnings and employment, and health insurance coverage.=== Arizona ===In 1972, the state legislature of Arizona formed a Department of Economic Security with a mission to promote \"the safety, well-being, and self sufficiency of children, adults, and families\".", "This department combines state government activities previously managed by the Employment Security Commission, the State Department of Public Welfare, the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, the State Office of Economic Opportunity, the Apprenticeship Council, and the State Office of Manpower Planning.", "The State Department of Mental Retardation (renamed the Division of Developmental Disabilities, House Bill 2213) joined the Department in 1974 .", "The purpose in creating the Department was to provide an integration of direct services to people in such a way as to reduce duplication of administrative efforts, services and expenditures.", "Family Connections became a part of the Department in January 2007.=== Minnesota ===The Minnesota Department of Economic Security was formed in 1977 from the departments of Employment Services and Vocational Rehabilitation, the Governor's Manpower Office, and the Economic Opportunity Office, which administered anti-poverty programs.", "In 1985, State Services for the Blind was included in this department.", "In 2003, the Minnesota Department of Economic Security and Minnesota Department of Trade and Economic Development were merged to form The Minnesota Department of Employment and Economic Development." ], [ "National economic security", "In the context of domestic politics and international relations, '''national economic security''' is the ability of a country to follow its choice of policies to develop the national economy in the manner desired.", "Historically, conquest of nations have made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources and enlarged trade through controlling of the economies of conquered nations.", "Today's complex system of international trade is characterized by multi-national agreements and mutual inter-dependence.", "Availability of natural resources and capacity for production and distribution are essential under this system, leading many experts to consider economic security to be as important a part of national security as military policy.Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations, particularly in the geopolitics of petroleum in American foreign policy after 1973 oil crisis and September 11, 2001.In Canada, threats to the country's overall economic security are considered '''economic espionage''', which is \"illegal, clandestine or coercive activity by a foreign government in order to gain unauthorized access to economic intelligence, such as proprietary information or technology, for economic advantage.", "\"In January 2021, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) issued Strategic Action Plan to Counter the Threat Posed by China.In October 2021 in Japan, prime minister Fumio Kishida created the first-ever ministerial post for economic security.And in April 2022, Japan's National Diet passed an economic security bill aimed at guarding technology and reinforcing critical supply chains, while also imposing tighter oversight of Japanese firms working in sensitive sectors or critical infrastructure.Measures in the legislation, which is primarily aimed at warding off risks from China, will be implemented over two years once it is enacted, according to the bill.In March 2023, Japan and Germany agreed to strengthen cooperation on economic security in the aftermath of tensions over global supply chains and the economic impact of the war in Ukraine.", "In the first high-ministerial government consultations held between the two countries, German Chancellor Olaf Scholz reached out to Tokyo to seek to reduce Germany's dependence on China for imports of raw materials.On April 4, 2023, a G7 Trade Ministers' Meeting via video conference was held to discuss on enhancing economic security, and a G7 Trade Ministers' Statement was issued on the day.Also in April 2023, Japan's Public Security Intelligence Agency (PSIA) launched a division dedicated to economic security.", "The agency also plans to set up such dedicated units in its regional bureaus nationwide to step up efforts to prevent cutting-edge technology and data from being leaked out of the country.On 20 May 2023 on occasion of the G7 Hiroshima summit, economic security was discussed for the first time as the G7 agenda, and \"G7 Leaders' Statement on Economic Resilience and Economic Security\" was issued based on the discussion.On 20 June 2023, the European Commission and the High Representative proposed a Joint Communication on a European Economic Security Strategy which will be discussed by EU leaders at their meeting." ], [ "Other", "It is widely believed that there is a tradeoff between economic security and economic opportunity." ], [ "See also", "'''Individual economic security'''* Citizen's dividend* Financial intelligence* Social credit* Social dividend* Social safety net* Universal basic income'''National economic security'''* Digital supply chain security* Dual-use technology* Economic warfare* 2020–present global chip shortage" ], [ "Notes and references" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution" ], [ "Introduction", " EDGE sign shown in notification bar on an Android-based smartphone.", "'''Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution''' ('''EDGE'''), also known as '''2.75G''', '''Enhanced GPRS''' ('''EGPRS'''), '''IMT Single Carrier''' ('''IMT-SC'''), and '''Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution''', is a digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates as a backward-compatible extension of GSM.", "EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and is part of ITU's 3G definition.", "EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003 – initially by Cingular (now AT&T) in the United States.EDGE is standardized also by 3GPP as part of the GSM family.", "A variant, so called Compact-EDGE, was developed for use in a portion of Digital AMPS network spectrum.Through the introduction of sophisticated methods of coding and transmitting data, EDGE delivers higher bit-rates per radio channel, resulting in a threefold increase in capacity and performance compared with an ordinary GSM/GPRS connection.EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, such as an Internet connection.Evolved EDGE continues in release 7 of the 3GPP standard providing reduced latency and more than doubled performance e.g.", "to complement High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA).", "Peak bit-rates of up to 1 Mbit/s and typical bit-rates of 400 kbit/s can be expected." ], [ "Technology", "Cellular network standards and generation timeline.EDGE/EGPRS is implemented as a bolt-on enhancement for 2.5G GSM/GPRS networks, making it easier for existing GSM carriers to upgrade to it.", "EDGE is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network with GPRS deployed on it, provided the carrier implements the necessary upgrade.EDGE requires no hardware or software changes to be made in GSM core networks.", "EDGE-compatible transceiver units must be installed and the base station subsystem needs to be upgraded to support EDGE.", "If the operator already has this in place, which is often the case today, the network can be upgraded to EDGE by activating an optional software feature.", "Today EDGE is supported by all major chip vendors for both GSM and WCDMA/HSPA.=== Transmission techniques ===In addition to Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), EDGE uses higher-order PSK/8 phase-shift keying (8PSK) for the upper five of its nine modulation and coding schemes.", "EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier phase.", "This effectively triples the gross data rate offered by GSM.", "EDGE, like GPRS, uses a rate adaptation algorithm that adapts the modulation and coding scheme (MCS) according to the quality of the radio channel, and thus the bit rate and robustness of data transmission.", "It introduces a new technology not found in GPRS, incremental redundancy, which, instead of retransmitting disturbed packets, sends more redundancy information to be combined in the receiver.", "This increases the probability of correct decoding.EDGE can carry a bandwidth up to 236 kbit/s (with end-to-end latency of less than 150 ms) for 4 timeslots (theoretical maximum is 473.6 kbit/s for 8 timeslots) in packet mode.", "This means it can handle four times as much traffic as standard GPRS.", "EDGE meets the International Telecommunication Union's requirement for a 3G network, and has been accepted by the ITU as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards.", "It also enhances the circuit data mode called HSCSD, increasing the data rate of this service.=== EDGE modulation and coding scheme (MCS) ===The channel encoding process in GPRS as well as EGPRS/EDGE consists of two steps: first, a cyclic code is used to add parity bits, which are also referred to as the Block Check Sequence, followed by coding with a possibly punctured convolutional code.", "In GPRS, the Coding Schemes CS-1 to CS-4 specify the number of parity bits generated by the cyclic code and the puncturing rate of the convolutional code.", "In GPRS Coding Schemes CS-1 through CS-3, the convolutional code is of rate 1/2, i.e.", "each input bit is converted into two coded bits.", "In Coding Schemes CS-2 and CS-3, the output of the convolutional code is punctured to achieve the desired code rate.", "In GPRS Coding Scheme CS-4, no convolutional coding is applied.In EGPRS/EDGE, the modulation and coding schemes MCS-1 to MCS-9 take the place of the coding schemes of GPRS, and additionally specify which modulation scheme is used, GMSK or 8PSK.", "MCS-1 through MCS-4 use GMSK and have performance similar (but not equal) to GPRS, while MCS-5 through MCS-9 use 8PSK.", "In all EGPRS modulation and coding schemes, a convolutional code of rate 1/3 is used, and puncturing is used to achieve the desired code rate.", "In contrast to GPRS, the Radio Link Control (RLC) and medium access control (MAC) headers and the payload data are coded separately in EGPRS.", "The headers are coded more robustly than the data.", "GPRScoding scheme Bitrate including RLC/MAC overhead(kbit/s/slot) Bitrate excluding RLC/MAC overhead(kbit/s/slot) Modulation Code rate CS-1 9.20 8.00 GMSK 1/2 CS-2 13.55 12.00 GMSK ≈2/3 CS-3 15.75 14.40 GMSK ≈3/4 CS-4 21.55 20.00 GMSK 1 EDGE modulation and coding scheme (MCS) Bitrate including RLC/MAC overhead(kbit/s/slot) Bitrate excluding RLC/MAC overhead(kbit/s/slot) Modulation Datacode rate Headercode rate MCS-1 9.20 8.00 GMSK ≈0.53 ≈0.53 MCS-2 11.60 10.40 GMSK ≈0.66 ≈0.53 MCS-3 15.20 14.80 GMSK ≈0.85 ≈0.53 MCS-4 18.00 16.80 GMSK 1 ≈0.53 MCS-5 22.80 21.60 8PSK ≈0.37 1/3 MCS-6 30.00 28.80 8PSK ≈0.49 1/3 MCS-7 45.20 44.00 8PSK ≈0.76 ≈0.39 MCS-8 54.80 53.60 8PSK ≈0.92 ≈0.39 MCS-9 59.60 58.40 8PSK 1 ≈0.39" ], [ "Evolved EDGE", "'''Evolved EDGE''', also called '''EDGE Evolution''' and '''2.875G''', is a bolt-on extension to the GSM mobile telephony standard, which improves on EDGE in a number of ways.", "Latencies are reduced by lowering the Transmission Time Interval by half (from 20 ms to 10 ms).", "Bit rates are increased up to 1 Mbit/s peak bandwidth and latencies down to 80 ms using dual carrier, higher symbol rate and higher-order modulation (32QAM and 16QAM instead of 8PSK), and turbo codes to improve error correction.", "This results in real world downlink speeds of up to 600kbit/s.", "Further the signal quality is improved using dual antennas improving average bit-rates and spectrum efficiency.The main intention of increasing the existing EDGE throughput is that many operators would like to upgrade their existing infrastructure rather than invest on new network infrastructure.", "Mobile operators have invested billions in GSM networks, many of which are already capable of supporting EDGE data speeds up to 236.8 kbit/s.", "With a software upgrade and a new device compliant with Evolved EDGE (like an Evolved EDGE smartphone) for the user, these data rates can be boosted to speeds approaching 1 Mbit/s (i.e.", "98.6 kbit/s per timeslot for 32QAM).", "Many service providers may not invest in a completely new technology like 3G networks.Considerable research and development happened throughout the world for this new technology.", "A successful trial by Nokia Siemens and \"one of China's leading operators\" has been achieved in a live environment.", "With the introduction for more advanced wireless technologies like UMTS and LTE, which also focus on a network coverage layer on low frequencies and the upcoming phase-out and shutdown of 2G mobile networks, it is very unlikely that Evolved EDGE will ever see any deployment on live networks.", "Up to now (as of 2016) there are no commercial networks which support the Evolved EDGE standard (3GPP Rel-7).=== Technology ======= Reduced Latency ====With Evolved EDGE come three major features designed to reduce latency over the air interface.In EDGE, a single RLC data block (ranging from 23 to 148 bytes of data) is transmitted over four frames, using a single time slot.", "On average, this requires 20 ms for one way transmission.", "Under the RTTI scheme, one data block is transmitted over two frames in two timeslots, reducing the latency of the air interface to 10 ms.In addition, Reduced Latency also implies support of Piggy-backed ACK/NACK (PAN), in which a bitmap of blocks not received is included in normal data blocks.", "Using the PAN field, the receiver may report missing data blocks immediately, rather than waiting to send a dedicated PAN message.A final enhancement is RLC-non persistent mode.", "With EDGE, the RLC interface could operate in either acknowledged mode, or unacknowledged mode.", "In unacknowledged mode, there is no retransmission of missing data blocks, so a single corrupt block would cause an entire upper-layer IP packet to be lost.", "With non-persistent mode, an RLC data block may be retransmitted if it is less than a certain age.", "Once this time expires, it is considered lost, and subsequent data blocks may then be forwarded to upper layers.==== Higher modulation schemes ====Both uplink and downlink throughput is improved by using 16 or 32 QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation), along with turbo codes and higher symbol rates." ], [ "Networks", "The Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) states that, as of May 2013, there were 604 GSM/EDGE networks in 213 countries, from a total of 606 mobile network operator commitments in 213 countries." ], [ "See also", "* Broadband Internet access* CDMA2000* Evolution-Data Optimized* List of device bandwidths* Mobile broadband* Spectral efficiency comparison table* UMTS* WiDEN* Wi-Fi* Comparison of mobile phone standards including LTE* Comparison of wireless data standards including WiMAX and HSPA+" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Global mobile Suppliers Association* Evolved EDGE as an alternative to 3G* A technical document by the 3G Americas association* An opinion on evolved EDGE by Martin Sauter* An EDGE Evolution report by Visant Strategies" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eth" ], [ "Introduction", "Eth in Arial and Times New Roman '''Eth''' ( , uppercase: '''Ð''', lowercase: '''ð'''; also spelled '''edh''' or '''eð'''), known as '''ðæt''' in Old English, is a letter used in Old English, Middle English, Icelandic, Faroese (in which it is called ''edd''), and Elfdalian.", "It was also used in Scandinavia during the Middle Ages, but was subsequently replaced with , and later .", "It is often transliterated as .", "The lowercase version has been adopted to represent a voiced dental fricative in the International Phonetic Alphabet." ], [ "Old English", "In Old English, (called '''') was used interchangeably with to represent the Old English dental fricative phoneme or its allophone , which exist in modern English phonology as the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives both now spelled .Unlike the runic letter , is a modified Roman letter.", "Neither nor was found in the earliest records of Old English.", "A study of Mercian royal diplomas found that (along with ) began to emerge in the early 8th century, with becoming strongly preferred by the 780s.", "Another source indicates that the letter is \"derived from Irish writing\".", "Under King Alfred the Great, grew greatly in popularity and started to overtake .", "completely overtook by Middle English, and died out by Early Modern English, mostly due to the rise of the printing press, and was replaced by the digraph ''th''." ], [ "Icelandic", "thorn in the word ''''.In Icelandic, , called \"eð\", represents an alveolar non-sibilant fricative, voiced intervocalically and word-finally, and voiceless otherwise, which form one phoneme, .", "Generally, is represented by thorn at the beginning of words and by elsewhere.", "The in the name of the letter is devoiced in the nominative and accusative cases: .", "In the Icelandic alphabet, follows ." ], [ "Faroese", "In Faroese, is not assigned to any particular phoneme and appears mostly for etymological reasons, but it indicates most glides.", "When appears before , it is in a few words pronounced .", "In the Faroese alphabet, follows ." ], [ "Norwegian", "In Olav Jakobsen Høyem's version of based on , was always silent, and was introduced for etymological reasons." ], [ "Welsh", " has also been used by some in written Welsh to represent , which is normally represented as ''dd''." ], [ "Khmer", " is sometimes used in Khmer romanization to represent ''''." ], [ "Phonetic transcription", " represents a voiced dental fricative in the International Phonetic Alphabet.", "is used in phonetic transcription.", "is used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet." ], [ "Computer input", "The Faroese and Icelandic keyboard layouts have a dedicated key for eth.On Microsoft Windows, eth can be typed using the alt code +() for lowercase or +() for uppercase, or by typing using the US International keyboard layout.", "On Windows 10, it can also be inserted into text via the symbol menu, presented by using or then selecting Symbols, associated with the Omega (Ω) character, and then selecting Latin Symbols, associated with the C-cedilla (Ç) character.Using the compose key (\"multi key\") which is popular on Linux, eth can be typed by typing for lowercase or for capital letters.On ChromeOS with 'extended keyboard' Chrome extension, will result in ð being displayed; will result in Ð.=== Other === System Uppercase LowercaseUnicode U+00D0 U+00F0HTMLÐðTeX/LaTeX\\DH\\dhGTK Vim" ], [ "Modern uses", "*The letter ''ð'' is sometimes used in mathematics and engineering textbooks, as a symbol for a spin-weighted partial derivative.", "This operator gives rise to spin-weighted spherical harmonics.", "*A capital eth is used as the currency symbol for Dogecoin." ], [ "See also", "* African D* D* D with stroke* Insular script* T* Thorn" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * ." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eth, Nord" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eth''' () is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.It is about east-southeast of Valenciennes.", "Residents are called Ethois (feminine plural Ethoises)." ], [ "Heraldry" ], [ "See also", "*Communes of the Nord department" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Euphrates" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Euphrates''' ( ; see below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia.", "Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ().", "Originating in Turkey, the Euphrates flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris in the Shatt al-Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf.The Euphrates is the fifteenth-longest river in Asia and the longest in Western Asia, at about , with a drainage area of that covers six countries." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''Euphrates'' derives from the Greek ''Euphrátēs'' (), adapted from , itself from .", "The Elamite name is ultimately derived from a name spelt in cuneiform 𒌓𒄒𒉣 , which read as Sumerian is ''Buranuna'' and read as Akkadian is ''Purattu''; many cuneiform signs have a Sumerian pronunciation and an Akkadian pronunciation, taken from a Sumerian word and an Akkadian word that mean the same.", "The Akkadian ''Purattu'' has been perpetuated in Semitic languages (cf.", "''al-Furāt''; ''Pǝrāṯ'', ''Pǝrāṯ'') and in other nearby languages of the time (cf.", "Hurrian ''Puranti'', Sabarian ''Uruttu'').", "The Elamite, Akkadian, and possibly Sumerian forms are suggested to be from an unrecorded substrate language.", "Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov suggest the proto-Sumerian ''*burudu'' \"copper\" (Sumerian ''urudu'') as an origin, with an explanation that Euphrates was the river by which copper ore was transported in rafts, since Mesopotamia was the center of copper metallurgy during the period.The Euphrates is called ''Yeprat'' in Armenian (), ''Perat'' in modern Hebrew (), in Turkish and in Kurdish.", "The Mandaic name is (), and is often mentioned as (pronounced ) in Mandaean scriptures such as the ''Ginza Rabba''.", "In Mandaean scriptures, the Euphrates is considered to be the earthly manifestation of the heavenly yardna or flowing river (similar to the Yazidi concept of Lalish being the earthly manifestation of its heavenly counterpart, or the ‘Sacred House’ Kaaba in Mecca being the earthly manifestation of the heavenly Al-Bayt Al-Mamur).The earliest references to the Euphrates come from cuneiform texts found in Shuruppak and pre-Sargonic Nippur in southern Iraq and date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE.", "In these texts, written in Sumerian, the Euphrates is called ''Buranuna'' (logographic: UD.KIB.NUN).", "The name could also be written KIB.NUN.", "(NA) or dKIB.NUN, with the prefix \"d\" indicating that the river was a divinity.", "In Sumerian, the name of the city of Sippar in modern-day Iraq was also written UD.KIB.NUN, indicating a historically strong relationship between the city and the river." ], [ "Course", "Plan, topographic representation of Babylon.", "The clay tablet depicts \"Tu-ba\", a suburb of the ancient city of Babylon.", "The River Euphrates is represented by the water-lined band.", "660-500 BCE.", "British MuseumThe Euphrates is the longest river of Western Asia.", "It emerges from the confluence of the Kara Su or Western Euphrates () and the Murat Su or Eastern Euphrates () upstream from the town of Keban in southeastern Turkey.", "Daoudy and Frenken put the length of the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the Tigris at , of which is in Turkey, in Syria and in Iraq.", "The same figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova.", "The length of the Shatt al-Arab, which connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the Persian Gulf, is given by various sources as .Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from Lake Van at elevations of and amsl, respectively.", "At the location of the Keban Dam, the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have dropped to an elevation of amsl.", "From Keban to the Syrian–Turkish border, the river drops another over a distance of less than .", "Once the Euphrates enters the Upper Mesopotamian plains, its grade drops significantly; within Syria the river falls while over the last stretch between Hīt and the Shatt al-Arab the river drops only .=== Discharge===The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow, resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May.", "Discharge in these two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the Euphrates, or even 60–70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer and autumn.", "The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been determined from early- and mid-twentieth century records as at Keban, at Hīt and at Hindiya.", "However, these averages mask the high inter-annual variability in discharge; at Birecik, just north of the Syro–Turkish border, annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of in 1961 to a high of in 1963.The discharge regime of the Euphrates has changed dramatically since the construction of the first dams in the 1970s.", "Data on Euphrates discharge collected after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation.", "Average discharge at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to per second ( per year).", "The seasonal variability has equally changed.", "The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was per second, while after 1990 it is only per second.", "The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from per second before 1990 to per second afterward.=== Tributaries ===View of the alt=A river flowing through a wide valleyIn Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the Sajur, the Balikh and the Khabur.", "These rivers rise in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains along the Syro–Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates.", "The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near Gaziantep and draining the plain around Manbij before emptying into the reservoir of the Tishrin Dam.", "The Balikh receives most of its water from a karstic spring near 'Ayn al-'Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of Raqqa.", "In terms of length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three.", "Its main karstic springs are located around Ra's al-'Ayn, from where the Khabur flows southeast past Al-Hasakah, where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near Busayrah.", "Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist.", "Name Length Watershed size Discharge BankKara Su ConfluenceMurat River ConfluenceSajur River 4.1 m3/s (145 cu ft/s) RightBalikh River 6 m3/s (212 cu ft/s)LeftKhabur River 45 m3/s (1,600 cu ft/s)Left" ], [ "Drainage basin", "French map from the 17th century showing the Euphrates and the alt=Refer to captionThe drainage basins of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of and , respectively.", "Estimates of the area of the Euphrates drainage basin vary widely; from a low to a high .", "Recent estimates put the basin area at , and .", "The greater part of the Euphrates basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq.", "According to both Daoudy and Frenken, Turkey's share is 28 percent, Syria's is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent.", "Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively.", "Some sources estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within Saudi Arabia, while a small part falls inside the borders of Kuwait.", "Finally, some sources also include Jordan in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the eastern desert () drains toward the east rather than to the west." ], [ "Climate change", "In 2021, the Iraqi Ministry of Water Resources reported that the Euphrates river could dry out by 2040 due to climate change and droughts." ], [ "Natural history", "''Rafetus euphraticus''The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct vegetation zones.", "Although millennia-long human occupation in most parts of the Euphrates basin has significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain.", "The steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation that can be supported.", "In its upper reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their southern foothills which support a xeric woodland.", "Plant species in the moister parts of this zone include various oaks, pistachio trees, and ''Rosaceae'' (rose/plum family).", "The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest and ''Rosaceae''.", "Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals, including einkorn wheat, emmer, oat and rye.South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland-steppe vegetation.", "Between Raqqa and the Syro–Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape.", "This steppe is characterised by white wormwood (''Artemisia herba-alba'') and Amaranthaceae.", "Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due to the practicing of sheep and goat pastoralism by its inhabitants.", "Southeast of the border between Syria and Iraq starts true desert.", "This zone supports either no vegetation at all or small pockets of ''Chenopodiaceae'' or ''Poa sinaica''.", "Although today nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the Euphrates Valley would have supported a riverine forest.", "Species characteristic of this type of forest include the Oriental plane, the Euphrates poplar, the tamarisk, the ash and various wetland plants.Among the fish species in the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the family of the Cyprinidae are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total.", "Among the Cyprinids, the mangar has good recreational fishing qualities, leading the British to nickname it the \"Tigris salmon.\"", "The Euphrates softshell turtle is an endangered soft-shelled turtle that is limited to the Tigris–Euphrates river system.The Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict lion and bull hunts in fertile landscapes.", "Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area, many of which have become rare or even extinct.", "Species like gazelle, onager and the now-extinct Arabian ostrich lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley, while the valley itself was home to the wild boar.", "Carnivorous species include the wolf, the golden jackal, the red fox, the leopard and the lion.", "The Syrian brown bear can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey.", "The presence of Eurasian beaver has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of Tell Abu Hureyra in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times." ], [ "River", "Syro–Turkish part of the Euphrates basin|alt=Refer to captionThe Hindiya Barrage on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil engineer William Willcocks and finished in 1913, was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris–Euphrates river system.", "The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the Ramadi Barrage and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the depression that is now Lake Habbaniyah.", "Iraq's largest dam on the Euphrates is the Haditha Dam; a earth-fill dam creating Lake Qadisiyah.", "Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s.", "The Tabqa Dam in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense Southeastern Anatolia Project, in 1974.Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates, the Baath Dam and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam – the Halabiye Dam – between Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor.", "The Tabqa Dam is Syria's largest dam and its reservoir (Lake Assad) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water.", "It was planned that should be irrigated from Lake Assad, but in 2000 only had been realized.", "Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project ('''', or ''GAP'') in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces.", "GAP affects a total area of and approximately 7 million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey's total surface area and population, respectively.", "When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams – including the Keban Dam – and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable land in Turkey.", "C. of this irrigated land is located in the Euphrates basin.", "By far the largest dam in GAP is the Atatürk Dam, located c. northwest of Şanlıurfa.", "This and dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is the third-largest lake in Turkey.", "With a maximum capacity of , the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual discharge of the Euphrates.", "Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has been delayed because the World Bank has withheld funding due to the lack of an official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on the Euphrates and the Tigris.Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah, Lake Tharthar, and Abu Dibbis reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater.", "Via the Shatt al-Hayy, the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris.", "The largest canal in this network is the Main Outfall Drain or so-called \"Third River;\" constructed between 1953 and 1992.This canal is intended to drain the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris south of Baghdad to prevent soil salinization from irrigation.", "It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.=== Environmental and social effects ===Keban Dam in Turkey, the first dam on the Euphrates after it emerges from the confluence of the Kara Su and the Murat Su|alt=A large dam with water outlets in a mountainous landscapeQal'at Ja'bar in Syria, once perched on a hilltop overlooking the Euphrates valley but now turned into an island by the flooding of Lake Assad|alt=A large ruinous castle with concentric walls and towers located on an island that is connected to the shore by a causewayThe construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the Euphrates has had a significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country.", "The dams constructed as part of GAP – in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins – have affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been resettled elsewhere.", "The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam, which alone affected 55,300 people.", "A survey among those who were displaced showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the compensation they had received was considered insufficient.", "The flooding of Lake Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an \"Arab belt\" along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment.", "The creation of reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to increased evaporation; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available for human use.", "Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at in Turkey, in Syria and in Iraq.", "Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields.", "The salinity of Euphrates water in Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower suitability as drinking water.", "The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the associated large-scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the ecologically already fragile Mesopotamian Marshes and on freshwater fish habitats in Iraq.The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria, has led to the flooding of many archaeological sites and other places of cultural significance.", "Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as much of the endangered cultural heritage as possible, many sites are probably lost forever.", "The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the endangered parts of the valley.", "Especially the flooding of Zeugma with its unique Roman mosaics by the reservoir of the Birecik Dam has generated much controversy in both the Turkish and international press.", "The construction of the Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated by UNESCO to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of Lake Assad.", "Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in date from the Natufian to the Abbasid period, and two minarets were dismantled and rebuilt outside the flood zone.", "Important sites that have been flooded or affected by the rising waters of Lake Assad include Mureybet, Emar and Abu Hureyra.", "A similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which led, among others, to the flooding of the important Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Jerf el Ahmar.", "An archaeological survey and rescue excavations were also carried out in the area flooded by Lake Qadisiya in Iraq.", "Parts of the flooded area have recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing opportunities for looting, which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of the 2003 invasion." ], [ "Religion", "=== Islam ===In Islam, a hadith is mentioned prophecying about unearthing of a gold mountain beneath the Euphrates river before the apocalypse, with many people dying fighting over it; it is said to be one of the future minor signs of the coming of Judgement Day:\"Sahih Muslim 2894 cAbu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:The Last Hour would not come unless the Euphrates would uncover a treasure of gold, so he who finds it should not take anything out of that.", "\"=== Christianity ===In the Christian Bible, the Euphrates River is mentioned in Revelation 16:12, in the final book of the New Testament.", "Author, John of Patmos writes about the Euphrates river drying up as part of a series of events that foretell the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.The river Phrath mentioned in Genesis 2:14 is also identified as the Euphrates." ], [ "History", "A fishing boat in the Euphrates Southern Iraq=== Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods ===The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the Fertile Crescent.", "Acheulean stone artifacts have been found in the Sajur basin and in the El Kowm oasis in the central Syrian steppe; the latter together with remains of ''Homo erectus'' that were dated to 450,000 years old.", "In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra – at first occupied by hunter-gatherers but later by some of the earliest farmers, Jerf el Ahmar, Mureybet and Nevalı Çori became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward.", "In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where rainfed agriculture was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey.", "Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of pottery in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area.", "Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture.", "Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period, including Tell es-Sawwan.", "During the 5th millennium BCE, or late Ubaid period, northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over .", "In Iraq, sites like Eridu and Ur were already occupied during the Ubaid period.", "Clay boat models found at Tell Mashnaqa along the Khabur indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period.", "The Uruk period, roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly urban settlements across Mesopotamia.", "Cities like Tell Brak and Uruk grew to over in size and displayed monumental architecture.", "The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and sealings far into Turkey and Iran has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials.", "Habuba Kabira on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.=== Ancient history ===During the Jemdet Nasr (3600–3100 BCE) and Early Dynastic periods (3100–2350 BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of settlements, suggesting strong population growth.", "These settlements, including Sumero-Akkadian sites like Sippar, Uruk, Adab and Kish, were organized in competing city-states.", "Many of these cities were located along canals of the Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified from remote sensing imagery.", "A similar development took place in Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu and Assyria, although only from the mid 3rd millennium and on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia.", "Sites like Ebla, Mari and Tell Leilan grew to prominence for the first time during this period.Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler during the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) and Ur III empires, which controlled – either directly or indirectly through vassals – large parts of modern-day Iraq and northeastern Syria.", "Following their collapse, the Old Assyrian Empire (1975–1750 BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city-states like Isin, Kish and Larsa before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged state of Babylonia under Hammurabi in the early to mid 18th century BCE.In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided between Kassite Babylon in the south and Mitanni, Assyria and the Hittite Empire in the north, with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians.", "Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin.", "The Neo-Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short lived Median Empire (612–546 BC) and equally brief Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the Achaemenid Empire (539–333 BC).", "The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by Alexander the Great, who defeated the last king Darius III and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the Seleucid Empire (312–150 BC), Parthian Empire (150–226 AD) (during which several Neo-Assyrian states such as Adiabene came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought over by the Roman Empire, its succeeding Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire (226–638 AD), until the Islamic conquest of the mid 7th century AD.", "The Battle of Karbala took place near the banks of this river in 680 AD.In the north, the river served as a border between Greater Armenia (331 BC–428 AD) and Lesser Armenia (the latter became a Roman province in the 1st century BC).=== Modern era ===Wooden bridge carrying the alt=Refer to captionAfter World War I, the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), when the Ottoman Empire was partitioned.", "Clause 109 of the treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time Turkey, France for its Syrian mandate and the United Kingdom for its mandate of Iraq) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the construction of any hydraulic installation.", "An agreement between Turkey and Iraq signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on the Tigris–Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting the two rivers, the confluence Shatt al-Arab and the date palm forest, which used to be the largest in the worldThe river featured on the coat of arms of Iraq from 1932 to 1959.Euphrates near KahtaTurkey and Syria completed their first dams on the Euphrates – the Keban Dam and the Tabqa Dam, respectively – within one year of each other and filling of the reservoirs commenced in 1975.At the same time, the area was hit by severe drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from in 1973 to in 1975.This led to an international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam.", "An agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.", "A similar crisis, although not escalating to the point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey's hydroelectricity production.", "In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would ensure a flow of at least per second, or per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect was signed between the two countries.", "Another bilateral agreement from 1989 between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of the amount that Syria receives from Turkey.", "In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in the Tigris–Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was signed to this effect.On 15 April 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the Euphrates into Syria and Iraq.", "The flow was cut off completely on 16 May 2014 resulting in the Euphrates terminating at the Turkish–Syrian border.", "This was in violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a minimum of of water per second at the Turkish–Syrian border.Euphrates in Iraq, 2005During the Syrian civil war and the Iraqi Civil War, much of the Euphrates was controlled by the Islamic State from 2014 until 2017, when the terrorist group began losing land and was eventually defeated territorially in Syria at the Battle of Baghouz and in Iraq in the Western Iraq offensive respectively." ], [ "Economy", "Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course.", "With the construction of large hydropower stations, irrigation schemes, and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past.", "Syria's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of Aleppo, to the west of the river valley.", "The lake also supports a modest state-operated fishing industry.", "Through a newly restored power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad." ], [ "See also", "* Armenian highlands** Mountains of Ararat* Zagros Mountains" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ===******************************************************" ], [ "External links", "** Old maps of the Euphrates, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Estonian language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Estonian''' ( ) is a Finnic language and the official language of Estonia.", "It is written in the Latin script and is the first language of the majority of the country's population; it is also an official language of the European Union.", "Estonian is spoken natively by about 1.1 million people: 922,000 people in Estonia and 160,000 elsewhere." ], [ "Classification", "The Estonian language belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family.", "Other Finnic languages include Finnish and some minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea and in northwestern Russia.", "Estonian is typically subclassified as a Southern Finnic language, and it is the second-most-spoken language among all the Finnic languages.", "Alongside Finnish, Hungarian, and Maltese, Estonian is one of the four official languages of the European Union that are not Indo-European languages.", "In terms of linguistic morphology, Estonian is a predominantly agglutinative language.", "The loss of word-final sounds is extensive, and this has made its inflectional morphology markedly more fusional, especially with respect to noun and adjective inflection.", "The transitional form from an agglutinating to a fusional language is a common feature of Estonian typologically over the course of history with the development of a rich morphological system.Word order is considerably more flexible than in English, but the basic order is subject–verb–object." ], [ "History", "The speakers of the two major historical dialect groups of the language, North and South Estonian, are thought by some linguists to have arrived in Estonia in at least two different migration waves over two millennia ago, both groups having spoken considerably different vernaculars.", "Modern standard Estonian evolved in the 18th and 19th century on the basis of the dialects of northern Estonia.During the Medieval and Early Modern periods, Estonian accepted many loanwords from Germanic languages, mainly from Middle Low German (Middle Saxon) and, after the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, from the Standard German language.", "Estonian grammar by Heinrich Stahl, published in Tallinn (Reval) in 1637Geographic distribution of the Estonian language in the Russian Empire according to the 1897 censusThe oldest written records of the Finnic languages of Estonia date from the 13th century.", "''Originates Livoniae'' in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences.===Estonian literature===The earliest extant samples of connected (north) Estonian are the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528.In 1525 the first book published in the Estonian language was printed.", "The book was a Lutheran manuscript, which never reached the reader and was destroyed immediately after publication.The first extant Estonian book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S.Wanradt and J.Koell dating to 1535, during the Protestant Reformation period.", "An Estonian grammar book to be used by priests was printed in German in 1637.The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715).", "The two languages were united based on northern Estonian by Anton thor Helle.Writings in Estonian became more significant in the 19th century during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840).The birth of native Estonian literature was during the period 1810–1820, when the patriotic and philosophical poems by Kristjan Jaak Peterson were published.", "Peterson, who was the first student at the then German-language University of Dorpat to acknowledge his Estonian origin, is commonly regarded as a herald of Estonian national literature and considered the founder of modern Estonian poetry.", "His birthday, March 14, is celebrated in Estonia as Mother Tongue Day.", "A fragment from Peterson's poem \"Kuu\" expresses the claim reestablishing the birthright of the Estonian language::''Kas siis selle maa keel'':''Laulutuules ei või'':''Taevani tõustes üles'':''Igavikku omale otsida?", "''In English::''Can the language of this land'':''In the wind of incantation'':''Rising up to the heavens'':''Not seek for eternity?", "'':::''Kristjan Jaak Peterson''\tIn the period from 1525 to 1917, 14,503 titles were published in Estonian; by comparison, between 1918 and 1940, 23,868 titles were published.In modern times A. H. Tammsaare, Jaan Kross, and Andrus Kivirähk are Estonia's best-known and most translated writers.===Official language===Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century with the spread of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840).", "Although Baltic Germans at large regarded the future of Estonians as being a fusion with themselves, the Estophile educated class admired the ancient culture of the Estonians and their era of freedom before the conquests by Danes and Germans in the 13th century.When the independent Republic of Estonia was established in 1918, Estonian became the official language of the newly independent country.", "Immediately after World War II, in 1945, over 97% of the then population of Estonia self-identified as native ethnic Estonians and spoke the language.When Estonia was invaded and reoccupied by the Soviet army in 1944, the status of the Estonian language effectively changed to one of the two official languages (Russian being the other one).", "Many immigrants from Russia entered Estonia under Soviet encouragement.", "In the 1970s, the pressure of bilingualism for Estonians was intensified.", "Although teaching Estonian to non-Estonians in local schools was formally compulsory, in practice, the teaching and learning of the Estonian language by Russian-speakers was often considered unnecessary by the Soviet authorities.In 1991, with the restoration of Estonia's independence, Estonian went back to being the only official language in Estonia.", "Starting from 2004, when Estonia joined the European Union, the Estonian language is also one of the (now 24) official languages of the EU.The return of former Soviet immigrants to their countries of origin at the end of the 20th century has brought the proportion of native Estonian-speakers in Estonia now back above 70%.", "Large parts of the first and second generation immigrants in Estonia have now adopted the Estonian language (over 50% as of the 2022 census)." ], [ "Dialects", "North Estonian dialects at the beginning of the 20th centurySouth Estonian dialects at the beginning of the 20th centuryRoad sign in Estonian and VõroVõro written by Johann Hurt: \"Wastne Võro keeli ABD raamat\"The Estonian dialects are divided into two groups – the northern and southern dialects, historically associated with the cities of Tallinn in the north and Tartu in the south, in addition to a distinct ''kirderanniku'' dialect, Northeastern coastal Estonian.The northern group consists of the or central dialect that is also the basis for the standard language, the or western dialect, roughly corresponding to Lääne County and Pärnu County, the (islands' dialect) of Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Muhu and Kihnu, and the or eastern dialect on the northwestern shore of Lake Peipus.South Estonian consists of the Tartu, Mulgi, Võro and Seto varieties.", "These are sometimes considered either variants of South Estonian or separate languages altogether.", "Also, Seto and Võro distinguish themselves from each other less by language and more by their culture and their respective Christian confession." ], [ "Writing system", "===Alphabet===Estonian employs the Latin script as the basis for its alphabet, which adds the letters ''ä'', ''ö'', ''ü'', and ''õ'', plus the later additions ''š'' and ''ž''.", "The letters ''c'', ''q'', ''w'', ''x'' and ''y'' are limited to proper names of foreign origin, and ''f'', ''z'', ''š'', and ''ž'' appear in loanwords and foreign names only.", "''Ö'' and ''Ü'' are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in Swedish and German.", "Unlike in standard German but like Swedish (when followed by 'r') and Finnish, ''Ä'' is pronounced æ, as in English ''mat''.", "The vowels Ä, Ö and Ü are clearly separate phonemes and inherent in Estonian, although the letter shapes come from German.", "The letter ''õ'' denotes , unrounded , or a close-mid back unrounded vowel.", "It is almost identical to the Bulgarian ъ and the Vietnamese ơ, and is also used to transcribe the Russian ы.Additionally ''C'', ''Q'', ''W'', ''X'', and ''Y'' are used in writing foreign proper names.", "They do not occur in Estonian words, and are not officially part of the alphabet.", "Including all the foreign letters, the alphabet consists of the following 32 letters:LetterIPANameNotesLetterIPANameNotesAa''aa'' ''Q''''q''—''kuu'' Bb''bee'' Rr''err'' or ''ärr'' ''C''''c''—''tsee'' Ss''ess'' Dd''dee'' Šš or ''šaa'' Ee''ee'' Zz''zett'' Ff or ''eff'' Žž''žee'' Gg''gee'' Tt or ''tee'' Hh''haa'' or ''ašš'' Uu''uu'' Ii''ii'' Vv''vee'' Jj''jott'' ''W''''w''—''kaksisvee'' Kk or ''kaa'' Õõ''õõ'' Ll''ell'' Ää''ää'' Mm''emm'' Öö''öö'' Nn''enn'' Üü''üü'' Oo''oo'' ''X''''x''—''iks'' Pp or ''pee'' ''Y''''y''—''igrek'' or ''üpsilon'' ===Orthography===Although the Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme, there are some historical and morphological deviations from this: for example preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'.", "Where it is very impractical or impossible to type ''š'' and ''ž'', they are replaced by ''sh'' and ''zh'' in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect.", "Otherwise, the ''h'' in ''sh'' represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in ''Pasha'' (''pas-ha''); this also applies to some foreign names.Modern Estonian orthography is based on the \"Newer orthography\" created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19thcentury based on Finnish orthography.", "The \"Older orthography\" it replaced was created in the 17thcentury by Bengt Gottfried Forselius and Johann Hornung based on standard German orthography.", "Earlier writing in Estonian had, by and large, used an ''ad hoc'' orthography based on Latin and Middle Low German orthography.", "Some influences of the standard German orthography – for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' – persisted well into the 1930s." ], [ "Phonology", "A sample of Estonian spoken natively===Vowels===There are 9 vowels and 36 diphthongs, 28 of which are native to Estonian.Estonian phonology#cite note-1|1 All nine vowels can appear as the first component of a diphthong, but only /ɑ e i o u/ occur as the second component.", "A vowel characteristic of Estonian is the unrounded back vowel /ɤ/, which may be close-mid back, close back, or close-mid central.+ Monophthongs of EstonianFrontBackunrounded roundedunrounded roundedClose MidOpen===Consonants===+ Consonant phonemes of Estonian Labial Alveolar Post-alveolar Velar/palatal Glottal plain palatalized Nasal Plosive Fricative Approximant Trill Word-initial ''b, d, g'' occur only in loanwords and some old loanwords are spelled with ''p, t, k'' instead of etymological ''b, d, g'': ''pank'' 'bank'.", "Word-medially and word-finally, ''b, d, g'' represent short plosives /p, t, k/ (may be pronounced as partially voiced consonants), ''p, t, k'' represent half-long plosives /pː, tː, kː/, and ''pp, tt, kk'' represent overlong plosives /pːː, tːː, kːː/; for example: ''kabi'' /kɑpi/ 'hoof' — ''kapi'' /kɑpːi/ 'wardrobe gen sg — ''kappi'' /kɑpːːi/ 'wardrobe ptv sg'.Before and after ''b, p, d, t, g, k, s, h, f, š, z, ž'', the sounds p, t, k are written as ''p, t, k'', with some exceptions due to morphology or etymology.Representation of palatalised consonants is inconsistent, and they are not always indicated.ŋ is an allophone of /n/ before /k/.While peripheral Estonian dialects are characterized by various degrees of vowel harmony, central dialects have almost completely lost the feature.", "Since the standard language is based on central dialects, it has no vowel harmony either.", "In the standard language, the front vowels occur exclusively on the first or stressed syllable, although vowel harmony is still apparent in older texts." ], [ "Grammar", "Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an agglutinating language to a fusional language.", "The canonical word order is SVO (subject–verb–object), although often debated among linguists.In Estonian, nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative, with the case and number of the adjective always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form).", "Thus the illative for ''kollane maja'' (\"a yellow house\") is ''kollasesse majja'' (\"into a yellow house\"), but the terminative is ''kollase majani'' (\"as far as a yellow house\").", "With respect to the Proto-Finnic language, elision has occurred; thus, the actual case marker may be absent, but the stem is changed, cf.", "''maja – majja'' and the Ostrobothnia dialect of Finnish ''maja – majahan''.The verbal system has no distinct future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined subject (the \"impersonal\")." ], [ "Vocabulary", "Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of very different origins and the vocabulary is considered quite different from that of the Indo-European family, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and English, for example.", "This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one-third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German).", "The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.", "Prior to the wave of new loanwords from English in the 20th and 21st centuries, historically, Swedish and Russian were also sources of borrowings but to a much lesser extent.", "In borrowings, often 'b' and 'p' are interchangeable, for example 'baggage' becomes 'pagas', 'lob' (to throw) becomes 'loopima'.", "The initial letter 's' before another consonant is often dropped, for example 'skool' becomes 'kool', 'stool' becomes 'tool'.===''Ex nihilo'' lexical enrichment===Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia from the 1870s to the 1890s) tried to use formation ''ex nihilo'' (''Urschöpfung''); i.e.", "they created new words out of nothing.The most well-known reformer of the Estonian language, Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), used creations ''ex nihilo'' (cf.", "'free constructions', Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf.", "Saareste and Raun 1965: 76).", "In Aavik's dictionary (1921) lists approximately 4000 words.", "About 40 of the 200 words created by Johannes Aavik allegedly ''ex nihilo'' are in common use today.", "Examples are * ''ese'' 'object', * ''kolp'' 'skull', * ''liibuma'' 'to cling', * ''naasma'' 'to return, come back', * ''nõme'' 'stupid, dull' Many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ''ex nihilo'' could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items; for example, words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish.", "Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French.", "Consider ''roim'' 'crime' versus English ''crime'' or ''taunima'' 'to condemn, disapprove' versus Finnish ''tuomita'' 'to condemn, to judge' (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik's 1921 dictionary).", "These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item." ], [ "Example text", "Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Estonian and English:: :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''" ], [ "See also", "* The BABEL Speech Corpus" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Estonica.org article" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "E-Prime" ], [ "Introduction", "'''E-Prime''' (short for '''English-Prime''' or '''English Prime''', sometimes '''É''' or '''E′''') denotes a restricted form of English in which authors avoid all forms of the verb ''to be''.E-Prime excludes forms such as ''be'', ''being'', ''been'', present tense forms (''am'', ''is'', ''are''), past tense forms (''was'', ''were'') along with their negative contractions (''isn't'', ''aren't'', ''wasn't'', ''weren't''), and nonstandard contractions such as ''ain't''.", "E-Prime also excludes contractions such as ''I'm'', ''we're'', ''you're'', ''he's'', ''she's'', ''it's'', ''they're'', ''there's'', ''here's'', ''where's'', ''when's'', ''why's'', ''how's'', ''who's'', ''what's'', and ''that's''.Some scholars claim that E-Prime can clarify thinking and strengthen writing, while others doubt its utility." ], [ "History", "D. David Bourland Jr., who had studied under Alfred Korzybski, devised E-Prime as an addition to Korzybski's general semantics in the late 1940s.", "Bourland published the concept in a 1965 essay entitled \"A Linguistic Note: Writing in E-Prime\" (originally published in ''General Semantics Bulletin'').", "The essay quickly generated controversy within the general semantics field, partly because practitioners of general semantics sometimes saw Bourland as attacking the verb ''to be'' as such, and not just certain usages.Bourland collected and published three volumes of essays in support of his innovation.", "The first (1991), co-edited by Paul Dennithorne Johnston, bore the title: ''To Be or Not: An E-Prime Anthology''.", "For the second, ''More E-Prime: To Be or Not II'', published in 1994, he added a third editor, Jeremy Klein.", "Bourland and Johnston then edited a third book, ''E-Prime III: a third anthology'', published in 1997." ], [ "Functions of \"to be\"", "In English, the verb 'to be' (also known as the ''copula'') has several distinct functions:* identity: ''noun-phrase copula definite-noun''** ''The cat is my only pet.", "''* class membership: ''definite-noun copula noun-phrase''** ''Garfield is a cat.", "''* class inclusion: ''noun-phrase copula noun-phrase''** ''A cat is an animal.", "''* predication: ''noun-phrase copula adjective''** ''The cat is furry.", "''* ownership: ''noun-phrase copula possessive-noun''** ''The cat is theirs.", "''* auxiliary: ''noun-phrase copula verb-phrase''** ''The cat is sleeping.''", "with the copula being part of the progressive aspect with the present participle** ''The cat is being bitten by the dog.''", "with the copula being part of the passive with the past participle of a transitive verb* existence: ''medial-proadverb-of-location copula noun-phrase''** ''There is a cat.", "''* location: ''noun-phrase copula location-phrase''** ''The cat is nowhere to be found.", "''Bourland sees specifically the \"identity\" and \"predication\" functions as pernicious but advocates the exclusion of all forms for the sake of simplicity.", "In the case of the \"existence\" form or the \"location\" form, terms such as ''exist'', ''sit'' or ''lie'' could substitute for the copula.Some ergative verbs may substitute the copula, including ''taste'', ''feel'', ''smell'', ''sound'', ''grow'', ''hinge'', ''remain'', ''rest'', ''stay'', ''reside'', and ''turn'', among others." ], [ "Examples", "Colloquial English    E-Prime---- The electron is a particle.", "The electron functions as a particle when measured with the first instrument.", "The electron is a wave.", "The electron functions as a wave when measured with the other instrument.One could rewrite the functions of \"to be\" as follows:* \"The cat is my only pet\": \"I have only a pet cat\".", "* \"The cat is Garfield\": \"I call my cat Garfield\".", "* \"Garfield is a cat\": \"Garfield belongs to the cat species\".", "* \"A cat is an animal\": \"'Cat' denotes an animal\".", "* \"The cat is furry\": \"The cat feels furry\" / \"The cat looks furry\" / \"The cat has fur\".", "* \"The cat is sleeping\": \"The cat sleeps\".", "* \"The dog is chasing the cat\": \"The dog chases the cat\".", "* \"There is a cat\": \"A cat exists there\".", "* \"The cat is on the mat\": \"The cat sits on the mat\".", "* \"The cat is here\": \"I have the cat with me\"." ], [ "Rationale", "Bourland and other advocates also suggest that use of E-Prime leads to a less dogmatic style of language that reduces the possibility of misunderstanding or conflict.Kellogg and Bourland describe misuse of the verb ''to be'' as creating a \"deity mode of speech\", allowing \"even the most ignorant to transform their opinions magically into god-like pronouncements on the nature of things\"." ], [ "Psychological effects", "While teaching at the University of Florida, Alfred Korzybski counseled his students toeliminate the infinitive and verb forms of \"to be\" from their vocabulary, whereas a second group continued to use \"I am,\" \"You are,\" \"They are\" statements as usual.", "For example, instead of saying, \"I am depressed,\" a student was asked to eliminate that emotionally primed verb and to say something else, such as, \"I feel depressed when ...\" or \"I tend to make myself depressed about ...\"Korzybski observed improvement \"of one full letter grade\" by \"students who did not generalize by using that infinitive\".Albert Ellis advocated the use of E-Prime when discussing psychological distress to encourage framing these experiences as temporary (see also Solution focused brief therapy) and to encourage a sense of agency by specifying the subject of statements.", "According to Ellis, rational emotive behavior therapy \"has favored E-Prime more than any other form of psychotherapy and I think it is still the only form of therapy that has some of its main books written in E-Prime\".", "However, Ellis did not always use E-Prime because he believed it interferes with readability." ], [ "Criticisms", "Many authors have questioned E-Prime's effectiveness at improving readability and reducing prejudice (Lakoff, 1992; Murphy, 1992; Parkinson, 1992; Kenyon, 1992; French, 1992, 1993; Lohrey, 1993).", "These authors observed that communication under the copula ban can remain obscure and imply prejudice, while losing important speech patterns, such as identities and identification.", "Further, prejudices and judgments may become more difficult to notice or refute.Various arguments against E-Prime (in the context of general semantics) have been conjectured:* \"Effective writing techniques\" are not relevant to general semantics as a discipline, and therefore it should not be promoted as general semantics practice.", "E-Prime does not distinguish statements that disobey the principles of general semantics from statements that do not.", "It lacks consistency with the other tenets of general semantics and should not be included into the discipline.", "* The advocates of E-Prime have not proven that it is easier to exclude the verb ''to be'' than to eliminate only the is-of-identity and the is-of-predication.", "It may well be easier to do the latter for many people.", "''To be'' statements convey not only identity but also asymmetrical relations (\"X heights more than Y\"); negation (\"A differs from B\"); location (\"Another castle contains the princess\"); auxiliary (\"He goes to the store\") etc., forms that would also have to be excluded.", "* The elimination of a whole class of sentences results in fewer alternatives and is likely to make writing less, rather than more, interesting.", "One can improve bad writing more by reducing use of the verb 'to be' than by excluding it.", "* The context often ameliorates the possible harmful effects from the use of the is-of-identity and the is-of-predication, so it is not necessary to eliminate all such sentences.", "For example, \"He is a judge\" in response to a question about what someone does for a living would not be questionable, although \"He works as a judge\" would be an equivalent E-Prime sentence.", "* Excluding ''to be'' has little effect on eliminating identity.", "For example, a statement of apparently equal identification, \"The silly ban on copula continues,\" can be made without the copula assuming an identity rather than asserting it, consequently hampering our awareness of it.", "* Identity-in-the-language is not the same as the far more important identity-in-reaction (identification).", "General semantics cuts the link between the two through the practice of silence on the objective levels, adopting a self-reflexive attitude, e.g., \"as I see it\" \"it seems to me\" etc., and by the use of quotation marks—without using E-Prime.", "One of the best languages for time-binding is mathematics, which relies heavily on the notion of equivalence and equality.", "For the purposes of time-binding, it may be better to cut the link between identity-in-the-language and identity-in-reaction.According to an article (written in E-Prime and advocating a role for E-Prime in ESL and EFL programs) published by the Office of English Language Programs of the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs in the State Department of the United States, \"Requiring students to avoid the verb to be on every assignment would deter students from developing other fundamental skills of fluent writing.\"" ], [ "Publications", "* ''Laws of Form'' by G. Spencer-Brown, 1969 (except for one statement)* ''Quantum Psychology'', by Robert Anton Wilson (1990)* ''Worlds of Wonder: How to Write Science Fiction & Fantasy'' by David Gerrold has a chapter about (and written in) E-Prime* ''The New American Standard Bible in E-Prime'', composed by Dr. David F. Maas* ''Scoundrel Days: A Memoir'', 2017 Brentley Frazer*''An Insider’s Guide to Robert Anton Wilson'' by Eric Wagner*''A New Guide to Rational Living,'' by Albert Ellis and Robert A. Harper (1975)" ], [ "See also", "* English passive voice* Elaboration* Epistemology* Implicit attitude* * Language proficiency* Linguistic philosophy* Linguistic relativity* Ontology* Perspectivism* Point of view (philosophy)* Temporality* Universality (philosophy)* Wooden language" ], [ "References", "* * * Bourland, D. David, Jr., Jeremy Klein, and Paul Dennithorne Johnstone, eds.", "(1994).", "''More E-Prime: To Be or Not II''.", "Concord, California: International Society for General Semantics.", "* French, James D. (1992).", "\"The Top Ten Arguments against E-Prime\".", "''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', vol.", "49, no.", "2, pp.", "175-79.", "* French, James D. (1993).", "\"The Prime Problem with General Semantics''.", "''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', vol.", "50, no.", "3, pp.", "326-35.", "* Kenyon, Ralph (1992).", "\"E-Prime: The Spirit and the Letter''.", "''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', vol.", "49, no.", "2, pp.", "185-88.", "* Lakoff, Robin T. (1992).", "\"Not Ready for Prime Time''.", "''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', vol.", "49, no.", "2, pp.", "142-45.", "* Lohrey, Andrew (1993).", "\"E-Prime, E-Choice, E-Chosen''.", "''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', vol.", "50, no.", "3, pp.", "346-50.", "* Murphy, Cullen (Summer 1992).", "To Be' in Their Bonnets: A Matter of Semantics\".", "''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', vol.", "49, no.", "2, pp.", "125-30.", "* Murphy, Cullen (February 1992). \"", "'To Be' in Their Bonnets: A matter of semantics\".", "''The Atlantic Monthly''.", "*" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "External links", "* Excerpt from ''Quantum Psychology'', 1990* Beyond Is: Creative Writing with English Prime by Brentley Frazer* E-Prime!", "– The Fundamentals, by D. David Bourland, Jr. Accessed: 8 December 2015.", "* Speaking in E-Prime by E. W. Kellogg III.", "Accessed: 8 December 2015.", "* E-prime: The Spirit and the Letter, by Ralph E. Kenyon Jr.* Discovering E-Prime, by Elaine C. Johnson * E-Prime and Linguistic Revision, by C. A. Hilgartner" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elliptic curve" ], [ "Introduction", "A catalog of elliptic curves.", "The region shown is .", "(For the function is not smooth and therefore not an elliptic curve.", ")In mathematics, an '''elliptic curve''' is a smooth, projective, algebraic curve of genus one, on which there is a specified point .", "An elliptic curve is defined over a field and describes points in , the Cartesian product of with itself.", "If the field's characteristic is different from 2 and 3, then the curve can be described as a plane algebraic curve which consists of solutions for::for some coefficients and in .", "The curve is required to be non-singular, which means that the curve has no cusps or self-intersections.", "(This is equivalent to the condition , that is, being square-free in .)", "It is always understood that the curve is really sitting in the projective plane, with the point being the unique point at infinity.", "Many sources define an elliptic curve to be simply a curve given by an equation of this form.", "(When the coefficient field has characteristic 2 or 3, the above equation is not quite general enough to include all non-singular cubic curves; see below.", ")An elliptic curve is an abelian variety – that is, it has a group law defined algebraically, with respect to which it is an abelian group – and serves as the identity element.If , where is any polynomial of degree three in with no repeated roots, the solution set is a nonsingular plane curve of genus one, an elliptic curve.", "If has degree four and is square-free this equation again describes a plane curve of genus one; however, it has no natural choice of identity element.", "More generally, any algebraic curve of genus one, for example the intersection of two quadric surfaces embedded in three-dimensional projective space, is called an elliptic curve, provided that it is equipped with a marked point to act as the identity.Using the theory of elliptic functions, it can be shown that elliptic curves defined over the complex numbers correspond to embeddings of the torus into the complex projective plane.", "The torus is also an abelian group, and this correspondence is also a group isomorphism.Elliptic curves are especially important in number theory, and constitute a major area of current research; for example, they were used in Andrew Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.", "They also find applications in elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) and integer factorization.An elliptic curve is ''not'' an ellipse in the sense of a projective conic, which has genus zero: see elliptic integral for the origin of the term.", "However, there is a natural representation of real elliptic curves with shape invariant as ellipses in the hyperbolic plane .", "Specifically, the intersections of the Minkowski hyperboloid with quadric surfaces characterized by a certain constant-angle property produce the Steiner ellipses in (generated by orientation-preserving collineations).", "Further, the orthogonal trajectories of these ellipses comprise the elliptic curves with , and any ellipse in described as a locus relative to two foci is uniquely the elliptic curve sum of two Steiner ellipses, obtained by adding the pairs of intersections on each orthogonal trajectory.", "Here, the vertex of the hyperboloid serves as the identity on each trajectory curve.Topologically, a complex elliptic curve is a torus, while a complex ellipse is a sphere." ], [ "Elliptic curves over the real numbers", "Graphs of curves and Although the formal definition of an elliptic curve requires some background in algebraic geometry, it is possible to describe some features of elliptic curves over the real numbers using only introductory algebra and geometry.In this context, an elliptic curve is a plane curve defined by an equation of the form:after a linear change of variables ( and are real numbers).", "This type of equation is called a Weierstrass equation, and said to be in Weierstrass form, or Weierstrass normal form.The definition of elliptic curve also requires that the curve be non-singular.", "Geometrically, this means that the graph has no cusps, self-intersections, or isolated points.", "Algebraically, this holds if and only if the discriminant, , is not equal to zero.", ": (Although the factor −16 is irrelevant to whether or not the curve is non-singular, this definition of the discriminant is useful in a more advanced study of elliptic curves.", ")The real graph of a non-singular curve has ''two'' components if its discriminant is positive, and ''one'' component if it is negative.", "For example, in the graphs shown in figure to the right, the discriminant in the first case is 64, and in the second case is −368." ], [ "The group law", "When working in the projective plane, the equation in homogeneous coordinates becomes ::This equation is not defined on the line at infinity, but we can multiply by to get one that is ::This resulting equation is defined on the whole projective plane, and the curve it defines projects onto the elliptic curve of interest.", "To find its intersection with the line at infinity, we can just posit .", "This implies , which in a field means .", "on the other hand can take any value thus all triplets satisfy the equation.", "In projective geometry this set is simply the point , which is thus the unique intersection of the curve with the line at infinity.Since the curve is smooth, hence continuous, it can be shown that this point at infinity is the identity element of a group structure whose operation is geometrically described thereafter.Since the curve is symmetrical about the -axis, given any point , we can take to be the point opposite it.", "We then have , as lies on the -plane, so that is also the symmetrical of about the origin, and thus represents the same projective point.If and are two points on the curve, then we can uniquely describe a third point in the following way.", "First, draw the line that intersects and .", "This will generally intersect the cubic at a third point, .", "We then take to be , the point opposite .This definition for addition works except in a few special cases related to the point at infinity and intersection multiplicity.", "The first is when one of the points is .", "Here, we define , making the identity of the group.", "If we only have one point, thus we cannot define the line between them.", "In this case, we use the tangent line to the curve at this point as our line.", "In most cases, the tangent will intersect a second point and we can take its opposite.", "If and are opposites of each other, we define .", "Lastly, If is an inflection point (a point where the concavity of the curve changes), we take to be itself and is simply the point opposite itself, i.e.", "itself.Image:ECClines.svgLet be a field over which the curve is defined (that is, the coefficients of the defining equation or equations of the curve are in ) and denote the curve by .", "Then the -rational points of are the points on whose coordinates all lie in , including the point at infinity.", "The set of -rational points is denoted by .", "is a group, because properties of polynomial equations show that if is in , then is also in , and if two of , , are in , then so is the third.", "Additionally, if is a subfield of , then is a subgroup of .===Algebraic interpretation===The above groups can be described algebraically as well as geometrically.", "Given the curve over the field (whose characteristic we assume to be neither 2 nor 3), and points and on the curve, assume first that (case ''1'').", "Let be the equation of the line that intersects and , which has the following slope::The line equation and the curve equation intersect at the points , , and , so the equations have identical values at these values.", ":which is equivalent to:Since , , and are solutions, this equation has its roots at exactly the same values as:and because both equations are cubics they must be the same polynomial up to a scalar.", "Then equating the coefficients of in both equations:and solving for the unknown .", ": follows from the line equation:and this is an element of , because is.If , then there are two options: if (case ''3''), including the case where (case ''4''), then the sum is defined as 0; thus, the inverse of each point on the curve is found by reflecting it across the -axis.If , then and (case ''2'' using as ).", "The slope is given by the tangent to the curve at (''x''''P'', ''y''''P'').", ":===Non-Weierstrass curves===For a cubic curve not in Weierstrass normal form, we can still define a group structure by designating one of its nine inflection points as the identity .", "In the projective plane, each line will intersect a cubic at three points when accounting for multiplicity.", "For a point , is defined as the unique third point on the line passing through and .", "Then, for any and , is defined as where is the unique third point on the line containing and .For an example of the group law over a non-Weierstrass curve, see Hessian curves." ], [ "Elliptic curves over the rational numbers", "A curve ''E'' defined over the field of rational numbers is also defined over the field of real numbers.", "Therefore, the law of addition (of points with real coordinates) by the tangent and secant method can be applied to ''E''.", "The explicit formulae show that the sum of two points ''P'' and ''Q'' with rational coordinates has again rational coordinates, since the line joining ''P'' and ''Q'' has rational coefficients.", "This way, one shows that the set of rational points of ''E'' forms a subgroup of the group of real points of ''E''.===Integral points===This section is concerned with points ''P'' = (''x'', ''y'') of ''E'' such that ''x'' is an integer.For example, the equation ''y''2 = ''x''3 + 17 has eight integral solutions with ''y'' > 0::(''x'', ''y'') = (−2, 3), (−1, 4), (2, 5), (4, 9), (8, 23), (43, 282), (52, 375), (, ).As another example, Ljunggren's equation, a curve whose Weierstrass form is ''y''2 = ''x''3 − 2''x'', has only four solutions with ''y'' ≥ 0 ::(''x'', ''y'') = (0, 0), (−1, 1), (2, 2), (338, ).===The structure of rational points===Rational points can be constructed by the method of tangents and secants detailed above, starting with a ''finite'' number of rational points.", "More precisely the Mordell–Weil theorem states that the group ''E''('''Q''') is a finitely generated (abelian) group.", "By the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups it is therefore a finite direct sum of copies of '''Z''' and finite cyclic groups.The proof of the theorem involves two parts.", "The first part shows that for any integer ''m'' > 1, the quotient group ''E''('''Q''')/''mE''('''Q''') is finite (this is the weak Mordell–Weil theorem).", "Second, introducing a height function ''h'' on the rational points ''E''('''Q''') defined by ''h''(''P''0) = 0 and if ''P'' (unequal to the point at infinity ''P''0) has as abscissa the rational number ''x'' = ''p''/''q'' (with coprime ''p'' and ''q'').", "This height function ''h'' has the property that ''h''(''mP'') grows roughly like the square of ''m''.", "Moreover, only finitely many rational points with height smaller than any constant exist on ''E''.The proof of the theorem is thus a variant of the method of infinite descent and relies on the repeated application of Euclidean divisions on ''E'': let ''P'' ∈ ''E''('''Q''') be a rational point on the curve, writing ''P'' as the sum 2''P''1 + ''Q''1 where ''Q''1 is a fixed representant of ''P'' in ''E''('''Q''')/2''E''('''Q'''), the height of ''P''1 is about of the one of ''P'' (more generally, replacing 2 by any ''m'' > 1, and by ).", "Redoing the same with ''P''1, that is to say ''P''1 = 2''P''2 + ''Q''2, then ''P''2 = 2''P''3 + ''Q''3, etc.", "finally expresses ''P'' as an integral linear combination of points ''Qi'' and of points whose height is bounded by a fixed constant chosen in advance: by the weak Mordell–Weil theorem and the second property of the height function ''P'' is thus expressed as an integral linear combination of a finite number of fixed points.", "The theorem however doesn't provide a method to determine any representatives of ''E''('''Q''')/''mE''('''Q''').The rank of ''E''('''Q'''), that is the number of copies of '''Z''' in ''E''('''Q''') or, equivalently, the number of independent points of infinite order, is called the ''rank'' of ''E''.", "The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture is concerned with determining the rank.", "One conjectures that it can be arbitrarily large, even if only examples with relatively small rank are known.", "The elliptic curve with the currently largest exactly-known rank is:''y''2 + ''xy'' + ''y'' = ''x''3 − ''x''2 − ''x'' + It has rank 20, found by Noam Elkies and Zev Klagsbrun in 2020.Curves of rank higher than 20 have been known since 1994, with lower bounds on their ranks ranging from 21 to 28, but their exact ranks are not known and in particular it is not proven which of them have higher rank than the others or which is the true \"current champion\".As for the groups constituting the torsion subgroup of ''E''('''Q'''), the following is known: the torsion subgroup of ''E''('''Q''') is one of the 15 following groups (a theorem due to Barry Mazur): '''Z'''/''N'''''Z''' for ''N'' = 1, 2, ..., 10, or 12, or '''Z'''/2'''Z''' × '''Z'''/2''N'''''Z''' with ''N'' = 1, 2, 3, 4.Examples for every case are known.", "Moreover, elliptic curves whose Mordell–Weil groups over '''Q''' have the same torsion groups belong to a parametrized family.===The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture===The ''Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture'' (BSD) is one of the Millennium problems of the Clay Mathematics Institute.", "The conjecture relies on analytic and arithmetic objects defined by the elliptic curve in question.At the analytic side, an important ingredient is a function of a complex variable, ''L'', the Hasse–Weil zeta function of ''E'' over '''Q'''.", "This function is a variant of the Riemann zeta function and Dirichlet L-functions.", "It is defined as an Euler product, with one factor for every prime number ''p''.For a curve ''E'' over '''Q''' given by a minimal equation:with integral coefficients , reducing the coefficients modulo ''p'' defines an elliptic curve over the finite field '''F'''''p'' (except for a finite number of primes ''p'', where the reduced curve has a singularity and thus fails to be elliptic, in which case ''E'' is said to be of bad reduction at ''p'').The zeta function of an elliptic curve over a finite field '''F'''''p'' is, in some sense, a generating function assembling the information of the number of points of ''E'' with values in the finite field extensions '''F'''''pn'' of '''F'''''p''.", "It is given by:The interior sum of the exponential resembles the development of the logarithm and, in fact, the so-defined zeta function is a rational function in ''T''::where the 'trace of Frobenius' term is defined to be the difference between the 'expected' number and the number of points on the elliptic curve over , viz.", ":or equivalently,:.We may define the same quantities and functions over an arbitrary finite field of characteristic , with replacing everywhere.The L-function of ''E'' over '''Q''' is then defined by collecting this information together, for all primes ''p''.", "It is defined by:where ''N'' is the conductor of ''E'', i.e.", "the product of primes with bad reduction, in which case ''ap'' is defined differently from the method above: see Silverman (1986) below.This product converges for Re(''s'') > 3/2 only.", "Hasse's conjecture affirms that the ''L''-function admits an analytic continuation to the whole complex plane and satisfies a functional equation relating, for any ''s'', ''L''(''E'', ''s'') to ''L''(''E'', 2 − ''s'').", "In 1999 this was shown to be a consequence of the proof of the Shimura–Taniyama–Weil conjecture, which asserts that every elliptic curve over ''Q'' is a modular curve, which implies that its ''L''-function is the ''L''-function of a modular form whose analytic continuation is known.", "One can therefore speak about the values of ''L''(''E'', ''s'') at any complex number ''s''.At ''s=1'' (the conductor product can be discarded as it is finite), the L-function becomes:The ''Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture'' relates the arithmetic of the curve to the behaviour of this ''L''-function at ''s'' = 1.It affirms that the vanishing order of the ''L''-function at ''s'' = 1 equals the rank of ''E'' and predicts the leading term of the Laurent series of ''L''(''E'', ''s'') at that point in terms of several quantities attached to the elliptic curve.Much like the Riemann hypothesis, the truth of the BSD conjecture would have multiple consequences, including the following two:* A congruent number is defined as an odd square-free integer ''n'' which is the area of a right triangle with rational side lengths.", "It is known that ''n'' is a congruent number if and only if the elliptic curve has a rational point of infinite order; assuming BSD, this is equivalent to its ''L''-function having a zero at ''s'' = 1.Tunnell has shown a related result: assuming BSD, ''n'' is a congruent number if and only if the number of triplets of integers (''x'', ''y'', ''z'') satisfying is twice the number of triples satisfying .", "The interest in this statement is that the condition is easy to check.", "*In a different direction, certain analytic methods allow for an estimation of the order of zero in the center of the critical strip for certain ''L''-functions.", "Admitting BSD, these estimations correspond to information about the rank of families of the corresponding elliptic curves.", "For example: assuming the generalized Riemann hypothesis and BSD, the average rank of curves given by is smaller than 2." ], [ "Elliptic curves over finite fields", "Set of affine points of elliptic curve ''y''2 = ''x''3 − ''x'' over finite field '''F'''61.Let ''K'' = '''F'''''q'' be the finite field with ''q'' elements and ''E'' an elliptic curve defined over ''K''.", "While the precise number of rational points of an elliptic curve ''E'' over ''K'' is in general difficult to compute, Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves gives the following inequality::In other words, the number of points on the curve grows proportionally to the number of elements in the field.", "This fact can be understood and proven with the help of some general theory; see local zeta function and étale cohomology for example.Set of affine points of elliptic curve ''y''2 = ''x''3 − ''x'' over finite field '''F'''89.The set of points ''E''('''F'''''q'') is a finite abelian group.", "It is always cyclic or the product of two cyclic groups, depending whether ''q'' is even or odd.", "For example, the curve defined by:over '''F'''71 has 72 points (71 affine points including (0,0) and one point at infinity) over this field, whose group structure is given by '''Z'''/2'''Z''' × '''Z'''/36'''Z'''.", "The number of points on a specific curve can be computed with Schoof's algorithm.Set of affine points of elliptic curve ''y''2 = ''x''3 − ''x'' over finite field '''F'''71.Studying the curve over the field extensions of '''F'''''q'' is facilitated by the introduction of the local zeta function of ''E'' over '''F'''''q'', defined by a generating series (also see above):where the field ''Kn'' is the (unique up to isomorphism) extension of ''K'' = '''F'''''q'' of degree ''n'' (that is, '''F'''''qn'').The zeta function is a rational function in ''T''.", "To see this, the integer such that:has an associated complex number such that:where is the complex conjugate.", "We choose so that its absolute value is , that is , and that , so that and , or in other words, .", "can then be used in the local zeta function as its values when raised to the various powers of can be said to reasonably approximate the behaviour of .", ":Then , so finally:For example, the zeta function of ''E'' : ''y''2 + ''y'' = ''x''3 over the field '''F'''2 is given by:which follows from::The functional equation is:As we are only interested in the behaviour of , we can use a reduced zeta function::and so:which leads directly to the local L-functions:The Sato–Tate conjecture is a statement about how the error term in Hasse's theorem varies with the different primes ''q'', if an elliptic curve E over '''Q''' is reduced modulo q.", "It was proven (for almost all such curves) in 2006 due to the results of Taylor, Harris and Shepherd-Barron, and says that the error terms are equidistributed.Elliptic curves over finite fields are notably applied in cryptography and for the factorization of large integers.", "These algorithms often make use of the group structure on the points of ''E''.", "Algorithms that are applicable to general groups, for example the group of invertible elements in finite fields, '''F'''*''q'', can thus be applied to the group of points on an elliptic curve.", "For example, the discrete logarithm is such an algorithm.", "The interest in this is that choosing an elliptic curve allows for more flexibility than choosing ''q'' (and thus the group of units in '''F'''''q'').", "Also, the group structure of elliptic curves is generally more complicated." ], [ "Elliptic curves over a general field", "Elliptic curves can be defined over any field ''K''; the formal definition of an elliptic curve is a non-singular projective algebraic curve over ''K'' with genus 1 and endowed with a distinguished point defined over ''K''.If the characteristic of ''K'' is neither 2 nor 3, then every elliptic curve over ''K'' can be written in the form:after a linear change of variables.", "Here ''p'' and ''q'' are elements of ''K'' such that the right hand side polynomial ''x''3 − ''px'' − ''q'' does not have any double roots.", "If the characteristic is 2 or 3, then more terms need to be kept: in characteristic 3, the most general equation is of the form:for arbitrary constants ''b''2, ''b''4, ''b''6 such that the polynomial on the right-hand side has distinct roots (the notation is chosen for historical reasons).", "In characteristic 2, even this much is not possible, and the most general equation is:provided that the variety it defines is non-singular.", "If characteristic were not an obstruction, each equation would reduce to the previous ones by a suitable linear change of variables.One typically takes the curve to be the set of all points (''x'',''y'') which satisfy the above equation and such that both ''x'' and ''y'' are elements of the algebraic closure of ''K''.", "Points of the curve whose coordinates both belong to ''K'' are called '''''K''-rational points'''.Many of the preceding results remain valid when the field of definition of ''E'' is a number field ''K'', that is to say, a finite field extension of '''Q'''.", "In particular, the group ''E(K)'' of ''K''-rational points of an elliptic curve ''E'' defined over ''K'' is finitely generated, which generalizes the Mordell–Weil theorem above.", "A theorem due to Loïc Merel shows that for a given integer ''d'', there are (up to isomorphism) only finitely many groups that can occur as the torsion groups of ''E''(''K'') for an elliptic curve defined over a number field ''K'' of degree ''d''.", "More precisely, there is a number ''B''(''d'') such that for any elliptic curve ''E'' defined over a number field ''K'' of degree ''d'', any torsion point of ''E''(''K'') is of order less than ''B''(''d'').", "The theorem is effective: for ''d'' > 1, if a torsion point is of order ''p'', with ''p'' prime, then:As for the integral points, Siegel's theorem generalizes to the following: Let ''E'' be an elliptic curve defined over a number field ''K'', ''x'' and ''y'' the Weierstrass coordinates.", "Then there are only finitely many points of ''E(K)'' whose ''x''-coordinate is in the ring of integers ''O''''K''.The properties of the Hasse–Weil zeta function and the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture can also be extended to this more general situation." ], [ "Elliptic curves over the complex numbers", "An elliptic curve over the complex numbers is obtained as a quotient of the complex plane by a lattice , here spanned by two fundamental periods and .", "The four-torsion is also shown, corresponding to the lattice containing .The formulation of elliptic curves as the embedding of a torus in the complex projective plane follows naturally from a curious property of Weierstrass's elliptic functions.", "These functions and their first derivative are related by the formula:Here, and are constants; is the Weierstrass elliptic function and its derivative.", "It should be clear that this relation is in the form of an elliptic curve (over the complex numbers).", "The Weierstrass functions are doubly periodic; that is, they are periodic with respect to a lattice ; in essence, the Weierstrass functions are naturally defined on a torus .", "This torus may be embedded in the complex projective plane by means of the map:This map is a group isomorphism of the torus (considered with its natural group structure) with the chord-and-tangent group law on the cubic curve which is the image of this map.", "It is also an isomorphism of Riemann surfaces from the torus to the cubic curve, so topologically, an elliptic curve is a torus.", "If the lattice is related by multiplication by a non-zero complex number to a lattice , then the corresponding curves are isomorphic.", "Isomorphism classes of elliptic curves are specified by the -invariant.The isomorphism classes can be understood in a simpler way as well.", "The constants and , called the modular invariants, are uniquely determined by the lattice, that is, by the structure of the torus.", "However, all real polynomials factorize completely into linear factors over the complex numbers, since the field of complex numbers is the algebraic closure of the reals.", "So, the elliptic curve may be written as:One finds that:and:with -invariant and is sometimes called the modular lambda function.", "For example, let , then which implies , , and therefore of the formula above are all algebraic numbers if involves an imaginary quadratic field.", "In fact, it yields the integer .", "In contrast, the modular discriminant:is generally a transcendental number.", "In particular, the value of the Dedekind eta function is:Note that the uniformization theorem implies that every compact Riemann surface of genus one can be represented as a torus.", "This also allows an easy understanding of the torsion points on an elliptic curve: if the lattice is spanned by the fundamental periods and , then the -torsion points are the (equivalence classes of) points of the form:for integers and in the range .If:is an elliptic curve over the complex numbers and:then a pair of fundamental periods of can be calculated very rapidly by: is the arithmetic–geometric mean of and .", "At each step of the arithmetic–geometric mean iteration, the signs of arising from the ambiguity of geometric mean iterations are chosen such that where and denote the individual arithmetic mean and geometric mean iterations of and , respectively.", "When , there is an additional condition that .Over the complex numbers, every elliptic curve has nine inflection points.", "Every line through two of these points also passes through a third inflection point; the nine points and 12 lines formed in this way form a realization of the Hesse configuration." ], [ "The Dual Isogeny", "Given an isogeny:of elliptic curves of degree , the '''dual isogeny''' is an isogeny:of the same degree such that:Here denotes the multiplication-by- isogeny which has degree ===Construction of the Dual Isogeny===Often only the existence of a dual isogeny is needed, but it can be explicitly given as the composition:where is the group of divisors of degree 0.To do this, we need maps given by where is the neutral point of and given by To see that , note that the original isogeny can be written as a composite:and that since is finite of degree , is multiplication by on Alternatively, we can use the smaller Picard group , a quotient of The map descends to an isomorphism, The dual isogeny is:Note that the relation also implies the conjugate relation Indeed, let Then But is surjective, so we must have" ], [ "Algorithms that use elliptic curves", "Elliptic curves over finite fields are used in some cryptographic applications as well as for integer factorization.", "Typically, the general idea in these applications is that a known algorithm which makes use of certain finite groups is rewritten to use the groups of rational points of elliptic curves.", "For more see also:* Elliptic curve cryptography* Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange* Supersingular isogeny key exchange*Elliptic curve digital signature algorithm* EdDSA digital signature algorithm* Dual EC DRBG random number generator* Lenstra elliptic-curve factorization* Elliptic curve primality proving" ], [ "Alternative representations of elliptic curves", "* Hessian curve* Edwards curve* Twisted curve* Twisted Hessian curve* Twisted Edwards curve* Doubling-oriented Doche–Icart–Kohel curve* Tripling-oriented Doche–Icart–Kohel curve* Jacobian curve* Montgomery curve" ], [ "See also", "* Arithmetic dynamics* Elliptic algebra* Elliptic surface* Comparison of computer algebra systems* Isogeny* j-line* Level structure (algebraic geometry)* Modularity theorem* Moduli stack of elliptic curves* Nagell–Lutz theorem* Riemann–Hurwitz formula* Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Serge Lang, in the introduction to the book cited below, stated that \"It is possible to write endlessly on elliptic curves.", "(This is not a threat.)\"", "The following short list is thus at best a guide to the vast expository literature available on the theoretical, algorithmic, and cryptographic aspects of elliptic curves.", "* * , winner of the MAA writing prize the George Pólya Award* * ** Chapter XXV* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* LMFDB: Database of Elliptic Curves over Q* * * The Arithmetic of elliptic curves from PlanetMath* Interactive elliptic curve over R and over Zp – web application that requires HTML5 capable browser." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Equidae" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Equidae''' (sometimes known as the '''horse family''') is the taxonomic family of horses and related animals, including the extant horses, asses, and zebras, and many other species known only from fossils.", "The family evolved around 50 million years ago from a small, multi-toed ungulate into larger, single-toed animals.", "All extant species are in the genus ''Equus'', which originated in North America.", "Equidae belongs to the order Perissodactyla, which includes the extant tapirs and rhinoceros, and several extinct families.The term '''equid''' refers to any member of this family, including any equine." ], [ "Evolution", "Extinct equids restored to scale.", "Left to right: ''Mesohippus'', ''Neohipparion'', ''Eohippus'', ''Equus scotti'' and ''Hypohippus''The oldest known fossils assigned to Equidae were found in North America, and date from the early Eocene epoch, 54 million years ago.", "They were once assigned to the genus ''Hyracotherium'', but the type species of that genus is now regarded as a palaeothere.", "The other species have been split off into different genera.", "These early equids were fox-sized animals with three toes on the hind feet, and four on the front feet.", "They were herbivorous browsers on relatively soft plants, and already adapted for running.", "The complexity of their brains suggest that they already were alert and intelligent animals.", "Later species reduced the number of toes, and developed teeth more suited for grinding up grasses and other tough plant food.The equids, like other perissodactyls, are hindgut fermenters.", "They have evolved specialized teeth that cut and shear tough plant matter to accommodate their fibrous diet.", "Their seemingly inefficient digestion strategy is a result of their size at the time of its evolution, as they would have already had to be relatively large mammals to be supported on such a strategy.The family became relatively diverse during the Miocene epoch, with many new species appearing.", "By this time, equids were more truly horse like, having developed the typical body shape of the modern animals.", "Many of these species bore the main weight of their bodies on their central third toe, with the others becoming reduced and barely touching the ground, if at all.", "The sole surviving genus, ''Equus'', had evolved by the early Pleistocene epoch, and spread rapidly through the world." ], [ "Classification", "Skeletons''Protorohippus''''Hipparion''Przewalski's horse)* '''Order Perissodactyla''' (In addition to Equidae, Perissodactyla includes four species of tapir in a single genus, as well as five living species (belonging to four genera) of rhinoceros.)", "† indicates extinct taxa.", "** Family '''Equidae'''*** Subfamily †'''Eohippinae'''**** Genus †''Epihippus''**** Genus †''Haplohippus''**** Genus †''Eohippus''**** Genus †''Minippus''*** Subfamily †'''Propalaeotheriinae'''**** Genus †''Orohippus''**** Genus †''Pliolophus''**** Genus †''Protorohippus''**** Genus †''Sifrhippus''**** Genus †''Xenicohippus''**** Genus †''Eurohippus''**** Genus †''Propalaeotherium''?", "*** Subfamily †Anchitheriinae**** Genus †''Anchitherium''**** Genus †''Archaeohippus''**** Genus †''Desmatippus''**** Genus †''Hypohippus''**** Genus †''Kalobatippus''**** Genus †''Megahippus''**** Genus †''Mesohippus''**** Genus †''Miohippus''**** Genus †''Parahippus''**** Genus †''Sinohippus''*** Subfamily Equinae**** Genus †''Merychippus''**** Genus †''Scaphohippus''**** Genus †''Acritohippus''**** Tribe †Hipparionini***** Genus †''Eurygnathohippus''***** Genus †''Hipparion''***** Genus †''Hippotherium''***** Genus †''Nannippus''***** Genus †''Neohipparion''***** Genus †''Proboscidipparion''***** Genus †''Pseudhipparion''**** Tribe Equini***** Genus †''Haringtonhippus''***** Genus †''Heteropliohippus''***** Genus †''Parapliohippus''***** Subtribe Protohippina****** Genus †''Calippus''****** Genus †''Protohippus''***** Subtribe Equina****** Genus †''Astrohippus''****** Genus †''Dinohippus''****** Genus ''Equus'' (22 species, 7 extant)*******''Equus ferus'' Wild horse ******** ''Equus ferus caballus'' Domestic horse******** ''†Equus ferus ferus'' Tarpan******** ''Equus ferus przewalskii'' Przewalski's horse******* †''Equus algericus''******* †''Equus alaskae''******* †''Equus lambei'' Yukon wild horse******* †''Equus niobrarensis''******* †''Equus scotti''******* †''Equus conversidens'' Mexican horse******* †''Equus semiplicatus''******* Subgenus †''Amerhippus'' (this subgenus and its species are possibly synonymous with ''E.", "ferus'')******** †''Equus andium''******** †''Equus neogeus''******** †''Equus insulatus''******* Subgenus ''Asinus''******** ''Equus africanus'' African wild ass********* ''Equus africanus africanus'' Nubian wild ass********* ''Equus africanus asinus'' Domestic donkey********* †''Equus africanus atlanticus'' Atlas wild ass********* ''Equus africanus somalicus'' Somali wild ass******** ''Equus hemionus'' Onager or Asiatic wild ass********* ''Equus hemionus hemionus'' Mongolian wild ass********* †''Equus hemionus hemippus'' Syrian wild ass********* ''Equus hemionus khur'' Indian wild ass********* ''Equus hemionus kulan'' Turkmenian kulan********* ''Equus hemionus onager'' Persian onager******** ''Equus kiang'' Kiang********* ''Equus kiang chu'' Northern kiang********* ''Equus kiang kiang'' Western kiang********* ''Equus kiang holdereri'' Eastern kiang********* ''Equus kiang polyodon'' Southern kiang******** †''Equus hydruntinus'' European ass******** †''Equus altidens''******** †''Equus tabeti''******** †''Equus melkiensis''******** †''Equus graziosii''******* Subgenus ''Hippotigris''******** ''Equus grevyi'' Grévy's zebra******** †''Equus koobiforensis''******** †''Equus oldowayensis''******** ''Equus quagga'' Plains zebra********* ''Equus quagga boehmi'' Grant's zebra********* ''Equus quagga borensis'' Maneless zebra********* ''Equus quagga burchellii'' Burchell's zebra********* ''Equus quagga chapmani'' Chapman's zebra********* ''Equus quagga crawshayi'' Crawshay's zebra********* †''Equus quagga quagga'' Quagga********* ''Equus quagga selousi'' Selous' zebra******** ''Equus zebra'' Mountain zebra********* ''Equus zebra hartmannae'' Hartmann's mountain zebra********* ''Equus zebra zebra'' Cape mountain zebra******** †''Equus capensis''******** †''Equus mauritanicus''******* Subgenus †''Parastylidequus''******** †''Equus parastylidens'' Mooser's horse******* †Subgenus ''Sussemionus''******** †''Equus ovodovi''******* ''incertae sedis''******** †''Equus simplicidens'' Hagerman horse******** †''Equus cumminsii''******** †''Equus livenzovensis''******** †''Equus sanmeniensis''******** †''Equus teilhardi''******** †''Equus numidicus''******** †''Equus plicidens''******** †''Equus cedralensis''******** †''Equus stenonis'' group********* †''Equus stenonis'' Stenon zebra********** †''Equus stenonis guthi''********** †''Equus stenonis senezensis''********** †''Equus stenonis pamirensis'' (''Hippotigris pamirensis'')********** †''Equus stenonis petraloniensis''********** †''Equus stenonis vireti''********* †''Equus sivalensis''********* †''Equus stehlini''********* †''Equus sussenbornensis''********* †''Equus verae''********* †''Equus namadicus''******** †subgenus ''Allozebra''********* †''Equus (A.)", "occidentalis'' western horse****** †''Equus (A.)", "excelsus''******** †subgenus ''Hesperohippus''********* †''Equus (H.) pacificus''********* †''Equus (H.) mexicanus''******** †''Equus complicatus''******** †''Equus fraternus''******** †''Equus major''******** †''Equus giganteus''******** †''Equus pectinatus''******** †''Equus crenidens''****** Genus †''Hippidion''****** Genus †''Onohippidium''****** Genus †''Pliohippus''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of economists" ], [ "Introduction", "This is an incomplete alphabetical list by surname of notable '''economists''', experts in the social science of economics, past and present.", "For a history of economics, see the article History of economic thought.", "Only economists with biographical articles in Wikipedia are listed here.==A==ThomasAttwood.jpg|Thomas AttwoodSir Willim Ashley.jpg|Sir William AshleyDr.", "Bhimrao Ambedkar.jpg|B.", "R. AmbedkarGeorge Akerlof.jpg|George AkerlofKenneth Arrow, Stanford University.jpg|Kenneth ArrowALLAIS PN Maurice-24x30-2001b.jpg|Maurice AllaisAumann-1080b.jpg|Robert Aumann==B==Ali Babacan - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2012 crop.jpg|Ali BabacanBakunin Nadar.jpg|Mikhail BakuninBastiat.jpg|Frédéric Bastiat1Bawerk.png|Eugen von Böhm-BawerkGaryBecker-May24-2008.jpg|Gary BeckerFischer Black.JPG|Fischer BlackJames Buchanan by Atlas network.jpg|James M. BuchananBen Bernanke official portrait.jpg|Ben BernankeWalter block-teaching.jpg|Walter BlockFdb4 2010.jpg|Francine D. BlauOliver Blanchard, IMF 98BlanchardWEO1 lg.jpg|Olivier BlanchardJean Bodin.jpg|Jean BodinWillem Buiter 1984.jpg|Willem BuiterEdmundBurke1771.jpg|Edmund Burke==C==Agustin Carstens.jpg|Agustín CarstensHa-Joon Chang profile.jpg|Ha-Joon ChangThomas Chalmers - Project Gutenberg 13103.jpg|Thomas ChalmersHenrycharlescarey.jpg|Henry Charles CareyJohn Bates Clark.jpg|John Bates ClarkCassel.gif|Gustav CasselJohnCommons.jpg|John R. Commons ==D==Debreu, Gérard (1921-2004).jpeg|Gérard DebreuDemsetzatgmu.jpg|Harold DemsetzPartha Dasgupta - Trento 2013 02.JPG|Partha DasguptaProfessor Huw Dixon.jpg|Huw DixonAvinash Dixit.JPG|Avinash DixitBrad DeLong 201010.jpg|J.", "Bradford DeLong==E==Engels.jpg|Friedrich EngelsRobert F. Engle.jpg|Robert F. EngleVanessa Erogbogbo in 2017 (cropped).jpg|Vanessa Erogbogbo==F==WilliamFleetwood.jpg|William FleetwoodIrvingfisher.jpg|Irving FisherPortrait of Milton Friedman.jpg|Milton FriedmanJason Furman 2011.jpg|Jason FurmanRobert William Fogel.jpg|Robert Fogel==G==Gide, Charles.jpg|Charles GideHenry George.jpg|Henry GeorgeJohn Kenneth Galbraith.jpg|John Kenneth GalbraithEdward L. Glaeser at FT Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award 2011.jpg|Edward GlaeserIan Goldin World Economic Forum 2013.jpg|Ian Goldin==H==Painting of David Hume.jpg|David HumeFriedrich Hayek portrait.jpg|Friedrich HayekEli Heckscher.jpg|Eli HeckscherTrygve Haavelmo.jpg|Trygve HaavelmoJames Heckman.jpg|James HeckmanGlenn Hubbard portrait.jpg|Glenn Hubbard==I====J==Picture of jevons.jpg|William Stanley Jevons==K==Ibn Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg|Ibn KhaldunKeynes 1933.jpg|John Maynard KeynesNicholas Kaldor.jpg|Nicholas KaldorDaniel Kahneman (3283955327) (cropped).jpg|Daniel KahnemanKydland.jpg|Finn E. KydlandAnne O. Krueger (2004).jpg|Anne Osborn Krueger==L==John Law-Casimir Balthazar mg 8450.jpg|John LawAbba Lerner.jpg|Abba LernerOskar Lange 20-65.jpg|Oskar LangeRosa Luxemburg.jpg|Rosa Luxemburg==M==Thomas Malthus.jpg|Thomas MalthusPSM V03 D380 John Stuart Mill.jpg|John Stuart MillAlfred Marshall.jpg|Alfred MarshallKarl Marx.jpg|Karl MarxLudwig von Mises.jpg|Ludwig von MisesGunnar Myrdal - Sveriges styresmän.jpg|Gunnar MyrdalMyerson roger b print.jpg|Roger MyersonDale Mortensen 2.jpg|Dale MortensenXavier Sala-i-Martin.jpg|Xavier Sala i MartinDambisa Moyo 2013 BlackRock.jpg|Dambisa Moyo==N==Dudley North.jpg|Dudley NorthJohn Forbes Nash, Jr. by Peter Badge.jpg|John Forbes Nash==O==Portrait of Robert Owen.png|Robert OwenBertil Ohlin.jpg|Bertil OhlinNobel Prize 2009-Press Conference KVA-30.jpg|Elinor Ostrom==P==V R Panchamukhi.jpg|V.", "R. PanchamukhiPerez-Capdevila.jpg|Javier Perez-CapdevilaVilfredo Pareto 1870s2.jpg|Vilfredo ParetoA.C.", "Pigou.jpg|Arthur Cecil PigouPiketty in Cambridge 3 crop.jpg|Thomas PikettyEdward C. Prescott.jpg|Edward C. PrescottChristina paxson.jpg|Christina Paxson==Q==François Quesnay.jpg|François Quesnay==R==Portrait of David Ricardo by Thomas Phillips.jpg|David RicardoJoan Robinson Ramsey Muspratt.jpg|Joan RobinsonMurrayBW.jpg|Murray RothbardChristina Romer official portrait small.jpg|Christina RomerMatthew Rabin 2008.jpg|Matthew Rabin==S==Jean-baptiste Say.jpg|Jean-Baptiste SayNobel Prize 2011-Press Conference KVA-DSC 7770.jpg|Thomas J. SargentAdamSmith.jpg|Adam SmithJoseph Schumpeter ekonomialaria.jpg|Joseph SchumpeterAnna Schwartz by David Shankbone (cropped).jpg|Anna SchwartzPaul Samuelson.jpg|Paul SamuelsonTharman Shanmugaratnam Official photo 2023.tif|Tharman ShanmugaratnamRobert Solow by Olaf Storbeck.jpg|Robert SolowJoseph E. Stiglitz - cropped.jpg|Joseph E. StiglitzA Michael Spence.jpg|Michael SpenceMarkSkousen.jpg|Mark SkousenHans Werner Sinn.png|Hans-Werner SinnRobert Shiller - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2012.jpg|Robert ShillerLawrence Summers 2012.jpg|Lawrence SummersDr.", "D. Shina -.JPG|D.", "Shina==T==Anne Robert Jacques Turgot.jpg|Anne TurgotFrank William Taussig by Pach Brothers.jpg|Frank William TaussigJan Tinbergen 1982.jpg|Jan TinbergenGordon tullock.jpg|Gordon Tullock==U==* Kazuhide Uekusa (植草一秀, born 1960), Japanese economist* Kuzo Uno (宇野 弘蔵, 1897–1977), Japanese economist* Hirofumi Uzawa (宇沢弘文, 1928–2014), Japanese economist==V==Veblen3a.jpg|Thorstein VeblenPaulvolcker.jpg|Paul Volcker==W==Lwalras.jpg|Léon WalrasMax Weber 1894.jpg|Max WeberWicksell.jpg|Knut WicksellMarilyn Waring.jpg|Marilyn WaringMartinWolf2011ByDaphneBorowski.png|Martin Wolf==X==xenophon.jpg|Xenophon of Athens* Xenophon (c. 430–354 BCE), Ancient Greek, author of ''Oeconomicus''==Y==Janet yellen.jpg|Janet YellenMuhammad Yunus - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2012.jpg|Muhammad Yunus==Z==" ], [ "See also", "* History of economic thought* Schools of economic thought* List of Austrian School economists* List of business theorists* List of feminist economists* List of game theorists* List of Jewish economists* List of Marxian economists* List of Nobel laureates in Economics* List of socialist economists* List of Slovenian economists* List of think tanks* List of Uruguayan economists<!--" ], [ "References", "-->" ], [ "External links", "* * Overview: History of Economic Thought – Famous Economists* Tom Coupé's list of the top 1000 contemporary economists, ranked by publication impact, at IDEAS/RePEc* List of top 5% of contemporary economists, ranked by current research impact, at IDEAS/RePEc" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ELIZA" ], [ "Introduction", "A conversation with Eliza'''ELIZA''' is an early natural language processing computer program developed from 1964 to 1967 at MIT by Joseph Weizenbaum.", "Created to explore communication between humans and machines, ELIZA simulated conversation by using a pattern matching and substitution methodology that gave users an illusion of understanding on the part of the program, but had no representation that could be considered really understanding what was being said by either party.", "Whereas the ELIZA program itself was written (originally) in MAD-SLIP, the pattern matching directives that contained most of its language capability were provided in separate \"scripts\", represented in a lisp-like representation.", "The most famous script, DOCTOR, simulated a psychotherapist of the Rogerian school (in which the therapist often reflects back the patient's words to the patient), and used rules, dictated in the script, to respond with non-directional questions to user inputs.", "As such, ELIZA was one of the first chatterbots (\"chatbot\" modernly) and one of the first programs capable of attempting the Turing test.ELIZA's creator, Weizenbaum, intended the program as a method to explore communication between humans and machines.", "He was surprised and shocked that individuals, including Weizenbaum's secretary, attributed human-like feelings to the computer program.", "Many academics believed that the program would be able to positively influence the lives of many people, particularly those with psychological issues, and that it could aid doctors working on such patients' treatment.", "While ELIZA was capable of engaging in discourse, it could not converse with true understanding.", "However, many early users were convinced of ELIZA's intelligence and understanding, despite Weizenbaum's insistence to the contrary.", "The original ELIZA source-code had been missing since its creation in the 1960s as it was not common to publish articles that included source code at this time.", "However, more recently the MAD-SLIP source-code has now been discovered in the MIT archives and published on various platforms, such as archive.org.", "The source-code is of high historical interest as it demonstrates not only the specificity of programming languages and techniques at that time, but also the beginning of software layering and abstraction as a means of achieving sophisticated software programming." ], [ "Overview", "A conversation between a human and ELIZA's DOCTOR scriptJoseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA, running the DOCTOR script, created a conversational interaction somewhat similar to what might take place in the office of \"a non-directive psychotherapist in an initial psychiatric interview\" and to \"demonstrate that the communication between man and machine was superficial\".", "While ELIZA is best known for acting in the manner of a psychotherapist, the speech patterns are due to the data and instructions supplied by the DOCTOR script.", "ELIZA itself examined the text for keywords, applied values to said keywords, and transformed the input into an output; the script that ELIZA ran determined the keywords, set the values of keywords, and set the rules of transformation for the output.", "Weizenbaum chose to make the DOCTOR script in the context of psychotherapy to \"sidestep the problem of giving the program a data base of real-world knowledge\", allowing it to reflect back the patient's statements in order to carry the conversation forward.", "The result was a somewhat intelligent-seeming response that reportedly deceived some early users of the program.Weizenbaum named his program ELIZA after Eliza Doolittle, a working-class character in George Bernard Shaw's ''Pygmalion''.", "According to Weizenbaum, ELIZA's ability to be \"incrementally improved\" by various users made it similar to Eliza Doolittle, since Eliza Doolittle was taught to speak with an upper-class accent in Shaw's play.", "However, unlike the human character in Shaw's play, ELIZA is incapable of learning new patterns of speech or new words through interaction alone.", "Edits must be made directly to ELIZA's active script in order to change the manner by which the program operates.Weizenbaum first implemented ELIZA in his own SLIP list-processing language, where, depending upon the initial entries by the user, the illusion of human intelligence could appear, or be dispelled through several interchanges.", "Some of ELIZA's responses were so convincing that Weizenbaum and several others have anecdotes of users becoming emotionally attached to the program, occasionally forgetting that they were conversing with a computer.", "Weizenbaum's own secretary reportedly asked Weizenbaum to leave the room so that she and ELIZA could have a real conversation.", "Weizenbaum was surprised by this, later writing: \"I had not realized ... that extremely short exposures to a relatively simple computer program could induce powerful delusional thinking in quite normal people.", "\"In 1966, interactive computing (via a teletype) was new.", "It was 15 years before the personal computer became familiar to the general public, and three decades before most people encountered attempts at natural language processing in Internet services like Ask.com or PC help systems such as Microsoft Office Clippit.", "Although those programs included years of research and work, ELIZA remains a milestone simply because it was the first time a programmer had attempted such a human-machine interaction with the goal of creating the illusion (however brief) of human–''human'' interaction.At the ICCC 1972 ELIZA was brought together with another early artificial-intelligence program named PARRY for a computer-only conversation.", "While ELIZA was built to speak as a doctor, PARRY was intended to simulate a patient with schizophrenia." ], [ "Design", "Weizenbaum originally wrote ELIZA in MAD-SLIP for CTSS on an IBM 7094, as a program to make natural-language conversation possible with a computer.", "To accomplish this, Weizenbaum identified five \"fundamental technical problems\" for ELIZA to overcome: the identification of key words, the discovery of a minimal context, the choice of appropriate transformations, the generation of responses in the absence of key words, and the provision of an editing capability for ELIZA scripts.", "Weizenbaum solved these problems and made ELIZA such that it had no built-in contextual framework or universe of discourse.", "However, this required ELIZA to have a script of instructions on how to respond to inputs from users.ELIZA starts its process of responding to an input by a user by first examining the text input for a \"keyword\".", "A \"keyword\" is a word designated as important by the acting ELIZA script, which assigns to each keyword a precedence number, or a RANK, designed by the programmer.", "If such words are found, they are put into a \"keystack\", with the keyword of the highest RANK at the top.", "The input sentence is then manipulated and transformed as the rule associated with the keyword of the highest RANK directs.", "For example, when the DOCTOR script encounters words such as \"alike\" or \"same\", it would output a message pertaining to similarity, in this case \"In what way?", "\", as these words had high precedence number.", "This also demonstrates how certain words, as dictated by the script, can be manipulated regardless of contextual considerations, such as switching first-person pronouns and second-person pronouns and vice versa, as these too had high precedence numbers.", "Such words with high precedence numbers are deemed superior to conversational patterns and are treated independently of contextual patterns.Following the first examination, the next step of the process is to apply an appropriate transformation rule, which includes two parts: the \"decomposition rule\" and the \"reassembly rule\".", "First, the input is reviewed for syntactical patterns in order to establish the minimal context necessary to respond.", "Using the keywords and other nearby words from the input, different disassembly rules are tested until an appropriate pattern is found.", "Using the script's rules, the sentence is then \"dismantled\" and arranged into sections of the component parts as the \"decomposition rule for the highest-ranking keyword\" dictates.", "The example that Weizenbaum gives is the input \"You are very helpful\", which is transformed to \"I are very helpful\".", "This is then broken into (1) empty (2) \"I\" (3) \"are\" (4) \"very helpful\".", "The decomposition rule has broken the phrase into four small segments that contain both the keywords and the information in the sentence.The decomposition rule then designates a particular reassembly rule, or set of reassembly rules, to follow when reconstructing the sentence.", "The reassembly rule takes the fragments of the input that the decomposition rule had created, rearranges them, and adds in programmed words to create a response.", "Using Weizenbaum's example previously stated, such a reassembly rule would take the fragments and apply them to the phrase \"What makes you think I am (4)\", which would result in \"What makes you think I am very helpful?\".", "This example is rather simple, since depending upon the disassembly rule, the output could be significantly more complex and use more of the input from the user.", "However, from this reassembly, ELIZA then sends the constructed sentence to the user in the form of text on the screen.These steps represent the bulk of the procedures that ELIZA follows in order to create a response from a typical input, though there are several specialized situations that ELIZA/DOCTOR can respond to.", "One Weizenbaum specifically wrote about was when there is no keyword.", "One solution was to have ELIZA respond with a remark that lacked content, such as \"I see\" or \"Please go on\".", "The second method was to use a \"MEMORY\" structure, which recorded prior recent inputs, and would use these inputs to create a response referencing a part of the earlier conversation when encountered with no keywords.", "This was possible due to Slip's ability to tag words for other usage, which simultaneously allowed ELIZA to examine, store and repurpose words for usage in outputs.While these functions were all framed in ELIZA's programming, the exact manner by which the program dismantled, examined, and reassembled inputs is determined by the operating script.", "The script is not static and can be edited, or a new one created, as is necessary for the operation in the context needed.", "This would allow the program to be applied in multiple situations, including the well-known DOCTOR script, which simulates a Rogerian psychotherapist.A Lisp version of ELIZA, based on Weizenbaum's CACM paper, was written shortly after that paper's publication, by Bernie Cosell.", "A BASIC version appeared in ''Creative Computing'' in 1977 (although it was written in 1973 by Jeff Shrager).", "This version, which was ported to many of the earliest personal computers, appears to have been subsequently translated into many other versions in many other languages.", "Shrager claims not to have seen either Weizenbaum's or Cosell's versions.In 2021 Jeff Shrager searched MIT's Weizenbaum archives, along with MIT archivist Myles Crowley, and found files labeled Computer Conversations.", "These included the complete source code listing of ELIZA in MAD-SLIP, with the DOCTOR script attached.", "The Weizenbaum estate has given permission to open-source this code under a Creative Commons CC0 public domain license.", "The code and other information can be found on the ELIZAGEN site.Another version of Eliza popular among software engineers is the version that comes with the default release of GNU Emacs, and which can be accessed by typing M-x doctor from most modern Emacs implementations.=== Pseudocode ===From Figure 15.5, Chapter 15 of Speech and Language Processing (third edition).", "function ELIZA GENERATOR(user ''sentence'') returns ''response'' Let ''w'' be the word in ''sentence'' that has the highest keyword rank if ''w'' exists Let r be the highest ranked rule for w that matches sentence ''response'' ← Apply the transform in ''r'' to ''sentence'' if w = 'my' ''future'' ← Apply a transformation from the ‘memory’ rule list to ''sentence'' Push ''future'' onto the memory queue else (no keyword applies) Either ''response'' ← Apply the transform for the NONE keyword to ''sentence'' Or ''response'' ← Pop the oldest response from the memory queue Return ''response''" ], [ "Response and legacy", "Lay responses to ELIZA were disturbing to Weizenbaum and motivated him to write his book ''Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation'', in which he explains the limits of computers, as he wants to make clear his opinion that the anthropomorphic views of computers are just a reduction of human beings or any life form for that matter.", "In the independent documentary film ''Plug & Pray'' (2010) Weizenbaum said that only people who misunderstood ELIZA called it a sensation.The Israeli poet David Avidan, who was fascinated with future technologies and their relation to art, desired to explore the use of computers for writing literature.", "He conducted several conversations with an APL implementation of ELIZA and published them – in English, and in his own translation to Hebrew – under the title ''My Electronic Psychiatrist – Eight Authentic Talks with a Computer''.", "In the foreword he presented it as a form of constrained writing.There are many programs based on ELIZA in different programming languages.", "For MS-DOS computers, some Sound Blaster cards came bundled with Dr. Sbaitso, which functions like the DOCTOR script.", "Other versions adapted ELIZA around a religious theme, such as ones featuring Jesus (both serious and comedic), and another Apple II variant called ''I Am Buddha''.", "The 1980 game ''The Prisoner'' incorporated ELIZA-style interaction within its gameplay.", "In 1988 the British artist and friend of Weizenbaum Brian Reffin Smith created two art-oriented ELIZA-style programs written in BASIC, one called \"Critic\" and the other \"Artist\", running on two separate Amiga 1000 computers and showed them at the exhibition \"Salamandre\" in the Musée du Berry, Bourges, France.", "The visitor was supposed to help them converse by typing in to \"Artist\" what \"Critic\" said, and vice versa.", "The secret was that the two programs were identical.", "GNU Emacs formerly had a psychoanalyze-pinhead command that simulates a session between ELIZA and Zippy the Pinhead.", "The Zippyisms were removed due to copyright issues, but the DOCTOR program remains.ELIZA has been referenced in popular culture and continues to be a source of inspiration for programmers and developers focused on artificial intelligence.", "It was also featured in a 2012 exhibit at Harvard University titled \"Go Ask A.L.I.C.E.", "\", as part of a celebration of mathematician Alan Turing's 100th birthday.", "The exhibit explores Turing's lifelong fascination with the interaction between humans and computers, pointing to ELIZA as one of the earliest realizations of Turing's ideas.ELIZA won a 2021 Legacy Peabody Award, and in 2023 it beat OpenAI's GPT-3.5 in a Turing test study." ], [ "In popular culture", "In 1969, George Lucas and Walter Murch incorporated an Eliza-like dialogue interface in their screenplay for the feature film ''THX-1138''.", "Inhabitants of the underground future world of THX, when stressed, would retreat to \"confession booths\" and initiate a one-sided Eliza-formula conversation with a Jesus-faced computer who claimed to be \"OMM\".ELIZA influenced a number of early computer games by demonstrating additional kinds of interface designs.", "Don Daglow wrote an enhanced version of the program called ''Ecala'' on a DEC PDP-10 minicomputer at Pomona College in 1973 before writing the computer role-playing game ''Dungeon'' (1975).The 2011 video game ''Deus Ex: Human Revolution'' and the 2016 sequel ''Deus Ex: Mankind Divided'' features an artificial-intelligence Picus TV Network newsreader named Eliza Cassan.In Adam Curtis's 2016 documentary, ''HyperNormalisation'', ELIZA was referenced in relationship to post-truth.In the twelfth episode of the American sitcom ''Young Sheldon'', aired in January 2018, starred the protagonist \"conversing\" with ELIZA, hoping to resolve a domestic issue.On August 12, 2019, independent game developer Zachtronics published a visual novel called ''Eliza'', about an AI-based counseling service inspired by ELIZA." ], [ "See also", "* ELIZA effect* ChatGPT" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Collection of several source code versions at GitHub* , a collection of dialogues between ELIZA and various conversants, such as a company vice president and PARRY (a simulation of a paranoid schizophrenic)* Weizenbaum.", "Rebel at work – Peter Haas, Silvia Holzinger, Documentary film with Joseph Weizenbaum and ELIZA.", "* CORECURSIVE #078; The History and Mystery Of Eliza; With Jeff Shrager – Adam Gordon Bell interviews Jeff Shrager, author of the 1973/77 BASIC ELIZA, and discoverer of the original ELIZA code." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ELIZA effect" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, the '''ELIZA effect''' is the tendency to project human traits — such as experience, semantic comprehension or empathy — into computer programs that have a textual interface.", "The effect is a category mistake that arises when the program's symbolic computations are described through terms such as \"think\", \"know\" or \"understand.\"" ], [ "History", "The effect is named for ELIZA, the 1966 chatbot developed by MIT computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum.", "When executing Weizenbaum's ''DOCTOR'' script, ELIZA simulated a Rogerian psychotherapist, largely by rephrasing the \"patients replies as questions:: Human: Well, my boyfriend made me come here.", ": ELIZA: Your boyfriend made you come here?", ": Human: He says I'm depressed much of the time.", ": ELIZA: I am sorry to hear you are depressed.", ": Human: It's true.", "I'm unhappy.", ": ELIZA: Do you think coming here will help you not to be unhappy?Though designed strictly as a mechanism to support \"natural language conversation\" with a computer, ELIZA's ''DOCTOR'' script was found to be surprisingly successful in eliciting emotional responses from users who, in the course of interacting with the program, began to ascribe understanding and motivation to the program's output.", "As Weizenbaum later wrote, \"I had not realized ... that extremely short exposures to a relatively simple computer program could induce powerful delusional thinking in quite normal people.\"", "Indeed, ELIZA's code had not been designed to evoke this reaction in the first place.", "Upon observation, researchers discovered users unconsciously assuming ELIZA's questions implied interest and emotional involvement in the topics discussed, even when they consciously knew that ELIZA did not simulate emotion.Although the effect was first named in the 1960s, the tendency to understand mechanical operations in psychological terms was noted by Charles Babbage.", "In proposing what would later be called a carry-lookahead adder, Babbage remarked that he found such terms convenient for descriptive purposes, even though nothing more than mechanical action was meant." ], [ "Characteristics", "In its specific form, the ELIZA effect refers only to \"the susceptibility of people to read far more understanding than is warranted into strings of symbols—especially words—strung together by computers\".", "A trivial example of the specific form of the Eliza effect, given by Douglas Hofstadter, involves an automated teller machine which displays the words \"THANK YOU\" at the end of a transaction.", "A naive observer might think that the machine is actually expressing gratitude; however, the machine is only printing a preprogrammed string of symbols.More generally, the ELIZA effect describes any situation where, based solely on a system's output, users perceive computer systems as having \"intrinsic qualities and abilities which the software controlling the (output) cannot possibly achieve\" or \"assume that outputs reflect a greater causality than they actually do\".", "In both its specific and general forms, the ELIZA effect is notable for occurring even when users of the system are aware of the determinate nature of output produced by the system.From a psychological standpoint, the ELIZA effect is the result of a subtle cognitive dissonance between the user's awareness of programming limitations and their behavior towards the output of the program." ], [ "Significance", "The discovery of the ELIZA effect was an important development in artificial intelligence, demonstrating the principle of using social engineering rather than explicit programming to pass a Turing test.ELIZA convinced some users into thinking that a machine was human.", "This shift in human-machine interaction marked progress in technologies emulating human behavior.", "Two groups of chatbots are distinguished by William Meisel as \"general personal assistants\" and \"specialized digital assistants\".", "General digital assistants have been integrated into personal devices, with skills like sending messages, taking notes, checking calendars, and setting appointments.", "Specialized digital assistants \"operate in very specific domains or help with very specific tasks\".", "Digital assistants that are programmed to aid productivity by assuming behaviors analogous to humans.Weizenbaum considered that not every part of the human thought could be reduced to logical formalisms and that \"there are some acts of thought that ought to be attempted only by humans\".", "He also observed that we develop emotional involvement with machines if we interact with them as humans.", "When chatbots are anthropomorphized, they tend to portray gendered features as a way through which we establish relationships with the technology.", "\"Gender stereotypes are instrumentalised to manage our relationship with chatbots\" when human behavior is programmed into machines.In the 1990s, Clifford Nass and Byron Reeves conducted a series of experiments establishing The Media Equation, demonstrating that people tend to respond to media as they would either to another person (by being polite, cooperative, attributing personality characteristics such as aggressiveness, humor, expertise, and gender) – or to places and phenomena in the physical world.", "Numerous subsequent studies that have evolved from the research in psychology, social science and other fields indicate that this type of reaction is automatic, unavoidable, and happens more often than people realize.", "Reeves and Nass (1996) argue that, \"Individuals' interactions with computers, television, and new media are fundamentally social and natural, just like interactions in real life,\" (p. 5).Feminized labor, or women's work, automated by anthropomorphic digital assistants reinforces an \"assumption that women possess a natural affinity for service work and emotional labour\".", "In defining our proximity to digital assistants through their human attributes, chatbots become gendered entities." ], [ "See also", "* Duck test* Intentional stance* Loebner Prize* Philosophical zombie* Semiotics* Uncanny valley" ], [ "References" ], [ "References", "* Hofstadter, Douglas.", "''Preface 4: The Ineradicable Eliza Effect and Its Dangers.''", "(from ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought'', Basic Books: New York, 1995)* Turkle, S., Eliza Effect: tendency to accept computer responses as more intelligent than they really are (from ''Life on the screen- Identity in the Age of the Internet'', Phoenix Paperback: London, 1997)* ELIZA effect, from the Jargon File, version 4.4.7.Accessed 8 October 2006.", "* Byron Reeves & Clifford Nass.", "''The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media like Real People and Places'', Cambridge University Press: 1996." ] ]
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[ [ "Exponentiation by squaring" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics and computer programming, '''exponentiating by squaring''' is a general method for fast computation of large positive integer powers of a number, or more generally of an element of a semigroup, like a polynomial or a square matrix.", "Some variants are commonly referred to as '''square-and-multiply''' algorithms or '''binary exponentiation'''.", "These can be of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic or powering of matrices.", "For semigroups for which additive notation is commonly used, like elliptic curves used in cryptography, this method is also referred to as '''double-and-add'''." ], [ "Basic method", "===Recursive version===The method is based on the observation that, for any integer , one has:If the exponent is zero then the answer is 1 and if the exponent is negative then we can reuse the previous formula by rewriting the value using a positive exponent.", "That is,Together, these may be implemented directly as the following recursive algorithm: In: an integer x; an integer n Out: xn exp_by_squaring(x, n) if n Function exp_by_squaring(x, n) return exp_by_squaring2(1, x, n) Function exp_by_squaring2(y, x, n) if n The iterative version of the algorithm also uses a bounded auxiliary space, and is given by Function exp_by_squaring_iterative(x, n) if n 1 do if n is odd then y := x * y; n := n - 1; x := x * x; n := n / 2; return x * yThe correctness of the algorithm results from the fact that is invariant during the computation; it is at the beginning; and it is at the end.These algorithms use exactly the same number of operations as the algorithm of the preceding section, but the multiplications are done in a different order." ], [ "Computational complexity", "A brief analysis shows that such an algorithm uses squarings and at most multiplications, where denotes the floor function.", "More precisely, the number of multiplications is one less than the number of ones present in the binary expansion of ''n''.", "For ''n'' greater than about 4 this is computationally more efficient than naively multiplying the base with itself repeatedly.Each squaring results in approximately double the number of digits of the previous, and so, if multiplication of two ''d''-digit numbers is implemented in O(''d''''k'') operations for some fixed ''k'', then the complexity of computing ''x''''n'' is given by:" ], [ "2<sup>''k''</sup>-ary method", "This algorithm calculates the value of ''xn'' after expanding the exponent in base 2''k''.", "It was first proposed by Brauer in 1939.In the algorithm below we make use of the following function ''f''(0) = (''k'', 0) and ''f''(''m'') = (''s'', ''u''), where ''m'' = ''u''·2''s'' with ''u'' odd.Algorithm:;Input: An element ''x'' of ''G'', a parameter ''k'' > 0, a non-negative integer and the precomputed values .", ";Output: The element ''xn'' in ''G'' y := 1; i := l - 1 '''while''' i ≥ 0 do (s, u) := f(ni) '''for''' j := 1 '''to''' k - s '''do''' y := y2 y := y * xu '''for''' j := 1 '''to''' s '''do''' y := y2 i := i - 1 '''return''' yFor optimal efficiency, ''k'' should be the smallest integer satisfying:" ], [ "Sliding-window method", "This method is an efficient variant of the 2''k''-ary method.", "For example, to calculate the exponent 398, which has binary expansion (110 001 110)2, we take a window of length 3 using the 2''k''-ary method algorithm and calculate 1, x3, x6, x12, x24, x48, x49, x98, x99, x198, x199, x398.But, we can also compute 1, x3, x6, x12, x24, x48, x96, x192, x199, x398, which saves one multiplication and amounts to evaluating (110 001 110)2Here is the general algorithm:Algorithm:;Input: An element ''x'' of ''G'', a non negative integer , a parameter ''k'' > 0 and the pre-computed values .", ";Output: The element ''xn'' ∈ ''G''.Algorithm: y := 1; i := l - 1 '''while''' i > -1 '''do''' '''if''' ni = 0 '''then''' y := y2' i := i - 1 '''else''' s := max{i - k + 1, 0} '''while''' ns = 0 '''do''' s := s + 1 '''for''' h := 1 '''to''' i - s + 1 '''do''' y := y2 u := (ni, ni-1, ..., ns)2 y := y * xu i := s - 1 '''return''' y" ], [ "Montgomery's ladder technique", "Many algorithms for exponentiation do not provide defence against side-channel attacks.", "Namely, an attacker observing the sequence of squarings and multiplications can (partially) recover the exponent involved in the computation.", "This is a problem if the exponent should remain secret, as with many public-key cryptosystems.", "A technique called \"Montgomery's ladder\" addresses this concern.Given the binary expansion of a positive, non-zero integer ''n'' = (''n''''k''−1...''n''0)2 with ''n''k−1 = 1, we can compute ''xn'' as follows: x1 = x; x2 = x2 '''for''' i = k - 2 to 0 '''do''' '''if''' ni = 0 '''then''' x2 = x1 * x2; x1 = x12 '''else''' x1 = x1 * x2; x2 = x22 '''return''' x1The algorithm performs a fixed sequence of operations (up to log ''n''): a multiplication and squaring takes place for each bit in the exponent, regardless of the bit's specific value.", "A similar algorithm for multiplication by doubling exists.This specific implementation of Montgomery's ladder is not yet protected against cache timing attacks: memory access latencies might still be observable to an attacker, as different variables are accessed depending on the value of bits of the secret exponent.", "Modern cryptographic implementations use a \"scatter\" technique to make sure the processor always misses the faster cache." ], [ "Fixed-base exponent", "There are several methods which can be employed to calculate ''xn'' when the base is fixed and the exponent varies.", "As one can see, precomputations play a key role in these algorithms.===Yao's method===Yao's method is orthogonal to the -ary method where the exponent is expanded in radix and the computation is as performed in the algorithm above.", "Let , , , and be integers.Let the exponent be written as: where for all .Let .Then the algorithm uses the equality: Given the element of , and the exponent written in the above form, along with the precomputed values , the element is calculated using the algorithm below: y = 1, u = 1, j = h - 1 '''while''' j > 0 '''do''' '''for''' i = 0 '''to''' w - 1 '''do''' '''if''' ni = j '''then''' u = u × xbi y = y × u j = j - 1 '''return''' yIf we set and , then the values are simply the digits of in base .", "Yao's method collects in ''u'' first those that appear to the highest power ; in the next round those with power are collected in as well etc.", "The variable ''y'' is multiplied times with the initial , times with the next highest powers, and so on.The algorithm uses multiplications, and elements must be stored to compute .===Euclidean method===The Euclidean method was first introduced in ''Efficient exponentiation using precomputation and vector addition chains'' by P.D Rooij.This method for computing in group , where is a natural integer, whose algorithm is given below, is using the following equality recursively:: where .In other words, a Euclidean division of the exponent by is used to return a quotient and a rest .Given the base element in group , and the exponent written as in Yao's method, the element is calculated using precomputed values and then the algorithm below.", "'''Begin loop''' '''Break loop''' '''End loop'''; The algorithm first finds the largest value among the and then the supremum within the set of .Then it raises to the power , multiplies this value with , and then assigns the result of this computation and the value modulo ." ], [ "Further applications", "The approach also works with semigroups that are not of characteristic zero, for example allowing fast computation of large exponents modulo a number.", "Especially in cryptography, it is useful to compute powers in a ring of integers modulo .", "For example, the evaluation of:would take a very long time and much storage space if the naïve method of computing and then taking the remainder when divided by 2345 were used.", "Even using a more effective method will take a long time: square 13789, take the remainder when divided by 2345, multiply the result by 13789, and so on.Applying above ''exp-by-squaring'' algorithm, with \"*\" interpreted as (that is, a multiplication followed by a division with remainder) leads to only 27 multiplications and divisions of integers, which may all be stored in a single machine word.", "Generally, any of these approaches will take fewer than modular multiplications.The approach can also be used to compute integer powers in a group, using either of the rules:,:.The approach also works in non-commutative semigroups and is often used to compute powers of matrices.More generally, the approach works with positive integer exponents in every magma for which the binary operation is power associative." ], [ "Signed-digit recoding", "In certain computations it may be more efficient to allow negative coefficients and hence use the inverse of the base, provided inversion in is \"fast\" or has been precomputed.", "For example, when computing , the binary method requires multiplications and squarings.", "However, one could perform squarings to get and then multiply by to obtain .To this end we define the signed-digit representation of an integer in radix as: ''Signed binary representation'' corresponds to the particular choice and .", "It is denoted by .", "There are several methods for computing this representation.", "The representation is not unique.", "For example, take : two distinct signed-binary representations are given by and , where is used to denote .", "Since the binary method computes a multiplication for every non-zero entry in the base-2 representation of , we are interested in finding the signed-binary representation with the smallest number of non-zero entries, that is, the one with ''minimal'' Hamming weight.", "One method of doing this is to compute the representation in non-adjacent form, or NAF for short, which is one that satisfies and denoted by .", "For example, the NAF representation of 478 is .", "This representation always has minimal Hamming weight.", "A simple algorithm to compute the NAF representation of a given integer with is the following: for to do Another algorithm by Koyama and Tsuruoka does not require the condition that ; it still minimizes the Hamming weight." ], [ "Alternatives and generalizations", "Exponentiation by squaring can be viewed as a suboptimal addition-chain exponentiation algorithm: it computes the exponent by an addition chain consisting of repeated exponent doublings (squarings) and/or incrementing exponents by ''one'' (multiplying by ''x'') only.", "More generally, if one allows ''any'' previously computed exponents to be summed (by multiplying those powers of ''x''), one can sometimes perform the exponentiation using fewer multiplications (but typically using more memory).", "The smallest power where this occurs is for ''n'' = 15::  (squaring, 6 multiplies),:  (optimal addition chain, 5 multiplies if ''x''3 is re-used).In general, finding the ''optimal'' addition chain for a given exponent is a hard problem, for which no efficient algorithms are known, so optimal chains are typically used for small exponents only (e.g.", "in compilers where the chains for small powers have been pre-tabulated).", "However, there are a number of heuristic algorithms that, while not being optimal, have fewer multiplications than exponentiation by squaring at the cost of additional bookkeeping work and memory usage.", "Regardless, the number of multiplications never grows more slowly than Θ(log ''n''), so these algorithms improve asymptotically upon exponentiation by squaring by only a constant factor at best." ], [ "See also", "*Modular exponentiation*Vectorial addition chain*Montgomery reduction*Non-adjacent form*Addition chain" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Exon" ], [ "Introduction", "Introns are removed and exons joined in the process of RNA splicing.", "RNAs could be mRNA or non-coding RNAAn '''exon''' is any part of a gene that will form a part of the final mature RNA produced by that gene after introns have been removed by RNA splicing.", "The term ''exon'' refers to both the DNA sequence within a gene and to the corresponding sequence in RNA transcripts.", "In RNA splicing, introns are removed and exons are covalently joined to one another as part of generating the mature RNA.", "Just as the entire set of genes for a species constitutes the genome, the entire set of exons constitutes the exome." ], [ "History", "The term ''exon'' derives from the expressed region and was coined by American biochemist Walter Gilbert in 1978: \"The notion of the cistron... must be replaced by that of a transcription unit containing regions which will be lost from the mature messengerwhich I suggest we call introns (for intragenic regions)alternating with regions which will be expressedexons.", "\"This definition was originally made for protein-coding transcripts that are spliced before being translated.", "The term later came to include sequences removed from rRNA and tRNA, and other ncRNA and it also was used later for RNA molecules originating from different parts of the genome that are then ligated by trans-splicing." ], [ "Contribution to genomes and size distribution", "Although unicellular eukaryotes such as yeast have either no introns or very few, metazoans and especially vertebrate genomes have a large fraction of non-coding DNA.", "For instance, in the human genome only 1.1% of the genome is spanned by exons, whereas 24% is in introns, with 75% of the genome being intergenic DNA.", "This can provide a practical advantage in omics-aided health care (such as precision medicine) because it makes commercialized whole exome sequencing a smaller and less expensive challenge than commercialized whole genome sequencing.", "The large variation in genome size and C-value across life forms has posed an interesting challenge called the C-value enigma.Across all eukaryotic genes in GenBank, there were (in 2002), on average, 5.48 exons per protein coding gene.", "The average exon encoded 30-36 amino acids.", "While the longest exon in the human genome is 11555 bp long, several exons have been found to be only 2 bp long.", "A single-nucleotide exon has been reported from the ''Arabidopsis'' genome.", "In humans, like protein coding mRNA, most non-coding RNA also contain multiple exons" ], [ "Structure and function", "Exons in a messenger RNA precursor (pre-mRNA).", "Exons can include both sequences that code for amino acids (red) and untranslated sequences (grey).", "Introns — those parts of the pre-mRNA that are not in the mRNA — (blue) are removed, and the exons are joined (spliced) to form the final functional mRNA.", "The 5′ and 3′ ends of the mRNA are marked to differentiate the two untranslated regions (grey).In protein-coding genes, the exons include both the protein-coding sequence and the 5′- and 3′-untranslated regions (UTR).", "Often the first exon includes both the 5′-UTR and the first part of the coding sequence, but exons containing only regions of 5′-UTR or (more rarely) 3′-UTR occur in some genes, i.e.", "the UTRs may contain introns.", "Some non-coding RNA transcripts also have exons and introns.Mature mRNAs originating from the same gene need not include the same exons, since different introns in the pre-mRNA can be removed by the process of alternative splicing.Exonization is the creation of a new exon, as a result of mutations in introns." ], [ "Experimental approaches using exons", "Exon trapping or 'gene trapping' is a molecular biology technique that exploits the existence of the intron-exon splicing to find new genes.", "The first exon of a 'trapped' gene splices into the exon that is contained in the insertional DNA.", "This new exon contains the ORF for a reporter gene that can now be expressed using the enhancers that control the target gene.", "A scientist knows that a new gene has been trapped when the reporter gene is expressed.Splicing can be experimentally modified so that targeted exons are excluded from mature mRNA transcripts by blocking the access of splice-directing small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) to pre-mRNA using Morpholino antisense oligos.", "This has become a standard technique in developmental biology.", "Morpholino oligos can also be targeted to prevent molecules that regulate splicing (e.g.", "splice enhancers, splice suppressors) from binding to pre-mRNA, altering patterns of splicing." ], [ "Common misuse of the term", "Common incorrect uses of the term ''exon'' are that 'exons code for protein', or 'exons code for amino-acids' or 'exons are translated'.", "However, these sorts of definitions only cover protein-coding genes, and omit those exons that become part of a non-coding RNA or the untranslated region of an mRNA.", "Such incorrect definitions still occur in overall reputable secondary sources." ], [ "See also", "* DBASS3/5* Exitron* Exon-intron database* Exon shuffling* Interrupted gene* Outron* Twintron* Untranslated region (UTR)" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===**" ], [ "External links", "* Exon-intron graphic maker" ] ]
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[ [ "Exxon Valdez oil spill" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill''' was a major environmental disaster that made worldwide headlines in the spring of 1989 and occurred in Alaska's Prince William Sound on March 24, 1989.The spill occurred when ''Exxon Valdez'', an oil supertanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company, bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef, west of Tatitlek, Alaska at 12:04 a.m.", "The tanker spilled approximately (or 37,000 tonnes) of crude oil over the next few days.The ''Exxon Valdez'' spill is the second largest in U.S. waters, after the 2010 ''Deepwater Horizon'' oil spill, in terms of volume of oil released.", "Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and made existing response plans especially hard to implement.", "The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals, and seabirds.", "The oil, extracted from the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, eventually affected of coastline, of which were heavily or moderately oiled." ], [ "Spill", "The ''Exxon Valdez'' a few hours after she ran aground.", "''Exxon Valdez'' was carrying of oil, of which approximately were spilled into the Prince William Sound.The ship docked at the Valdez Marine Terminal at 11:30 p.m. on March 22, 1989.Loading of crude oil was completed late in the day on the 23rd.", "The tanker left the terminal at 9:12 p.m., March 23, 1989 (the deck log shows that it was clear of the dock at 9:21p.m.", "), loaded with 53,094,510 gallons (1,264,155 barrels) of crude oil.", "Captain Joseph Hazelwood retired to his cabin at 9:25p.m.", "Harbor pilot William Murphy and Third Mate Gregory Cousins were accompanied by a single tug for the passage through the Valdez Narrows – a journey of about 7 miles.", "The pilot left the bridge shortly after the vessel left the narrows, at 11:24p.m.", "At this point, the captain was called to the bridge.", "Cousins helped the pilot disembark from the vessel, leaving the captain as the only officer on the bridge.", "At 11:25p.m.", "''Exxon Valdez'' reported that the pilot had left.", "The third mate advised traffic control and decided to deviate from the predetermined traffic lane to avoid small icebergs; a common occurrence since the Columbia Glacier calved such icebergs nearby.", "The vessel was placed on a due south course and set on autopilot.", "At 11:47p.m.", "the vessel left the traffic lane's eastern boundary.Third Mate Cousins had been on duty for 6 hours and was scheduled to be relieved by Second Mate Lloyd LeCain Jr.", "However, due to the long hours that the second mate had worked, Cousins was reluctant to wake him, and remained on duty.", "Cousins was the only officer on the bridge for most of the night, in violation of company policy.", "At around midnight on March 24 Cousins began to maneuver the vessel into the traffic lanes.", "At the same time, the lookout reported that the Bligh Reef light appeared far off the starboard bow at 45 degrees – this was problematic given that the light should have been off the port side.", "Cousins ordered a course change as the ship was in danger.", "Captain Hazelwood was phoned by Cousins, but before their conversation could finish, the ship grounded.", "At 12:04a.m., accompanied by what the helmsman and Cousins described as \"a bumpy ride\" and \"six very sharp jolts\" respectively, the ship ran aground on Bligh Reef.Carried by its own momentum, the ship ended up perched on its middle on a pinnacle of rock.", "8 out of 11 cargo holds were punctured.", "5.8 million gallons of oil drained from the ship within 3 hours and 15 minutes.", "30 minutes after numerous attempts to dislodge the ship under her own power, Captain Hazelwood radioed the Coast Guard informing them of the grounding.", "For more than 45 minutes after the grounding, the captain attempted to maneuver free of the reef despite being informed by First Mate James Kunkel that the vessel was not structurally sound without the reef supporting it.During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil covered large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.Beginning three days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil onto the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain.", "In this photograph, pooled black oil is shown stranded in the rocksMultiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident:* Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master (ship's captain) and provide a rested and sufficient crew for ''Exxon Valdez''.", "The NTSB found this practice was widespread throughout the industry, prompting a safety recommendation to Exxon and to the industry.", "* The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload.", "* Exxon Shipping Company failed to properly maintain the Raytheon Collision Avoidance System (RAYCAS) radar, which, if functional, would have indicated to the third mate an impending collision with the Bligh Reef by detecting the radar reflector placed on the next rock inland from Bligh Reef for the purpose of keeping ships on course.", "This cause was brought forward by Greg Palast and is not presented in the official accident report.Captain Hazelwood, who was widely reported to have been drinking heavily that night, was not at the controls when the ship struck the reef.", "Exxon blamed Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker, but he accused the corporation of making him a scapegoat.", "In a 1990 trial he was charged with criminal mischief, reckless endangerment, and piloting a vessel while intoxicated, but was cleared of the three charges.", "He was convicted of misdemeanor negligent discharge of oil.", "21 witnesses testified that he did not appear to be under the influence of alcohol around the time of the accident.Journalist Greg Palast stated in 2008:Other factors, according to an MIT course entitled \"Software System Safety\" by Professor Nancy G. Leveson, included:# Ships were not informed that the previous practice of the Coast Guard tracking ships out to Bligh Reef had ceased.# The oil industry promised, but never installed, state-of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment.# ''Exxon Valdez'' was sailing outside the normal sea lane to avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area.# Coast Guard vessel inspections in Valdez were not performed, and the number of staff was reduced.# Lack of available equipment and personnel hampered the spill cleanup.This disaster resulted in International Maritime Organization introducing comprehensive marine pollution prevention rules (MARPOL) through various conventions.", "The rules were ratified by member countries and, under International Ship Management rules, the ships are being operated with a common objective of \"safer ships and cleaner oceans.", "\"In 2009, Captain Hazelwood offered a \"heartfelt apology\" to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster: \"The true story is out there for anybody who wants to look at the facts, but that's not the sexy story and that's not the easy story,\" he said.", "Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake." ], [ "Clean-up and major effects", "Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled shorelineChemical dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture, was applied to the slick by a private company on March 24 with a helicopter, but the helicopter missed the target area.", "Scientific data on its toxicity were either thin or incomplete.", "In addition, public acceptance of new, widespread chemical treatment was lacking.", "Landowners, fishing groups, and conservation organizations questioned the use of chemicals on hundreds of miles of shoreline when other alternatives might have been available.", "\"According to a report by David Kirby for TakePart, the main component of the Corexit formulation used during cleanup, 2-butoxyethanol, was identified as \"one of the agents that caused liver, kidney, lung, nervous system, and blood disorders among cleanup crews in Alaska following the 1989 ''Exxon Valdez'' spill\".", "It is now known that while 2-butoxyethanol is indeed a respiratory irritant that can be acutely toxic, animal studies did not find it to be mutagenic, and no studies suggest it to be a human carcinogen.Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterward using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill, and thick oil and kelp tended to clog the equipment.", "Despite civilian insistence for a complete cleanup, only 10% of total oil was actually completely cleaned.", "Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis.", "More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along with some Exxon employees, worked throughout the region to try to restore the environment.Though the clean-up effort was diligent it failed to contain the majority of the oil that had spilled and that has been blamed heavily upon Exxon.", "On November 26, 1984 Ronald A. Kreizenbeck (Director, Alaska Operations Office) informed the Coast Guard that the EPA suspected, due to a recent site-visitation during an 'Annual Marine Drill' that the Port of Valdez was not prepared to \"efficiently respond to a major spill event\".", "In the letter, he stated that \"it appears that the Vikoma boom and/or deployment vessels used may not be adequate to handle the harsh environmental conditions of Port Valdez\".Because Prince William Sound contained many rocky coves where the oil was collected, the decision was made to displace it with high-pressure hot water.", "However, this also displaced and destroyed the microbial populations on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g.", "plankton) are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others (e.g., certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitating the biodegradation of oil.", "At the time, both scientific advice and public pressure was to clean everything, but since then, a much greater understanding of natural and facilitated remediation processes has developed, due somewhat in part to the opportunity presented for study by the ''Exxon Valdez'' spill.Both long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied.", "Immediate effects include the deaths of between 100,000 and 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300 harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and an unknown number of salmon and herring.Nine years after the disaster, evidence of negative oil spill effects on marine birds was found in the following species: cormorants, goldeneyes, mergansers, murres and pigeon guillemots.Although the volume of oil has declined considerably, with oil remaining only about 0.14–0.28% of the original spilled volume, studies suggest that the area of oiled beach has changed little since 1992.A study by the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA in Juneau, determined that by 2001 approximately 90 tonnes of oil remained on beaches in Prince William Sound in the sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, with annual loss rates declining from 68% per year prior to 1992, to 4% per year after 2001.Wildlife was severely affected by the oil spill.The remaining oil lasting far longer than anticipated has resulted in more long-term losses of species than had been expected.", "Laboratory experiments found that at levels as low as one part per billion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic for salmon and herring eggs.", "Species as diverse as sea otters, harlequin ducks, and orcas suffered immediate and long-term losses.", "Oiled mussel beds and other tidal shoreline habitats may take up to 30 years to recover.ExxonMobil denied concerns over the remaining oil, stating that they anticipated the remaining fraction would not cause long-term ecological impacts.", "According to the conclusions of ExxonMobil's study: \"We've done 350 peer-reviewed studies of Prince William Sound, and those studies conclude that Prince William Sound has recovered, it's healthy and it's thriving.", "\"On March 24, 2014, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the spill, NOAA scientists reported that some species seem to have recovered, with the sea otter the latest creature to return to pre-spill numbers.", "Scientists who have monitored the spill area for the last 25 years report that concern remains for one of two pods of local orca whales, with fears that one pod may eventually die out.", "Federal scientists estimate that between 16,000 and 21,000 US gallons (61 to 79 m3) of oil remains on beaches in Prince William Sound and up to 450 miles (725 km) away.", "Some of the oil does not appear to have biodegraded at all.", "A USGS scientist who analyses the remaining oil along the coastline states that it remains among rocks and between tide marks.", "\"The oil mixes with seawater and forms an emulsion...Left out, the surface crusts over but the inside still has the consistency of mayonnaise – or mousse.\"", "Alaska state senator Berta Gardner is urging Alaskan politicians to demand that the US government force ExxonMobil to pay the final $92 million (£57 million) still owed from the court settlement.", "The major part of the money would be spent to finish cleaning up oiled beaches and attempting to restore the crippled herring population.As of 2012, the indirect and long-term sublethal effects of oil on shorebirds had been measured in relatively few studies." ], [ "Litigation and cleanup costs", "230x230pxIn October 1989, Exxon filed a suit against the State of Alaska, claiming that the state had interfered with Exxon's attempts to clean up the spill by refusing to approve the use of dispersant chemicals until the night of the 26th.", "The State of Alaska disputed this claim, stating that there was a long-standing agreement to allow the use of dispersants to clean up spills, thus Exxon did not require permission to use them, and that, in fact, Exxon had not had enough dispersant on hand to effectively handle a spill of the size created by ''Exxon Valdez''.Exxon filed claims in October 1990 against the Coast Guard, asking to be reimbursed for cleanup costs and damages awarded to plaintiffs in any lawsuits filed by the State of Alaska or the federal government against Exxon.", "The company claimed that the Coast Guard was \"wholly or partially responsible\" for the spill, because they had granted mariners' licenses to the crew of the Valdez, and because they had given ''Exxon Valdez'' permission to leave regular shipping lanes to avoid ice.", "They also reiterated the claim that the Coast Guard had delayed cleanup by refusing to give permission to immediately use chemical dispersants on the spill.Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate financial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as the Seattle Seven for the disaster's effect on the Alaskan seafood industry.", "The agreement granted $63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive damages awarded in other civil proceedings.", "The $5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Seven's share could have been as high as $750 million if the damages award had held.", "Other plaintiffs have objected to this secret arrangement, and when it came to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told the jury at the start that an agreement had already been made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon would have to pay.In the case of ''Exxon v. Baker'', an Anchorage jury awarded $287 million for actual damages and $5 billion for punitive damages.", "To protect itself in case the judgment was affirmed, Exxon obtained a $4.8 billion credit line from J.P. Morgan & Co., who created the first modern credit default swap so that they would not have to hold as much money in reserve against the risk of Exxon's default.Meanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S.", "Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the trial judge, Russel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages.", "On December 6, 2002, Holland announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive.", "Exxon appealed again and the case returned to Holland to be reconsidered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in a similar case.", "Holland increased the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest.After more appeals, in December 2006 the damages award was cut to $2.5 billion.", "The court of appeals cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to limits on punitive damages.Exxon appealed again.", "On May 23, 2007, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil's request for a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owed $2.5 billion in punitive damages.", "Exxon then appealed to the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case.", "On February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments.", "Justice Samuel Alito, who at the time owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon stock, recused himself from the case.", "In a decision issued June 25, 2008, written by Justice David Souter, the court vacated the $2.5 billion award and remanded the case back to the lower court, finding that the damages were excessive with respect to maritime common law.", "Exxon's actions were deemed \"worse than negligent but less than malicious.\"", "The punitive damages were further reduced to an amount of $507.5 million.", "The Court's ruling was that maritime punitive damages should not exceed the compensatory damages, supported by a precedent dating from 1818.Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahy has decried the ruling as \"another in a line of cases where this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benefit large corporations.", "\"Exxon's official position was that punitive damages greater than $25 million were not justified because the spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges.", "Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company \"put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound.\"", "Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with the grounding of ''Exxon Valdez''.As of December 15, 2009, Exxon had paid the entire $507.5 million in punitive damages, including lawsuit costs, plus interest, which were further distributed to thousands of plaintiffs.", "This amount was one-tenth of the original punitive damages, Exxon remained hugely profitable, the process of payment was drawn out over decades, and long term damage continues and is not funded by Exxon.", "Hence, the Exxon spill is often cited as shorthand for corporate responsibility for societal damage not being enforced adequately." ], [ "Political consequences and reforms", "===Coast Guard report===A 1989 report by the Coast Guard's U.S. National Response Center summarized the event and made many recommendations, including that neither Exxon, Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, the State of Alaska, nor the federal government were prepared for a spill of this magnitude.===Oil Pollution Act of 1990===In response to the spill, the United States Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA).", "The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than in any marine area, from operating in Prince William Sound.In April 1998, the company argued in a legal action against the federal government that the ship should be allowed back into Alaskan waters.", "Exxon claimed OPA was effectively a bill of attainder, a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone.", "In 2002, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon.", "As of 2002, OPA had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William Sound.OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase-in of a double hull design, providing an additional layer between the oil tanks and the ocean.", "While a double hull would likely not have prevented the ''Exxon Valdez'' disaster, a Coast Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount of oil spilled by 60 percent.", "''Exxon Valdez'' was towed to San Diego, arriving on July 10.Repairs began on July 30.Approximately of steel were removed and replaced.", "In June 1990, the tanker, renamed ''Exxon Mediterranean'', left the harbor after $30 million of repairs.", "In 1993, owned by SeaRiver Maritime, it was named ''S/R Mediterranean'', then in 2005 ''Mediterranean''.", "In 2008 the vessel was acquired by a Hong Kong company that operated her as ''Dong Fang Ocean'', then in 2011 renamed her ''Oriental Nicety''.", "In August 2012, she was beached at Dalian, China, and dismantled.===Alaska regulations===In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cowper issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance.", "As the plan evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was replaced with a Escort Response Vehicle (ERV).", "Tankers at Valdez are no longer single-hulled.", "Congress enacted legislation requiring all tankers to be double-hulled as of 2015." ], [ "Economic and Native impact", "In 1991, following the collapse of populations of local marine species (particularly clams, herring, and seals), the Chugach Alaska Corporation, an Alaska Native Corporation, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.", "It has since recovered.According to several studies funded by the state of Alaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term economic effects.", "These included the loss of recreational sports, fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what economists call \"existence value\", which is the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound.The economy of the city of Cordova, Alaska was adversely affected after the spill damaged stocks of salmon and herring in the area.", "The village of Chenega was transformed into an emergency base and media outlet.", "The local villagers had to cope with a tripling of their population from 80 to 250.When asked how they felt about the situation, a village councilor noted that they were too shocked and busy to be depressed; others emphasized the human costs of leaving children unattended while their parents worked to clean up.", "Many Alaska Natives were worried that too much time was spent on the fishery and not enough on the land that supports subsistence hunting.In 2010, CNN reported on studies concluding that many oil spill cleanup workers involved in the ''Exxon Valdez'' response had subsequently become sick, and warned those exposed to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill to take heed.", "Anchorage lawyer Dennis Mestas found that this was true for 6,722 of 11,000 worker files he was able to inspect, despite access to the records being controlled by Exxon.", "Exxon denied this in a statement to CNN:Environmental activists and State officials became concerned that BP would use similar techniques to minimize liability and de-emphasize health impacts:" ], [ "Reactions", "In 1992, Exxon released a video titled ''Scientists and the Alaska Oil Spill'' for distribution to schools.", "Critics said the video misrepresented the clean-up process.In December 1994, the Unabomber assassinated Burson-Marsteller executive Thomas J. Mosser, accusing him of having \"helped Exxon clean up its public image after the ''Exxon Valdez'' incident\".=== In popular culture ===Several weeks after the spill, ''Saturday Night Live'' aired a pointed sketch featuring Kevin Nealon, Phil Hartman, and Victoria Jackson as cleanup workers struggling to scrub the oil off of animals and rocks on a beach in Prince William Sound.In the ''Rocko's Modern Life'' episode, \"Rocko's Happy Sack\", Rocko and his dog, Spunky are grocery shopping when the announcer informs everyone of a \"spill in the seafood section\", represented by a giant oil tanker labeled \"Noxxon Valdez\".In the 1995 film ''Waterworld'', ''Exxon Valdez'' is the flagship of the movie's villain, \"The Deacon,\" the leader of a band of scavenging raiders.", "In the ship is a portrait of their patron saint, Joseph Hazelwood.In the second Forrest Gump novel, ''Gump and Co.'' by Winston Groom, Gump commandeers ''Exxon Valdez'' and accidentally crashes it.Composer Jonathan Larson wrote a song called \"Iron Mike\" about the oil spill.", "The song is written in the style of a sea shanty.", "It was first professionally recorded by George Salazar for the album ''The Jonathan Larson Project''.The 1992 made-for-television film ''Dead Ahead: The Exxon Valdez Disaster'', produced by HBO, dramatized the oil spill disaster.In season 2, episode 8, of ''Breaking Bad'', entitled \"Better Call Saul\", Walter White tells Jesse Pinkman that Jesse's friend Badger, who had been caught in a drug deal with their methamphetamine and placed under arrest, is going to spill information like the ''Exxon Valdez''." ], [ "See also", "* List of oil spills* ''Deepwater Horizon'' oil spill* Ixtoc I oil spill* ''Dead Ahead: The Exxon Valdez Disaster,'' 1992 HBO movie*Martin County coal slurry spill*Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* NTSB safety recommendation to address crew management deficiencies at Exxon and in industry* ''Exxon Valdez'' Oil Spill Trustee Council * ExxonMobil updates and news on ''Valdez''" ] ]
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[ [ "Édouard de Pomiane" ], [ "Introduction", "Teaching at the Ecole supérieure de cuisine in 1925'''Édouard Alexandre de Pomiane''', sometimes '''Édouard Pozerski''' (20 April 1875 – 26 January 1964), was a French scientist, radio broadcaster and food writer.", "His parents emigrated from Congress Poland in 1863 after the January Uprising, changed their name from ''Pozerski'' to ''de Pomiane'', and became French citizens.De Pomiane worked as a physician at the Institut Pasteur in Paris, where he gave Félix d'Herelle a place to work on bacteriophages.His best known works that have been translated into English are ''Cooking in Ten Minutes'' and ''Cooking with Pomiane''.", "His writing was remarkable in its time for its directness (he frequently uses a strange second-person voice, telling you—the reader—what you are seeing and smelling as you follow a recipe) and for his general disdain for upper-class elaborate French cuisine.", "He travelled widely and quite a few of his recipes are from abroad.", "His recipes often take pains to demystify cooking by explaining the chemical processes at work.He was a founding member of the Académie des Gastronomes in 1928, with the high rank of chair no.", "5 Louis Pasteur.", "1940 was the age of retirement from the Pasteur Institute, but he continued his work in a small laboratory made for him in the attic.", "His teaching at the Scientific Institute of Food Hygiene ended in 1943." ], [ "Books", "*''La Cuisine en dix minutes, ou l'Adaptation au rythme moderne'' (1930) ** Also translated as ''Cooking in ten minutes : The adaptation to the rhythm of our time'' *''Cooking with Pomiane'' \"Vingt Plats Qui Donnent Goutte\"IMG_7221.jpeg 1935 edition." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Edward VI" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward VI''' (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death in 1553.He was crowned on 20 February 1547 at the age of nine.", "The only surviving son of Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour, Edward was the first English monarch to be raised as a Protestant.", "During his reign, the realm was governed by a regency council because Edward never reached maturity.", "The council was first led by his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (1547–1549), and then by John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland (1550–1553).Edward's reign was marked by economic problems and social unrest that in 1549 erupted into riot and rebellion.", "An expensive war with Scotland, at first successful, ended with military withdrawal from Scotland and Boulogne-sur-Mer in exchange for peace.", "The transformation of the Church of England into a recognisably Protestant body also occurred under Edward, who took great interest in religious matters.", "His father, Henry VIII, had severed the link between the English Church and Rome, but continued to uphold most Catholic doctrine and ceremony.", "It was during Edward's reign that Protestantism was established for the first time in England with reforms that included the abolition of clerical celibacy and the Mass, and the imposition of compulsory English in church services.In 1553, at age 15, Edward fell ill.", "When his sickness was discovered to be terminal, he and his council drew up a \"Devise for the Succession\" to prevent the country's return to Catholicism.", "Edward named his Protestant first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir, excluding his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth.", "This decision was disputed following Edward's death, and Jane was deposed by Mary nine days after becoming queen.", "Mary, a Catholic, reversed Edward's Protestant reforms during her reign, but Elizabeth restored them in 1559." ], [ "Early life", "===Birth===Prince Edward in 1538, by Hans Holbein the Younger.", "He holds a golden rattle that resembles a sceptre; and the Latin inscription urges him to equal or surpass his father.Edward was born on 12 October 1537 in his mother's room inside Hampton Court Palace, in Middlesex.", "He was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour, and was the only son of Henry VIII to outlive him.", "Throughout the realm, the people greeted the birth of a male heir, \"whom we hungered for so long\", with joy and relief.", "''Te Deums'' were sung in churches, bonfires lit, and \"their was shott at the Tower that night above two thousand gonnes\".", "Queen Jane, appearing to recover quickly from the birth, sent out personally signed letters announcing the birth of \"a Prince, conceived in most lawful matrimony between my Lord the King's Majesty and us\".", "Edward was christened on 15 October, with his 21-year-old half-sister Lady Mary as godmother and his 4-year-old half-sister Lady Elizabeth carrying the chrisom; the Garter King of Arms proclaimed him as Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester.", "The queen, however, fell ill and died from postnatal complications on 24 October, days after Edward's birth.", "Henry VIII wrote to Francis I of France that \"Divine Providence ... hath mingled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness\".===Upbringing and education===Edward as Prince of Wales, 1546.He wears the Prince of Wales's feathers and crown on the pendant jewel.", "Attributed to William Scrots.Royal Collection, Windsor CastleEdward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the outset.", "His father was delighted with him; in May 1538, Henry was observed \"dallying with him in his arms ... and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people\".", "That September, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Audley, reported Edward's rapid growth and vigour, and other accounts describe him as a tall and merry child.", "The tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by more recent historians.", "At the age of four, he fell ill with a life-threatening \"quartan fever\", but, despite occasional illnesses and poor eyesight, he enjoyed generally good health until the last six months of his life.Edward was initially placed in the care of Margaret Bryan, \"lady mistress\" of the prince's household.", "She was succeeded by Blanche Herbert, Lady Troy.", "Until the age of six, Edward was brought up, as he put it later in his ''Chronicle'', \"among the women\".", "The formal royal household established around Edward was, at first, under William Sidney, and later Richard Page, stepfather of Edward's aunt Anne (the wife of Edward Seymour).", "Henry demanded exacting standards of security and cleanliness in his son's household, stressing that Edward was \"this whole realm's most precious jewel\".", "Visitors described the prince, who was lavishly provided with toys and comforts, including his own troupe of minstrels, as a contented child.From the age of six, Edward began his formal education under Richard Cox and John Cheke, concentrating, as he recalled himself, on \"learning of tongues, of the scripture, of philosophy, and all liberal sciences\".", "He received tuition from his sister Elizabeth's tutor, Roger Ascham, and from Jean Belmain, learning French, Spanish and Italian.", "In addition, he is known to have studied geometry and learned to play musical instruments, including the lute and the virginals.", "He collected globes and maps and, according to coinage historian C. E. Challis, developed a grasp of monetary affairs that indicated a high intelligence.", "Edward's religious education is assumed to have favoured the reforming agenda.", "His religious establishment was probably chosen by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, a leading reformer.", "Both Cox and Cheke were \"reformed\" Catholics or Erasmians and later became Marian exiles.", "By 1549, Edward had written a treatise on the pope as Antichrist and was making informed notes on theological controversies.", "Many aspects of Edward's religion were essentially Catholic in his early years, including celebration of the mass and reverence for images and relics of the saints.badge of Prince Edward, from John Leland's ''Genethliacon illustrissimi Eaduerdi principis Cambriae'' (1543)Both Edward's sisters were attentive to their brother and often visited him—on one occasion, Elizabeth gave him a shirt \"of her own working\".", "Edward \"took special content\" in Mary's company, though he disapproved of her taste for foreign dances; \"I love you most\", he wrote to her in 1546.In 1543, Henry invited his children to spend Christmas with him, signalling his reconciliation with his daughters, whom he had previously illegitimised and disinherited.", "The following spring, he restored them to their place in the succession with a Third Succession Act, which also provided for a regency council during Edward's minority.", "This unaccustomed family harmony may have owed much to the influence of Henry's sixth wife, Catherine Parr, of whom Edward soon became fond.", "He called her his \"most dear mother\" and in September 1546 wrote to her: \"I received so many benefits from you that my mind can hardly grasp them.", "\"Other children were brought to play with Edward, including the granddaughter of his chamberlain, William Sidney, who in adulthood recalled the prince as \"a marvellous sweet child, of very mild and generous condition\".", "Edward was educated with sons of nobles, \"appointed to attend upon him\" in what was a form of miniature court.", "Among these, Barnaby Fitzpatrick, son of an Irish peer, became a close and lasting friend.", "Edward was more devoted to his schoolwork than his classmates and seems to have outshone them, motivated to do his \"duty\" and compete with his sister Elizabeth's academic prowess.", "Edward's surroundings and possessions were regally splendid: his rooms were hung with costly Flemish tapestries, and his clothes, books and cutlery were encrusted with precious jewels and gold.", "Like his father, Edward was fascinated by military arts, and many of his portraits show him wearing a gold dagger with a jewelled hilt, in imitation of Henry.", "Edward's ''Chronicle'' enthusiastically details English military campaigns against Scotland and France, and adventures such as John Dudley's near capture at Musselburgh in 1547.===\"The Rough Wooing\"===Portrait miniature of Edward by an unknown artist, 1543–1546 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkOn 1 July 1543, Henry signed the Treaty of Greenwich with the Scots, sealing the peace with Edward's betrothal to the seven-month-old Mary, Queen of Scots, granddaughter of Edward's aunt and Henry's sister Margaret Tudor.", "The Scots were in a weak bargaining position after their defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss in November 1542, and Henry, seeking to unite the two realms, stipulated that Mary be handed over to him to be brought up in England.", "When the Scots repudiated the treaty in December 1543 and renewed their alliance with France, Henry was enraged.", "In April 1544, he ordered Edward's uncle, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, to invade Scotland and \"put all to fire and sword, burn Edinburgh town, so razed and defaced when you have sacked and gotten what ye can of it, as there may remain forever a perpetual memory of the vengeance of God lightened upon them for their falsehood and disloyalty\".", "Seymour responded with the most savage campaign ever launched by the English against the Scots.", "The war, which continued into Edward's reign, has become known as \"the Rough Wooing\"." ], [ "Accession", "Coat of arms of King Edward VIThe nine-year-old Edward wrote to his father and stepmother on 10 January 1547 from Hertford thanking them for his new year's gift of their portraits from life.", "By 28 January, Henry VIII was dead.", "Those close to the throne, led by Edward Seymour and William Paget, agreed to delay the announcement of the king's death until arrangements had been made for a smooth succession.", "Seymour and Sir Anthony Browne, the Master of the Horse, rode to collect Edward from Hertford and brought him to Enfield, where Lady Elizabeth was living.", "He and Elizabeth were then told of their father's death and heard a reading of his will.Lord Chancellor Thomas Wriothesley announced Henry's death to Parliament on 31 January, and general proclamations of Edward's succession were ordered.", "The new king was taken to the Tower of London, where he was welcomed with \"great shot of ordnance in all places there about, as well out of the Tower as out of the ships\".", "The following day, the nobles of the realm made their obeisance to Edward at the Tower, and Seymour was announced as Protector.", "Henry VIII was buried at Windsor on 16 February, in the same tomb as Jane Seymour, as he had wished.Edward VI was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Sunday 20 February.", "The ceremonies were shortened, because of the \"tedious length of the same which should weary and be hurtsome peradventure to the King's majesty, being yet of tender age\", and also because the Reformation had rendered some of them inappropriate.Portrait of King Edward VI, aged about thirteen, by William ScrotsOn the eve of the coronation, Edward progressed on horseback from the Tower to the Palace of Westminster through thronging crowds and pageants, many based on the pageants for a previous boy king, Henry VI.", "He laughed at a Spanish tightrope walker who \"tumbled and played many pretty toys\" outside St Paul's Cathedral.At the coronation service, Cranmer affirmed the royal supremacy and called Edward a second Josiah, urging him to continue the reformation of the Church of England, \"the tyranny of the Bishops of Rome banished from your subjects, and images removed\".", "After the service, Edward presided at a banquet in Westminster Hall, where, he recalled in his ''Chronicle'', he dined with his crown on his head." ], [ "Somerset protectorate", "===Council of regency===''Edward VI and the Pope: An Allegory of the Reformation''.", "This Elizabethan work of propaganda depicts the handing over of power from Henry VIII, who lies dying in bed, to Edward VI, seated beneath a cloth of state with a slumping pope at his feet.", "In the top right of the picture is an image of men pulling down and smashing idols.", "At Edward's side are his uncle the Lord Protector Edward Seymour and members of the Privy Council.", "National Portrait Gallery, London''Edward VI signing his first death warrant'', by John Pettie R.AHenry VIII's will named sixteen executors, who were to act as Edward's council until he reached the age of eighteen.", "These executors were supplemented by twelve men \"of counsail\" who would assist the executors when called on.", "The final state of Henry VIII's will has been the subject of controversy.", "Some historians suggest that those close to the king manipulated either him or the will itself to ensure a share-out of power to their benefit, both material and religious.", "In this reading, the composition of the Privy Chamber shifted towards the end of 1546 in favour of the reforming faction.", "In addition, two leading conservative Privy Councillors were removed from the centre of power.Stephen Gardiner was refused access to Henry during his last months.", "Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, found himself accused of treason; the day before the king's death his vast estates were seized, making them available for redistribution, and he spent the whole of Edward's reign in the Tower of London.", "Other historians have argued that Gardiner's exclusion was based on non-religious matters, that Norfolk was not noticeably conservative in religion, that conservatives remained on the council, and that the radicalism of such men as Sir Anthony Denny, who controlled the dry stamp that replicated the king's signature, is debatable.Whatever the case, Henry's death was followed by a lavish hand-out of lands and honours to the new power group.", "The will contained an \"unfulfilled gifts\" clause, added at the last minute, which allowed the executors to freely distribute lands and honours to themselves and the court, particularly to Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, the new king's uncle who became Lord Protector of the Realm, Governor of the King's Person and Duke of Somerset.In fact, Henry VIII's will did not provide for the appointment of a Protector.", "It entrusted the government of the realm during his son's minority to a regency council that would rule collectively, by majority decision, with \"like and equal charge\".", "Nevertheless, a few days after Henry's death, on 4 February, the executors chose to invest almost regal power in the Duke of Somerset.", "Thirteen out of the sixteen (the others being absent) agreed to his appointment as Protector, which they justified as their joint decision \"by virtue of the authority\" of Henry's will.", "Somerset may have done a deal with some of the executors, who almost all received hand-outs.", "He is known to have done so with William Paget, private secretary to Henry VIII, and to have secured the support of Sir Anthony Browne of the Privy Chamber.Somerset's appointment was in keeping with historical precedent, and his eligibility for the role was reinforced by his military successes in Scotland and France.", "In March 1547, he secured letters patent from King Edward granting him the almost monarchical right to appoint members to the Privy Council himself and to consult them only when he wished.", "In the words of historian Geoffrey Elton, \"from that moment his autocratic system was complete\".", "He proceeded to rule largely by proclamation, calling on the Privy Council to do little more than rubber-stamp his decisions.Somerset's takeover of power was smooth and efficient.", "The imperial ambassador, François van der Delft, reported that he \"governs everything absolutely\", with Paget operating as his secretary, though he predicted trouble from John Dudley, Viscount Lisle, who had recently been raised to Earl of Warwick in the share-out of honours.", "In fact, in the early weeks of his Protectorate, Somerset was challenged only by the Chancellor, Thomas Wriothesley, whom the Earldom of Southampton had evidently failed to buy off, and by his own brother.", "Wriothesley, a religious conservative, objected to Somerset's assumption of monarchical power over the council.", "He then found himself abruptly dismissed from the chancellorship on charges of selling off some of his offices to delegates.===Thomas Seymour===Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of SudeleySomerset faced less manageable opposition from his younger brother Thomas, who has been described as a \"worm in the bud\".", "As King Edward's uncle, Thomas Seymour demanded the governorship of the king's person and a greater share of power.", "Somerset tried to buy his brother off with a barony, an appointment to the Lord Admiralship, and a seat on the Privy Council—but Thomas was bent on scheming for power.", "He began smuggling pocket money to King Edward, telling him that Somerset held the purse strings too tight, making him a \"beggarly king\".", "He also urged the king to throw off the Protector within two years and \"bear rule as other kings do\"; but Edward, schooled to defer to the council, failed to co-operate.", "In the spring of 1547, using Edward's support to circumvent Somerset's opposition, Thomas Seymour secretly married Henry VIII's widow Catherine Parr, whose Protestant household included the 11-year-old Lady Jane Grey and the 13-year-old Lady Elizabeth.In summer 1548, a pregnant Catherine Parr discovered Thomas Seymour embracing Lady Elizabeth.", "As a result, Elizabeth was removed from Parr's household and transferred to Sir Anthony Denny's.", "That September, Parr died shortly after childbirth, and Seymour promptly resumed his attentions to Elizabeth by letter, planning to marry her.", "Elizabeth was receptive, but, like Edward, unready to agree to anything unless permitted by the council.", "In January 1549, the council had Thomas Seymour arrested on various charges, including embezzlement at the Bristol mint.", "King Edward, whom Seymour was accused of planning to marry to Lady Jane Grey, himself testified about the pocket money.", "Lack of clear evidence for treason ruled out a trial, so Seymour was condemned instead by an act of attainder and beheaded on 20 March 1549.===War===Somerset's only undoubted skill was as a soldier, which he had proven on expeditions to Scotland and in the defence of Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1546.From the first, his main interest as Protector was the war against Scotland.", "After a crushing victory at the Battle of Pinkie in September 1547, he set up a network of garrisons in Scotland, stretching as far north as Dundee.", "His initial successes, however, were followed by a loss of direction, as his aim of uniting the realms through conquest became increasingly unrealistic.", "The Scots allied with France, who sent reinforcements for the defence of Edinburgh in 1548.The Queen of Scots was moved to France, where she was betrothed to the Dauphin.", "The cost of maintaining the Protector's massive armies and his permanent garrisons in Scotland also placed an unsustainable burden on the royal finances.", "A French attack on Boulogne in August 1549 at last forced Somerset to begin a withdrawal from Scotland.===Rebellion===Edward VI's uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, ruled England in the name of his nephew as Lord Protector from 1547 to 1549.During 1548, England was subject to social unrest.", "After April 1549, a series of armed revolts broke out, fuelled by various religious and agrarian grievances.", "The two most serious rebellions, which required major military intervention to put down, were in Devon and Cornwall and in Norfolk.", "The first, sometimes called the Prayer Book Rebellion, arose from the imposition of Protestantism, and the second, led by a tradesman called Robert Kett, mainly from the encroachment of landlords on common grazing ground.", "A complex aspect of the social unrest was that the protesters believed they were acting legitimately against enclosing landlords with the Protector's support, convinced that the landlords were the lawbreakers.The same justification for outbreaks of unrest was voiced throughout the country, not only in Norfolk and the west.", "The origin of the popular view of Somerset as sympathetic to the rebel cause lies partly in his series of sometimes liberal, often contradictory, proclamations, and partly in the uncoordinated activities of the commissions he sent out in 1548 and 1549 to investigate grievances about loss of tillage, encroachment of large sheep flocks on common land, and similar issues.", "Somerset's commissions were led by an evangelical MP called John Hales, whose socially liberal rhetoric linked the issue of enclosure with Reformation theology and the notion of a godly commonwealth.", "Local groups often assumed that the findings of these commissions entitled them to act against offending landlords themselves.", "King Edward wrote in his ''Chronicle'' that the 1549 risings began \"because certain commissions were sent down to pluck down enclosures\".Whatever the popular view of Somerset, the disastrous events of 1549 were taken as evidence of a colossal failure of government, and the council laid the responsibility at the Protector's door.", "In July 1549, Paget wrote to Somerset: \"Every man of the council have misliked your proceedings ... would to God, that, at the first stir you had followed the matter hotly, and caused justice to be ministered in solemn fashion to the terror of others ...\".===Fall of Somerset===The sequence of events that led to Somerset's removal from power has often been called a ''coup d'état''.", "By 1 October 1549, Somerset had been alerted that his rule faced a serious threat.", "He issued a proclamation calling for assistance, took possession of the king's person, and withdrew for safety to the fortified Windsor Castle, where Edward wrote, \"Me thinks I am in prison\".", "Meanwhile, a united council published details of Somerset's government mismanagement.", "They made clear that the Protector's power came from them, not from Henry VIII's will.", "On 11 October, the council had Somerset arrested and brought the king to Richmond Palace.", "Edward summarised the charges against Somerset in his ''Chronicle'': \"ambition, vainglory, entering into rash wars in mine youth, negligent looking on Newhaven, enriching himself of my treasure, following his own opinion, and doing all by his own authority, etc.\"", "In February 1550, John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, emerged as the leader of the council and, in effect, as Somerset's successor.", "Although Somerset was released from the Tower and restored to the council, he was executed for felony in January 1552 after scheming to overthrow Dudley's regime.", "Edward noted his uncle's death in his ''Chronicle'': \"the duke of Somerset had his head cut off upon Tower Hill between eight and nine o'clock in the morning\".Historians contrast the efficiency of Somerset's takeover of power, in which they detect the organising skills of allies such as Paget, the \"master of practices\", with the subsequent ineptitude of his rule.", "By autumn 1549, his costly wars had lost momentum, the crown faced financial ruin, and riots and rebellions had broken out around the country.", "Until recent decades, Somerset's reputation with historians was high, in view of his many proclamations that appeared to back the common people against a rapacious landowning class.", "More recently, however, he has often been portrayed as an arrogant and aloof ruler, lacking in political and administrative skills." ], [ "Northumberland's leadership", "John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, later 1st Duke of Northumberland, led the Privy Council after the downfall of Somerset.In contrast, Somerset's successor the Earl of Warwick, made Duke of Northumberland in 1551, was once regarded by historians merely as a grasping schemer who cynically elevated and enriched himself at the expense of the crown.", "Since the 1970s, the administrative and economic achievements of his regime have been recognised, and he has been credited with restoring the authority of the royal council and returning the government to an even keel after the disasters of Somerset's protectorate.The Earl of Warwick's rival for leadership of the new regime was Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, whose conservative supporters had allied with Warwick's followers to create a unanimous council which they and observers, such as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's ambassador, expected to reverse Somerset's policy of religious reform.", "Warwick, on the other hand, pinned his hopes on the king's strong Protestantism and, claiming that Edward was old enough to rule in person, moved himself and his people closer to the king, taking control of the Privy Chamber.", "Paget, accepting a barony, joined Warwick when he realised that a conservative policy would not bring the emperor onto the English side over Boulogne.", "Southampton prepared a case for executing Somerset, aiming to discredit Warwick through Somerset's statements that he had done all with Warwick's co-operation.", "As a counter-move, Warwick convinced Parliament to free Somerset, which it did on 14 January 1550.Warwick then had Southampton and his followers purged from the council after winning the support of council members in return for titles, and was made Lord President of the Council and great master of the king's household.", "Although not called a Protector, he was now clearly the head of the government.As Edward was growing up, he was able to understand more and more government business.", "However, his actual involvement in decisions has long been a matter of debate, and during the 20th century, historians have presented the whole gamut of possibilities, \"balancing an articulate puppet against a mature, precocious, and essentially adult king\", in the words of Stephen Alford.", "A special \"Counsel for the Estate\" was created when Edward was fourteen.", "He chose the members himself.", "In the weekly meetings with this council, Edward was \"to hear the debating of things of most importance\".", "A major point of contact with the king was the Privy Chamber, and there Edward worked closely with William Cecil and William Petre, the principal secretaries.", "The king's greatest influence was in matters of religion, where the council followed the strongly Protestant policy that Edward favoured.The Duke of Northumberland's mode of operation was very different from Somerset's.", "Careful to make sure he always commanded a majority of councillors, he encouraged a working council and used it to legitimise his authority.", "Lacking Somerset's blood-relationship with the king, he added members to the council from his own faction in order to control it.", "He also added members of his family to the royal household.", "He saw that to achieve personal dominance, he needed total procedural control of the council.", "In the words of historian John Guy, \"Like Somerset, he became quasi-king; the difference was that he managed the bureaucracy on the pretence that Edward had assumed full sovereignty, whereas Somerset had asserted the right to near-sovereignty as Protector\".Shilling with portrait of Edward VI, struck 1551–1553Warwick's war policies were more pragmatic than Somerset's, and they have earned him criticism for weakness.", "In 1550, he signed a peace treaty with France that agreed to withdrawal from Boulogne and recalled all English garrisons from Scotland.", "In 1551, Edward was betrothed to Elisabeth of Valois, King Henry II's daughter, and was made a Knight of Saint Michael.", "Warwick realised that England could no longer support the cost of wars.", "At home, he took measures to police local unrest.", "To forestall future rebellions, he kept permanent representatives of the crown in the localities, including lords lieutenant, who commanded military forces and reported back to central government.Working with William Paulet and Walter Mildmay, Warwick tackled the disastrous state of the kingdom's finances.", "However, his regime first succumbed to the temptations of a quick profit by further debasing the coinage.", "The economic disaster that resulted caused Warwick to hand the initiative to the expert Thomas Gresham.", "By 1552, confidence in the coinage was restored, prices fell and trade at last improved.", "Though a full economic recovery was not achieved until Elizabeth's reign, its origins lay in the Duke of Northumberland's policies.", "The regime also cracked down on widespread embezzlement of government finances, and carried out a thorough review of revenue collection practices, which has been called \"one of the more remarkable achievements of Tudor administration\"." ], [ "Reformation", "Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, exerted a powerful influence on Edward's Protestantism.In the matter of religion, the regime of Northumberland followed the same policy as that of Somerset, supporting an increasingly vigorous programme of reform.", "Although Edward VI's practical influence on government was limited, his intense Protestantism made a reforming administration obligatory; his succession was managed by the reforming faction, who continued in power throughout his reign.", "The man Edward trusted most, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, introduced a series of religious reforms that revolutionised the English church from one that—while rejecting papal supremacy—remained essentially Catholic to one that was institutionally Protestant.", "The confiscation of church property that had begun under Henry VIII resumed under Edward—notably with the dissolution of the chantries—to the great monetary advantage of the crown and the new owners of the seized property.", "Church reform was therefore as much a political as a religious policy under Edward VI.", "By the end of his reign, the church had been financially ruined, with much of the property of the bishops transferred into lay hands.The religious convictions of both Somerset and Northumberland have proved elusive for historians, who are divided on the sincerity of their Protestantism.", "There is less doubt, however, about the religious fervour of King Edward, who was said to have read twelve chapters of scripture daily and enjoyed sermons, and was commemorated by John Foxe as a \"godly imp\".", "Edward was depicted during his life and afterwards as a new Josiah, the biblical king who destroyed the idols of Baal.", "He could be priggish in his anti-Catholicism and once asked Catherine Parr to persuade Lady Mary \"to attend no longer to foreign dances and merriments which do not become a most Christian princess\".", "Edward's biographer Jennifer Loach cautions, however, against accepting too readily the pious image of Edward handed down by the reformers, as in John Foxe's influential ''Acts and Monuments'', where a woodcut depicts the young king listening to a sermon by Hugh Latimer.", "In the early part of his life, Edward conformed to the prevailing Catholic practices, including attendance at mass, but he became convinced, under the influence of Cranmer and the reformers among his tutors and courtiers, that \"true\" religion should be imposed in England.The English Reformation advanced under pressure from two directions: from the traditionalists on the one hand and the zealots on the other, who led incidents of iconoclasm (image-smashing) and complained that reform did not go far enough.", "Cranmer set himself the task of writing a uniform liturgy in English, detailing all weekly and daily services and religious festivals, to be made compulsory in the first Act of Uniformity of 1549.The ''Book of Common Prayer'' of 1549, intended as a compromise, was attacked by traditionalists for dispensing with many cherished rituals of the liturgy, such as the elevation of the bread and wine, while some reformers complained about the retention of too many \"popish\" elements, including vestiges of sacrificial rites at communion.", "Many senior Catholic clerics, including Bishops Stephen Gardiner of Winchester and Edmund Bonner of London, also opposed the prayer book.", "Both were imprisoned in the Tower and, along with others, deprived of their sees.", "In 1549, over 5,500 people died in the Prayer Book Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall.Reformed doctrines were made official, such as justification by faith alone and communion for laity as well as clergy in both kinds, of bread and wine.", "The Ordinal of 1550 replaced the divine ordination of priests with a government-run appointment system, authorising ministers to preach the gospel and administer the sacraments rather than, as before, \"to offer sacrifice and celebrate mass both for the living and the dead\".After 1551, the Reformation advanced further, with the approval and encouragement of Edward, who began to exert more personal influence in his role as Supreme Head of the church.", "The new changes were also a response to criticism from such reformers as John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, and the Scot John Knox, who was employed as a minister in Newcastle upon Tyne under the Duke of Northumberland and whose preaching at court prompted the king to oppose kneeling at communion.", "Cranmer was also influenced by the views of the continental reformer Martin Bucer, who died in England in 1551; by Peter Martyr, who was teaching at Oxford; and by other foreign theologians.", "The progress of the Reformation was further speeded by the consecration of more reformers as bishops.", "In the winter of 1551–52, Cranmer rewrote the ''Book of Common Prayer'' in less ambiguous reformist terms, revised canon law and prepared a doctrinal statement, the Forty-two Articles, to clarify the practice of the reformed religion, particularly in the divisive matter of the communion service.", "Cranmer's formulation of the reformed religion, finally divesting the communion service of any notion of the real presence of God in the bread and the wine, effectively abolished the mass.", "According to Elton, the publication of Cranmer's revised prayer book in 1552, supported by a second Act of Uniformity, \"marked the arrival of the English Church at Protestantism\".", "The prayer book of 1552 remains the foundation of the Church of England's services.", "However, Cranmer was unable to implement all these reforms once it became clear in spring 1553 that King Edward, upon whom the whole Reformation in England depended, was dying." ], [ "Betrothal", "After the Rough Wooing and Thomas Seymour's plan to marry him off to Lady Jane Grey, the 13-year-old King was betrothed to the five-year-old Elisabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici, in 1550.The marriage alliance was negotiated in secrecy, although Pope Julius III became aware of the plan and threatened to excommunicate both Henry and Elisabeth if the marriage went forward.", "A dowry of 200,000 écus was agreed to, but was never paid due to Edward's death before marriage.", "Elisabeth later married his sister Mary's widower, Philip II of Spain." ], [ "Death and succession crisis", "===Devise for the succession===In his \"devise for the succession\", Edward passed over his sisters' claims to the throne in favour of Lady Jane Grey.", "In the fourth line, he altered \"L Janes heires masles\" to \"L Jane and her heires masles\" (Lady Jane and her male heirs).", "Inner Temple Library, LondonIn February 1553, Edward VI became ill, and by June, after several improvements and relapses, he was in a hopeless condition.", "The king's death and the succession of his Catholic half-sister Mary would jeopardise the English Reformation, and Edward's council and officers had many reasons to fear it.", "Edward himself opposed Mary's succession, not only on religious grounds but also on those of legitimacy and male inheritance, which also applied to Elizabeth.", "He composed a draft document, headed \"My devise for the succession\", in which he undertook to change the succession, most probably inspired by his father Henry VIII's precedent.", "He passed over the claims of his half-sisters and, at last, settled the Crown on his first cousin once removed, the 16-year-old Lady Jane Grey, who on 25 May 1553 had married Lord Guilford Dudley, a younger son of the Duke of Northumberland.", "In the document he writes:In his document Edward provided, in case of \"lack of issue of my body\", for the succession of male heirs only – those of Lady Jane Grey's mother, Frances Grey, Duchess of Suffolk; of Jane herself; or of her sisters Katherine, Lady Herbert, and Lady Mary.", "As his death approached and possibly persuaded by Northumberland, he altered the wording so that Jane and her sisters themselves should be able to succeed.", "Yet Edward conceded their right only as an exception to male rule, demanded by reality, an example not to be followed if Jane and her sisters had only daughters.", "In the final document both Mary and Elizabeth were excluded because of bastardy; since both had been declared bastards under Henry VIII and never made legitimate again, this reason could be advanced for both sisters.", "The provisions to alter the succession directly contravened Henry VIII's Third Succession Act of 1544 and have been described as bizarre and illogical.Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen four days after Edward's death.In early June, Edward personally supervised the drafting of a clean version of his devise by lawyers, to which he lent his signature \"in six several places.\"", "Then, on 15 June he summoned high-ranking judges to his sickbed, commanding them on their allegiance \"with sharp words and angry countenance\" to prepare his devise as letters patent and announced that he would have these passed in Parliament.", "His next measure was to have leading councillors and lawyers sign a bond in his presence, in which they agreed faithfully to perform Edward's will after his death.", "A few months later, Chief Justice Edward Montagu recalled that when he and his colleagues had raised legal objections to the devise, Northumberland had threatened them \"trembling for anger, and ... further said that he would fight in his shirt with any man in that quarrel\".", "Montagu also overheard a group of lords standing behind him conclude \"if they refused to do that, they were traitors\".", "At last, on 21 June, the devise was signed by over a hundred notables, including councillors, peers, archbishops, bishops and sheriffs; many of them later claimed that they had been bullied into doing so by Northumberland, although in the words of Edward's biographer Jennifer Loach, \"few of them gave any clear indication of reluctance at the time\".It was now common knowledge that Edward was dying, and foreign diplomats suspected that some scheme to debar Mary was under way.", "France found the prospect of the emperor's cousin on the English throne disagreeable and engaged in secret talks with Northumberland, indicating support.", "The diplomats were certain that the overwhelming majority of the English people backed Mary, but nevertheless believed that Queen Jane would be successfully established.For centuries, the attempt to alter the succession was mostly seen as a one-man plot by the Duke of Northumberland.", "Since the 1970s, however, many historians have attributed the inception of the \"devise\" and the insistence on its implementation to the king's initiative.", "Diarmaid MacCulloch has made out Edward's \"teenage dreams of founding an evangelical realm of Christ\", while David Starkey has stated that \"Edward had a couple of co-operators, but the driving will was his\".", "Among other members of the Privy Chamber, Northumberland's intimate Sir John Gates has been suspected of suggesting to Edward to change his devise so that Lady Jane Grey herself—not just any sons of hers—could inherit the Crown.", "Whatever the degree of his contribution, Edward was convinced that his word was law and fully endorsed disinheriting his half-sisters: \"barring Mary from the succession was a cause in which the young King believed\".===Illness and death===Edward became ill during January 1553 with a fever and cough that gradually worsened.", "The imperial ambassador, Jean Scheyfve, reported that \"he suffers a good deal when the fever is upon him, especially from a difficulty in drawing his breath, which is due to the compression of the organs on the right side\".Edward felt well enough in early April to take the air in the park at Westminster and to move to Greenwich, but by the end of the month he had weakened again.", "By 7 May he was \"much amended\", and the royal doctors had no doubt of his recovery.", "A few days later the king was watching the ships on the Thames, sitting at his window.", "However, he relapsed, and on 11 June Scheyfve, who had an informant in the king's household, reported that \"the matter he ejects from his mouth is sometimes coloured a greenish yellow and black, sometimes pink, like the colour of blood\".", "Now his doctors believed he was suffering from \"a suppurating tumour\" of the lung and admitted that Edward's life was beyond recovery.", "Soon, his legs became so swollen that he had to lie on his back, and he lost the strength to resist the disease.", "To his tutor John Cheke he whispered, \"I am glad to die\".Edward made his final appearance in public on 1 July, when he showed himself at his window in Greenwich Palace, horrifying those who saw him by his \"thin and wasted\" condition.", "During the next two days, large crowds arrived hoping to see the king again, but on 3 July, they were told that the weather was too chilly for him to appear.", "Edward died at the age of 15 at Greenwich Palace at 8 pm on 6 July 1553.According to John Foxe's legendary account of his death, his last words were: \"I am faint; Lord have mercy upon me, and take my spirit\".Edward was buried in the Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey on 8 August 1553, with reformed rites performed by Thomas Cranmer.", "The procession was led by \"a grett company of chylderyn in ther surples\" and watched by Londoners \"wepyng and lamenting\"; the funeral chariot, draped in cloth of gold, was topped by an effigy of Edward, with crown, sceptre, and garter.", "Edward's burial place was unmarked until as late as 1966, when an inscribed stone was laid in the chapel floor by Christ's Hospital school to commemorate its founder.", "The inscription reads as follows: \"In Memory Of King Edward VI Buried In This Chapel This Stone Was Placed Here By Christ's Hospital In Thanksgiving For Their Founder 7 October 1966\".The cause of Edward VI's death is not certain.", "As with many royal deaths in the 16th century, rumours of poisoning abounded, but no evidence has been found to support these.", "The Duke of Northumberland, whose unpopularity was underlined by the events that followed Edward's death, was widely believed to have ordered the imagined poisoning.", "Another theory held that Edward had been poisoned by Catholics seeking to bring Mary to the throne.", "The surgeon who opened Edward's chest after his death found that \"the disease whereof his majesty died was the disease of the lungs\".", "The Venetian ambassador reported that Edward had died of consumption—in other words, tuberculosis—a diagnosis accepted by many historians.", "Skidmore believes that Edward contracted tuberculosis after a bout of measles and smallpox in 1552 that suppressed his natural immunity to the disease.", "Loach suggests instead that his symptoms were typical of acute bronchopneumonia, leading to a \"suppurating pulmonary infection\" or lung abscess, septicaemia and kidney failure.===Lady Jane and Queen Mary===Privy Council proclaimed his half-sister as Queen Mary I, despite Edward's attempt to prevent her accession.Lady Mary was last seen by Edward in February, and was kept informed about the state of her half-brother's health by Northumberland and through her contacts with the imperial ambassadors.", "Aware of Edward's imminent death, she left Hunsdon House, near London, and sped to her estates around Kenninghall in Norfolk, where she could count on the support of her tenants.", "Northumberland sent ships to the Norfolk coast to prevent her escape or the arrival of reinforcements from the continent.", "He delayed the announcement of the king's death while he gathered his forces, and Jane Grey was taken to the Tower on 10 July.", "On the same day, she was proclaimed queen in the streets of London, to murmurings of discontent.", "The Privy Council received a message from Mary asserting her \"right and title\" to the throne and commanding that the council proclaim her queen, as she had already proclaimed herself.", "The council replied that Jane was queen by Edward's authority and that Mary, by contrast, was illegitimate and supported only by \"a few lewd, base people\".Northumberland soon realised that he had miscalculated drastically, not least in failing to secure Mary's person before Edward's death.", "Although many of those who rallied to Mary were Catholics hoping to establish that religion and hoping for the defeat of Protestantism, her supporters also included many for whom her lawful claim to the throne overrode religious considerations.", "Northumberland was obliged to relinquish control of a nervous council in London and launch an unplanned pursuit of Mary into East Anglia, from where news was arriving of her growing support, which included a number of nobles and gentlemen and \"innumerable companies of the common people\".", "On 14 July Northumberland marched out of London with three thousand men, reaching Cambridge the next day; meanwhile, Mary rallied her forces at Framlingham Castle in Suffolk, gathering an army of nearly twenty thousand by 19 July.It now dawned on the Privy Council that it had made a terrible mistake.", "Led by the Earls of Arundel and Pembroke, on 19 July the council publicly proclaimed Mary as queen; Jane's nine-day reign came to an end.", "The proclamation triggered wild rejoicing throughout London.", "Stranded in Cambridge, Northumberland himself proclaimed Mary queen—as he had been commanded to do by a letter from the council.", "William Paget and the Earl of Arundel rode to Framlingham to beg Mary's pardon, and Arundel arrested Northumberland on 24 July.", "Northumberland was beheaded on 22 August, shortly after renouncing Protestantism.", "His recantation dismayed his daughter-in-law, Jane, who followed him to the scaffold on 12 February 1554, after her father's involvement in Wyatt's rebellion." ], [ "Protestant legacy", "A contemporary woodcut of Hugh Latimer preaching to King Edward and his courtiers from a pulpit at the Palace of Whitehall.", "Published in John Foxe's ''Acts and Monuments'' in 1563.Although Edward reigned for only six years and died at the age of 15, his reign made a lasting contribution to the English Reformation and the structure of the Church of England.", "The last decade of Henry VIII's reign had seen a partial stalling of the Reformation, a drifting back to Catholic values.", "By contrast, Edward's reign saw radical progress in the Reformation, with the Church transferring from an essentially Catholic liturgy and structure to one that is usually identified as Protestant.", "In particular, the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer, the Ordinal of 1550 and Cranmer's Forty-two Articles formed the basis for English Church practices that continue to this day.", "Edward himself fully approved these changes, and though they were the work of reformers such as Thomas Cranmer, Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, backed by Edward's determinedly evangelical council, the fact of the king's religion was a catalyst in the acceleration of the Reformation during his reign.Queen Mary's attempts to undo the reforming work of her brother's reign faced major obstacles.", "Despite her belief in the papal supremacy, she ruled constitutionally as the Supreme Head of the English Church, a contradiction under which she bridled.", "She found herself entirely unable to restore the vast number of ecclesiastical properties handed over or sold to private landowners.", "Although she burned a number of leading Protestant churchmen, many reformers either went into exile or remained subversively active in England during her reign, producing a torrent of reforming propaganda that she was unable to stem.", "Nevertheless, Protestantism was not yet \"printed in the stomachs\" of the English people, and had Mary lived longer, her Catholic reconstruction might have succeeded, leaving Edward's reign, rather than hers, as a historical aberration.On Mary's death in 1558, the English Reformation resumed its course, and most of the reforms instituted during Edward's reign were reinstated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement.", "Queen Elizabeth replaced Mary's councillors and bishops with ex-Edwardians, such as William Cecil, Northumberland's former secretary, and Richard Cox, Edward's old tutor, who preached an anti-Catholic sermon at the opening of Parliament in 1559.Parliament passed an Act of Uniformity the following spring that restored, with modifications, Cranmer's prayer book of 1552; and the Thirty-nine Articles of 1563 were largely based on Cranmer's Forty-two Articles.", "The theological developments of Edward's reign provided a vital source of reference for Elizabeth's religious policies, though the internationalism of the Edwardian Reformation was never revived." ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Cultural depictions of Edward VI" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* Wernham, R. B.", "''Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588'' (1966), a standard history of foreign policy===Historiography===* Loades, David.", "\"The reign of Edward VI: An historiographical survey\" ''Historian'' 67#1 (2000): 22+ online" ], [ "External links", "* * * Edward VI at the official website of the British monarchy* Edward VI at BBC History* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EDSAC" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator''' ('''EDSAC''') was an early British computer.", "Inspired by John von Neumann's seminal ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC'', the machine was constructed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England.", "EDSAC was the second electronic digital stored-program computer to go into regular service.Later the project was supported by J. Lyons & Co. Ltd., intending to develop a commercially applied computer and succeeding in Lyons' development of LEO I, based on the EDSAC design.", "Work on EDSAC started during 1947, and it ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of square numbers and a list of prime numbers.", "EDSAC was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC 2, which remained in use until 1965." ], [ "Technical overview", "===Physical components===9-inch tubes used for monitoringWilliam Renwick with 5-hole tape reader and Creed teleprinterAs soon as EDSAC was operational, it began serving the university's research needs.", "It used mercury delay lines for memory and derated vacuum tubes for logic.", "Power consumption was 11 kW of electricity.", "Cycle time was 1.5 ms for all ordinary instructions, 6 ms for multiplication.", "Input was via five-hole punched tape, and output was via a teleprinter.Initially registers were limited to an accumulator and a multiplier register.", "In 1953, David Wheeler, returning from a stay at the University of Illinois, designed an index register as an extension to the original EDSAC hardware.A magnetic-tape drive was added in 1952 but never worked sufficiently well to be of real use.Until 1952, the available main memory (instructions and data) was only 512 18-bit words, and there was no backing store.", "The delay lines (or \"tanks\") were arranged in two batteries providing 512 words each.", "The second battery came into operation in 1952.The full 1024-word delay-line store was not available until 1955 or early 1956, limiting programs to about 800 words until then.John Lindley (diploma student 1958–1959) mentioned \"the incredible difficulty we had ever to produce a single correct piece of paper tape with the crude and unreliable home-made punching, printing and verifying gear available in the late 50s\".===Memory and instructions===Maurice Wilkes inspecting the mercury delay line of the EDSAC in constructionMaurice Wilkes and Bill Renwick in front of the complete EDSACThe EDSAC's main memory consisted of 1024 locations, though only 512 locations were initially installed.", "Each contained 18 bits, but the topmost bit was always unavailable due to timing problems, so only 17 bits were used.", "An instruction consisted of a 5-bit instruction code, 1 spare bit, a 10-bit operand (usually a memory address), and 1 length bit to control whether the instruction used a 17-bit or a 35-bit operand (two consecutive words, little-endian).", "All instruction codes were by design represented by one mnemonic letter, so that the ''Add'' instruction, for example, used the EDSAC character code for the letter A.Internally, the EDSAC used two's complement binary numbers.", "Numbers were either 17 bits (one word) or 35 bits (two words) long.", "Unusually, the multiplier was designed to treat numbers as fixed-point fractions in the range −1 ≤ ''x'' < 1, i.e.", "the binary point was immediately to the right of the sign.", "The accumulator could hold 71 bits, including the sign, allowing two long (35-bit) numbers to be multiplied without losing any precision.The instructions available were:* Add* Subtract* Multiply-and-add* AND-and-add (called \"Collate\")* Shift left* Arithmetic shift right* Load multiplier register* Store (and optionally clear) accumulator* Conditional goto* Read input tape* Print character* Round accumulator* No-op* StopThere was no division instruction (but various division subroutines were supplied) and no way to directly load a number into the accumulator (a \"Store and zero accumulator\" instruction followed by an \"Add\" instruction were necessary for this).", "There was no unconditional jump instruction, nor was there a procedure call instruction – it had not yet been invented.Maurice Wilkes discussed relative addressing modes for the EDSAC in a paper published in 1953.He was making the proposals to facilitate the use of subroutines.===System software===The ''initial orders'' were hard-wired on a set of uniselector switches and loaded into the low words of memory at startup.", "By May 1949, the initial orders provided a primitive relocating assembler taking advantage of the mnemonic design described above, all in 31 words.", "This was the world's first assembler, and arguably the start of the global software industry.", "There is a simulation of EDSAC available, and a full description of the initial orders and first programs.The first calculation done by EDSAC was a square-number program run on 6 May 1949.The program was written by Beatrice Worsley, who had travelled from Canada to study the machine.The machine was used by other members of the university to solve real problems, and many early techniques were developed that are now included in operating systems.Users prepared their programs by punching them (in assembler) onto a paper tape.", "They soon became good at being able to hold the paper tape up to the light and read back the codes.", "When a program was ready, it was hung on a length of line strung up near the paper-tape reader.", "The machine operators, who were present during the day, selected the next tape from the line and loaded it into EDSAC.", "This is of course well known today as job queues.", "If it printed something, then the tape and the printout were returned to the user, otherwise they were informed at which memory location it had stopped.", "Debuggers were some time away, but a cathode-ray tube screen could be set to display the contents of a particular piece of memory.", "This was used to see whether a number was converging, for example.", "A loudspeaker was connected to the accumulator's sign bit; experienced users knew healthy and unhealthy sounds of programs, particularly programs \"hung\" in a loop.After office hours certain \"authorised users\" were allowed to run the machine for themselves, which went on late into the night until a valve blew – which usually happened according to one such user.", "This is alluded to by Fred Hoyle in his novel ''The Black Cloud''===Programming technique===EDSAC monitoring deskThe early programmers had to make use of techniques frowned upon today—in particular, the use of self-modifying code.", "As there was no index register until much later, the only way of accessing an array was to alter which memory location a particular instruction was referencing.David Wheeler, who earned the world's first Computer Science PhD working on the project, is credited with inventing the concept of a subroutine.", "Users wrote programs that called a routine by jumping to the start of the subroutine with the return address (i.e.", "the location-plus-one of the jump itself) in the accumulator (a Wheeler Jump).", "By convention the subroutine expected this, and the first thing it did was to modify its concluding jump instruction to that return address.", "Multiple and nested subroutines could be called so long as the user knew the length of each one in order to calculate the location to jump to; recursive calls were forbidden.", "The user then copied the code for the subroutine from a master tape onto their own tape following the end of their own program.", "(However, Alan Turing discussed subroutines in a paper of 1945 on design proposals for the NPL ACE, going so far as to invent the concept of a return-address stack, which would have allowed recursion.", ")The lack of an index register also posed a problem to the writer of a subroutine in that they could not know in advance where in memory the subroutine would be loaded, and therefore they could not know how to address any regions of the code that were used for storage of data (so-called \"pseudo-orders\").", "This was solved by use of an initial input routine, which was responsible for loading subroutines from punched tape into memory.", "On loading a subroutine, it would note the start location and increment internal memory references as required.", "Thus, as Wilkes wrote, \"the code used to represent orders outside the machine differs from that used inside, the differences being dictated by the different requirements of the programmer on the one hand, and of the control circuits of the machine on the other\".EDSAC's programmers used special techniques to make best use of the limited available memory.", "For example, at the point of loading a subroutine from punched tape into memory, it might happen that a particular constant would have to be calculated, a constant that would not subsequently need recalculation.", "In this situation, the constant would be calculated in an \"interlude\".", "The code required to calculate the constant would be supplied along with the full subroutine.", "After the initial input routine had loaded the calculation-code, it would transfer control to this code.", "Once the constant had been calculated and written into memory, control would return to the initial input routine, which would continue to write the remainder of the subroutine into memory, but first adjusting its starting point so as to overwrite the code that had calculated the constant.", "This allowed quite complicated adjustments to be made to a general-purpose subroutine without making its final footprint in memory any larger than had it been tailored to a specific circumstance.===Application software===The subroutine concept led to the availability of a substantial subroutine library.", "By 1951, 87 subroutines in the following categories were available for general use: floating-point arithmetic; arithmetic operations on complex numbers; checking; division; exponentiation; routines relating to functions; differential equations; special functions; power series; logarithms; miscellaneous; print and layout; quadrature; read (input); ''n''th root; trigonometric functions; counting operations (simulating repeat until loops, while loops and for loops); vectors; and matrices.The first assembly language appeared for the EDSAC, and inspired several other assembly languages: Year Name Chief developer, company 1951 Regional Assembly Language Maurice Wilkes 1951 Whirlwind assembler Charles Adams and Jack Gilmore at MIT 1951 Rochester assembler Nat Rochester" ], [ "Applications of EDSAC", "EDSAC was designed specifically to form part of the Mathematical Laboratory's support service for calculation.", "The first scientific paper to be published using a computer for calculations was by Ronald Fisher.", "Wilkes and Wheeler had used EDSAC to solve a differential equation relating to gene frequencies for him.", "In 1951, Miller and Wheeler used the machine to discover a 79-digit prime – the largest known at the time.The winners of three Nobel Prizes John Kendrew and Max Perutz (Chemistry, 1962), Andrew Huxley (Medicine, 1963) and Martin Ryle (Physics, 1974) benefitted from EDSAC's revolutionary computing power.", "In their acceptance prize speeches, each acknowledged the role that EDSAC had played in their research.In the early 1960s Peter Swinnerton-Dyer used the EDSAC computer to calculate the number of points modulo ''p'' (denoted by ''Np'') for a large number of primes ''p'' on elliptic curves whose rank was known.", "Based on these numerical results, conjectured that ''Np'' for a curve ''E'' with rank ''r'' obeys an asymptotic law, the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture, considered one of the top unsolved problems in mathematics as of 2022.===Games===In 1952, Sandy Douglas developed ''OXO'', a version of noughts and crosses (tic-tac-toe) for the EDSAC, with graphical output to a VCR97 6\" cathode-ray tube.", "This may well have been the world's first video game.Another video game was created by Stanley Gill and involved a dot (termed a sheep) approaching a line in which one of two gates could be opened.", "The Stanley Gill game was controlled via the lightbeam of the EDSAC's paper-tape reader.", "Interrupting it (such as by the player placing their hand in it) would open the upper gate.", "Leaving the beam unbroken would result in the lower gate opening." ], [ "Further developments", "EDSAC's successor, EDSAC 2, was commissioned in 1958.In 1961, an EDSAC 2 version of Autocode, an ALGOL-like high-level programming language for scientists and engineers, was developed by David Hartley.In the mid-1960s, a successor to the EDSAC 2 was planned, but the move was instead made to the Titan, a prototype Atlas 2 developed from the Atlas Computer of the University of Manchester, Ferranti, and Plessey." ], [ "EDSAC Replica Project", "EDSAC replica in October 2018On 13 January 2011, the Computer Conservation Society announced that it planned to build a working replica of EDSAC, at the National Museum of Computing (TNMoC) in Bletchley Park supervised by Andrew Herbert, who studied under Maurice Wilkes.", "The first parts of the replica were switched on in November 2014.The EDSAC logical circuits were meticulously reconstructed through the development of a simulator and the reexamination of some rediscovered original schematics.", "This documentation has been released under a Creative Commons license.", "The ongoing project is open to visitors of the museum.", "In 2016, two original EDSAC operators, Margaret Marrs and Joyce Wheeler, visited the museum to assist the project.", "As of November 2016, commissioning of the fully completed and operational state of the replica was estimated to be the autumn of 2017.However, unforeseen project delays have resulted in an unknown date for a completed and fully operational machine." ], [ "See also", "* EDVAC on which much of the design of EDSAC was based* History of computing hardware* List of vacuum-tube computers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer'' by Professor Sir Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler and Stanley Gill, Addison–Wesley, Edition 1, 1951 archive.org.", "* 50th Anniversary of EDSAC – Dedicated website at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory.", "* * * * reprinted in * The EDSAC Rebuild Project - Documentation,and the reconstructed EDSAC schematics" ], [ "External links", "* An EDSAC simulator – Developed by Martin Campbell-Kelly, Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, England.", "* Oral history interview with David Wheeler, 14 May 1987.Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.", "Wheeler was a research student at the University Mathematical Laboratory at Cambridge in 1948–1951 and a pioneer programmer on the EDSAC project.", "Wheeler discusses projects that were run on EDSAC, user-oriented programming methods, and the influence of EDSAC on the ILLIAC, the ORDVAC, and the IBM 701.Wheeler also notes visits by Douglas Hartree, Nelson Blackman (of ONR), Peter Naur, Aad van Wijngarden, Arthur van der Poel, Friedrich Bauer, and Louis Couffignal.", "* Nicholas Enticknap and Maurice Wilkes, Cambridge's Golden Jubilee – in: RESURRECTION The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society.", ".", "Number 22, Summer 1999.", "* The EDSAC Paperwork Collection at The ICL Computer Museum." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "E. H. Shepard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernest Howard Shepard''' (10 December 1879 – 24 March 1976) was an English artist and book illustrator.", "He is known especially for illustrations of the anthropomorphic animal and soft toy characters in ''The Wind in the Willows'' and ''Winnie-the-Pooh''.Shepard's original 1926 illustrated map of the Hundred Acre Wood, which features in the opening pages of ''Winnie-the-Pooh'' (and also appears in the opening animation in the first Disney adaptation in 1966), sold for £430,000 ($600,000) at Sotheby's in London, setting a world record for book illustrations." ], [ "Early life and career", "Shepard's house in Lodsworth, marked with a blue plaqueShepard was born in St John's Wood, London, son of Henry Donkin Shepard, an architect, and Jessie Harriet, daughter of watercolour painter William Lee.", "Having shown some promise in drawing at St Paul's School, in 1897 he enrolled in the Heatherley School of Fine Art in Chelsea.", "After a productive year there, he attended the Royal Academy Schools, winning a Landseer scholarship in 1899 and a British Institute prize in 1900.There he met Florence Eleanor Chaplin, whom he married in 1904.By 1906 Shepard had become a successful illustrator, having produced work for illustrated editions of Aesop's Fables, ''David Copperfield'', and ''Tom Brown's Schooldays'', while at the same time working as an illustrator on the staff of ''Punch''.", "The couple bought a house in London, but in 1905 moved to Shamley Green, near Guildford.Shepard was a prolific painter, showing in a number of exhibitions.", "He exhibited at the Royal Society of Artists, Birmingham—a traditional venue for generic painters—as well as in the more radical atmosphere of Glasgow's Institute of Fine Arts, where some of the most innovative artists were on show.", "He was twice an exhibitor at the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool, one of the largest provincial galleries in the country, and another at the Manchester Art Gallery, a Victorian institution later part of the public libraries.", "But at heart, Shepard was a Londoner, showing sixteen times at the Royal Academy on Piccadilly.", "His wife, who was also a painter, found a home in London's West End venue for her own modest output during a 25-year career.In his mid-thirties when World War I broke out in 1914, Shepard received a commission as a second lieutenant in the Royal Garrison Artillery, an arm of the Royal Artillery.", "He was assigned to the 105th Siege Battery, which crossed to France in May 1916 and went into action at the Battle of the Somme.By the autumn of 1916, Shepard started working for the Intelligence Department sketching the combat area within the view of his battery position.", "On 16 February 1917, he was made an acting captain whilst second-in-command of his battery, and briefly served as an acting major in late April and early May of that year during the Battle of Arras before reverting to acting captain.", "He was promoted to substantive lieutenant on 1 July 1917.Whilst acting as Captain, he was awarded the Military Cross.", "His citation read:Later in 1917, the 105th Siege Battery participated in the final stages of the Battle of Passchendaele where it came under heavy fire and suffered a number of casualties.", "At the end of the year, it was sent to help retrieve a disastrous situation on the Italian Front, travelling by rail via Verona before coming into action on the Montello Hill.Shepard missed the Second Battle of the Piave River in April 1918, being on leave in England (where he was invested with his MC by King George V at Buckingham Palace) and where he was attending a gunnery course.", "He was back in Italy with his battery for the victory at Vittorio Veneto.", "After the Armistice of Villa Giusti in November 1918, Shepard was promoted to acting major in command of the battery, and given the duty of administering captured enemy guns.", "Demobilisation began at Christmas 1918 and the 105th Siege Battery was disbanded in March 1919.Throughout the war, he had been contributing to ''Punch''.", "He was hired as a regular staff cartoonist in 1921 and became lead cartoonist in 1945.He was removed from this post in 1953 by ''Punch'''s new editor, Malcolm Muggeridge.", "His work was also part of the painting event in the art competition at the 1928 Summer Olympics.Shepard was recommended to A.", "A. Milne in 1923 by another ''Punch'' staffer, E. V. Lucas.", "Milne initially thought Shepard's style was not what he wanted, but used him to illustrate the book of poems ''When We Were Very Young''.", "Happy with the results, Milne then insisted Shepard illustrate ''Winnie-the-Pooh''.", "Realising his illustrator's contribution to the book's success, the writer arranged for Shepard to receive a share of his royalties.", "Milne also inscribed a copy of ''Winnie-the-Pooh'' with the following personal verse:Eventually Shepard came to resent \"that silly old bear\" as he felt that the Pooh illustrations overshadowed his other work.Shepard modelled Pooh not on the toy owned by Milne's son Christopher Robin but on \"Growler\", a stuffed bear owned by his own son.", "(Growler no longer exists, having been given to his granddaughter Minnie Hunt and subsequently destroyed by a neighbour's dog.)", "His Pooh work is so famous that 300 of his preliminary sketches were exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1969, when he was 90 years old.A Shepard painting of Winnie the Pooh, believed to have been painted in the 1930s for a Bristol teashop, is his only known oil painting of the famous teddy bear.", "It was purchased at an auction for $243,000 in London late in 2000.The painting is displayed in the Pavilion Gallery at Assiniboine Park in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, the city after which Winnie is named.Shepard wrote two autobiographies: ''Drawn from Memory'' (1957) and ''Drawn From Life'' (1961).In 1972, Shepard gave his personal collection of papers and illustrations to the University of Surrey.", "These now form the E.H. Shepard Archive.Shepard was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1972 Birthday Honours." ], [ "Personal life", "Shepard's grave at St Peter's Church, LodsworthShepard lived at Melina Place in St John's Wood and from 1955 in Lodsworth, West Sussex.", "He and Florence had two children, Graham (born 1907) and Mary (born 1909), who both became illustrators.", "Lt. Graham Shepard died when his ship HMS ''Polyanthus'' was sunk by German submarine U-952 in September 1943.Mary married E.V.", "Knox, the editor of ''Punch'', and became known as the illustrator of the ''Mary Poppins'' series of children's books.", "Florence Shepard died in 1927.In November 1943 Shepard married Norah Carroll, a nurse at St Mary's Hospital, Paddington.", "They remained married until his death on 24 March 1976.In 1966, he called the short film ''Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree'' a travesty." ], [ "Works illustrated", "* 1924 – ''When We Were Very Young''* 1925 – ''Playtime and Company''; ''Holly Tree''* 1926 – ''Winnie-the-Pooh''; ''Everybody's Pepys''* 1927 – ''Jeremy''; ''Little One's Log''; ''Let's Pretend''; ''Now We Are Six''; ''Fun and Fantasy''* 1928 – ''The House at Pooh Corner''; ''The Golden Age''* 1930 – ''Everybody's Boswell''; ''Dream Days''* 1931 – ''The Wind in the Willows''; ''Christmas Poems''; ''Bevis''; ''Mother Goose''* 1932 – ''Sycamore Square''* 1933 – ''Everybody's Lamb''; ''The Cricket in the Cage''* 1934 – ''Victoria Regina''* 1935 – ''Perfume from Provence''* 1936 – ''The Modern Struwwelpeter''* 1937 – ''Golden Sovereign''; ''Cheddar Gorge''; ''As the Bee Sucks''; ''Sunset House: More Perfume from Provence''* 1939 – ''The Reluctant Dragon''* 1941 – ''Gracious Majesty''* 1948 – ''The Golden Age''; ''Dream Days''; ''Bertie's Escapade''* 1949 – ''York''* 1950 – ''Drover's Tale''* 1951 – ''Enter David Garrick''* 1953 – ''The Silver Curlew''* 1954 – ''The Cuckoo Clock''; ''Susan, Bill and the Wolf-Dog''* 1955 – ''The Glass Slipper''; ''Operation Wild Goose''; ''Crystal Mountain''; ''Frogmorton''; ''The Brownies''* 1955 – ''Mary in the Country''* 1956 – ''The Islanders''; ''The Pancake''* 1956 – ''The Secret Garden''* 1956 – ''Royal Reflections: Stories for Children''* 1957 – ''Drawn from Memory''; ''Briar Rose''* 1958 – ''Old Greek Fairy Tales''* 1959 – ''Tom Brown's School Days''* 1960 – ''Noble Company''* 1961 – ''Drawn from Life''; ''Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales''* 1965 – ''Ben and Brock''* 1969 – ''The Wind in the Willows'' (colour re-illustration); ''The Pooh Cookbook'' (cover)* 1970 – ''Winnie the Pooh'' (colour re-illustration); ''The House at Pooh Corner'' (colour re-illustration)* 1971 – ''The Pooh Party Book'' (cover)" ], [ "References", "=== Primary sources ===**=== Secondary sources ===** Campbell, James, ''Shepard's War: E.H. Shepard, The Man who Drew Winnie-the-Pooh'', London: LOM Art, 2015, .", "**;Articles*" ], [ "External links", "*** Biography of E. H. Shepard at classicpooh.net* \"The man who hated Pooh\", Tim Benson, BBC News, 6 March 2006.", "* Victoria and Albert Museum, London, exhibition \"Winnie-the-Pooh: Exploring a Classic\", December 2017 to 8 April 2018.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enterobacteriaceae" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enterobacteriaceae''' is a large family of Gram-negative bacteria.", "It includes over 30 genera and more than 100 species.", "Its classification above the level of family is still a subject of debate, but one classification places it in the order Enterobacterales of the class Gammaproteobacteria in the phylum Pseudomonadota.", "In 2016, the description and members of this family were emended based on comparative genomic analyses by Adeolu et al.Enterobacteriaceae includes, along with many harmless symbionts, many of the more familiar pathogens, such as ''Salmonella'', ''Escherichia coli'', ''Klebsiella'', and ''Shigella''.", "Other disease-causing bacteria in this family include ''Enterobacter'' and ''Citrobacter''.", "Members of the Enterobacteriaceae can be trivially referred to as enterobacteria or \"enteric bacteria\", as several members live in the intestines of animals.", "In fact, the etymology of the family is enterobacterium with the suffix to designate a family (aceae)—not after the genus ''Enterobacter'' (which would be \"Enterobacteraceae\")—and the type genus is ''Escherichia''." ], [ "Morphology", "Members of the Enterobacteriaceae are bacilli (rod-shaped), and are typically 1–5 μm in length.", "They typically appear as medium to large-sized grey colonies on blood agar, although some can express pigments.Most have many flagella used to move about, but a few genera are nonmotile.", "Most members of Enterobacteriaceae have peritrichous, type I fimbriae involved in the adhesion of the bacterial cells to their hosts.They are not spore-forming." ], [ "Metabolism", "Like other Pseudomonadota, Enterobactericeae have Gram-negative stains, and they are facultative anaerobes, fermenting sugars to produce lactic acid and various other end products.", "Most also reduce nitrate to nitrite, although exceptions exist.", "Unlike most similar bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae generally lack cytochrome c oxidase, there are exceptions.Catalase reactions vary among Enterobacteriaceae." ], [ "Ecology", "Many members of this family are normal members of the gut microbiota in humans and other animals, while others are found in water or soil, or are parasites on a variety of different animals and plants." ], [ "Model organisms and medical relevance", "''Escherichia coli'' is one of the most important model organisms, and its genetics and biochemistry have been closely studied.Some enterobacteria are important pathogens, e.g.", "''Salmonella'', or ''Shigella'' e.g.", "because they produce endotoxins.", "Endotoxins reside in the cell wall and are released when the cell dies and the cell wall disintegrates.", "Some members of the ''Enterobacteriaceae'' produce endotoxins that, when released into the bloodstream following cell lysis, cause a systemic inflammatory and vasodilatory response.", "The most severe form of this is known as endotoxic shock, which can be rapidly fatal." ], [ "Historical systematics and taxonomy", "''Enterobacteriaceae'' was originally the sole family under the order 'Enterobacteriales'.", "The family contained a large array of biochemically distinct species with different ecological niches, which made biochemical descriptions difficult.", "The original classification of species to this family and order was largely based on 16S rRNA genome sequence analyses, which is known to have low discriminatory power and the results of which changes depends on the algorithm and organism information used.", "Despite this, the analyses still exhibited polyphyletic branching, indicating the presence of distinct subgroups within the family.In 2016, the order 'Enterobacteriales' was renamed to Enterobacterales, and divided into 7 new families, including the emended ''Enterobacteriaceae'' family.", "This emendation restricted the family to include only those genera directly related to the type genus, which included most of the enteric species under the order.", "This classification was proposed based on the construction of several robust phylogenetic trees using conserved genome sequences, 16S rRNA sequences and multilocus sequence analyses.", "Molecular markers, specifically conserved signature indels, specific to this family were identified as evidence supporting the division independent of phylogenetic trees.In 2017, a subsequent study using comparative phylogenomic analyses identified the presence of 6 subfamily level clades within the family ''Enterobacteriaceae'', namely the “Escherichia clade”, “Klebsiella clade”, “Enterobacter clade”, “Kosakonia clade”, “Cronobacter clade”, “Cedecea clade” and a “Enterobacteriaceae incertae sedis clade” containing species whose taxonomic placement within the family is unclear.", "However, this division was not officially proposed as the subfamily rank is generally not used." ], [ "Molecular signatures", "Analyses of genome sequences from ''Enterobacteriaceae'' species identified 21 conserved signature indels (CSIs) that are uniquely present in this family in the proteins NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (subunit M), twitching motility protein PilT, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate-AMP ligase, ATP/GTP-binding protein, multifunctional fatty acid oxidation complex (subunit alpha), S-formylglutathione hydrolase, aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, epimerase, membrane protein, formate dehydrogenylase (subunit 7), glutathione S-transferase, major facilitator superfamily transporter, phosphoglucosamine mutase, glycosyl hydrolase 1 family protein, 23S rrna uracil(1939)-C(5)-methyltransferase, co-chaperone HscB, N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase, sulfate ABC transporter ATP-binding protein CysA, and LPS assembly protein LptD.", "These CSIs provide a molecular means of distinguishing ''Enterobacteriaceae'' from other families within the order ''Enterobacterales'' and other bacteria." ], [ "Genera", "===Validly published genera===The following genera have been validly published, thus they have \"Standing in Nomenclature\".", "The year the genus was proposed is listed in parentheses after the genus name.", "* ''Biostraticola'' (2008)* ''Buttiauxella'' (1982)* ''Cedecea'' (1981)* ''Citrobacter'' (1932)* ''Cronobacter'' (2008)* ''Enterobacillus'' (2015)* ''Enterobacter'' (1960)* ''Escherichia'' (1919)* ''Franconibacter'' (2014)* ''Gibbsiella'' (2011)* ''Izhakiella'' (2016)* ''Klebsiella'' (1885)* ''Kluyvera'' (1981)* ''Kosakonia'' (2013)* ''Leclercia'' (1987)* ''Lelliottia'' (2013)* ''Limnobaculum'' (2018)* ''Mangrovibacter'' (2010)* ''Metakosakonia'' (2017)* ''Phytobacter'' (2017)* ''Pluralibacter'' (2013)* ''Proteus'' ()* ''Pseudescherichia'' (2017)* ''Pseudocitrobacter'' (2014)* ''Raoultella'' (2001)* ''Rosenbergiella'' (2013)* ''Saccharobacter'' (1990)* ''Salmonella'' (1900)* ''Scandinavium'' (2020)* ''Shigella'' (1919)* ''Shimwellia'' (2010)* ''Siccibacter'' (2014)* ''Trabulsiella'' (1992)* ''Yokenella'' (1985)===''Candidatus'' genera===* \"''Candidatus'' Annandia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Arocatia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Aschnera\"* \"''Candidatus'' Benitsuchiphilus\"* \"''Candidatus'' Blochmannia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Curculioniphilus\"* \"''Candidatus'' Cuticobacterium\"* \"''Candidatus'' Doolittlea\"* \"''Candidatus'' Gillettellia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Gullanella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Hamiltonella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Hartigia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Hoaglandella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Ischnodemia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Ishikawaella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Kleidoceria\"* \"''Candidatus'' Kotejella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Macropleicola\"* \"''Candidatus'' Mikella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Moranella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Phlomobacter\"* \"''Candidatus'' Profftia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Purcelliella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Regiella\"* \"''Candidatus'' Riesia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Rohrkolberia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Rosenkranzia\"* \"''Candidatus'' Schneideria\"* \"''Candidatus'' Stammera\"* \"''Candidatus'' Stammerula\"* \"''Candidatus'' Tachikawaea\"* \"''Candidatus'' Westeberhardia\"===Proposed genera===The following genera have been effectively, but not validly, published, thus they do not have \"Standing in Nomenclature\".", "The year the genus was proposed is listed in parentheses after the genus name.", "* ''Aquamonas'' (2009)* ''Atlantibacter'' (2016)* ''Superficieibacter'' (2018)" ], [ "Identification", "To identify different genera of Enterobacteriaceae, a microbiologist may run a series of tests in the lab.", "These include:* Phenol red* Tryptone broth* Phenylalanine agar for detection of production of deaminase, which converts phenylalanine to phenylpyruvic acid* Methyl red or Voges-Proskauer tests depend on the digestion of glucose.", "The methyl red tests for acid endproducts.", "The Voges Proskauer tests for the production of acetylmethylcarbinol.", "* Catalase test on nutrient agar tests for the production of enzyme catalase, which splits hydrogen peroxide and releases oxygen gas.", "* Oxidase test on nutrient agar tests for the production of the enzyme oxidase, which reacts with an aromatic amine to produce a purple color.", "* Nutrient gelatin tests to detect activity of the enzyme gelatinase.In a clinical setting, three species make up 80 to 95% of all isolates identified.", "These are ''Escherichia coli'', ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'', and ''Proteus mirabilis''.", "However, ''Proteus mirabilis'' is now considered a part of the Morganellaceae, a sister clade within the Enterobacterales." ], [ "Antibiotic resistance", "Several Enterobacteriaceae strains have been isolated which are resistant to antibiotics including carbapenems, which are often claimed as \"the last line of antibiotic defense\" against resistant organisms.", "For instance, some ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' strains are carbapenem resistant.", "Various carbapenemases genes (blaOXA-48, blaKPC and blaNDM-1, blaVIM and blaIMP) have been identified in carbapenem resistant Enterobacteriaceae including ''Escherichia coli'' and ''Klebsiella pneumoniae''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Enterobacteriaceae genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID* Evaluation of new computer-enhanced identification program for microorganisms: adaptation of BioBASE for identification of members of the family Enterobacteriaceae * Brown, A.E.", "(2009).", "Benson's microbiological applications: laboratory manual in general microbiology.", "New York: McGraw- Hill." ] ]
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[ [ "Eccentricity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eccentricity''' or '''eccentric''' may refer to:* Eccentricity (behavior), odd behavior on the part of a person, as opposed to being \"normal\"" ], [ "Mathematics, science and technology", "===Mathematics===* Off-center, in geometry* Eccentricity (graph theory) of a vertex in a graph* Eccentricity (mathematics), a parameter associated with every conic section===Orbital mechanics===* Orbital eccentricity, in astrodynamics, a measure of the non-circularity of an orbit* Eccentric anomaly, the angle between the direction of periapsis and the current position of an object on its orbit* Eccentricity vector, in celestial mechanics, a dimensionless vector with direction pointing from apoapsis to periapsis* Eccentric, a type of deferent, a circle or sphere used in obsolete epicyclical systems to carry a planet around the Earth or Sun===Other uses in science and technology===* Eccentric (mechanism), a wheel that rotates on an axle that is displaced from the focus of the circle described by the wheel* Horizontal eccentricity, in vision, degrees of visual angle from the center of the eye* Eccentric contraction, the lengthening of muscle fibers* Eccentric position of a surveying tripod, to be able to measure hidden points* Eccentric training, the motion of an active muscle while it is lengthening under load* Eccentricity, a deviation from concentricity" ], [ "Other uses", "* Eccentric Club, a London gentlemen's club* ''The Eccentric''* ''The Eccentrics''" ], [ "See also", "* * * Acentric (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Essendon Football Club" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Essendon Football Club''', nicknamed the '''Bombers''', is a professional Australian rules football club.", "The club plays in the Australian Football League (AFL), the game's premier competition.", "The club was formed by the McCracken family in their Ascot Vale home \"Alisa\", and while the exact date is unknown, it is generally accepted to have been in 1872.The club's first recorded game took place on 7 June 1873 against a seconds team.", "From 1878 until 1896, the club played in the Victorian Football Association (VFA), then joined seven other clubs in October 1896 to form the breakaway Victorian Football League (known as the Australian Football League since 1990).", "Headquartered at the Essendon Recreation Ground, known as Windy Hill, from 1922 to 2013, the club moved to The Hangar in Tullamarine in late 2013 on land owned by the Melbourne Airport corporation.", "The club shares its home games between Docklands Stadium and the Melbourne Cricket Ground.", "Zach Merrett is the current club captain.Essendon is one of Australia's best-known and most successful football clubs.", "It has won 16 VFL/AFL premierships, which, along with Carlton and Collingwood, is the most of any club in the competition.", "The club won four consecutive VFA premierships between 1891 and 1894, a feat unmatched in that competition's history.", "Essendon also hold the distinction of being the only club to win a premiership in their inaugural season (1897).", "However, Essendon has struggled to remain competitive in the 21st century, having won its last premiership in 2000 and not winning a final since 2004.During the early-to-mid 2010s, the team was the focus of an investigation by the AFL and independent regulatory bodies into their alleged use of illegal substances during the 2012 season, which led to 34 players receiving two-year suspensions, a $2 million fine, and disqualification from the 2013 finals series (among other penalties).Three Essendon players—John Coleman, Bill Hutchison, and Dick Reynolds—and one coach, Kevin Sheedy, are classified as \"Legends\" in the Australian Football Hall of Fame.Essendon also fields reserve men's and women's teams in the Victoria Football League and VFL Women's, respectively.", "Since 2022 (S7), it has fielded a senior women's team in the national AFL Women's competition." ], [ "History", "=== Formation and VFA years (1871–1896) ===Essendon players and officials c.18781891 VFA Premiership Match in which Essendon defeated CarltonThe club was founded by members of the Royal Agricultural Society, the Melbourne Hunt Club and the Victorian Woolbrokers.", "The Essendon Football Club is thought to have been formed in 1872 at a meeting it the home of a well-known brewery family, the McCrackens, whose Ascot Vale property hosted a team of local junior players.Robert McCracken (1813–1885), the owner of several city hotels, was the founder and first president of the Essendon Football Club, and his son, Alex McCracken, its first secretary.", "Alex later became president of the newly formed VFL.", "Alex's cousin Collier McCracken, who had already played with Melbourne, was the team's first captain.The club played its first recorded match against the Carlton Second Twenty (the reserves) on 7 June 1873, with Essendon winning by one goal.", "Essendon played 13 matches in its first season, winning seven, with four draws and losing two.", "The club was one of the inaugural junior members of the Victorian Football Association (VFA) in 1877, and it began competing as a senior club from the 1878 season.", "During its early years in the Association, Essendon played its home matches at Flemington Hill, but it moved to the East Melbourne Cricket Ground in 1881.In 1878, at Flemington Hill, Essendon played its first match on what would be considered by modern standards to be a full-sized field.", "In 1879, Essendon played Melbourne in one of the earliest night matches recorded when the ball was painted white.", "In 1883, the team played four matches in eight days in Adelaide: losing to Norwood (on 23 June) and defeating Port Adelaide (on 16 June), a combined South Australian team (on 18 June), and South Adelaide (on 20 June).In 1891, Essendon won their first VFA premiership, which they repeated in 1892, 1893 and 1894.One of the club's greatest players, Albert Thurgood, played for the club during this period, making his debut in 1892.Essendon (18 wins, 2 draws) was undefeated in the 1893 season.=== Founding of the VFL to World War I (1897–1915) ===The Essendon side that won the 1897 VFL premiershipAt the end of the 1896 season, Essendon, along with seven other clubs, formed the Victorian Football League.", "Essendon's first VFL game was in 1897 against Geelong at Corio Oval in Geelong.", "Essendon won its first VFL premiership by winning the 1897 VFL finals series in a round-robin event.", "Essendon again won the premiership in 1901, defeating Collingwood in the Grand Final.", "The club won successive premierships in 1911 and 1912 over Collingwood and South Melbourne, respectively.=== \"Same Olds\" ===Dave Smith captained Essendon to premiership success in 1911.The club is recorded as having played at McCracken's Paddock, Glass's Paddock, and Flemington Hill.", "It is likely that these are three different names for the one ground, given that McCracken's Paddock was a parcel of land that sat within the larger Glass's Paddock, which in turn was situated in an area widely known at the time as Flemington Hill.", "In 1882, the club moved home games to the East Melbourne Cricket Ground (since demolished) after an application to play on the Essendon Cricket Ground (later known as Windy Hill) was voted down by Lord Mayor of the City of Essendon, James Taylor, on the basis that the considered the Essendon Cricket Ground \"to be suitable only for the gentleman's game of cricket\".The club became known by the nickname \"the Same Old Essendon\" from the title and hook of the principal song performed by a band of supporters which regularly occupied a section of the grandstand at the club's games.", "The nickname first appeared in print in the local ''North Melbourne Advertiser'' in 1889, and ended up gaining wide use, often as the diminutive \"Same Olds\".This move away from Essendon, at a time when fans would walk to their local ground, didn't go down too well with many Essendon people; and, as a consequence, a new team and club was formed in 1900, unconnected with the first (although it played in the same colours), that was based at the Essendon Cricket Ground, and playing in the Victorian Football Association.", "It was known firstly as Essendon Town and, after 1905, as Essendon (although it was often called Essendon A, with the A standing for association).=== Return to suburban Essendon (1921–1932) ===Fred Baring during the 1920sAfter the 1921 season, the East Melbourne Cricket Ground was closed and demolished to expand the Flinders Street Railyard.", "Having played at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground from 1882 to 1921, and having won four VFA premierships (1891–1894) and four VFL premierships (1897, 1901, 1911 and 1912) whilst there, Essendon was looking for a new home.", "It was offered grounds at the current Royal Melbourne Showgrounds, Ascot Vale; at Victoria Park, Melbourne; at Arden St, North Melbourne; and the Essendon Cricket Ground.", "The Essendon City Council offered the (VFL) team the Essendon Cricket Ground, announcing that it would be prepared to spend over £12,000 ($1,009,066 in 2021 terms, according to the Retail Price Index) on improvements, including a new grandstand, scoreboard and re-fencing of the oval.The club's first preference was to move to North Melbourne—a move which the North Melbourne Football Club (then in the VFA) saw as an opportunity to get into the VFL.", "Most of Essendon's members and players were from the North Melbourne area, and sportswriters believed that Essendon would have been taken over by or rebranded as North Melbourne within only a few years of the move.", "However, the VFA, desperate for its own strategic reasons not to lose its use of the North Melbourne Cricket Ground, successfully appealed to the State Government to block Essendon's move to North Melbourne.", "With its preferred option off the table, the club returned to Essendon, and the Essendon VFA club disbanded, with most of its players moving to North Melbourne.The old \"Same Olds\" nickname fell into disuse, and by 1922 the other nicknames \"Sash Wearers\" and \"Essendonians\" that had been variously used from time to time were also abandoned.", "The team became universally known as \"the Dons\" (from Essen'''DON'''); it was not until much later, during the War years of the early 1940s, that they became known as \"The Bombers\" due to Windy Hill's proximity to the Essendon Aerodrome.In the 1922 season, playing in Essendon for the first time in decades, Essendon reached the final four for the first time since 1912, finishing in third place.", "In the 1923 season, the club topped the ladder with 13 wins from 16 games.", "After a 17-point Second Semi-Final loss to South Melbourne, Essendon defeated Fitzroy (who had beaten South Melbourne) in the 1923 Grand Final (then known as a \"Challenge Final\" due to its different finals format): Essendon 8.15 (63) to Fitzroy 6.10 (46).", "Amongst Essendon's best players were half-forward flanker George \"Tich\" Shorten, centre half-forward Justin McCarthy, centre half-back Tom Fitzmaurice, rover Frank Maher, and wingman Jack Garden.", "This was one of Essendon's most famous sides, dubbed the \"Mosquito Fleet\" due to the number of small, very fast players in the side.", "Six players were 5'6\" (167 cm) or smaller.In the 1924 season, for the first time since their inaugural premiership in 1897, there was no ultimate match to decide the league's champion team – either \"Challenge Final\" or \"Grand Final\" – to determine the premiers; instead, the top four clubs after the home-and-away season played a round-robin to determine the premiers.", "Essendon, having previously defeated both Fitzroy (by 40 points) and South Melbourne (by 33 points), clinched the premiership by means of a 20-point loss to Richmond.", "With the Tigers having already lost a match to Fitzroy by a substantial margin, the Dons were declared premiers by virtue of their superior percentage, meaning that Essendon again managed to win successive premierships.", "But the low gates for the finals meant this was never attempted again, resulting in Essendon having the unique record of winning the only two premierships without a grand final.Prominent contributors to Essendon's 1924 Premiership success included back pocket Clyde Donaldson, follower Norm Beckton, half-back flanker Roy Laing, follower Charlie May, and rover Charlie Hardy.", "The 1924 season was not without controversy, however, with rumours of numerous players accepting bribes.", "Regardless of the accuracy of these allegations, the club's image was tarnished, and the side experienced its lowest period during the decade that followed, with poor results on the field and decreased support off it.There was worse to follow, with various Essendon players publicly blaming each other for a poor performance against Richmond, and then, with dissension still rife in the ranks, the side plummeted to an unexpected and humiliating 28-point loss to VFA premiers Footscray in a special charity match played a week later in front of 46,100 people, in aid of Dame Nellie Melba's Limbless Soldiers' Appeal Fund, purportedly (but not officially) for the championship of Victoria.The club's fortunes dipped alarmingly—and persistently.", "Indeed, after finishing third in the 1926 season, it was to be 14 years later—in 1940—before Essendon would even contest a finals series.=== Dick Reynolds years (1933–1960) ===Dick Reynolds is regarded as one of Essendon's greatest players.After the malaise of the late 1920s and early 1930, the 1933 season proved a turning point in morale despite no finals entries for the entire 1930s.", "Essendon saw the debut of the player regarded as one of the game's greatest-ever players, Dick Reynolds.", "His impact was immediate.", "He won his first Brownlow Medal aged 19.His record of three Brownlow victories (1934, 1937, 1938), equalled Fitzroy's Haydn Bunton, Sr (1931, 1932, 1935), and later equalled by Bob Skilton (1959, 1963, 1968), and Ian Stewart (1965, 1966, 1971).Reynolds went on to arguably even greater achievements as a coach, a position to which he was first appointed, jointly with Harry Hunter, in 1939 (this was while Reynolds was still a player).", "A year later he took the reins on a solo basis and was rewarded with immediate success (at least in terms of expectations at the time which, after so long in the wilderness, were somewhat modest).", "He was regarded as having a sound tactical knowledge of the game and being an inspirational leader, as he led the side into the finals in 1940 for the first time since 1926, when the side finished 3rd.", "Melbourne, which defeated Essendon by just 5 points in the preliminary final, later went on to trounce Richmond by 39 points in the grand final.The Essendon Football Club adopted the nickname '''''The Bombers''''' in April 1940.1941 brought Essendon's first grand final appearance since 1923, but the side again lowered its colours to Melbourne.", "A year later war broke out and the competition was considerably weakened, with Geelong being forced to pull out of the competition due to travel restrictions as a result of petrol rationing.", "Attendances at games also declined dramatically, whilst some clubs had to move from their normal grounds due to them being used for military purposes.", "Many players were lost to football due to their military service.", "Nevertheless, Essendon went on to win the 1942 Premiership with Western Australian Wally Buttsworth in irrepressible form at centre half-back.", "Finally, the long-awaited premiership was Essendon's after comprehensively outclassing Richmond in the grand final, 19.18 (132) to 11.13 (79).", "The match was played at Carlton in front of 49,000 spectators.In any case, there could be no such reservations about Essendon's next premiership, which came just four years later.", "Prior to that Essendon lost a hard-fought grand final to Richmond in 1943 by 5 points, finished 3rd in 1944, and dropped to 8th in 1945.After World War II, Essendon enjoyed great success.", "In the five years immediately after the war, Essendon won 3 premierships (1946, 1949, 1950) and were runners up twice (1947, 1948).", "In 1946, Essendon were clearly the VFL's supreme force, topping the ladder after the home-and-away games and surviving a drawn second semi-final against Collingwood to make it through to the grand final a week later with a score of 10.16 (76) to 8.9 (57).", "Then, in the grand final against Melbourne, Essendon set a grand final record score of 22.18 (150) to Melbourne 13.9 (87), featuring a 7-goal performance by centre half-forward Gordon Lane.", "Rover Bill Hutchinson, and defenders Wally Buttsworth, Cec Ruddell and Harold Lambert were among the best players.The 1947 Grand Final has to go down in the ledger as 'one of the ones that got away', with Essendon losing to Carlton by a single point despite managing 30 scoring shots to 21.As if to prove that lightning does occasionally strike twice, the second of the 'ones that got away' came just a year later, the Dons finishing with a lamentable 7.27, to tie with Melbourne (who managed 10.9) in the 1948 grand final.", "A week later Essendon waved the premiership good-bye, as Melbourne raced to a 13.11 (89) to 7.8 (50) triumph.", "The club's Annual Report made an assessment that was at once restrained and, as was soon to emerge, tacitly and uncannily prophetic: \"It is very apparent that no team is complete without a spearhead and your committee has high hopes of rectifying that fault this coming season.", "\"The 1949 season heralded the arrival on the VFL scene of John Coleman, arguably the greatest player in Essendon's history, and, in the view of some, the finest player the game has known.", "In his first ever appearance for the Dons, against Hawthorn in Round 1, 1949, he booted 12 of his side's 18 goals to create an opening-round record which was to endure for forty-five years.", "More importantly, however, he went on to maintain the same high level of performance throughout the season, kicking precisely 100 goals for the year to become the first player to kick 100 goals in a season since Richmond's Jack Titus in 1940.The Coleman factor was just what Essendon needed to enable them to take that vital final step to premiership glory, but even so it was not until the business end of the season that this became clear.", "Essendon struggled to make the finals in 4th place, but once there they suddenly ignited to put in one of the most consistently devastating September performances in VFL history.John Coleman kicked 537 goals in 98 matches.Collingwood succumbed first as the Dons powered their way to an 82-point first semi-final victory, and a fortnight later it was the turn of the North Melbourne Football Club as Essendon won the preliminary final a good deal more comfortably than the ultimate margin of 17 points suggested.", "In the grand final, Essendon were pitted against Carlton and in a match that was a total travesty as a contest they overwhelmed the Blues to the tune of 73 points, 18.17 (125) to 6.16 (52).", "Best for the Dons included pacy aboriginal half-back flanker Norm McDonald, ruckman Bob McLure, and rovers Bill Hutchinson and Ron McEwin.", "John Coleman also did well, registering six goals.A year later, in 1950, Essendon were—if anything—even more dominant, defeating the North Melbourne Football Club in both the Second Semi-Final and the Grand Final to secure consecutive VFL premierships for the third time.", "Best afield in the 1950 Grand Final, in what was officially his swan song as a player, was captain-coach Dick Reynolds, who received sterling support from the likes of Norm McDonald, ruckman/back pocket Wally May, back pocket Les Gardiner, and ruckman McLure.With Reynolds, aka 'King Richard', still holding court as coach in 1951, albeit now in a non-playing capacity, Essendon seemed on course for a third consecutive flag, but a controversial four-week suspension dished out to John Coleman on the eve of the finals effectively destroyed their chances.", "Coleman was reported for retaliation after twice being struck by his direct Carlton opponent, Harry Caspar, and without him the Dons were rated a four-goals-poorer team.", "Nevertheless, they still managed to battle their way to a 6th successive grand final with wins over Footscray by 8 points in the first semi-final and Collingwood by 2 points in the preliminary final.The Dons sustained numerous injuries in the preliminary final, and the selectors sprang a surprise on Grand Final day by naming the officially retired Dick Reynolds as 20th man.", "Reynolds was powerless to prevent the inevitable; although leading at half-time, Geelong kicked five goals to Essendon's two points in the third quarter to set up victory by 11 points.Essendon slumped to 8th in 1952, but Coleman was in blistering form, managing 103 goals for the year.", "Hugh Buggy noted in ''The Argus'': \"It was the wettest season for twenty-two years and Coleman showed that since the war he was without peer in the art of goal kicking.", "\"Two seasons later, Coleman's career was ended after he dislocated a knee during the Round 8 clash with the North Melbourne Football Club at Essendon.", "Aged just 25, he had kicked 537 goals in only 98 VFL games in what was generally a fairly low-scoring period for the game.", "His meteoric rise and fall were clearly the stuff of legend, and few (if any) players, either before or since, have had such an immense impact over so brief a period.According to Alf Brown, football writer for ''The Herald'':::(Coleman) had all football's gifts.", "He was courageous, a long, straight kick, he had a shrewd football brain and, above all, he was a spectacular, thrilling mark.Somewhat more colourfully, R.S.", "Whittington suggested:::\"Had he been a trapeze artist in a strolling circus, Coleman could have dispensed with the trapeze.", "\"Without Coleman, Essendon's fortunes plummeted, and there were to be no further premierships in the 1950s.", "The nearest miss came in 1957 when the Bombers (as they were popularly known by this time) earned premiership favouritism after a superb 16-point Second Semi-Final defeat of Melbourne—only to lose by over 10 goals against the same side a fortnight later.1959 saw another grand final loss to Melbourne, this time by 37 points, but the fact that the average age of the Essendon side was only 22 was seen as providing considerable cause for optimism.", "However, it was to take another three years, and a change of coach, before the team's obvious potential was translated into tangible success.=== Post-Reynolds era and the \"Slugging Seventies\" (1961–1980) ===John Coleman started his coaching career at Essendon in 1961, thus ending the Dick Reynolds era at the club.", "In the same year, Essendon finished the season mid-table, and supporters were not expecting too much for the following season.", "However, the club blitzed the opposition in 1962, losing only two matches and finishing top of the table.", "Both losses were to the previous year's grand finalists.", "The finals posed no problems for the resurgent Dons, easily accounting for Carlton in the season's climax, winning the 1962 Premiership by 32 points.", "This was a remarkable result for Coleman, who, in just his second season of coaching, claimed the ultimate prize in Australian football.", "As so often is the case after a flag, the following two years were below standard.", "A further premiership in 1965 (won from 4th position on the ladder) was also unexpected due to periods of poor form during the 1965 season.", "The Bombers were a different club when the finals came around, but some of the credit for the improvement was given to the influence of Brian Sampson and Ted Fordham during the finals.", "Coleman's time as coach turned out to be much like his playing career: highly successful but cut short when he had to stand down due to health problems in 1967.Only six years later, on the eve of the 1973 season, he died of a heart attack at just 44 years of age.Following Coleman's retirement, the club experienced tough times on and off the field.", "Finals appearances were rare for the side, which was often in contention for the wooden spoon.", "Essendon did manage to make the 1968 VFL Grand Final, but it lost to Carlton by just three points and did not make it back to the big stage for a 15 years.During the period from 1968 until 1980, five different coaches were tried, with none lasting longer than four years.", "Off the field, the club went through troubled times as well.", "In 1970, five players went on strike before the season even began, demanding higher payments.", "Essendon did make the finals in 1972 and 1973 under the autocratic direction of Des Tuddenham (Collingwood), but they were beaten badly in successive elimination finals by St. Kilda and did not taste finals action again until the very end of the decade.", "The 1970s' Essendon sides were involved in many rough and tough encounters under Tuddenham, who himself came to loggerheads with Ron Barassi at a quarter-time huddle where both coaches exchanged heated words.", "Essendon had tough but talented players with the likes of \"Rotten Ronnie\" Ron Andrews and experienced players such as Barry Davis, Ken Fletcher, Geoff Blethyn, Neville Fields and West Australian import Graham Moss.", "In May 1974, a controversial half-time all-in-brawl with Richmond at Windy Hill and a 1975 encounter with Carlton were testimony of the era.", "Following the Carlton match, the ''Herald'' described Windy Hill as \"Boot Hill\" because of the extent of the fights and the high number of reported players (eight in all—four from Carlton and four from Essendon).", "The peak of these incidents occurred in 1980 with new recruit Phil Carman making headlines for head-butting an umpire.", "The tribunal suspended him for sixteen weeks, and although most people thought this was a fair (or even lenient) sentence, he took his case to the supreme court, gathering even more unwanted publicity for the club.", "Despite this, the club had recruited many talented young players in the late 1970s who emerged as club greats.", "Three of those young players were Simon Madden, Tim Watson and Paul Van Der Haar.", "Terry Daniher and his brother Neale came via a trade with South Melbourne, and Roger Merrett joined soon afterwards to form the nucleus of what would become the formidable Essendon sides of the 1980s.", "This raw but talented group of youngsters took Essendon to an elimination final in 1979 under Barry Davis but were again thrashed in an Elimination Final, this time at the hands of Fitzroy.", "Davis resigned at the end of the 1980 season after missing out on a finals appearance.One of the few highlights for Essendon supporters during this time was when Graham Moss won the 1976 Brownlow Medal; he was the only Bomber to do so in a 40-year span from 1953 to 1993.Even that was bittersweet, as he quit VFL football to move back to his native Western Australia, where Moss finished out his career as a player and coach at Claremont Football Club.", "In many ways, Moss's career reflects Essendon's mixed fortunes during the decade.=== Kevin Sheedy era (1981–2007) ===Essendon 1980s shield logoFormer Richmond player Kevin Sheedy started as head coach in 1981.Essendon reached the Grand Final in 1983, the first time since 1968.Hawthorn won by a then record 83 points.In 1984, Essendon won the pre-season competition and completed the regular season on top of the ladder.", "The club played, and beat, Hawthorn in the 1984 VFL Grand Final to win their 13th premiership—their first since 1965.The teams met again in the 1985 Grand Final, which Essendon also won.", "At the start of 1986, Essendon were considered unbackable for three successive flags, but a succession of injuries to key players Paul Van der Haar (only fifteen games from 1986 to 1988), Tim Watson, Darren Williams, Roger Merrett and Simon Madden led the club to win only eight of its last eighteen games in 1986 and only nine games (plus a draw with Geelong) in 1987.In July 1987, the Bombers suffered a humiliation at the hands of Sydney, who fell two points short of scoring the then highest score in VFL history.In 1988, Essendon made a rebound to sixth place with twelve wins, including a 140-point thrashing of Brisbane where they had a record sixteen individual goalkickers.", "In 1989, they rebounded further to second on the ladder with only five losses and thrashed Geelong in the Qualifying Final.", "However, after a fiery encounter with Hawthorn ended in a convincing defeat, the Bombers were no match for Geelong next week.In 1990, Essendon were pace-setters almost from the start, but a disruption from the Qualifying Final draw between Collingwood and West Coast was a blow from which they never recovered.", "The Magpies comprehensively thrashed them in both the second semi-final and the grand final.Following the 1991 season, Essendon moved its home games from its traditional home ground at Windy Hill to the larger and newly renovated MCG.", "This move generated large increases in game attendance, membership and revenue for the club.", "The club's training and administrative base remained at Windy Hill until 2013.Following the retirement of Tim Watson and Simon Madden in the early 1990s, the team was built on new players such as Gavin Wanganeen, Joe Misiti, Mark Mercuri, Michael Long, Dustin Fletcher (son of Ken) and James Hird, who was taken at No.", "79 in the 1990 draft.", "This side became known as the \"Baby Bombers\", as the core of the side was made up of young players early in their careers.The team won the 1993 Grand Final against Carlton and that same year, Gavin Wanganeen won the Brownlow Medal, the first awarded to an Essendon player since 1976.Three years later, James Hird was jointly awarded the medal with Michael Voss of Brisbane.In 2000, the club shifted the majority of its home games to the newly opened Docklands Stadium, signing a 25-year deal to play seven home matches per year at the venue, with the other four remaining at the MCG.", "The season was one of the most successful by any team in VFL/AFL history, and the club opened with 20 consecutive wins before they lost to the Western Bulldogs in round 21.The team went on to win their 16th premiership, defeating , thereby completing the most dominant single season in AFL/VFL history.", "The defeat to the Bulldogs was the only defeat for Essendon throughout the entire calendar year (Essendon also won the 2000 pre-season competition).Essendon was less successful after 2001.Lucrative contracts to a number of premiership players had caused serious pressure on the club's salary cap, forcing the club to trade several key players.", "Blake Caracella, Chris Heffernan, Justin Blumfield, Gary Moorcroft and Damien Hardwick had all departed by the end of 2002; in 2004, Mark Mercuri, Sean Wellman and Joe Misiti retired.", "The club remained competitive; however, they could progress no further than the second week of the finals each year for the years of 2002, 2003, and 2004.Sheedy signed a new three-year contract at the end of 2004.Kevin Sheedy and James Hird farewell banner ahead of their final game at the Melbourne Cricket Ground |alt=A red banner featuring drawings of former Essendon player James Hird and former coach Kevin SheedyIn 2005, Essendon missed the finals for the first time since 1997, and in 2006, despite a first-round 27-point thrashing of defending premiers , in which newly appointed captain Matthew Lloyd kicked eight goals playing on Leo Barry, and a season-ending hamstring injury he subsequently suffered just two rounds later, the Bombers were uncompetitive for the majority of the season, recording only three wins and one draw from twenty-two games to suffer its worst season since 1933, as well as recording the least number of votes collectively as a team at the 2006 Brownlow Medal count.", "In Lloyd's absence, David Hille was appointed captain for the remainder of the season.", "The club improved its on-field position in 2007 but again missed the finals.=== On-field woes and subsequent relocation to Melbourne Airport (2008–2013) ===Sheedy's contract was not renewed after 2007, ending his 27-year tenure as Essendon coach.", "Matthew Knights replaced Sheedy as coach, and coached the club for three seasons, reaching the finals once—an eighth-place finish in 2009 at the expense of reigning premiers .", "On 29 August 2010, shortly after the end of the 2010 home-and-away season, Knights was dismissed as coach.Essendon players prepare to take the field before a match against in 2013.On 28 September 2010, former captain James Hird was named as Essendon's new coach from 2011 on a four-year deal.", "Formpremiership-winning dual-premiership-winning coach and Essendon triple-premiership-winning player Mark Thompson later joined Hird on the coaching panel.", "In his first season, Essendon finished eighth.", "The club started strongly in 2012, sitting fourth with a 10–3 record at the halfway mark of the season, but won only one more match for the season, finishing eleventh to miss the finals.In 2013, the club moved its training and administrative base to The Hangar, a new facility in the suburb of Melbourne Airport which it had developed in conjunction with the Australian Paralympic Committee.", "Essendon holds a 37-year lease at the facility and maintains a lease at Windy Hill to use the venue for home matches for its reserves team in the Victorian Football League as well as for a social club and merchandise store on the site.=== ASADA/WADA investigation (2013–2016) ===During 2013, the club was investigated by the AFL and the Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) over its 2012 player supplements and sports science program, most specifically over allegations into illegal use of peptide supplements.", "An internal review found it to have \"established a supplements program that was experimental, inappropriate and inadequately vetted and controlled\", and on 27 August 2013, the club was found guilty of bringing the game into disrepute for this reason.", "Among its penalties, the club was fined A$2 million, stripped of early draft picks in the following two drafts, and forfeited its place in the 2013 finals series (having originally finished seventh on the ladder); Hird was suspended from coaching for twelve months.", "Several office-bearers also resigned their posts during the controversy, including chairman David Evans and CEO Ian Robson.In the midst of the supplements saga, assistant coach Mark Thompson took over as coach for the 2014 season during Hird's suspension.", "He led the club back to the finals for a seventh-place finish but in a tense second elimination final against archrivals North Melbourne, the Bombers led by as much as 27 points at half time before a resurgent Kangaroos side came back and won the game by 12 points.", "After the 2014 season, Mark Thompson left the club to make way for Hird's return to the senior coaching role.In June 2014, thirty-four players were issued show-cause notices alleging the use of banned peptide Thymosin beta-4 during the program.", "The players faced the AFL Anti-Doping Tribunal over the 2014/15 offseason, and on 31 March 2015 the tribunal returned a not guilty verdict, determining that it was \"not comfortably satisfied\" that the players had been administered the peptide.Hird returned as senior coach for the 2015 season, and after a strong start, the club's form severely declined after the announcement that WADA would appeal the decision of the AFL Anti-Doping Tribunal.", "The effect of the appeal on the team's morale was devastating and they went on to win only six games for the year.", "Under extreme pressure, Hird resigned on 18 August 2015 following a disastrous 112-point loss to Adelaide.", "Former West Coast Eagles premiership coach John Worsfold was appointed as the new senior coach on a three-year contract.On 12 January 2016 the Court of Arbitration for Sport overruled the AFL anti-doping tribunal's decision, deeming that 34 past and present players of the Essendon Football Club, took the banned substance Thymosin Beta-4.As a result, all 34 players, 12 of which were still at the club, were given two-year suspensions.", "However, all suspensions were effectively less due to players having previously taken part in provisional suspensions undertaken during the 2014/2015 off-season.As a result, Essendon contested the 2016 season with twelve of its regular senior players under suspension.", "In order for the club to remain competitive, the AFL granted Essendon the ability to upgrade all five of their rookie listed players and to sign an additional ten players to cover the loss of the suspended players for the season.Due to this unprecedented situation, many in the football community predicted the club would go through the 2016 AFL season without a win; however, they were able to win three matches: against , and in rounds 2, 21 and 23 respectively.", "The absence of its most experienced players also allowed the development of its young players, with Zach Merrett and Orazio Fantasia having breakout years, while Darcy Parish and Anthony McDonald-Tipungwuti, impressing in their debut seasons.", "Merrett acted as captain in the side's round 21 win over the Suns.", "The club eventually finished on the bottom of the ladder and thus claimed its first wooden spoon since 1933.=== Post-investigation (2017–present) ===Essendon made their final financial settlement related to the supplements saga in September 2017, just before finals started.", "They also improved vastly on their 2016 performance, finishing 7th in the home-and-away season and becoming the first team since in 2011 to go from wooden spooner to a finals appearance, but they ultimately lost their only final to .The 2017 season was also capped off by the retirement of much-loved club legend and ex-captain Jobe Watson, midfielder Brent Stanton, and ex-Geelong star James Kelly, who later took up a development coach role at the club.", "Midfielder Heath Hocking, who played 126 games for the club, was delisted.Expectations were high for the 2018 season, with the club having an outstanding offseason.", "The recruitment of Jake Stringer, Adam Saad and Devon Smith from the Western Bulldogs, Gold Coast Suns and Greater Western Sydney Giants respectively was expected to throw Essendon firmly into premiership contention.After beating the previous year's runner up (which went on to beat reigning premiers the following round) in round one, Essendon's form slumped severely, only winning one game out of the next seven rounds and losing to the then-winless Carlton in round eight.", "Senior assistant coach Mark Neeld was sacked by the club the following Monday.The team's form improved sharply after this, recording wins against top eight sides Geelong, GWS, eventual premiers West Coast and Sydney, and winning ten out of the last 13 games of the season.", "However, the mid-season revival was short-lived, with a loss to reigning premiers by eight points in round 22 ending any hopes they had of reaching the finals.The 2018 season was capped off by the club not offering veteran Brendon Goddard a new contract for 2019.Essendon acquired Dylan Shiel from in one of the most high-profile trades of the 2018 AFL Trade Period.", "The Bombers had inconsistent form throughout the 2019 season but qualified for the finals for the second time in three seasons, finishing eighth on the ladder with 12 wins and 10 losses.", "The Bombers, however, were no match for the West Coast Eagles in the first elimination final and lost by 55 points to end their season.", "The defeat extended their 15-year finals winning drought, having not won a final since 2004.Following the end of the 2019 season, assistant coach Ben Rutten was announced as John Worsfold's successor as senior coach, effective at the end of the 2020 AFL season.", "Rutten effectively shared co-coaching duties with Worsfold during the 2020 season.2020 was a particularly disappointing year for the club.", "The Bombers failed to make the finals, finishing thirteenth on the AFL ladder with just six wins and a draw from 17 games.", "Conor McKenna became the first AFL player to test positive to COVID-19 during the pandemic.", "A number of players also left the club at the end of the 2020 season including Joe Daniher, Conor McKenna, Adam Saad and Orazio Fantasia.With Rutten solely at the helm in 2021, Essendon improved significantly from the previous year and returned to the finals, finishing eighth on the ladder with 11 wins and 11 losses, and despite having beaten the Western Bulldogs towards the end of the regular season, the Bombers would lose to the same team by 49 points in the first elimination final.Season 2022 was the club's 150th anniversary, and hopes were high, with some even predicting Essendon to break their 21-year premiership drought.", "However, these predictions proved drastically wrong as the Bombers went on to finish 15th, winning only 7 games with a percentage of 83.2%.", "This poor performance placed Rutten's position under scrutiny, and after a late attempt to lure former Hawthorn coach Alastair Clarkson failed, Rutten was unceremoniously sacked.", "He was replaced by former AFL General Manager of Football and North Melbourne coach Brad Scott.", "As a result of the 2022 season's turmoil, board members such as former CEO Xavier Campbell, former president Paul Brasher, former player Simon Madden, and Peter Allen left their roles.", "Campbell was replaced by Andrew Thorburn, who was pressured into resignation after only one day in the role due to his simultaneous position as a board member of the conservative City on the Hill Church Movement—whose controversial teachings conflicted with Essendon's progressive values—was made public.", "Craig Vozzo replaced Thorburn in November 2022.Anthony McDonald-Tipungwuti, Devon Smith and Michael Hurley announced their retirements at the end of the 2022 season, however Tipungwuti revoked the announcement on 10 November 2022.Tipungwuti again announced his retirement at the end of the 2023 after playing only two games at senior level.In 2023, reports emerged claiming that the club was reconsidering its logo.", "These included rumours that the current bomber logo was insensitive, given the operation of bomber jets in conflict.", "These reports were denied by then-captain Zach Merrett.At the end of the 2023 season it was announced that former West Coast and Gold Coast player Matt Rosa would join Essendon as Talent & Operations Manager and that Adrian Dodoro will step back from his position of recruiting manager after the upcoming trade and draft periods.In Brad Scott's first season as coach, Essendon sat in fifth position after round 17, but form fell off later in the season to finish 11th with 11 wins and 12 losses." ], [ "Club symbols", "=== Guernsey ===Essendon players traditionally run through a banner which is created by its supporters before their matches.Essendon's first recorded jumpers were navy blue (''The Footballers'', edited by Thomas Power, 1875) although the club wore 'red and black caps and hose'.", "In 1877, ''The Footballers'' records the addition of 'a red sash over left shoulder'.", "This is the first time a red sash as part of the club jumper, and by 1878 there are newspaper reports referring to Essendon players as 'the men in the sash'.Given that blue and navy blue were the most popular colours at the time, it is thought that Essendon adopted a red sash in 1877 to distinguish its players from others in similar-coloured jumpers.==== Clash jumpers ====In 2007, the AFL Commission laid down the requirement that all clubs must produce an alternative jumper for use in matches where jumpers are considered to clash.", "From 2007 to 2011, the Essendon clash guernsey was the same design as its home guernsey, but with a substantially wider sash such that the guernsey was predominantly red rather than predominantly black.", "This was changed after 2011 when the AFL deemed that the wider sash did not provide sufficient contrast.From 2012 to 2016, Essendon's clash guernsey was predominantly grey, with a red sash fimbriated in black; the grey field contained, in small print, the names of all Essendon premiership players.Before the 2016 season, Essendon's changed their clash guernsey to a predominantly red one, featuring a red sash outlined in black.", "Similar to the grey jumper, the names of Essendon premiership players were also printed outside the sash.==== Yellow armbands ====Following Adam Ramanauskas's personal battle with cancer, a \"Clash for Cancer\" match against was launched in 2006.This was a joint venture between Essendon and the Cancer Council of Victoria to raise funds for the organisation.", "Despite a formal request to the AFL being denied, players wore yellow armbands for the match, which resulted in the club being fined $20,000.In 2007, the AFL agreed to allow yellow armbands to be incorporated into the left sleeve of the jumper.", "The 'Clash for Cancer' match against Melbourne has become an annual event, repeated in subsequent seasons, though in 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2016, (twice), the Sydney Swans and Brisbane Lions were the opponents in those respective seasons instead of Melbourne.", "In 2009, the jumpers were auctioned along with yellow boots worn by some players during the match.=== Club song ===The club's theme song, \"See the Bombers Fly Up\", is thought to have been written c. 1959 by Kevin Andrews in the home of player Jeff Gamble at which time Kevin Andrews was living.", "The song is based on the tune of Johnnie Hamp's 1929 song \"(Keep Your) Sunny Side Up\" at an increased tempo.", "Jeff Gamble came up with the line 'See the bombers fly up, up' while Kevin Andrews contributed all or most of the rest.", "At the time, \"(Keep Your) Sunny Side Up\" was the theme song for the popular Melbourne-based TV show on Channel 7 ''Sunnyside Up''.", "The official version of the song was recorded in 1972 by the Fable Singers and is still used today.The song, as with all other AFL clubs, is played prior to every match and at the conclusion of matches when the team is victorious.", ": ''See the Bombers fly up, up!", "'': ''To win the premiership flag.", "'': ''Our boys who play this grand old game,'': ''Are always striving for glory and fame!", "'': ''See the Bombers fly up, up,'': ''The other teams they don't fear;'': ''They all try their best,'': ''But they can't get near,'': ''As the Bombers fly up!", "''Songwriter Mike Brady, of \"Up There Cazaly\" fame, penned an updated version of the song in 1999 complete with a new verse arrangement, but it was not well received.", "However, this version is occasionally played at club functions.", "In 2018, Andrews revealed that there was an error in the lyrics, in which in the line \"The other teams they don't fear\", the word \"they\" was supposed to be \"we\".=== Logo and mascot ===The club's current logo was introduced in 1998, making it the second oldest AFL logo currently in use, behind St. Kilda's logo, which was introduced in 1995.Their mascot is known as \"Skeeta Reynolds\", and was named after Dick Reynolds.", "He is a mosquito and was created in honour of the team's back-to-back premiership sides in the 1920s known as the \"Mosquito Fleet\".", "He was first named through a competition run in the Bomber magazine with \"Skeeta\" being the winning entry.", "This was later changed to \"Skeeta Reynolds\".", "He appears as a red mosquito in an Essendon jumper and wears a red and black scarf.===Headquarters, training and administration base===The Essendon Football Club primary training and administration base has been at The Hangar since 2013.prior to this, the primary training and administration base of Essendon Football Club was based at Windy Hill Oval from 1922 until 2013.prior to this, the home ground of Essendon Football Club was at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground from 1882 until 1921." ], [ "Membership", " Year Total Members1984 10,2311985 11,3761986 12,6071987 8,1291988 8,4321989 7,9581990 11,0461991 11,5931992 10,0341993 11,5461994 19,7201995 23,8331996 24,3241997 28,0631998 27,0991999 29,8582000 34,2782001 36,2272002 35,2192003 31,9702004 33,4692005 32,7342006 32,5112007 32,7592008 41,9472009 40,4122010 40,5892011 50,2752012 47,7082013 56,1722014 60,7142015 61,3172016 57,4942017 67,7682018 79,3192019 84,2372020 66,6862021 81,662" ], [ "Rivalries", "Essendon's biggest rivals are , , and , as these teams and Essendon are the four biggest and most supported clubs in Victoria.", "Matches between the clubs are often close regardless of form and ladder positions.", "If out of the race themselves, all four have the desire to deny the others a finals spot or a premiership.", "Essendon also has a fierce rivalry with Hawthorn, stemming from excessive on-field violence in the 1980s, perhaps reaching its zenith with the infamous Line in the Sand Match in 2004.Additionally, Essendon has a three-decade rivalry with the West Coast Eagles.", "* '''''' – The rivalry between Essendon and Carlton is considered one of the strongest in the league.", "With the teams sharing the record of 16 premierships, both sides are keen to become outright leader, or if out of the finals race, at least ensure the other doesn't.", "In recent years, the rivalry has thickened, with Carlton beating the 1999 Minor Premiers and premiership favourites by 1 point in the Preliminary Final.", "Other notable meetings between the two clubs include the 1908, 1947, 1949, 1962 and 1968 VFL Grand Finals and 1993 AFL Grand Final, with some decided by small margins.", "* '''''' – In the early days of the VFL, this rivalry grew out of several Grand Final meetings: 1901, 1902 and 1911.The teams didn't meet again in a Grand Final until 1990 when Collingwood won to draw level with the Bombers on 14 premierships and deny the Bombers a chance to join Carlton with 15 flags.", "Since 1995, with the clubs facing off against each other annually in the Anzac Day clash, a match which is described as the second biggest of the season (behind only the Grand Final).", "Being possibly the two biggest football clubs in Victoria, regardless of their position on the ladder, this game always attracts a huge crowd, and it is a match both teams have a great desire to win regardless of either team's season prospects.", "The rivalry thickened further in 2023 when Collingwood joined Essendon and Carlton with a record 16 premierships.", "* '''''' – This rivalry stems out of the 1942 Grand Final which Essendon won.", "In 1974, a half-time brawl took place involving trainers, officials and players at Windy Hill and has become infamous as one of the biggest ever.", "The teams didn't meet in the finals between 1944 and 1995, but there have been many close margins in home and away season matches as a result of each team's \"never say die\" attitude and ability to come back from significant margins in the dying stages of matches.", "Having met in the AFL's ''Rivalry Round'' in (2006 and 2009) and meeting in the Dreamtime at the 'G match since 2005, the rivalry and passion between the clubs and supporters has re-ignited.", "In recent years the rivalry has been promoted as the \"Clash of the Sash\".", "* '''''' – The two sides had a number of physical encounters in the mid-1980s when they were the top two sides of the competition.", "The rivalry was exacerbated when Dermott Brereton ran through Essendon's three-quarter time huddle during a match in 1988 and again by an all in brawl during a match in 2004 allegedly instigated by Brereton (now known as the Line in the Sand Match after the direction allegedly given by Brereton for the Hawthorn players to make a physical stand).", "This was reminiscent of the 1980s when battles with Hawthorn were often hard and uncompromising affairs.", "During Round 22 of the 2009 season, Essendon and Hawthorn played for the last finals spot up for grabs.", "The teams played out an extremely physical game and despite being 22 points down at half time Essendon went on to win by 17 points.", "The game included a brawl shortly after half time sparked by Essendon's captain Matthew Lloyd knocking out Hawthorn midfielder Brad Sewell, which led Hawthorn's Campbell Brown to label Lloyd a 'sniper', and promised revenge if Lloyd played on in 2010.", "* '''''' – One of the fiercest rivalries in the AFL can be traced back to 1896, when several clubs, including Essendon, broke away from the Victorian Football Association to form the Victorian Football League.", "North sought to join the breakaway competition, but some argue this desire was not realised due to Essendon feeling threatened by North's proximity and the fact their inclusion could drain Essendon of vital talent.", "More than 100 years later, some North supporters have not forgiven Essendon for the decision and have blamed the Bombers for their small supporter base and gate revenue.", "North were finally admitted into the VFL in 1925 alongside Footscray and Hawthorn.", "In 1950, the two sides met in their first and only grand final meeting to date, which Essendon won by 38 points.", "The rivalry would flare up again in the 1980s.", "In 1982, the Krakouer brothers, Jim and Phil, led the Roos to an Elimination Final win.", "Essendon had their revenge a year later, winning a Preliminary Final by 86 points.", "The rivalry was re-ignited in the late 1990s and early 2000s due to the on-field success of the two sides.", "In preparation for the 1998 finals series, and despite losing six of their last eight to the Roos, legendary Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy publicly labelled North executives Greg Miller and Mark Dawson soft in response to comments from commentators that his Essendon team was soft.", "The Kangaroos beat Essendon in the much-hyped encounter that followed (a Qualifying Final), and North fans pelted Sheedy with marshmallows as he left the ground, although Sheedy was seemingly unfazed by the incident, encouraging a \"Marshmallow Game\" the next year and relishing in the fact that Sheedy's ulterior motive was to build up the game and draw a large crowd, which proved to be correct, drawing in 71,154 people to attend the game.", "In 2000, the Bombers thrashed North by 125 points.", "The biggest VFL/AFL comeback of all time occurred between the two teams when Essendon managed to come back from a 69-point deficit to win by 12 points in 2001.A meeting of the two rivals at the MCG in the 2014 AFL finals series in the 2nd Elimination Final resulted in North winning by 12 points.", "*'''West Coast''' – A three-decade rivalry between the Essendon Bombers and the West Coast Eagles kicked off when Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy tied the windsock down on the School End outer terrace so the opposition would not know which way the wind was blowing.", "Sheedy later said of the incident three decades later, in jest, that it was because the brand sponsor had neglected to pay their account.", "When West Coast won the toss and kicked against the breeze, it looked as if Sheedy's plan had worked.", "Nevertheless, West Coast would go on to win by 7 points.", "In his excitement at winning a close match in Round 16, 1993, with ruckman and forward Paul Salmon kicking a goal 30 seconds before the final siren against the West Coast Eagles (the reigning premiers), Sheedy waved his jacket in the air as he came rushing from the coaches' box.", "To this day, the supporters of the winning club wave their jackets in the air after the game when the two teams play.", "The moment is captured in Jamie Cooper's painting ''the Game That Made Australia'', commissioned by the AFL in 2008 to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the sport, with Sheedy shown waving a red, black and yellow jacket rather than a red and black jacket, to reflect Sheedy's support of indigenous footballers.", "The Bombers would go on to defeat West Coast again later that year in their semi-final clash and take home the 1993 premiership cup a couple of weeks later.", "Despite Sheedy's typically measured disposition, Sheedy did lose his cool on one occasion in 2000.In yet another game against the Eagles, Sheedy was fined $7,500 by the tribunal after making a cut-throat gesture to then-Eagle Mitchell White during the half-time break of the Essendon–West Coast clash in Round 15, 2000, also apparently mouthing the words \"You... are...", "fucked!\"", "to White.", "In a famous game in 2004, with 35 seconds remaining and the scores deadlocked at 131 points apiece, Essendon legend James Hird swooped on a loose ball in the right forward pocket and snapped a match-winning goal with his 15th possession for the quarter, famously hugging an Essendon supporter in the crowd in a moment of jubilation after being fined $20,000 earlier in the week for criticising umpire Scott McLaren.", "Full-forward Matthew Lloyd also kicked eight goals during the game to net three Brownlow votes.", "Despite Hird's incredible individual effort, and to the consternation of fans and the audience of the 2004 Brownlow medal count, he did not receive any Brownlow Medal votes from the umpires for his 34 disposals and clutch goals, which some have speculated was in retribution for his tirade against umpire McLaren." ], [ "Organisation and finance", "=== Board ===: ''For the full list, see List of VFL/AFL presidents''David Barham has served as chairman of the board since August 2022.Essendon's board members are David Barham, Andrew Welsh, Melissa Verner Green, Dorothy Hisgrove, Andrew Muir, Kate O'Sullivan, and Kevin Sheedy AO.=== Sponsorship ===The club's apparel is currently produced by Under Armour.", "The club's apparel has also been produced by Reebok, Fila, Puma, Adidas and ISC.", "Year Kit Manufacturer Major Sponsor Shorts Sponsor Bottom Back Sponsor Top Back Sponsor1977–83 – Don Smallgoods – – -1984–92Nubrik1993Don Smallgoods1994–95Speed Kills TACDeltaSpeed Kills TAC1996–97Reebok1998 ReebokRebel1999 Musashi2000 Fila2001–02 OrangeOrange2003–04 Puma3 MobileIMB3 Mobile2005 –2006–07 Abey2008 Samsung2009–10 AdidasSamsungAntlerSamsung2011 Samsung (Home) True Value Solar (Away)TollTrue Value Solar (Home) Samsung (Away)2012 True Value Solar (Home) Kia Motors (Away)Kia Motors (Home) True Value Solar (Away)2013 Kia Motors (Home) True Value Solar (Away)True Value Solar (Home) Kia Motors (Away)2014 Fujitsu (Home) Kia Motors (Away)Kia Motors (Home) Fujitsu (Away)2015 Kia Motors (Home) Fujitsu (Away)Fujitsu (Home) Kia Motors (Away)2016 Fujitsu (Home) Kia Motors (Away)Kia Motors (Home) Fujitsu (Away)2017 ISCKia Motors (Home) Fujitsu (Away)Border ExpressFujitsu (Home) Kia Motors (Away)2018 Fujitsu (Home) Kia Motors (Away)Kia Motors (Home) Fujitsu (Away)2019 Amart Furniture (Home) Fujitsu (Away)Fujitsu (Home) Amart Furniture (Away)2020 Under ArmourColes InsuranceFujitsu (Home) Amart Furniture (Away)2021 Fujitsu (Home) Amart Furniture (Away) Amart Furniture (Home) Fujitsu (Away) Liberty Financial2022 Tradie2023 Amart Furniture (Home) Fujitsu (Away) Fujitsu (Home) Amart Furniture (Away)" ], [ "Honours", "''See Essendon Football Club honours.", "''=== Club achievements === '''Premierships''' Competition LevelWinsYears Won'''Australian Football League'''Seniors161897, 1901, 1911, 1912, 1923, 1924, 1942, 1946, 1949, 1950, 1962, 1965, 1984, 1985, 1993, 2000Reserves (1923–1999)61941, 1950, 1952, 1968, 1983, 1992, 1999Under 19s (1946–1991)51950, 1952, 1959, 1961, 1966'''VFL Women's'''Reserves12022'''Victorian Football Association'''Seniors (1877–1896)41891, 1892, 1893, 1894 '''Other titles and honours''''''AFL pre-season competition'''Seniors41990, 1993, 1994, 2000'''McClelland Trophy'''Seniors91951, 1953, 1957, 1968, 1989, 1993, 1999, 2000, 2001'''Championship of Australia'''Seniors11893'''AFC Night Series'''Seniors21981, 1984'''Lightning Premiership'''Seniors31896, 1943, 1996 '''Finishing positions''' '''Australian Football League'''Minor premiership171898, 1911, 1923, 1924, 1942, 1946, 1948, 1950, 1962, 1968, 1984, 1985, 1990, 1993, 1999, 2000, 2001Grand Finalist14 1898, 1902, 1908, 1941, 1943, 1947, 1948, 1951, 1957, 1959, 1968, 1983, 1990, 2001Wooden spoons51907, 1918, 1921, 1933, 2016 '''VFL Women's'''Minor premiership12022Wooden spoons12018=== Team of the Century ===To celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club, as well as 100 years of the VFL/AFL, Essendon announced its \"Team of the Century\" in 1997.=== Champions of Essendon ===In 2002, a club panel chose and ranked the 25 greatest players to have played for Essendon.# Dick Reynolds# John Coleman# James Hird# Bill Hutchison# Simon Madden# Tim Watson# Ken Fraser# Jack Clarke# Albert Thurgood# Tom Fitzmaurice# Terry Daniher# Wally Buttsworth# Reg Burgess# Bill Busbridge# Barry Davis# Keith Forbes# Graham Moss# Mark Harvey# Gavin Wanganeen# Mark Thompson# John Birt# Matthew Lloyd# Michael Long# Fred Baring# Harold Lambert=== Hall of Fame ==='''Essendon Hall of Fame Legends''' '''(year inducted):''' Bill Brew (2013), Bill Busbridge (1996), Jack Clarke (1996), John Coleman (1996), Bill Cookson (1996), Wally Crichton (2010), Terry Daniher (1996), Barry Davis (2006), Ron Evans (2012), Tom Fitzmaurice (1996), Ken Fraser (1996), Allan Hird Sr (1996), James Hird (2011), Harry Hunter (2015), Bill Hutchison (1996), Matthew Lloyd (2013), Simon Madden (1996), Alex McCracken (1996), Michael Long (2010), Howard Okey (2012), Frank Reid (1996), Dick Reynolds (1996), Greg Sewell (2009), Kevin Sheedy (2008), Albert Thurgood (1996), Tim Watson (1998), Neale Daniher* (2018), Dustin Fletcher*, Dr Bruce Reid* (2014), Gavin Wanganeen*''*denotes recent elevation to Legend status'''''Essendon Hall of Fame members (year inducted):''' Noel Allanson (2015), Fred Baring (2013), John Birt (2010), Reg Burgess (2015), Wally Buttsworth (2010), Barry Capuano (2014), Kevin Egan (2015), Alec Epis (2014), Ken Fletcher (2011), Keith Forbes (2010), Garry Foulds (2010), Darryl Gerlach (2013), Mark Harvey (2014), Bruce Heymanson (2013), Jack Jones (2012), Ron Kirwan (2016), Harold Lambert (2018), Scott Lucas (2013), Roy McConnell (2013), Don McKenzie (2010), Roger Merrett (2018), Joe Misiti (2012), Hugh Mitchell (2012), Graham Moss (2012), Gary O'Donnell (2014), Dr Ian Reynolds (2018), Paul Salmon (2012), David Shaw (2011), Arthur Showers (2010), George Stuckey (2010), Hugh Torney (2011), Paul Vander Haar (2015)" ], [ "Current squad" ], [ "Match records", "*'''Highest score:''' 32.16 (208) v 9.8 (62) – Round 22, 1982, at Western Oval*'''Lowest score:''' 0.9 (9) v 6.11 (47) – Round 1, 1899, at Brunswick Street Oval*'''Lowest score since 1919:''' 1.12 (18) v 5.5 (35) – Round 10, 1923, at Junction Oval*'''Highest losing score:''' Essendon 21.13 (139) v 23.6 (144), Round 22, 1987, M.C.G.", "*'''Lowest winning score:''' Essendon 1.8 (14) v 0.8 (8), Finals Week 3, 1897, Lake Oval (League record)*'''Lowest winning score since 1919:''' Essendon 3.10 (28) v Footscray 3.5 (23), Round 13, 1989, Windy Hill*'''Greatest winning margin:''' 165 points – Essendon 28.16 (184) v 2.7 (19), Round 18, 1964, Windy Hill*'''Greatest losing margin:''' 163 points – Essendon 11.7 (73) v Sydney Swans 36.20 (236), Round 17, 1987, S.C.G.", "*'''Record attendance (home-and-away game):''' 94,825 – 25 April 1995 at MCG v Collingwood (inaugural Anzac Day match)*'''Record attendance (finals match):''' 116,828 – 1968 VFL Grand Final v Carlton" ], [ "Reserves team", "The '''Essendon reserves''' are the reserves team of the club, playing in the Victorian Football League.===History===The team first competed in the Victorian Junior Football League (later the AFL reserves) when the competition was established in 1919, and was known as '''Essendon Juniors''' until the end of 1922.The team enjoyed success in the form of eight premierships, including in the last year of the reserves competition in 1999.From 2000 until 2002, the club's reserves team competed in the Victorian Football League.At the end of 2002, the club dissolved its reserves team and established a reserves affiliation with the Bendigo Football Club in the VFL.", "The affiliation ran for ten years from 2003 until 2012, allowing reserves players from the Essendon list to play with Bendigo.", "For all but the final year of the affiliation, Bendigo was known as the Bendigo Bombers.The club re-established its reserves team in 2013, seeking greater developmental autonomy.", "The team plays its home games at Windy Hill.", "The team is made up of senior-listed AFL players and VFL-contracted players.The side has been coached by former Essendon AFL player Brent Stanton since the start of the 2022 season.===Premierships (7)===YearCompetitionOpponentScoreVenue 1941 VFL seconds Fitzroy '''12.16 (88) – 9.17 (71)''' MCG 1950 VFL seconds North Melbourne '''12.8 (80) – 8.7 (55)''' MCG 1952 VFL seconds Collingwood '''7.14 (56) – 4.5 (29)''' MCG 1968 VFL reserves Richmond '''15.7 (97) – 13.14 (92)''' MCG 1983 VFL reserves Collingwood '''19.14 (128) – 15.9 (99)''' MCG 1992 AFL reserves Melbourne '''18.19 (127) – 14.10 (94)''' MCG 1999 AFL reserves St Kilda '''20.13 (133) – 11.10 (76)''' MCG===Runners-up (10)===YearCompetitionOpponentScoreVenue 1922 VJFA Collingwood '''1.9 (15) – 8.10 (58)''' MCG 1924 VJFA Geelong ''N/A'' Kardinia Park 1932 VFL seconds Melbourne '''4.10 (34) – 8.12 (60)''' MCG 1949 VFL seconds Melbourne '''9.14 (68) – 17.10 (112)''' MCG 1951 VFL seconds Carlton '''7.9 (51) – 8.15 (63)''' MCG 1953 VFL seconds Carlton '''11.7 (73) – 15.7 (97)''' MCG 1971 VFL reserves Richmond '''8.18 (66) – 14.14 (98)''' MCG 1981 VFL reserves Geelong '''18.6 (114) – 21.14 (140)''' MCG 1996 AFL reserves North Melbourne '''7.10 (52) – 23.18 (156)''' MCG 1998 AFL reserves Footscray '''12.8 (80) – 20.16 (136)''' MCG Essendon refused to play the Grand Final in Geelong, so the premiership was awarded to Geelong." ], [ "Women's teams", "===AFL Women's team===Essendon fielded a team in the AFL Women's (AFLW) competition from its seventh season.", "In March 2022, former AFLW player and Essendon VFLW captain Georgia Nanscawen was announced as the club's first AFLW player signing, and AFLW assistant coach Natalie Wood was announced as the club's first AFLW coach a week later.", "The club's AFLW coaching panel was finalised in late June.====AFL Women's squad=======VFL Women's team===Essendon has fielded a team in the VFL Women's (VFLW) competition since the 2018 season.", "The league is the highest-grade competition for female footballers in Victoria and one of three second-tier female competitions underneath the national AFL Women's.====VFL Women's season summaries==== Essendon VFLW honour roll Season Final position Coach Captain Best and fairest Leading goalkicker 2018 13th Brendan Major Lisa Williams Hayley Bullas Alexandra Quigley (7) 2019 9th Brendan Major Courtney Ugle Georgia Nanscawen Alexandra Quigley (10) 2020 ''Season cancelled due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic'' 2021 3rd Brendan Major Georgia Nanscawen Eloise Ashley-Cooper Mia-Rae Clifford (16) 2022 '''Premiers''' Brendan Major Georgia Nanscawen/Mia-Rae Clifford Georgia Nanscawen Federica Frew (35) 2023 5th Travis Cloke Mia-Rae Clifford/Courtney Ugle Sophie Molan Mia-Rae Clifford (11)''Sources: Club historical data and VFLW stats''" ], [ "Other ventures", "In December 2017, Essendon entered e-sports by acquiring Australian ''League of Legends'' team Abyss ESports.", "This made them the second AFL team to acquire an e-sports division after Adelaide acquired Legacy ESports in May.On 2 December 2019, it was announced that the Bombers' OPL slot had been sold to Perth-based internet provider Pentanet, marking Essendon's exit from the e-sports arena.In 2018, the Essendon Football Club, along with four other AFL clubs, entered the Victorian Wheelchair Football League." ], [ "Activism", "===Aboriginal support===Starting with Norm McDonald in 1947, Essendon has a proud history of fostering Aborignal talent at the top level.", "This came to the fore during the 1990s with players such as Michael Long, Derek Kickett, Gavin Wanganeen, and Dean Rioli rising through the ranks and being fostered by Kevin Sheedy.", "Dreamtime at the 'G and the Long Walk are two prominent annual events staged to help promote and support Aboriginal culture.", "The Long Walk, specifically, is designed to raise money for Indigenous education programs across the country.Additionally, Essendon is a supporter of the Voice to Parliament.===Same-Sex Marriage===During the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, Essendon supported the Yes vote." ], [ "See also", "*Dreamtime at the 'G*Sport in Australia*Sport in Victoria" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Around the Grounds\" – Web Documentary – Windy Hill" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enid Blyton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enid Mary Blyton''' (11 August 1897 – 28 November 1968) was an English children's writer, whose books have been worldwide bestsellers since the 1930s, selling more than 600 million copies.", "Her books are still enormously popular and have been translated into ninety languages.", "As of June 2019, Blyton held 4th place for the most translated author.", "She wrote on a wide range of topics, including education, natural history, fantasy, mystery, and biblical narratives.", "She is best remembered today for her ''Noddy'', ''Famous Five'', ''Secret Seven'', the ''Five Find-Outers'', and ''Malory Towers'' books, although she also wrote many others, including; ''St.", "Clare's'', ''The Naughtiest Girl'', and ''The Faraway Tree'' series.Her first book, ''Child Whispers'', a 24-page collection of poems, was published in 1922.Following the commercial success of her early novels, such as ''Adventures of the Wishing-Chair'' (1937) and ''The Enchanted Wood'' (1939), Blyton went on to build a literary empire, sometimes producing fifty books a year in addition to her prolific magazine and newspaper contributions.", "Her writing was unplanned and sprang largely from her unconscious mind; she typed her stories as events unfolded before her.", "The sheer volume of her work and the speed with which she produced it led to rumours that Blyton employed an army of ghost writers, a charge she vigorously denied.Blyton's work became increasingly controversial among literary critics, teachers, and parents beginning in the 1950s due to the alleged unchallenging nature of her writing and her themes, particularly in the Noddy series.", "Some libraries and schools banned her works, and from the 1930s until the 1950s, the BBC refused to broadcast her stories because of their perceived lack of literary merit.", "Her books have been criticised as elitist, sexist, racist, xenophobic, and at odds with the more progressive environment that was emerging in post-World War II Britain, but they have continued to be bestsellers since her death in 1968.She felt she had a responsibility to provide her readers with a strong moral framework, so she encouraged them to support worthy causes.", "In particular, through the clubs she set up or supported, she encouraged and organised them to raise funds for animal and paediatric charities.The story of Blyton's life was dramatised in ''Enid'', a BBC television film featuring Helena Bonham Carter in the title role.", "It was first broadcast in the UK on BBC Four in 2009." ], [ "Early life and education", "Enid Blyton was born on 11 August 1897 in East Dulwich, South London, United Kingdom, the eldest of three children, to Thomas Carey Blyton (1870–1920), a cutlery salesman (recorded in the 1911 census with the occupation of \"Mantle Manufacturer dealer in women's suits, skirts, etc.\")", "and his wife Theresa Mary (''née'' Harrison; 1874–1950).", "Enid's younger brothers, Hanly (1899–1983) and Carey (1902–1976), were born after the family had moved to a semi-detached house in Beckenham, then a village in Kent.", "A few months after her birth, Enid almost died from whooping cough, but was nursed back to health by her father, whom she adored.", "Thomas Blyton ignited Enid's interest in nature; in her autobiography she wrote that he \"loved flowers and birds and wild animals, and knew more about them than anyone I had ever met\".", "He also passed on his interest in gardening, art, music, literature, and theatre, and the pair often went on nature walks, much to the disapproval of Enid's mother, who showed little interest in her daughter's pursuits.", "Enid was devastated when her father left the family shortly after her 13th birthday to live with another woman.", "Enid and her mother did not have a good relationship, and Enid did not attend either of her parents' funerals.From 1907 to 1915, Blyton attended St Christopher's School in Beckenham, where she enjoyed physical activities and became school tennis champion and lacrosse captain.", "She was not keen on all the academic subjects, but excelled in writing and, in 1911, entered Arthur Mee's children's poetry competition.", "Mee offered to print her verses, encouraging her to produce more.", "Blyton's mother considered her efforts at writing to be a \"waste of time and money\", but she was encouraged to persevere by Mabel Attenborough, the aunt of school friend Mary Potter.Seckford Hall in Woodbridge, Suffolk, was an inspiration to Blyton with its haunted room, secret passageway, and sprawling gardens.Blyton's father taught her to play the piano, which she mastered well enough for him to believe she might follow in his sister's footsteps and become a professional musician.", "Blyton considered enrolling at the Guildhall School of Music, but decided she was better suited to becoming a writer.", "After finishing school, in 1915, as head girl, she moved out of the family home to live with her friend Mary Attenborough, before going to stay with George and Emily Hunt at Seckford Hall, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk.", "Seckford Hall, with its allegedly haunted room and secret passageway, provided inspiration for her later writing.", "At Woodbridge Congregational Church, Blyton met Ida Hunt, who taught at Ipswich High School and suggested she train there as a teacher.", "Blyton was introduced to the children at the nursery school and, recognising her natural affinity with them, enrolled in a National Froebel Union teacher training course at the school in September 1916.By this time, she had nearly terminated all contact with her family.Blyton's manuscripts were rejected by publishers on many occasions, which only made her more determined to succeed, saying, \"it is partly the struggle that helps you so much, that gives you determination, character, self-reliance –all things that help in any profession or trade, and most certainly in writing.\"", "In March 1916, her first poems were published in ''Nash's Magazine''.", "She completed her teacher training course in December 1918 and, the following month, obtained a teaching appointment at Bickley Park School, a small, independent establishment for boys in Bickley, Kent.", "Two months later, Blyton received a teaching certificate with distinctions in zoology and principles of education; first class in botany, geography, practice and history of education, child hygiene, and classroom teaching; and second class in literature and elementary mathematics.", "In 1920, she moved to Southernhay, in Hook Road Surbiton, as nursery governess to the four sons of architect Horace Thompson and his wife Gertrude, with whom Blyton spent four happy years.", "With the shortage of area schools, neighbouring children soon joined her charges, and a small school developed at the house." ], [ "Early writing career", "In 1920, Blyton moved to Chessington and began writing in her spare time.", "The following year, she won the ''Saturday Westminster Review'' writing competition with her essay \"On the Popular Fallacy that to the Pure All Things are Pure\".", "Publications such as ''The Londoner'', ''Home Weekly'' and ''The Bystander'' began to show an interest in her short stories and poems.", "''Child Whispers'' (1922)Blyton's first book, ''Child Whispers'', a 24-page collection of poems, was published in 1922.Its illustrator, Enid's schoolfriend Phyllis Chase collaborated on several of her early works.", "Also in that year, Blyton began writing in annuals for Cassell and George Newnes, and her first piece of writing, \"Peronel and his Pot of Glue\", was accepted for publication in ''Teachers' World''.", "Further boosting her success, in 1923, her poems appeared alongside those of Rudyard Kipling, Walter de la Mare, and G. K. Chesterton in a special issue of ''Teachers' World.''", "Blyton's educational texts were influential in the 1920s and 1930s, with her most sizable being the three-volume ''The Teacher's Treasury'' (1926), the six-volume ''Modern Teaching'' (1928), the eight-volume ''Pictorial Knowledge'' (1930), and the four-volume ''Modern Teaching in the Infant School'' (1932).In July 1923, Blyton published ''Real Fairies'', a collection of thirty-three poems written especially for the book with the exception of \"Pretending\", which had appeared earlier in ''Punch'' magazine.", "The following year, she published ''The Enid Blyton Book of Fairies'', illustrated by Horace J. Knowles, and in 1926 the ''Book of Brownies''.", "Several books of plays appeared in 1927, including ''A Book of Little Plays'' and ''The Play's the Thing'' with the illustrator Alfred Bestall.In the 1930s, Blyton developed an interest in writing stories related to various myths, including those of ancient Greece and Rome; ''The Knights of the Round Table'', ''Tales of Ancient Greece'' and ''Tales of Robin Hood'' were published in 1930.In ''Tales of Ancient Greece'' Blyton retold 16 well-known ancient Greek myths, but used the Latin rather than the Greek names and invented conversations between characters.", "''The Adventures of Odysseus'', ''Tales of the Ancient Greeks and Persians'' and ''Tales of the Romans'' followed in 1934." ], [ "Commercial success", "===New series: 1934–1948===The first of twenty-eight books in Blyton's Old Thatch series, ''The Talking Teapot and Other Tales'', was published in 1934, the same year as ''Brer Rabbit Retold''; (note that Brer Rabbit originally featured in Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris), her first serial story and first full-length book, ''Adventures of the Wishing-Chair'', followed in 1937.", "''The Enchanted Wood'', the first book in the Faraway Tree series, published in 1939, is about a magic tree inspired by the Norse mythology that had fascinated Blyton as a child.", "According to Blyton's daughter Gillian the inspiration for the magic tree came from \"thinking up a story one day and suddenly she was walking in the enchanted wood and found the tree.", "In her imagination she climbed up through the branches and met Moon-Face, Silky, the Saucepan Man and the rest of the characters.", "She had all she needed.\"", "As in the Wishing-Chair series, these fantasy books typically involve children being transported into a magical world in which they meet fairies, goblins, elves, pixies and other mythological creatures.Blyton's first full-length adventure novel, ''The Secret Island'', was published in 1938, featuring the characters of Jack, Mike, Peggy and Nora.", "Described by ''The Glasgow Herald'' as a \"Robinson Crusoe-style adventure on an island in an English lake\", ''The Secret Island'' was a lifelong favourite of Gillian's and spawned the Secret series.", "The following year Blyton released her first book in the Circus series and her initial book in the Amelia Jane series, ''Naughty Amelia Jane!''", "According to Gillian the main character was based on a large handmade doll given to her by her mother on her third birthday.During the 1940s Blyton became a prolific author, her success enhanced by her \"marketing, publicity and branding that was far ahead of its time\".", "In 1940 Blyton published two books – ''Three Boys and a Circus'' and ''Children of Kidillin'' – under the pseudonym of Mary Pollock (middle name plus first married name), in addition to the eleven published under her own name that year.", "So popular were Pollock's books that one reviewer was prompted to observe that \"Enid Blyton had better look to her laurels\".", "But Blyton's readers were not so easily deceived and many complained about the subterfuge to her and her publisher, with the result that all six books published under the name of Mary Pollock – two in 1940 and four in 1943 – were reissued under Blyton's name.", "Later in 1940 Blyton published the first of her boarding school story books and the first novel in the Naughtiest Girl series, ''The Naughtiest Girl in the School'', which followed the exploits of the mischievous schoolgirl Elizabeth Allen at the fictional Whyteleafe School.", "The first of her six novels in the St. Clare's series, ''The Twins at St. Clare's'', appeared the following year, featuring the twin sisters Patricia and Isabel O'Sullivan.In 1942 Blyton released the first book in the Mary Mouse series, ''Mary Mouse and the Dolls' House'', about a mouse exiled from her mousehole who becomes a maid at a dolls' house.", "Twenty-three books in the series were produced between 1942 and 1964; 10,000 copies were sold in 1942 alone.", "The same year, Blyton published the first novel in the Famous Five series, ''Five on a Treasure Island'', with illustrations by Eileen Soper.", "Its popularity resulted in twenty-one books between then and 1963, and the characters of Julian, Dick, Anne, George (Georgina) and Timmy the dog became household names in Britain.", "Matthew Grenby, author of ''Children's Literature'', states that the five were involved with \"unmasking hardened villains and solving serious crimes\", although the novels were \"hardly 'hard-boiled' thrillers\".", "Blyton based the character of Georgina, a tomboy she described as \"short-haired, freckled, sturdy, and snub-nosed\" and \"bold and daring, hot-tempered and loyal\", on herself.Blyton had an interest in biblical narratives, and retold Old and New Testament stories.", "''The Land of Far-Beyond'' (1942) is a Christian parable along the lines of John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress'' (1698), with contemporary children as the main characters.", "In 1943 she published ''The Children's Life of Christ'', a collection of fifty-nine short stories related to the life of Jesus, with her own slant on popular biblical stories, from the Nativity and the Three Wise Men through to the trial, the crucifixion and the resurrection.", "''Tales from the Bible'' was published the following year, followed by ''The Boy with the Loaves and Fishes'' in 1948.The first book in Blyton's Five Find-Outers series, ''The Mystery of the Burnt Cottage'', was published in 1943, as was the second book in the Faraway series, ''The Magic Faraway Tree'', which in 2003 was voted 66th in the BBC's Big Read poll to find the UK's favourite book.", "Several of Blyton's works during this period have seaside themes; ''John Jolly by the Sea'' (1943), a picture book intended for younger readers, was published in a booklet format by Evans Brothers.", "Other books with a maritime theme include ''The Secret of Cliff Castle'' and ''Smuggler Ben'', both attributed to Mary Pollock in 1943; ''The Island of Adventure'', the first in the Adventure series of eight novels from 1944 onwards; and various novels of the Famous Five series such as ''Five on a Treasure Island'' (1942), ''Five on Kirrin Island Again'' (1947) and ''Five Go Down to the Sea'' (1953).Capitalising on her success, with a loyal and ever-growing readership, Blyton produced a new edition of many of her series such as the Famous Five, the Five Find-Outers and St. Clare's every year in addition to many other novels, short stories and books.", "In 1946 Blyton launched the first in the Malory Towers series of six books based around the schoolgirl Darrell Rivers, ''First Term at Malory Towers'', which became extremely popular, particularly with girls.===Peak output: 1949–1959===The first book in Blyton's Barney Mysteries series, ''The Rockingdown Mystery'', was published in 1949, as was the first of her fifteen Secret Seven novels.", "The Secret Seven Society consists of Peter, his sister Janet, and their friends Colin, George, Jack, Pam and Barbara, who meet regularly in a shed in the garden to discuss peculiar events in their local community.", "Blyton rewrote the stories so they could be adapted into cartoons, which appeared in ''Mickey Mouse Weekly'' in 1951 with illustrations by George Brook.", "The French author Evelyne Lallemand continued the series in the 1970s, producing an additional twelve books, nine of which were translated into English by Anthea Bell between 1983 and 1987.Noddy and Big EarsBlyton's Noddy, about a little wooden boy from Toyland, first appeared in the ''Sunday Graphic'' on 5 June 1949, and in November that year ''Noddy Goes to Toyland'', the first of at least two dozen books in the series, was published.", "The idea was conceived by one of Blyton's publishers, Sampson, Low, Marston and Company, who in 1949 arranged a meeting between Blyton and the Dutch illustrator Harmsen van der Beek.", "Despite having to communicate via an interpreter, he provided some initial sketches of how Toyland and its characters would be represented.", "Four days after the meeting Blyton sent the text of the first two Noddy books to her publisher, to be forwarded to van der Beek.", "The Noddy books became one of her most successful and best-known series, and were hugely popular in the 1950s.", "An extensive range of sub-series, spin-offs and strip books were produced throughout the decade, including ''Noddy's Library'', ''Noddy's Garage of Books'', ''Noddy's Castle of Books'', ''Noddy's Toy Station of Books'' and ''Noddy's Shop of Books''.In 1950 Blyton established the company Darrell Waters Ltd to manage her affairs.", "By the early 1950s she had reached the peak of her output, often publishing more than fifty books a year, and she remained extremely prolific throughout much of the decade.", "By 1955 Blyton had written her fourteenth Famous Five novel, ''Five Have Plenty of Fun'', her fifteenth Mary Mouse book, ''Mary Mouse in Nursery Rhyme Land'', her eighth book in the Adventure series, ''The River of Adventure'', and her seventh Secret Seven novel, ''Secret Seven Win Through''.", "She completed the sixth and final book of the Malory Towers series, ''Last Term at Malory Towers'', in 1951.Blyton published several further books featuring the character of Scamp the terrier, following on from ''The Adventures of Scamp'', a novel she had released in 1943 under the pseudonym of Mary Pollock.", "''Scamp Goes on Holiday'' (1952) and ''Scamp and Bimbo'', ''Scamp at School'', ''Scamp and Caroline'' and ''Scamp Goes to the Zoo'' (1954) were illustrated by Pierre Probst.", "She introduced the character of Bom, a stylish toy drummer dressed in a bright red coat and helmet, alongside Noddy in ''TV Comic'' in July 1956.A book series began the same year with ''Bom the Little Toy Drummer'', featuring illustrations by R. Paul-Hoye, and followed with ''Bom and His Magic Drumstick'' (1957), ''Bom Goes Adventuring'' and ''Bom Goes to Ho Ho Village'' (1958), ''Bom and the Clown'' and ''Bom and the Rainbow'' (1959) and ''Bom Goes to Magic Town'' (1960).", "In 1958 she produced two annuals featuring the character, the first of which included twenty short stories, poems and picture strips.===Final works===Many of Blyton's series, including Noddy and The Famous Five, continued to be successful in the 1960s; by 1962, 26 million copies of Noddy had been sold.", "Blyton concluded several of her long-running series in 1963, publishing the last books of The Famous Five (''Five Are Together Again'') and The Secret Seven (''Fun for the Secret Seven''); she also produced three more Brer Rabbit books with the illustrator Grace Lodge: ''Brer Rabbit Again'', ''Brer Rabbit Book'', and ''Brer Rabbit's a Rascal''.", "In 1962 many of her books were among the first to be published by Armada Books in paperback, making them more affordable to children.After 1963 Blyton's output was generally confined to short stories and books intended for very young readers, such as ''Learn to Count with Noddy'' and ''Learn to Tell Time with Noddy'' in 1965, and ''Stories for Bedtime'' and the Sunshine Picture Story Book collection in 1966.Her declining health and a falling off in readership among older children have been put forward as the principal reasons for this change in trend.", "Blyton published her last book in the Noddy series, ''Noddy and the Aeroplane'', in February 1964.In May the following year she published ''Mixed Bag'', a song book with music written by her nephew Carey, and in August she released her last full-length books, ''The Man Who Stopped to Help'' and ''The Boy Who Came Back''." ], [ "Magazine and newspaper contributions", "Blyton cemented her reputation as a children's writer when in 1926 she took over the editing of ''Sunny Stories'', a magazine that typically included the re-telling of legends, myths, stories and other articles for children.", "That same year she was given her own column in ''Teachers' World'', entitled \"From my Window\".", "Three years later she began contributing a weekly page in the magazine, in which she published letters from her fox terrier dog Bobs.", "They proved to be so popular that in 1933 they were published in book form as ''Letters from Bobs'', and sold ten thousand copies in the first week.", "Her most popular feature was \"Round the Year with Enid Blyton\", which consisted of forty-eight articles covering aspects of natural history such as weather, pond life, how to plant a school garden and how to make a bird table.", "Among Blyton's other nature projects was her monthly \"Country Letter\" feature that appeared in ''The Nature Lover'' magazine in 1935.", "''Sunny Stories'' was renamed ''Enid Blyton's Sunny Stories'' in January 1937, and served as a vehicle for the serialisation of Blyton's books.", "Her first Naughty Amelia Jane story, about an anti-heroine based on a doll owned by her daughter Gillian, was published in the magazine.", "Blyton stopped contributing in 1952, and it closed down the following year, shortly before the appearance of the new fortnightly ''Enid Blyton Magazine'' written entirely by Blyton.", "The first edition appeared on 18 March 1953, and the magazine ran until September 1959.Noddy made his first appearance in the ''Sunday Graphic'' in 1949, the same year as Blyton's first daily Noddy strip for the London ''Evening Standard''.", "It was illustrated by van der Beek until his death in 1953." ], [ "Writing style and technique", "Blyton worked in a wide range of fictional genres, from fairy tales to animal, nature, detective, mystery, and circus stories, but she often \"blurred the boundaries\" in her books, and encompassed a range of genres even in her short stories.", "In a 1958 article published in ''The Author'', she wrote that there were a \"dozen or more different types of stories for children\", and she had tried them all, but her favourites were those with a family at their centre.In a letter to the psychologist Peter McKellar, Blyton describes her writing technique:In another letter to McKellar she describes how in just five days she wrote the 60,000-word book ''The River of Adventure'', the eighth in her Adventure Series, by listening to what she referred to as her \"under-mind\", which she contrasted with her \"upper conscious mind\".", "Blyton was unwilling to conduct any research or planning before beginning work on a new book, which coupled with the lack of variety in her life according to Druce almost inevitably presented the danger that she might unconsciously, and clearly did, plagiarise the books she had read, including her own.", "Gillian has recalled that her mother \"never knew where her stories came from\", but that she used to talk about them \"coming from her 'mind's eye\", as did William Wordsworth and Charles Dickens.", "Blyton had \"thought it was made up of every experience she'd ever had, everything she's seen or heard or read, much of which had long disappeared from her conscious memory\" but never knew the direction her stories would take.", "Blyton further explained in her biography that \"If I tried to think out or invent the whole book, I could not do it.", "For one thing, it would bore me and for another, it would lack the 'verve' and the extraordinary touches and surprising ideas that flood out from my imagination.", "\"Blyton's daily routine varied little over the years.", "She usually began writing soon after breakfast, with her portable typewriter on her knee and her favourite red Moroccan shawl nearby; she believed that the colour red acted as a \"mental stimulus\" for her.", "Stopping only for a short lunch break she continued writing until five o'clock, by which time she would usually have produced 6,000–10,000 words.A 2000 article in ''The Malay Mail'' considers Blyton's children to have \"lived in a world shaped by the realities of post-war austerity\", enjoying freedom without the political correctness of today, which serves modern readers of Blyton's novels with a form of escapism.", "Brandon Robshaw of ''The Independent'' refers to the Blyton universe as \"crammed with colour and character\", \"self-contained and internally consistent\", noting that Blyton exemplifies a strong mistrust of adults and figures of authority in her works, creating a world in which children govern.", "Gillian noted that in her mother's adventure, detective and school stories for older children, \"the hook is the strong storyline with plenty of cliffhangers, a trick she acquired from her years of writing serialised stories for children's magazines.", "There is always a strong moral framework in which bravery and loyalty are (eventually) rewarded\".", "Blyton herself wrote that \"my love of children is the whole foundation of all my work\".Victor Watson, Assistant Director of Research at Homerton College, Cambridge, believes that Blyton's works reveal an \"essential longing and potential associated with childhood\", and notes how the opening pages of ''The Mountain of Adventure'' present a \"deeply appealing ideal of childhood\".", "He argues that Blyton's work differs from that of many other authors in its approach, describing the narrative of The Famous Five series for instance as \"like a powerful spotlight, it seeks to illuminate, to explain, to demystify.", "It takes its readers on a roller-coaster story in which the darkness is always banished; everything puzzling, arbitrary, evocative is either dismissed or explained\".", "Watson further notes how Blyton often used minimalist visual descriptions and introduced a few careless phrases such as \"gleamed enchantingly\" to appeal to her young readers.From the mid-1950s rumours began to circulate that Blyton had not written all the books attributed to her, a charge she found particularly distressing.", "She published an appeal in her magazine asking children to let her know if they heard such stories and, after one mother informed her that she had attended a parents' meeting at her daughter's school during which a young librarian had repeated the allegation, Blyton decided in 1955 to begin legal proceedings.", "The librarian was eventually forced to make a public apology in open court early the following year, but the rumours that Blyton operated \"a 'company' of ghost writers\" persisted, as some found it difficult to believe that one woman working alone could produce such a volume of work." ], [ "Charitable work", "Blyton felt a responsibility to provide her readers with a positive moral framework, and she encouraged them to support worthy causes.", "Her view, expressed in a 1957 article, was that children should help animals and other children rather than adults:Blyton and the members of the children's clubs she promoted via her magazines raised a great deal of money for various charities; according to Blyton, membership of her clubs meant \"working for others, for no reward\".", "The largest of the clubs she was involved with was the Busy Bees, the junior section of the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals, which Blyton had actively supported since 1933.The club had been set up by Maria Dickin in 1934, and after Blyton publicised its existence in the ''Enid Blyton Magazine'' it attracted 100,000 members in three years.", "Such was Blyton's popularity among children that after she became Queen Bee in 1952 more than 20,000 additional members were recruited in her first year in office.", "The Enid Blyton Magazine Club was formed in 1953.Its primary objective was to raise funds to help those children with cerebral palsy who attended a centre in Cheyne Walk, in Chelsea, London, by furnishing an on-site hostel among other things.The Famous Five series gathered such a following that readers asked Blyton if they might form a fan club.", "She agreed, on condition that it serve a useful purpose, and suggested that it could raise funds for the Shaftesbury Society Babies' Home in Beaconsfield, on whose committee she had served since 1948.The club was established in 1952, and provided funds for equipping a Famous Five Ward at the home, a paddling pool, sun room, summer house, playground, birthday and Christmas celebrations, and visits to the pantomime.", "By the late 1950s Blyton's clubs had a membership of 500,000, and raised £35,000 in the six years of the ''Enid Blyton Magazine'''s run.By 1974 the Famous Five Club had a membership of 220,000, and was growing at the rate of 6,000 new members a year.", "The Beaconsfield home it was set up to support closed in 1967, but the club continued to raise funds for other paediatric charities, including an Enid Blyton bed at Great Ormond Street Hospital and a mini-bus for disabled children at Stoke Mandeville Hospital." ], [ "Jigsaw puzzle and games", "Blyton capitalised upon her commercial success as an author by negotiating agreements with jigsaw puzzle and games manufacturers from the late 1940s onwards; by the early 1960s some 146 different companies were involved in merchandising Noddy alone.", "In 1948 Bestime released four jigsaw puzzles featuring her characters, and the first Enid Blyton board game appeared, ''Journey Through Fairyland'', created by BGL.", "The first card game, Faraway Tree, appeared from Pepys in 1950.In 1954 Bestime released the first four jigsaw puzzles of the Secret Seven, and the following year a Secret Seven card game appeared.Bestime released the Little Noddy Car Game in 1953 and the Little Noddy Leap Frog Game in 1955, and in 1956 American manufacturer Parker Brothers released Little Noddy's Taxi Game, a board game which features Noddy driving about town, picking up various characters.", "Bestime released its Plywood Noddy Jigsaws series in 1957 and a Noddy jigsaw series featuring cards appeared from 1963, with illustrations by Robert Lee.", "Arrow Games became the chief producer of Noddy jigsaws in the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "Whitman manufactured four new Secret Seven jigsaw puzzles in 1975, and produced four new Malory Towers ones two years later.", "In 1979 the company released a Famous Five adventure board game, Famous Five Kirrin Island Treasure.", "Stephen Thraves wrote eight Famous Five adventure game books, published by Hodder & Stoughton in the 1980s.", "The first adventure game book of the series, ''The Wreckers' Tower Game'', was published in October 1984." ], [ "Personal life", "Bourne End, Buckinghamshire, where she lived from 1929 to 1938On 28 August 1924, Blyton married Major Hugh Alexander Pollock, DSO (1888–1971) at Bromley Register Office, without inviting her family.", "They married shortly after his divorce from his first wife, with whom he had two sons, one of them already deceased.", "Pollock was editor of the book department in the publishing firm George Newnes, which became Blyton's regular publisher.", "It was he who requested her to write a book about animals, resulting in ''The Zoo Book'', completed in the month before their marriage.", "They initially lived in a flat in Chelsea before moving to Elfin Cottage in Beckenham in 1926 and then to Old Thatch in Bourne End (called Peterswood in her books) in 1929.Blyton's first daughter, Gillian, was born on 15 July 1931, and, after a miscarriage in 1934, she gave birth to a second daughter, Imogen, on 27 October 1935.In 1938, she and her family moved to a house in Beaconsfield, named Green Hedges by Blyton's readers, following a competition in her magazine.", "By the mid-1930s, Pollock had become a secret alcoholic, withdrawing increasingly from public life—possibly triggered through his meetings, as a publisher, with Winston Churchill, which may have reawakened the trauma Pollock suffered during World War I.", "With the outbreak of World War II, he became involved in the Home Guard and also re-encountered Ida Crowe, an aspiring writer 19 years his junior, whom he had first met years earlier.", "He made her an offer to join him as secretary in his posting to a Home Guard training center at Denbies, a Gothic mansion in Surrey belonging to Lord Ashcombe, and they began a romantic relationship.", "Blyton's marriage to Pollock was troubled for years, and according to Crowe's memoir, she had a series of affairs, including lesbian relationships with one of the children's nannies and with Lola Onslow, an artist who illustrated Blyton’s 1924 title ''The Enid Blyton Book of Fairies''.", "In 1941, Blyton met Kenneth Fraser Darrell Waters, a London surgeon with whom she began a serious affair.", "Pollock discovered the liaison, and threatened to initiate divorce proceedings.", "Due to fears that exposure of her adultery would ruin her public image, it was ultimately agreed that Blyton would instead file for divorce against Pollock.", "According to Crowe's memoir, Blyton promised that if he admitted to infidelity, she would allow him parental access to their daughters; but after the divorce, he was denied contact with them, and Blyton made sure he was subsequently unable to find work in publishing.", "Pollock, having married Crowe on 26 October 1943, eventually resumed his heavy drinking and was forced to petition for bankruptcy in 1950.Blyton and Darrell Waters married at the City of Westminster Register Office on 20 October 1943.She changed the surname of her daughters to Darrell Waters and publicly embraced her new role as a happily married and devoted doctor's wife.", "After discovering she was pregnant in the spring of 1945, Blyton miscarried five months later, following a fall from a ladder.", "The baby would have been Darrell Waters's first child and the son for which they both longed.Her love of tennis included playing naked, with nude tennis \"a common practice in those days among the more louche members of the middle classes\".Blyton's health began to deteriorate in 1957, when, during a round of golf, she started to feel faint and breathless, and, by 1960, she was displaying signs of dementia.", "Her agent, George Greenfield, recalled that it was \"unthinkable\" for the \"most famous and successful of children's authors with her enormous energy and computerlike memory\" to be losing her mind and suffering from what is now known as Alzheimer's disease in her mid-60s.", "Worsening Blyton's situation was her husband's declining health throughout the 1960s; he suffered from severe arthritis in his neck and hips, deafness, and became increasingly ill-tempered and erratic until his death on 15 September 1967.The story of Blyton's life was dramatised in a BBC film entitled ''Enid'', which aired in the United Kingdom on BBC Four on 16 November 2009.Helena Bonham Carter, who played the title role, described Blyton as \"a complete workaholic, an achievement junkie and an extremely canny businesswoman\" who \"knew how to brand herself, right down to the famous signature\"." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Blue plaque on Blyton's childhood home in Ondine Road, East Dulwich, South LondonDuring the months following her husband's death, Blyton became increasingly ill and moved into a nursing home three months before her death.", "She died in her sleep of Alzheimer's disease at the Greenways Nursing Home, Hampstead, North London, on 28 November 1968, aged 71.A memorial service was held at St James's Church, Piccadilly and she was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium, where her ashes remain.", "Blyton's home, Green Hedges, was auctioned on 26 May 1971 and demolished in 1973; the site is now occupied by houses and a street named Blyton Close.", "An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Blyton at Hook Road in Chessington, where she lived from 1920 to 1924.In 2014, a plaque recording her time as a Beaconsfield resident from 1938 until her death in 1968 was unveiled in the town hall gardens, next to small iron figures of Noddy and Big Ears.Since her death and the publication of her daughter Imogen's 1989 autobiography, ''A Childhood at Green Hedges'', Blyton has emerged as an emotionally immature, unstable and often malicious figure.", "Imogen considered her mother to be \"arrogant, insecure, pretentious, very skilled at putting difficult or unpleasant things out of her mind, and without a trace of maternal instinct.", "As a child, I viewed her as a rather strict authority.", "As an adult I pitied her.\"", "Blyton's eldest daughter Gillian remembered her rather differently however, as \"a fair and loving mother, and a fascinating companion\".The Enid Blyton Trust for Children was established in 1982, with Imogen as its first chairman, and in 1985 it established the National Library for the Handicapped Child.", "''Enid Blyton's Adventure Magazine'' began publication in September 1985 and, on 14 October 1992, the BBC began publishing ''Noddy Magazine'' and released the Noddy CD-Rom in October 1996.The first Enid Blyton Day was held at Rickmansworth on 6 March 1993 and, in October 1996, the Enid Blyton award, The Enid, was given to those who have made outstanding contributions towards children.", "The Enid Blyton Society was formed in early 1995, to provide \"a focal point for collectors and enthusiasts of Enid Blyton\" through its thrice-annual ''Enid Blyton Society Journal'', its annual Enid Blyton Day and its website.", "On 16 December 1996, Channel 4 broadcast a documentary about Blyton, ''Secret Lives''.", "To celebrate her centenary in 1997, exhibitions were put on at the London Toy & Model Museum (now closed), Hereford and Worcester County Museum and Bromley Library and, on 9 September, the Royal Mail issued centenary stamps.The London-based entertainment and retail company Trocadero plc purchased Blyton's Darrell Waters Ltd in 1995 for £14.6 million and established a subsidiary, Enid Blyton Ltd, to handle all intellectual properties, character brands and media in Blyton's works.", "The group changed its name to Chorion in 1998 but, after financial difficulties in 2012, sold its assets.", "Hachette UK acquired from Chorion world rights in the Blyton estate in March 2013, including The Famous Five series but excluding the rights to Noddy, which had been sold to DreamWorks Classics (formerly Classic Media, now a subsidiary of DreamWorks Animation) in 2012.Blyton's granddaughter, Sophie Smallwood, wrote a new Noddy book to celebrate the character's 60th birthday, 46 years after the last book was published; ''Noddy and the Farmyard Muddle'' (2009) was illustrated by Robert Tyndall.", "In February 2011, the manuscript of a previously unknown Blyton novel, ''Mr Tumpy's Caravan'', was discovered by the archivist at Seven Stories, National Centre for Children's Books in a collection of papers belonging to Blyton's daughter Gillian, purchased by Seven Stories in 2010 following her death.", "It was initially thought to belong to a comic strip collection of the same name published in 1949, but it appears to be unrelated and is believed to be something written in the 1930s, which had been rejected by a publisher.In a 1982 survey of 10,000 eleven-year-old children, Blyton was voted their most popular writer.", "She is the world's fourth most-translated author, behind Agatha Christie, Jules Verne and William Shakespeare with her books being translated into 90 languages.", "From 2000 to 2010, Blyton was listed as a Top Ten author, selling almost 8 million copies (worth £31.2 million) in the UK alone.", "In 2003, ''The Magic Faraway Tree'' was voted 66th in the BBC's Big Read, a year-long survey of the UK's best-loved novels.", "In a 2008 poll conducted by the Costa Book Awards, Blyton was voted the UK's best-loved author ahead of Roald Dahl, J. K. Rowling, Jane Austen and Shakespeare.", "Her books continue to be very popular among children in Commonwealth nations such as India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malta, New Zealand and Australia, and around the world.", "They have also seen a surge of popularity in China, where they are \"big with every generation\".", "In March 2004, Chorion and the Chinese publisher Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press negotiated an agreement over the Noddy franchise, which included bringing the character to an animated series on television, with a potential audience of a further 95 million children under the age of five.", "Chorion spent around £10 million digitising Noddy and, as of 2002, had made television agreements with at least 11 countries worldwide.Novelists influenced by Blyton include the crime writer Denise Danks, whose fictional detective Georgina Powers is based on George from the Famous Five.", "Peter Hunt's ''A Step off the Path'' (1985) is also influenced by the Famous Five, and the St. Clare's and Malory Towers series provided the inspiration for Jacqueline Wilson's ''Double Act'' (1996) and Adèle Geras's Egerton Hall trilogy (1990–92) respectively.", "Blyton was important to Stieg Larsson.", "\"The series Stieg Larsson most often mentioned were the Famous Five and the Adventure books.\"" ], [ "Critical backlash", "A.H. Thompson, who compiled an extensive overview of censorship efforts in the United Kingdom's public libraries, dedicated an entire chapter to \"The Enid Blyton Affair\", and wrote of her in 1975: Blyton's range of plots and settings has been described as limited, repetitive and continually recycled.", "Many of her books were critically assessed by teachers and librarians, deemed unfit for children to read, and removed from syllabuses and public libraries.", "Responding to claims that her moral views were \"dependably predictable\", Blyton commented that \"most of you could write down perfectly correctly all the things that I believe in and stand for – you have found them in my books, and a writer's books are always a faithful reflection of himself\".From the 1930s to the 1950s the BBC operated a ''de facto'' ban on dramatising Blyton's books for radio, considering her to be a \"second-rater\" whose work was without literary merit.", "The children's literary critic Margery Fisher likened Blyton's books to \"slow poison\", and Jean E. Sutcliffe of the BBC's schools broadcast department wrote of Blyton's ability to churn out \"mediocre material\", noting that \"her capacity to do so amounts to genius ... anyone else would have died of boredom long ago\".", "Michael Rosen, Children's Laureate from 2007 until 2009, wrote that \"I find myself flinching at occasional bursts of snobbery and the assumed level of privilege of the children and families in the books.\"", "The children's author Anne Fine presented an overview of the concerns about Blyton's work and responses to them on BBC Radio 4 in November 2008, in which she noted the \"drip, drip, drip of disapproval\" associated with the books.", "Blyton's response to her critics was that she was uninterested in the views of anyone over the age of 12, stating that half the attacks on her work were motivated by jealousy and the rest came from \"stupid people who don't know what they're talking about because they've never read any of my books\".Despite criticism by contemporaries that her work's quality began to suffer in the 1950s at the expense of its increasing volume, Blyton nevertheless capitalised on being generally regarded at the time as \"a more 'savoury', English alternative\" to what some considered an \"invasion\" of Britain by American culture, in the form of \"rock music, horror comics, television, teenage culture, delinquency, and Disney\".According to Nicholas Tucker, the works of Enid Blyton have been \"banned from more public libraries over the years than is the case with any other adult or children's author\", though such attempts to quell the popularity of her books over the years seem to have been largely unsuccessful, and \"she still remains very widely read\".===Simplicity===Some librarians felt that Blyton's restricted use of language, a conscious product of her teaching background, was prejudicial to an appreciation of more literary qualities.", "In a scathing article published in ''Encounter'' in 1958, the journalist Colin Welch remarked that it was \"hard to see how a diet of Miss Blyton could help with the 11-plus or even with the Cambridge English Tripos\", but reserved his harshest criticism for Blyton's Noddy, describing him as an \"unnaturally priggish ... sanctimonious ... witless, spiritless, snivelling, sneaking doll.", "\"The author and educational psychologist Nicholas Tucker notes that it was common to see Blyton cited as people's favourite or least favourite author according to their age, and argues that her books create an \"encapsulated world for young readers that simply dissolves with age, leaving behind only memories of excitement and strong identification\".", "Fred Inglis considers Blyton's books to be technically easy to read, but to also be \"emotionally and cognitively easy\".", "He mentions that the psychologist Michael Woods believed that Blyton was different from many other older authors writing for children in that she seemed untroubled by presenting them with a world that differed from reality.", "Woods surmised that Blyton \"was a child, she thought as a child, and wrote as a child ... the basic feeling is essentially pre-adolescent ... Enid Blyton has no moral dilemmas ... Inevitably Enid Blyton was labelled by rumour a child-hater.", "If true, such a fact should come as no surprise to us, for as a child herself all other children can be nothing but rivals for her.\"", "Inglis argues though that Blyton was clearly devoted to children and put an enormous amount of energy into her work, with a powerful belief in \"representing the crude moral diagrams and garish fantasies of a readership\".", "Blyton's daughter Imogen has stated that she \"loved a relationship with children through her books\", but real children were an intrusion, and there was no room for intruders in the world that Blyton occupied through her writing.===Accusations of racism, xenophobia and sexism===Accusations of racism in Blyton's books were first made by Lena Jeger in a ''Guardian'' article published in 1966.In the context of discussing possible moves to restrict publications inciting racial hatred, Jeger was critical of Blyton's ''The Little Black Doll'', originally published in 1937.Sambo, the black doll of the title, is hated by his owner and other toys owing to his \"ugly black face\", and runs away.", "A shower of \"magic rain\" washes his face clean, after which he is welcomed back home with his now pink face.", "Jamaica Kincaid also considers the Noddy books to be \"deeply racist\" because of the blonde children and the black golliwogs.", "In Blyton's 1944 novel ''The Island of Adventure'', a black servant named Jo-Jo is very intelligent, but is particularly cruel to the children.Accusations of xenophobia were also made.", "As George Greenfield observed, \"Enid was very much part of that between the wars middle class which believed that foreigners were untrustworthy or funny or sometimes both\".", "The publisher Macmillan conducted an internal assessment of Blyton's ''The Mystery That Never Was'', submitted to them at the height of her fame in 1960.The review was carried out by the author and books editor Phyllis Hartnoll, in whose view \"There is a faint but unattractive touch of old-fashioned xenophobia in the author's attitude to the thieves; they are 'foreign' ... and this seems to be regarded as sufficient to explain their criminality.\"", "Macmillan rejected the manuscript, but it was published by William Collins in 1961, and then again in 1965 and 1983.Blyton's depictions of boys and girls are considered by many critics to be sexist.", "In a ''Guardian'' article published in 2005 Lucy Mangan proposed that ''The Famous Five'' series depicts a power struggle between Julian, Dick and George (Georgina), in which the female characters either act like boys or are talked down to, as when Dick lectures George: \"it's really time you gave up thinking you're as good as a boy\".===Revisions to later editions===To address criticisms levelled at Blyton's work, some later editions have been altered to reflect more politically progressive attitudes towards issues such as race, gender, violence between young persons, the treatment of children by adults, and legal changes in Britain as to what is allowable for young children to do in the years since the stories were originally written (e.g.", "purchasing fireworks); modern reprints of the Noddy series substitute teddy bears or goblins for golliwogs, for instance.", "The golliwogs who steal Noddy's car and dump him naked in the Dark Wood in ''Here Comes Noddy Again'' are replaced by goblins in the 1986 revision, who strip Noddy only of his shoes and hat and return at the end of the story to apologise.", "''The Faraway Tree'''s Dame Slap, who made regular use of corporal punishment, was changed to Dame Snap who no longer did so, and the names of Dick and Fanny in the same series were changed to Rick and Frannie.", "Characters in the Malory Towers and St. Clare's series are no longer spanked or threatened with a spanking, but are instead scolded.", "References to George's short hair making her look like a boy were removed in revisions to ''Five on a Hike Together'', reflecting the idea that girls need not have long hair to be considered feminine or normal.", "Anne of ''The Famous Five'' stating that boys cannot wear pretty dresses or like girls' dolls was removed.", "In ''The Adventurous Four'', the names of the young twin girls were changed from Jill and Mary to Pippa and Zoe.In 2010 Hodder, the publisher of the Famous Five series, announced its intention to update the language used in the books, of which it sold more than half a million copies a year.", "The changes, which Hodder described as \"subtle\", mainly affect the dialogue rather than the narrative.", "For instance, \"school tunic\" becomes \"uniform\", \"mother and father\" and \"mother and daddy\" (this latter one used by young female characters and deemed sexist) become \"mum and dad\", \"bathing\" is replaced by \"swimming\", and \"jersey\" by \"jumper\".", "Some commentators see the changes as necessary to encourage modern readers, whereas others regard them as unnecessary and patronising.", "In 2016 Hodder's parent company Hachette announced that they would abandon the revisions as, based on feedback, they had not been a success." ], [ "Stage, film and television adaptations", "In 1954 Blyton adapted Noddy for the stage, producing the ''Noddy in Toyland'' pantomime in just two or three weeks.", "The production was staged at the 2660-seat Stoll Theatre in Kingsway, London at Christmas.", "Its popularity resulted in the show running during the Christmas season for five or six years.", "Blyton was delighted with its reception by children in the audience, and attended the theatre three or four times a week.", "TV adaptations of Noddy since 1954 include one in the 1970s narrated by Richard Briers.", "In 1955 a stage play based on the Famous Five was produced, and in January 1997 the King's Head Theatre embarked on a six-month tour of the UK with ''The Famous Five Musical'', to commemorate Blyton's centenary.", "On 21 November 1998 ''The Secret Seven Save the World'' was first performed at the Sherman Theatre in Cardiff.There have also been several film and television adaptations of the Famous Five: by the Children's Film Foundation in 1957 and 1964, Southern Television in 1978–79, and Zenith Productions in 1995–97.The series was also adapted for the German film ''Fünf Freunde'', directed by Mike Marzuk and released in 2011.The Comic Strip, a group of British comedians, produced two extreme parodies of the Famous Five for Channel 4 television: ''Five Go Mad in Dorset'', broadcast in 1982, and ''Five Go Mad on Mescalin'', broadcast the following year.", "A third in the series, ''Five Go to Rehab'', was broadcast on Sky in 2012.Blyton's ''The Faraway Tree'' series of books has also been adapted to television and film.", "On 29 September 1997 the BBC began broadcasting an animated series called ''The Enchanted Lands'', based on the series.", "It was announced in October 2014 that a deal had been signed with publishers Hachette for \"The Faraway Tree\" series to be adapted into a live-action film by director Sam Mendes' production company.", "Marlene Johnson, head of children's books at Hachette, said: \"Enid Blyton was a passionate advocate of children's storytelling, and The Magic Faraway Tree is a fantastic example of her creative imagination.", "\"Blyton's ''Malory Towers'' has been adapted into a musical of the same name by Emma Rice's theatre company.", "It was scheduled to do a UK spring tour in 2020 which has been postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.In 2020, ''Malory Towers'' was adapted as a 13 part TV series for the BBC.", "It is made partly in Toronto and partly in the UK in association with Canada's Family Channel.", "The series went to air in the UK from April 2020 and has been renewed for three more series." ], [ "Papers", "Seven Stories, the National Centre for Children's Books in Newcastle upon Tyne, holds the largest public collection of Blyton's papers and typescripts.", "The Seven Stories collection contains a significant number of Blyton's typescripts, including the previously unpublished novel, ''Mr Tumpy's Caravan'', as well as personal papers and diaries.", "The purchase of the material in 2010 was made possible by special funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund, the MLA/V&A Purchase Grant Fund, and two private donations." ], [ "See also", "*Enid Blyton bibliography*Enid Blyton Society*Enid Blyton's illustrators" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ======Citations======Bibliography===*************************" ], [ "Further reading", "*******" ], [ "External links", "* Watch and listen to BBC archive programmes about Enid Blyton* Enid Blyton letters from the BBC archive* Enid Blyton Collection* * * * Newsreel footage of Enid Blyton at home with her family, 1946* The Enid Blyton Collection at Seven Stories* Seven Stories' Enid Blyton Blog* * Great Lives – Novelist Enid Blyton* The Enid Blyton Society* Enid Blyton - \"lashings of information about the children's author\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epipalaeolithic Near East" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Epipalaeolithic Near East''' designates the Epipalaeolithic (\"Final Old Stone Age\", also known as Mesolithic) in the prehistory of the Near East.", "It is the period after the Upper Palaeolithic and before the Neolithic, between approximately 20,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP).", "The people of the Epipalaeolithic were nomadic hunter-gatherers who generally lived in small, seasonal camps rather than permanent villages.", "They made sophisticated stone tools using microliths—small, finely-produced blades that were hafted in wooden implements.", "These are the primary artifacts by which archaeologists recognise and classify Epipalaeolithic sites.The start of the Epipalaeolithic is defined by the appearance of microliths.", "Although this is an arbitrary boundary, the Epipalaeolithic does differ significantly from the preceding Upper Palaeolithic.", "Epipalaeolithic sites are more numerous, better preserved, and can be accurately radiocarbon dated.", "The period coincides with the gradual retreat of glacial climatic conditions between the Last Glacial Maximum and the start of the Holocene, and it is characterised by population growth and economic intensification.", "The Epipalaeolithic ended with the \"Neolithic Revolution\" and the onset of domestication, food production, and sedentism, although archaeologists now recognise that these trends began in the Epipalaeolithic.The period may be subdivided into Early, Middle and Late Epipalaeolithic: The Early Epipalaeolithic corresponds to the '''Kebaran''' culture, c. 20,000 to 14,500 years ago, the Middle Epipalaeolithic is the '''Geometric Kebaran''' or late phase of the Kebaran, and the Late Epipalaeolithic to the '''Natufian''', 14,500–11,500 BP.", "The Natufian overlaps with the incipient Neolithic Revolution, the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A." ], [ "Levant", "===Early Epipalaeolithic===The Epipalaeolithic corresponds to the first period of progressive warming after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), before the start of the Holocene and the onset of the Neolithic Revolution.", "The change in temperatures in the Post-Glacial period is based on evidence from Greenland ice cores.Archaeological evidence of human activities in the Near East, at the end of the Upper Paleolithic and during the Epipalaeolithic.", "Human occupation signs 29–15.2 ka (diamonds), wood charcoal, nuts 15.9–11.2 ka (squares).The Early Epipalaeolithic, also known as Kebaran, lasted from 20,000 to 12,150 BP.", "It followed the Upper Paleolithic Levantine Aurignacian (formerly called Antelian) period throughout the Levant.", "By the end of the Levantine Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries.", "Small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time.", "The microliths of this culture period differ markedly from the Aurignacian artifacts.Stone Age stone mortar and pestle, Kebaran culture, 22000-18000 BPComposite sickles for cereal harvesting at 23,000-Years-Old Ohalo II, Israel.By 18,000 BP the climate and environment had changed, starting a period of transition.", "The Levant became more arid and the forest vegetation retreated, to be replaced by steppe.", "The cool and dry period ended at the beginning of Mesolithic 1.The hunter-gatherers of the Aurignacian would have had to modify their way of living and their pattern of settlement to adapt to the changing conditions.", "The crystallization of these new patterns resulted in Mesolithic 1.The people developed new types of settlements and new stone industries.The inhabitants of a small Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant left little more than their chipped stone tools behind.", "The industry was of small tools made of bladelets struck off single-platform cores.", "Besides bladelets, burins and end-scrapers have been found.", "A few bone tools and some ground stones have also been found.", "These so-called Mesolithic sites of Asia are far less numerous than those of the Neolithic, and the archeological remains are very poor.The type site is Kebara Cave south of Haifa.", "The Kebaran was characterized by small, geometric microliths.", "The people were thought to lack the specialized grinders and pounders found in later Near Eastern cultures.The Kebaran is preceded by the Athlitian phase of the Levantine Aurignacian (formerly called Antelian) and followed by the proto-agrarian Natufian culture of the Epipalaeolithic.", "The appearance of the Kebarian culture, of microlithic type, implies a significant rupture in the cultural continuity of Levantine Upper Paleolithic.", "The Kebaran culture, with its use of microliths, is associated also with the use of the bow and arrow and the domestication of the dog.", "The Kebaran is also characterised by the earliest collecting and processing of wild cereals, known due to the excavation of grain-grinding tools.", "This was the first step towards the Neolithic Revolution.", "The Kebaran people are believed to have migrated seasonally, dispersing to upland environments in the summer, and gathering in caves and rock shelters near lowland lakes in the winter.", "This diversity of environments may be the reason for the variety of tools found in their toolkits.The Kebaran is generally thought to have been ancestral to the later Natufian culture that occupied much of the same range.====Harvesting of cereals====The earliest evidence for the use of composite cereal harvesting tools are the glossed flint blades that have been found at the site of Ohalo II, a 23,000-year-old fisher-hunter-gatherers’ camp on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Northern Israel.", "The Ohalo site is dated at the junction of the Upper Paleolithic and the Early Epipalaeolithic, and has been attributed to both periods.", "The wear traces on the tools indicate that these were used for harvesting near-ripe, semi-green wild cereals, shortly before grains ripen enough to disperse naturally.", "The study shows that the tools were not used intensively, and they reflect two harvesting modes: flint knives held by hand and inserts hafted into a handle.", "The finds reveal the existence of cereal harvesting techniques and tools some 8,000 years before the Natufian, and 12,000 years before the establishment of sedentary farming communities in the Near East during the Neolithic Revolution.", "Furthermore, the new finds accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site, and for the use of stone-made grinding implements.====Artistic expression in the Kebaran culture====Engraved plaquette with bird image from Ein Qashish South, Jezreel Valley, Israel, Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran ca.", "23,000-16,500 BP.Evidence for symbolic behavior of Late Pleistocene foragers in the Levant has been found in engraved limestone plaquettes from the Epipalaeolithic open-air site Ein Qashish South in the Jezreel Valley, Israel.", "The engravings were uncovered in Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran deposits (ca.", "23,000 and ca.", "16,500 BP), and include the image of a bird, the first figurative representation known so far from a pre-Natufian Epipalaeolithic site, together with geometric motifs such as chevrons, cross-hatchings, and ladders.", "Some of the engravings closely resemble roughly contemporary European finds, and may be interpreted as \"systems of notations\" or \"artificial memory systems\" related to the timing of seasonal resources and related important events for nomadic groups.Similar-looking signs and patterns are well known from the context of the local Natufian, a final Epipalaeolithic period when sedentary or semi-sedentary foragers started practicing agriculture.===Late Epipalaeolithic===The Late Epipalaeolithic is also called the Natufian culture.", "This period is characterized by the early rise of agriculture, which later emerged more fully in the Neolithic period.", "Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture between 12,500 and 9500 BCE, just before the end of the Pleistocene.", "This period is characterised by the beginning of agriculture.The Natufian culture is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,500–10,800 BCE) (Christopher Delage gives 13,000–11,500 BP uncalibrated, equivalent to 13,700–11,500 BCE) and Late Natufian (10,800–9500 BCE).", "The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas.", "The following period is often called the Pre-Pottery Neolithic.File:Bovine-Rib Dagger, Natufian Culture.jpg|Bovine-rib dagger, HaYonim Cave, Natufian Culture, 12500-9500 BC.File:Eynan Epipaleolithic mortar.jpg|Stone Mortars from Eynan, Natufian period, 12500-9500 BCFile:Lovers 9000BC british museum.jpg|upright|The Ain Sakhri lovers, Ain Sakhri near Bethlehem.", "British Museum: File:Reconstruction of a prehistoric hook and sinker.png| Stone fishing hook and sinker (a grooved pebble), used on the Jordan River during the Late Epipalaeolithic" ], [ "Other regions", "=== Arabia ===Until recently, it was thought that the Arabian Peninsula was too arid and inhospitable for human settlement in the Late Pleistocene.", "The earliest known sites belonged to the early Neolithic, c. 9000 to 8000 BP, and it was supposed that people were able to recolonise the region then due to the wetter climate of the early Holocene.However, in 2014, archaeologists working in the southern Nefud desert discovered an Epipalaeolithic site dating to between 12,000 and 10,000 BP.", "The site is located in the Jubbah basin, a palaeolake which retained water in the otherwise dry conditions of the Terminal Pleistocene.", "The stone tools found bore a close resemblance to the Geometric Kebaran, a Levantine industry associated with the Middle Epipalaeolithic.", "The excavators of the site, therefore, proposed that northern Arabia was colonised by foragers from the Levant around 15,000 years ago.", "These groups may then have been cut off by the drying climate and retreated to ''refugia'' like the Jubbah palaeolake." ], [ "Food sources", "Associations of wild cereals and other wild grasses in northern IsraelThe Epipalaeolithic is best understood when discussing the southern Levant, as the period is well documented due to good preservation at the sites, at least of animal remains.", "The most prevalent animal food sources in the Levant during this period were: deer, gazelle, and ibex of various species, and smaller animals including birds, lizards, foxes, tortoises, and hares.", "Less common were aurochs, wild equids, wild boar, wild cattle, and hartebeest.", "At Neve David near Haifa, 15 mammal species were found, and two reptile species.", "Despite then being very close to the coast, the rather small number of seashells found (7 genera) and the piercing of many, suggests these may have been collected as ornaments rather than food.However, the period seems to be marked by an increase in plant foods and a decrease in meat-eating.", "Over 40 plant species have been found by analysing one site in the Jordan Valley, and some grains were processed and baked.", "Stones with evidence of grinding have been found.", "These were most likely the main food sources throughout the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, which introduced the widespread agricultural growing of crops." ], [ "See also", "*Caucasian Epipalaeolithic*Levantine archaeology*Levantine Aurignacian*List of archaeological periods (Levant)*Mesolithic Europe" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Bar-Oz, Guy; Dayan, Tamar; Kaufman, Daniel, The Epipalaeolithic Faunal Sequence in Israel: A View from Neve David (PDF), Journal of Archaeological Science, 1999, 26, 67–82*M. H. Alimen and M. J. Steve, ''Historia Universal siglo XXI.", "Prehistoria''.", "Siglo XXI Editores, 1970 (reviewed and corrected in 1994) (original German edition, 1966, titled ''Vorgeschichte'').", "* Simmons, Alan H., ''The Neolithic Revolution in the Near East: Transforming the Human Landscape'', 2007, University of Arizona Press, , google books" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Executive (government)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''executive''', also referred to as the '''executive branch''' or '''executive power''', is the term commonly used to describe that part of government which executes the law." ], [ "Function", "The scope of executive power varies greatly depending on the political context in which it emerges, and it can change over time in a given country.", "In democratic countries, the executive often exercises broad influence over national politics, though limitations are often applied to the executive.In political systems based on the separation of powers, such as the US, government authority is distributed between several branches in order to prevent power being concentrated in the hands of a single person or group.", "To achieve this, each branch is subject to checks by the other two; in general, the role of the legislature is to pass laws, which are then enforced by the executive, and interpreted by the judiciary.", "The executive can also be the source of certain types of law, such as a decree or executive order.In those that use fusion of powers, typically parliamentary systems, the executive forms the government, and its members generally belong to the political party that controls the legislature or \"parliament\".", "Since the executive requires the support or approval of the legislature, the two bodies are \"fused\" together, rather than being independent.", "The principle of parliamentary sovereignty means powers possessed by the executive are solely dependent on those granted by the legislature, which can also subject its actions to judicial review.", "However, the executive often has wide-ranging powers stemming from the control of the government bureaucracy, especially in the areas of overall economic or foreign policy." ], [ "Ministers", "Vanhanen II Cabinet in a session of Finnish Parliament in 2007.In parliamentary systems, the executive is responsible to the elected legislature, i.e.", "must maintain the confidence of the legislature (or one part of it, if bicameral).", "In certain circumstances (varying by state), the legislature can express its lack of confidence in the executive, which causes either a change in governing party or group of parties or a general election.", "Parliamentary systems have a head of government (who leads the executive, often called ministers) normally distinct from the head of state (who continues through governmental and electoral changes).", "In the Westminster type of parliamentary system, the principle of separation of powers is not as entrenched as in some others.", "Members of the executive (ministers), are also members of the legislature, and hence play an important part in both the writing and enforcing of law.", "In presidential systems, the directly elected head of government appoints the ministers.", "The ministers can be directly elected by the voters.In this context, the executive consists of a leader or leader of an office or multiple offices.", "Specifically, the top leadership roles of the executive branch may include:* head of state – often the monarch, the president or the supreme leader, the chief public representative and living symbol of national unity.", "** head of government – often the prime minister, overseeing the administration of all affairs of state.", "*** defence minister – overseeing the armed forces, determining military policy, and managing external safety.", "*** interior minister – overseeing the police forces, enforcing the law, and managing internal control.", "*** foreign minister – overseeing the diplomatic service, determining foreign policy and managing foreign relations.", "*** finance minister – overseeing the treasury, determining fiscal policy and managing national budget.", "*** justice minister – overseeing criminal prosecutions, corrections, enforcement of court orders." ], [ "Presidents and ministers", "In a presidential system, the leader of the executive is both the head of state and government.In a parliamentary system, a cabinet minister responsible to the legislature is the head of government, while the head of state is usually a largely ceremonial monarch or president." ], [ "See also", "* Constitution* Diarchy* Legal reform* Rule according to higher law" ], [ "References", "thanks" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enrico Fermi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enrico Fermi''' (; 29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954) was an Italian and later naturalized American physicist, renowned for being the creator of the world's first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1, and a member of the Manhattan Project.", "He has been called the \"architect of the nuclear age\" and the \"architect of the atomic bomb\".", "He was one of very few physicists to excel in both theoretical physics and experimental physics.", "Fermi was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity by neutron bombardment and for the discovery of transuranium elements.", "With his colleagues, Fermi filed several patents related to the use of nuclear power, all of which were taken over by the US government.", "He made significant contributions to the development of statistical mechanics, quantum theory, and nuclear and particle physics.Fermi's first major contribution involved the field of statistical mechanics.", "After Wolfgang Pauli formulated his exclusion principle in 1925, Fermi followed with a paper in which he applied the principle to an ideal gas, employing a statistical formulation now known as Fermi–Dirac statistics.", "Today, particles that obey the exclusion principle are called \"fermions\".", "Pauli later postulated the existence of an uncharged invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay, to satisfy the law of conservation of energy.", "Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle, which he named the \"neutrino\".", "His theory, later referred to as Fermi's interaction and now called weak interaction, described one of the four fundamental interactions in nature.", "Through experiments inducing radioactivity with the recently discovered neutron, Fermi discovered that slow neutrons were more easily captured by atomic nuclei than fast ones, and he developed the Fermi age equation to describe this.", "After bombarding thorium and uranium with slow neutrons, he concluded that he had created new elements.", "Although he was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, the new elements were later revealed to be nuclear fission products.Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian racial laws that affected his Jewish wife, Laura Capon.", "He emigrated to the United States, where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II.", "Fermi led the team at the University of Chicago that designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942, demonstrating the first human-created, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.", "He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee went critical in 1943, and when the B Reactor at the Hanford Site did so the next year.", "At Los Alamos, he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Teller's thermonuclear \"Super\" bomb.", "He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, the first test of a full nuclear bomb explosion, where he used his Fermi method to estimate the bomb's yield.After the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters.", "After the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949, he strongly opposed the development of a hydrogen bomb on both moral and technical grounds.", "He was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimer's behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of Oppenheimer's security clearance.", "Fermi did important work in particle physics, especially related to pions and muons, and he speculated that cosmic rays arose when material was accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space.", "Many awards, concepts, and institutions are named after Fermi, including the Enrico Fermi Award, the Enrico Fermi Institute, the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, the Fermi paradox, and the synthetic element fermium, making him one of 16 scientists who have elements named after them." ], [ "Early life", "Fermi was born in Rome at Via Gaeta 19.Plaque at Fermi's birthplaceEnrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on 29 September 1901.He was the third child of Alberto Fermi, a division head in the Ministry of Railways, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher.", "His sister, Maria, was two years older, his brother Giulio a year older.", "After the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursed, Enrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half.", "Although he was baptized a Roman Catholic in accordance with his grandparents' wishes, his family was not particularly religious; Enrico was an agnostic throughout his adult life.", "As a young boy, he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio, building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys.", "Giulio died during an operation on a throat abscess in 1915 and Maria died in an airplane crash near Milan in 1959.At a local market in Campo de' Fiori, Fermi found a physics book, the 900-page ''Elementorum physicae mathematicae''.", "Written in Latin by Jesuit Father , a professor at the Collegio Romano, it presented mathematics, classical mechanics, astronomy, optics, and acoustics as they were understood at the time of its 1840 publication.", "With a scientifically inclined friend, Enrico Persico, Fermi pursued projects such as building gyroscopes and measuring the acceleration of Earth's gravity.In 1914, Fermi, who used to often meet with his father in front of the office after work, met a colleague of his father called Adolfo Amidei, who would walk part of the way home with Alberto.", "Enrico had learned that Adolfo was interested in mathematics and physics and took the opportunity to ask Adolfo a question about geometry.", "Adolfo understood that the young Fermi was referring to projective geometry and then proceeded to give him a book on the subject written by Theodor Reye.", "Two months later, Fermi returned the book, having solved all the problems proposed at the end of the book, some of which Adolfo considered difficult.", "Upon verifying this, Adolfo felt that Fermi was \"a prodigy, at least with respect to geometry\", and further mentored the boy, providing him with more books on physics and mathematics.", "Adolfo noted that Fermi had a very good memory and thus could return the books after having read them because he could remember their content very well." ], [ "''Scuola Normale Superiore'' in Pisa", "Enrico Fermi as a student in PisaFermi graduated from high school in July 1918, having skipped the third year entirely.", "At Amidei's urging, Fermi learned German to be able to read the many scientific papers that were published in that language at the time, and he applied to the ''Scuola Normale Superiore'' in Pisa.", "Amidei felt that the Scuola would provide better conditions for Fermi's development than the Sapienza University of Rome could at the time.", "Having lost one son, Fermi's parents only reluctantly allowed him to live in the school's lodgings away from Rome for four years.", "Fermi took first place in the difficult entrance exam, which included an essay on the theme of \"Specific characteristics of Sounds\"; the 17-year-old Fermi chose to use Fourier analysis to derive and solve the partial differential equation for a vibrating rod, and after interviewing Fermi the examiner declared he would become an outstanding physicist.At the ''Scuola Normale Superiore'', Fermi played pranks with fellow student Franco Rasetti; the two became close friends and collaborators.", "Fermi was advised by Luigi Puccianti, director of the physics laboratory, who said there was little he could teach Fermi and often asked Fermi to teach him something instead.", "Fermi's knowledge of quantum physics was such that Puccianti asked him to organize seminars on the topic.", "During this time Fermi learned tensor calculus, a technique key to general relativity.", "Fermi initially chose mathematics as his major, but soon switched to physics.", "He remained largely self-taught, studying general relativity, quantum mechanics, and atomic physics.In September 1920, Fermi was admitted to the physics department.", "Since there were only three students in the department—Fermi, Rasetti, and Nello Carrara—Puccianti let them freely use the laboratory for whatever purposes they chose.", "Fermi decided that they should research X-ray crystallography, and the three worked to produce a Laue photograph—an X-ray photograph of a crystal.", "During 1921, his third year at the university, Fermi published his first scientific works in the Italian journal ''Nuovo Cimento''.", "The first was entitled \"On the dynamics of a rigid system of electrical charges in translational motion\" ('''').", "A sign of things to come was that the mass was expressed as a tensor—a mathematical construct commonly used to describe something moving and changing in three-dimensional space.", "In classical mechanics, mass is a scalar quantity, but in relativity, it changes with velocity.", "The second paper was \"On the electrostatics of a uniform gravitational field of electromagnetic charges and on the weight of electromagnetic charges\" ('''').", "Using general relativity, Fermi showed that a charge has a weight equal to U/c2, where U was the electrostatic energy of the system, and c is the speed of light.The first paper seemed to point out a contradiction between the electrodynamic theory and the relativistic one concerning the calculation of the electromagnetic masses, as the former predicted a value of 4/3 U/c2.Fermi addressed this the next year in a paper \"Concerning a contradiction between electrodynamic and the relativistic theory of electromagnetic mass\" in which he showed that the apparent contradiction was a consequence of relativity.", "This paper was sufficiently well-regarded that it was translated into German and published in the German scientific journal ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' in 1922.That year, Fermi submitted his article \"On the phenomena occurring near a world line\" ('''') to the Italian journal ''''.", "In this article he examined the Principle of Equivalence, and introduced the so-called \"Fermi coordinates\".", "He proved that on a world line close to the timeline, space behaves as if it were a Euclidean space.A light cone is a three-dimensional surface of all possible light rays arriving at and departing from a point in spacetime.", "Here, it is depicted with one spatial dimension suppressed.", "The timeline is the vertical axis.Fermi submitted his thesis, \"A theorem on probability and some of its applications\" (''''), to the ''Scuola Normale Superiore'' in July 1922, and received his laurea at the unusually young age of 20.The thesis was on X-ray diffraction images.", "Theoretical physics was not yet considered a discipline in Italy, and the only thesis that would have been accepted was experimental physics.", "For this reason, Italian physicists were slow in embracing the new ideas like relativity coming from Germany.", "Since Fermi was quite at home in the lab doing experimental work, this did not pose insurmountable problems for him.While writing the appendix for the Italian edition of the book ''Fundamentals of Einstein Relativity'' by August Kopff in 1923, Fermi was the first to point out that hidden inside the Einstein equation () was an enormous amount of nuclear potential energy to be exploited.", "\"It does not seem possible, at least in the near future\", he wrote, \"to find a way to release these dreadful amounts of energy—which is all to the good because the first effect of an explosion of such a dreadful amount of energy would be to smash into smithereens the physicist who had the misfortune to find a way to do it.", "\"In 1924, Fermi was initiated into the Masonic Lodge \"Adriano Lemmi\" of the Grand Orient of Italy.In 1923–1924, Fermi spent a semester studying under Max Born at the University of Göttingen, where he met Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan.", "Fermi then studied in Leiden with Paul Ehrenfest from September to December 1924 on a fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation obtained through the intercession of the mathematician Vito Volterra.", "Here Fermi met Hendrik Lorentz and Albert Einstein, and became friends with Samuel Goudsmit and Jan Tinbergen.", "From January 1925 to late 1926, Fermi taught mathematical physics and theoretical mechanics at the University of Florence, where he teamed up with Rasetti to conduct a series of experiments on the effects of magnetic fields on mercury vapor.", "He also participated in seminars at the Sapienza University of Rome, giving lectures on quantum mechanics and solid state physics.", "While giving lectures on the new quantum mechanics based on the remarkable accuracy of predictions of the Schrödinger equation, Fermi would often say, \"It has no business to fit so well!", "\"After Wolfgang Pauli announced his exclusion principle in 1925, Fermi responded with a paper \"On the quantization of the perfect monoatomic gas\" (''''), in which he applied the exclusion principle to an ideal gas.", "The paper was especially notable for Fermi's statistical formulation, which describes the distribution of particles in systems of many identical particles that obey the exclusion principle.", "This was independently developed soon after by the British physicist Paul Dirac, who also showed how it was related to the Bose–Einstein statistics.", "Accordingly, it is now known as Fermi–Dirac statistics.", "After Dirac, particles that obey the exclusion principle are today called \"fermions\", while those that do not are called \"bosons\"." ], [ "Professor in Rome", "Fermi and his research group (the Via Panisperna boys) in the courtyard of Rome University's Physics Institute in Via Panisperna, 1934.From left to right: Oscar D'Agostino, Emilio Segrè, Edoardo Amaldi, Franco Rasetti and FermiProfessorships in Italy were granted by competition ('''') for a vacant chair, the applicants being rated on their publications by a committee of professors.", "Fermi applied for a chair of mathematical physics at the University of Cagliari on Sardinia, but was narrowly passed over in favour of Giovanni Giorgi.", "In 1926, at the age of 24, he applied for a professorship at the Sapienza University of Rome.", "This was a new chair, one of the first three in theoretical physics in Italy, that had been created by the Minister of Education at the urging of professor Orso Mario Corbino, who was the university's professor of experimental physics, the director of the Institute of Physics, and a member of Benito Mussolini's cabinet.", "Corbino, who also chaired the selection committee, hoped that the new chair would raise the standard and reputation of physics in Italy.", "The committee chose Fermi ahead of Enrico Persico and Aldo Pontremoli, and Corbino helped Fermi recruit his team, which was soon joined by notable students such as Edoardo Amaldi, Bruno Pontecorvo, Ettore Majorana and Emilio Segrè, and by Franco Rasetti, whom Fermi had appointed as his assistant.", "They soon nicknamed the \"Via Panisperna boys\" after the street where the Institute of Physics was located.Fermi married Laura Capon, a science student at the university, on 19 July 1928.They had two children: Nella, born in January 1931, and Giulio, born in February 1936.On 18 March 1929, Fermi was appointed a member of the Royal Academy of Italy by Mussolini, and on 27 April he joined the Fascist Party.", "He later opposed Fascism when the 1938 racial laws were promulgated by Mussolini in order to bring Italian Fascism ideologically closer to German Nazism.", "These laws threatened Laura, who was Jewish, and put many of Fermi's research assistants out of work.During their time in Rome, Fermi and his group made important contributions to many practical and theoretical aspects of physics.", "In 1928, he published his ''Introduction to Atomic Physics'' (''''), which provided Italian university students with an up-to-date and accessible text.", "Fermi also conducted public lectures and wrote popular articles for scientists and teachers in order to spread knowledge of the new physics as widely as possible.", "Part of his teaching method was to gather his colleagues and graduate students together at the end of the day and go over a problem, often from his own research.", "A sign of success was that foreign students now began to come to Italy.", "The most notable of these was the German physicist Hans Bethe, who came to Rome as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow, and collaborated with Fermi on a 1932 paper \"On the Interaction between Two Electrons\" ().At this time, physicists were puzzled by beta decay, in which an electron was emitted from the atomic nucleus.", "To satisfy the law of conservation of energy, Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle with no charge and little or no mass that was also emitted at the same time.", "Fermi took up this idea, which he developed in a tentative paper in 1933, and then a longer paper the next year that incorporated the postulated particle, which Fermi called a \"neutrino\".", "His theory, later referred to as Fermi's interaction, and still later as the theory of the weak interaction, described one of the four fundamental forces of nature.", "The neutrino was detected after his death, and his interaction theory showed why it was so difficult to detect.", "When he submitted his paper to the British journal ''Nature'', that journal's editor turned it down because it contained speculations which were \"too remote from physical reality to be of interest to readers\".", "Thus Fermi saw the theory published in Italian and German before it was published in English.In the introduction to the 1968 English translation, physicist Fred L. Wilson noted that:In January 1934, Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot announced that they had bombarded elements with alpha particles and induced radioactivity in them.", "By March, Fermi's assistant Gian-Carlo Wick had provided a theoretical explanation using Fermi's theory of beta decay.", "Fermi decided to switch to experimental physics, using the neutron, which James Chadwick had discovered in 1932.In March 1934, Fermi wanted to see if he could induce radioactivity with Rasetti's polonium-beryllium neutron source.", "Neutrons had no electric charge, and so would not be deflected by the positively charged nucleus.", "This meant that they needed much less energy to penetrate the nucleus than charged particles, and so would not require a particle accelerator, which the Via Panisperna boys did not have.Enrico Fermi between Franco Rasetti (left) and Emilio Segrè in academic dressFermi had the idea to resort to replacing the polonium-beryllium neutron source with a radon-beryllium one, which he created by filling a glass bulb with beryllium powder, evacuating the air, and then adding 50 mCi of radon gas, supplied by Giulio Cesare Trabacchi.", "This created a much stronger neutron source, the effectiveness of which declined with the 3.8-day half-life of radon.", "He knew that this source would also emit gamma rays, but, on the basis of his theory, he believed that this would not affect the results of the experiment.", "He started by bombarding platinum, an element with a high atomic number that was readily available, without success.", "He turned to aluminium, which emitted an alpha particle and produced sodium, which then decayed into magnesium by beta particle emission.", "He tried lead, without success, and then fluorine in the form of calcium fluoride, which emitted an alpha particle and produced nitrogen, decaying into oxygen by beta particle emission.", "In all, he induced radioactivity in 22 different elements.", "Fermi rapidly reported the discovery of neutron-induced radioactivity in the Italian journal ''La Ricerca Scientifica'' on 25 March 1934.The natural radioactivity of thorium and uranium made it hard to determine what was happening when these elements were bombarded with neutrons but, after correctly eliminating the presence of elements lighter than uranium but heavier than lead, Fermi concluded that they had created new elements, which he called hesperium and ausonium.", "The chemist Ida Noddack suggested that some of the experiments could have produced lighter elements than lead rather than new, heavier elements.", "Her suggestion was not taken seriously at the time because her team had not carried out any experiments with uranium or built the theoretical basis for this possibility.", "At that time, fission was thought to be improbable if not impossible on theoretical grounds.", "While physicists expected elements with higher atomic numbers to form from neutron bombardment of lighter elements, nobody expected neutrons to have enough energy to split a heavier atom into two light element fragments in the manner that Noddack suggested.Beta decay.", "A neutron decays into a proton, and an electron is emitted.", "In order for the total energy in the system to remain the same, Pauli and Fermi postulated that a neutrino () was also emitted.The Via Panisperna boys also noticed some unexplained effects.", "The experiment seemed to work better on a wooden table than on a marble tabletop.", "Fermi remembered that Joliot-Curie and Chadwick had noted that paraffin wax was effective at slowing neutrons, so he decided to try that.", "When neutrons were passed through paraffin wax, they induced a hundred times as much radioactivity in silver compared with when it was bombarded without the paraffin.", "Fermi guessed that this was due to the hydrogen atoms in the paraffin.", "Those in wood similarly explained the difference between the wooden and the marble tabletops.", "This was confirmed by repeating the effect with water.", "He concluded that collisions with hydrogen atoms slowed the neutrons.", "The lower the atomic number of the nucleus it collides with, the more energy a neutron loses per collision, and therefore the fewer collisions that are required to slow a neutron down by a given amount.", "Fermi realised that this induced more radioactivity because slow neutrons were more easily captured than fast ones.", "He developed a diffusion equation to describe this, which became known as the Fermi age equation.In 1938, Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics at the age of 37 for his \"demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons\".", "After Fermi received the prize in Stockholm, he did not return home to Italy but rather continued to New York City with his family in December 1938, where they applied for permanent residency.", "The decision to move to America and become US citizens was due primarily to the racial laws in Italy." ], [ "Manhattan Project", "Illustration of Chicago Pile-1, the first nuclear reactor to achieve a self-sustaining chain reaction.", "Designed by Fermi, it consisted of uranium and uranium oxide in a cubic lattice embedded in graphite.Los AlamosErnest O. Lawrence, Fermi, and Isidor Isaac Rabi |alt=Three men talking.", "The one on the left is wearing a tie and leans against a wall.", "He stands with his head and shoulders visibly above the other two's heads.", "The one in the center is smiling, and wearing an open-necked shirt.", "The one on the right wears a shirt and lab coat.", "All three have photo ID passes.The FERMIAC, an analog computer invented by Fermi to study neutron transportFermi arrived in New York City on 2 January 1939.He was immediately offered positions at five universities, and accepted one at Columbia University, where he had already given summer lectures in 1936.He received the news that in December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons, which Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch correctly interpreted as the result of nuclear fission.", "Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939.The news of Meitner and Frisch's interpretation of Hahn and Strassmann's discovery crossed the Atlantic with Niels Bohr, who was to lecture at Princeton University.", "Isidor Isaac Rabi and Willis Lamb, two Columbia University physicists working at Princeton, found out about it and carried it back to Columbia.", "Rabi said he told Enrico Fermi, but Fermi later gave the credit to Lamb:Noddack was proven right after all.", "Fermi had dismissed the possibility of fission on the basis of his calculations, but he had not taken into account the binding energy that would appear when a nuclide with an odd number of neutrons absorbed an extra neutron.", "For Fermi, the news came as a profound embarrassment, as the transuranic elements that he had partly been awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering had not been transuranic elements at all, but fission products.", "He added a footnote to this effect to his Nobel Prize acceptance speech.The scientists at Columbia decided that they should try to detect the energy released in the nuclear fission of uranium when bombarded by neutrons.", "On 25 January 1939, in the basement of Pupin Hall at Columbia, an experimental team including Fermi conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States.", "The other members of the team were Herbert L. Anderson, Eugene T. Booth, John R. Dunning, G. Norris Glasoe, and Francis G. Slack.", "The next day, the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics began in Washington, D.C. under the joint auspices of George Washington University and the Carnegie Institution of Washington.", "There, the news on nuclear fission was spread even further, fostering many more experimental demonstrations.French scientists Hans von Halban, Lew Kowarski, and Frédéric Joliot-Curie had demonstrated that uranium bombarded by neutrons emitted more neutrons than it absorbed, suggesting the possibility of a chain reaction.", "Fermi and Anderson did so too a few weeks later.", "Leó Szilárd obtained of uranium oxide from Canadian radium producer Eldorado Gold Mines Limited, allowing Fermi and Anderson to conduct experiments with fission on a much larger scale.", "Fermi and Szilárd collaborated on the design of a device to achieve a self-sustaining nuclear reaction—a nuclear reactor.", "Owing to the rate of absorption of neutrons by the hydrogen in water, it was unlikely that a self-sustaining reaction could be achieved with natural uranium and water as a neutron moderator.", "Fermi suggested, based on his work with neutrons, that the reaction could be achieved with uranium oxide blocks and graphite as a moderator instead of water.", "This would reduce the neutron capture rate, and in theory make a self-sustaining chain reaction possible.", "Szilárd came up with a workable design: a pile of uranium oxide blocks interspersed with graphite bricks.", "Szilárd, Anderson, and Fermi published a paper on \"Neutron Production in Uranium\".", "But their work habits and personalities were different, and Fermi had trouble working with Szilárd.Fermi was among the first to warn military leaders about the potential impact of nuclear energy, giving a lecture on the subject at the Navy Department on 18 March 1939.The response fell short of what he had hoped for, although the Navy agreed to provide $1,500 towards further research at Columbia.", "Later that year, Szilárd, Eugene Wigner, and Edward Teller sent the letter signed by Einstein to US president Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning that Nazi Germany was likely to build an atomic bomb.", "In response, Roosevelt formed the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the matter.The Advisory Committee on Uranium provided money for Fermi to buy graphite, and he built a pile of graphite bricks on the seventh floor of the Pupin Hall laboratory.", "By August 1941, he had six tons of uranium oxide and thirty tons of graphite, which he used to build a still larger pile in Schermerhorn Hall at Columbia.The S-1 Section of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, as the Advisory Committee on Uranium was now known, met on 18 December 1941, with the US now engaged in World War II, making its work urgent.", "Most of the effort sponsored by the committee had been directed at producing enriched uranium, but Committee member Arthur Compton determined that a feasible alternative was plutonium, which could be mass-produced in nuclear reactors by the end of 1944.He decided to concentrate the plutonium work at the University of Chicago.", "Fermi reluctantly moved, and his team became part of the new Metallurgical Laboratory there.The possible results of a self-sustaining nuclear reaction were unknown, so it seemed inadvisable to build the first nuclear reactor on the University of Chicago campus in the middle of the city.", "Compton found a location in the Argonne Woods Forest Preserve, about from Chicago.", "Stone & Webster was contracted to develop the site, but the work was halted by an industrial dispute.", "Fermi then persuaded Compton that he could build the reactor in the squash court under the stands of the University of Chicago's Stagg Field.", "Construction of the pile began on 6 November 1942, and Chicago Pile-1 went critical on 2 December.", "The shape of the pile was intended to be roughly spherical, but as work proceeded Fermi calculated that criticality could be achieved without finishing the entire pile as planned.This experiment was a landmark in the quest for energy, and it was typical of Fermi's approach.", "Every step was carefully planned, and every calculation was meticulously done.", "When the first self-sustained nuclear chain reaction was achieved, Compton made a coded phone call to James B. Conant, the chairman of the National Defense Research Committee.To continue the research where it would not pose a public health hazard, the reactor was disassembled and moved to the Argonne Woods site.", "There Fermi directed experiments on nuclear reactions, reveling in the opportunities provided by the reactor's abundant production of free neutrons.", "The laboratory soon branched out from physics and engineering into using the reactor for biological and medical research.", "Initially, Argonne was run by Fermi as part of the University of Chicago, but it became a separate entity with Fermi as its director in May 1944.When the air-cooled X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge went critical on 4 November 1943, Fermi was on hand just in case something went wrong.", "The technicians woke him early so that he could see it happen.", "Getting X-10 operational was another milestone in the plutonium project.", "It provided data on reactor design, training for DuPont staff in reactor operation, and produced the first small quantities of reactor-bred plutonium.", "Fermi became an American citizen in July 1944, the earliest date the law allowed.In September 1944, Fermi inserted the first uranium fuel slug into the B Reactor at the Hanford Site, the production reactor designed to breed plutonium in large quantities.", "Like X-10, it had been designed by Fermi's team at the Metallurgical Laboratory and built by DuPont, but it was much larger and was water-cooled.", "Over the next few days, 838 tubes were loaded, and the reactor went critical.", "Shortly after midnight on 27 September, the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production.", "At first, all appeared to be well, but around 03:00, the power level started to drop and by 06:30 the reactor had shut down completely.", "The Army and DuPont turned to Fermi's team for answers.", "The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination.", "The next day the reactor suddenly started up again, only to shut down once more a few hours later.", "The problem was traced to neutron poisoning from xenon-135 or Xe-135, a fission product with a half-life of 9.1 to 9.4 hours.", "Fermi and John Wheeler both deduced that Xe-135 was responsible for absorbing neutrons in the reactor, thereby sabotaging the fission process.", "Fermi was recommended by colleague Emilio Segrè to ask Chien-Shiung Wu, as she prepared a printed draft on this topic to be published by the Physical Review.", "Upon reading the draft, Fermi and the scientists confirmed their suspicions: Xe-135 indeed absorbed neutrons, in fact it had a huge neutron cross-section.", "DuPont had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory's original design in which the reactor had 1,500 tubes arranged in a circle, and had added 504 tubes to fill in the corners.", "The scientists had originally considered this over-engineering a waste of time and money, but Fermi realized that if all 2,004 tubes were loaded, the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium.Some of the University of Chicago team that worked on the production of the world's first human-caused self-sustaining nuclear reaction, including Enrico Fermi in the front row and Leó Szilárd in the second.In April 1943, Fermi raised with Robert Oppenheimer the possibility of using the radioactive byproducts from enrichment to contaminate the German food supply.", "The background was fear that the German atomic bomb project was already at an advanced stage, and Fermi was also skeptical at the time that an atomic bomb could be developed quickly enough.", "Oppenheimer discussed the \"promising\" proposal with Edward Teller, who suggested the use of strontium-90.James B. Conant and Leslie Groves were also briefed, but Oppenheimer wanted to proceed with the plan only if enough food could be contaminated with the weapon to kill half a million people.In mid-1944, Oppenheimer persuaded Fermi to join his Project Y at Los Alamos, New Mexico.", "Arriving in September, Fermi was appointed an associate director of the laboratory, with broad responsibility for nuclear and theoretical physics, and was placed in charge of F Division, which was named after him.", "F Division had four branches: F-1 Super and General Theory under Teller, which investigated the \"Super\" (thermonuclear) bomb; F-2 Water Boiler under L. D. P. King, which looked after the \"water boiler\" aqueous homogeneous research reactor; F-3 Super Experimentation under Egon Bretscher; and F-4 Fission Studies under Anderson.", "Fermi observed the Trinity test on 16 July 1945 and conducted an experiment to estimate the bomb's yield by dropping strips of paper into the blast wave.", "He paced off the distance they were blown by the explosion, and calculated the yield as ten kilotons of TNT; the actual yield was about 18.6 kilotons.Along with Oppenheimer, Compton, and Ernest Lawrence, Fermi was part of the scientific panel that advised the Interim Committee on target selection.", "The panel agreed with the committee that atomic bombs would be used without warning against an industrial target.", "Like others at the Los Alamos Laboratory, Fermi found out about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki from the public address system in the technical area.", "Fermi did not believe that atomic bombs would deter nations from starting wars, nor did he think that the time was ripe for world government.", "He therefore did not join the Association of Los Alamos Scientists." ], [ "Postwar work", "Fermi became the Charles H. Swift Distinguished Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago on 1 July 1945, although he did not depart the Los Alamos Laboratory with his family until 31 December 1945.He was elected a member of the US National Academy of Sciences in 1945.The Metallurgical Laboratory became the Argonne National Laboratory on 1 July 1946, the first of the national laboratories established by the Manhattan Project.", "The short distance between Chicago and Argonne allowed Fermi to work at both places.", "At Argonne he continued experimental physics, investigating neutron scattering with Leona Marshall.", "He also discussed theoretical physics with Maria Mayer, helping her develop insights into spin–orbit coupling that would lead to her receiving the Nobel Prize.The Manhattan Project was replaced by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) on 1 January 1947.Fermi served on the AEC General Advisory Committee, an influential scientific committee chaired by Robert Oppenheimer.", "He also liked to spend a few weeks each year at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, where he collaborated with Nicholas Metropolis, and with John von Neumann on Rayleigh–Taylor instability, the science of what occurs at the border between two fluids of different densities.Laura and Enrico Fermi at the Institute for Nuclear Studies, Los Alamos, 1954After the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949, Fermi, along with Isidor Rabi, wrote a strongly worded report for the committee, opposing the development of a hydrogen bomb on moral and technical grounds.", "Nonetheless, Fermi continued to participate in work on the hydrogen bomb at Los Alamos as a consultant.", "Along with Stanislaw Ulam, he calculated that not only would the amount of tritium needed for Teller's model of a thermonuclear weapon be prohibitive, but a fusion reaction could still not be assured to propagate even with this large quantity of tritium.", "Fermi was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimer's behalf at the Oppenheimer security hearing in 1954 that resulted in the denial of Oppenheimer's security clearance.In his later years, Fermi continued teaching at the University of Chicago, where he was a founder of what later became the Enrico Fermi Institute.", "His PhD students in the postwar period included Owen Chamberlain, Geoffrey Chew, Jerome Friedman, Marvin Goldberger, Tsung-Dao Lee, Arthur Rosenfeld and Sam Treiman.", "Jack Steinberger was a graduate student, and Mildred Dresselhaus was highly influenced by Fermi during the year she overlapped with him as a PhD student.", "Fermi conducted important research in particle physics, especially related to pions and muons.", "He made the first predictions of pion-nucleon resonance, relying on statistical methods, since he reasoned that exact answers were not required when the theory was wrong anyway.", "In a paper coauthored with Chen Ning Yang, he speculated that pions might actually be composite particles.", "The idea was elaborated by Shoichi Sakata.", "It has since been supplanted by the quark model, in which the pion is made up of quarks, which completed Fermi's model, and vindicated his approach.Fermi wrote a paper \"On the Origin of Cosmic Radiation\" in which he proposed that cosmic rays arose through material being accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space, which led to a difference of opinion with Teller.", "Fermi examined the issues surrounding magnetic fields in the arms of a spiral galaxy.", "He mused about what is now referred to as the \"Fermi paradox\": the contradiction between the presumed probability of the existence of extraterrestrial life and the fact that contact has not been made.Fermi's grave in Chicago Toward the end of his life, Fermi questioned his faith in society at large to make wise choices about nuclear technology.", "He said:" ], [ "Death", "Fermi underwent what was called an \"exploratory\" operation in Billings Memorial Hospital in October 1954, after which he returned home.", "Fifty days later he died of inoperable stomach cancer in his home in Chicago.", "He was 53.Fermi suspected working near the nuclear pile involved great risk but he pressed on because he felt the benefits outweighed the risks to his personal safety.", "Two of his graduate student assistants working near the pile also died of cancer.A memorial service was held at the University of Chicago chapel, where colleagues Samuel K. Allison, Emilio Segrè, and Herbert L. Anderson spoke to mourn the loss of one of the world's \"most brilliant and productive physicists.\"", "His body was interred at Oak Woods Cemetery where a private graveside service for the immediate family took place presided by a Lutheran chaplain." ], [ "Impact and legacy", "=== Legacy ===Fermi received numerous awards in recognition of his achievements, including the Matteucci Medal in 1926, the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1938, the Hughes Medal in 1942, the Franklin Medal in 1947, and the Rumford Prize in 1953.He was awarded the Medal for Merit in 1946 for his contribution to the Manhattan Project.", "Fermi was elected member of the American Philosophical Society in 1939 and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1950.The Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence, known as the ''Temple of Italian Glories'' for its many graves of artists, scientists and prominent figures in Italian history, has a plaque commemorating Fermi.", "In 1999, ''Time'' named Fermi on its list of the top 100 persons of the twentieth century.", "Fermi was widely regarded as an unusual case of a 20th-century physicist who excelled both theoretically and experimentally.", "Chemist and novelist C. P. Snow wrote, \"if Fermi had been born a few years earlier, one could well imagine him discovering Rutherford's atomic nucleus, and then developing Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom.", "If this sounds like hyperbole, anything about Fermi is likely to sound like hyperbole\".Fermi was known as an inspiring teacher and was noted for his attention to detail, simplicity, and careful preparation of his lectures.", "Later, his lecture notes were transcribed into books.", "His papers and notebooks are today in the University of Chicago.", "Victor Weisskopf noted how Fermi \"always managed to find the simplest and most direct approach, with the minimum of complication and sophistication.\"", "He disliked complicated theories, and while he had great mathematical ability, he would never use it when the job could be done much more simply.", "He was famous for getting quick and accurate answers to problems that would stump other people.", "Later on, his method of getting approximate and quick answers through back-of-the-envelope calculations became informally known as the \"Fermi method\", and is widely taught.Fermi was fond of pointing out that when Alessandro Volta was working in his laboratory, Volta had no idea where the study of electricity would lead.", "Fermi is generally remembered for his work on nuclear power and nuclear weapons, especially the creation of the first nuclear reactor, and the development of the first atomic and hydrogen bombs.", "His scientific work has stood the test of time.", "This includes his theory of beta decay, his work with non-linear systems, his discovery of the effects of slow neutrons, his study of pion-nucleon collisions, and his Fermi–Dirac statistics.", "His speculation that a pion was not a fundamental particle pointed the way towards the study of quarks and leptons.=== Things named after Fermi ===The sign at Enrico Fermi Street in RomeMemorial plaque in the Basilica Santa Croce, Florence.", "ItalyMany things bear Fermi's name.", "These include the Fermilab particle accelerator and physics lab in Batavia, Illinois, which was renamed in his honor in 1974, and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, which was named after him in 2008, in recognition of his work on cosmic rays.", "Three nuclear reactor installations have been named after him: the Fermi 1 and Fermi 2 nuclear power plants in Newport, Michigan, the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Power Plant at Trino Vercellese in Italy, and the RA-1 Enrico Fermi research reactor in Argentina.", "A synthetic element isolated from the debris of the 1952 Ivy Mike nuclear test was named fermium, in honor of Fermi's contributions to the scientific community.", "This makes him one of 16 scientists who have elements named after them.Since 1956, the United States Atomic Energy Commission has named its highest honor, the Fermi Award, after him.", "Recipients of the award have included Otto Hahn, Robert Oppenheimer, Edward Teller and Hans Bethe." ], [ "Publications", "* * * * * * (with Edoardo Amaldi)* * For a full list of his papers, see pages 75–78 in ref." ], [ "Patents", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bernstein, Barton J.", "\"Four Physicists and the Bomb: The Early Years, 1945-1950\" ''Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences'' (1988) 18#2; covers Oppenheimer, Fermi, Lawrence and Compton.", "online* Galison, Peter, and Barton Bernstein.", "\"In any light: Scientists and the decision to build the Superbomb, 1952–1954.\"", "''Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences'' 19.2 (1989): 267–347.online" ], [ "External links", "* \"To Fermi – with Love – Part 1\".", "Voices of the Manhattan Project 1971 Radio Segment* \"The First Reactor: 40th Anniversary Commemorative Edition\", United States Department of Energy, (December 1982).", "* Nobel prize page for the 1938 physics' prize* The Story of the First Pile* Enrico Fermi's Case File at The Franklin Institute with information about his contributions to theoretical and experimental physics.", "* \"Remembering Enrico Fermi\".", "Session J1.APS April Meeting 2010, American Physical Society.", "* Time 100: Enrico Fermi by Richard Rhodes 29 March 1999* Fermi's stay with Ehrenfest in Leiden." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Entente" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Entente''', meaning a diplomatic \"understanding\", may refer to a number of agreements:" ], [ "History", "* Entente (alliance), a type of treaty or military alliance where the signatories promise to consult each other or to cooperate with each other in case of a crisis or military action* Entente Cordiale (1904) between France and the United Kingdom* Anglo-Russian Entente (1907) between the United Kingdom and Russia* Triple Entente, an informal understanding between the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, built upon the Franco-Russian Alliance (1894), the Entente Cordiale (1904), and the Anglo-Russian Entente (1907)** Allies of World War I, sometimes referred to as \"The Entente\", \"The Entente Powers\", or \"The Entente Forces\"* Little Entente (1920–1938), between Czechoslovakia, Romania, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia* Balkan Entente (1934–1938), between Greece, Turkey, Romania and Yugoslavia* Baltic Entente (1934–1939), between Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia* Conseil de l'Entente (1959), between Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, and (in 1966) Togo* Entente frugale (beginning 2010), cooperation between the British and French governments" ], [ "Other", "* Entente Florale Europe, an international horticultural competition* International Entente Against the Third International, an international anticommunist organisation founded in 1924* International Entente of Radical and Similar Democratic Parties, a political international existed in 1923–1938* ''The Entente: Battlefields WW1'', a 2004 video game" ], [ "See also", "*Détente*L'Entente (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Editor war" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''editor war''' is the rivalry between users of the Emacs and vi (now usually Vim, or more recently Neovim) text editors.", "The rivalry has become an enduring part of hacker culture and the free software community.The Emacs versus vi debate was one of the original \"holy wars\" conducted on Usenet groups, with many flame wars fought between those insisting that their editor of choice is the paragon of editing perfection, and insulting the other, since at least 1985.Related battles have been fought over operating systems, programming languages, version control systems, and even source code indent style." ], [ "Comparison", "The most important historical differences between vi and Emacs are presented in the following table:+Features of Emacs and viFeatureEmacs vi Keystroke execution Traditionally, Emacs commands are key combinations for which modifier keys are held down while other keys are pressed; a command gets executed once completely typed.", "This still forms a decision tree of commands, but not one of individual keystrokes.", "vi retains each permutation of typed keys (e.g.", "order matters).", "This creates a path in the decision tree which unambiguously identifies any command.", "Memory usage and customizability Emacs executes many actions on startup, many of which may execute arbitrary user code.", "This makes Emacs take longer to start up (even compared to vim) and require more memory.", "However, it is highly customizable and includes a large number of features, as it is essentially an execution environment for a Lisp program designed for text-editing.", "Emacs 18 (released in 1987) introduced a server mode designed to run continuously in the background.", "Various instances of Emacs can then be started in client mode, attaching to this server and sharing state.", "Emacs client startup time is practically instantaneous as all it does is invoke the existing Emacs process to redraw the display.", "vi is a smaller and faster program, but with less capacity for customization.", "vim has evolved from vi to provide significantly more functionality and customization than vi, making it comparable to Emacs.", "vi start-up time is near instantaneous for small text files, while vim is almost as fast.", "User environment Emacs, while also initially designed for use on a console, had X11 GUI support added in Emacs 18, and made the default in version 19.Current Emacs GUIs include full support for proportionate spacing and font-size variation.", "Emacs also supports embedded images and hypertext.", "vi, like emacs, was originally exclusively used inside of a text-mode console, offering no graphical user interface (GUI).", "Many modern vi derivatives, e.g.", "MacVim and gVim, include GUIs.", "However, support for proportionally spaced fonts remains absent.", "Also lacking is support for different sized fonts in the same document.", "Function/navigation interface Emacs uses metakey chords.", "Keys or key chords can be defined as prefix keys, which put Emacs into a mode where it waits for additional key presses that constitute a key binding.", "Key bindings can be mode-specific, further customizing the interaction style.", "Emacs provides a command line accessed by M-x that can be configured to autocomplete in various ways.", "Emacs also provides a macro, allowing alternate names for commands.", "vi uses distinct editing modes.", "Under \"insert mode\", keys insert characters into the document.", "Under \"normal mode\" (also known as \"command mode\", not to be confused with \"command-line mode\", which allows the user to enter commands), bare keypresses execute vi commands.", "KeyboardThe expansion of one of Emacs' backronyms is ''Escape, Meta, Alt, Control, Shift'', which neatly summarizes most of the modifier keys it uses, only leaving out Super.", "Emacs was developed on Space-cadet keyboards that had more key modifiers than modern layouts.", "There are multiple emacs packages, such as spacemacs or ergoemacs that replace these key combinations with ones easier to type, or customization can be done ''ad hoc'' by the user.vi does not use the key and seldom uses the key.", "vi's keyset is mainly restricted to the alphanumeric keys, and the escape key.", "This is an enduring relic of its teletype heritage, but has the effect of making most of vi's functionality accessible without frequent awkward finger reaches.", "Language and script supportEmacs has full support for all Unicode-compatible writing systems and allows multiple scripts to be freely intermixed.vi has rudimentary support for languages other than English.", "Modern Vim supports Unicode if used with a terminal that supports Unicode.=== Benefits of Emacs ===* Emacs has a non-modal interface* Non-modal nature of Emacs keybindings makes it practical to be supported as OS-wide keybindings.", "* One of the most ported computer programs.", "It runs in text mode and under graphical user interfaces on a wide variety of operating systems, including most Unix-like systems (Linux, the various BSDs, Solaris, AIX, IRIX, macOS etc.", "), MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, AmigaOS, and OpenVMS.", "Unix systems, both free and proprietary, frequently provide Emacs bundled with the operating system.", "* Emacs server architecture allows multiple clients to attach to the same Emacs instance and share the buffer list, kill ring, undo history and other state.", "* Pervasive online help system with keybindings, functions and commands documented on the fly.", "* Extensible and customizable Lisp programming language variant (Emacs Lisp), with features that include:** Ability to emulate vi and vim (using Evil, Viper or Vimpulse).", "** A powerful and extensible file manager (dired), integrated debugger, and a large set of development and other tools.", "** Having every command be an Emacs Lisp function enables commands to DWIM (Do What I Mean) by programmatically responding to past actions and document state.", "For example, a switch-or-split-window command could switch to another window if one exists, or create one if needed.", "This cuts down on the number of keystrokes and commands a user must remember.", "** \"An OS inside an OS\".", "Emacs Lisp enables Emacs to be programmed far beyond editing features.", "Even a base install contains several dozen applications, including two web browsers, news readers, several mail agents, four IRC clients, a version of ELIZA, and a variety of games.", "All of these applications are available anywhere Emacs runs, with the same user interface and functionality.", "Starting with version 24, Emacs includes a package manager, making it easy to install additional applications including alternate web browsers, EMMS (Emacs Multimedia System), and more.", "Also available are numerous packages for programming, including some targeted at specific language/library combinations or coding styles.=== Benefits of vi ===* Vi has a modal interface* Edit commands are composable* Vi loads faster than Emacs.", "* Being deeply associated with UNIX tradition, it runs on all systems that can implement the standard C library, including UNIX, Linux, AmigaOS, DOS, Windows, Mac, BeOS, OpenVMS, IRIX, AIX, HP-UX, BSD and POSIX-compliant systems.", "* Vim and neovim are extensible and customizable through Vim script or APIs for interpreted languages such as Python, Ruby, Perl, and Lua.*Ubiquitousness.", "Essentially all Unix and Unix-like systems come with vi (or a variant) built-in.", "Vi (and ex, but not vim) is specified in the POSIX standard.", "* System rescue environments, embedded systems (notably those with BusyBox) and other constrained environments often include vi, but not emacs." ], [ "Evolution", "Editor choice being brought up during a presentation at a technology convention.Many small editors that were based on or derived from vi in the past were successful.", "This was because it was crucial to preserve the memory that was, at the time, relatively sparsely available.", "As computers have become more powerful, many vi clones, Vim in particular, have grown in size and code complexity.", "These vi variants of today, as with the old lightweight Emacs variants, tend to have many of the perceived benefits and drawbacks of the opposing side.", "For example, Vim without any extensions requires about ten times the disk space required by vi, and recent versions of Vim can have more extensions and run slower than Emacs.", "In ''The Art of Unix Programming'', Eric S. Raymond called Vim's supposed light weight when compared with Emacs \"a shared myth\".", "Moreover, with the large amounts of RAM in modern computers, both Emacs and vi are lightweight compared to large integrated development environments such as Eclipse, which tend to draw derision from Emacs and vi users alike.Tim O'Reilly said, in 1999, that O'Reilly Media's tutorial on vi sells twice as many copies as that on Emacs (but noted that Emacs came with a free manual).", "Many programmers use either Emacs and vi or their various offshoots, including Linus Torvalds who uses MicroEMACS.", "Also in 1999, vi creator Bill Joy said that vi was \"written for a world that doesn't exist anymore\" and stated that Emacs was written on much more capable machines with faster displays so they could have \"funny commands with the screen shimmering and all that, and meanwhile, I'm sitting at home in sort of World War II surplus housing at Berkeley with a modem and a terminal that can just barely get the cursor off the bottom line\".In addition to Emacs and vi workalikes, pico and its free and open-source clone nano and other text editors such as ne often have their own third-party advocates in the editor wars, though not to the extent of Emacs and vi., both Emacs and vi can lay claim to being among the longest-lived application programs of all time, as well as being the two most commonly used text editors on Linux and Unix.", "Many operating systems, especially Linux and BSD derivatives, bundle multiple text editors with the operating system to cater to user demand.", "For example, a default installation of macOS contains ed, pico (nano before MacOS Ventura 12.3), TextEdit, and Vim.", "Frequently, at some point in the discussion, someone will point out that ed is the ''standard text editor''." ], [ "Humor", "Richard Stallman appearing as St IGNU−cius, a saint in the Church of EmacsThe '''Church of Emacs''', formed by Emacs and the GNU Project's creator Richard Stallman, is a parody religion.", "While it refers to vi as the \"editor of the beast\" (vi-vi-vi being 6-6-6 in Roman numerals), it does not oppose the use of vi; rather, it calls proprietary software anathema.", "(\"Using a free version of vi is not a sin but a penance.\")", "The Church of Emacs has its own newsgroup, alt.religion.emacs, that has posts purporting to support this belief system.Stallman has referred to himself as '''St IGNU−cius''', a saint in the Church of Emacs.Supporters of vi have created an opposing '''Cult of vi''', argued by the more hard-line Emacs users to be an attempt to \"ape their betters\".Regarding vi's modal nature (a common point of frustration for new users) some Emacs users joke that vi has two modes – \"beep repeatedly\" and \"break everything\".", "vi users enjoy joking that Emacs's key-sequences induce carpal tunnel syndrome, or mentioning one of many satirical expansions of the acronym EMACS, such as \"Escape Meta Alt Control Shift\" (a jab at Emacs's reliance on modifier keys) or \"Eight Megabytes And Constantly Swapping\" (in a time when that was a great amount of memory) or \"EMACS Makes Any Computer Slow\" (a recursive acronym like those Stallman uses) or \"Eventually Munches All Computer Storage\", in reference to Emacs's high system resource requirements.", "GNU EMACS has been expanded to \"Generally Not Used, Except by Middle-Aged Computer Scientists\" referencing its most ardent fans, and its declining usage among younger programmers compared to more graphically oriented editors such as Atom, BBEdit, Sublime Text, TextMate, and Visual Studio Code.As a poke at Emacs' creeping featurism, vi advocates have been known to describe Emacs as \"a great operating system, lacking only a decent editor\".", "Emacs advocates have been known to respond that the editor is actually very good, but the operating system could use improvement (referring to Emacs' famous lack of concurrency, which has now been added).A game among UNIX users, either to test the depth of an Emacs user's understanding of the editor or to poke fun at the complexity of Emacs, involved predicting what would happen if a user held down a modifier key (such as or ) and typed their own name.", "This game humor originated with users of the older TECO editor, which was the implementation basis, via macros, of the original Emacs.Due to how one exits vi (\":q\", among others), hackers joke about a proposed method of creating a pseudorandom character sequence by having a user unfamiliar with vi seated in front of an open editor and asking them to exit the program.The Google search engine also joined in on the joke by having searches for vi resulting in the question \"Did you mean: emacs\" prompted at the top of the page, and searches for emacs resulting in \"Did you mean: vi\".In the web series A Murder at the End of the World, there is a scene referencing the editor wars where a character asks a woman if she uses Vi or Emacs." ], [ "See also", "* Console wars* Browser wars* Comparison of text editors" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Results of an experiment comparing Vi and Emacs* Comparing keystrokes per task* Humor around Vi, Emacs and their comparisons* Results of the Sucks-Rules-O-Meter for Vi and Emacs from comments made on the Web* In the Church of Emacs \"using a free version of vi is not a sin, it's a penance.", "\"* Emacs offers Vi functionality, from the Emacs wiki* Emacs Vs Vi, from WikiWikiWeb* The Right Size for an Editor discussing vi and Emacs in relatively modern terms" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Organization of the Eastern Orthodox Church" ], [ "Introduction", " The Eastern Orthodox Church, officially the Orthodox Catholic Church, is a communion composed of up to seventeen separate autocephalous (self-governing) hierarchical churches that profess Eastern Orthodoxy and recognise each other as canonical (regular) Eastern Orthodox Christian churches.Each constituent church is self-governing; its highest-ranking bishop called the primate (a patriarch, a metropolitan or an archbishop) reports to no higher earthly authority.", "Each regional church is composed of constituent eparchies (or dioceses) ruled by bishops.", "Some autocephalous churches have given an eparchy or group of eparchies varying degrees of autonomy (limited self-government).", "Such autonomous churches maintain varying levels of dependence on their mother church, usually defined in a ''tomos'' or another document of autonomy.", "In many cases, autonomous churches are almost completely self-governing, with the mother church retaining only the right to appoint the highest-ranking bishop (often an archbishop or metropolitan) of the autonomous church.Normal governance is enacted through a synod of bishops within each church." ], [ "Church governance", "The Eastern Orthodox Church is decentralised, having no central authority, earthly head or a single bishop in a leadership role.", "Thus, the Eastern Orthodox use a synodical system canonically, which is significantly different from the hierarchical organisation of the Catholic Church that follows the doctrine of papal supremacy.", "References to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as a sole authoritative leader are an erroneous interpretation of his title “first among equals\".", "His title is of honor rather than authority and in fact the Ecumenical Patriarch has no real authority over churches other than the Constantinopolitan.", "His unique role often sees the Ecumenical Patriarch referred to as the \"spiritual leader\" of the Eastern Orthodox Church in some sources.The autocephalous churches are normally in full communion with each other, so any priest of any of those churches may lawfully minister to any member of any of them, and no member of any is excluded from any form of worship in any of the others, including the reception of the Eucharist.", "However, there have been varying instances in the history of the Eastern Orthodox Church where communion has been broken between member churches, particularly over autocephaly issues and ecumenism with the Roman Catholic Church.In the early Middle Ages, the early Christian church was ruled by five patriarchs as the state church of Rome: the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, collectively referred to as the Pentarchy.", "Each patriarch had jurisdiction over bishops in a specified geographic region.", "This continued until 927, when the Bulgarian Patriarchate became the first newly promoted patriarchate to join the original five.The Patriarch of Rome was \"first in place of honour\" among the five patriarchs.", "Disagreement about the limits of his authority was one of the causes of the Great Schism, conventionally dated to the year 1054, which split the state-recognised Church into the Catholic Church in the West, headed by the Bishop of Rome, and the Orthodox Church, led by the four eastern patriarchs (Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch and Alexandria).", "After the schism, this honorary primacy shifted to the Patriarch of Constantinople, who had previously been accorded second-place rank at the First Council of Constantinople.In the 5th century, Oriental Orthodoxy separated from Chalcedonian Christianity (and is therefore separate from both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Church), well before the 11th century Great Schism.", "It should not be confused with Eastern Orthodoxy." ], [ "Jurisdictions", "Canonical territories of the main autocephalous and autonomous Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions as of 2022===Autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches===Timeline showing the history of the main autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Churches, from an Eastern Orthodox point of view, up to 2022Ranked in order of seniority, with the year of independence (autocephaly) given in parentheses, where applicable.", "There are a total of 17 autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches which are recognised at varying levels among the communion of the Eastern Orthodox Church.====Four ancient patriarchates====# Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (independence in AD 330; elevated to the rank of autocephalous Patriarchate in 381; elevated 451 to second see; became first see due to division from the See of Rome in the Great Schism of 1054)# Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria# Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch# Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem (independence in AD 451, elevated to the rank of autocephalous Patriarchate in 451)The four ancient Eastern Orthodox Patriarchates, along with the See of Rome, formed the historical Pentarchy.", "Remaining in communion with each other after the East-West Schism in 1054.The concept of the Pentarchy and the title of \"Patriarch\" itself, as opposed to Archbishop or Exarch, is attributed to St Justinian in AD 531.====National patriarchates====# Bulgarian Orthodox Church (870, Patriarchate since 918/919, recognised by the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 927)# Georgian Orthodox Church (Patriarchate since 1010)# Serbian Orthodox Church (1219, Patriarchate since 1346)# Russian Orthodox Church (1448, recognised in 1589)# Romanian Orthodox Church (1872, recognised in 1885, Patriarchate since 1925)==== Autocephalous archbishoprics ====Note:# Church of Cyprus (recognised in 431)# Church of Greece (1833, recognised in 1850)# Albanian Orthodox Church (1922, recognised in 1937)# Macedonian Orthodox Church (1967, recognised in 2022)==== Autocephalous metropolises ====Note:# Polish Orthodox Church (1924)# Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia (1951)=== Universally recognized as canonical, autocephaly disputed ===# Orthodox Church in America (granted by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1970 and recognized by five other churches, but not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate or remaining Churches.", "Canonicity universally recognised)=== Canonical and spiritual independence status disputed ===# Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) (1992 as Ukrainian Orthodox Church, split from Ukrainian Orthodox Church in 1992 allying with Russian Orthodox Church, declared independence from the Russian Orthodox Church on 27 May 2022, recognised as independent by the Georgian Orthodox Church on 24 March 2023.Its status as a independent church rejected by the majority of churches)=== Canonical and autocephalous status disputed ===# Orthodox Church of Ukraine (1992 as Ukrainian Orthodox Church, autocephaly from 15 December 2018, recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate on 5 January 2019 and 3 other churches.", "Its autocephaly and canonicity rejected by remaining Churches, including its rival Ukrainian Churches.", ")=== Canonical and autocephalous status unrecognised ===# A minority of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate lead by Filaret (Denysenko) split again in 2019, following internal disputes and concerns as to whether the autocephaly granted by the Ecumenical Patriarchate amounted to true autocephaly due to the conditions imposed.", "They are not recognized by any church.", "Including its rival Ukrainian Churches.# The Old Calendarists and True Orthodox split from their local church and are not recognized as canonical, nor do they recognize any of the above churches as canonical.", "Some maintain communion with the Kyiv Patriarchate under Filaret.===Ranking===The order of the diptychs is that of the four ancient patriarchates as given above.", "However, though the remaining patriarchates always follow them, proceeding the other Autocephalous Churches, their ranking differs from place to place.", "In the diptychs of the Russian Orthodox Church and some of its daughter churches (e.g., the Orthodox Church in America), the ranking of the five junior patriarchates is Russia, Georgia, Serbia, Romania, and then Bulgaria.", "The ranking of the archbishoprics is the same, with the Church of Cyprus being the only ancient one (AD 431)===Autonomous Eastern Orthodox churches===Diagram with the organization of the Eastern Orthodox Church as of 2020;under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople* Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (autonomy recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate but not by the Russian Orthodox Church)* Orthodox Church of Finland;under the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch* Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America;under the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem* Church of Sinai;under the Russian Orthodox Church* Belarusian Orthodox Church* Metropolis of Chișinău and All Moldova* Orthodox Church in Japan (autonomy recognised by the Russian Orthodox Church but not by the Ecumenical Patriarchate)* Chinese Orthodox Church (autonomy recognised by the Russian Orthodox Church but not by the Ecumenical Patriarchate);under the Romanian Orthodox Church* Metropolis of Bessarabia* Romanian Orthodox Metropolis of the Americas* Romanian Orthodox Metropolis of Western and Southern Europe===Semi-autonomous churches===;under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople* Church of Crete;under the Russian Orthodox Church* Estonian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate * Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia===Limited self-government (not autonomy)===;under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople* Monastic community of Mount Athos* Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta* Korean Orthodox Church* Exarchate of the Philippines* American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese* Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada* Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA;under the Russian Orthodox Church*Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe;under the Romanian Orthodox Church*Ukrainian Orthodox Vicariate Sighetu Marmației" ], [ "{{Anchor|Unrecognized churches}}Unrecognised churches", "Timeline of the main unrecognised and True Orthodox churches which have come out of the Serbian Orthodox Church, until 2022Timeline of the main unrecognised and True Orthodox churches which have come out of the Russian Orthodox Church, until 2021===True Orthodox===True Orthodox Christians are groups of traditionalist Eastern Orthodox churches which have severed communion since the 1920s with the mainstream Eastern Orthodox churches for various reasons, such as calendar reform, the involvement of mainstream Eastern Orthodox in ecumenism, or the refusal to submit to the authority of mainstream Eastern Orthodox Church.", "The True Orthodox Church in the Soviet Union was also called the Catacomb Church; the True Orthodox in Romania, Bulgaria, Greece and Cyprus are also called Old Calendarists.These groups refrain from concelebration of the Divine Liturgy with the mainstream Eastern Orthodox, while maintaining that they remain fully within the canonical boundaries of the Church: i.e., professing Eastern Orthodox belief, retaining legitimate apostolic succession, and existing in communities with historical continuity.The churches which follow True Orthodoxy are:* Old Calendarists (numerous groups)* Serbian True Orthodox Church* Russian True Orthodox Church (Lazar Zhurbenko)* Russian Orthodox Autonomous Church* True Orthodox Metropolis of Germany and Europe* === Old Believers ===Old Believers are divided into various churches which recognize neither each other nor the mainstream Eastern Orthodox Church.=== Churches that are not recognised despite wanting to ===The following churches recognize all other mainstream Eastern Orthodox churches, but are not recognised by any of them due to various disputes:* Abkhazian Orthodox Church* American Orthodox Catholic Church* Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church* Latvian Orthodox Church* Montenegrin Orthodox Church* Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate* Turkish Orthodox Church===Churches that are neither recognised nor fully Eastern Orthodox===The following churches use the term \"Orthodox\" in their name and carries belief or the traditions of Eastern Orthodox church, but blend beliefs and traditions from other denominations outside of Eastern Orthodoxy:* Evangelical Orthodox Church (blends with Protestant - Evangelical and Charismatic - elements)* Orthodox-Catholic Church of America (blends with Catholic and Oriental Orthodox elements)* Nordic Catholic Church in Italy (originally called the Orthodox Church in Italy, it had ties with the UOC-KP; now associates with the Nordic Catholic Church and the Union of Scranton)* Lusitanian Catholic Orthodox Church (blends with Catholic elements)* Communion of Western Orthodox Churches (blends with Oriental Orthodox elements)** Celtic Orthodox Church** French Orthodox Church** Orthodox Church of the Gauls" ], [ "See also", "* Hierarchy of the Catholic Church** Catholic Church by country* List of Lutheran dioceses and archdioceses" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Territorial Jurisdiction According to Orthodox Canon Law.", "The Phenomenon of Ethnophyletism in Recent Years, a paper read at the International Congress of Canon Law, 2001 (Ecumenical Patriarchate website)* World Churches at Orthodox Church in America website* Religious Organisations - Orthodox Churches at WorldStatesmen.org*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EDT" ], [ "Introduction", "'''EDT''' may refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* 1,2-Ethanedithiol, compound commonly used for cleavage during peptide synthesis* EDT (Digital), text editor for PDP-11 and VAX/VMS computer systems* EDT (Univac), text editor for UNIVAC Series 90 and Fujitsu BS2000 computer systems* EDT Hub, electronic document transmission software* Electrodynamic tether, a spacecraft component* Event dispatching thread, in Java" ], [ "Time zones", "* Australian Eastern Daylight Time (UTC+11)* Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−4), in North America" ], [ "Other uses", "* Chicago Engineering Design Team, a robotics team* Eau de toilette* Electronic Disturbance Theater, an activist and artist collective* Evidential decision theory, a school of thought within decision theory* Event-driven trading, institutional investors attempt to profit from a stock mispricing that may occur during or after a corporate event." ], [ "See also", "* EDTF (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electric guitar" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''electric guitar''' is a guitar that requires external amplification in order to be heard at typical performance volumes, unlike a standard acoustic guitar.", "It uses one or more pickups to convert the vibration of its strings into electrical signals, which ultimately are reproduced as sound by loudspeakers.", "The sound is sometimes shaped or electronically altered to achieve different timbres or tonal qualities from that of an acoustic guitar via amplifier settings or knobs on the guitar.", "Often, this is done through the use of effects such as reverb, distortion and \"overdrive\"; the latter is considered to be a key element of electric blues guitar music and jazz, rock and heavy-metal guitar-playing.", "Designs also exist combining attributes of the electric and acoustic guitars: the semi-acoustic and acoustic-electric guitars.Invented in 1932, the electric guitar was adopted by jazz guitar players, who wanted to play single-note guitar solos in large big band ensembles.", "Early proponents of the electric guitar on record include Les Paul, Eddie Durham, George Barnes, Lonnie Johnson, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, T-Bone Walker, and Charlie Christian.", "During the 1950s and 1960s, the electric guitar became the most important instrument in popular music.", "It has evolved into an instrument that is capable of a multitude of sounds and styles in genres ranging from pop and rock to folk to country music, blues and jazz.", "It served as a major component in the development of electric blues, rock and roll, rock music, heavy metal music and many other genres of music.Electric guitar design and construction varies greatly in the shape of the body and the configuration of the neck, bridge, and pickups.", "Guitars may have a fixed bridge or a spring-loaded hinged bridge, which lets players \"bend\" the pitch of notes or chords up or down, or perform vibrato effects.", "The sound of an electric guitar can be modified by new playing techniques such as string bending, tapping, and hammering-on, using audio feedback, or slide guitar playing.There are several types of electric guitar.", "Early forms were hollow-body semi-acoustic guitars, while solid body guitars developed later.", "String configurations include the six-string guitar (the most common type), which is usually tuned E, A, D, G, B, E, from lowest to highest strings; the seven-string guitar, which typically adds a low B string below the low E; the eight-string guitar, which typically adds a low E or F# string below the low B; and the twelve-string guitar, which has six two-string courses similar to a mandolin.In rock, the electric guitar is often used in two roles: as a rhythm guitar, which plays the chord sequences or progressions, and riffs, and sets the beat (as part of a rhythm section); and as a lead guitar, which provides instrumental melody lines, melodic instrumental fill passages, and solos.", "In a small group, such as a power trio, one guitarist may switch between both roles; in larger groups there is often a rhythm guitarist and a lead guitarist." ], [ "History", "The \"Frying Pan\", 1932Many experiments with electrically amplifying the vibrations of a string instrument were made dating back to the early part of the 20th century.", "Patents from the 1910s show telephone transmitters were adapted and placed inside violins and banjos to amplify the sound.", "Hobbyists in the 1920s used carbon button microphones attached to the bridge; however, these detected vibrations from the bridge on top of the instrument, resulting in a weak signal.Electric guitars were originally designed by acoustic guitar makers and instrument manufacturers.", "The demand for amplified guitars began during the big band era; as orchestras increased in size, guitar players soon realized the necessity in guitar amplification and electrification.", "The first electric guitars used in jazz were hollow archtop acoustic guitar bodies with electromagnetic transducers.The first electrically amplified stringed instrument to be marketed commercially was a cast aluminium lap steel guitar nicknamed the \"Frying Pan\" designed in 1931 by George Beauchamp, the general manager of the National Stringed Instrument Corporation, with Paul Barth, who was vice president.", "George Beauchamp, along with Adolph Rickenbacker, invented the electromagnetic pickups.", "Coils that were wrapped around a magnet would create an electromagnetic field that converted the vibrations of the guitar strings into electrical signals, which could then be amplified.", "Commercial production began in late summer of 1932 by the Ro-Pat-In Corporation (Elect'''ro'''-'''Pat'''ent-'''In'''strument Company), in Los Angeles, a partnership of Beauchamp, Adolph Rickenbacker (originally Rickenbacher), and Paul Barth.In 1934, the company was renamed the Rickenbacker Electro Stringed Instrument Company.", "In that year Beauchamp applied for a United States patent for an ''Electrical Stringed Musical Instrument'' and the patent was later issued in 1937.By the time it was patented, other manufacturers were already making their own electric guitar designs.", "Early electric guitar manufacturers include Rickenbacker in 1932; Dobro in 1933; National, AudioVox and Volu-tone in 1934; Vega, Epiphone (Electrophone and Electar), and Gibson in 1935 and many others by 1936.Electro-Spanish by Ken Roberts, 1935By early-mid 1935, Electro String Instrument Corporation had achieved success with the \"Frying Pan\", and set out to capture a new audience through its release of the Electro-Spanish Model B and the Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts, which was the first full 25-inch scale electric guitar ever produced.", "The Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts was revolutionary for its time, providing players a full 25-inch scale, with easy access to 17 frets free of the body.", "Unlike other lap-steel electrified instruments produced during the time, the Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts was designed to play while standing upright with the guitar on a strap, as with acoustic guitars.", "The Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts was also the first instrument to feature a hand-operated vibrato as a standard arrangement, a device called the \"Vibrola\", invented by Doc Kauffman.", "It is estimated that fewer than 50 Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts were constructed between 1933 and 1937; fewer than 10 are known to survive today.The solid-body electric guitar is made of solid wood, without functionally resonating air spaces.", "The first solid-body Spanish standard guitar was offered by Vivi-Tone no later than 1934.This model featured a guitar-shaped body of a single sheet of plywood affixed to a wood frame.", "Another early, substantially solid Spanish electric guitar, called the Electro Spanish, was marketed by the Rickenbacker guitar company in 1935 and made of Bakelite.", "By 1936, the Slingerland company introduced a wooden solid-body electric model, the Slingerland Songster 401 (and a lap steel counterpart, the Songster 400).Gibson's first production electric guitar, marketed in 1936, was the ES-150 model (\"ES\" for \"Electric Spanish\", and \"150\" reflecting the $150 price of the instrument, along with matching amplifier).", "The ES-150 guitar featured a single-coil, hexagonally shaped \"bar\" pickup, which was designed by Walt Fuller.", "It became known as the \"Charlie Christian\" pickup (named for the jazz guitarist who was among the first to perform with the ES-150 guitar).", "The ES-150 achieved some popularity but suffered from unequal loudness across the six strings.A functioning solid-body electric guitar was designed and built in 1940 by Les Paul from an Epiphone acoustic archtop as an experiment.", "His \"log guitar\" — a wood post with a neck attached and two hollow-body halves attached to the sides for appearance only — shares nothing in common for design or hardware with the solid-body Gibson Les Paul, designed by Ted McCarty and introduced in 1952.The feedback associated with amplified hollow-bodied electric guitars was understood long before Paul's \"log\" was created in 1940; Gage Brewer's Ro-Pat-In of 1932 had a top so heavily reinforced that it essentially functioned as a solid-body instrument." ], [ "Types", "===Solid-body===The Fender Stratocaster has one of the most often emulated electric guitar shapesUnlike acoustic guitars, solid-body electric guitars have no vibrating soundboard to amplify string vibration.", "Instead, solid-body instruments depend on electric pickups, and an amplifier (\"amp\") and speaker.", "The solid body ensures that the amplified sound reproduces the string vibration alone, thus avoiding the wolf tones and unwanted feedback associated with amplified acoustic guitars.", "These guitars are generally made of hardwood covered with a hard polymer finish, often polyester or lacquer.", "In large production facilities, the wood is stored for three to six months in a wood-drying kiln before being cut to shape.", "Premium custom-built guitars are frequently made with much older, hand-selected wood.One of the first solid-body guitars was invented by Les Paul.", "Gibson did not present their Gibson Les Paul guitar prototypes to the public, as they did not believe the solid-body style would catch on.", "Another early solid-body Spanish style guitar, resembling what would become Gibson's Les Paul guitar a decade later, was developed in 1941 by O.W.", "Appleton, of Nogales, Arizona.", "Appleton made contact with both Gibson and Fender but was unable to sell the idea behind his \"App\" guitar to either company.", "In 1946, Merle Travis commissioned steel guitar builder Paul Bigsby to build him a solid-body Spanish-style electric.", "Bigsby delivered the guitar in 1948.The first mass-produced solid-body guitar was Fender Esquire and Fender Broadcaster (later to become the Fender Telecaster), first made in 1950, five years after Les Paul made his prototype.", "The Gibson Les Paul appeared soon after to compete with the Broadcaster.", "Another notable solid-body design is the Fender Stratocaster, which was introduced in 1954 and became extremely popular among musicians in the 1960s and 1970s for its wide tonal capabilities and more comfortable ergonomics than other models.", "Different styles of guitar have different pick-up styles, the main being 2 or 3 \"single-coil\" pick-ups or a double humbucker, with the Stratocaster being a triple single-coil guitar.The history of electric guitars has been summarized by ''Guitar World'' magazine, and the earliest electric guitar on their top 10 list is the Ro-Pat-In Electro A-25 \"Frying Pan\" (1932) described as \"The first-fully functioning solid-body electric guitar to be manufactured and sold\".", "It was the first electric guitar used in a publicly promoted performance, performed by Gage Brewer in Wichita, Kansas in October 1932.The most recent electric guitar on this list was the Ibanez Jem (1987) which featured \"24 frets\", an impossibly thin neck\" and was \"designed to be the ultimate shredder machine\".", "Numerous other important electric guitars are on the list, including Gibson ES-150 (1936), Fender Telecaster (1951), Gibson Les Paul (1952), Gretsch 6128 Duo Jet (1953), Fender Stratocaster (1954), Rickenbacker 360/12 (1964), Van Halen Frankenstrat (1975), Paul Reed Smith Custom (1985) many of these guitars were \"successors\" to earlier designs.", "Electric guitar designs eventually became culturally important and visually iconic, with various model companies selling miniature model versions of particularly famous electric guitars, for example, the Gibson SG used by Angus Young from the group AC/DC.=== Chambered-body ===Some otherwise solid-bodied guitars, such as the Gibson Les Paul Supreme, the PRS Singlecut, and the Fender Telecaster Thinline, are built with hollow chambers in the body.", "These chambers are designed to not interfere with the critical bridge and string anchor point on the solid body.", "In the case of Gibson and PRS, these are called ''chambered bodies''.", "The motivation for this may be to reduce weight, to achieve a semi-acoustic tone (see below) or both.===Semi-acoustic ===Epiphone semi-acoustic hollow-body guitarSemi-acoustic guitars have a hollow body similar to an acoustic guitar and electromagnetic pickups mounted directly into the body.", "They work in a similar way to solid-body electric guitars except that because the hollow body also vibrates, the pickups convert a combination of string and body vibration into an electrical signal.", "Many models have a solid block running through the middle of the soundbox designed to reduce acoustic feedback, known as semi-hollow bodies.", "They do not provide enough acoustic volume for live performance, but they can be used unplugged for quiet practice.", "Semi-acoustic guitars are noted for being able to provide a sweet, plaintive, or funky tone.", "They are used in many genres, including jazz, blues, funk, sixties pop, and indie rock.", "They generally have cello-style F-shaped sound holes, which can be blocked off to further reduce feedback.", "Whereas chambered guitars are made, like solid-body guitars, from a single block of wood, semi-acoustic guitar bodies are made from multiple pieces of wood in an ''archtop'' form, a method of construction different from the typical steel string acoustic guitar.", "The top is formed from a moderately thick piece of wood which is then carved into a thin outward-curving shape, whereas conventional acoustic guitars have a thin, flat top.=== Electric acoustic ===Some steel-string acoustic guitars include a built-in system to electrically amplify their output without altering their tone as an alternative to using a separate microphone.", "The system may consist of piezoelectric pickups mounted under the bridge, or a low-mass microphone (usually a condenser mic) inside the body of the guitar that converts the vibrations in the body into electronic signals.", "Combinations of these types of pickups may be used, with an integral mixer/preamp/graphic equalizer.", "Such instruments are called electric acoustic guitars.", "They are regarded as acoustic guitars rather than electric guitars because the pickups do not produce a signal directly from the vibration of the strings, but rather from the vibration of the guitar top or body, and the amplification of the sound merely increases volume, not alters tone." ], [ "Construction", "1.Headstock1.1 machine heads1.2 truss rod cover1.3 string guide1.4 nut2.Neck2.1 fretboard2.2 inlay fret markers2.3 frets2.4 neck joint3.Body3.1 \"neck\" pickup3.2 \"bridge\" pickup3.3 saddles3.4 bridge3.5 fine tuners and tailpiece assembly3.6 whammy bar (vibrato arm)3.7 pickup selector switch3.8 volume and tone control knobs3.9 output connector (output jack)(TS)3.10 strap buttons4.Strings4.1 bass strings4.2 treble stringsElectric guitar design and construction vary greatly in the shape of the body and the configuration of the neck, bridge, and pickups.", "However, some features are present on most guitars.", "The photo below shows the different parts of an electric guitar.", "The headstock (1) contains the metal machine heads (1.1), which use a worm gear for tuning.", "The nut (1.4)—a thin fret-like strip of metal, plastic, graphite, or bone—supports the strings at the headstock end of the instrument.", "The frets (2.3) are thin metal strips that stop the string at the correct pitch when the player pushes a string against the fingerboard.", "The truss rod (1.2) is a metal rod (usually adjustable) that counters the tension of the strings to keep the neck straight.", "Position markers (2.2) provide the player with a reference to the playing position on the fingerboard.The neck and fretboard (2.1) extend from the body.", "At the neck joint (2.4), the neck is either glued or bolted to the body.", "The body (3) is typically made of wood with a hard, polymerized finish.", "Strings vibrating in the magnetic field of the pickups (3.1, 3.2) produce an electric current in the pickup winding that passes through the tone and volume controls (3.8) to the output jack.", "Some guitars have piezo pickups, in addition to or instead of magnetic pickups.Some guitars have a fixed bridge (3.4).", "Others have a spring-loaded hinged bridge called a ''vibrato bar'', ''tremolo bar'', or ''whammy bar'', which lets players bend notes or chords up or down in pitch or perform a vibrato embellishment.", "A plastic pickguard on some guitars protects the body from scratches or covers the control cavity, which holds most of the wiring.The degree to which the choice of woods and other materials in the solid-guitar body (3) affects the sonic character of the amplified signal is disputed.", "Many believe it is highly significant, while others think the difference between woods is subtle.", "In acoustic and archtop guitars, wood choices more clearly affect tone.Woods typically used in solid-body electric guitars include alder (brighter, but well rounded), swamp ash (similar to alder, but with more pronounced highs and lows), mahogany (dark, bassy, warm), poplar (similar to alder), and basswood (very neutral).", "Maple, a very bright tonewood, is also a popular body wood but is very heavy.", "For this reason, it is often placed as a \"cap\" on a guitar made primarily of another wood.", "Cheaper guitars are often made of cheaper woods, such as plywood, pine, or agathis—not true hardwoods—which can affect durability and tone.", "Though most guitars are made of wood, any material may be used.", "Materials such as plastic, metal, and even cardboard have been used in some instruments.The guitar output jack typically provides a monaural signal.", "Many guitars with active electronics use a jack with an extra contact normally used for stereo.", "These guitars use the extra contact to break the ground connection to the on-board battery to preserve battery life when the guitar is unplugged.", "These guitars require a mono plug to close the internal switch and connect the battery to ground.", "Standard guitar cables use a high-impedance mono plug.", "These have a tip and sleeve configuration referred to as a TS phone connector.", "The voltage is usually around 1 to 9 millivolts.A few guitars feature stereo output, such as Rickenbacker guitars equipped with ''Rick-O-Sound''.", "There are a variety of ways the \"stereo\" effect may be implemented.", "Commonly, but not exclusively, stereo guitars route the neck and bridge pickups to separate output buses on the guitar.", "A stereo cable then routes each pickup to its signal chain or amplifier.", "For these applications, the most popular connector is a high-impedance plug with a tip, ring, and sleeve configuration, also known as a TRS phone connector.", "Some studio instruments, notably certain Gibson Les Paul models, incorporate a low-impedance three-pin XLR connector for balanced audio.", "Many exotic arrangements and connectors exist that support features such as midi and hexaphonic pickups.=== Bridge and tailpiece systems ===The bridge and tailpiece, while serving separate purposes, work closely together to affect playing style and tone.", "There are four basic types of bridge and tailpiece systems on electric guitars.", "Within these four types are many variants.A hard-tail guitar bridge anchors the strings at or directly behind the bridge and is fastened securely to the top of the instrument.", "These are common on carved-top guitars, such as the Gibson Les Paul and the Paul Reed Smith models, and on slab-body guitars, such as the Music Man Albert Lee and Fender guitars that are not equipped with a vibrato arm.A ''floating'' or ''trapeze'' tailpiece (similar to a violin's) fastens to the body at the base of the guitar.", "These appear on Rickenbackers, Gretsches, Epiphones, a wide variety of archtop guitars, particularly jazz guitars, and the 1952 Gibson Les Paul.Pictured is a ''tremolo arm'' or ''vibrato tailpiece-''style bridge and tailpiece system, often called a ''whammy bar'' or ''trem''.", "It uses a lever (\"vibrato arm\") attached to the bridge that can temporarily slacken or tighten the strings to alter the pitch.", "A player can use this to create a vibrato or a portamento effect.", "Early vibrato systems were often unreliable and made the guitar go out of tune easily.", "They also had a limited pitch range.", "Later Fender designs were better, but Fender held the patent on these, so other companies used older designs for many years.", "Detail of a Squier-made Fender Stratocaster.", "Note the vibrato arm, the 3 single-coil pickups, the volume and tone knobs.With the expiration of the Fender patent on the Stratocaster-style vibrato, various improvements on this type of internal, multi-spring vibrato system are now available.", "Floyd Rose introduced one of the first improvements on the vibrato system in many years when, in the late 1970s, he experimented with \"locking\" nuts and bridges that prevent the guitar from losing tuning, even under heavy vibrato bar use.Tune-o-matic with \"strings through the body\" construction (without stopbar)The fourth type of system employs string-through body anchoring.", "The strings pass over the bridge saddles, then through holes through the top of the guitar body to the back.", "The strings are typically anchored in place at the back of the guitar by metal ferrules.", "Many believe this design improves a guitar's sustain and timbre.", "A few examples of string-through body guitars are the Fender Telecaster Thinline, the Fender Telecaster Deluxe, the B.C.", "Rich IT Warlock and Mockingbird, and the Schecter Omen 6 and 7 series.===Pickups===Pickups on a Fender Squier \"Fat Strat\" guitar—a \"humbucker\" pickup on the left and two single-coil pickups on the right.Compared to an acoustic guitar, which has a hollow body, electric guitars make much less audible sound when their strings are plucked, so electric guitars are normally plugged into a guitar amplifier and speaker.", "When an electric guitar is played, string movement produces a signal by generating (i.e., inducing) a small electric current in the magnetic pickups, which are magnets wound with coils of very fine wire.The signal passes through the tone and volume circuits to the output jack, and through a cable to an amplifier.", "The current induced is proportional to such factors as string density and the amount of movement over the pickups.Because of their natural qualities, magnetic pickups tend to pick up ambient, usually unwanted electromagnetic interference or EMI.", "This mains hum results in a tone of 50 or 60 cycles per second depending on the powerline frequency of the local alternating current supply.The resulting hum is particularly strong with single-coil pickups.", "Double-coil or \"humbucker\" pickups were invented as a way to reduce or counter the sound, as they are designed to \"buck\" (in the verb sense of ''oppose'' or ''resist'') the hum, hence their name.", "The high combined inductance of the two coils also leads to the richer, \"fatter\" tone associated with humbucking pickups.===Necks=== Roasted Maple guitar neck blanks with flame figure before shapingElectric guitar necks vary in composition and shape.", "The primary metric of guitar necks is the ''scale length'', which is the vibrating length of the strings from nut to bridge.", "A typical Fender guitar uses a scale length, while Gibson uses a scale length in their ''Les Paul''.", "While the scale length of the Les Paul is often described as 24.75 inches, it has varied through the years by as much as a half inch.Frets are positioned proportionally to scale length—the shorter the scale length, the closer the fret spacing.", "Opinions vary regarding the effect of scale length on tone and feel.", "Popular opinion holds that longer scale length contributes to greater amplitude.", "Reports of playing feel are greatly complicated by the many factors involved in this perception.", "String gauge and design, neck construction and relief, guitar setup, playing style, and other factors contribute to the subjective impression of playability or feel.A bolt-on neckNecks are described as ''bolt-on'', ''set-in'', or ''neck-through'', depending on how they attach to the body.", "Set-in necks are glued to the body at the factory.", "This is the traditional type of joint.", "Leo Fender pioneered bolt-on necks on electric guitars to facilitate easy adjustment and replacement.", "Neck-through instruments extend the neck to the length of the instrument so that it forms the center of the body.", "While a set-in neck can be carefully unglued by a skilled luthier, and a bolt-on neck can simply be unscrewed, a neck-through design is difficult or even impossible to repair, depending on the damage.", "Historically, the bolt-on style has been more popular for ease of installation and adjustment.", "Since bolt-on necks can be easily removed, there is an after-market in replacement bolt-on necks from companies such as Warmoth and Mighty Mite.", "Some instruments—notably most Gibson models—continue to use set-in glued necks.", "Neck-through bodies are somewhat more common in bass guitars.Materials for necks are selected for dimensional stability and rigidity, and some allege that they influence tone.", "Hardwoods are preferred, with maple, mahogany, and ash topping the list.", "The neck and fingerboard can be made from different materials; for example, a guitar may have a maple neck with a rosewood or ebony fingerboard.", "Today there are expensive and budget guitars exploring other options for fretboard wood for instance ''Pau-Ferro'', both for availability and cheap price while still maintaining quality.", "In the 1970s, designers began to use exotic man-made materials such as aircraft-grade aluminum, carbon fiber, and ebonol.", "Makers known for these unusual materials include John Veleno, Travis Bean, Geoff Gould, and Alembic.Two headless .strandberg* Boden Plini model guitars with differing construction methods.", "On the left is neck-through construction with a quarter-sawn Roasted Maple neck and Swamp Ash wings.", "On the right is a chamfered bolt-on quarter-sawn Mahogany neck and Mahogany body.", "Both necks have visible carbon reinforcement strips.Aside from possible engineering advantages, some feel that with the rising cost of rare tonewoods, man-made materials may be economically preferable and more ecologically sensitive.", "However, wood remains popular in production instruments, though sometimes in conjunction with new materials.", "Vigier guitars, for example, use a wooden neck reinforced by embedding a light, carbon fiber rod in place of the usual heavier steel bar or adjustable steel truss rod.", "After-market necks made entirely from carbon fiber fit existing bolt-on instruments.", "Few, if any, extensive formal investigations have been widely published that confirm or refute claims over the effects of different woods or materials on the electric guitar sound.A neck-through bass guitarSeveral neck shapes appear on guitars, including shapes known as C necks, U necks, and V necks.", "These refer to the cross-sectional shape of the neck (especially near the nut).", "Several sizes of fret wire are available, with traditional players often preferring thin frets, and metal shredders liking thick frets.", "Thin frets are considered better for playing chords, while thick frets allow lead guitarists to bend notes with less effort.An electric guitar with a folding neck called the \"Foldaxe\" was designed and built for Chet Atkins by Roger C. Field.", "Steinberger guitars developed a line of exotic, carbon fiber instruments without headstocks, with tuning done on the bridge instead.Fingerboards vary as much as necks.", "The fingerboard surface usually has a cross-sectional radius that is optimized to accommodate finger movement for different playing techniques.", "Fingerboard radius typically ranges from nearly flat (a very large radius) to radically arched (a small radius).", "The vintage Fender Telecaster, for example, has a typical small radius of approximately .", "Some manufacturers have experimented with fret profile and material, fret layout, number of frets, and modifications of the fingerboard surface for various reasons.", "Some innovations were intended to improve playability by ergonomic means, such as Warmoth Guitars' compound radius fingerboard.", "Scalloped fingerboards added enhanced microtonality during fast legato runs.", "Fanned frets intend to provide each string with an optimal playing tension and enhanced musicality.", "Some guitars have no frets, while others, like the Gittler guitar, have no neck in the traditional sense." ], [ "See also", "An electric guitar store* List of electric guitar brands* Bass guitar* Bahian guitar* Bolt-on neck* Distortion (guitar)* Effects pedal* Electric pipa* Electromagnetic induction* Electronic tuner* Guitar harmonics* Guitar synthesizer* Guitar amplifier* Keytar* List of guitars* List of guitarists* Neck through construction* Pickup* Sitarla* ''Stars and Their Guitars: A History of the Electric Guitar'' (documentary film)* Set-in neck* Vintage guitar" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* ON!", "The Beginnings of Electric Sound Generation – an exhibit at the Museum of Making Music, National Association of Music Merchants, Carlsbad, CA – some of the earliest electric guitars and their history, from the collection of Lynn Wheelwright and others* King of Kays Vintage guitar's from America, Japan, and Italy.", "Pictures, history, and forums.", "* The Invention of the Electric Guitar – Online exhibition at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History* Sweetwater Sound | Who Invented the Electric Guitar?", "— A chronological exploration of the development of the electric guitar from 1890 to 1952, including contributions from Rickenbacker, Bigbsy, Fender, and Gibson." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Embryo drawing" ], [ "Introduction", "Drawing of the head of a four-week-old human embryo.", "From Gray's Anatomy.", "'''Embryo drawing''' is the illustration of embryos in their developmental sequence.", "In plants and animals, an embryo develops from a zygote, the single cell that results when an egg and sperm fuse during fertilization.", "In animals, the zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells, which then forms a set of tissue layers that migrate and fold to form an early embryo.", "Images of embryos provide a means of comparing embryos of different ages, and species.", "To this day, embryo drawings are made in undergraduate developmental biology lessons.Comparing different embryonic stages of different animals is a tool that can be used to infer relationships between species, and thus biological evolution.", "This has been a source of quite some controversy, both now and in the past.", "Ernst Haeckel at the University of Basel pioneered in this field.", "By comparing different embryonic stages of different vertebrate species, he formulated the recapitulation theory.", "This theory states that an animal's embryonic development follows exactly the same sequence as the sequence of its evolutionary ancestors.", "Haeckel's work and the ensuing controversy linked the fields of developmental biology and comparative anatomy into comparative embryology.", "From a more modern perspective, Haeckel's drawings were the beginnings of the field of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo).The study of comparative embryology aims to prove or disprove that vertebrate embryos of different classes (e.g.", "mammals vs. fish) follow a similar developmental path due to their common ancestry.", "Such developing vertebrates have similar genes, which determine the basic body plan.", "However, further development allows for the distinguishing of distinct characteristics as adults." ], [ "Famous embryo illustrators", "===Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919)===Romanes' 1892 copy of Ernst Haeckel's allegedly fraudulent embryo drawings (this version of the figure is often attributed incorrectly to Haeckel).Haeckel's illustrations show vertebrate embryos at different stages of development, which exhibit embryonic resemblance as support for evolution, recapitulation as evidence of the Biogenetic Law, and phenotypic divergence as evidence of von Baer's laws.", "The series of twenty-four embryos from the early editions of Haeckel's ''Anthropogenie'' remain the most famous.", "The different species are arranged in columns, and the different stages in rows.", "Similarities can be seen along the first two rows; the appearance of specialized characters in each species can be seen in the columns and a diagonal interpretation leads one to Haeckel's idea of recapitulation.Haeckel's embryo drawings are primarily intended to express his theory of embryonic development, the Biogenetic Law, which in turn assumes (but is not crucial to) the evolutionary concept of common descent.", "His postulation of embryonic development coincides with his understanding of evolution as a developmental process.", "In and around 1800, embryology fused with comparative anatomy as the primary foundation of morphology.", "Ernst Haeckel, along with Karl von Baer and Wilhelm His, are primarily influential in forming the preliminary foundations of 'phylogenetic embryology' based on principles of evolution.", "Haeckel's 'Biogenetic Law' portrays the parallel relationship between an embryo's development and phylogenetic history.", "The term, 'recapitulation,' has come to embody Haeckel's Biogenetic Law, for embryonic development is a recapitulation of evolution.", "Haeckel proposes that all classes of vertebrates pass through an evolutionarily conserved \"phylotypic\" stage of development, a period of reduced phenotypic diversity among higher embryos.", "Only in later development do particular differences appear.", "Haeckel portrays a concrete demonstration of his Biogenetic Law through his ''Gastrea'' theory, in which he argues that the early cup-shaped gastrula stage of development is a universal feature of multi-celled animals.", "An ancestral form existed, known as the gastrea, which was a common ancestor to the corresponding gastrula.Haeckel argues that certain features in embryonic development are conserved and palingenetic, while others are caenogenetic.", "Caenogenesis represents \"the blurring of ancestral resemblances in development\", which are said to be the result of certain adaptations to embryonic life due to environmental changes.", "In his drawings, Haeckel cites the notochord, pharyngeal arches and clefts, pronephros and neural tube as palingenetic features.", "However, the yolk sac, extra-embryonic membranes, egg membranes and endocardial tube are considered caenogenetic features.", "The addition of terminal adult stages and the telescoping, or driving back, of such stages to descendant's embryonic stages are likewise representative of Haeckelian embryonic development.", "In addressing his embryo drawings to a general audience, Haeckel does not cite any sources, which gives his opponents the freedom to make assumptions regarding the originality of his work.===Karl Ernst von Baer (1792–1876)===Haeckel was not the only one to create a series of drawings representing embryonic development.", "Karl E. von Baer and Haeckel both struggled to model one of the most complex problems facing embryologists at the time: the arrangement of general and special characters during development in different species of animals.", "In relation to developmental timing, von Baer's scheme of development differs from Haeckel's scheme.", "Von Baer's scheme of development need not be tied to developmental stages defined by particular characters, where recapitulation involves heterochrony.", "Heterochrony represents a gradual alteration in the original phylogenetic sequence due to embryonic adaptation.As well, von Baer early noted that embryos of different species could not be easily distinguished from one another as in adults.Von Baer's laws governing embryonic development are specific rejections of recapitulation.", "As a response to Haeckel's theory of recapitulation, von Baer enunciates his most notorious laws of development.", "Von Baer's laws state that general features of animals appear earlier in the embryo than special features, where less general features stem from the most general, each embryo of a species departs more and more from a predetermined passage through the stages of other animals, and there is never a complete morphological similarity between an embryo and a lower adult.", "Von Baer's embryo drawings display that individual development proceeds from general features of the developing embryo in early stages through differentiation into special features specific to the species, establishing that linear evolution could not occur.", "Embryological development, in von Baer's mind, is a process of differentiation, \"a movement from the more homogeneous and universal to the more heterogeneous and individual.", "\"Von Baer argues that embryos will resemble each other before attaining characteristics differentiating them as part of a specific family, genus or species, but embryos are not the same as the final forms of lower organisms.===Wilhelm His (1831–1904)===Wilhelm His was one of Haeckel's most authoritative and primary opponents advocating physiological embryology.", "His ''Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen'' (Anatomy of human embryos) employs a series of his most important drawings chronicling developing embryos from the end of the second week through the end of the second month of pregnancy.", "In 1878, His begins to engage in serious study of the anatomy of human embryos for his drawings.", "During the 19th century, embryologists often obtained early human embryos from abortions and miscarriages, postmortems of pregnant women and collections in anatomical museums.", "In order to construct his series of drawings, His collected specimens which he manipulated into a form that he could operate with.In His' ''Normentafel'', he displays specific individual embryos rather than ideal types.", "His does not produce norms from aborted specimens, but rather visualizes the embryos in order to make them comparable and specifically subjects his embryo specimens to criticism and comparison with other cases.", "Ultimately, His' critical work in embryonic development comes with his production of a series of embryo drawings of increasing length and degree of development.", "His' depiction of embryological development strongly differs from Haeckel's depiction, for His argues that the phylogenetic explanation of ontogenetic events is unnecessary.", "His argues that all ontogenetic events are the \"mechanical\" result of differential cell growth.", "His' embryology is not explained in terms of ancestral history.The debate between Haeckel and His ultimately becomes fueled by the description of an embryo that Wilhelm Krause propels directly into the ongoing feud between Haeckel and His.", "Haeckel speculates that the allantois is formed in a similar way in both humans and other mammals.", "His, on the other hand, accuses Haeckel of altering and playing with the facts.", "Although Haeckel is proven right about the allantois, the utilization of Krause's embryo as justification turns out to be problematic, for the embryo is that of a bird rather than a human.", "The underlying debate between Haeckel and His derives from differing viewpoints regarding the similarity or dissimilarity of vertebrate embryos.", "In response to Haeckel's evolutionary claim that all vertebrates are essentially identical in the first month of embryonic life as proof of common descent, His responds by insisting that a more skilled observer would recognize even sooner that early embryos can be distinguished.", "His also counteracts Haeckel's sequence of drawings in the ''Anthropogenie'' with what he refers to as \"exact\" drawings, highlighting specific differences.", "Ultimately, His goes so far as to accuse Haeckel of \"faking\" his embryo illustrations to make the vertebrate embryos appear more similar than in reality.", "His also accuses Haeckel of creating early human embryos that he conjured in his imagination rather than obtained through empirical observation.", "His completes his denunciation of Haeckel by pronouncing that Haeckel had \"'relinquished the right to count as an equal in the company of serious researchers.'\"" ], [ "Controversy", "The exactness of Ernst Haeckel's drawings of embryos has caused much controversy among Intelligent Design proponents recently and Haeckel's intellectual opponents in the past.", "Although the early embryos of different species exhibit similarities, Haeckel apparently exaggerated these similarities in support of his Recapitulation theory, sometimes known as the Biogenetic Law or \"Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny\".", "Furthermore, Haeckel even proposed theoretical life-forms to accommodate certain stages in embryogenesis.", "A recent review concluded that the \"biogenetic law is supported by several recent studies – if applied to single characters only\".Critics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Karl von Baer and Wilhelm His, did not believe that living embryos reproduce the evolutionary process and produced embryo drawings of their own which emphasized the differences in early embryological development.", "Late 20th and early 21st century critic Stephen Jay Gould has objected to the continued use of Haeckel's embryo drawings in textbooks.On the other hand, Michael K. Richardson, Professor of Evolutionary Developmental Zoology, Leiden University, while recognizing that some criticisms of the drawings are legitimate (indeed, it was he and his co-workers who began the modern criticisms in 1998), has supported the drawings as teaching aids, and has said that \"on a fundamental level, Haeckel was correct.\"" ], [ "Opposition to Haeckel", "Haeckel encountered numerous oppositions to his artistic depictions of embryonic development during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.", "Haeckel's opponents believe that he de-emphasizes the differences between early embryonic stages in order to make the similarities between embryos of different species more pronounced.===Early opponents: Ludwig Rutimeyer, Theodor Bischoff and Rudolf Virchow===The first suggestion of fakery against Haeckel was made in late 1868 by Ludwig Rutimeyer in the ''Archiv für Anthropogenie''.", "Rutimeyer was a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Basel, who rejected natural selection as simply mechanistic and proposed an anti-materialist view of nature.", "Rutimeyer claimed that Haeckel \"had taken to kinds of liberty with established truth\".", "Rutimeyer claimed that Haeckel presented the same image three consecutive times as the embryo of the dog, the chicken, and the turtle.Theodor Bischoff (1807–1882), was a strong opponent of Darwinism.", "As a pioneer in mammalian embryology, he was one of Haeckel's strongest critics.", "Although Bischoff's 1840 surveys depict how similar the early embryos of man are to other vertebrates, he later demanded that such hasty generalization was inconsistent with his recent findings regarding the dissimilarity between hamster embryos and those of rabbits and dogs.", "Nevertheless, Bischoff's main argument was in reference to Haeckel's drawings of human embryos, for Haeckel is later accused of miscopying the dog embryo from him.", "Throughout Haeckel's time, criticism of his embryo drawings was often due in part to his critics' belief in his representations of embryological development as \"crude schemata\".===Contemporary criticism of Haeckel: Michael Richardson and Stephen Jay Gould===Michael Richardson and his colleagues in a July 1997 issue of ''Anatomy and Embryology'', demonstrated that Haeckel falsified his drawings in order to exaggerate the similarity of the phylotypic stage.In a March 2000 issue of ''Natural History'', Stephen Jay Gould argued that Haeckel \"exaggerated the similarities by idealizations and omissions.\"", "As well, Gould argued that Haeckel's drawings are simply inaccurate and falsified.", "On the other hand, one of those who criticized Haeckel's drawings, Michael Richardson, has argued that \"Haeckel's much-criticized drawings are important as phylogenetic hypotheses, teaching aids, and evidence for evolution\".But even Richardson admitted in ''Science'' Magazine in 1997 that his team's investigation of Haeckel's drawings were showing them to be \"one of the most famous fakes in biology.", "\"Some version of Haeckel's drawings can be found in many modern biology textbooks in discussions of the history of embryology, with clarification that these are no longer considered valid ." ], [ "Haeckel's proponents (past and present)", "Although Charles Darwin accepted Haeckel's support for natural selection, he was tentative in using Haeckel's ideas in his writings; with regard to embryology, Darwin relied far more on von Baer's work.", "Haeckel's work was published in 1866 and 1874, years after Darwin's \"The Origin of Species\" (1859).Despite the numerous oppositions, Haeckel has influenced many disciplines in science in his drive to integrate such disciplines of taxonomy and embryology into the Darwinian framework and to investigate phylogenetic reconstruction through his Biogenetic Law.", "As well, Haeckel served as a mentor to many important scientists, including Anton Dohrn, Richard and Oscar Hertwig, Wilhelm Roux, and Hans Driesch.One of Haeckel's earliest proponents was Carl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena (1865–1873), during which both men were absorbing the impact of Darwin's theory.", "The two quickly sought to integrate their knowledge into an evolutionary program.", "In determining the relationships between \"phylogenetic linkages\" and \"evolutionary laws of form,\" both Gegenbaur and Haeckel relied on a method of comparison.", "As Gegenbaur argued, the task of comparative anatomy lies in explaining the form and organization of the animal body in order to provide evidence for the continuity and evolution of a series of organs in the body.", "Haeckel then provided a means of pursuing this aim with his biogenetic law, in which he proposed to compare an individual's various stages of development with its ancestral line.", "Although Haeckel stressed comparative embryology and Gegenbaur promoted the comparison of adult structures, both believed that the two methods could work in conjunction to produce the goal of evolutionary morphology.The philologist and anthropologist, Friedrich Müller, used Haeckel's concepts as a source for his ethnological research, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies.", "Müller's work relies specifically on theoretical assumptions that are very similar to Haeckel's and reflects the German practice to maintain strong connections between empirical research and the philosophical framework of science.", "Language is particularly important, for it establishes a bridge between natural science and philosophy.", "For Haeckel, language specifically represented the concept that all phenomena of human development relate to the laws of biology.", "Although Müller did not specifically have an influence in advocating Haeckel's embryo drawings, both shared a common understanding of development from lower to higher forms, for Müller specifically saw humans as the last link in an endless chain of evolutionary development.Modern acceptance of Haeckel's Biogenetic Law, despite current rejection of Haeckelian views, finds support in the certain degree of parallelism between ontogeny and phylogeny.", "A. M. Khazen, on the one hand, states that \"ontogeny is obliged to repeat the main stages of phylogeny.\"", "A. S. Rautian, on the other hand, argues that the reproduction of ancestral patterns of development is a key aspect of certain biological systems.", "Dr. Rolf Siewing acknowledges the similarity of embryos in different species, along with the laws of von Baer, but does not believe that one should compare embryos with adult stages of development.", "According to M. S. Fischer, reconsideration of the Biogenetic Law is possible as a result of two fundamental innovations in biology since Haeckel's time: cladistics and developmental genetics.In defense of Haeckel's embryo drawings, the principal argument is that of \"schematisation.\"", "Haeckel's drawings were not intended to be technical and scientific depictions, but rather schematic drawings and reconstructions for a specifically lay audience.", "Therefore, as R. Gursch argues, Haeckel's embryo drawings should be regarded as \"reconstructions.\"", "Although his drawings are open to criticism, his drawings should not be considered falsifications of any sort.", "Although modern defense of Haeckel's embryo drawings still considers the inaccuracy of his drawings, charges of fraud are considered unreasonable.", "As Erland Nordenskiöld argues, charges of fraud against Haeckel are unnecessary.", "R. Bender ultimately goes so far as to reject His's claims regarding the fabrication of certain stages of development in Haeckel's drawings, arguing that Haeckel's embryo drawings are faithful representations of real stages of embryonic development in comparison to published embryos." ], [ "Use of embryo drawings in contemporary biology", "Haeckel's embryo drawings, as comparative plates, were at first only copied into biology textbooks, rather than texts on the study of embryology.", "Even though Haeckel's program in comparative embryology virtually collapsed after the First World War, his embryo drawings have often been reproduced and redrawn with increased precision and accuracy in works that have kept the study of comparative embryology alive.", "Nevertheless, neither His-inspired human embryology nor developmental biology are concerned with the comparison of vertebrate embryos.", "Although Stephen Jay Gould's 1977 book ''Ontogeny and Phylogeny'' helps to reassess Haeckelian embryology, it does not address the controversy over Haeckel's embryo drawings.", "Nevertheless, new interest in evolution in and around 1977 inspired developmental biologists to look more closely at Haeckel's illustrations.In current biology, fundamental research in developmental biology and evolutionary developmental biology is no longer driven by morphological comparisons between embryos, but more by molecular biology.", "This is partly because Haeckel's drawings were very inaccurate." ], [ "See also", "*Medical illustration*Recapitulation theory*Ernst Haeckel*Evolutionary developmental biology*Embryogenesis*History of biology*History of zoology, post-Darwin*Science education" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "************" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enthalpy" ], [ "Introduction", "In thermodynamics, '''enthalpy''' , is the sum of a thermodynamic system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume.", "It is a state function used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant external pressure, which is conveniently provided by the large ambient atmosphere.", "The pressure–volume term expresses the work that was done against constant external pressure to establish the system's physical dimensions from to some final volume (as ), i.e.", "to make room for it by displacing its surroundings.The pressure-volume term is very small for solids and liquids at common conditions, and fairly small for gases.", "Therefore, enthalpy is a stand-in for energy in chemical systems; bond, lattice, solvation, and other chemical \"energies\" are actually enthalpy differences.", "As a state function, enthalpy depends only on the final configuration of internal energy, pressure, and volume, not on the path taken to achieve it.In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement for enthalpy is the joule.", "Other historical conventional units still in use include the calorie and the British thermal unit (BTU).The total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly because the internal energy contains components that are unknown, not easily accessible, or are not of interest for the thermodynamic problem at hand.", "In practice, a change in enthalpy is the preferred expression for measurements at constant pressure, because it simplifies the description of energy transfer.", "When transfer of matter into or out of the system is also prevented and no electrical or mechanical (stirring shaft or lift pumping) work is done, at constant pressure the enthalpy change equals the energy exchanged with the environment by heat.", "In chemistry, the standard enthalpy of reaction is the enthalpy change when reactants in their standard states ( usually ) change to products in their standard states.This quantity is the standard heat of reaction at constant pressure and temperature, but it can be measured by calorimetric methods even if the temperature does vary during the measurement, provided that the initial and final pressure and temperature correspond to the standard state.", "The value does not depend on the path from initial to final state because enthalpy is a state function.Enthalpies of chemical substances are usually listed for pressure as a standard state.", "Enthalpies and enthalpy changes for reactions vary as a function of temperature,but tables generally list the standard heats of formation of substances at .", "For endothermic (heat-absorbing) processes, the change is a positive value; for exothermic (heat-releasing) processes it is negative.The enthalpy of an ideal gas is independent of its pressure or volume, and depends only on its temperature, which correlates to its thermal energy.", "Real gases at common temperatures and pressures often closely approximate this behavior, which simplifies practical thermodynamic design and analysis." ], [ "Definition", "The enthalpy of a thermodynamic system is defined as the sum of its internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume:: where is the internal energy, is pressure, and is the volume of the system; is sometimes referred to as the pressure energy  .Enthalpy is an extensive property; it is proportional to the size of the system (for homogeneous systems).", "As intensive properties, the ''specific enthalpy'', is referenced to a unit of mass of the system, and the ''molar enthalpy'', where is the number of moles.", "For inhomogeneous systems the enthalpy is the sum of the enthalpies of the component subsystems:where:: is the total enthalpy of all the subsystems,:: refers to the various subsystems,:: refers to the enthalpy of each subsystem.A closed system may lie in thermodynamic equilibrium in a static gravitational field, so that its pressure varies continuously with altitude, while, because of the equilibrium requirement, its temperature is invariant with altitude.", "(Correspondingly, the system's gravitational potential energy density also varies with altitude.)", "Then the enthalpy summation becomes an integral:where:: (\"rho\") is density (mass per unit volume),:: is the specific enthalpy (enthalpy per unit mass),:: represents the enthalpy density (enthalpy per unit volume),:: denotes an infinitesimally small element of volume within the system, for example, the volume of an infinitesimally thin horizontal layer.The integral therefore represents the sum of the enthalpies of all the elements of the volume.The enthalpy of a closed homogeneous system is its energy function with its entropy and its pressure as natural state variables which provide a differential relation for of the simplest form, derived as follows.", "We start from the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems for an infinitesimal process:where:: is a small amount of heat added to the system,:: is a small amount of work performed by the system.In a homogeneous system in which only reversible processes or pure heat transfer are considered, the second law of thermodynamics gives with the absolute temperature and the infinitesimal change in entropy of the system.", "Furthermore, if only work is done, As a result,Adding to both sides of this expression givesorSoand the coefficients of the natural variable differentials and are just the single variables and ." ], [ "Other expressions", "The above expression of in terms of entropy and pressure may be unfamiliar to some readers.", "There are also expressions in terms of more directly measurable variables such as temperature and pressure:Here is the heat capacity at constant ''pressure'' and is the coefficient of (cubic) thermal expansion:With this expression one can, in principle, determine the enthalpy if and are known as functions of and  .", "However the expression is more complicated than because is not a natural variable for the enthalpy .At constant pressure, so that For an ideal gas, reduces to this form even if the process involves a pressure change, because In a more general form, the first law describes the internal energy with additional terms involving the chemical potential and the number of particles of various types.", "The differential statement for then becomeswhere is the chemical potential per particle for a type  particle, and is the number of such particles.", "The last term can also be written as (with the number of moles of component added to the system and, in this case, the molar chemical potential) or as (with the mass of component added to the system and, in this case, the specific chemical potential).===Characteristic functions and natural state variables===The enthalpy, expresses the thermodynamics of a system in the ''energy representation''.", "As a function of state, its arguments include both one intensive and several extensive state variables.", "The state variables , and are said to be the ''natural state variables'' in this representation.", "They are suitable for describing processes in which they are determined by factors in the surroundings.", "For example, when a virtual parcel of atmospheric air moves to a different altitude, the pressure surrounding it changes, and the process is often so rapid that there is too little time for heat transfer.", "This is the basis of the so-called adiabatic approximation that is used in meteorology.Conjugate with the enthalpy, with these arguments, the other characteristic function of state of a thermodynamic system is its entropy, as a function, of the same list of variables of state, except that the entropy, , is replaced in the list by the enthalpy, .", "It expresses the ''entropy representation''.", "The state variables , , and are said to be the ''natural state variables'' in this representation.", "They are suitable for describing processes in which they are experimentally controlled.", "For example, and can be controlled by allowing heat transfer, and by varying only the external pressure on the piston that sets the volume of the system." ], [ "Physical interpretation", "The term is the energy of the system, and the term can be interpreted as the work that would be required to \"make room\" for the system if the pressure of the environment remained constant.", "When a system, for example, moles of a gas of volume at pressure and temperature , is created or brought to its present state from absolute zero, energy must be supplied equal to its internal energy plus , where is the work done in pushing against the ambient (atmospheric) pressure.In physics and statistical mechanics it may be more interesting to study the internal properties of a constant-volume system and therefore the internal energy is used.In chemistry, experiments are often conducted at constant atmospheric pressure, and the pressure–volume work represents a small, well-defined energy exchange with the atmosphere, so that is the appropriate expression for the heat of reaction.", "For a heat engine, the change in its enthalpy after a full cycle is equal to zero, since the final and initial state are equal." ], [ "Relationship to heat", "In order to discuss the relation between the enthalpy increase and heat supply, we return to the first law for closed systems, with the physics sign convention: , where the heat is supplied by conduction, radiation, Joule heating.", "We apply it to the special case with a constant pressure at the surface.", "In this case the work is given by (where is the pressure at the surface, is the increase of the volume of the system).", "Cases of long range electromagnetic interaction require further state variables in their formulation, and are not considered here.", "In this case the first law reads:Now,SoIf the system is under constant pressure, and consequently, the increase in enthalpy of the system is equal to the heat added:This is why the now-obsolete term ''heat content'' was used in the 19th century." ], [ "Applications", "In thermodynamics, one can calculate enthalpy by determining the requirements for creating a system from \"nothingness\"; the mechanical work required, differs based upon the conditions that obtain during the creation of the thermodynamic system.Energy must be supplied to remove particles from the surroundings to make space for the creation of the system, assuming that the pressure remains constant; this is the The supplied energy must also provide the change in internal energy, which includes activation energies, ionization energies, mixing energies, vaporization energies, chemical bond energies, and so forth.", "Together, these constitute the change in the enthalpy For systems at constant pressure, with no external work done other than the work, the change in enthalpy is the heat received by the system.For a simple system with a constant number of particles at constant pressure, the difference in enthalpy is the maximum amount of thermal energy derivable from an isobaric thermodynamic process.===Heat of reaction===The total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly; the ''enthalpy change'' of a system is measured instead.", "Enthalpy change is defined by the following equation:where:: is the \"enthalpy change\",:: is the final enthalpy of the system (in a chemical reaction, the enthalpy of the products or the system at equilibrium),:: is the initial enthalpy of the system (in a chemical reaction, the enthalpy of the reactants).For an exothermic reaction at constant pressure, the system's change in enthalpy, , is negative due to the products of the reaction having a smaller enthalpy than the reactants, and equals the heat released in the reaction if no electrical or shaft work is done.", "In other words, the overall decrease in enthalpy is achieved by the generation of heat.Conversely, for a constant-pressure endothermic reaction, is positive and equal to the heat ''absorbed'' in the reaction.", "From the definition of enthalpy as the enthalpy change at constant pressure is However for most chemical reactions, the work term is much smaller than the internal energy change , which is approximately equal to .", "As an example, for the combustion of carbon monoxide and Since the differences are so small, reaction enthalpies are often described as reaction energies and analyzed in terms of bond energies.===Specific enthalpy===The specific enthalpy of a uniform system is defined as where is the mass of the system.", "The SI unit for specific enthalpy is joule per kilogram.", "It can be expressed in other specific quantities by where is the specific internal energy, is the pressure, and is specific volume, which is equal to , where is the density.===Enthalpy changes===An enthalpy change describes the change in enthalpy observed in the constituents of a thermodynamic system when undergoing a transformation or chemical reaction.", "It is the difference between the enthalpy after the process has completed, i.e.", "the enthalpy of the products assuming that the reaction goes to completion, and the initial enthalpy of the system, namely the reactants.", "These processes are specified solely by their initial and final states, so that the enthalpy change for the reverse is the negative of that for the forward process.A common standard enthalpy change is the enthalpy of formation, which has been determined for a large number of substances.", "Enthalpy changes are routinely measured and compiled in chemical and physical reference works, such as the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.", "The following is a selection of enthalpy changes commonly recognized in thermodynamics.When used in these recognized terms the qualifier ''change'' is usually dropped and the property is simply termed ''enthalpy of 'process'''.", "Since these properties are often used as reference values it is very common to quote them for a standardized set of environmental parameters, or standard conditions, including:* A pressure of one atmosphere (1 atm or 1013.25 hPa) or 1 bar* A temperature of 25 °C or 298.15 K* A concentration of 1.0 M when the element or compound is present in solution* Elements or compounds in their normal physical states, i.e.", "standard stateFor such standardized values the name of the enthalpy is commonly prefixed with the term ''standard'', e.g.", "''standard enthalpy of formation''.====Chemical properties====Enthalpy of reaction - is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of substance reacts completely.Enthalpy of formation - is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of a compound is formed from its elementary antecedents.Enthalpy of combustion - is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of a substance burns completely with oxygen.Enthalpy of hydrogenation - is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of an unsaturated compound reacts completely with an excess of hydrogen to form a saturated compound.Enthalpy of atomization - is defined as the enthalpy change required to separate one mole of a substance into its constituent atoms completely.Enthalpy of neutralization - is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of water is formed when an acid and a base react.Standard Enthalpy of solution - is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of a solute is dissolved completely in an excess of solvent, so that the solution is at infinite dilution.Standard enthalpy of Denaturation (biochemistry) - is defined as the enthalpy change required to denature one mole of compound.Enthalpy of hydration - is defined as the enthalpy change observed when one mole of gaseous ions are completely dissolved in water forming one mole of aqueous ions.====Physical properties====Enthalpy of fusion - is defined as the enthalpy change required to completely change the state of one mole of substance from solid to liquid.Enthalpy of vaporization - is defined as the enthalpy change required to completely change the state of one mole of substance from liquid to gas.Enthalpy of sublimation - is defined as the enthalpy change required to completely change the state of one mole of substance from solid to gas.Lattice enthalpy - is defined as the energy required to separate one mole of an ionic compound into separated gaseous ions to an infinite distance apart (meaning no force of attraction).Enthalpy of mixing - is defined as the enthalpy change upon mixing of two (non-reacting) chemical substances.===Open systems===In thermodynamic open systems, mass (of substances) may flow in and out of the system boundaries.", "The first law of thermodynamics for open systems states: The increase in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy added to the system by mass flowing in and by heating, minus the amount lost by mass flowing out and in the form of work done by the system:where is the average internal energy entering the system, and is the average internal energy leaving the system.steady, continuous operation, an energy balance applied to an open system equates shaft work performed by the system to heat added plus net enthalpy addedThe region of space enclosed by the boundaries of the open system is usually called a control volume, and it may or may not correspond to physical walls.", "If we choose the shape of the control volume such that all flow in or out occurs perpendicular to its surface, then the flow of mass into the system performs work as if it were a piston of fluid pushing mass into the system, and the system performs work on the flow of mass out as if it were driving a piston of fluid.", "There are then two types of work performed: ''Flow work'' described above, which is performed on the fluid (this is also often called '' work''), and ''mechanical work'' (''shaft work''), which may be performed on some mechanical device such as a turbine or pump.These two types of work are expressed in the equationSubstitution into the equation above for the control volume (cv) yields:The definition of enthalpy, , permits us to use this thermodynamic potential to account for both internal energy and work in fluids for open systems:If we allow also the system boundary to move (e.g.", "due to moving pistons), we get a rather general form of the first law for open systems.In terms of time derivatives, using Newton's dot notation for time derivatives, it reads:with sums over the various places where heat is supplied, mass flows into the system, and boundaries are moving.", "The terms represent enthalpy flows, which can be written aswith the mass flow and the molar flow at position respectively.", "The term represents the rate of change of the system volume at position that results in power done by the system.", "The parameter represents all other forms of power done by the system such as shaft power, but it can also be, say, electric power produced by an electrical power plant.Note that the previous expression holds true only if the kinetic energy flow rate is conserved between system inlet and outlet.", "Otherwise, it has to be included in the enthalpy balance.", "During steady-state operation of a device (''see turbine, pump, and engine''), the average may be set equal to zero.", "This yields a useful expression for the average power generation for these devices in the absence of chemical reactions:where the angle brackets denote time averages.", "The technical importance of the enthalpy is directly related to its presence in the first law for open systems, as formulated above." ], [ "Diagrams", " diagram of nitrogen.", "The red curve at the left is the melting curve.", "The red dome represents the two-phase region with the low-entropy side the saturated liquid and the high-entropy side the saturated gas.", "The black curves give the relation along isobars.", "The pressures are indicated in bar.", "The blue curves are isenthalps (curves of constant enthalpy).", "The values are indicated in blue in .", "The specific points '''a''', '''b''', etc., are treated in the main text.The enthalpy values of important substances can be obtained using commercial software.", "Practically all relevant material properties can be obtained either in tabular or in graphical form.", "There are many types of diagrams, such as diagrams, which give the specific enthalpy as function of temperature for various pressures, and diagrams, which give as function of for various .", "One of the most common diagrams is the temperature–specific entropy diagram ( diagram).", "It gives the melting curve and saturated liquid and vapor values together with isobars and isenthalps.", "These diagrams are powerful tools in the hands of the thermal engineer.===Some basic applications===The points  through in the figure play a role in the discussion in this section.", ":Point K bar 300 1 6.85 461 380 2 6.85 530 300 200 5.16 430 270 1 6.79 430 108 13 3.55 100 77.2 1 3.75 100 77.2 1 2.83 28 77.2 1 5.41 230Points  and are saturated liquids, and point  is a saturated gas.===Throttling===Schematic diagram of a throttling in the steady state.", "Fluid enters the system (dotted rectangle) at point 1 and leaves it at point 2.The mass flow is  .One of the simple applications of the concept of enthalpy is the so-called throttling process, also known as Joule–Thomson expansion.", "It concerns a steady adiabatic flow of a fluid through a flow resistance (valve, porous plug, or any other type of flow resistance) as shown in the figure.", "This process is very important, since it is at the heart of domestic refrigerators, where it is responsible for the temperature drop between ambient temperature and the interior of the refrigerator.", "It is also the final stage in many types of liquefiers.For a steady state flow regime, the enthalpy of the system (dotted rectangle) has to be constant.", "HenceSince the mass flow is constant, the specific enthalpies at the two sides of the flow resistance are the same:that is, the enthalpy per unit mass does not change during the throttling.", "The consequences of this relation can be demonstrated using the diagram above.", "====Example 1====Point '''c''' is at 200 bar and room temperature (300 K).", "A Joule–Thomson expansion from 200 bar to 1 bar follows a curve of constant enthalpy of roughly 425  (not shown in the diagram) lying between the 400 and 450  isenthalps and ends in point '''d''', which is at a temperature of about 270 K .", "Hence the expansion from 200 bar to 1 bar cools nitrogen from 300 K to 270 K .", "In the valve, there is a lot of friction, and a lot of entropy is produced, but still the final temperature is below the starting value.====Example 2====Point '''e''' is chosen so that it is on the saturated liquid line with It corresponds roughly with and Throttling from this point to a pressure of 1 bar ends in the two-phase region (point '''f''').", "This means that a mixture of gas and liquid leaves the throttling valve.", "Since the enthalpy is an extensive parameter, the enthalpy in is equal to the enthalpy in multiplied by the liquid fraction in plus the enthalpy in multiplied by the gas fraction in SoWith numbers:: so This means that the mass fraction of the liquid in the liquid–gas mixture that leaves the throttling valve is 64%.===Compressors===Schematic diagram of a compressor in the steady state.", "Fluid enters the system (dotted rectangle) at point 1 and leaves it at point 2.The mass flow is .", "A power is applied and a heat flow is released to the surroundings at ambient temperature  .A power is applied e.g.", "as electrical power.", "If the compression is adiabatic, the gas temperature goes up.", "In the reversible case it would be at constant entropy, which corresponds with a vertical line in the diagram.", "For example, compressing nitrogen from 1 bar (point '''a''') to 2 bar (point '''b''') would result in a temperature increase from 300 K to 380 K. In order to let the compressed gas exit at ambient temperature , heat exchange, e.g.", "by cooling water, is necessary.", "In the ideal case the compression is isothermal.", "The average heat flow to the surroundings is .", "Since the system is in the steady state the first law givesThe minimal power needed for the compression is realized if the compression is reversible.", "In that case the second law of thermodynamics for open systems givesEliminating gives for the minimal powerFor example, compressing 1 kg of nitrogen from 1 bar to 200 bar costs at least :With the data, obtained with the diagram, we find a value of The relation for the power can be further simplified by writing it asWith: this results in the final relation" ], [ "History and etymology", "The term ''enthalpy'' was coined relatively late in the history of thermodynamics, in the early 20th century.", "Energy was introduced in a modern sense by Thomas Young in 1802, while entropy was coined by Rudolf Clausius in 1865.", "''Energy'' uses the root of the Greek word (''ergon''), meaning \"work\", to express the idea of capacity to perform work.", "''Entropy'' uses the Greek word (''tropē'') meaning ''transformation'' or ''turning''.", "''Enthalpy'' uses the root of the Greek word (''thalpos'') \"warmth, heat\".The term expresses the obsolete concept of ''heat content'', as refers to the amount of heat gained in a process at constant pressure only, but not in the general case when pressure is variable.", "J.W.", "Gibbs used the term \"a heat function for constant pressure\" for clarity.Introduction of the concept of \"heat content\" is associated with Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron and Rudolf Clausius (Clausius–Clapeyron relation, 1850).The term ''enthalpy'' first appeared in print in 1909.It is attributed to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who most likely introduced it orally the year before, at the first meeting of the Institute of Refrigeration in Paris.", "It gained currency only in the 1920s, notably with the ''Mollier Steam Tables and Diagrams'', published in 1927.Until the 1920s, the symbol was used, somewhat inconsistently, for \"heat\" in general.", "The definition of as strictly limited to enthalpy or \"heat content at constant pressure\" was formally proposed by A.W.", "Porter in 1922." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "* Calorimetry* Calorimeter* Departure function* Hess's law* Isenthalpic process* Laws of thermodynamics* Stagnation enthalpy* Standard enthalpy of formation* Thermodynamic databases for pure substances" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erdoğan Atalay" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erdoğan Atalay''' (born 22 September 1966) is a German actor.", "He is known for his role as police detective Semir Gerkhan in ''Alarm für Cobra 11 - Die Autobahnpolizei''." ], [ "Early life and career", "Atalay was born in Hanover, West Germany, to a Turkish father and German mother.", "He was a member of the Theater-AG at the IGS Garbsen.", "At age 18, he made his first appearance as a supporting role in \"Aladdin and the Magic Lamp\" at the National Theatre of Hanover before studying acting at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hamburg.", "Afterwards he took on guest roles in several German television series such as ''Music Groschenweise'', ''Einsatz für Lohbeck'', ''Doppelter Einsatz'' and ''Die Wache''.In March 1996, Action Concept cast Atalay in what would become his breakthrough role, starring as Semir Gerkhan, a police detective of Turkish origin.", "Atalay co-wrote the screenplay for one of the series' episodes, titled \"Checkmate,\" and is a consulting producer for the series as of 2016.In 2005, Atalay published a short story, \"Die Türkei ist da oben\" (\"Turkey is Up There\"), in the German-Turkish anthology ''Was lebbt du?''.", "In September 2012 he shot together with Ilka Bessin (Cindy from Marzahn) the short film \"Alarm for Cindy 11\", a parody of Alarm for Cobra 11.The short film was broadcast on September 15, 2012 in the program." ], [ "Personal life", "Atalay's first marriage was to film and theatre actress Astrid Pollmann in 2004; the couple separated in late 2009.They have one daughter, Pauletta, who has also starred alongside her father in ''Alarm für Cobra 11'' as Ayda Gerkhan, the middle child of Semir Gerkhan.", "His second child was born in mid-2012 to makeup artist and manager Katja Ohneck, with whom he is married as of 2017." ], [ "Filmography", "'''Film'''*1997: Sperling und der falsche Freund*1998: Der Clown*2000: Liebe Pur*2002: *2006: Hammer und Hart*2011: *2015: Macho Man*2018: Asphaltgorillas'''TV'''*1990: Musik Groschenweise*1994: Die Wache*1995: Doppelter Einsatz*1996–present: Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei*1999–2000: Hinter Gittern – Der Frauenknast (3 episodes)*2003: *2010: C.I.S.", "– Chaoten im Sondereinsatz*2012: SOKO 5113*2012: Cindy aus Marzahn und die jungen Wilden*2013: Mordkommission Istanbul*2016: SOKO Stuttgart – Fluch des Geldes*since 2019: Die Martina Hill Show (7 episodes, ''Alarm für Mutti 11'')'''Theatre'''*1984: Aladdin and the Magic Lamp (Staatstheater Hannover)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Official MySpace" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ennio Morricone" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ennio Morricone''' (; 10 November 19286 July 2020) was an Italian composer, orchestrator, conductor, trumpeter, and pianist who wrote music in a wide range of styles.", "With more than 400 scores for cinema and television, as well as more than 100 classical works, Morricone is widely considered one of the most prolific and greatest film composers of all time.", "He has received numerous accolades including two Academy Awards, three Grammy Awards, three Golden Globes, six BAFTAs, ten David di Donatello, eleven , two European Film Awards, the Golden Lion Honorary Award, and the Polar Music Prize in 2010.His filmography includes more than 70 award-winning films, all Sergio Leone's films since ''A Fistful of Dollars'', all Giuseppe Tornatore's films since ''Cinema Paradiso'', Dario Argento's ''Animal Trilogy'', as well as ''The Battle of Algiers'' (1968), ''1900'' (1976), ''La Cage aux Folles'' (1978), ''Le Professionnel'' (1981), ''The Thing'' (1982), and ''Tie Me Up!", "Tie Me Down!''", "(1989).", "He received Academy Award for Best Original Score nominations for ''Days of Heaven'' (1978), ''The Mission'' (1986), ''The Untouchables'' (1987), ''Bugsy'' (1991), ''Malèna'' (2000) and ''The Hateful Eight'' (2015), winning for the latter.", "He won the Academy Honorary Award in 2007.His score to ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966) is regarded as one of the most recognizable and influential soundtracks in history.", "It was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.", "After playing the trumpet in jazz bands in the 1940s, he became a studio arranger for RCA Victor and in 1955 started ghost writing for film and theatre.", "Throughout his career, he composed music for artists such as Paul Anka, Mina, Milva, Zucchero, and Andrea Bocelli.", "From 1960 to 1975, Morricone gained international fame for composing music for Westerns and—with an estimated 10 million copies sold—''Once Upon a Time in the West'' is one of the best-selling scores worldwide.", "From 1966 to 1980, he was a main member of Il Gruppo, one of the first experimental composers collectives, and in 1969 he co-founded Forum Music Village, a prestigious recording studio.", "He continued to compose music for European productions, such as ''Marco Polo'', ''La piovra'', ''Nostromo'', ''Fateless'', ''Karol'', and ''En mai, fais ce qu'il te plait''.", "Morricone composed for Hollywood directors such as Don Siegel, Mike Nichols, Brian De Palma, Barry Levinson, Oliver Stone, Warren Beatty, John Carpenter, and Quentin Tarantino.", "He has also worked with directors such as Bernardo Bertolucci, Mauro Bolognini, Giuliano Montaldo, Roland Joffé, Roman Polanski, Henri Verneuil, Mario Bava, Lucio Fulci, Umberto Lenzi, Gillo Pontecorvo, and Pier Paolo Pasolini.", "His best-known compositions include \"The Ecstasy of Gold\", \"Se telefonando\", \"Man with a Harmonica\", \"Here's to You\", \"Chi Mai\", \"Gabriel's Oboe\", and \"E Più Ti Penso\".", "He has influenced many artists including Hans Zimmer, Danger Mouse, Dire Straits, Muse, Metallica, Fields of the Nephilim, and Radiohead." ], [ "Early life and education", "Morricone was born in Rome, the son of Libera Ridolfi and Mario Morricone, a musician.", "At the time of his birth Italy was under fascist rule.", "Morricone had four siblings — Adriana, Aldo, Maria, and Franca — and lived in Trastevere in the centre of Rome.", "His father was a professional trumpeter who performed in light-music orchestras while his mother set up a small textile business.", "During his early schooldays, Morricone was also a classmate of his later collaborator Sergio Leone.Morricone's father first taught him to read music and to play several instruments.", "He entered the Saint Cecilia Conservatory to take trumpet lessons under the guidance of Umberto Semproni.", "He formally entered the conservatory in 1940 at age 12, enrolling in a four-year harmony program that he completed within six months.", "He studied the trumpet, composition, and choral music under the direction of Goffredo Petrassi, to whom Morricone would later dedicate concert pieces.", "Goffredo Petrassi, Morricone's teacherIn 1941 Morricone was chosen among the students of the Saint Cecilia Conservatory to be a part of the Orchestra of the Opera, directed by Carlo Zecchi on the occasion of a tour of the Veneto region.", "He received his diploma in trumpet in 1946, continuing to work in classical composition and arrangement.", "Morricone received the ''Diploma in Instrumentation for Band Arrangement'' with a mark of 9/10 in 1952.His studies concluded at the Conservatory of Santa Cecilia in 1954 when he obtained a final 9.5/10 in his ''Diploma in Composition'' under Petrassi." ], [ "Career", "===First compositions===Morricone wrote his first compositions when he was six years old and he was encouraged to develop his natural talents.", "In 1946, he composed \"Il Mattino\" (\"The Morning\") for voice and piano on a text by Fukuko, first in a group of seven \"youth\" Lieder.In the following years, he continued to write music for the theatre as well as classical music for voice and piano, such as \"Imitazione\", based on a text by Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi, \"Intimità\", based on a text by Olinto Dini, \"Distacco I\" and \"Distacco II\" with words by R. Gnoli, \"Oboe Sommerso\" for baritone and five instruments with words by poet Salvatore Quasimodo, and \"Verrà la Morte\", for alto and piano, based on a text by novelist Cesare Pavese.In 1953, Morricone was asked by Gorni Kramer and Lelio Luttazzi to write an arrangement for some medleys in an American style for a series of evening radio shows.", "The composer continued with the composition of other 'serious' classical pieces, thus demonstrating the flexibility and eclecticism that always has been an integral part of his character.", "Many orchestral and chamber compositions date, in fact, from the period between 1954 and 1959: ''Musica per archi e pianoforte'' (1954), ''Invenzione, Canone e Ricercare per piano''; ''Sestetto per flauto, oboe, fagotto, violino, viola, e violoncello'' (1955), ''Dodici Variazione per oboe, violoncello, e piano''; ''Trio per clarinetto, corno, e violoncello''; ''Variazione su un tema di Frescobaldi'' (1956); ''Quattro pezzi per chitarra'' (1957); ''Distanze per violino, violoncello, e piano''; ''Musica per undici violini, Tre Studi per flauto, clarinetto, e fagotto'' (1958); and the ''Concerto per orchestra'' (1957), dedicated to his teacher Goffredo Petrassi.Morricone soon gained popularity by writing his first background music for radio dramas and quickly moved into film.====Composing for radio, television, and pop artists====Morricone's career as an arranger began in 1950, by arranging the piece ''Mamma Bianca'' (Narciso Parigi).", "On occasion of the \"Anno Santo\" (Holy Year), he arranged a long group of popular songs of devotion for radio broadcasting.In 1956, Morricone started to support his family by playing in a jazz band and arranging pop songs for the Italian broadcasting service RAI.", "He was hired by RAI in 1958 but quit his job on his first day at work when he was told that broadcasting of music composed by employees was forbidden by a company rule.", "Subsequently, Morricone became a top studio arranger at RCA Victor, working with Renato Rascel, Rita Pavone, Domenico Modugno, and Mario Lanza.Throughout his career, Morricone composed songs for several national and international jazz and pop artists, including Gianni Morandi (''Go Kart Twist'', 1962), Alberto Lionello (''La donna che vale'', 1959), Edoardo Vianello (''Ornella'', 1960; ''Cicciona cha-cha'', 1960; ''Faccio finta di dormire'', 1961; ''T'ho conosciuta'', 1963; and also ''Pinne, fucine ed occhiali'', ''I Watussi'' and ''Guarda come dondolo''), Nora Orlandi (''Arianna'', 1960), Jimmy Fontana (''Twist no.", "9''; ''Nicole'', 1962), Rita Pavone (''Come te non c'e' nessuno'' and ''Pel di carota'' from 1962, arranged by Luis Bacalov), Catherine Spaak (''Penso a te''; ''Questi vent'anni miei'', 1964), Luigi Tenco (''Quello che conta''; ''Tra tanta gente''; 1962), Gino Paoli (''Nel corso'' from 1963, written by Morricone with Paoli), Renato Rascel (''Scirocco'', 1964), Paul Anka (''Ogni Volta''), Amii Stewart, Rosy Armen (''L'Amore Gira''), Milva (''Ridevi'', ''Metti Una Sera A Cena''), Françoise Hardy (''Je changerais d'avis'', 1966), Mireille Mathieu (''Mon ami de toujours''; ''Pas vu, pas pris'', 1971; ''J'oublie la pluie et le soleil'', 1974), and Demis Roussos (''I Like The World'', 1970).In 1963, the composer co-wrote (with Roby Ferrante) the music for the composition \"Ogni volta\" (\"Every Time\"), a song that was performed by Paul Anka for the first time during the Festival di Sanremo in 1964.This song was arranged and conducted by Morricone and sold more than three million copies worldwide, including one million copies in Italy alone.Another success was his composition \"Se telefonando\".", "Performed by Mina, it was a track on ''Studio Uno 66'', the 4th studio album by Mina.", "Morricone's sophisticated arrangement of \"Se telefonando\" was a combination of melodic trumpet lines, Hal Blaine–style drumming, a string set, a 1960s Europop female choir, and intensive subsonic-sounding trombones.", "The Italian Hitparade No.", "7 song had eight transitions of tonality building tension throughout the chorus.", "During the following decades, the song was recorded by several performers in Italy and abroad including covers by Françoise Hardy and Iva Zanicchi (1966), Delta V (2005), Vanessa and the O's (2007), and Neil Hannon (2008).", "''Françoise Hardy – Mon amie la rose'' site in the reader's poll conducted by the newspaper'' la Repubblica'' to celebrate Mina's 70th anniversary in 2010, 30,000 voters picked the track as the best song ever recorded by Mina.In 1987, Morricone co-wrote ''It Couldn't Happen Here'' with the Pet Shop Boys.", "Other compositions for international artists include: ''La metà di me'' and ''Immagina'' (1988) by Ruggero Raimondi, ''Libera l'amore'' (1989) performed by Zucchero, ''Love Affair'' (1994) by k.d.", "lang, ''Ha fatto un sogno'' (1997) by Antonello Venditti, ''Di Più'' (1997) by Tiziana Tosca Donati, ''Come un fiume tu'' (1998), ''Un Canto'' (1998) and ''Conradian'' (2006) by Andrea Bocelli, ''Ricordare'' (1998) and ''Salmo'' (2000) by Angelo Branduardi, and ''My heart and I'' (2001) by Sting.====First film scores====After graduation in 1954, Morricone started to write and arrange music as a ghost writer for films credited to already well-known composers, while also arranging for many light music orchestras of the RAI television network, working especially with Armando Trovajoli, Alessandro Cicognini, and Carlo Savina.", "He occasionally adopted Anglicized pseudonyms, such as '''Dan Savio''' and '''Leo Nichols'''.In 1959, Morricone was the conductor (and uncredited co-composer) for Mario Nascimbene's score to ''Morte di un amico'' (''Death of a Friend''), an Italian drama directed by Franco Rossi.", "In the same year, he composed music for the theatre show ''Il lieto fine'' by Luciano Salce.1961 marked his real film debut with Luciano Salce's ''Il Federale (The Fascist)''.", "In an interview with American composer Fred Karlin, Morricone discussed his beginnings, stating, \"My first films were light comedies or costume movies that required simple musical scores that were easily created, a genre that I never completely abandoned even when I went on to much more important films with major directors\".With ''Il Federale'' Morricone began a long-run collaboration with Luciano Salce.", "In 1962, Morricone composed the jazz-influenced score for Salce's comedy ''La voglia matta (Crazy Desire)''.", "That year Morricone also arranged Italian singer Edoardo Vianello's summer hit \"Pinne, fucile, e occhiali\", a cha-cha song, peppered with added water effects, unusual instrumental sounds and unexpected stops and starts.Morricone wrote works for the concert hall in a more avant-garde style.", "Some of these have been recorded, such as ''Ut'', a trumpet concerto dedicated to Mauro Maur.===The Group and New Consonance===From 1964 up to their eventual disbandment in 1980, Morricone was part of ''Gruppo di Improvvisazione Nuova Consonanza'' (G.I.N.C.", "), a group of composers who performed and recorded avant-garde free improvisations.", "The Rome-based avant-garde ensemble was dedicated to the development of improvisation and new music methods.", "The ensemble functioned as a laboratory of sorts, working with anti-musical systems and sound techniques in an attempt to redefine the new music ensemble and explore \"New Consonance\".Known as \"The Group\" or \"Il Gruppo\", they released seven albums across the Deutsche Grammophon, RCA, and Cramps labels: ''Gruppo di Improvvisazione Nuova Consonanza'' (1966), ''The Private Sea of Dreams'' (1967), ''Improvisationen'' (1968), ''The Feedback'' (1970), ''Improvvisazioni a Formazioni Variate'' (1973), ''Nuova Consonanza'' (1975), and ''Musica su Schemi'' (1976).", "Perhaps the most famous of these is their album entitled ''The Feed-back'', which combines free jazz and avant-garde classical music with funk; the album frequently is sampled by hip hop DJs and is considered to be one of the most collectable records in existence, often fetching more than $1,000 at auction.Morricone in 1978 with Gruppo di Improvvisazione Nuova ConsonanzaMorricone played a key role in The Group and was among the core members in its revolving line-up; in addition to serving as their trumpet player, he directed them on many occasions and they can be heard on a large number of his scores.", "Held in high regard in avant-garde music circles, they are considered to be the first experimental composers collective, their only peers being the British improvisation collective AMM.", "Their influence can be heard in free improvising ensembles from the European movements including the Evan Parker Electro-Acoustic Ensemble, the Swiss electronic free improvisation group Voice Crack, John Zorn, and in the techniques of modern classical music and avant-garde jazz groups.", "The ensemble's groundbreaking work informed their work in composition.", "The ensemble also performed in varying capacities with Morricone, contributing to some of his 1960s and 1970s Italian soundtracks, including ''A Quiet Place in the Country'' (1969) and ''Cold Eyes of Fear'' (1971).===Film music genres======= Comedy ====Morricone's earliest scores were Italian light comedy and costume pictures, where he learned to write simple, memorable themes.", "During the 1960s and 1970s he composed the scores for comedies such as ''Eighteen in the Sun'' (''Diciottenni al sole'', 1962), ''Il Successo'' (1963), Lina Wertmüller's ''I basilischi'' (''The Basilisks''/''The Lizards'', 1963), ''Slalom'' (1965), ''Menage all'italiana'' (''Menage Italian Style'', 1965), ''How I Learned to Love Women'' (''Come imparai ad amare le donne'', 1966), ''Her Harem'' (''L'harem'', 1967), ''A Fine Pair'' (''Ruba al prossimo tuo'', 1968), ''L'Alibi'' (1969), ''This Kind of Love'' (''Questa specie d'amore'', 1972), ''Winged Devils'' (''Forza \"G\"'', 1972), and ''Fiorina la vacca'' (1972).His best-known scores for comedies includes ''La Cage aux Folles'' (1978) and ''La Cage aux Folles II'' (1980), both directed by Édouard Molinaro, ''Il ladrone'' (''The Good Thief'', 1980), Georges Lautner's ''La Cage aux Folles 3: The Wedding'' (1985), Pedro Almodóvar's ''Tie Me Up!", "Tie Me Down!''", "(1990) and Warren Beatty's ''Bulworth'' (1998).", "Morricone never ceased to arrange and write music for comedies.", "In 2007, he composed a lighthearted score for the Italian romantic comedy ''Tutte le Donne della mia Vita'' by Simona Izzo, the director who co-wrote the Morricone-scored religious mini-series ''Il Papa Buono''.==== Westerns ====Although his first films were undistinguished, Morricone's arrangement of an American folk song intrigued director and former schoolmate Sergio Leone.", "Before being associated with Leone, Morricone already had composed some music for less-known western movies such as ''Duello nel Texas'' (aka ''Gunfight at Red Sands'') (1963).", "In 1962, Morricone met American folksinger Peter Tevis, with the two collaborating on a version of Woody Guthrie's ''Pastures of Plenty''.", "Tevis is credited with singing the lyrics of Morricone's songs such as \"A Gringo Like Me\" (from ''Gunfight at Red Sands'') and \"Lonesome Billy\" (from ''Bullets Don't Argue'').", "Tevis later recorded a vocal version of ''A Fistful of Dollars'' that was not used in the film.", "'''Association with Sergio Leone'''The turning point in Morricone's career took place in 1964, the year in which his third child, Andrea Morricone, who would also become a film composer, was born.", "Film director and former schoolmate Sergio Leone hired Morricone, and together they created a distinctive score to accompany Leone's different version of the Western, ''A Fistful of Dollars'' (1964).", "'''The Dollars Trilogy'''Because budget strictures limited Morricone's access to a full orchestra, he used gunshots, cracking whips, whistle, voices, jew's harp, trumpets, and the new Fender electric guitar, instead of orchestral arrangements of Western standards à la John Ford.", "Morricone used his special effects to punctuate and comically tweak the action—cluing in the audience to the taciturn man's ironic stance.", "As memorable as Leone's close-ups, harsh violence, and black comedy, Morricone's work helped to expand the musical possibilities of film scoring.", "Initially, Morricone was billed on the film as Dan Savio, a name they had used on Duello nel Texas to help its appeal on the international market.", "''A Fistful of Dollars'' came out in Italy in 1964 and was released in America three years later, greatly popularising the so-called Spaghetti Western genre.", "For the American release, Sergio Leone followed Morricone and Massimo Dallamano's lead and decided to adopt an American-sounding name, Bob Robertson.", "Over the film's theatrical release, it grossed more than any other Italian film up to that point.", "The film debuted in the United States in January 1967, where it grossed for the year.", "It eventually grossed $14.5 million in its American release, against its budget of 200,000.With the score of ''A Fistful of Dollars'', Morricone began his 20-year collaboration with his childhood friend Alessandro Alessandroni and his Cantori Moderni.", "Alessandroni provided the whistling and the twanging guitar on the film scores, while his Cantori Moderni were a flexible troupe of modern singers.", "Morricone in particular drew on the solo soprano of the group, Edda Dell'Orso, at the height of her powers \"an extraordinary voice at my disposal\".The composer subsequently scored Leone's other two ''Dollars Trilogy'' (or ''Man with No Name Trilogy'') spaghetti westerns: ''For a Few Dollars More'' (1965) and ''The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly'' (1966).", "All three films starred the American actor Clint Eastwood as ''The Man With No Name'' and depicted Leone's own intense vision of the mythical West.", "Morricone commented in 2007: \"Some of the music was written before the film, which was unusual.", "Leone's films were made like that because he wanted the music to be an important part of it; he kept the scenes longer because he did not want the music to end.\"", "According to Morricone this explains \"why the films are so slow\".Despite the small film budgets, the ''Dollars Trilogy'' was a box-office success.", "The available budget for ''The Good, the Bad, and The Ugly'' was about 1.2 million, but it became the most successful film of the ''Dollars Trilogy'', grossing 25.1 million in the United States and more than Lire 2.3 billion (1.2 million EUR) in Italy alone.", "Morricone's score became a major success and sold more than three million copies worldwide.", "On 14 August 1968 the original score was certified by the RIAA with a golden record for the sale of 500,000 copies in the United States alone.The main theme to ''The Good, the Bad, and The Ugly'', also titled \"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly\", was a hit in 1968 for Hugo Montenegro, whose rendition was a No.2 Billboard pop single in the U.S. and a U.K. No.1 single (for four weeks from mid-November that year).", "\"The Ecstasy of Gold\" became one of Morricone's best-known compositions.", "The opening scene of Jeff Tremaine's ''Jackass Number Two'' (2006), in which the cast is chased through a suburban neighbourhood by bulls, is accompanied by this piece.", "While punk rock band The Ramones used \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" as a closing theme during their live performances, Metallica uses \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" as the introductory music for its concerts since 1983.This composition is also included on Metallica's live symphonic album ''S&M'' as well as the live album ''Live Shit: Binge & Purge''.", "An instrumental metal cover by Metallica (with minimal vocals by lead singer James Hetfield) appeared on the 2007 Morricone tribute album ''We All Love Ennio Morricone''.", "This metal version was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category of Best Rock Instrumental Performance.", "In 2009, the Grammy Award-winning hip-hop artist Coolio extensively sampled the theme for his song \"Change\".==== ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' and others ====Ennio Morricone while recording a soundtrack with his favorite trumpet player and friend leftSubsequent to the success of the ''Dollars trilogy'', Morricone also composed the scores for ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' (1968) and Leone's last credited western film ''A Fistful of Dynamite'' (1971), as well as the score for ''My Name Is Nobody'' (1973).Morricone's score for ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' is one of the best-selling original instrumental scores in the world today, with as many as 10 million copies sold, including one million copies in France, and more than 800,000 copies in the Netherlands.The collaboration with Leone is considered one of the exemplary collaborations between a director and a composer.", "Morricone's last score for Leone was for his last film, the gangster drama ''Once Upon a Time in America'' (1984).", "Leone died on 30 April 1989 of a heart attack at the age of 60.Before his death in 1989, Leone was part-way through planning a film on the Siege of Leningrad, set during World War II.", "By 1989, Leone had been able to acquire 100 million in financing from independent backers for the war epic.", "He had convinced Morricone to compose the film score.", "The project was cancelled when Leone died two days before he was to officially sign on for the film.In early 2003, Italian filmmaker Giuseppe Tornatore announced he would direct a film called ''Leningrad''.", "The film has yet to go into production and Morricone was cagey as to details on account of Tornatore's superstitious nature.==== Association with Sergio Corbucci and Sergio Sollima ====Two years after the start of his collaboration with Sergio Leone, Morricone also started to score music for another Spaghetti Western director, Sergio Corbucci.", "The composer wrote music for Corbucci's ''Navajo Joe'' (1966), ''The Hellbenders'' (1967), ''The Mercenary/The Professional Gun'' (1968), ''The Great Silence'' (1968), ''Compañeros'' (1970), ''Sonny and Jed'' (1972), and ''What Am I Doing in the Middle of the Revolution?''", "(1972).In addition, Morricone composed music for the western films by Sergio Sollima, ''The Big Gundown'' (with Lee Van Cleef, 1966), ''Face to Face'' (1967), and ''Run, Man, Run'' (1968), as well as the 1970 crime thriller ''Violent City'' (with Charles Bronson) and the poliziottesco film ''Revolver'' (1973).==== Other westerns ====Other relevant scores for less popular Spaghetti Westerns include ''Duello nel Texas'' (1963), ''Bullets Don't Argue'' (1964), ''A Pistol for Ringo'' (1965), ''The Return of Ringo'' (1965), ''Seven Guns for the MacGregors'' (1966), ''The Hills Run Red'' (1966), Giulio Petroni's ''Death Rides a Horse'' (1967) and ''Tepepa'' (1968), ''A Bullet for the General'' (1967), ''Guns for San Sebastian'' (with Charles Bronson and Anthony Quinn, 1968), ''A Sky Full of Stars for a Roof'' (1968), ''The Five Man Army'' (1969), Don Siegel's ''Two Mules for Sister Sara'' (1970), ''Life Is Tough, Eh Providence?''", "(1972), and ''Buddy Goes West'' (1981).====Dramas and political movies====leftWith Leone's films, Ennio Morricone's name had been put firmly on the map.", "Most of Morricone's film scores of the 1960s were composed outside the Spaghetti Western genre, while still using Alessandroni's team.", "Their music included the themes for ''Il Malamondo'' (1964), ''Slalom'' (1965), and ''Listen, Let's Make Love'' (1967).", "In 1968, Morricone reduced his work outside the movie business and wrote scores for 20 films in the same year.", "The scores included psychedelic accompaniment for Mario Bava's superhero romp ''Danger: Diabolik'' (1968).Morricone collaborated with Marco Bellocchio (''Fists in the Pocket'', 1965), Gillo Pontecorvo (''The Battle of Algiers'' (1966), and ''Queimada!''", "(1969) with Marlon Brando), Roberto Faenza (H2S, 1968), Giuliano Montaldo (''Sacco e Vanzetti'', 1971), Giuseppe Patroni Griffi ('''Tis Pity She's a Whore'', 1971), Mauro Bolognini (''Drama of the Rich'', 1974), Umberto Lenzi (''Almost Human'', 1974), Pier Paolo Pasolini (''Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom'', 1975), Bernardo Bertolucci (''Novecento'', 1976), and Tinto Brass (''The Key'', 1983).In 1970, Morricone wrote the score for ''Violent City''.", "That same year, he received his first for the music in ''Metti una sera a cena'' (Giuseppe Patroni Griffi, 1969) and his second only a year later for ''Sacco e Vanzetti'' (Giuliano Montaldo, 1971), in which he collaborated with the legendary American folk singer and activist Joan Baez.", "His soundtrack for ''Sacco e Vanzetti'' contains another well-known composition by Morricone, the folk song \"Here's to You\", sung by Baez.", "For the writing of the lyrics, Baez was inspired by a letter from Bartolomeo Vanzetti: ''\"Father, yes, I am a prisoner / Fear not to relay my crime\"''.", "The song was later included in movies such as ''The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou''.==== Giallo and Horror ====Morricone's eclecticism found its way to films in the horror genre, such as the giallo thrillers of Dario Argento, from ''The Bird with the Crystal Plumage'' (1970), ''The Cat o' Nine Tails'' (1971), and ''Four Flies on Grey Velvet'' (1971) to ''The Stendhal Syndrome'' (1996) and ''The Phantom of the Opera'' (1998).", "His other horror scores include ''Nightmare Castle'' (1965), ''A Quiet Place in the Country'' (1968), ''The Antichrist'' (1974), and ''Night Train Murders'' (1975).In addition, Morricone composed music for many popular and cult Italian giallo films, such as ''Unknown Woman'' (1969), ''Forbidden Photos of a Lady Above Suspicion'' (1970), ''A Lizard in a Woman's Skin'' (1971), ''Cold Eyes of Fear'' (1971), ''The Fifth Cord'' (1971), ''Short Night of Glass Dolls'' (1971), ''The Black Belly of the Tarantula'' (1971) ''My Dear Killer'' (1972), ''What Have You Done to Solange?''", "(1972), ''Who Saw Her Die?''", "(1972), ''Spasmo'' (1974), and ''Autopsy'' (1975).In 1977 Morricone scored John Boorman's ''Exorcist II: The Heretic'' and Alberto De Martino's apocalyptic horror film ''Holocaust 2000'', starring Kirk Douglas.", "In 1982 he composed the score for John Carpenter's science fiction horror movie ''The Thing''.", "Morricone's main theme for the film was reflected in Marco Beltrami's film's score of prequel of the 1982 film, which was released in 2011.===Hollywood career===The ''Dollars Trilogy'' was not released in the United States until 1967 when United Artists, who had already enjoyed success distributing the British-produced James Bond films in the United States, decided to release Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Westerns.", "The American release gave Morricone an exposure in America and his film music became quite popular in the United States.One of Morricone's first contributions to an American director concerned his music for the religious epic film ''The Bible: In the Beginning...'' by John Huston.", "According to Sergio Miceli's book ''Morricone, la musica, il cinema'', Morricone wrote about 15 or 16 minutes of music, which were recorded for a screen test and conducted by Franco Ferrara.", "At first Morricone's teacher Goffredo Petrassi had been engaged to write the score for the great big-budget epic, but Huston preferred another composer.", "RCA Records then proposed Morricone who was under contract with them, but a conflict between the film's producer Dino De Laurentiis and RCA occurred.", "The producer wanted to have exclusive rights for the soundtrack, while RCA still had the monopoly on Morricone at that time and did not want to release the composer.", "Subsequently, Morricone's work was rejected because he did not get permission from RCA to work for Dino De Laurentiis alone.", "The composer reused the parts of his unused score for ''The Bible: In the Beginning'' in such films as ''The Return of Ringo'' (1965) by Duccio Tessari and Alberto Negrin's ''The Secret of the Sahara'' (1987).Morricone never left Rome to compose his music and never learned to speak English.", "But given that the composer always worked in a wide field of composition genres, from \"absolute music\", which he always produced, to \"applied music\", working as orchestrator as well as conductor in the recording field, and then as a composer for theatre, radio, and cinema, the impression arises that he never really cared that much about his standing in the eyes of Hollywood.====1970–1985: From ''Two Mules'' to ''Red Sonja''====In 1970, Morricone composed the music for Don Siegel's ''Two Mules for Sister Sara'', an American-Mexican western film starring Shirley MacLaine and Clint Eastwood.", "The same year the composer also delivered the title theme ''The Men from Shiloh'' for the American Western television series The Virginian.In 1974–1975 Morricone wrote music for ''Spazio 1999'', an Italian-produced compilation movie made to launch the Italian-British television series ''Space: 1999'', while the original episodes featured music by Barry Gray.", "A soundtrack album was only released on CD in 2016 and on LP in 2017.In 1975 he scored the George Kennedy revenge thriller ''The \"Human\" Factor'', which was the final film of director Edward Dmytryk.", "Two years later he composed the score for the sequel to William Friedkin's 1973 film ''The Exorcist'', directed by John Boorman: ''Exorcist II: The Heretic''.", "The horror film was a major disappointment at the box office.", "The film grossed 30,749,142 in the United States.In 1978, the composer worked with Terrence Malick for ''Days of Heaven'' starring Richard Gere, for which he earned his first nomination at the Oscars for Best Original Score.Despite the fact that Morricone had produced some of the most popular and widely imitated film music ever written throughout the 1960s and 1970s, ''Days of Heaven'' earned him his first Oscar nomination for Best Original Score, with his score up against Jerry Goldsmith's ''The Boys from Brazil'', Dave Grusin's ''Heaven Can Wait'', Giorgio Moroder's ''Midnight Express'' (the eventual winner), and John Williams's ''Superman: The Movie'' at the Oscar ceremonies in 1979.====1986–2020: From ''The Mission'' to ''The Hateful Eight''===='''Association with Roland Joffé'''''The Mission'', directed by Joffé, was about a piece of history considerably more distant, as Spanish Jesuit missionaries see their work undone as a tribe of Paraguayan natives fall within a territorial dispute between the Spanish and Portuguese.", "At one point the score was one of the world's best-selling film scores, selling over 3 million copies worldwide.Morricone finally received a second Oscar nomination for ''The Mission''.", "Morricone's original score lost out to Herbie Hancock's coolly arranged jazz on Bertrand Tavernier's ''Round Midnight''.", "It was considered a surprising win and a controversial one, given that much of the music in the film was pre-existing.", "Morricone stated the following during a 2001 interview with ''The Guardian'': \"I definitely felt that I should have won for ''The Mission''.", "Especially when you consider that the Oscar winner that year was ''Round Midnight'', which was not an original score.", "It had a very good arrangement by Herbie Hancock, but it used existing pieces.", "So there could be no comparison with ''The Mission''.", "There was a theft!\"", "His score for ''The Mission'' was ranked at number 1 in a poll of the all-time greatest film scores.", "The top 10 list was compiled by 40 film composers such as Michael Giacchino and Carter Burwell.", "The score is ranked 23rd on the AFI's list of 25 greatest film scores of all time.==== Association with De Palma and Levinson ====On three occasions, Brian De Palma worked with Morricone: ''The Untouchables'' (1987), the 1989 war drama ''Casualties of War'' and the science fiction film ''Mission to Mars'' (2000).", "Morricone's score for ''The Untouchables'' resulted in his third nomination for Academy Award for Best Original Score.In a 2001 interview with ''The Guardian'', Morricone stated that he had good experiences with De Palma: \"De Palma is delicious!", "He respects music, he respects composers.", "For ''The Untouchables'', everything I proposed to him was fine, but then he wanted a piece that I didn't like at all, and of course, we didn't have an agreement on that.", "It was something I didn't want to write – a triumphal piece for the police.", "I think I wrote nine different pieces for this in total and I said, 'Please don't choose the sixth!'", "because it was the worst.", "And guess what he chose?", "The sixth one.", "But it really suits the movie.", "\"Another American director, Barry Levinson, commissioned the composer on two occasions.", "First, for the crime-drama ''Bugsy'', starring Warren Beatty, which received ten Oscar nominations, winning two for Best Art Direction-Set Decoration (Dennis Gassner, Nancy Haigh) and Best Costume Design.", "\"He doesn't have a piano in his studio, I always thought that with composers, you sit at the piano, and you try to find the melody.", "There's no such thing with Morricone.", "He hears a melody, and he writes it down.", "He hears the orchestration completely done\", said Levinson in an interview.==== Other notable Hollywood scores ====During his career in Hollywood, Morricone was approached for numerous other projects, including the Gregory Nava drama ''A Time of Destiny'' (1988), ''Frantic'' by Polish-French director Roman Polanski (1988, starring Harrison Ford), Franco Zeffirelli's 1990 drama film ''Hamlet'' (starring Mel Gibson and Glenn Close), the neo-noir crime film ''State of Grace'' by Phil Joanou (1990, starring Sean Penn and Ed Harris), ''Rampage'' (1992) by William Friedkin, and the romantic drama ''Love Affair'' (1994) by Warren Beatty.==== Association with Quentin Tarantino ====In 2009, Tarantino originally wanted Morricone to compose the film score for ''Inglourious Basterds''.", "Morricone was unable to, because the film's sped-up production schedule conflicted with his scoring of Giuseppe Tornatore's ''Baarìa''.", "However, Tarantino did use eight tracks composed by Morricone in the film, with four of them included on the soundtrack.", "The tracks came originally from Morricone's scores for ''The Big Gundown'' (1966), ''Revolver'' (1973) and ''Allonsanfàn'' (1974).In 2012, Morricone composed the song \"Ancora Qui\" with lyrics by Italian singer Elisa for Tarantino's ''Django Unchained'', a track that appeared together with three existing music tracks composed by Morricone on the soundtrack.", "\"Ancora Qui\" was one of the contenders for an Academy Award nomination in the Best Original Song category, but eventually the song was not nominated.", "On 4 January 2013 Morricone presented Tarantino with a Life Achievement Award at a special ceremony being cast as a continuation of the International Rome Film Festival.", "In 2014, Morricone was misquoted as claiming that he would \"never work\" with Tarantino again, and later agreed to write an original film score for Tarantino's ''The Hateful Eight'', which won him an Academy Award in 2016 in the Best Original Score category.", "His nomination for this film marked him at that time as the second oldest nominee in Academy history, behind Gloria Stuart.", "Morricone's win marked his first competitive Oscar, and at the age of 87, he became the oldest person at the time to win a competitive Oscar.===Composer for Giuseppe Tornatore===In 1988, Morricone started an ongoing and very successful collaboration with Italian director Giuseppe Tornatore.", "His first score for Tornatore was for the drama film ''Cinema Paradiso''.", "The international version of the film won the Special Jury Prize at the 1989 Cannes Film Festival and the 1989 Best Foreign Language Film Oscar.", "Morricone received a BAFTA award with his son Andrea, and a David di Donatello for his score.", "In 2002, the director's cut 173-minute version was released (known in the US as ''Cinema Paradiso: The New Version'').After the success of ''Cinema Paradiso'', the composer wrote the music for all subsequent films by Tornatore: the drama film ''Everybody's Fine'' (Stanno Tutti Bene, 1990), ''A Pure Formality'' (1994) starring Gérard Depardieu and Roman Polanski, ''The Star Maker'' (1995), ''The Legend of 1900'' (1998) starring Tim Roth, the 2000 romantic drama ''Malèna'' (which featured Monica Bellucci) and the psychological thriller mystery film ''La sconosciuta'' (2006).", "Morricone also composed the scores for ''Baarìa'' (2009), ''The Best Offer'' (2013) starring Geoffrey Rush, Jim Sturgess and Donald Sutherland and the romantic drama ''The Correspondence'' (2015)The composer won several music awards for his scores in Tornatore's movies.", "Morricone received a fifth Academy Award nomination and a Golden Globe nomination for ''Malèna''.", "For ''Legend of 1900'', he won a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score.", "In September 2021 Tornatore presented out of competition at the 78th Venice International Film Festival a documentary film about Morricone, ''Ennio''.=== Television series and last works ===Morricone with the Italian President, Sergio Mattarella, in 2016Morricone wrote the score for the Mafia television series ''La piovra'' seasons 2 to 10 from 1985 to 2001, including the themes \"Droga e sangue\" (\"Drugs and Blood\"), \"La Morale\", and \"L'Immorale\".", "Morricone worked as the conductor of seasons 3 to 5 of the series.", "He also worked as the music supervisor for the television project ''La bibbia'' (\"The Bible\").In the late 1990s, he collaborated with his son Andrea on the ''Ultimo'' crime dramas, resulting in ''Ultimo'' (1998), ''Ultimo 2 – La sfida'' (1999), ''Ultimo 3 – L'infiltrato'' (2004) and ''Ultimo 4 – L'occhio del falco'' (2013).", "For ''Canone inverso'' (2000) based on the music-themed novel of the same name by the Paolo Maurensig, directed by Ricky Tognazzi and starring Hans Matheson, Morricone won Best Score awards in the David di Donatello Awards and Silver Ribbons.In the 2000s, Morricone continued to compose music for successful television series such as ''Il Cuore nel Pozzo'' (2005), ''Karol: A Man Who Became Pope'' (2005), ''La provinciale'' (2006), ''Giovanni Falcone'' (2007), ''Pane e libertà'' (2009) and ''Come Un Delfino 1–2'' (2011–2013).Morricone provided the string arrangements on Morrissey's \"Dear God Please Help Me\" from the album ''Ringleader of the Tormentors'' in 2006.In 2008, the composer recorded music for a Lancia commercial, featuring Richard Gere and directed by Harald Zwart (known for directing ''The Pink Panther 2'').In spring and summer 2010, Morricone worked with Hayley Westenra for a collaboration on her album ''Paradiso''.", "The album features new songs written by Morricone, as well as some of his best-known film compositions of the last 50 years.", "Westenra recorded the album with Morricone's orchestra in Rome during the summer of 2010.Since 1995, he composed the music for several advertising campaigns of Dolce & Gabbana.", "The commercials were directed by Giuseppe Tornatore.In 2013, Morricone collaborated with Italian singer-songwriter Laura Pausini on a new version of her hit single \"La solitudine\" for her 20 years anniversary greatest hits album ''20 – The Greatest Hits''.Morricone composed the music for ''The Best Offer'' (2013) by Giuseppe Tornatore.He wrote the score for Christian Carion's ''En mai, fais ce qu'il te plait'' (2015) and the most recent movie by Tornatore: ''The Correspondence'' (2016), featuring Jeremy Irons and Olga Kurylenko.", "In July 2015, Quentin Tarantino announced after the screening of footage of his movie ''The Hateful Eight'' at the San Diego Comic-Con International that Morricone would score the film, the first Western that Morricone scored since 1981.The score was critically acclaimed and won several awards including the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score and the Academy Award for Best Original Score.In June 2015, Morricone premiered his ''Missa Papae Francisci (Mass for Pope Francis)'' at Rome's Chiesa del Gesù with the Orchestra Roma Sinfonietta and choruses from the Accademia Santa Cecilia and the Rome Opera Theater." ], [ "Live performances", "Morricone in the Festhalle Frankfurt in 2015Before receiving his diplomas in trumpet, composition and instrumentation from the conservatory, Morricone was already active as a trumpet player, often performing in an orchestra that specialised in music written for films.", "After completing his education at Saint Cecilia, the composer honed his orchestration skills as an arranger for Italian radio and television.", "In order to support himself, he moved to RCA in the early sixties and entered the front ranks of the Italian recording industry.", "Since 1964, Morricone was also a founding member of the Rome-based avant-garde ensemble Gruppo di Improvvisazione Nuova Consonanza.", "During the existence of the group (until 1978), Morricone performed several times with the group as trumpet player.To ready his music for live performance, he joined smaller pieces of music together into longer suites.", "Rather than single pieces, which would require the audience to applaud every few minutes, Morricone thought the best idea was to create a series of suites lasting from 15 to 20 minutes, which form a sort of symphony in various movements – alternating successful pieces with personal favourites.", "In concert, Morricone normally had 180 to 200 musicians and vocalists under his baton, performing multiple genre-crossing collections of music.", "Rock, symphonic and ethnic instruments share the stage.On 20 September 1984 Morricone conducted the Orchestre national des Pays de la Loire at ''Cinésymphonie '84'' (\"Première nuit de la musique de film/First night of film music\") in the French concert hall Salle Pleyel in Paris.", "He performed some of his best-known compositions such as ''Metti una sera a cena'', ''Novecento'' and ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly''.", "Michel Legrand and Georges Delerue performed on the same evening.On 15 October 1987 Morricone gave a concert in front of 12,000 people in the Sportpaleis in Antwerp, Belgium, with the Dutch Metropole Orchestra and the Italian operatic soprano Alide Maria Salvetta.", "A live-album with a recording of this concert was released in the same year.On 9 June 2000 Morricone went to the Flanders International Film Festival Ghent to conduct his music together with the National Orchestra of Belgium.", "During the concert's first part, the screening of ''The Life and Death of King Richard III'' (1912) was accompanied with live music by Morricone.", "It was the very first time that the score was performed live in Europe.", "The second part of the evening consisted of an anthology of the composer's work.", "The event took place on the eve of Euro 2000, the European Football Championship in Belgium and the Netherlands.Morricone performed over 250 concerts as of 2001.The composer started a world tour in 2001, the latter part sponsored by Giorgio Armani, with the Orchestra Roma Sinfonietta, touring London (Barbican 2001; 75th birthday ''Concerto'', Royal Albert Hall 2003 with singer Dulce Pontes), Paris, Verona, and Tokyo.", "Morricone performed his classic film scores at the Gasteig in Munich in 2004.Morricone at the United Nations HeadquartersHe made his North American concert debut on 3 February 2007 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City.", "The previous evening, Morricone had already presented at the United Nations a concert comprising some of his film themes, as well as the cantata ''Voci dal silenzio'' to welcome the new Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon.", "A ''Los Angeles Times'' review bemoaned the poor acoustics and opined of Morricone: \"His stick technique is adequate, but his charisma as a conductor is zero.", "\"On 22 December 2012 Morricone conducted the 85-piece Belgian orchestra \"Orkest der Lage Landen\" and a 100-piece choir during a two-hour concert in the Sportpaleis in Antwerp.In November 2013 Morricone began a world tour to coincide with the 50th anniversary of his film music career and performed in locations such as the Crocus City Hall in Moscow, Santiago, Chile, Berlin, Germany (O2 World, Germany), Budapest, Hungary, and Vienna (Stadhalle).", "Back in June 2014, Morricone had to cancel a US tour in New York (Barclays Center) and Los Angeles (Nokia Theatre LA Live) due to a back procedure on 20 February.", "Morricone postponed the rest of his world tour.In November 2014 Morricone stated that he would resume his European tour starting from February 2015 alongside with Dulce Pontes." ], [ "Personal life and death", "On 13 October 1956, Morricone married Maria Travia (born 31 December 1932), whom he had met in 1950.Travia wrote lyrics to complement her husband's pieces.", "Her works include the Latin texts for ''The Mission''.", "Together, they had four children: Marco (b.", "1957), Alessandra (b.", "1961), conductor and film composer Andrea (b.", "1964) and Giovanni (b.", "1966), a filmmaker who lives in New York City.", "They remained married for 63 years until his death.Morricone lived in Italy his entire life and never desired to live in Hollywood.", "He described himself as a Christian leftist, stating that he voted for the Christian Democracy (DC) for more than 40 years and then, after its dissolution in 1994, he approached the centre-left coalition.Morricone loved chess, having learned the game when he was 11.Before his musical career took off, he played in club tournaments in Rome in the mid-1950s.", "His first official tournament was in 1964, where he won a prize in the third category for amateurs.", "He was even coached by 12-time Italian champion IM Stefano Tatai for a while.", "Soon he got too busy for chess, but he would always keep a keen interest in the game and estimated his peak Elo rating to be nearly 1700.Over the years, Morricone played chess with many big names including GMs Garry Kasparov, Anatoly Karpov, Judit Polgar, and Peter Leko.", "He once held GM Boris Spassky to a draw in a simultaneous competition with 27 players, where Morricone was the last one standing.On 6 July 2020, Morricone died at the Università Campus Bio-Medico in Rome, aged 91, as a result of injuries sustained to his femur during a fall.", "Following a private funeral in the hospital's chapel, he was entombed in Cimitero Laurentino." ], [ "Influence", "Ennio Morricone influenced many artists from other styles and genres, including Danger Mouse, Dire Straits, Muse, Metallica, Radiohead and Hans Zimmer.", "* Morricone's influence extends into the realm of pop music.", "Hugo Montenegro had a hit with a version of the main theme from ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' in both the United Kingdom and the United States.", "This was followed by his album of Morricone's music in 1968.", "* Morricone's film music was also recorded by many artists.", "John Zorn recorded an album of Morricone's music, ''The Big Gundown'', with Keith Rosenberg in the mid-1980s.", "* Morricone's ''Sergio Leone Suite'' of haunting melodies from the scores he composed for several of the films by Leone, and performed by Morricone, Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra, and Yo-Yo Ma on cello, was recorded by CBS/Sony (93456) and is featured on Classical radio stations such as WSMR, a Sarasota, Florida radio station.", "* Morricone collaborated with world music artists, such as Portuguese fado singer Dulce Pontes (in 2003 with ''Focus'', an album praised by Paulo Coelho and where his songbook can be sampled) and virtuoso cellist Yo-Yo Ma (in 2004), who both recorded albums of Morricone classics with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra and Morricone himself conducting.", "The album ''Yo-Yo Ma Plays Ennio Morricone'' sold more than 130,000 copies in 2004.", "* Metallica uses Morricone's \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" as an intro at their concerts since 1983 (shock jocks ''Opie and Anthony'' also used the song at the start of their XM Satellite Radio and CBS Radio shows.)", "The San Francisco Symphony Orchestra also played it on Metallica's live albums ''S&M'' and ''S&M2''.", "The theme from ''A Fistful of Dollars'' is also used as a concert intro by The Mars Volta.", "* Morricone inspired the namesake of Morricone Youth, a New York band dedicated to playing music from film and television, founded by musician and radio host Devon E. Levins in 1999.In addition to composers like Lalo Schifrin and Jerry Goldsmith, the band has performed music from a large spectrum of Morricone's film career, ranging from his work in the spaghetti westerns to The Exorcist II, as well as original Morricone-inspired pieces.", "* The Spaghetti Western Orchestra is an Australian tribute band started in 2004.", "* Radiohead drew inspiration from the recording style of Morricone for their 1997 album ''OK Computer''.", "* Singer and composer Mike Patton was heavily influenced by Morricone's more experimental oeuvre and in 2005 he commissioned a compilation album, ''Crime and Dissonance'', of the lesser-known soundtracks by \"E Maestro\" that was released on his own Ipecac Recordings label.", "* Gnarls Barkley's hit single \"Crazy\" (2006) was musically inspired by Morricone.", "* Muse cites Morricone as an influence for the songs \"City of Delusion\", \"Hoodoo\", and \"Knights of Cydonia\" on their 2006 album ''Black Holes and Revelations''.", "The band went on to perform the song \"Man with a Harmonica\" live played by Chris Wolstenholme, as an intro to \"Knights of Cydonia\".", "* In 2007, the tribute album ''We All Love Ennio Morricone'' was released, featuring performances by various artists, including Sarah Brightman, Andrea Bocelli, Celine Dion, Bruce Springsteen and Metallica.", "* Alex Turner has noted Morricone's influence on his writing, in particular on The Last Shadow Puppets album ''The Age of the Understatement'' of 2008.", "* \"Lovers on the Sun\", a song released in 2014 by French music producer David Guetta, is influenced by Morricone's western scores.", "* The Prodigy repurposed Morricone's score from 1966's La Resa Dei Conti (Seconda Caccia) for \"The Big Gundown\" on 2009's ''Invaders Must Die''.", "* Anna Calvi has cited Morricone as an influence.", "* Sea Girls' song \"Lonely\" was written on the day of Morricone's death and is influenced by his music, particularly on the film ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly''.", "It was released as a single in February 2022.", "* ''Ennio'', a 156-minute documentary by Giuseppe Tornatore was released on 22 April 2022 in cinemas and on digital platforms.Morricone's dynamic sound is from the various genres he both served and was inspired from.", "The diversity of his sound was consistently visual." ], [ "Discography", "Morricone sold well over 70 million records worldwide during his career that spanned over seven decades, including 6.5 million albums and singles in France, over three million in the United States and more than two million albums in South Korea.", "In 1971, the composer received his first golden record (disco d'oro) for the sale of 1,000,000 records in Italy and a \"Targa d'Oro\" (it) for the worldwide sales of 22 million.", "'''Selected long-time collaborations with directors''' ''Director'' ''Period'' ''No.", "of films'' ''Film genre(s)'' ''Film titles'' Mauro Bolognini (°1922–2001) 1967–91 15 historical/drama/documentary including ''Le streghe'', ''L'assoluto naturale'', ''Un bellissimo novembre'', ''Metello'', ''The Venetian Woman'' and ''Farewell Moscow'' Alberto Negrin (1940–) 1987–2013 13 crime/historic/drama including ''The Secret of the Sahara'', ''Voyage of Terror: The Achille Lauro Affair'' and ''Il Cuore nel Pozzo'' Giuseppe Tornatore (1956–) 1988–2016 13 historical/drama/documentary/advertising campaigns including ''Cinema Paradiso'', ''The Legend of 1900'', ''Malèna'', ''Baaria'' and ''The Best Offer'' Giuliano Montaldo (1930–) 1967–2008 12 crime/historic/drama including ''Grand Slam'', ''Sacco e Vanzetti'', ''A Dangerous Toy'', ''Marco Polo'' and ''Tempo di uccidere'' Luciano Salce (1922–1989) 1959–66 11 comedy/drama/historical including ''Il Federale'', ''El Greco'', ''Slalom'' and ''Come imparai ad amare le donne'' Aldo Lado (1934–) 1971–81 9 mystery/thriller including ''Chi l'ha vista morire?", "'', ''Sepolta viva'', ''L'ultimo treno della notte'' and ''L'umanoide'' Roberto Faenza (1943–) 1968–95 8 crime/horror/historical including ''Escalation'', ''Si salvi chi vuole'', ''Copkiller'' and ''Sostiene Pereira'' Sergio Leone (1929–1989) 1964–84 8 western/crime including the ''Dollars Trilogy'', ''Once Upon a Time in the West'', ''Duck, You Sucker!", "'', ''My Name Is Nobody'' and ''Once Upon a Time in America'' Sergio Corbucci (1927–1990) 1966–72 7 western/comedy including ''Navajo Joe'', ''The Hellbenders'', ''The Mercenary'', ''The Great Silence'', ''Compañeros'' and ''Sonny and Jed'' Alberto De Martino (1929–2015) 1966–72 7 crime/war/horror including ''Dirty Heroes'', ''O.K.", "Connery'' and ''Holocaust 2000'' Pier Paolo Pasolini (1922–1975) 1965–1975 7 mystery/historical including ''The Hawks and the Sparrows'', ''Teorema'', ''The Decameron'', ''The Canterbury Tales'', ''Arabian Nights'' and ''Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom'' Elio Petri (1929–1982) 1968–79 7 crime/horror/historical including ''A Quiet Place in the Country'', ''Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion'', ''The Working Class Goes to Heaven'' and ''Todo modo'' Dario Argento (1940–) 1968–98 6 horror/gangster/thriller including ''The Bird with the Crystal Plumage'', ''The Cat o' Nine Tails'', ''Four Flies on Grey Velvet'', ''The Stendhal Syndrome'' and ''The Phantom of the Opera'' Carlo Lizzani (1922–2013) 1965–76 6 comedy/crime/drama including ''Thrilling'', ''Svegliati e uccidi'', ''The Hills Run Red'' and ''San Babila-8 P.M.'' Sergio Sollima (1921–2015) 1966–73 6 western/crime/thriller including ''The Big Gundown'', ''Faccia a faccia'', ''Run, Man, Run'', ''Città violenta'' and ''Revolver'' Henri Verneuil (1920–2002) 1968–1979 6 thriller/crime ''La Bataille de San Sebastian'', ''Le clan des siciliens'', ''Le Casse'', ''Le Serpent'' and ''Peur sur la ville'' Giulio Petroni (1917–2010) 1968–79 6 western/comedy including ''Tepepa'', ''A Sky Full of Stars for a Roof'' and ''Death Rides a Horse''Bernardo Bertolucci (1940–2018) 1964–81 5 drama/historical including ''Before the Revolution'', ''Partner'', ''Novecento'' and ''Tragedy of a Ridiculous Man''Pasquale Festa Campanile (1927–1986) 1967–80 5 comedy/crime including ''The Girl and the General'', ''When Women Had Tails'', ''Hitch-Hike'' and ''Il ladrone'' Damiano Damiani (1922–2013) 1960–75 5 drama/thriller/western including ''The Most Beautiful Wife'', ''The Case Is Closed, Forget It'' and ''A Genius, Two Partners and a Dupe'' Quentin Tarantino (1963–) 2001–2015 6 action/thriller/western ''Kill Bill'', ''Death Proof'', ''Inglourious Basterds'', ''Django Unchained''* and ''The Hateful Eight'' Duccio Tessari (1926–1994) 1965–90 5 western/action/adventure including ''A Pistol for Ringo'' and ''The Return of Ringo''" ], [ "Awards and honors", "Morricone receives the Per Artem ad Deum Medal (English: \"Through Arts to God\") from Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi.Morricone received his first Academy Award nomination in 1979 for the score to ''Days of Heaven'' (Terrence Malick, 1978).", "He received his second Oscar nomination for ''The Mission''.", "He also received Oscar nominations for his scores to ''The Untouchables'' (1987), ''Bugsy'' (1991), ''Malèna'' (2000), and ''The Hateful Eight'' (2016).", "In February 2016, Morricone won his first competitive Academy Award for his score to ''The Hateful Eight''.", "Morricone and Alex North are the only composers to receive the Academy Honorary Award since its introduction in 1928.He received the award in February 2007, \"for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music.\"", "In 2005, four film scores by Ennio Morricone were nominated by the American Film Institute for an honoured place in the AFI's Top 25 of Best American Film Scores of All Time.", "His score for ''The Mission'' was ranked 23rd in the Top 25 list.", "Morricone was nominated seven times for a Grammy Award.", "In 2009 The Recording Academy inducted his score for ''The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly'' (1966) into the Grammy Hall of Fame.", "In 2010 Ennio Morricone and Icelandic singer Björk won the Polar Music Prize.", "The Polar Music Prize is Sweden's biggest music award and is typically shared by a pop artist and a classical musician.", "It was founded by Stig Anderson, manager of Swedish pop group ABBA, in 1989.A ''Variety'' poll of 40 top current film composers selected ''The Mission'' as the greatest film score of all time.In 1971, he received a \"Targa d'Oro\" for worldwide sales of 22 million, and by 2016 Morricone had sold more than 70 million records worldwide.", "In 2007, he received the Academy Honorary Award \"for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music\".", "He was nominated for a further six Oscars, and in 2016, received his only competitive Academy Award for his score to Quentin Tarantino's film ''The Hateful Eight'', at the time becoming the oldest person ever to win a competitive Oscar.", "His other achievements include three Grammy Awards, three Golden Globes, six BAFTAs, ten David di Donatello, eleven , two European Film Awards, the Golden Lion Honorary Award, and the Polar Music Prize in 2010.The soundtrack for ''The Mission'' (1986) was certified gold in the United States.", "The album ''Yo-Yo Ma Plays Ennio Morricone'' stayed for 105 weeks on the ''Billboard'' Top Classical Albums." ], [ "General sources", "* Morricone, Ennio; De Rosa, Alessandro.", "''Ennio Morricone: In His Own Words.", "Ennio Morricone in conversation with Alessandro De Rosa''.", "Translated from the Italian by M. Corbella.", "Oxford University Press (2019–2020).", ".", "* Horace, B.", "''Music from the Movies'', film music journal double issue 45/46, 2005: .", "* Miceli, Sergio.", "''Morricone, la musica, il cinema''.", "Milan: Mucchi/Ricordi, 1994: .", "* Miceli, Sergio.", "\"Morricone, Ennio\".", "''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', 2nd edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.", "London: Macmillan Publishers.", "* Poppi, R., M. Pecorari.", "''Dizionario del cinema italiano.", "I film vol.", "3.Dal 1960 al 1969''.", "Gremese, 1993: .", "* Poppi, R., M. Pecorari.", "''Dizionario del cinema italiano.", "I film vol.", "4.Dal 1970 al 1979* A/L''.", "Gremese, 1996: .", "* Poppi, R., M. Pecorari.", "''Dizionario del cinema italiano.", "I film vol.", "4.Dal 1970 al 1979** M/Z''.", "Gremese, 1996: .", "* Poppi, R., M. Pecorari.", "''Dizionario del cinema italiano.", "I film vol.", "5.Dal 1980 al 1989* A/L''.", "Gremese, 2000: .", "* Poppi, R., M. Pecorari.", "''Dizionario del cinema italiano.", "I film vol.", "5.Dal 1980 al 1989** M/Z''.", "Gremese, 2000: ." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fagen, Donald.", "\"A Talk With Ennio Morricone\".", "In: Fagen, Donald: ''Eminent Hipsters''.", "Penguin Group, 2013., pp. 59–62.", "* Morricone, Ennio; De Rosa, Alessandro.", "\"''Ennio Morricone: In His Own Words.", "Ennio Morricone in conversation with Alessandro De Rosa''\".", "Translated from the Italian by M. Corbella.", "Oxford University Press (2019–2020).", "* Lhassa, Anne, and Jean Lhassa: ''Ennio Morricone: biographie''.", "Les Planches.", "Lausanne: Favre; Paris: diff.", "Inter-forum, 1989..* Sorbo, Lorenzo: 'The Dramatic Functions of Italian Spaghetti Western Soundtracks: A Comparison between Ennio Morricone and Francesco De Masi' In: * Wagner, Thorsten.", "\"Improvisation als 'weiteste Ausdehnung des Begriffs der aleatorischen Musik': Franco Evangelisti und die Improvisationsgruppe Nuova Consonanza\".", "In ''... hin zu einer neuen Welt: Notate zu Franco Evangelisti'', edited by Harald Muenz.48–60, 2002.Saarbrücken: Pfau-Verlag.", ".", "* Webb, Michael D. ''Italian 20th Century Music: The Quest for Modernity''.", "London: Kahn & Averill.", ".", "* Wenguang Han: ''Ennio Morricone Fans Handbook'' , 2013 (China).", "* Sorce Keller, Marcello.", "\"The Morricone Paradox: A Film Music Genius Who Missed Writing Symphonies\".", "''Asian-European Music Research Journal'' (AEMR).", "6 (2020): 111–113." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Ennio Morricone Myspace* * * Streaming audio of Morricone's \"The Man with the Harmonica\", from his soundtrack to ''Once upon a Time in the West''" ] ]
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[ [ "List of explosives used during World War II" ], [ "Introduction", "Almost all the common explosives listed here were mixtures of several common components:* Ammonium picrate* TNT (Trinitrotoluene)* PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)* RDX* Powdered aluminium.", "This is only a partial list; there were many others.", "Many of these compositions are now obsolete and only encountered in legacy munitions and unexploded ordnance.", "Name Composition Notes AmatolAmmonium nitrate and TNT Extensively used in bombs, shells, depth charges and naval mines BaronalBarium nitrate, TNT and powdered aluminium BaratolBarium nitrate and TNT Used in British hand grenades.", "Also used as the low velocity explosive lens in the implosion type nuclear weapon, Fat Man Composition A88.3% RDX and 11.7% plasticizer Composition BRDX, TNT and wax Used as the high velocity explosive lens in the implosion type nuclear weapon, Fat Man Composition H645% RDX, 30% TNT, 20% powdered aluminium and 5% wax Replaced Torpex for use in naval applications.DBX (Depth Bomb Explosive)21% RDX, 21% ammonium nitrate, 40% TNT, 18% powdered aluminium An alternative for Torpex, that used less of the strategic material RDX Minol40% TNT, 40% ammonium nitrate and 20% powdered aluminium (Minol-2) Developed by the British Royal Navy and used in torpedoes, depth charges and naval mines.", "Unsuitable for shells because of a risk of detonation if subjected to very high accelerations.", "Octol75% HMX (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine) and 25% TNT Still in use Pentolites50% PETN and 50% TNT Picratol52% ammonium picrate and 48% TNT Used in armour-piercing shells and bombs as insensitive to shock PIPE81% PETN and 19% oil PTX-130% RDX, 50% tetryl and 20% TNT PTX-241-44% RDX, 26-28% PETN and 28-33% TNT PVA-490% RDX, 8% PVA and 2% dibutyl phthalate RIPE85% RDX and 15% oil Tetrytols70% Tetryl and 30% TNT Torpex42% RDX, 40% TNT and 18% powdered aluminium Developed for use in torpedoes, it was especially effective at producing destructive, underwater explosions.", "Trialen 10515% RDX, 70% TNT and 15% powdered aluminium Used by the LuftwaffeExplosive \"D\"Ammonium picrate US Army/NavyType 91 ExplosiveTrinitroanisol (TNA) Japanese Army/NavyTwo nuclear explosives, containing mixtures of uranium and plutonium, respectively, were also used at the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki" ], [ "See also", "*List of Japanese World War II explosives*Explosive material*Little Boy*Fat Man" ] ]
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[ [ "Erlang (unit)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''erlang''' (symbol '''E''') is a dimensionless unit that is used in telephony as a measure of offered load or carried load on service-providing elements such as telephone circuits or telephone switching equipment.", "A single cord circuit has the capacity to be used for 60 minutes in one hour.", "Full utilization of that capacity, 60 minutes of traffic, constitutes 1 erlang.Carried traffic in erlangs is the average number of concurrent calls measured over a given period (often one hour), while offered traffic is the traffic that would be carried if all call-attempts succeeded.", "How much offered traffic is carried in practice will depend on what happens to unanswered calls when all servers are busy.The CCITT named the international unit of telephone traffic the erlang in 1946 in honor of Agner Krarup Erlang.", "In Erlang's analysis of efficient telephone line usage he derived the formulae for two important cases, Erlang-B and Erlang-C, which became foundational results in teletraffic engineering and queueing theory.", "His results, which are still used today, relate quality of service to the number of available servers.", "Both formulae take offered load as one of their main inputs (in erlangs), which is often expressed as call arrival rate times average call length.A distinguishing assumption behind the Erlang B formula is that there is no queue, so that if all service elements are already in use then a newly arriving call will be blocked and subsequently lost.", "The formula gives the probability of this occurring.", "In contrast, the Erlang C formula provides for the possibility of an unlimited queue and it gives the probability that a new call will need to wait in the queue due to all servers being in use.", "Erlang's formulae apply quite widely, but they may fail when congestion is especially high causing unsuccessful traffic to repeatedly retry.", "One way of accounting for retries when no queue is available is the Extended Erlang B method." ], [ "Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit", "When used to represent '''carried traffic''', a value (which can be a non-integer such as 43.5) followed by “erlangs” represents the average number of concurrent calls carried by the circuits (or other service-providing elements), where that average is calculated over some reasonable period of time.", "The period over which the average is calculated is often one hour, but shorter periods (e.g., 15 minutes) may be used where it is known that there are short spurts of demand and a traffic measurement is desired that does not mask these spurts.One erlang of carried traffic refers to a single resource being in continuous use, or two channels each being in use fifty percent of the time, and so on.", "For example, if an office has two telephone operators who are both busy all the time, that would represent two erlangs (2 E) of traffic; or a radio channel that is occupied continuously during the period of interest (e.g.", "one hour) is said to have a load of 1 erlang.When used to describe '''offered traffic''', a value followed by “erlangs” represents the average number of concurrent calls that would have been carried if there were an unlimited number of circuits (that is, if the call-attempts that were made when all circuits were in use had not been rejected).", "The relationship between offered traffic and carried traffic depends on the design of the system and user behavior.", "Three common models are (a) callers whose call-attempts are rejected go away and never come back, (b) callers whose call-attempts are rejected try again within a fairly short space of time, and (c) the system allows users to wait in queue until a circuit becomes available.A third measurement of traffic is '''instantaneous traffic''', expressed as a certain number of erlangs, meaning the exact number of calls taking place at a point in time.", "In this case the number is a non-negative integer.", "Traffic-level-recording devices, such as moving-pen recorders, plot instantaneous traffic." ], [ "Erlang's analysis", "The concepts and mathematics introduced by Agner Krarup Erlang have broad applicability beyond telephony.", "They apply wherever users arrive more or less at random to receive exclusive service from any one of a group of service-providing elements without prior reservation, for example, where the service-providing elements are ticket-sales windows, toilets on an airplane, or motel rooms.", "(Erlang's models do not apply where the service-providing elements are shared between several concurrent users or different amounts of service are consumed by different users, for instance, on circuits carrying data traffic.", ")The goal of Erlang's traffic theory is to determine exactly how many service-providing elements should be provided in order to satisfy users, without wasteful over-provisioning.", "To do this, a target is set for the grade of service (GoS) or quality of service (QoS).", "For example, in a system where there is no queuing, the GoS may be that no more than 1 call in 100 is blocked (i.e., rejected) due to all circuits being in use (a GoS of 0.01), which becomes the target probability of call blocking, ''Pb'', when using the Erlang B formula.There are several resulting formulae, including Erlang B, Erlang C and the related Engset formula, based on different models of user behavior and system operation.", "These may each be derived by means of a special case of continuous-time Markov processes known as a birth–death process.", "The more recent Extended Erlang B method provides a further traffic solution that draws on Erlang's results." ], [ "Calculating offered traffic", "Offered traffic (in erlangs) is related to the '''call arrival rate''', ''λ'', and the '''average call-holding time''' (the average time of a phone call), ''h'', by::provided that ''h'' and ''λ'' are expressed using the same units of time (seconds and calls per second, or minutes and calls per minute).The practical measurement of traffic is typically based on continuous observations over several days or weeks, during which the instantaneous traffic is recorded at regular, short intervals (such as every few seconds).", "These measurements are then used to calculate a single result, most commonly the busy-hour traffic (in erlangs).", "This is the average number of concurrent calls during a given one-hour period of the day, where that period is selected to give the highest result.", "(This result is called the time-consistent busy-hour traffic).", "An alternative is to calculate a busy-hour traffic value separately for each day (which may correspond to slightly different times each day) and take the average of these values.", "This generally gives a slightly higher value than the time-consistent busy-hour value.Where the existing busy-hour carried traffic, ''E''c, is measured on an already overloaded system, with a significant level of blocking, it is necessary to take account of the blocked calls in estimating the busy-hour offered traffic ''E''o (which is the traffic value to be used in the Erlang formulae).", "The offered traffic can be estimated by ''E''o = ''E''c/(1 − ''P''b).", "For this purpose, where the system includes a means of counting blocked calls and successful calls, ''P''b can be estimated directly from the proportion of calls that are blocked.", "Failing that, ''P''b can be estimated by using ''E''c in place of ''E''o in the Erlang formula and the resulting estimate of ''P''b can then be used in ''E''o = ''E''c/(1 − ''P''b) to provide a first estimate of ''E''o.Another method of estimating ''E''o in an overloaded system is to measure the busy-hour call arrival rate, ''λ'' (counting successful calls and blocked calls), and the average call-holding time (for successful calls), ''h'', and then estimate ''E''o using the formula ''E'' = ''λh''.For a situation where the traffic to be handled is completely new traffic, the only choice is to try to model expected user behavior.", "For example, one could estimate active user population, ''N'', expected level of use, ''U'' (number of calls/transactions per user per day), busy-hour concentration factor, ''C'' (proportion of daily activity that will fall in the busy hour), and average holding time/service time, ''h'' (expressed in minutes).", "A projection of busy-hour offered traffic would then be ''E''o = ''h'' erlangs.", "(The division by 60 translates the busy-hour call/transaction arrival rate into a per-minute value, to match the units in which ''h'' is expressed.)" ], [ "Erlang B formula", "The '''Erlang B formula''' (or '''Erlang-B''' with a hyphen), also known as the '''Erlang loss formula''', is a formula for the '''blocking probability''' that describes the probability of call losses for a group of identical parallel resources (telephone lines, circuits, traffic channels, or equivalent), sometimes referred to as an M/M/c/c queue.", "It is, for example, used to dimension a telephone network's links.", "The formula was derived by Agner Krarup Erlang and is not limited to telephone networks, since it describes a probability in a queuing system (albeit a special case with a number of servers but no queueing space for incoming calls to wait for a free server).", "Hence, the formula is also used in certain inventory systems with lost sales.The formula applies under the condition that an unsuccessful call, because the line is busy, is not queued or retried, but instead really vanishes forever.", "It is assumed that call attempts arrive following a Poisson process, so call arrival instants are independent.", "Further, it is assumed that the message lengths (holding times) are exponentially distributed (Markovian system), although the formula turns out to apply under general holding time distributions.The Erlang B formula assumes an infinite population of sources (such as telephone subscribers), which jointly offer traffic to ''N'' servers (such as telephone lines).", "The rate expressing the frequency at which new calls arrive, λ, (birth rate, traffic intensity, etc.)", "is constant, and does ''not'' depend on the number of active sources.", "The total number of sources is assumed to be infinite.", "The Erlang B formula calculates the blocking probability of a buffer-less loss system, where a request that is not served immediately is aborted, causing that no requests become queued.", "Blocking occurs when a new request arrives at a time where all available servers are currently busy.", "The formula also assumes that blocked traffic is cleared and does not return.The formula provides the GoS (grade of service) which is the probability ''Pb'' that a new call arriving to the resources group is rejected because all resources (servers, lines, circuits) are busy: ''B''(''E'', ''m'') where ''E'' is the total offered traffic in erlang, offered to ''m'' identical parallel resources (servers, communication channels, traffic lanes).", ":where:* is the probability of blocking* ''m'' is the number of identical parallel resources such as servers, telephone lines, etc.", "* ''E'' = ''λh'' is the normalised ingress load (offered traffic stated in erlang).Note: The ''erlang'' is a dimensionless load unit calculated as the mean arrival rate, λ, multiplied by the mean call holding time, ''h''.", "See Little's law to prove that the erlang unit has to be dimensionless for Little's Law to be dimensionally sane.This may be expressed recursively as follows, in a form that is used to simplify the calculation of tables of the Erlang B formula:::Typically, instead of ''B''(''E'', ''m'') the inverse 1/''B''(''E'', ''m'') is calculated in numerical computation in order to ensure numerical stability:::Function ErlangB (E As Double, m As Integer) As Double Dim InvB As Double Dim j As Integer InvB = 1.0 For j = 1 To m InvB = 1.0 + InvB * j / E Next j ErlangB = 1.0 / InvBEnd Functionor a Python versiondef erlang_b(E, m): inv_b = 1.0 for j in range(1,m+1): inv_b = 1.0 + inv_b * j / E return 1.0 / inv_bThe Erlang B formula is decreasing and convex in ''m''.It requires that call arrivals can be modeled by a Poisson process, which is not always a good match, but is valid for any statistical distribution of call holding times with a finite mean.", "It applies to traffic transmission systems that do not buffer traffic.", "More modern examples compared to POTS where Erlang B is still applicable, are optical burst switching (OBS) and several current approaches to optical packet switching (OPS).", "Erlang B was developed as a trunk sizing tool for telephone networks with holding times in the minutes range, but being a mathematical equation it applies on any time-scale." ], [ "Extended Erlang B", "'''Extended Erlang B''' differs from the classic Erlang-B assumptions by allowing for a proportion of blocked callers to try again, causing an increase in offered traffic from the initial baseline level.", "It is an iterative calculation rather than a formula and adds an extra parameter, the recall factor , which defines the recall attempts.The steps in the process are as follows.", "It starts at iteration with a known initial baseline level of traffic , which is successively adjusted to calculate a sequence of new offered traffic values , each of which accounts for the recalls arising from the previously calculated offered traffic .1.Calculate the probability of a caller being blocked on their first attempt:as above for Erlang B.2.Calculate the probable number of blocked calls:3.Calculate the number of recalls, , assuming a fixed Recall Factor, ,:4.Calculate the new offered traffic:where is the initial (baseline) level of traffic.", "5.Return to step 1, substituting for , and iterate until a stable value of is obtained.Once a satisfactory value of has been found, the blocking probability and the recall factor can be used to calculate the probability that all of a caller's attempts are lost, not just their first call but also any subsequent retries." ], [ "Erlang C formula", "The '''Erlang C formula''' expresses the probability that an arriving customer will need to queue (as opposed to immediately being served).", "Just as the Erlang B formula, Erlang C assumes an infinite population of sources, which jointly offer traffic of erlangs to servers.", "However, if all the servers are busy when a request arrives from a source, the request is queued.", "An unlimited number of requests may be held in the queue in this way simultaneously.", "This formula calculates the probability of queuing offered traffic, assuming that blocked calls stay in the system until they can be handled.", "This formula is used to determine the number of agents or customer service representatives needed to staff a call centre, for a specified desired probability of queuing.", "However, the Erlang C formula assumes that callers never hang up while in queue, which makes the formula predict that more agents should be used than are really needed to maintain a desired service level.", ":where:* is the total traffic offered in units of erlangs* is the number of servers* is the probability that a customer has to wait for service.It is assumed that the call arrivals can be modeled by a Poisson process and that call holding times are described by an exponential distribution, therefore the Erlang C formula follows from the assumptions of the M/M/c queue model." ], [ "<span id=\"Limitations\"></span>Limitations of the Erlang formula", "When Erlang developed the Erlang-B and Erlang-C traffic equations, they were developed on a set of assumptions.", "These assumptions are accurate under most conditions; however in the event of extremely high traffic congestion, Erlang's equations fail to accurately predict the correct number of circuits required because of re-entrant traffic.", "This is termed a '''high-loss system''', where congestion breeds further congestion at peak times.", "In such cases, it is first necessary for many additional circuits to be made available so that the high loss can be alleviated.", "Once this action has been taken, congestion will return to reasonable levels and Erlang's equations can then be used to determine how exactly many circuits are really required.An example of an instance which would cause such a High Loss System to develop would be if a TV-based advertisement were to announce a particular telephone number to call at a specific time.", "In this case, a large number of people would simultaneously phone the number provided.", "If the service provider had not catered for this sudden peak demand, extreme traffic congestion will develop and Erlang's equations cannot be used." ], [ "See also", "* System spectral efficiency (discussing cellular network capacity in Erlang/MHz/cell)* A. K. Erlang* Call centre* Discrete-event simulation* Engset formula* Erlang programming language* Erlang distribution* Little's law* Poisson distribution* Traffic mix" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Eligible receiver" ], [ "Introduction", "In gridiron football, not all players on offense are entitled to receive a forward pass: only an '''eligible pass receiver''' may legally catch a forward pass, and only an eligible receiver may advance beyond the neutral zone if a forward pass crosses into the neutral zone.", "If the pass is received by a non-eligible receiver, it is \"illegal touching\" (resulting in a penalty of five yards and loss of down).", "If an ineligible receiver is beyond the neutral zone when a forward pass crossing the neutral zone is thrown, a foul of \"ineligible receiver downfield\" (resulting in a penalty of five yards, but no loss of down) is called.", "Each league has slightly different rules regarding who is considered an eligible receiver." ], [ "College football", "The NCAA rulebook defines eligible receivers for college football in Rule 7, Section 3, Article 3.The determining factors are the player's position on the field at the snap and their jersey number.", "Specifically, any players on offense wearing numbers between 50 and 79 are always ineligible.", "All defensive players are eligible receivers and offensive players who are not wearing an ineligible number are eligible receivers if they meet one of the following three criteria:* Player is at either end of the group of players on the line of scrimmage (wide receivers and/or tight ends)* Player is lined up at least one yard behind the line of scrimmage (running backs, fullbacks, slot receivers, etc.", ")* Player is positioned to receive a hand-to-hand snap from the center (almost always the quarterback)Players may only wear eligible numbers at an ineligible position when it is obvious that a punt or field goal is to be attempted.If a player is to change between eligible and ineligible positions, they must physically change jersey numbers to reflect the position.A receiver loses his eligibility by leaving the field of play unless he was forced out by a defensive player and immediately attempts to get back inbounds (Rule 7-3-4).", "All players on the field become eligible as soon as the ball is touched by a defensive player or an official during play (Rule 7-3-5)." ], [ "Professional football", "In both American and Canadian professional football, every player on the defensive team is considered eligible.", "The offensive team must have at least seven players lined up on the line of scrimmage.", "Of the players on the line of scrimmage, only the two players on the ends of the line of scrimmage are eligible receivers.", "The remaining players are in the backfield (four in American football, five in Canadian football), including the quarterback.", "These backfield players are also eligible receivers.", "In the National Football League (NFL), a quarterback who takes his stance behind center as a T-formation quarterback is not eligible unless, before the ball is snapped, he legally moves to a position at least one yard behind the line of scrimmage or on the end of the line, and is stationary in that position for at least one second before the snap, but is nonetheless not counted toward the seven men required on the line of scrimmage.If, for example, eight men line up on the line of scrimmage, the team loses an eligible receiver.", "This can often happen when a flanker or slot receiver, who is supposed to line up behind the line of scrimmage, instead lines up on the line of scrimmage between the offensive line and a split end.", "In most cases where a pass is caught by an ineligible receiver, it is usually because the quarterback was under pressure and threw it to an offensive lineman out of desperation.Eligible receivers must wear certain uniform numbers, so that the officials can more easily distinguish between eligible and ineligible receivers.", "In the NFL, running backs, wide receivers, and tight ends must wear numbers 0 to 49 and 80 to 89.Numbers 50 to 79 are reserved for linemen and are always ineligible on offense unless they report as eligible.", "In the CFL ineligible receivers must wear numbers 50 to 69; all other numbers (including 0 and 00) may be worn by eligible receivers.", "A player who is not wearing a number that corresponds to an eligible receiver is ineligible even if he lines up in an eligible position.", "However, a player who reports to the referee that he intends to be eligible in the following play is allowed to line up and act as an eligible receiver.", "An example of this was a 1985 NFL game in which William Perry, wearing number 72 and normally a defensive lineman, was made an eligible receiver on an offensive play, and successfully caught a touchdown pass attempt.", "A more recent example, and more commonly used, has been former New England Patriots linebacker Mike Vrabel lining up as a tight end in goal line situations.", "In the 2018 season, George Fant has also lined up in the tight end position for the Seattle Seahawks due to injuries to the starting tight ends Ed Dickson and Will Dissly.", "In the 2019 season the Atlanta Falcons declared right tackle Ty Sambrailo eligible on many plays before throwing the ball to him for a 35-yard touchdown against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.Before the snap of the ball, in the American game, backfield players may only move parallel to the line of scrimmage, only one back may be in motion at any given time, and if forward motion has occurred, the back must be still for a full second before the snap.", "The receiver may be in motion laterally or away from the line of scrimmage at the snap.", "A breach of this rule results in a penalty for illegal procedure (five yards).", "However, in the Canadian game, eligible receivers may move in any direction before the snap, any number may be in motion at any one time, and there is no need to be motionless before the snap.The rules on eligible receivers only apply to forward passes.", "Any player may legally catch a backwards or lateral pass.In the American game, once the play has started, eligible receivers can become ineligible depending on how the play develops.", "Any eligible receiver that goes out of bounds is no longer an eligible receiver and cannot receive a forward pass, unless that player re-establishes by taking three steps in bounds.", "Also, if a pass is touched by any defensive player or eligible offensive receiver (tipped by a defensive lineman, slips through a receiver's hands, etc.", "), every offensive player immediately becomes eligible.", "In the CFL all players become eligible receivers if a pass is touched by a member of the defensive team.", "A proposed rule change in the XFL would make all players behind the line of scrimmage eligible receivers, regardless of position or number." ], [ "High school", "In high school football, the rules of eligibility are roughly the same as in the college game.", "However, as of February 2009, at least five players must wear numbers between 50 and 79 on first, second, or third down, which by rule would make them ineligible receivers.", "This was because of a change in the definition of a scrimmage-kick formation made by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS).", "The change was intended to close a loophole in the rules which allowed teams to run an A-11 offense, in which a team would be exempted from eligibility numbering restrictions if the player receiving the snap was at least seven yards behind the line of scrimmage.In 2019, the NFHS changed the rules slightly, instead measuring the number of players behind the line of scrimmage, limiting that number to four.", "The minimum number of players on the offensive line was reduced from seven to five." ], [ "See also", "*Glossary of American football" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Enver Hoxha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enver Hoxha''' (; 16 October 190811 April 1985) was an Albanian Communist politician who ruled Albania from 1944 until his death in 1985.He was the First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania from 1941 until his death, a member of its Politburo, chairman of the Democratic Front of Albania, and commander-in-chief of the Albanian People's Army.", "He was the twenty-second prime minister of Albania from 1944 to 1954 and at various times was both foreign minister and defence minister of the country.", "Hoxha was born in Gjirokastër in 1908 and became a grammar school teacher in 1936.Following the Italian invasion of Albania, he joined the Party of Labour of Albania at its creation in 1941 in the Soviet Union.", "He was elected First Secretary in March 1943 at the age of 34.Less than two years after the liberation of the country, the monarchy of King Zog I was formally abolished, and Hoxha became the country's ''de facto'' head of state.Adopting Stalinism, Hoxha converted Albania into a one-party communist state.", "As a Stalinist, he implemented state atheism and ordered anti-religious persecution against Muslims and Christians.", "His government rebuilt the country, which was left in ruins after World War II, building Albania's first railway line, raising the adult literacy rate from 5–15% to more than 90%, wiping out epidemics, electrifying the country and leading Albania towards agricultural independence.", "The later years of his reign saw stagnation owing to his political breaks with the Soviet Union and China.", "To implement his radical program, Hoxha used totalitarian methods of governance.", "His government outlawed traveling abroad and private proprietorship.", "His government imprisoned, executed, or exiled thousands of landowners, rural clan leaders, peasants who resisted collectivization, and allegedly disloyal party officials.", "Hoxha was succeeded by Ramiz Alia, who oversaw the fall of communism in Albania.Hoxha's government was characterised by his proclaimed firm adherence to anti-revisionist Marxism–Leninism from the mid/late-1960s onwards.", "After his break with Maoism in the 1976–1978 period, numerous Maoist parties around the world declared themselves Hoxhaist.", "The International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organisations (Unity & Struggle) is the best-known association of these parties." ], [ "Early life", "The site of the house where Hoxha grew up in Gjirokastër.", "The original home was lost to a fire in the 1960s.Hoxha was born in Gjirokastër in southern Albania (then a part of the Ottoman Empire) in October 1908, the son of Halil Hoxha, a Muslim cloth merchant who travelled widely across Europe and the United States, and Gjylihan Hoxha (''née'' Çuçi).", "He was named after Enver Pasha, a leading figure of the Young Turk Revolution.", "The Hoxha family was attached to the Shia Islamic order () of Bektashism.After elementary school, he followed his studies in the city senior high school \"Liria\".", "He started his studies at the Gjirokastër Lyceum in 1923.After the lyceum was closed, due to intervention of Ekrem Libohova, Hoxha was awarded a state scholarship for the continuation of his studies in Korçë, at the French language Albanian National Lyceum until 1930.Hoxha at the age of 18In 1930, Hoxha went to study at the University of Montpellier in France on a state scholarship for the faculty of natural science, but lost the scholarship for neglecting his studies.", "He later went to Paris, where he presented himself to anti-Zogist immigrants as the brother-in-law of Bahri Omari.From 1935 to 1936, he was employed as a secretary at the Albanian consulate in Brussels.", "After returning to Albania, he worked as a contract teacher in the Gymnasium of Tirana.", "Hoxha taught French and morals in the Korça Liceum from 1937 to 1939 and also served as the caretaker of the school library.On 7 April 1939, the Albanian Kingdom was invaded by Fascist Italy.", "The Italians established a puppet government, called the Kingdom of Albania, under Shefqet Vërlaci.", "At the end of 1939, he was transferred to the Gjirokastra Gymnasium, but he soon returned to Tirana.", "He was helped by his best friend, Esat Dishnica, who introduced Hoxha to Dishnica's cousin Ibrahim Biçakçiu.", "Hoxha started to sleep in Biçakçiu's tobacco factory \"Flora\", and after a while Dishnica opened a shop with the same name, where Hoxha began working.", "He was a sympathiser of Korça's Communist Group." ], [ "Partisan life", "Hoxha in uniform, 1940Hoxha as a partisan, 1944On 8 November 1941, the Communist Party of Albania (later renamed the Party of Labour of Albania in 1948) was founded.", "Hoxha was chosen from the \"Korça group\" as a Muslim representative by the two Yugoslav envoys as one of the seven members of the provisional Central Committee.", "The First Consultative Meeting of Activists of the Communist Party of Albania was held in Tirana from 8 to 11 April 1942, with Hoxha himself delivering the main report on 8 April 1942.In July 1942, Hoxha wrote \"Call to the Albanian Peasantry\", issued in the name of the Communist Party of Albania.", "The call sought to enlist support in Albania for the war against the fascists.", "The peasants were encouraged to hoard their grain and refuse to pay taxes or livestock levies brought by the government.", "After the September 1942 Conference at Pezë, the National Liberation Movement was founded with the purpose of uniting the anti-fascist Albanians, regardless of ideology or class.By March 1943, the first National Conference of the Communist Party elected Hoxha formally as First Secretary.", "During WWII, the Soviet Union's role in Albania was negligible.", "On 10 July 1943, the Albanian partisans were organised in regular units of companies, battalions and brigades and named the Albanian National Liberation Army.", "The organization received military support from the British intelligence service, SOE.", "The General Headquarters was created, with Spiro Moisiu as the commander and Hoxha as political commissar.", "The Yugoslav Partisans had a much more practical role, helping to plan attacks and exchanging supplies, but communication between them and the Albanians was limited and letters often arrived late, sometimes well after a plan had been agreed upon by the National Liberation Army without consultation from the Yugoslav partisans.Within Albania, repeated attempts were made during the war to remedy the communications difficulties which faced partisan groups.", "In August 1943, a secret meeting, the Mukje Conference, was held between the anti-communist Balli Kombëtar (National Front) and the Communist Party of Albania.", "To encourage the Balli Kombëtar to sign, the Greater Albania sections that included Kosovo (part of Yugoslavia) and Chamëria were made part of the Agreement.=== Disagreement with the Yugoslav Communists ===A problem developed when the Yugoslav Communists disagreed with the goal of establishing a Greater Albania and asked the Communists in Albania to withdraw their agreement.", "According to Hoxha, Josip Broz Tito did not believe that \"Kosovo was Albanian\" and Serbian opposition to the transfer made it an unwise option.", "After the Albanian Communists repudiated the Greater Albania agreement, the Balli Kombëtar condemned the Communists, who in turn accused the Balli Kombëtar of siding with the Italians.", "The Balli Kombëtar lacked support from the people.", "After judging the Communists as an immediate threat, the Balli Kombëtar sided with Nazi Germany, fatally damaging its image among those fighting the fascists.", "The Communists quickly added to their ranks many of those disillusioned with the Balli Kombëtar and took centre stage in the fight for liberation.The Permet National Congress held during that time called for a \"new democratic Albania for the people\".", "Although the monarchy was not formally abolished, King Zog I of the Albanians was barred from returning to the country, which further increased the Communists' control.", "The Anti-Fascist Committee for National Liberation was founded, chaired by Hoxha.", "On 22 October 1944, the Committee became the Democratic Government of Albania after a meeting in Berat and Hoxha was chosen as interim Prime Minister.", "Tribunals were set up to try alleged war criminals who were designated \"enemies of the people\" and were presided over by Koçi Xoxe.", "From the beginning, the Democratic Government was an undisguised Communist regime.", "In the rest of what became the Soviet bloc, the Communist parties were at least nominally part of coalitions before dropping all pretense of pluralism and settling up one-party states.After liberation on 29 November 1944, several Albanian partisan divisions crossed the border into German-occupied Yugoslavia, where they fought alongside Tito's partisans and the Soviet Red Army in a joint campaign which succeeded in driving out the last pockets of German resistance.", "Marshal Tito, during a Yugoslavian conference in later years, thanked Hoxha for the assistance that the Albanian partisans had given during the War for National Liberation (''Lufta Nacionalçlirimtare'').", "The Democratic Front, dominated by the Albanian Communist Party, succeeded the National Liberation Front in August 1945, and the first post-war election was held on 2 December that year.", "The Front was the only legal political organisation allowed to stand in the elections, and the government reported that 93% of Albanians voted for it.On 11 January 1946, Zog was officially deposed and Albania was proclaimed the People's Republic of Albania (renamed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania in 1976), though the country had already been a Communist state since liberation.", "As First Secretary of the party, Hoxha was ''de facto'' head of state and the most powerful man in the country.Albanians celebrate their independence day on 28 November (which is the date on which they declared their independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912), while in the former People's Socialist Republic of Albania the national day was 29 November, the day the country was liberated from Nazi Germany.", "Both days are currently national holidays." ], [ "Early leadership (1946–1965)", "Hoxha declared himself a Marxist–Leninist and strongly admired Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin.", "During the period of 1945–1950, the government adopted policies and actions intended to consolidate power which included extrajudicial killings and executions that targeted and eliminated anti-communists.", "The Agrarian Reform Law was passed in August 1945.It confiscated land from beys and large landowners, giving it without compensation to peasants.", "52% of all land was owned by large landowners before the law was passed; this declined to 16% after the law's passage.", "Illiteracy, which was 90–95% in rural areas in 1939 and perhaps 85% of the total population in 1946, fell to 30% by 1950, and by 1985 it was equal to that of a Western country.By 1949, the US and British intelligence organisations were working with the former King Zog and the mountain men of his personal guard.", "They recruited Albanian refugees and émigrés from Egypt, Italy and Greece, trained them in Cyprus, Malta and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), and infiltrated them into Albania.", "Guerrilla units entered Albania in 1950 and 1952, but they were killed or captured by Albanian security forces.", "Kim Philby, a Soviet double agent working as a liaison officer between MI6 and the CIA, had leaked details of the infiltration plan to Moscow, and the security breach claimed the lives of about 300 infiltrators.On 19 February 1951, a bombing occurred at the Soviet embassy in Tirana, after which 23 accused intellectuals were arrested and put in prison.", "One of them, Jonuz Kaceli, was killed by Mehmet Shehu during interrogation.", "Subsequently, the 22 others were executed without trial under Hoxha's orders.The State University of Tirana was established in 1957, which was the first of its kind in Albania.", "The medieval Gjakmarrja (blood feud) was banned.", "Malaria, the most widespread disease, was successfully fought through advances in health care, the use of DDT, and through the draining of swampland.", "From 1965 to 1985, no cases of malaria were reported, whereas previously Albania had the greatest number of infected patients in Europe.", "No cases of syphilis had been recorded for 30 years.", "In 1938 the number of physicians was 1.1 per 10,000 and there was only one hospital bed per 1,000 people.", "In 1950, while the number of physicians had not increased, there were four times as many hospital beds per head, and health expenditures had risen to 5% of the budget, up from 1% before the war.=== Relations with Yugoslavia ===Miladin Popović, Liri Gega, and Enver HoxhaAt this point, relations with Yugoslavia had begun to change.", "The roots of the change began on 20 October 1944 at the Second Plenary Session of the Communist Party of Albania.", "The Session considered the problems that the post-independence Albanian government would face.", "However, the Yugoslav delegation which was led by Velimir Stoinić accused the party of \"sectarianism and opportunism\" and blamed Hoxha for these errors.", "He also stressed the view that the Yugoslav Communist partisans spearheaded the Albanian partisan movement.Anti-Yugoslav members of the Albanian Communist Party had begun to think that this was a plot by Tito who intended to destabilize the Party.", "Koçi Xoxe, Sejfulla Malëshova and others who supported Yugoslavia were looked upon with deep suspicion.", "Tito's position on Albania was that it was too weak to stand on its own and that it would do better as a part of Yugoslavia.", "Hoxha alleged that Tito had made it his goal to get Albania into Yugoslavia, firstly by creating the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Aid in 1946.In time, Albania began to feel that the treaty was heavily slanted towards Yugoslav interests, much like the Italian agreements with Albania under Zog that made the nation dependent upon Italy.The first issue was that the Albanian lek became revalued in terms of the Yugoslav dinar as a customs union was formed and Albania's economic plan was decided more by Yugoslavia.", "Albanian economists H. Banja and V. Toçi stated that the relationship between Albania and Yugoslavia during this period was exploitative and that it constituted attempts by Yugoslavia to make the Albanian economy an \"appendage\" to the Yugoslav economy.", "Hoxha then began to accuse Yugoslavia of misconduct:Stalin advised Hoxha that Yugoslavia was attempting to annex Albania: \"We did not know that the Yugoslavs, under the pretext of 'defending' your country against an attack from the Greek fascists, wanted to bring units of their army into the PRA People's Republic of Albania.", "They tried to do this in a very secretive manner.", "In reality, their aim in this direction was utterly hostile, for they intended to overturn the situation in Albania.\"", "By June 1947, the Central Committee of Yugoslavia began publicly condemning Hoxha, accusing him of taking an individualistic and anti-Marxist line.", "When Albania responded by making agreements with the Soviet Union to purchase a supply of agricultural machinery, Yugoslavia said that Albania could not enter into any agreements with other countries without Yugoslav approval.Koçi Xoxe tried to stop Hoxha from improving relations with Bulgaria, reasoning that Albania would be more stable with one trading partner rather than with many.", "Nako Spiru, an anti-Yugoslav member of the Party, condemned Xoxe and vice versa.", "With no one coming to Spiru's defense, he viewed the situation as hopeless and feared that Yugoslav domination of his nation was imminent, which caused him to commit suicide in November.At the Eighth Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party which lasted from 26 February to 8 March 1948, Xoxe was implicated in a plot to isolate Hoxha and consolidate his own power.", "He accused Hoxha of being responsible for the decline in relations with Yugoslavia and stated that a Soviet military mission should be expelled in favor of a Yugoslav counterpart.", "Hoxha managed to remain firm and his support had not declined.", "When Yugoslavia publicly broke with the Soviet Union, Hoxha's support base grew stronger.", "Then, on 1 July 1948, Tirana called on all Yugoslav technical advisors to leave the country and unilaterally declared all treaties and agreements between the two countries null and void.", "Xoxe was expelled from the party and on 13 June 1949, he was executed by hanging.=== Relations with the Soviet Union ===After the break with Yugoslavia, Hoxha aligned himself with the Soviet Union.", "From 1948 to 1960, $200 million in Soviet aid was given to Albania for technical and infrastructural expansion.", "Albania was admitted to the Comecon on 22 February 1949 and served as a pro-Soviet force on the Adriatic.", "A Soviet submarine base was built on the Albanian island of Sazan near Vlorë, posing a hypothetical threat to the U.S. Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean.", "Relations with the Soviet Union remained close until the death of Stalin in March 1953.It was followed by 14 days of national mourning in Albania – more than in the Soviet Union.", "Hoxha assembled the population of Tirana in the capital's largest square, which featured a Stalin statue, requested that they kneel and take a 2,000-word oath of \"eternal fidelity\" and \"gratitude\" to their \"beloved father\" and \"great liberator\".Under Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's eventual successor, aid was reduced and Albania was encouraged to adopt Khrushchev's specialisation policy.", "Under it, Albania would develop its agricultural output in order to supply the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries while they would be developing products of their own, which would, in theory, strengthen the Warsaw Pact.", "However, this also meant that Albanian industrial development, which was stressed heavily by Hoxha, would be hindered.In May–June 1955, Nikolai Bulganin and Anastas Mikoyan visited Yugoslavia while Khrushchev renounced the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Communist bloc.", "Khrushchev also began making references to Palmiro Togliatti's polycentrism theory.", "Hoxha had not been consulted on this and was offended.", "Yugoslavia began asking for Hoxha to rehabilitate the image of Xoxe, which Hoxha steadfastly rejected.", "In 1956 at the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev condemned the cult of personality that had been built up around Stalin and denounced his excesses.", "Khrushchev then announced the theory of peaceful coexistence, which angered the Stalinist Hoxha greatly.", "The Institute of Marxist–Leninist Studies, led by Hoxha's wife Nexhmije, quoted Vladimir Lenin: \"The fundamental principle of the foreign policy of a socialist country and of a Communist party is proletarian internationalism; not peaceful coexistence.\"", "Hoxha now took a more active stand against perceived revisionism.Unity within the Albanian Party of Labour began to decline as well, with a special delegate meeting held in Tirana in April 1956, composed of 450 delegates and having unexpected results.", "The delegates \"criticized the conditions in the party, the negative attitude toward the masses, the absence of party and socialist democracy, the economic policy of the leadership, etc.\"", "while also calling for discussions on the cult of personality and the Twentieth Party Congress.==== Movement towards China and Maoism ====Mao Zedong and Hoxha in 1956In 1956, Hoxha called for a resolution which would confirm the existing leadership of the Party.", "The resolution was accepted, and all of the delegates who had spoken against it were expelled from the party and imprisoned.", "Hoxha claimed that Yugoslavia had attempted to overthrow the leadership of Albania.", "This incident increased Hoxha's power, effectively making Khrushchev-style reforms impossible there.", "In the same year, Hoxha travelled to China, then embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split, and met Mao Zedong.", "Chinese aid to Albania rose sharply during the next two years.In an effort to keep Albania in the Soviet sphere, increased Soviet aid was given but relations with the Soviet Union remained at the same level until 1960, when Khrushchev met Sofoklis Venizelos, a liberal Greek politician.", "Khrushchev sympathised with the concept of an autonomous Greek North Epirus and he hoped to use Greek claims to keep the Albanian leadership in line.", "Hoxha reacted by only sending Hysni Kapo, a member of the Albanian Political Bureau, to the Third Congress of the Romanian Workers' Party in Bucharest, an event Communist heads of state were normally expected to attend.", "As relations between the two countries continued to deteriorate in the course of the meeting, Khrushchev said:==== Friction with the Soviet Union ====Relations with the Soviet Union declined rapidly.", "A hardline policy was adopted and the Soviets reduced grain shipments at a time when Albania needed them due to the possibility of a flood-induced famine.", "In July 1960, a plot to overthrow the Albanian government was discovered.", "It was to be organised by Soviet-trained Rear Admiral Teme Sejko.", "After this, two pro-Soviet members of the Party, Liri Belishova and Koço Tashko, were expelled.In August, the Party's Central Committee sent a protest to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union about having an anti-Albanian Soviet Ambassador in Tirana.", "The Fourth Congress of the Party, held from 13 to 20 February 1961, was the last meeting that the Soviet Union or other Eastern European nations attended in Albania.", "During the congress, Mehmet Shehu stated that while many members of the Party were accused of tyranny, this was a baseless charge and unlike the Soviet Union, Albania was led by genuine Marxists.The Soviet Union retaliated by threatening \"dire consequences\" if the condemnations were not retracted.", "Days later, Khrushchev and Antonín Novotný, President of Czechoslovakia, threatened to cut off economic aid.", "In March, Albania was not invited to attend the meeting of the Warsaw Pact nations, and in April all Soviet technicians were withdrawn from Albania.", "In May nearly all Soviet troops at the Soviet submarine base were withdrawn.On 7 November 1961, Hoxha made a speech in which he called Khrushchev a \"revisionist, an anti-Marxist and a defeatist\".", "Hoxha portrayed Stalin as the last Communist leader of the Soviet Union and alluded to Albania's independence.", "By 11 November, the USSR and every other Warsaw Pact nation broke diplomatic relations with Albania.", "Albania was unofficially excluded from the Warsaw Pact and Comecon.", "The Soviet Union also attempted to claim control of the submarine base.", "The Albanian Party then passed a law prohibiting any other nation from owning an Albanian port.", "The Albanian–Soviet split was now complete." ], [ "Later rule (1965–1985)", "Postage stamp celebrating Hoxha's 60th birthday (1968)Bunkers in Albania built during Hoxha's rule to avert the possibility of external invasions.", "By 1983 over 173,000 concrete bunkers were scattered throughout the country.As Hoxha's leadership continued, he took on an increasingly theoretical stance.", "He wrote criticisms which were based on theory and current events which occurred at the time; his most notable criticisms were his condemnations of Maoism after 1978.A major achievement under Hoxha was the advancement of women's rights.", "Albania had been one of the most, if not the most, patriarchal countries in Europe.", "The ancient ''Kanun'', which regulated the status of women, states, \"A woman is known as a sack, made to endure as long as she lives in her husband's house.\"", "Women were not allowed to inherit anything from their parents, and discrimination was even made in the case of the murder of a pregnant woman:Women were forbidden from obtaining a divorce, and the wife's parents were obliged to return a runaway daughter to her husband or else suffer shame which could even result in a generations-long blood feud.", "During World War II, the Albanian Communists encouraged women to join the partisans and following the war, women were encouraged to take up menial jobs, as the education necessary for higher level work was out of most women's reach.", "In 1938, 4% worked in various sectors of the economy.", "In 1970, this number had risen to 38%, and in 1982 to 46%.During the Cultural and Ideological Revolution, women were encouraged to take up all jobs, including government posts, which resulted in 40.7% of the People's Councils and 30.4% of the People's Assembly being made up of women, including two women in the Central Committee by 1985.In 1978, 15.1 times as many females attended eight-year schools as had done so in 1938 and 175.7 times as many females attended secondary schools.", "By 1978, 101.9 times as many women attended higher schools as in 1957.Hoxha said of women's rights in 1967:The entire party and country should hurl into the fire and break the neck of anyone who dared trample underfoot the sacred edict of the party on the defense of women's rights.In 1969, direct taxation was abolished and during this period the quality of schooling and health care continued to improve.", "An electrification campaign was begun in 1960 and the entire nation was expected to have electricity by 1985.Instead, it achieved this on 25 October 1970, making it the first nation with complete electrification in the world.", "During the Cultural & Ideological Revolution of 1967–1968 the military changed from traditional Communist army tactics and began to adhere to the Maoist strategy known as people's war, which included the abolition of military ranks, which were not fully restored until 1991.Mehmet Shehu said of the country's health service in 1979:Hoxha's first name engraved on the side of Shpiragu MountainHoxha's legacy also included a complex of 173,371 one-man concrete bunkers across a country of 3 million inhabitants, to act as look-outs and gun emplacements along with chemical weapons.", "The bunkers were built strong and mobile, with the intention that they could be easily placed by a crane or a helicopter in a hole.", "The types of bunkers vary from machine gun pillboxes, beach bunkers, to underground naval facilities and even Air Force Mountain and underground bunkers.Hoxha's internal policies were true to Stalin's paradigm which he admired, and the personality cult which was developed in the 1970s and organised around him by the Party also bore a striking resemblance to that of Stalin.", "At times it even reached an intensity which was as extreme as the personality cult of Kim Il Sung (which Hoxha condemned) with Hoxha being portrayed as a genius commenting on virtually all facets of life from culture to economics to military matters.", "Each schoolbook required one or more quotations from him on the subjects being studied.", "The Party honored him with titles such as Supreme Comrade, Sole Force and Great Teacher.", "He adopted a different type military salute for the People's Army to render honors which was known as the \"Hoxhaist salute\", which involves soldiers curling their right fist and raising it to shoulder level.", "It replaced the Zogist salute, which was used by the Royal Albanian Army for many years.Hoxha's governance was also distinguished by his encouragement of a high birthrate policy.", "For instance, a woman who bore an above-average number of children would be given the government award of ''Heroine Mother'' (in Albanian: ''Nënë Heroinë'') along with cash rewards.", "Abortion was essentially restricted (to encourage high birth rates), except if the birth posed a danger to the mother's life, though it was not completely banned; the process was decided by district medical commissions.", "As a result, the population of Albania tripled from 1 million in 1944 to around 3 million in 1985.=== Relations with China ===A Cultural Revolution poster promoting Albanian-Chinese cooperation featuring Hoxha and Mao.", "The caption at the bottom reads, \"Long live the great union between the Parties of Albania and China!\"", "Despite what the painting may suggest, the two leaders only met twice—first in 1956 during Hoxha's visit to China, and again in 1957 at the Moscow meeting of Communist and Workers' parties—before the formation of the Sino-Albanian alliance.At the start of Albania's third five-year plan, China offered Albania a loan of $125 million which would be used to build twenty-five chemical, electrical and metallurgical plants in accordance with the plan.", "However, the nation discovered that the task of completing these building projects was difficult, because Albania's relations with its neighbors were poor and because matters were also complicated by the long distance between Albania and China.", "Unlike Yugoslavia or the USSR, China had less economic influence on Albania during Hoxha's rule.", "During the previous fifteen years (1946–1961), at least 50% of Albania's economy was dependent on foreign commerce.By the time the 1976 constitution was promulgated, Albania had mostly become self-sufficient, but it lacked modern technology.", "Ideologically, Hoxha found that Mao's initial views were in line with Marxism-Leninism, due to his condemnation of Khrushchev's alleged revisionism and his condemnation of Yugoslavia.", "The financial aid which China provided to Albania was interest-free and it did not have to be repaid until Albania could afford to do so.China never intervened in Albania's economic output, and Chinese technicians and Albanian workers both worked for the same wages.", "Albanian newspapers were reprinted in Chinese newspapers, and they were also read on Chinese radio, and Albania led the movement to give the People's Republic of China a seat on the UN Security Council.", "During this period, Albania became the second largest producer of chromium in the world, which China considered important.", "Strategically, the Adriatic Sea was attractive to China, because China hoped that it could gain more allies in Eastern Europe through Albania - a hope which was misplaced.", "Zhou Enlai visited Albania in January 1964.On 9 January, \"The 1964 Sino-Albanian Joint Statement\" was signed in Tirana.", "The statement said of relations between socialist countries:Like Albania, China defended the \"purity\" of Marxism by attacking American imperialism and \"Soviet and Yugoslav revisionism\", both of them were equally attacked as part of a \"dual adversary\" theory.", "Yugoslavia was viewed as both a \"special detachment of U.S. imperialism\" and a \"saboteur against world revolution\".", "However, these views began to change in China, which was one of the major issues which Albania had with the alliance.", "Additionally, unlike Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, the Sino-Albanian alliance lacked \"... an organisational structure for regular consultations and policy coordination, and it was also characterized by an informal relationship which was conducted on an ''ad hoc'' basis.\"", "Mao made a speech on 3 November 1966 in which he claimed that Albania was the only Marxist–Leninist state in Europe and in the same speech, he also stated that \"an attack on Albania will have to reckon with the great People's Republic of China.", "If the U.S. imperialists, the modern Soviet revisionists or any of their lackeys dare to touch Albania in the slightest, nothing lies ahead for them but a complete, shameful and memorable defeat.\"", "Likewise, Hoxha stated that \"You may rest assured, comrades, that come what may in the world at large, our two parties and our two peoples will certainly remain together.", "They will fight together and they will win together.", "\"==== Shift in China's foreign policy after the Cultural Revolution ====During the Cultural Revolution, China entered into a four-year period of relative diplomatic isolation, however, its relations with Albania were positive.", "On 20 August 1968, the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was condemned by Albania, along with the Brezhnev doctrine.", "Albania refused to send troops to Czechoslovakia in support of the invasion, and it officially withdrew from the Warsaw Pact on 5 September.Albania's relations with China began to deteriorate on 15 July 1971, when United States President Richard Nixon agreed to visit China in order to meet with Zhou Enlai.", "Hoxha believed that China had betrayed Albania, and on 6 August, the Central Committee of the PLA sent a letter to the Central Committee of the CCP in which it called Nixon a \"frenzied anti-Communist\".", "The letter stated:The result of this criticism was a message from the Chinese leadership in 1971 in which it stated that Albania could not depend on an indefinite flow of aid from China, and in 1972 Albania was advised to \"curb its expectations about further Chinese contributions to its economic development\".", "By 1972, Hoxha wrote in his diary ''Reflections on China'' that China was no longer a socialist country:And in 1973, he wrote that the Chinese leaders:In response, trade with COMECON (although trade with the Soviet Union was still blocked) and Yugoslavia grew.", "Trade with Third World nations was $0.5 million in 1973, but $8.3 million in 1974.Trade rose from 0.1% to 1.6%.", "Following Mao's death on 9 September 1976, Hoxha remained optimistic about Sino-Albanian relations, but in August 1977, Hua Guofeng, the new leader of China, stated that Mao's Three Worlds Theory would become official foreign policy.", "Hoxha viewed this as a way for China to justify having the U.S. as the \"secondary enemy\" while viewing the Soviet Union as the main one, thus allowing China to trade with the U.S.", "He stated that: From 30 August to 7 September 1977, Tito visited Beijing and was welcomed by the Chinese leadership.", "Following this, the PLA declared that China was now a revisionist state akin to the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, and that Albania was the only Marxist–Leninist state on Earth.", "Hoxha stated:On 13 July 1978, China announced that it was cutting off all of its aid to Albania.", "For the first time in modern history, Albania did not have an ally and it also did not have a major trading partner.=== Political repression and emigration ===Former political prison in Gjirokastër.", "During Hoxha's rule, political executions were common, and as a result, as many as 25,000 people were killed by the regime and many more were sent to labour camps or persecuted.Checkpoint memorial in Tirana featuring a bunker, walls from Spaç Prison, and a fragment of the Berlin Wall.Certain clauses in the 1976 constitution circumscribed the exercise of political liberties which the government interpreted as being contrary to the established order.", "The government denied the population access to information other than that which was disseminated by government-controlled media outlets.", "Internally, the Sigurimi used the same repressive methods which were used by the NKVD, the MGB, the KGB and the East German Stasi.", "At one point, every third Albanian had either been interrogated by the Sigurimi or they had been incarcerated in labour camps.", "The government imprisoned thousands of people in forced-labour camps or it executed them for alleged crimes such as treachery or disrupting the proletarian dictatorship.", "After 1968, travel abroad was forbidden to all but those people who were on official business.", "Western European culture was looked upon with deep suspicion, resulting in bans on all unauthorised foreign materials and arrests: Art was required to reflect the styles of socialist realism.", "Beards were banned as unhygienic in order to curb the influence of Islam (many Imams and Babas had beards) and the Eastern Orthodox faith.", "The justice system's legal proceedings regularly degenerated into show trials.", "An American human rights group described the proceedings of one trial: In order to lessen the threat of political dissidents and other exiles, relatives of the accused were often arrested, ostracised, and accused of being \"enemies of the people\".", "Political executions were common, and at least 5,000 people—possibly as many as 25,000—were killed by the regime.", "Torture was often used to obtain confessions:During Hoxha's rule, there were six institutions for political prisoners and fourteen labour camps where political prisoners and common criminals worked together.", "It has been estimated that there were approximately 32,000 people imprisoned in Albania in 1985.Article 47 of the Albanian Criminal Code stated that to \"escape outside the state, as well as refusal to return to the Fatherland by a person who has been sent to serve or has been permitted temporarily to go outside the state\" was an act of treason, a crime punishable by a minimum sentence of ten years and a maximum sentence of death.", "The Albanian government went to great lengths to prevent people from defecting by leaving the country:An electrically-wired metal fence stands 600 meters to one kilometer from the actual border.", "Anyone touching the fence not only risks electrocution, but also sets off alarm bells and lights which alert guards stationed at approximately one-kilometre intervals along the fence.", "Two meters of soil on either side of the fence are cleared in order to check for footprints of escapees and infiltrators.", "The area between the fence and the actual border is seeded with booby traps such as coils of wire, noise makers consisting of thin pieces of metal strips on top of two wooden slats with stones in a tin container which rattle if stepped on, and flares that are triggered by contact, thus illuminating would-be escapees during the night.=== Religion ===Albania was a predominantly Muslim country after the demise of the Ottoman Empire, which identified religion with ethnicity.", "In the Ottoman Empire, Muslims were classified as Turks, Orthodox Christians were classified as Greeks, and Catholics were classified as Latins.", "Hoxha believed that this division of Albanian society along religious and ethnic lines was a serious issue, because it fueled Greek separatists in southern Albania in particular and it also divided the nation in general.", "The Agrarian Reform Law of 1945 confiscated much of the church's property in the country.", "Catholics were the earliest religious community to be targeted because the Vatican was considered an agent of Fascism and anti-Communism.", "In 1946 the Jesuit Order was banned and the Franciscans were banned in 1947.", "''Decree No.", "743'' (On religion) sought the establishment of a national church and it also forbade religious leaders from associating with foreign powers.Mother Teresa, a Catholic nun whose relatives resided in Albania during Hoxha's rule, was denied a chance to see them because she was considered a dangerous agent of the Vatican.", "Despite multiple requests and despite the fact that many countries made requests on her behalf, she was not granted the opportunity to see her mother and sister.", "Both Mother Teresa's mother and sister died during Hoxha's rule, and the nun herself was only able to visit Albania five years after the Communist regime collapsed.", "Dom Lush Gjergji in his book \"Our Mother Teresa\" describes one of her trips to the embassy where she was crying as she was leaving the building, saying:Dear God, I can understand and accept that I should suffer, but it is so hard to understand and accept why my mother has to suffer.", "In her old age she has no other wish than to see us one last time.", "The Party focused on atheist education in schools.", "This tactic was effective, primarily as a result of the high birthrate policy which was encouraged after the war.", "During periods which are considered \"holy periods\" by religious people, such as Lent and Ramadan, many foods and non-water beverages were distributed in schools and factories, and religious people who refused to eat those foods and drink those beverages when they were offered to them during their \"fasting times\" were denounced.Starting on 6February 1967, the party began to promote secularism in place of Abrahamic religions.", "Hoxha, who had launched a \"Cultural and Ideological Revolution\" after being partially inspired by China's Cultural Revolution, encouraged Communist students and workers to use more forceful tactics in order to discourage people from continuing their religious practices; the use of violence was initially condemned.According to Hoxha, the surge in anti-theist activities began with the youth.", "The result of this \"spontaneous, unprovoked movement\" was the demolition or conversion of all 2,169 churches and mosques in Albania.", "State atheism became official policy, and Albania was declared the world's first atheist state.", "Town and city names which echoed Abrahamic religious themes were abandoned for neutral secular ones, as well as personal names.", "By 1968, Hoxha stated in a speech in that \"Religion is a fuel kindling fires of all evils\".", "During this period religiously based names were also made illegal.", "The ''Dictionary of People's Names'', published in 1982, contained 3,000 approved, secular names.", "In 1992, Monsignor Dias, the Papal Nuncio for Albania appointed by Pope John Paul II, said that of the three hundred Catholic priests present in Albania prior to the Communists coming to power, only thirty were still active.", "The promotion of religion was banned, and all clerics were labeled reactionaries and outlawed.", "Those religious figures who refused to embrace the principles of Marxism–Leninism were either arrested or carried on their activities in hiding.=== Cultivating ultranationalism ===During the anti-religious campaign, Enver Hoxha declared that \"the only religion of Albania is Albanianism\", a quotation from the poem ''O moj Shqiperi'' (\"O Albania\") by the 19th-century Albanian writer Pashko Vasa.Muzafer Korkuti, one of the dominant figures in post-war Albanian archaeology and now the Director of the Institute of Archaeology in Tirana, said this in an interview on 10 July 2002:Hoxha and AlbaniansEfforts were focused on an Illyrian-Albanian continuity issue.", "An Illyrian origin of the Albanians (without denying ''Pelasgian'' roots) continued to play a significant role in Albanian nationalism, resulting in a revival of given names supposedly of \"Illyrian\" origin, at the expense of given names associated with Christianity.", "At first, Albanian nationalist writers opted for the Pelasgians as the forefathers of the Albanians, but as this form of nationalism flourished in Albania under Enver Hoxha, the Pelasgians became a secondary element to the Illyrian theory of Albanian origins, which could claim some support in scholarship.The Illyrian descent theory soon became one of the pillars of Albanian nationalism, especially because it could provide some evidence of continuity of an Albanian presence both in Kosovo and Southern Albania, i.e.", "areas that were subject to ethnic conflicts between Albanians, Serbs and Greeks.", "Under the government of Enver Hoxha, an autochthonous ethnogenesis was promoted and physical anthropologists tried to demonstrate that Albanians were different from any other Indo-European populations, a theory now disproved.", "They claimed that the Illyrians were the most ancient people in the Balkans and greatly extended the age of the Illyrian language.===Rejecting Western mass media culture===Hoxha and his government were also hostile to Western popular culture as it was manifested in the mass media, along with the consumerism and cultural liberalism which were associated with it.", "In a speech on the Fourth Plenum of the Central Committee of the PLA (PLA-CC) on 26 June 1973, Hoxha declared a definitive break with any such Western bourgeois influence and what he described as its \"degenerated bourgeois culture\".", "In a speech in which he also criticised the \"spread of certain vulgar, alien tastes in music and art\", which ran \"contrary to socialist ethics and the positive traditions of our people\", including \"degenerate importations such as long hair, extravagant dress, screaming jungle music, coarse language, shameless behaviour and so on\", Hoxha declared:" ], [ "Later life and death", "Propaganda (photographed in 1978): ''The fatherland is defended by all of the people''In 1974, Hoxha accused Beqir Balluku, Minister of Defence and longtime ally, of being an agent of China and attempting a coup d'état, since Balluku had criticized Hoxha's bunker program and stated that a U.S. and Soviet invasion of Albania was unlikely.", "Hoxha sentenced Balluku and a group of his accused associates to death and appointed Mehmet Shehu as Minister of Defence.A new Constitution was decided upon by the Seventh Congress of the Albanian Party of Labour on 1–7 November 1976.According to Hoxha, \"The old Constitution was the Constitution of the building of the foundations of socialism, whereas the new Constitution will be the Constitution of the complete construction of a socialist society.", "\"Self-reliance was now stressed more than ever.", "Citizens were encouraged to train in the use of weapons, and this activity was also taught in schools.", "The purpose of this training was to encourage the creation of quick partisans.Borrowing and foreign investment were banned under Article 26 of the Constitution, which read: \"The granting of concessions to, and the creation of foreign economic and financial companies and other institutions or ones formed jointly with bourgeois and revisionist capitalist monopolies and states as well as obtaining credits from them are prohibited in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania.\"", "Hoxha said of borrowing money and allowing investment from other countries:During this period, Albania was the most isolated country in Europe.", "In 1983, Albania imported goods which were worth $280 million but it exported goods which were worth $290 million, producing a trade surplus of $10 million.Fall of Hoxha's statue in Tirana's Skanderbeg Square amid student demonstrationsIn 1981, Hoxha ordered the execution of several party and government officials in a new purge.", "Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu, the second-most powerful man in Albania and Hoxha's closest comrade-in-arms for 40 years, was reported to have committed suicide in December 1981.He was subsequently condemned as a \"traitor\" to Albania, and he was also accused of operating in the service of multiple intelligence agencies.", "It is generally believed that he was either killed or he shot himself during a power struggle which may have resulted from differing foreign policy matters with Hoxha.", "Hoxha also wrote a large assortment of books during this period, resulting in over 65 volumes of collected works, condensed into six volumes of selected works.In 1973, Hoxha suffered a heart attack from which he never fully recovered.", "In increasingly precarious health from the late 1970s onward, he turned most state functions over to Ramiz Alia.", "In his final days, he was confined to a wheelchair and suffered from diabetes, with which he was diagnosed in 1948, along with cerebral ischemia, with which he was diagnosed in 1983.On 9 April 1985, he was struck by a ventricular fibrillation.", "Over the next 48 hours, he suffered repeated episodes of this arrhythmia, and he died in the early morning hours of 11 April 1985 at the age of 76.The Albanian government announced seven days of mourning with flags flown at half-mast and entertainment and cultural events cancelled.Hoxha's body lay in state at the building of the Presidium of the People's Assembly for three days before he was buried on 15 April after a memorial service on Skanderbeg Square.", "The government refused to accept any foreign delegations during Hoxha's funeral and it even condemned the Soviet message of condolences as \"unacceptable\".", "After his burial, Hoxha was succeeded as head of state by Ramiz Alia, who gained control of the party's leadership two days later.Hoxha left Albania with a legacy of isolation and fear of the outside world.", "Despite some economic progress which Albania made during Hoxha's rule, the country was in economic stagnation; Albania had been the poorest European country throughout much of the Cold War period." ], [ "Family", "Blloku (the Block) in TiranaThe surname ''Hoxha'' is the Albanian variant of hodja (from ), a title given to his ancestors due to their efforts to teach Albanians about Islam.Hoxha's parents were Halil and Gjylihan (Gjylo) Hoxha, and Hoxha had three sisters, Fahrije, Haxhire and Sanije.", "Hysen Hoxha () was Enver Hoxha's uncle and was a militant who campaigned vigorously for the independence of Albania, which occurred when Enver was four years old.", "His grandfather Beqir was involved in the Gjirokastër section of the League of Prizren.Hoxha's son Sokol Hoxha was the CEO of the Albanian Post and Telecommunication service and is married to Liliana Hoxha.", "Sali Berisha, a later democratic president of Albania, was often seen socialising with Sokol Hoxha and other close relatives of leading Communist figures in Albania.Hoxha's daughter, Pranvera, is an architect.", "Along with her husband, Klement Kolaneci, she designed the Enver Hoxha Museum in Tirana, a white-tiled pyramid.", "Some sources have referred to the edifice, said to be the most expensive ever constructed in Albanian history, as the \"Enver Hoxha Mausoleum\", though this was not an official appellation.", "The museum opened in 1988, three years after her father's death, and in 1991 was transformed into a conference centre and exhibition venue renamed Pyramid of Tirana." ], [ "Coup attempts", "The Mustafa Band was a gang connected to counter-revolutionary elements such as the Albanian mafia and members of the royal House of Zogu, and in 1982 attempted to assassinate Enver Hoxha.", "The plan failed and two of its members were killed and another one was arrested.According to Hoxha, documents from long-time prime minister Mehmet Shehu's vault were found after his death in 1981 pertaining to orders by Yugoslav intelligence to poison him and assume the leadership of the country.", "In his book ''The Titoites'', Hoxha argues that this plan failed because Shehu was a coward who could not go through with the task and figured that suicide would, at the very least, save his family from the punishment for his counter-revolutionary activity." ], [ "Legacy", "A 2016 survey conducted by the Institute for Development Research and Alternatives (IDRA) showed that 45% of Albanians believe that Hoxha had a positive impact on the history of Albania, whereas 42% see his impact as negative.", "Younger generations (16–35 years old; born after 1981) tend to have a more negative view of Hoxha's contributions, while older generations (over 35 years old; born before 1981) tend to have a more positive view.", "Citizens in the regions of southeastern and southwestern Albania that were interviewed, had the most positive view of Hoxha, with 50% and 55%, respectively." ], [ "Awards", ";Albania40pxHero of the People, twice (revoked 1995)70pxHero of Socialist Labour70pxOrder of Skanderbeg, 1st Class;Foreign Awards70pxOrder \"For Bravery\" 1st Class (Bulgaria) (9 September 1944)70pxOrder of the People's Hero (Yugoslavia) (1946)70pxOrder of Suvorov, 1st Class (Soviet Union) (1948)70pxOrder of Lenin (Soviet Union)" ], [ "Partial list of works", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "See also", "* Albanian Resistance of World War II* Autarky* History of Albania* Hoxhaism* National Martyrs Cemetery of Albania* Pyramid of Tirana" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"Free - Coming of Age at the End of History\" - Lea Ypi - Allen Lane - 2021: \"a child's memoir into the death throes of the peculiar Albanian regime\"." ], [ "External links", "* Enver Hoxha Reference Archive at marxists.org* English collection of some of Hoxha's works* Another English collection of some of Hoxha's works* A Russian site with the works of Enver Hoxha* Enver Hoxha tungjatjeta* Disa nga Veprat e Shokut Enver Hoxha* Albanian.com article on Hoxha* Virtual Memory Museum Official Website * Enver Hoxha's Underground Bunker Official Website* \"Albania: Stalin's heir\", ''Time'', 22 December 1961* Hoxha's State Funeral – 15 April 1985* Albania Under Enver Hoxha (1982)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hirohito" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hirohito''' (29 April 19017 January 1989), posthumously honored as '''Emperor Shōwa''', was the 124th emperor of Japan, reigning from 1926 until his death in 1989.His reign of over 62 years is the longest of any historical Japanese emperor and one of the longest-reigning monarchs in the world.Hirohito was born at Aoyama Palace in Tokyo to Crown Prince Yoshihito.", "He became Regent of Japan in 1921.After his father's death, he became the emperor.", "He was the head of state under the Meiji Constitution during Japan's imperial expansion, militarization, and involvement in World War II.", "Under Hirohito, Japan waged a war across Asia in the 1930s and 1940s.After Japan's surrender, despite Japan waging the war in the name of Hirohito, he was not prosecuted for war crimes, for General Douglas MacArthur thought that an ostensibly cooperative emperor would help establish a peaceful Allied occupation and would help the U.S. achieve its postwar objectives.", "On 1 January 1946, under pressure from the Allies, the Emperor formally renounced his divinity.Hirohito and his wife, Nagako, had two sons and five daughters; he was succeeded by his fifth child and eldest son, Akihito.", "By 1979, Hirohito was the only monarch in the world with the title \"Emperor\"." ], [ "Early life", "Hirohito in 1902 as an infantEmperor Taishō's four sons in 1921: Hirohito, Takahito, Nobuhito and YasuhitoHirohito was born at Aoyama Palace in Tokyo (during the reign of his grandfather, Emperor Meiji) on 29 April 1901, the first son of 21-year-old Crown prince Yoshihito (the future Emperor Taishō) and 16-year-old Crown Princess Sadako (the future Empress Teimei).", "He was the grandson of Emperor Meiji and Yanagiwara Naruko.", "His childhood title was Prince Michi.Ten weeks after he was born, Hirohito was removed from the court and placed in the care of Count Kawamura Sumiyoshi, who raised him as his grandchild.", "At the age of 3, Hirohito and his brother Yasuhito were returned to court when Kawamura died – first to the imperial mansion in Numazu, Shizuoka, then back to the Aoyama Palace.In 1908, he began elementary studies at the Gakushūin (Peers School).", "Emperor Mutsuhito, then appointed General Nogi Maresuke to be the Gakushūin's tenth president as well as the one in-charge on educating his grandson.", "The main aspect that they focused was on physical education and health, primarily because Hirohito was a sickly child, on par with the impartment or inculcation of values such as frugality, patience, manliness, self-control, and devotion to the duty at hand.During 1912, at the age of 11, Hirohito was commissioned into the Imperial Japanese Army as a Second Lieutenant and in the Imperial Japanese Navy as an Ensign.", "He was also bestowed with the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum.", "When his grandfather, Emperor Meiji died on 30 July 1912, Yoshihito assumed the throne and his eldest son, Hirohito became heir apparent.After learning about the death of his instructor, General Nogi, he along with his brothers were reportedly overcome with emotions.", "He would later acknowledge the lasting influence of Nogi in his life.", "At that time he was still two years away from completing primary school, henceforth his education was compensated by Fleet Admiral Togo Heihachiro and Naval Captain Ogasawara Naganari, wherein later on, would become his major opponents with regards to his national defense policy.Shiratori Kurakichi, one of his middle-school instructors, was one of the personalities who deeply influenced the life of Hirohito.", "Kurakichi was a trained historian from Germany, imbibing the positivist historiographic trend by Leopold von Ranke.", "He was the one who inculcated in the mind of the young Hirohito that there is a connection between the divine origin of the imperial line and the aspiration of linking it to the myth of the racial superiority and homogeneity of the Japanese.", "The emperors were often a driving force in the modernization of their country.", "He taught Hirohito that the Empire of Japan was created and governed through diplomatic actions (taking into accounts the interests of other nations benevolently and justly)." ], [ "Crown Prince era", "On 2 November 1916, Hirohito was formally proclaimed crown prince and heir apparent.", "An investiture ceremony was not required to confirm this status.===Overseas travel===The Crown Prince watches a boat race at Oxford University in the UK in 1921.From 3 March to 3 September 1921 (Taisho 10), the Crown Prince made official visits to the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and Vatican City.", "This was the first visit to Western Europe by the Crown Prince.", "Despite strong opposition in Japan, this was realized by the efforts of elder Japanese statesmen (Genrō) such as Yamagata Aritomo and Saionji Kinmochi.In May 1921, he visited Edinburgh, Scotland.The departure of Prince Hirohito was widely reported in newspapers.", "The Japanese battleship ''Katori'' was used, and departed from Yokohama, sailed to Naha, Hong Kong, Singapore, Colombo, Suez, Cairo, and Gibraltar.", "It arrived in Portsmouth two months later on 9 May, and on the same day they reached the British capital London.", "He was welcomed in the UK as a partner of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and met with King George V and Prime Minister David Lloyd George.", "That evening, a banquet was held at Buckingham Palace and a meeting with George V and Prince Arthur of Connaught.", "George V said that he treated his father like Hirohito, who was nervous in an unfamiliar foreign country, and that relieved his tension.", "The next day, he met Prince Edward (the future Edward VIII) at Windsor Castle, and a banquet was held every day thereafter.", "In London, he toured the British Museum, the Tower of London, the Bank of England, Lloyd's Marine Insurance, Oxford University, Army University, and the Naval War College.", "He also enjoyed theater at the New Oxford Theatre and the Delhi Theatre.", "At Cambridge University, he listened to Professor J. R. Tanner's lecture on \"Relationship between the British Royal Family and its People\" and was awarded an honorary doctorate degree.", "He visited Edinburgh, Scotland, from 19 to 20 May, and was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws at the University of Edinburgh.", "He stayed at the residence of John Stewart-Murray, 8th Duke of Atholl, for three days.", "On his stay with Stuart-Murray, the prince was quoted as saying, \"The rise of Bolsheviks won't happen if you live a simple life like Duke Athol.", "\"In Italy, he met with King Vittorio Emanuele III and others, attended official international banquets, and visited places such as the fierce battlefields of World War I.===Regency===Prince Hirohito and British Prime Minister Lloyd George, 1921After returning to Japan, Hirohito became Regent of Japan (''Sesshō'') on 25 November 1921, in place of his ailing father, who was affected by mental illness.", "In 1923 he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the army and Commander in the navy, and army Colonel and Navy Captain in 1925.During Hirohito's regency, many important events occurred:In the Four-Power Treaty on Insular Possessions signed on 13 December 1921, Japan, the United States, Britain, and France agreed to recognize the status quo in the Pacific.", "Japan and Britain agreed to end the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.", "The Washington Naval Treaty limiting warship numbers was signed on 6 February 1922.Japan withdrew troops from the Siberian Intervention on 28 August 1922.The Great Kantō earthquake devastated Tokyo on 1 September 1923.On 27 December 1923, Daisuke Namba attempted to assassinate Hirohito in the Toranomon Incident, but his attempt failed.", "During interrogation, he claimed to be a communist and was executed." ], [ "Marriage", "Prince Hirohito and his wife, Princess Nagako, in 1924Prince Hirohito married his distant cousin Princess Nagako Kuni, the eldest daughter of Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni, on 26 January 1924.They had two sons and five daughters (see Issue).The daughters who lived to adulthood left the imperial family as a result of the American reforms of the Japanese imperial household in October 1947 (in the case of Princess Shigeko) or under the terms of the Imperial Household Law at the moment of their subsequent marriages (in the cases of Princesses Kazuko, Atsuko, and Takako)." ], [ "Reign", "=== Accession ===On 25 December 1926, Yoshihito died and Hirohito became emperor.", "The Crown Prince was said to have received the succession (''senso'').", "The Taishō era's end and the Shōwa era's beginning (Enlightened Peace) were proclaimed.", "The deceased Emperor was posthumously renamed Emperor Taishō within days.", "Following Japanese custom, the new Emperor was never referred to by his given name but rather was referred to simply as \"His Majesty the Emperor\" which may be shortened to \"His Majesty.\"", "In writing, the Emperor was also referred to formally as \"The Reigning Emperor.", "\"In November 1928, Hirohito's accession was confirmed in ceremonies (''sokui'') which are conventionally identified as \"enthronement\" and \"coronation\" (''Shōwa no tairei-shiki''); but this formal event would have been more accurately described as a public confirmation that he possessed the Japanese Imperial Regalia, also called the Three Sacred Treasures, which have been handed down through the centuries.", "However his enthronement events were planned and staged under the economic conditions of a recession whereas the 55th Imperial Diet unanimously passed $7,360,000 for the festivities.=== Early reign ===Emperor Hirohito after his enthronement ceremony in 1928, dressed in sokutaiThe first part of Hirohito's reign took place against a background of financial crisis and increasing military power within the government through both legal and extralegal means.", "The Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy held veto power over the formation of cabinets since 1900.Between 1921 and 1944, there were 64 separate incidents of political violence.Hirohito narrowly escaped assassination by a hand grenade thrown by a Korean independence activist, Lee Bong-chang, in Tokyo on 9 January 1932, in the Sakuradamon Incident.Another notable case was the assassination of moderate Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932, marking the end of civilian control of the military.", "The February 26 incident, an attempted military coup, followed in February 1936.It was carried out by junior Army officers of the ''Kōdōha'' faction who had the sympathy of many high-ranking officers including Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu, one of Hirohito's brothers.", "This revolt was occasioned by a loss of political support by the militarist faction in Diet elections.", "The coup resulted in the murders of several high government and Army officials.When Chief Aide-de-camp Shigeru Honjō informed him of the revolt, Hirohito immediately ordered that it be put down and referred to the officers as \"rebels\" (''bōto'').", "Shortly thereafter, he ordered Army Minister Yoshiyuki Kawashima to suppress the rebellion within the hour.", "He asked for reports from Honjō every 30 minutes.", "The next day, when told by Honjō that the high command had made little progress in quashing the rebels, the Emperor told him \"I Myself, will lead the Konoe Division and subdue them.\"", "The rebellion was suppressed following his orders on 29 February.=== Second Sino-Japanese War ===The Emperor on his favorite white horse, Shirayuki ()Beginning from the Mukden Incident in 1931 in which Japan staged a False flag operation and made a false accusation against Chinese dissidents as a pretext to invade Manchuria, Japan occupied Chinese territories and established puppet governments.", "Such aggression was recommended to Hirohito by his chiefs of staff and prime minister Fumimaro Konoe, and Hirohito did not voice objection to the invasion of China.A diary by chamberlain Kuraji Ogura says that he was reluctant to start war against China in 1937 because they had underestimated China's military strength and Japan should be cautious in its strategy.", "In this regard, Ogura writes Hirohito said that \"once you start (a war), it cannot easily be stopped in the middle ... What's important is when to end the war\" and \"one should be cautious in starting a war, but once begun, it should be carried out thoroughly.", "\"Nonetheless, according to Herbert Bix, Hirohito's main concern seems to have been the possibility of an attack by the Soviet Union given his questions to his chief of staff, Prince Kan'in Kotohito, and army minister, Hajime Sugiyama, about the time it could take to crush Chinese resistance and how could they prepare for the eventuality of a Soviet incursion.", "Based on Bix's findings, Hirohito was displeased by Prince Kan'in's evasive responses about the substance of such contingency plans but nevertheless still approved the decision to move troops to North China.According to Akira Fujiwara, Hirohito endorsed the policy of qualifying the invasion of China as an \"incident\" instead of a \"war\"; therefore, he did not issue any notice to observe international law in this conflict (unlike what his predecessors did in previous conflicts officially recognized by Japan as wars), and the Deputy Minister of the Japanese Army instructed the chief of staff of Japanese China Garrison Army on 5 August not to use the term \"prisoners of war\" for Chinese captives.", "This instruction led to the removal of the constraints of international law on the treatment of Chinese prisoners.", "The works of Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno show that Hirohito also authorized, by specific orders (''rinsanmei''), the use of chemical weapons against the Chinese.Later in his life, Hirohito looked back on his decision to give the go-ahead to wage a 'defensive' war against China and opined that his foremost priority was not to wage war with China but to prepare for a war with the Soviet Union, as his army had reassured him that the China war would end within three months, but that decision of his had haunted him since he forgot that the Japanese forces in China were drastically fewer than that of the Chinese, hence the shortsightedness of his perspective was evident.On December 1, 1937, Hirohito had given formal instruction to General Iwane Matsui to capture and occupy the enemy capital of Nanking.", "He was very eager to fight this battle since he and his council firmly believed that all it would take is a one huge blow to bring forth the surrender of Chiang Kai-Shek.", "He even gave an Imperial Rescript to Iwane when he returned to Tokyo a year later, despite the brutality that his officers had inflicted on the Chinese populace in Nanking; thus Hirohito had seemingly turned a blind eye to and condoned these monstrosities.During the invasion of Wuhan, from August to October 1938, Hirohito authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions, despite the resolution adopted by the League of Nations on 14 May condemning Japanese use of toxic gas.=== World War II ===Political map of the Asia-Pacific region in 1939==== Preparations ====In July 1939, Hirohito quarrelled with his brother, Prince Chichibu, over whether to support the Anti-Comintern Pact, and reprimanded the army minister, Seishirō Itagaki.", "But after the success of the Wehrmacht in Europe, Hirohito consented to the alliance.", "On 27 September 1940, ostensibly under Hirohito's leadership, Japan became a contracting partner of the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy forming the Axis powers.The objectives to be obtained were clearly defined: a free hand to continue with the conquest of China and Southeast Asia, no increase in US or British military forces in the region, and cooperation by the West \"in the acquisition of goods needed by our Empire.", "\"On 5 September, Prime Minister Konoe informally submitted a draft of the decision to Hirohito, just one day in advance of the Imperial Conference at which it would be formally implemented.", "On this evening, Hirohito had a meeting with the chief of staff of the army, Sugiyama, chief of staff of the navy, Osami Nagano, and Prime Minister Konoe.", "Hirohito questioned Sugiyama about the chances of success of an open war with the Occident.", "As Sugiyama answered positively, Hirohito scolded him:Chief of Naval General Staff Admiral Nagano, a former Navy Minister and vastly experienced, later told a trusted colleague, \"I have never seen the Emperor reprimand us in such a manner, his face turning red and raising his voice.", "\"Emperor Hirohito riding Shirayuki during an Army inspection on 8 January 1938Nevertheless, all speakers at the Imperial Conference were united in favor of war rather than diplomacy.", "Baron Yoshimichi Hara, President of the Imperial Council and Hirohito's representative, then questioned them closely, producing replies to the effect that war would be considered only as a last resort from some, and silence from others.On 8 October, Sugiyama signed a 47-page report to the Emperor (sōjōan) outlining in minute detail plans for the advance into Southeast Asia.", "During the third week of October, Sugiyama gave Hirohito a 51-page document, \"Materials in Reply to the Throne,\" about the operational outlook for the war.As war preparations continued, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe found himself increasingly isolated, and he resigned on 16 October.", "He justified himself to his chief cabinet secretary, Kenji Tomita, by stating:The army and the navy recommended the appointment of Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, one of Hirohito's uncles, as prime minister.", "According to the Shōwa \"Monologue\", written after the war, Hirohito then said that if the war were to begin while a member of the imperial house was prime minister, the imperial house would have to carry the responsibility and he was opposed to this.The Emperor as head of the Imperial General Headquarters on 29 April 1943Instead, Hirohito chose the hard-line General Hideki Tōjō, who was known for his devotion to the imperial institution, and asked him to make a policy review of what had been sanctioned by the Imperial Conferences.", "On 2 November Tōjō, Sugiyama, and Nagano reported to Hirohito that the review of eleven points had been in vain.", "Emperor Hirohito gave his consent to the war and then asked: \"Are you going to provide justification for the war?\"", "The decision for war against the United States was presented for approval to Hirohito by General Tōjō, Naval Minister Admiral Shigetarō Shimada, and Japanese Foreign Minister Shigenori Tōgō.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to Hirohito.", "On 5 November Emperor Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for a war against the Occident and had many meetings with the military and Tōjō until the end of the month.", "On 25 November Henry L. Stimson, United States Secretary of War, noted in his diary that he had discussed with US President Franklin D. Roosevelt the severe likelihood that Japan was about to launch a surprise attack and that the question had been \"how we should maneuver them the Japanese into the position of firing the first shot without allowing too much danger to ourselves.", "\"On the following day, 26 November 1941, US Secretary of State Cordell Hull presented the Japanese ambassador with the Hull note, which as one of its conditions demanded the complete withdrawal of all Japanese troops from French Indochina and China.", "Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo said to his cabinet, \"This is an ultimatum.\"", "On 1 December an Imperial Conference sanctioned the \"War against the United States, United Kingdom and the Kingdom of the Netherlands.", "\"==== War: advance and retreat ====On 8 December (7 December in Hawaii), 1941, in simultaneous attacks, Japanese forces struck at the Hong Kong Garrison, the US Fleet in Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines, and began the invasion of Malaya.With the nation fully committed to the war, Hirohito took a keen interest in military progress and sought to boost morale.", "According to Akira Yamada and Akira Fujiwara, Hirohito made major interventions in some military operations.", "For example, he pressed Sugiyama four times, on 13 and 21 January and 9 and 26 February, to increase troop strength and launch an attack on Bataan.", "On 9 February 19 March, and 29 May, Hirohito ordered the Army Chief of staff to examine the possibilities for an attack on Chongqing in China, which led to Operation Gogo.While some authors, like journalists Peter Jennings and Todd Brewster, say that throughout the war, Hirohito was \"outraged\" at Japanese war crimes and the political dysfunction of many societal institutions that proclaimed their loyalty to him, and sometimes spoke up against them, others, such as historians Herbert P. Bix and Mark Felton, as well as the expert on China's international relations Michael Tai, point out that Hirohito personally sanctioned the \"Three Alls policy\" (), a scorched earth strategy implemented in China from 1942 to 1945 and which was both directly and indirectly responsible for the deaths of \"more than 2.7 million\" Chinese civilians.As the tide of war began to turn against Japan (around late 1942 and early 1943), the flow of information to the palace gradually began to bear less and less relation to reality, while others suggest that Hirohito worked closely with Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, continued to be well and accurately briefed by the military, and knew Japan's military position precisely right up to the point of surrender.", "The chief of staff of the General Affairs section of the Prime Minister's office, Shuichi Inada, remarked to Tōjō's private secretary, Sadao Akamatsu:Emperor Hirohito with his wife Empress Kōjun and their children on 7 December 1941In the first six months of war, all the major engagements had been victories.", "Japanese advances were stopped in the summer of 1942 with the battle of Midway and the landing of the American forces on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in August.", "Hirohito played an increasingly influential role in the war; in eleven major episodes he was deeply involved in supervising the actual conduct of war operations.", "Hirohito pressured the High Command to order an early attack on the Philippines in 1941–42, including the fortified Bataan peninsula.", "He secured the deployment of army air power in the Guadalcanal campaign.", "Following Japan's withdrawal from Guadalcanal he demanded a new offensive in New Guinea, which was duly carried out but failed badly.", "Unhappy with the navy's conduct of the war, he criticized its withdrawal from the central Solomon Islands and demanded naval battles against the Americans for the losses they had inflicted in the Aleutians.", "The battles were disasters.", "Finally, it was at his insistence that plans were drafted for the recapture of Saipan and, later, for an offensive in the Battle of Okinawa.", "With the Army and Navy bitterly feuding, he settled disputes over the allocation of resources.", "He helped plan military offenses.In September 1944, Hirohito declared that it must be his citizens' resolve to smash the evil purposes of the Westerners so that their imperial destiny might continue, but all along, it is just a mask for the urgent need of Japan to scratch a victory against the counter-offensive campaign of the Allied Forces.On October 18, 1944, the Imperial headquarters had resolved that the Japanese must make a stand in the vicinity of Leyte to prevent the Americans from landing in the Philippines.", "This view was widely frowned upon and disgruntled the policymakers from both the army and navy sectors.", "Hirohito was quoted that he approved of such since if they won in that campaign, they would be finally having a room to negotiate with the Americans.", "As high as their spirits could go, the reality check for the Japanese would also come into play since the forces they have sent in Leyte, was practically the ones that would efficiently defend the island of Luzon, hence the Japanese had struck a huge blow in their own military planning.The media, under tight government control, repeatedly portrayed him as lifting the popular morale even as the Japanese cities came under heavy air attack in 1944–45 and food and housing shortages mounted.", "Japanese retreats and defeats were celebrated by the media as successes that portended \"Certain Victory.\"", "Only gradually did it become apparent to the Japanese people that the situation was very grim due to growing shortages of food, medicine, and fuel as U.S. submarines began wiping out Japanese shipping.", "Starting in mid 1944, American raids on the major cities of Japan made a mockery of the unending tales of victory.", "Later that year, with the downfall of Tojo's government, two other prime ministers were appointed to continue the war effort, Kuniaki Koiso and Kantarō Suzuki—each with the formal approval of Hirohito.", "Both were unsuccessful and Japan was nearing disaster.==== Surrender ====Emperor Hirohito on the battleship ''Musashi'', 24 June 1943In early 1945, in the wake of the losses in the Battle of Leyte, Emperor Hirohito began a series of individual meetings with senior government officials to consider the progress of the war.", "All but ex-Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe advised continuing the war.", "Konoe feared a communist revolution even more than defeat in war and urged a negotiated surrender.", "In February 1945, during the first private audience with Hirohito he had been allowed in three years, Konoe advised Hirohito to begin negotiations to end the war.", "According to Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita, Hirohito, still looking for a ''tennozan'' (a great victory) in order to provide a stronger bargaining position, firmly rejected Konoe's recommendation.With each passing week victory became less likely.", "In April, the Soviet Union issued notice that it would not renew its neutrality agreement.", "Japan's ally Germany surrendered in early May 1945.In June, the cabinet reassessed the war strategy, only to decide more firmly than ever on a fight to the last man.", "This strategy was officially affirmed at a brief Imperial Council meeting, at which, as was normal, Hirohito did not speak.The following day, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido prepared a draft document which summarized the hopeless military situation and proposed a negotiated settlement.", "Extremists in Japan were also calling for a death-before-dishonor mass suicide, modeled on the \"47 Ronin\" incident.", "By mid-June 1945, the cabinet had agreed to approach the Soviet Union to act as a mediator for a negotiated surrender but not before Japan's bargaining position had been improved by repulse of the anticipated Allied invasion of mainland Japan.On 22 June, Hirohito met with his ministers saying, \"I desire that concrete plans to end the war, unhampered by existing policy, be speedily studied and that efforts be made to implement them.\"", "The attempt to negotiate a peace via the Soviet Union came to nothing.", "There was always the threat that extremists would carry out a coup or foment other violence.", "On 26 July 1945, the Allies issued the Potsdam Declaration demanding unconditional surrender.", "The Japanese government council, the Big Six, considered that option and recommended to Hirohito that it be accepted only if one to four conditions were agreed upon, including a guarantee of Hirohito's continued position in Japanese society.", "Hirohito decided not to surrender.That changed after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet declaration of war.", "On 9 August, Emperor Hirohito told Kōichi Kido: \"The Soviet Union has declared war and today began hostilities against us.\"", "On 10 August, the cabinet drafted an \"Imperial Rescript ending the War\" following Hirohito's indications that the declaration did not compromise any demand which prejudiced his prerogatives as a sovereign ruler.On 12 August 1945, Hirohito informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender.", "One of his uncles, Prince Yasuhiko Asaka, asked whether the war would be continued if the ''kokutai'' (national polity) could not be preserved.", "Hirohito simply replied \"Of course.\"", "On 14 August, Hirohito made the decision to surrender \"unconditionally\" and the Suzuki government notified the Allies that it had accepted the Potsdam Declaration.On 15 August, a recording of Hirohito's surrender speech was broadcast over the radio (the first time Hirohito was heard on the radio by the Japanese people) announcing Japan's acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration.", "During the historic broadcast Hirohito stated: \"Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is, indeed, incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives.", "Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.\"", "The speech also noted that \"the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage\" and ordered the Japanese to \"endure the unendurable.\"", "The speech, using formal, archaic Japanese, was not readily understood by many commoners.", "According to historian Richard Storry in ''A History of Modern Japan'', Hirohito typically used \"a form of language familiar only to the well-educated\" and to the more traditional samurai families.A faction of the army opposed to the surrender attempted a coup d'état on the evening of 14 August, prior to the broadcast.", "They seized the Imperial Palace (the Kyūjō incident), but the physical recording of Hirohito's speech was hidden and preserved overnight.", "The coup failed, and the speech was broadcast the next morning.In his first ever press conference given in Tokyo in 1975, when he was asked what he thought of the bombing of Hiroshima, Hirohito answered: \"It's very regrettable that nuclear bombs were dropped and I feel sorry for the citizens of Hiroshima but it couldn't be helped because that happened in wartime\" (''shikata ga nai'', meaning \"it cannot be helped\").=== Postwar reign ===Gaetano Faillace's photograph of General MacArthur and Hirohito at Allied General Headquarters in Tokyo, 27 September 1945After the Japanese surrender in August 1945, there was a large amount of pressure that came from both Allied countries and Japanese leftists that demanded Hirohito step down and be indicted as a war criminal.", "The Australian government listed Hirohito as a war criminal, and intended to put him on trial.", "General Douglas MacArthur did not like the idea, as he thought that an ostensibly cooperating emperor would help establish a peaceful allied occupation regime in Japan.", "MacArthur saw Hirohito as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people.", "As a result, any possible evidence that would incriminate Hirohito and his family were excluded from the International Military Tribunal for the Far East.", "MacArthur created a plan that separated Hirohito from the militarists, retained Hirohito as a constitutional monarch but only as a figurehead, and used Hirohito to retain control over Japan to help achieve American postwar objectives in Japan.As Hirohito chose his uncle Prince Higashikuni as prime minister to assist the American occupation, there were attempts by numerous leaders to have him put on trial for alleged war crimes.", "Many members of the imperial family, such as Princes Chichibu, Takamatsu, and Higashikuni, pressured Hirohito to abdicate so that one of the Princes could serve as regent until Crown Prince Akihito came of age.", "On 27 February 1946, Hirohito's youngest brother, Prince Mikasa, even stood up in the privy council and indirectly urged Hirohito to step down and accept responsibility for Japan's defeat.", "According to Minister of Welfare Ashida's diary, \"Everyone seemed to ponder Mikasa's words.", "Never have I seen His Majesty's face so pale.", "\"Historians have criticized the decision to protect Hirohito and all members of the imperial family who were implicated in the war, such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Asaka, Prince Higashikuni, and Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi, from criminal prosecutions.Before the war crime trials actually convened, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, its International Prosecution Section (IPS) and Japanese officials worked behind the scenes not only to prevent the Imperial family from being indicted, but also to influence the testimony of the defendants to ensure that no one implicated Hirohito.", "High officials in court circles and the Japanese government collaborated with Allied General Headquarters in compiling lists of prospective war criminals, while the individuals arrested as ''Class A'' suspects and incarcerated solemnly vowed to protect their sovereign against any possible taint of war responsibility.", "Thus, \"months before the Tokyo tribunal commenced, MacArthur's highest subordinates were working to attribute ultimate responsibility for Pearl Harbor to Hideki Tōjō\" by allowing \"the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that Hirohito would be spared from indictment.\"", "According to John W. Dower, \"This successful campaign to absolve Hirohito of war responsibility knew no bounds.", "Hirohito was not merely presented as being innocent of any formal acts that might make him culpable to indictment as a war criminal, he was turned into an almost saintly figure who did not even bear moral responsibility for the war.\"", "According to Bix, \"MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war.", "\"===Imperial status===Hirohito was not put on trial, but he was forced to explicitly reject the quasi-official claim that Hirohito of Japan was an ''arahitogami'', i.e., an incarnate divinity.", "This was motivated by the fact that, according to the Japanese constitution of 1889, Hirohito had a divine power over his country which was derived from the Shinto belief that the Japanese Imperial Family were the descendants of the sun goddess Amaterasu.", "Hirohito was however persistent in the idea that the Emperor of Japan should be considered a descendant of the gods.", "In December 1945, he told his vice-grand-chamberlain Michio Kinoshita: \"It is permissible to say that the idea that the Japanese are descendants of the gods is a false conception; but it is absolutely impermissible to call chimerical the idea that the Emperor is a descendant of the gods.\"", "In any case, the \"renunciation of divinity\" was noted more by foreigners than by Japanese, and seems to have been intended for the consumption of the former.", "The theory of a constitutional monarchy had already had some proponents in Japan.", "In 1935, when Tatsukichi Minobe advocated the theory that sovereignty resides in the state, of which the Emperor is just an organ (the ''tennō kikan setsu''), it caused a furor.", "He was forced to resign from the House of Peers and his post at the Tokyo Imperial University, his books were banned, and an attempt was made on his life.", "Not until 1946 was the tremendous step made to alter the Emperor's title from \"imperial sovereign\" to \"constitutional monarch.", "\"Although the Emperor had supposedly repudiated claims to divinity, his public position was deliberately left vague, partly because General MacArthur thought him probable to be a useful partner to get the Japanese to accept the occupation and partly due to behind-the-scenes maneuvering by Shigeru Yoshida to thwart attempts to cast him as a European-style monarch.Nevertheless, Hirohito's status as a limited constitutional monarch was formalized with the enactment of the 1947 Constitution–officially, an amendment to the Meiji Constitution.", "It defined the Emperor as \"the symbol of the state and the unity of the people,\" and stripped him of even nominal power in government matters.", "His role was limited to matters of state as delineated in the Constitution, and in most cases his actions in that realm were carried out in accordance with the binding instructions of the Cabinet.Following the Iranian Revolution and the end of the short-lived Central African Empire, both in 1979, Hirohito found himself the last monarch in the world to bear any variation of the highest royal title \"emperor.", "\"===Public figure===Emperor Hirohito visiting Hiroshima in 1947.The domed Hiroshima Peace Memorial can be seen in the background.For the rest of his life, Hirohito was an active figure in Japanese life and performed many of the duties commonly associated with a constitutional head of state.", "He and his family maintained a strong public presence, often holding public walkabouts and making public appearances at special events and ceremonies.", "For example, in 1947, the Emperor made a public visit to Hiroshima and held a speech in front of a massive crowd encouraging the city's citizens.", "He also played an important role in rebuilding Japan's diplomatic image, traveling abroad to meet with many foreign leaders, including Queen Elizabeth II (1971) and President Gerald Ford (1975).", "He was not only the first reigning emperor to travel beyond Japan, but also the first to meet a President of the United States.", "His status and image became strongly positive in the United States.+The 124th visit to a foreign country during the reign of Emperor Shōwa.Year Departure ReturnVisited AccompanyRemarks 1971(Shōwa 46）27 September14 October, , , (), , , , Empress KōjunInternational friendship 1975(Shōwa 50）30 SeptemberEmpress KōjunInternational friendship====Visit to Europe====US President Richard Nixon with Emperor Hirohito and Empress Nagako in Anchorage (27 September 1971)Emperor Hirohito and Empress Nagako arriving in the Netherlands (8 October 1971)In 1971 (Shōwa 46), Hirohito visited seven European countries, including the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Switzerland again, for 17 days from 27 September to 14 October.", "In this case, a special aircraft Douglas DC-8 of Japan Airlines was used unlike the previous visit by ship.", "Although not counted as a visit, at that time, Hirohito stopped by Anchorage, Alaska as a stopover, and met with United States President Richard Nixon from Washington, DC, at the Alaska District Army Command House at Elmendorf Air Force Base.The talks between Emperor Hirohito and President Nixon were not planned at the outset, because initially the stop in the United States was only for refueling to visit Europe.", "However, the meeting was decided in a hurry at the request of the United States.", "Although the Japanese side accepted the request, Minister for Foreign Affairs Takeo Fukuda made a public telephone call to the Japanese ambassador to the United States Nobuhiko Ushiba, who promoted talks, saying, \"that will cause me a great deal of trouble.", "We want to correct the perceptions of the other party.\"", "At that time, Foreign Minister Fukuda was worried that President Nixon's talks with Hirohito would be used to repair the deteriorating Japan–U.S.", "relations, and he was concerned that the premise of the symbolic emperor system could fluctuate.There was an early visit, with deep royal exchanges in Denmark and Belgium, and in France they were warmly welcomed.", "In France, Hirohito reunited with Edward VIII, who had abdicated in 1936 and was virtually in exile, and they chatted for a while.", "However, protests were held in Britain and the Netherlands by veterans who had served in the South-East Asian theatre and civilian victims of the brutal occupation there.", "In the Netherlands, raw eggs and vacuum flasks were thrown.", "The protest was so severe that Empress Kōjun, who accompanied the Hirohito, was exhausted.", "In the United Kingdom, protestors stood in silence and turned their backs when Hirohito's carriage passed them while others wore red gloves to symbolize the dead.", "The satirical magazine ''Private Eye'' used a racist double entendre to refer to Hirohito's visit (\"nasty Nip in the air\").", "In West Germany, the Japanese monarch's visit was met with hostile far-left protests, participants of which viewed Hirohito as the East Asian equivalent of Adolf Hitler and referred to him as \"Hirohitler\", and prompted a wider comparative discussion of the memory and perception of Axis war crimes.", "The protests against Hirohito's visit also condemned and highlighted what they perceived as mutual Japanese and West German complicity in and enabling of the American war effort against communism in Vietnam.Regarding these protests and opposition, Emperor Hirohito was not surprised to have received a report in advance at a press conference on 12 November after returning to Japan and said that \"I do not think that welcome can be ignored\" from each country.", "Also, at a press conference following their golden wedding anniversary three years later, along with the Empress, he mentioned this visit to Europe as his most enjoyable memory in 50 years.====Visit to the United States====The Empress, First Lady Betty Ford, the Emperor, and President Gerald Ford at the White House before a state dinner held in honor of the Japanese head of state for the first time, 2 October 1975In 1975, Hirohito visited the United States for 14 days from 30 September to 14 October, at the invitation of President Gerald Ford.", "The visit was the first such event in US–Japanese history.", "The United States Army, Navy and Air Force, as well as the Marine Corps and the Coast Guard honored the state visit.", "Before and after the visit, a series of terrorist attacks in Japan were caused by anti-American left-wing organizations such as the East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front.After arriving in Williamsburg on 30 September 1975, Emperor Hirohito stayed in the United States for two weeks.", "The official meeting with President Ford occurred on 2 October.", "On 3 October, Hirohito visited Arlington National Cemetery.", "On 6 October, Emperor Hirohito and Empress Nagako visited Vice President and Mrs. Rockefeller at their home in Westchester County, New York.In a speech at the White House state dinner, Hirohito read, \"Thanks to the United States for helping to rebuild Japan after the war.\"", "During his stay in Los Angeles, he visited Disneyland, and a smiling photo next to Mickey Mouse adorned the newspapers, and there was talk about the purchase of a Mickey Mouse watch.", "Two types of commemorative stamps and stamp sheets were issued on the day of their return to Japan which demonstrated that the visit had been a significant undertaking.", "This was the last visit of Emperor Shōwa to the United States.", "The official press conference held by the Emperor and Empress before and after their visit also marked a breakthrough.====Marine biology====Emperor Hirohito in his laboratory (1950)Hirohito was deeply interested in and well-informed about marine biology, and the Imperial Palace contained a laboratory from which Hirohito published several papers in the field under his personal name \"Hirohito\".", "His contributions included the description of several dozen species of Hydrozoa new to science.===Yasukuni Shrine===Hirohito maintained an official boycott of the Yasukuni Shrine after it was revealed to him that Class-A war criminals had secretly been enshrined after its post-war rededication.", "This boycott lasted from 1978 until his death and has been continued by his successors, Akihito and Naruhito.On 20 July 2006, ''Nihon Keizai Shimbun'' published a front-page article about the discovery of a memorandum detailing the reason that Hirohito stopped visiting Yasukuni.", "The memorandum, kept by former chief of Imperial Household Agency Tomohiko Tomita, confirms for the first time that the enshrinement of 14 Class-A war criminals in Yasukuni was the reason for the boycott.", "Tomita recorded in detail the contents of his conversations with Hirohito in his diaries and notebooks.", "According to the memorandum, in 1988, Hirohito expressed his strong displeasure at the decision made by Yasukuni Shrine to include Class-A war criminals in the list of war dead honored there by saying, \"At some point, Class-A criminals became enshrined, including Matsuoka and Shiratori.", "I heard Tsukuba acted cautiously.\"", "Tsukuba is believed to refer to Fujimaro Tsukuba, the former chief Yasukuni priest at the time, who decided not to enshrine the war criminals despite having received in 1966 the list of war dead compiled by the government.", "\"What's on the mind of Matsudaira's son, who is the current head priest?\"", "\"Matsudaira had a strong wish for peace, but the child didn't know the parent's heart.", "That's why I have not visited the shrine since.", "This is my heart.\"", "Matsudaira is believed to refer to Yoshitami Matsudaira, who was the grand steward of the Imperial Household immediately after the end of World War II.", "His son, Nagayoshi, succeeded Fujimaro Tsukuba as the chief priest of Yasukuni and decided to enshrine the war criminals in 1978.Nagayoshi Matsudaira died in 2006, which some commentators have speculated is the reason for release of the memo." ], [ "Death and state funeral", "Emperor Shōwa's tomb in the Musashi Imperial Graveyard, Hachiōji, TokyoOn 22 September 1987, Hirohito underwent surgery on his pancreas after having digestive problems for several months.", "The doctors discovered that he had duodenal cancer.", "Hirohito appeared to be making a full recovery for several months after the surgery.", "About a year later, however, on 19 September 1988, he collapsed in his palace, and his health worsened over the next several months as he suffered from continuous internal bleeding.The Emperor died at 6:33 am on 7 January 1989 at the age of 87.The announcement from the grand steward of Japan's Imperial Household Agency, Shoichi Fujimori, revealed details about his cancer for the first time.", "Hirohito was survived by his wife, his five surviving children, ten grandchildren, and one great-grandchild.At the time of his death he was both the longest-lived and longest-reigning historical Japanese emperor, as well as the longest-reigning monarch in the world at that time.", "The latter distinction passed to king Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand when he surpassed him in July 2008 until his own death on 13 October 2016.The Emperor was succeeded by his eldest son, Akihito (), whose enthronement ceremony was held on 12 November 1990.Hirohito's death ended the Shōwa era.", "On the same day a new era began: the Heisei era, effective at midnight the following day.", "From 7 January until 31 January, Hirohito's formal appellation was \"Departed Emperor\" (大行天皇, ''Taikō-tennō'').", "His definitive posthumous name, Shōwa Tennō (昭和天皇), was determined on 13 January and formally released on 31 January by Noboru Takeshita, the prime minister.On 24 February, Hirohito's state funeral was held, and unlike that of his predecessor, it was formal but not conducted in a strictly Shinto manner.", "A large number of world leaders attended the funeral.", "Hirohito is buried in the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Hachiōji, alongside his wife and his parents." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "===Accountability for Japanese war crimes===The issue of Emperor Hirohito's war responsibility is contested.", "During the war, the Allies frequently depicted Hirohito to equate with Hitler and Mussolini as the three Axis dictators.", "After the war, since the U.S. thought that the retention of the emperor would help establish a peaceful allied occupation regime in Japan, and help the U.S. achieve their postwar objectives, they depicted Hirohito as a \"powerless figurehead\" without any implication in wartime policies.", "Historians have said that Hirohito wielded more power than previously believed, and he was actively involved in the decision to launch the war as well as in other political and military decisions.", "Over the years, as new evidence surfaced, historians were able to arrive at the conclusion that he was culpable for the war, and was reflecting on his wartime role.====Evidence for wartime culpability====Historians have stated that Hirohito was directly responsible for the atrocities committed by the imperial forces in the Second Sino-Japanese War and in World War II.", "They have said that he and some members of the imperial family, such as his brother Prince Chichibu, his cousins the princes Takeda and Fushimi, and his uncles the princes Kan'in, Asaka, and Higashikuni, should have been tried for war crimes.", "In a study published in 1996, historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta said that the Three Alls policy (''Sankō Sakusen''), a Japanese scorched earth policy adopted in China and sanctioned by Emperor Hirohito himself, was both directly and indirectly responsible for the deaths of \"more than 2.7 million\" Chinese civilians.", "His works and those of Akira Fujiwara about the details of the operation were commented by Herbert P. Bix in his ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', who wrote that the ''Sankō Sakusen'' far surpassed Nanking Massacre not only in terms of numbers, but in brutality as well as \"These military operations caused death and suffering on a scale incomparably greater than the totally unplanned orgy of killing in Nanking, which later came to symbolize the war\".", "While the Nanking Massacre was unplanned, Bix said \"Hirohito knew of and approved annihilation campaigns in China that included burning villages thought to harbor guerrillas.\"", "Top U.S. government officials understood the emperor's intimate role during the war.Poison gas weapons, such as phosgene, were produced by Unit 731 and authorized by specific orders given by Hirohito himself, transmitted by the chief of staff of the army.", "Hirohito authorized the use of toxic gas 375 times during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938.Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Emperor Meiji, gave full power to the Emperor.", "Article 4 prescribed that, \"The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution.\"", "Likewise, according to article 6, \"The Emperor gives sanction to laws and orders them to be promulgated and executed,\" and article 11, \"The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy.\"", "The Emperor was thus the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters.According to Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi of York University, Hirohito's authority up to 1945 depended on three elements: First, he was a constitutional monarch subject to legal restrictions and binding conventions, as he has so often stressed.", "Second, he was supreme commander of Japanese armed forces, though his orders were often ignored and sometimes defied.", "Third, he wielded absolute moral authority in Japan by granting imperial honors that conveyed incontestable prestige and by issuing imperial rescripts that had coercive power greater than law.The last two elements of Hirohito's power were the strongest, while the first element was the weakest.", "Hirohito had the ultimate authority to shape the country's policies by either agreeing or disagreeing with it.", "He even used his authority to disagree with policies shaped by the army.", "Hirohito was the supreme military commander in Imperial Japan, and pursued armed expansionist policies against weaker Asian neighbors.", "He never opposed war or expansion, but he opposed war with the US and Britain because of his fear that Japan would lose.Wakabayashi further adds: Also as a matter of course, he wanted to keep what his generals conquered -- though he was less greedy than some of them.", "None of this should surprise us.", "Hirohito would be no more have granted independence Korea independence or returned Manchuria to China than Roosevelt would have granted Hawaii independence or returned Texas to Mexico.In December 1990, the Bungeishunjū published the Showa tenno dokuhaku roku (Dokuhaku roku), which recorded conversations Hirohito held with five Imperial Household Ministry officials between March and April 1946, containing twenty-four sections.The Dokuhaku roku recorded Hirohito speaking retroactively on topics arranged chronologically from 1919 to 1946, right before the Tokyo War Crimes Trials.In December 1941, Japan signed an agreement that forbade Japan from signing a separate peace treaty with the United States.", "In the Dokuhaku roku, Hirohito said:(In 1941,) we thought we could achieve a draw with the US, or at best win by a six to four margin; but total victory was nearly impossible ...", "When the war actually began, however, we gained a miraculous victory at Pearl Harbor and our invasions of Malaya and Burma succeeded far quicker than expected.", "So, if not for this (agreement), we might have achieved peace when we were in an advantageous position.According to Wakabayashi, this entry in the Dokuhaku roku explains why Hirohito wanted an early end to the war, and disproves the claim that Hirohito wanted an early end to the war because he desired peace.In September 1944, Prime Minister Koiso Kuniaki proposed that concessions, such as the return of Hong Kong, and a settlement should be given to Chiang Kai Shek, so that Japanese troops in China could be diverted to the Pacific War.", "Hirohito rejected the proposal and did not want to give concessions to China because he feared it would signal Japanese weakness, create defeatism at home, and trigger independence movements in occupied countries.", "In August 1945, Hirohito agreed to the Potsdam Declaration because he thought that the American occupation of Japan would uphold imperial rule in Japan.Historians such as Herbert Bix, Akira Fujiwara, Peter Wetzler, and Akira Yamada assert that post-war arguments favoring the view that Hirohito was a mere figurehead overlook the importance of numerous \"behind the chrysanthemum curtain\" meetings where the real decisions were made between the Emperor, his chiefs of staff, and the cabinet.", "Using primary sources and the monumental work of Shirō Hara as a basis, Fujiwara and Wetzler have produced evidence suggesting that the Emperor worked through intermediaries to exercise a great deal of control over the military and was neither bellicose nor a pacifist but an opportunist who governed in a pluralistic decision-making process.", "American historian Herbert P. Bix said that Emperor Hirohito might have been the prime mover behind most of Japan's military aggression during the Shōwa era.The view promoted by the Imperial Palace and American occupation forces immediately after World War II portrayed Emperor Hirohito as a purely ceremonial figure who behaved strictly according to protocol while remaining at a distance from the decision-making processes.", "This view was endorsed by Prime Minister Noboru Takeshita in a speech on the day of Hirohito's death in which Takeshita asserted that the war \"had broken out against Hirohito's wishes.\"", "Takeshita's statement provoked outrage in nations in East Asia and Commonwealth nations such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.", "According to historian Fujiwara, \"The thesis that the Emperor, as an organ of responsibility, could not reverse cabinet decision is a myth fabricated after the war.", "\"According to Yinan He, associate professor of international relations at Lehigh University, in the aftermath of the war, conservative Japanese elites created self-whitewashing, self-glorifying national myths that minimized the scope of Japan's war responsibility, which included presenting the emperor as a peace-seeking diplomat and a narrative that separated him from the militarists, whom they described as people who hijacked the Japanese government and led the country into war, shifting the responsibility from the ruling class to only a few military leaders.", "This narrative also narrowly focuses on the U.S.–Japan conflict, completely ignores the wars Japan waged in Asia, and disregards the atrocities committed by Japanese troops during the war.", "Japanese elites created the narrative in an attempt to avoid tarnishing the national image and regain the international acceptance of the country.", "said that post-war Japanese public opinion supporting protection of the Emperor was influenced by U.S. propaganda promoting the view that the Emperor together with the Japanese people had been fooled by the military.In the years immediately after Hirohito's death, scholars who spoke out against the emperor were threatened and attacked by right-wing extremists.", "Susan Chira reported, \"Scholars who have spoken out against the late Emperor have received threatening phone calls from Japan's extremist right wing.\"", "One example of actual violence occurred in 1990 when the mayor of Nagasaki, Hitoshi Motoshima, was shot and critically wounded by a member of the ultranationalist group, Seikijuku.", "A year before, in 1989, Motoshima had broken what was characterized as \"one of Japan's most sensitive taboos\" by asserting that Emperor Hirohito bore responsibility for World War II.Regarding Hirohito's exemption from trial before the International Military Tribunal of the Far East, opinions were not unanimous.", "Sir William Webb, the president of the tribunal, declared: \"This immunity of the Emperor is contrasted with the part he played in launching the war in the Pacific, is, I think, a matter which the tribunal should take into consideration in imposing the sentences.\"", "Likewise, the French judge, Henri Bernard, wrote about Hirohito's accountability that the declaration of war by Japan \"had a principal author who escaped all prosecution and of whom in any case the present defendants could only be considered accomplices.", "\"An account from the Vice Interior Minister in 1941, Michio Yuzawa, asserts that Hirohito was \"at ease\" with the attack on Pearl Harbor \"once he had made a decision.", "\"Since his death in 1989, historians have discovered evidence that prove Hirohito's culpability for the war, and that he was not a passive figurehead manipulated by those around him.====Michiji Tajima's notes in 1952====According to notebooks by Michiji Tajima, a top Imperial Household Agency official who took office after the war, Emperor Hirohito privately expressed regret about the atrocities that were committed by Japanese troops during the Nanjing Massacre.", "In addition to feeling remorseful about his own role in the war, he \"fell short by allowing radical elements of the military to drive the conduct of the war.", "\"====Vice Interior Minister Yuzawa's account on Hirohito's role in Pearl Harbor raid====In late July 2018, the bookseller Takeo Hatano, an acquaintance of the descendants of Michio Yuzawa (Japanese Vice Interior Minister in 1941), released to Japan's ''Yomiuri Shimbun'' newspaper a memo by Yuzawa that Hatano had kept for nine years since he received it from Yuzawa's family.", "The bookseller said: \"It took me nine years to come forward, as I was afraid of a backlash.", "But now I hope the memo would help us figure out what really happened during the war, in which 3.1 million people were killed.", "\"Takahisa Furukawa, expert on wartime history from Nihon University, confirmed the authenticity of the memo, calling it \"the first look at the thinking of Emperor Hirohito and Prime Minister Hideki Tojo on the eve of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.", "\"In this document, Yuzawa details a conversation he had with Tojo a few hours before the attack.", "The Vice Minister quotes Tojo saying:Historian Furukawa concluded from Yuzawa's memo:====Shinobu Kobayashi's diary====Shinobu Kobayashi was the Emperor's chamberlain from April 1974 until June 2000.Kobayashi kept a diary with near-daily remarks of Hirohito for 26 years.", "It was made public on Wednesday 22 August 2018.According to Takahisa Furukawa, a professor of modern Japanese history at Nihon University, the diary reveals that the emperor \"gravely took responsibility for the war for a long time, and as he got older, that feeling became stronger.", "\"Jennifer Lind, associate professor of government at Dartmouth College and a specialist in Japanese war memory said:An entry dated 27 May 1980 said the Emperor wanted to express his regret about the Sino-Japanese war to former Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng who visited at the time, but was stopped by senior members of the Imperial Household Agency due to fear of backlash from far right groups.An entry dated 7 April 1987 said the Emperor was haunted by discussions of his wartime responsibility and, as a result, was losing his will to live.====Hirohito's preparations for war described in Saburō Hyakutake's diary====In September 2021, 25 diaries, pocket notebooks and memos by Saburō Hyakutake (Emperor Hirohito's Grand Chamberlain from 1936 to 1944) deposited by his relatives to the library of the University of Tokyo's graduate schools for law and politics became available to the public.Hyakutake's diary quotes some of Hirohito's ministers and advisers as being worried that the Emperor was getting ahead of them in terms of battle preparations.Thus, Hyakutake quotes Tsuneo Matsudaira, the Imperial Household Minister, saying:Likewise, Koichi Kido, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, is quoted as saying:Seiichi Chadani, professor of modern Japanese history with Shigakukan University who has studied Hirohito's actions before and during the war said on the discovery of Hyakutake's diary:==== Documents that suggest limited wartime responsibility ====The declassified January 1989 British government assessment of Hirohito describes him as \"too weak to alter the course of events\" and Hirohito was \"powerless\" and comparisons with Hitler are \"ridiculously wide off the mark.\"", "Hirohito's power was limited by ministers and the military and if he asserted his views too much he would have been replaced by another member of the royal family.Indian jurist Radhabinod Pal opposed the International Military Tribunal and made a 1,235-page judgment.", "He found the entire prosecution case to be weak regarding the conspiracy to commit an act of aggressive war with brutalization and subjugation of conquered nations.", "Pal said there is \"no evidence, testimonial or circumstantial, concomitant, prospectant, restrospectant, that would in any way lead to the inference that the government in any way permitted the commission of such offenses\".", "He added that conspiracy to wage aggressive war was not illegal in 1937, or at any point since.", "Pal supported the acquittal of all of the defendants.", "He considered the Japanese military operations as justified, because Chiang Kai-shek supported the boycott of trade operations by the Western Powers, particularly the United States boycott of oil exports to Japan.", "Pal argued the attacks on neighboring territories were justified to protect the Japanese Empire from an aggressive environment, especially the Soviet Union.", "He considered that to be self-defense operations which are not criminal.", "Pal said \"the real culprits are not before us\" and concluded that \"only a lost war is an international crime\".=====The Emperor's own statements=====;8 September 1975 TV interview with NBC, USA: '''Reporter:''' \"How far has your Majesty been involved in Japan's decision to end the war in 1945?", "What was the motivation for your launch?", "\": '''Emperor:''' \"Originally, this should be done by the Cabinet.", "I heard the results, but at the last meeting I asked for a decision.", "I decided to end the war on my own.", "(...) I thought that the continuation of the war would only bring more misery to the people.", "\";Interview with ''Newsweek'', USA, 20 September 1975: '''Reporter:''' \"(Abbreviation) How do you answer those who claim that your Majesty was also involved in the decision-making process that led Japan to start the war?", "\": '''Emperor:''' \"(Omission) At the start of the war, a cabinet decision was made, and I could not reverse that decision.", "We believe this is consistent with the provisions of the Imperial Constitution.", "\";22 September 1975 – Press conference with Foreign Correspondents: '''Reporter:''' \"How long before the attack on Pearl Harbor did your Majesty know about the attack plan?", "And did you approve the plan?", "\": '''Emperor:''' \"It is true that I had received information on military operations in advance.", "However, I only received those reports after the military commanders made detailed decisions.", "Regarding issues of political character and military command, I believe that I acted in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.", "\";On 31 October 1975, a press conference was held immediately after returning to the United States after visiting Japan.", ": '''Question:''' \"Your majesty, at your White House banquet you said, 'I deeply deplore that unfortunate war.'", "(See also .)", "Does your majesty feel responsibility for the war itself, including the opening of hostilities?", "Also, what does your majesty think about so-called war responsibility?\"", "(The Times reporter): '''Emperor:''' \"I can't answer that kind of question because I haven't thoroughly studied the literature in this field, and so don't really appreciate the nuances of your words.", "\": '''Question:''' \"How did you understand that the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima at the end of the war?\"", "(RCC Broadcasting Reporter): '''Emperor:''' \"I am sorry that the atomic bomb was dropped, but because of this war, I feel sorry for the citizens of Hiroshima, but I think it is unavoidable.", "\";17 April 1981 Press conference with the presidents of the press: '''Reporter:''' \"What was the most enjoyable of your memories of eighty years?", "\": '''Emperor:''' \"Since I saw the constitutional politics of Britain as the , I felt strongly that I must adhere to the constitutional politics.", "But I was too particular about it to prevent the war.", "I made my own decisions twice (February 26 Incident and the end of World War II).", "\"====British government assessment of Hirohito====A January 1989 declassified British government assessment of Hirohito said the Emperor was \"uneasy with Japan's drift to war in the 1930s and 1940s but was too weak to alter the course of events.\"", "The dispatch by John Whitehead, former ambassador of the United Kingdom to Japan, to Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe was declassified on Thursday 20 July 2017 at the National Archives in London.", "The letter was written shortly after Hirohito's death.Britain's ambassador to Japan John Whitehead stated in 1989:Whitehead concludes that ultimately Hirohito was \"powerless\" and comparisons with Hitler are \"ridiculously wide off the mark.\"", "If Hirohito acted too insistently with his views he could have been isolated or replaced with a more pliant member of the royal family.", "The pre-war Meiji Constitution defined Hirohito as \"sacred\" and all-powerful, but according to Whitehead, Hirohito's power was limited by ministers and the military.", "Whitehead explained after World War II that Hirohito's humility was fundamental for the Japanese people to accept the new 1947 constitution and allied occupation.=== Titles, styles, honours and arms ======= Military appointments ====* Grand Marshal and Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Empire of Japan, ''25 December 1926'' – upon ascending the throne==== Foreign military appointments ====* : Honorary General in the British Army, ''May 1921''* : Field Marshal of the Regular Army in the British Army, ''June 1930''==== National honours ====* Founder of the Order of Culture, ''11 February 1937''==== Foreign honours ====* : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, Special Class (GCBVO)* : Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland, with Collar, ''1942''* : Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav (StkStOO), with Collar, ''26 September 1922''* : Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (RSerafO), with Collar, ''8 May 1919''* : Knight of the Order of the Elephant (RE), ''24 January 1923''* : Knight of the Order of the White Eagle, ''1922''* : Knight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (KRMBh), ''27 May 1963''* : Knight of the Most Illustrious Order of the Royal House of Chakri (KMChk), ''30 January 1925''* : Member of the Most Glorious Order of Ojaswi Rajanya, ''19 April 1960''* : Grand Collar of the Order of Sikatuna, ''28 September 1966''* : Grand Cross of the National Order of the Southern Cross, ''1955''* Italian Royal Family: Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, ''31 October 1916''* : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (OMRI), with Collar, ''9 March 1982''* : Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold* : Honorary Member of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (DMN), ''1964''* : Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Pouono (KGCCP), with Collar* : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO), ''May 1921''* : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (civil division) (GCB), ''May 1921''* : Stranger Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG), ''3 May 1929''; revoked, ''1941''; restored, ''22 May 1971''* : Fellow of the Royal Society (ForMemRS), ''1971''* : Member of the Order of the Crown of Brunei, 1st Class* : Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, ''6 October 1928''* Spain: Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Order of Charles III, with Collar, ''4 June 1923''* Greek Royal Family: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer* Greek Royal Family: Grand Cross of the Royal Family Order of Saints George and Constantine, with Collar* : Collar of the Order of the White Lion, ''1928''* : Order of the Yugoslav Great Star, ''8 April'' ''1968''* Ethiopian Imperial Family: Collar of the Order of Solomon* Russian Imperial Family: Knight of the Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle the First-called, ''September 1916''" ], [ "Issue", "Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun had seven children (two sons and five daughters).", "Name Birth Death Marriage Children Date Spouse Shigeko Higashikuni(Shigeko, Princess Teru) 9 December 192523 July 196110 October 1943 Prince Morihiro Higashikuni Sachiko, Princess Hisa 10 September 1927 8 March 1928 Kazuko Takatsukasa(Kazuko, Princess Taka)30 September 192926 May 198920 May 1950Toshimichi Takatsukasa''Naotake Takatsukasa (adopted)'' Atsuko Ikeda(Atsuko, Princess Yori)10 October 1952Takamasa Ikeda Akihito, Emperor Emeritus of Japan(Akihito, Prince Tsugu)10 April 1959Michiko Shōda Masahito, Prince Hitachi(Masahito, Prince Yoshi)30 September 1964Hanako Tsugaru Takako Shimazu(Takako, Princess Suga)10 March 1960Hisanaga ShimazuYoshihisa Shimazu" ], [ "Scientific publications", "* (1967) ''A review of the hydroids of the family Clathrozonidae with description of a new genus and species from Japan.", "''* (1969) ''Some hydroids from the Amakusa Islands.", "''* (1971) ''Additional notes on Clathrozoon wilsoni Spencer.", "''* (1974) ''Some hydrozoans of the Bonin Islands.", "''* (1977) ''Five hydroid species from the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea.", "''* (1983) ''Hydroids from Izu Oshima and Nijima.", "''* (1984) ''A new hydroid Hydractinia bayeri n. sp.", "(family Hydractiniidae) from the Bay of Panama.", "''* (1988) ''The hydroids of Sagami Bay collected by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.", "''* (1995) ''The hydroids of Sagami Bay II.''", "(posthumous)" ], [ "See also", "* Japanese nationalism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Books and academic journals===* A controversial book that posited Hirohito as a more active protagonist of World War II than publicly portrayed; it contributed to the re-appraisal of his role.", "* Winner of the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction and the 2000 National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography.", "** ** * awarded Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award.", "* * Fujiwara, Akira, ''Shōwa Tennō no Jū-go Nen Sensō (Shōwa Emperor's Fifteen-year War)'', Aoki Shoten, 1991.", "(based on the primary sources)* * * * Laquerre, Paul-Yanic ''Showa: Chronicles of a Fallen God'', * Mosley, Leonard ''Hirohito, Emperor of Japan'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1966., The first full-length biography, it gives his basic story.", "* Pike, Francis.", "''Hirohito's War: The Pacific War, 1941–1945'' (2016) 1208pp.", "* * * ===News articles===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brands, Hal.", "\"The Emperor's New Clothes: American Views of Hirohito after World War II.\"", "''Historian'' 68#1 pp.", "1–28.online* Wilson, Sandra.", "\"Enthroning Hirohito: Culture and Nation in 1920s Japan\" ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 37#2 (2011), pp.", "289–323.online" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun at the Imperial Household Agency website* Reflections on Emperor Hirohito's death* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emsworth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emsworth''' is a town in the Borough of Havant in the county of Hampshire, on the south coast of England near the border with West Sussex.", "It lies at the north end of an arm of Chichester Harbour, a large and shallow inlet from the English Channel, and is equidistant between Portsmouth and Chichester.Emsworth had a population of 9,492 at the 2011 Census.", "The town has a basin for yachts and fishing boats, which fills at high tide and can be emptied through a sluice at low tide.", "In geodemographic segmentation the town is the heart of the Emsworth (cross-county) built-up area, the remainder of which is Westbourne, Southbourne and Nutbourne.", "The area had a combined population of 18,777 in 2011, with a density of 30.5 people per hectare, and shares two railway stations." ], [ "Etymology", "According to Richard Coates the meaning of Emsworth is derived from the Old English , which translates as 'Æmmele's curtilage'.", "Similarly, Eilert Ekwall says that \"Emsworth\" was derived from ''Amils worth'', with ''worth'' meaning the fence around the property (owned by Amil).It is popularly thought that Emsworth derived its name from the River Ems, but this is not true; before the 16th century the stream was actually called the Bourne.", "The river was renamed by the 16th century chronicler Raphael Holinshed:Holinshed writes that the Emille flows in to the sea at Emilswort or Emmesworth.", "Therefore, it appears that the river was named after Emsworth and not the other way round." ], [ "History", "===Pre-Roman===In prehistoric and early historical times the River Ems was tidal as far as Westbourne and the Westbrook creek reached to Victoria Road, leaving Emsworth almost isolated at high tide.", "A coastal route developed that led from Hayling Island through Havant and Rowlands Castle to the Downs.", "A part of the coastal route followed the Portsdown ridgeway and from Chichester to Belmont Hill in Bedhampton probably skirted the heads of the various creeks which entered the harbour, passing through country still covered with the original thick forest of oak and beech.===Roman===In Roman times a villa existed to the south of the road to Noviomagus Reginorum in the fields of what is now Warblington Castle Farm.", "Archaeological finds show that the building was a sizeable brick and stone edifice, with floors paved with red brick and coloured sandstone and a view of the harbour and wooded shores of Hayling Island.", "The fertile landscape suggests the area to have been under continuous cultivation for 1500–1800 years.===Anglo-Saxon===St James' ChurchSaxons began settling the area after AD 500.Charters were granted by Kings Æthelstan and Æthelred in AD 935 and AD 980 establishing and confirming the boundaries of Warblington.", "From AD 980–1066 the manor was held by Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his son Harold Godwinson.===Medieval===After the Norman Conquest, the Manor of Warblington was given to Roger de Montgomery, Earl of Shrewsbury as part of the manor of Westbourne.", "The Domesday Book lists the latter with two churches, a mill, 29 families and two slaves (about 120 people).", "There were also seven plough teams, indicating about 850 acres of land under cultivation.The first recorded mention of Emsworth as a separate entity was in AD 1216, when King John divided the manor of Warblington, accepting annual rent of 'a pair of gilt spurs yearly' from William Aguillon for land at ''Emelsworth''.", "In AD 1239, Henry III granted the town a weekly market on Wednesdays and an annual fair on 7 July.", "The town was mentioned in a patent roll of a hospital in the Hermitage area in AD 1251.In AD 1341 Emsworth was designated as one of five English towns required to provide a ship for defence of the Channel Islands.", "It was designated as a customs landing for Chichester in AD 1346 and in AD 1348 was investigated by a special commission for smuggling.===18th and 19th centuries===The Old Flour MillThe PromenadeDuring the 18th and 19th centuries, Emsworth was still a port.", "Emsworth was known for shipbuilding, boat building and rope making.", "Grain from the area was ground into flour by tidal mills and transported by ship to places such as London and Portsmouth.", "Timber from the area was also exported in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "The River Ems, which is named after the town (not, as often believed, the town being named after the river), flows into the Slipper millpond.", "The mill itself is now used as offices.In the 19th century Emsworth had as many as 30 pubs and beer houses; today, only nine remain.At the beginning of the 19th century, Emsworth had a population of less than 1,200 but it was still considered a large village for the time.", "By the end of the 18th century, it became fashionable for wealthy people to spend the summer by the sea.", "In 1805 a bathing house was built where people could have a bath in seawater.The parish Church of St James was built in 1840 to a design by John Elliott.", "It was expanded in the late 1850s this time to a design by John Colson.", "Colson's designs were again used in an expansion of 1865.A final round of building took place in the early 1890s this time to a design by Arthur Blomfield.", "The reredos added in the 1920s features a painting by Percy George Bentham.Queen Victoria visited Emsworth in 1842, resulting in Queen Street and Victoria Road being named after her.", "In 1847 the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (now the West Coastway line) came to Emsworth, with a railway station built to serve the town.Hollybank House to the north of the town was built in 1825 and is now a hotel.Emsworth became part of Warblington Urban District which held its first meeting in 1895.The Urban District was abolished in 1932.Emsworth subsequently became part of Havant Urban District.===Modern===By 1901 the population of Emsworth was about 2,000.It grew rapidly during the 20th century to about 5,000 by the middle of the century.", "In 1906 construction began on the post office, with local cricketer George Wilder laying an inscribed brick.", "The renamed Emsworth Recreation Ground dates from 1909 and is the current home of Emsworth Cricket Club, which was founded in 1811.Cricket in Emsworth has been played at the same ground, Cold Harbour Lawn, since 1761.In 1902 the once famous Emsworth oyster industry went into rapid decline.", "This was after many of the guests at mayoral banquets in Southampton and Winchester became seriously ill and four died after consuming oysters.", "The infection was due to oysters sourced from Emsworth, as the oyster beds had been contaminated with raw sewage.", "Fishing oysters at Emsworth was subsequently halted until new sewers were dug, though the industry never completely recovered.", "J D Foster, an oyster merchant, who had for many years been in occupation of the oyster beds sued Warblington Urban District Council (the owners of the sewers) for nuisance.", "This was a test case as he could not prove title to the land.", "However, the Court of Appeal held that Foster had a right to sue, as exclusive occupier of the oyster beds, whether or not he had acquired an interest in the land itself.", "The judges view was that: Foster went on to win his case.Recently, Emsworth's last remaining oyster boat, ''The Terror,'' was restored and is now sailing again.", "But the oyster industry is again under threat, because the reproductive rate of the oysters has plunged, as they now contain microscopic glass spicules that are shed into the water from the hulls of the numerous plastic fibreglass boats in Chichester Harbour.A soldier from 101st Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment prepares for D-Day by reading his French handbook at a camp in Emsworth, 29 May 1944During the Second World War, nearby Thorney Island was used as a Royal Air Force station, playing a role in defence in the Battle of Britain.", "The north of Emsworth at this time was used for growing flowers and further north was woodland (today Hollybank Woods).", "In the run up to D-Day, the Canadian Army used these woods as one of their pre-invasion assembly points for men and materiel.", "Today the foundations of their barracks can still be seen.", "In the 1960s large parts of this area were developed with a mix of bungalow and terraced housing.For a few years (2001 to 2007), Emsworth held a food festival.", "It was the largest event of its type in the UK, with more than 50,000 visitors in 2007.The festival was cancelled due to numerous complaints of disruption to residents and businesses in the proximity.A Baptist church was constructed in North Street in 2015.The harbour is now used for recreational sailing, paddle boarding, kayaking and swimming.", "The town has two sailing clubs, Emsworth Sailing Club (established in 1919) and Emsworth Slipper Sailing Club (in 1921), the latter based at Quay Mill, a former tide mill.", "Both clubs organise a programme of racing and social events during the sailing season.File:Elegant bus shelter in Emsworth Town Centre - geograph.org.uk - 805167.jpg|Emsworth town centreFile:Quay Mill, Emsworth, West Sussex (geograph 5803415).jpg|Quay Mill, Emsworth" ], [ "Culture and community", "Emsworth Library was considered for closure in 2020 but following public consultation, was reprieved.Emsworth Museum is administered by the Emsworth Maritime & Historical Trust.The town is twinned with Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer in Normandy, France.In 2014 retired Royal Navy Captain Clifford \"John\" Caughey drove his car into the clubhouse of Emsworth Sailing Club, causing an explosion and requiring thirty firefighters to put out the fire." ], [ "Politics", "The town is part of the Havant constituency, which since the 1983 election has been a Conservative seat.", "The current Member of Parliament (MP) is Alan Mak MP.", "The town is represented at Havant Borough Council by councillors Richard Kennet and Lulu Bowerman of the Conservative Party and Grainne Rason of the Green Party.", "The local Hampshire County Councillor is Lulu Bowerman.", "The town has branches of the Conservative Party, Liberal Democrats, the Labour Party, the United Kingdom Independence Party and the Green Party." ], [ "Transport", "Emsworth railway station is on the West Coastway Line.", "It has services that run to Portsmouth, Southampton, Brighton and London Victoria.Stagecoach South operates the number 700 bus, which runs between Brighton and Southsea.", "Havant Borough Council claims local bus services are provided by Emsworth & District, First and Stagecoach." ], [ "Notable residents", "* Denise Black (1958–), actress.", "Best known for playing Denise Osbourne in ''Coronation Street'' and Hazel in ''Queer as Folk''.", "* Peter Blake (1948–2001), yachtsman.", "Broke the world record for the fastest solo circumnavigation of the globe in 1994.", "* William Buckler (1814–1884), artist and entomologist, lived in Emsworth from the 1860s and died in Lumley in 1884.", "* Peter Danckwerts (1916–1984), Royal Navy officer, chemical engineer and academic.", "* Albert Finney (1936–2019), actor.", "Recipient of BAFTA, Golden Globe and Emmy awards.", "* Mark Evelyn Heath (1927–2005), diplomat.", "Former British Ambassador to the Holy See (1980–1985).", "* Thomas Hellyer (1811–1894), architect of many buildings in Hampshire and on the Isle of Wight, was born in Emsworth.", "* Nicholas Lyndhurst (1961–), actor.", "Best known for playing Rodney Trotter in ''Only Fools and Horses''.", "* David Richards (1952–), British Army officer.", "Former Chief of the Defence Staff (2010–2013).", "* Lee Spencer (1963–), musician, music theorist and record producer.", "* Malcolm Waldron (1956–), footballer.", "Played for Southampton, Burnley and Portsmouth.", "* Joel Ward (footballer)* William Whitcher (1832–1910), cricketer.", "Played for Hampshire.", "* George Wilder (1876–1948), cricketer.", "Played for Hampshire and Sussex.", "* P. G. Wodehouse (1881–1975), writer.", "Bibliography includes the ''Jeeves and Wooster'' and ''Blandings Castle'' series" ], [ "See also", "* List of places of worship in the Borough of Havant" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Whitfield, Robert.", "''Emsworth: A History''.", "Chichester: Phillimore & Co. Ltd., 2005." ], [ "External links", "* Emsworth Community Association* Emsworth Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emulsion" ], [ "Introduction", " An '''emulsion''' is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to liquid-liquid phase separation.", "Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids.", "Although the terms ''colloid'' and ''emulsion'' are sometimes used interchangeably, ''emulsion'' should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids.", "In an emulsion, one liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase).", "Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, liquid biomolecular condensates, and some cutting fluids for metal working.Two liquids can form different types of emulsions.", "As an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, in which the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the continuous phase.", "Second, they can form a water-in-oil emulsion, in which water is the dispersed phase and oil is the continuous phase.", "Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a \"water-in-oil-in-water\" emulsion and an \"oil-in-water-in-oil\" emulsion.Emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure.", "The droplets dispersed in the continuous phase (sometimes referred to as the \"dispersion medium\") are usually assumed to be statistically distributed to produce roughly spherical droplets.The term \"emulsion\" is also used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film.", "Such a photographic emulsion consists of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix.", "Nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles.IUPAC definition for an emulsion" ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"emulsion\" comes from the Latin ''emulgere'' \"to milk out\", from ''ex'' \"out\" + ''mulgere'' \"to milk\", as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components, including colloidal casein micelles (a type of secreted biomolecular condensate)." ], [ "Appearance and properties", "Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a continuous phase, with the boundary between the phases called the \"interface\".", "Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion.", "Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally.", "If the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency (shorter-wavelength) light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the \"Tyndall effect\".", "If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths, and will appear more yellow.", "This phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat.", "One example would be a mixture of water and oil.Two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent.", "This property is due to the fact that light waves are scattered by the droplets only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light.", "Since the visible spectrum of light is composed of wavelengths between 390 and 750 nanometers (nm), if the droplet sizes in the emulsion are below about 100 nm, the light can penetrate through the emulsion without being scattered.", "Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused.", "Unlike translucent nanoemulsions, which require specialized equipment to be produced, microemulsions are spontaneously formed by \"solubilizing\" oil molecules with a mixture of surfactants, co-surfactants, and co-solvents.", "The required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase.", "Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications.", "In addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels.Common emulsions are inherently unstable and, thus, do not tend to form spontaneously.", "Energy input – through shaking, stirring, homogenizing, or exposure to power ultrasound – is needed to form an emulsion.", "Over time, emulsions tend to revert to the stable state of the phases comprising the emulsion.", "An example of this is seen in the separation of the oil and vinegar components of vinaigrette, an unstable emulsion that will quickly separate unless shaken almost continuously.", "There are important exceptions to this rule – microemulsions are thermodynamically stable, while translucent nanoemulsions are kinetically stable.Whether an emulsion of oil and water turns into a \"water-in-oil\" emulsion or an \"oil-in-water\" emulsion depends on the volume fraction of both phases and the type of emulsifier (surfactant) (see ''Emulsifier'', below) present.===Instability===Emulsion stability refers to the ability of an emulsion to resist change in its properties over time.", "There are four types of instability in emulsions: flocculation, coalescence, creaming/sedimentation, and Ostwald ripening.", "Flocculation occurs when there is an attractive force between the droplets, so they form flocs, like bunches of grapes.", "This process can be desired, if controlled in its extent, to tune physical properties of emulsions such as their flow behaviour.", "Coalescence occurs when droplets bump into each other and combine to form a larger droplet, so the average droplet size increases over time.", "Emulsions can also undergo creaming, where the droplets rise to the top of the emulsion under the influence of buoyancy, or under the influence of the centripetal force induced when a centrifuge is used.", "Creaming is a common phenomenon in dairy and non-dairy beverages (i.e.", "milk, coffee milk, almond milk, soy milk) and usually does not change the droplet size.", "Sedimentation is the opposite phenomenon of creaming and normally observed in water-in-oil emulsions.", "Sedimentation happens when the dispersed phase is denser than the continuous phase and the gravitational forces pull the denser globules towards the bottom of the emulsion.", "Similar to creaming, sedimentation follows Stokes' law.An appropriate surface active agent (or surfactant) can increase the kinetic stability of an emulsion so that the size of the droplets does not change significantly with time.", "The stability of an emulsion, like a suspension, can be studied in terms of zeta potential, which indicates the repulsion between droplets or particles.", "If the size and dispersion of droplets does not change over time, it is said to be stable.", "For example, oil-in-water emulsions containing mono- and diglycerides and milk protein as surfactant showed that stable oil droplet size over 28 days storage at 25 °C.===Monitoring physical stability===The stability of emulsions can be characterized using techniques such as light scattering, focused beam reflectance measurement, centrifugation, and rheology.", "Each method has advantages and disadvantages.===Accelerating methods for shelf life prediction===The kinetic process of destabilization can be rather long – up to several months, or even years for some products.", "Often the formulator must accelerate this process in order to test products in a reasonable time during product design.", "Thermal methods are the most commonly used – these consist of increasing the emulsion temperature to accelerate destabilization (if below critical temperatures for phase inversion or chemical degradation).", "Temperature affects not only the viscosity but also the interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or, on a broader scope, interactions between droplets within the system.", "Storing an emulsion at high temperatures enables the simulation of realistic conditions for a product (e.g., a tube of sunscreen emulsion in a car in the summer heat), but also accelerates destabilization processes up to 200 times.Mechanical methods of acceleration, including vibration, centrifugation, and agitation, can also be used.These methods are almost always empirical, without a sound scientific basis." ], [ "Emulsifiers", "An '''emulsifier''' is a substance that stabilizes an emulsion by reducing the oil-water interface tension.", "Emulsifiers are a part of a broader group of compounds known as surfactants, or \"surface-active agents\".", "Surfactants are compounds that are typically amphiphilic, meaning they have a polar or hydrophilic (i.e., water-soluble) part and a non-polar (i.e., hydrophobic or lipophilic) part.", "Emulsifiers that are more soluble in water (and, conversely, less soluble in oil) will generally form oil-in-water emulsions, while emulsifiers that are more soluble in oil will form water-in-oil emulsions.Examples of food emulsifiers are:* Egg yolk – in which the main emulsifying and thickening agent is lecithin.", "* Mustard – where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers* Soy lecithin is another emulsifier and thickener* Pickering stabilization – uses particles under certain circumstances* Mono- and diglycerides – a common emulsifier found in many food products (coffee creamers, ice creams, spreads, breads, cakes)* Sodium stearoyl lactylate* DATEM (diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides) – an emulsifier used primarily in baking * Proteins – those with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, e.g.", "sodium caseinate, as in meltable cheese productIn food emulsions, the type of emulsifier greatly affects how emulsions are structured in the stomach and how accessible the oil is for gastric lipases, thereby influencing how fast emulsions are digested and trigger a satiety inducing hormone response.Detergents are another class of surfactant, and will interact physically with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface between the oil and water droplets in suspension.", "This principle is exploited in soap, to remove grease for the purpose of cleaning.", "Many different emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions such as creams and lotions.", "Common examples include emulsifying wax, polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20.Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and the result is a nanoemulsion, where the inner state disperses into \"nano-size\" droplets within the outer phase.", "A well-known example of this phenomenon, the \"ouzo effect\", happens when water is poured into a strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, absinthe, arak, or raki.", "The anisolic compounds, which are soluble in ethanol, then form nano-size droplets and emulsify within the water.", "The resulting color of the drink is opaque and milky white." ], [ "Mechanisms of emulsification", "A number of different chemical and physical processes and mechanisms can be involved in the process of emulsification:* Surface tension theory – according to this theory, emulsification takes place by reduction of interfacial tension between two phases* Repulsion theory – According to this theory, the emulsifier creates a film over one phase that forms globules, which repel each other.", "This repulsive force causes them to remain suspended in the dispersion medium* Viscosity modification – emulgents like acacia and tragacanth, which are hydrocolloids, as well as PEG (polyethylene glycol), glycerine, and other polymers like CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose), all increase the viscosity of the medium, which helps create and maintain the suspension of globules of dispersed phase" ], [ "Uses", "===In food===An example of the ingredients used to make mayonnaise; olive oil, table salt, an egg (for yolk) and a lemon (for lemon juice).", "The oil and water in the egg yolk do not mix, while the lecithin in the yolk serves as an emulsifier, allowing the two to be blended together.Oil-in-water emulsions are common in food products:* Mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauces – these are oil-in-water emulsions stabilized with egg yolk lecithin, or with other types of food additives, such as sodium stearoyl lactylate* Homogenized milk – an emulsion of milk fat in water, with milk proteins as the emulsifier * Vinaigrette – an emulsion of vegetable oil in vinegar, if this is prepared using only oil and vinegar (i.e., without an emulsifier), an unstable emulsion resultsWater-in-oil emulsions are less common in food, but still exist:* Butter – an emulsion of water in butterfat* MargarineOther foods can be turned into products similar to emulsions, for example meat emulsion is a suspension of meat in liquid that is similar to true emulsions.===In health care===In pharmaceutics, hairstyling, personal hygiene, and cosmetics, emulsions are frequently used.", "These are usually oil and water emulsions but dispersed, and which is continuous depends in many cases on the pharmaceutical formulation.", "These emulsions may be called creams, ointments, liniments (balms), pastes, films, or liquids, depending mostly on their oil-to-water ratios, other additives, and their intended route of administration.", "The first 5 are topical dosage forms, and may be used on the surface of the skin, transdermally, ophthalmically, rectally, or vaginally.", "A highly liquid emulsion may also be used orally, or may be injected in some cases.Microemulsions are used to deliver vaccines and kill microbes.", "Typical emulsions used in these techniques are nanoemulsions of soybean oil, with particles that are 400–600 nm in diameter.", "The process is not chemical, as with other types of antimicrobial treatments, but mechanical.", "The smaller the droplet the greater the surface tension and thus the greater the force required to merge with other lipids.", "The oil is emulsified with detergents using a high-shear mixer to stabilize the emulsion so, when they encounter the lipids in the cell membrane or envelope of bacteria or viruses, they force the lipids to merge with themselves.", "On a mass scale, in effect this disintegrates the membrane and kills the pathogen.", "The soybean oil emulsion does not harm normal human cells, or the cells of most other higher organisms, with the exceptions of sperm cells and blood cells, which are vulnerable to nanoemulsions due to the peculiarities of their membrane structures.", "For this reason, these nanoemulsions are not currently used intravenously (IV).", "The most effective application of this type of nanoemulsion is for the disinfection of surfaces.", "Some types of nanoemulsions have been shown to effectively destroy HIV-1 and tuberculosis pathogens on non-porous surfaces.==== Applications in Pharmaceutical industry ====* '''Oral drug delivery:''' Emulsions may provide an efficient means of administering drugs that are poorly soluble or have low bioavailability or dissolution rates, increasing both dissolution rates and absorption to increase bioavailability and improve bioavailability.", "By increasing surface area provided by an emulsion, dissolution rates and absorption rates of drugs are increased, improving their bioavailability.", "* '''Topical formulations:''' Emulsions are widely utilized as bases for topical drug delivery formulations such as creams, lotions and ointments.", "Their incorporation allows lipophilic as well as hydrophilic drugs to be mixed together for maximum skin penetration and permeation of active ingredients.", "* '''Parenteral drug delivery:''' Emulsions serve as carriers for intravenous or intramuscular administration of drugs, solubilizing lipophilic ones while protecting from degradation and decreasing injection site irritation.", "Examples include propofol as a widely used anesthetic and lipid-based solutions used for total parenteral nutrition delivery.", "* '''Ocular Drug Delivery:''' Emulsions can be used to formulate eye drops and other ocular drug delivery systems, increasing drug retention time in the eye and permeating through corneal barriers more easily while providing sustained release of active ingredients and thus increasing therapeutic efficacy.", "* '''Nasal and Pulmonary Drug Delivery:''' Emulsions can be an ideal vehicle for creating nasal sprays and inhalable drug products, enhancing drug absorption through nasal and pulmonary mucosa while providing sustained release with reduced local irritation.", "* '''Vaccine Adjuvants:''' Emulsions can serve as vaccine adjuvants by strengthening immune responses against specific antigens.", "Emulsions can enhance antigen solubility and uptake by immune cells while simultaneously providing controlled release, amplifying an immunological response and thus amplifying its effect.", "* '''Taste Masking:''' Emulsions can be used to encase bitter or otherwise unpleasant-tasting drugs, masking their taste and increasing patient compliance - particularly with pediatric formulations.", "* '''Cosmeceuticals:''' Emulsions are widely utilized in cosmeceuticals products that combine cosmetic and pharmaceutical properties.", "These emulsions act as carriers for active ingredients like vitamins, antioxidants and skin lightening agents to provide improved skin penetration and increased stability.=== In firefighting ===Emulsifying agents are effective at extinguishing fires on small, thin-layer spills of flammable liquids (class B fires).", "Such agents encapsulate the fuel in a fuel-water emulsion, thereby trapping the flammable vapors in the water phase.", "This emulsion is achieved by applying an aqueous surfactant solution to the fuel through a high-pressure nozzle.", "Emulsifiers are not effective at extinguishing large fires involving bulk/deep liquid fuels, because the amount of emulsifier agent needed for extinguishment is a function of the volume of the fuel, whereas other agents such as aqueous film-forming foam need cover only the surface of the fuel to achieve vapor mitigation.===Chemical synthesis===Emulsions are used to manufacture polymer dispersions – polymer production in an emulsion 'phase' has a number of process advantages, including prevention of coagulation of product.", "Products produced by such polymerisations may be used as the emulsions – products including primary components for glues and paints.", "Synthetic latexes (rubbers) are also produced by this process." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Other sources", "* * ''Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.", "; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 2000; Volume 5, pp.", "501–575''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma" ], [ "Introduction", "Admiral of the Fleet '''Albert Victor Nicholas Louis Francis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma''' (25 June 1900 – 27 August 1979) was a British statesman, naval officer, colonial administrator and close relative of the British royal family.", "He was born in the United Kingdom to the prominent Battenberg family.", "He was a maternal uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and a second cousin of King George VI.", "He joined the Royal Navy during the First World War and was appointed Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command, in the Second World War.", "He later served as the last Viceroy of India and briefly as the first Governor-General of the Dominion of India.Mountbatten attended the Royal Naval College, Osborne, before entering the Royal Navy in 1916.He saw action during the closing phase of the First World War, and after the war briefly attended Christ's College, Cambridge.", "During the interwar period, Mountbatten continued to pursue his naval career, specialising in naval communications.Following the outbreak of the Second World War, Mountbatten commanded the destroyer and the 5th Destroyer Flotilla.", "He saw considerable action in Norway, in the English Channel, and in the Mediterranean.", "In August 1941, he received command of the aircraft carrier .", "He was appointed chief of Combined Operations and a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee in early 1942, and organised the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe.", "In August 1943, Mountbatten became Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command and oversaw the recapture of Burma and Singapore from the Japanese by the end of 1945.For his service during the war, Mountbatten was created viscount in 1946 and earl the following year.In February 1947, Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy and Governor-General of India and oversaw the Partition of India into India and Pakistan.", "He then served as the first Governor-General of the Union of India until June 1948.In 1952, Mountbatten was appointed commander-in-chief of the British Mediterranean Fleet and NATO Commander Allied Forces Mediterranean.", "From 1955 to 1959, he was First Sea Lord, a position that had been held by his father, Prince Louis of Battenberg, some forty years earlier.", "Thereafter he served as chief of the Defence Staff until 1965, making him the longest-serving professional head of the British Armed Forces to date.", "During this period Mountbatten also served as chairman of the NATO Military Committee for a year.In August 1979, Mountbatten was assassinated by a bomb planted aboard his fishing boat in Mullaghmore, County Sligo, Ireland, by members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army.", "He received a ceremonial funeral at Westminster Abbey and was buried in Romsey Abbey in Hampshire." ], [ "Early life", "Mountbatten, then named Prince Louis of Battenberg, was born on 25 June 1900 at Frogmore House in the Home Park, Windsor, Berkshire.", "He was the youngest child and the second son of Prince Louis of Battenberg and his wife Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine.", "Mountbatten's maternal grandparents were Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, who was a daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.", "His paternal grandparents were Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Julia, Princess of Battenberg.", "Mountbatten's paternal grandparents' marriage was morganatic because his grandmother was not of royal lineage; as a result, he and his father were styled \"Serene Highness\" rather than \"Grand Ducal Highness\", were not eligible to be titled Princes of Hesse, and were given the less exalted Battenberg title.", "Mountbatten's elder siblings were Princess Alice of Battenberg (mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh), Princess Louise of Battenberg (later Queen Louise of Sweden), and Prince George of Battenberg (later George Mountbatten, 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven).Mountbatten was baptised in the large drawing room of Frogmore House on 17 July 1900 by the Dean of Windsor, Philip Eliot.", "His godparents were Queen Victoria (his maternal great-grandmother), Nicholas II of Russia (his maternal uncle through marriage and paternal second cousin, represented by the child's father) and Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg (his paternal uncle, represented by Lord Edward Clinton).", "He wore the original 1841 royal christening gown at the ceremony.Mountbatten's nickname among family and friends was \"Dickie\"; however \"Richard\" was not among his given names.", "This was because his great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, had suggested the nickname of \"Nicky\", but to avoid confusion with the many Nickys of the Russian Imperial Family (\"Nicky\" was particularly used to refer to Nicholas II, the last Tsar), \"Nicky\" was changed to \"Dickie\".Mountbatten was educated at home for the first 10 years of his life; he was then sent to Lockers Park School in Hertfordshire and on to the Royal Naval College, Osborne, in May 1913.Mountbatten's mother's younger sister was Russian Empress Alexandra Feodorovna.", "In childhood he visited the Imperial Court of Russia at St Petersburg and became intimate with the Russian Imperial Family, harbouring romantic feelings towards his maternal first cousin Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna, whose photograph he kept at his bedside for the rest of his life.Mountbatten adopted his surname as a result of World War I.", "From 1914 to 1918, Britain and its allies were at war with the Central Powers, led by the German Empire.", "To appease British nationalist sentiment, in 1917 King George V issued a royal proclamation changing the name of the British royal house from the German House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to the House of Windsor.", "The king's British relatives with German names and titles followed suit with Mountbatten's father adopting the surname Mountbatten, an anglicization of Battenberg.", "The elder Mountbatten was subsequently created Marquess of Milford Haven." ], [ "First World War", "At the age of 16, Mountbatten was posted as midshipman to the battlecruiser in July 1916 and, after seeing action in August 1916, transferred to the battleship during the closing phases of the First World War.", "In June 1917, when the royal family stopped using their German names and titles and adopted the more British-sounding \"Windsor\", Mountbatten acquired the courtesy title appropriate to a younger son of a marquess, becoming known as ''Lord Louis Mountbatten'' (''Lord Louis'' for short) until he was created a peer in his own right in 1946.He paid a visit of ten days to the Western Front in July 1918.Portrait by Philip de László, 1925While still an acting-sub-lieutenant, Mountbatten was appointed first lieutenant (second-in-command) of the P-class sloop HMS ''P.", "31'' on 13 October 1918 and was confirmed as a substantive sub-lieutenant on 15 January 1919.HMS ''P.", "31'' took part in the Peace River Pageant on 4 April 1919.Mountbatten attended Christ's College, Cambridge, for two terms, starting in October 1919, where he studied English literature (including John Milton and Lord Byron) in a programme designed to augment the education of junior officers which had been curtailed by the war.", "He was elected for a term to the Standing Committee of the Cambridge Union Society and was suspected of sympathy for the Labour Party, then emerging as a potential party of government for the first time." ], [ "Interwar period", "Prince Edward with his staff all wearing kimono (yukata) during the Pacific visit to Japan in 1922.", "(Mountbatten standing, first from left).", "The Rising Sun Flag in the background.Mountbatten was posted to the battlecruiser in March 1920 and accompanied Edward, Prince of Wales, on a royal tour of Australia in her.", "He was promoted lieutenant on 15 April 1920.HMS ''Renown'' returned to Portsmouth on 11 October 1920.Early in 1921 Royal Navy personnel were used for civil defence duties as serious industrial unrest seemed imminent.", "Mountbatten had to command a platoon of stokers, many of whom had never handled a rifle before, in Northern England.", "He transferred to the battlecruiser in March 1921 and accompanied the Prince of Wales on a Royal tour of India and Japan.", "Edward and Mountbatten formed a close friendship during the trip.", "Mountbatten survived the deep defence cuts known as the Geddes Axe.", "Fifty-two percent of the officers of his year had had to leave the Royal Navy by the end of 1923; although he was highly regarded by his superiors, it was rumoured that wealthy and well-connected officers were more likely to be retained.", "Mountbatten was posted to the battleship in the Mediterranean Fleet in January 1923.Pursuing his interests in technological development and gadgetry, Mountbatten joined the Portsmouth Signals School in August 1924 and then went on briefly to study electronics at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.", "Mountbatten became a Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), now the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).", "He was posted to the battleship in the Reserve Fleet in 1926 and became Assistant Fleet Wireless and Signals Officer of the Mediterranean Fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Roger Keyes in January 1927.Promoted lieutenant commander on 15 April 1928, Mountbatten returned to the Signals School in July 1929 as Senior Wireless Instructor.", "He was appointed Fleet Wireless Officer to the Mediterranean Fleet in August 1931 and, having been promoted commander on 31 December 1932, was posted to the battleship .In 1934, Mountbatten was appointed to his first command – the destroyer .", "His ship was a new destroyer, which he was to sail to Singapore and exchange for an older ship, .", "He successfully brought ''Wishart'' back to port in Malta and then attended the Funeral of George V in January 1936.Mountbatten was appointed a personal naval aide-de-camp to King Edward VIII on 23 June 1936 and, having joined the Naval Air Division of the Admiralty in July 1936, he attended the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in May 1937.Mountbatten was promoted captain on 30 June 1937 and was then given command of the destroyer in June 1939.Within the Admiralty, Mountbatten was called \"The Master of Disaster\" for his penchant of getting into messes." ], [ "Second World War", "Bruneval Raid, February 1942When war broke out in September 1939, Mountbatten became Captain (D) (commander) of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla aboard HMS ''Kelly'', which became famous for its exploits.", "In late 1939 he brought the Duke of Windsor back from exile in France and in early May 1940 Mountbatten led a British convoy in through the fog to evacuate the Allied forces participating in the Namsos Campaign during the Norwegian Campaign.On the night of 9–10 May 1940, ''Kelly'' was torpedoed amidships by a German E-boat ''S 31'' off the Dutch coast, and Mountbatten thereafter commanded the 5th Destroyer Flotilla from the destroyer .", "On 29 November 1940 the 5th Flotilla engaged three German destroyers off Lizard Point, Cornwall.", "Mountbatten turned to port to match a German course change.", "This was \"a rather disastrous move as the directors swung off and lost target\" and it resulted in ''Javelin'' being struck by two torpedoes.", "He rejoined ''Kelly'' in December 1940, by which time the torpedo damage had been repaired.", "''Kelly'' was sunk by German dive bombers on 23 May 1941 during the Battle of Crete; the incident serving as the basis for Noël Coward's film ''In Which We Serve''.", "Coward was a personal friend of Mountbatten and copied some of his speeches into the film.", "Mountbatten was mentioned in despatches on 9 August 1940 and 21 March 1941 and awarded the Distinguished Service Order in January 1941.", "(Front Row, L-R) Walter Short, Mountbatten and Husband E. Kimmel (Back Row) Frederick Martin and Patrick Bellinger in Hawaii 1941In August 1941, Mountbatten was appointed captain of the aircraft carrier which lay in Norfolk, Virginia, for repairs following action at Malta in January.", "During this period of relative inactivity, he paid a flying visit to Pearl Harbor, three months before the Japanese attack on it.", "Mountbatten, appalled at the US naval base's lack of preparedness, drawing on Japan's history of launching wars with surprise attacks as well as the successful British surprise attack at the Battle of Taranto which had effectively knocked Italy's fleet out of the war, and the sheer effectiveness of aircraft against warships, accurately predicted that the US would enter the war after a Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.Clockwise from lower right, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, Sir Hastings 'Pug' Ismay, Mountbatten: January 1943 at the Casablanca conference.Mountbatten was a favourite of Winston Churchill.", "On 27 October 1941, Mountbatten replaced Admiral of the Fleet Sir Roger Keyes as Chief of Combined Operations Headquarters and was promoted to commodore.His duties in this role included inventing new technical aids to assist with opposed landings.", "Noteworthy technical achievements of Mountbatten and his staff include the construction of \"PLUTO\", an underwater oil pipeline to Normandy, an artificial Mulberry harbour constructed of concrete caissons and sunken ships, and the development of tank-landing ships.", "Another project Mountbatten proposed to Churchill was Project Habakkuk.", "It was to be an unsinkable 600-metre aircraft carrier made from reinforced ice (\"Pykrete\"): Habakkuk was never carried out due to its enormous cost.Mountbatten in 1943As commander of Combined Operations, Mountbatten and his staff planned the highly successful Bruneval raid, which gained important information and captured part of a German Würzburg radar installation and one of the machine's technicians on 27 February 1942.It was Mountbatten who recognised that surprise and speed were essential to capture the radar, and saw that an airborne assault was the only viable method.On 18 March 1942, he was promoted to the acting rank of vice admiral and given the honorary ranks of lieutenant general and air marshal to have the authority to carry out his duties in Combined Operations; and, despite the misgivings of General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Mountbatten was placed in the Chiefs of Staff Committee.", "He was in large part responsible for the planning and organisation of the St Nazaire Raid on 28 March, which put out of action one of the most heavily defended docks in Nazi-occupied France until well after the war's end, the ramifications of which contributed to allied supremacy in the Battle of the Atlantic.", "After these two successes came the Dieppe Raid of 19 August 1942.He was central in the planning and promotion of the raid on the port of Dieppe.", "The raid was a marked failure, with casualties of almost 60%, the great majority of them Canadians.", "Following the Dieppe Raid, Mountbatten became a controversial figure in Canada, with the Royal Canadian Legion distancing itself from him during his visits there during his later career.", "His relations with Canadian veterans, who blamed him for the losses, \"remained frosty\" after the war.Arakan Front in Burma in February 1944Mountbatten claimed that the lessons learned from the Dieppe Raid were necessary for planning the Normandy invasion on D-Day nearly two years later.", "However, military historians such as Major-General Julian Thompson, a former member of the Royal Marines, have written that these lessons should not have needed a debacle such as Dieppe to be recognised.", "Nevertheless, as a direct result of the failings of the Dieppe Raid, the British made several innovations, most notably Hobart's Funnies – specialised armoured vehicles which, in the course of the Normandy Landings, undoubtedly saved many lives on those three beachheads upon which Commonwealth soldiers were landing (Gold Beach, Juno Beach and Sword Beach).=== SEAC and Burma campaign ===In August 1943, Churchill appointed Mountbatten the Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command (SEAC) with promotion to acting full admiral.", "His less practical ideas were sidelined by an experienced planning staff led by Lieutenant-Colonel James Allason, though some, such as a proposal to launch an amphibious assault near Rangoon, got as far as Churchill before being quashed.Municipal Building after the surrenderBritish interpreter Hugh Lunghi recounted an embarrassing episode during the Potsdam Conference when Mountbatten, desiring to receive an invitation to visit the Soviet Union, repeatedly attempted to impress Joseph Stalin with his former connections to the Russian imperial family.", "The attempt fell predictably flat, with Stalin dryly inquiring whether \"it was some time ago that he had been there\".", "Says Lunghi, \"The meeting was embarrassing because Stalin was so unimpressed.", "He offered no invitation.", "Mountbatten left with his tail between his legs.", "\"During his time as Supreme Allied Commander of the Southeast Asia Theatre, his command oversaw the recapture of Burma from the Japanese by General Sir William Slim.", "A personal high point was the receipt of the Japanese surrender in Singapore when British troops returned to the island to receive the formal surrender of Japanese forces in the region led by General Itagaki Seishiro on 12 September 1945, codenamed Operation Tiderace.", "South East Asia Command was disbanded in May 1946 and Mountbatten returned home with the substantive rank of rear-admiral.", "That year, he was made a Knight Companion of the Garter and created '''Viscount Mountbatten of Burma''', of Romsey in the County of Southampton, as a victory title for war service.", "He was then in 1947 further created '''Earl Mountbatten of Burma''' and '''Baron Romsey''', of Romsey in the County of Southampton.Following the war, Mountbatten was known to have largely shunned the Japanese for the rest of his life out of respect for his men killed during the war and, as per his will, Japan was not invited to send diplomatic representatives to his funeral in 1979, though he did meet Emperor Hirohito during his state visit to Britain in 1971, reportedly at the urging of the Queen." ], [ "Viceroy of India", "Mountbatten's experience in the region and in particular his perceived Labour sympathies at that time led to Clement Attlee advising King George VI to appoint him Viceroy of India on 20 February 1947 charged with overseeing the transition of British India to independence no later than 30 June 1948.Mountbatten's instructions were to avoid partition and preserve a united India as a result of the transfer of power but authorised him to adapt to a changing situation in order to get Britain out promptly with minimal reputational damage.", "Mountbatten arrived in India on 22 March by air, from London.", "In the evening, he was taken to his residence and two days later, he took the Viceregal oath.", "His arrival saw large-scale communal riots in Delhi, Bombay and Rawalpindi.", "Mountbatten concluded that the situation was too volatile to wait even a year before granting independence to India.", "Although his advisers favoured a gradual transfer of independence, Mountbatten decided the only way forward was a quick and orderly transfer of power before 1947 was out.", "In his view, any longer would mean civil war.", "Mountbatten also hurried so he could return to his senior technical Navy courses.Mountbatten was fond of Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru and his liberal outlook for the country.", "He felt differently about the Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah, but was aware of his power, stating \"If it could be said that any single man held the future of India in the palm of his hand in 1947, that man was Mohammad Ali Jinnah.\"", "During his meeting with Jinnah on 5 April 1947, Mountbatten tried to persuade him of a united India, citing the difficult task of dividing the mixed states of Punjab and Bengal, but the Muslim leader was unyielding in his goal of establishing a separate Muslim state called Pakistan.Mountbatten meeting with Jawaharlal Nehru (left) and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (right) in discussing the partition of British India, 1947.Given the British government's recommendations to grant independence quickly, Mountbatten concluded that a united India was an unachievable goal and resigned himself to a plan for partition, creating the independent nations of India and Pakistan.", "Mountbatten set a date for the transfer of power from the British to the Indians, arguing that a fixed timeline would convince Indians of his and the British government's sincerity in working towards a swift and efficient independence, excluding all possibilities of stalling the process.Among the Indian leaders, Mahatma Gandhi emphatically insisted on maintaining a united India and for a while successfully rallied people to this goal.", "During his meeting with Mountbatten, Gandhi asked Mountbatten to invite Jinnah to form a new central government, but Mountbatten never uttered a word of Gandhi's ideas to Jinnah.", "When Mountbatten's timeline offered the prospect of attaining independence soon, sentiments took a different turn.", "Given Mountbatten's determination, Nehru and Sardar Patel's inability to deal with the Muslim League and, lastly, Jinnah's obstinacy, all Indian party leaders (except Gandhi) acquiesced to Jinnah's plan to divide India, which in turn eased Mountbatten's task.", "Mountbatten also developed a strong relationship with the Indian princes, who ruled those portions of India not directly under British rule.", "His intervention was decisive in persuading the vast majority of them to see advantages in opting to join the Indian Union.", "On one hand, the integration of the princely states can be viewed as one of the positive aspects of his legacy but on the other, the refusal of Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, and Junagadh to join one of the dominions led to future wars between Pakistan and India.Mountbatten brought forward the date of the partition from June 1948 to 15 August 1947.The uncertainty of the borders caused Muslims and Hindus to move into the direction where they felt they would get the majority.", "Hindus and Muslims were thoroughly terrified, and the Muslim movement from the East was balanced by the similar movement of Hindus from the West.", "A boundary committee chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe was charged with drawing boundaries for the new nations.", "With a mandate to leave as many Hindus and Sikhs in India and as many Muslims in Pakistan as possible, Radcliffe came up with a map that split the two countries along the Punjab and Bengal borders.", "This left 14 million people on the \"wrong\" side of the border, and very many of them fled to \"safety\" on the other side when the new lines were announced.=== Independence of India and Pakistan ===Mountbatten with Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of sovereign India, in Government House.", "Lady Mountbatten is standing to their left.When India and Pakistan attained independence at midnight of 14–15 August 1947, Mountbatten was alone in his study at the Viceroy's house saying to himself just before the clock struck midnight that for still a few minutes, he was the most powerful man on Earth.", "At 12 am, as a last act of showmanship, he created Joan Falkiner, the Australian wife of the Nawab of Palanpur, a highness, an act that was apparently one of his favourite duties that was annulled at the stroke of midnight.Mountbatten remained in New Delhi for 10 months, serving as the first governor-general of an independent India until June 1948.On Mountbatten's advice, India took the issue of Kashmir to the newly formed United Nations in January 1948.This issue would become a lasting thorn in his legacy and one that is not resolved to this day.", "Accounts differ on the future which Mountbatten desired for Kashmir.", "Pakistani accounts suggest that Mountbatten favoured the accession of Kashmir to India, citing his close relationship to Nehru.", "Mountbatten's own account says that he simply wanted Maharaja Hari Singh, to make up his mind.", "The viceroy made several attempts to mediate between the Congress leaders, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Hari Singh on issues relating to the accession of Kashmir, though he was largely unsuccessful in resolving the conflict.", "After the tribal invasion of Kashmir, it was on his suggestion that India moved to secure the accession of Kashmir from Hari Singh before sending in military forces for his defence.Lord and Lady Mountbatten with Muhammad Ali Jinnah.Notwithstanding the self-promotion of his own part in Indian independence – notably in the television series ''The Life and Times of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Mountbatten of Burma'', produced by his son-in-law Lord Brabourne, and ''Freedom at Midnight'' by Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins (of which he was the main quoted source) – his record is seen as very mixed.", "One common view is that he hastened the process of independence unduly and recklessly, foreseeing vast disruption and loss of life and not wanting this to occur on his watch, but thereby actually helping it to occur (albeit in an indirect manner), especially in Punjab and Bengal.", "John Kenneth Galbraith, the Canadian-American Harvard University economist, who advised governments of India during the 1950s and was an intimate of Nehru who served as the American ambassador from 1961 to 1963, was a particularly harsh critic of Mountbatten in this regard.", "However, another view is that the British were forced to expedite the partition process to avoid involvement in a potential civil war with law and order having already broken down and Britain with limited resources after the Second World War.", "According to historian Lawrence James, Mountbatten was left with no other option but to cut and run, with the alternative being involvement in a potential civil war that would be difficult to get out of.The creation of Pakistan was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, among them Mountbatten.", "Mountbatten clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.", "Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan.", "When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged the creation of Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied, \"Most probably\".", "After his tenure as Governor-General concluded, Mountbatten continued to enjoy close relations with Nehru and the post-Independence Indian leadership, and was welcomed as a former governor-general of India on subsequent visits to the country, including during an official trip in March 1956.The Pakistani government, by contrast, never forgave Mountbatten for his perceived hostile attitude towards Pakistan and deemed him ''Persona non grata'', barring him from transiting their airspace during the same visit." ], [ "Later career", "Mountbatten inspects Malayan troops in Kensington Gardens in 1946After India, Mountbatten served as commander of the 1st Cruiser Squadron in the Mediterranean Fleet and, having been granted the substantive rank of vice-admiral on 22 June 1949, he became Second-in-Command of the Mediterranean Fleet in April 1950.He became Fourth Sea Lord at the Admiralty in June 1950.He then returned to the Mediterranean to serve as Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet and NATO Commander Allied Forces Mediterranean from June 1952.He was promoted to the substantive rank of full admiral on 27 February 1953.In March 1953, he was appointed Personal Aide-de-Camp to the Queen.Mountbatten arrives on board at Malta to assume command of the Mediterranean Fleet, 16 May 1952Mountbatten served his final posting at the Admiralty as First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff from April 1955 to July 1959, the position which his father had held some forty years before.", "This was the first time in Royal Naval history that a father and son had both attained such high office.", "He was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 22 October 1956.In the Suez Crisis of 1956, Mountbatten strongly advised his old friend Prime Minister Anthony Eden against the Conservative government's plans to seize the Suez Canal in conjunction with France and Israel.", "He argued that such a move would destabilize the Middle East, undermine the authority of the United Nations, divide the Commonwealth and diminish Britain's global standing.", "His advice was not taken.", "Eden insisted that Mountbatten not resign.", "Instead, he worked hard to prepare the Royal Navy for war with characteristic professionalism and thoroughness.Despite his military rank, Mountbatten was ignorant as to the physics involved in a nuclear explosion and had to be reassured that the fission reactions from the Bikini Atoll tests would not spread through the oceans and blow up the planet.", "As Mountbatten became more familiar with this new form of weaponry, he increasingly grew opposed to its use in combat.", "Yet, he realised the potential for nuclear energy, especially with regard to submarines.", "Mountbatten expressed his feelings towards the use of nuclear weapons in combat in his article \"A Military Commander Surveys The Nuclear Arms Race\", which was published shortly after his death in ''International Security'' in the Winter of 1979–1980.After leaving the Admiralty, Mountbatten took the position of Chief of the Defence Staff.", "He served in this post for six years during which he was able to consolidate the three service departments of the military branch into a single Ministry of Defence.", "Ian Jacob, co-author of the 1963 ''Report on the Central Organisation of Defence'' that served as the basis of these reforms, described Mountbatten as \"universally mistrusted in spite of his great qualities\".", "On their election in October 1964, the Wilson ministry had to decide whether to renew his appointment the following July.", "The Defence Secretary, Denis Healey, interviewed the forty most senior officials in the Ministry of Defence; only one, Sir Kenneth Strong, a personal friend of Mountbatten, recommended his reappointment.", "\"When I told Dickie of my decision not to reappoint him,\" recalls Healey, \"he slapped his thigh and roared with delight; but his eyes told a different story.", "\"Mountbatten was appointed Colonel of The Life Guards and Gold Stick in Waiting on 29 January 1965 and Life Colonel Commandant of the Royal Marines the same year.", "He was Governor of the Isle of Wight from 20 July 1965 and then the first Lord Lieutenant of the Isle of Wight from 1 April 1974.Mountbatten with John F. Kennedy in the Oval Office, Washington, D.C., 11 April 1961Louis Mountbatten during a 1967 visit to IsraelMountbatten was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and had received an honorary doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1968.In 1969, Mountbatten tried unsuccessfully to persuade his second cousin, the Spanish pretender Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona, to ease the eventual accession of his son, Juan Carlos, to the Spanish throne by signing a declaration of abdication while in exile.", "The next year Mountbatten attended an official White House dinner during which he took the opportunity to have a 20-minute conversation with Richard Nixon and Secretary of State William P. Rogers, about which he later wrote, \"I was able to talk to the President a bit about both Tino Constantine II of Greece and Juanito Juan Carlos of Spain to try and put over their respective points of view about Greece and Spain, and how I felt the US could help them.\"", "In January 1971, Nixon hosted Juan Carlos and his wife Sofia (sister of the exiled King Constantine) during a visit to Washington and later that year ''The Washington Post'' published an article alleging that Nixon's administration was seeking to persuade Franco to retire in favour of the young Bourbon prince.From 1967 until 1978, Mountbatten was president of the United World Colleges Organisation, then represented by a single college: that of Atlantic College in South Wales.", "Mountbatten supported the United World Colleges and encouraged heads of state, politicians, and personalities throughout the world to share his interest.", "Under his presidency and personal involvement, the United World College of South East Asia was established in Singapore in 1971, followed by the United World College of the Pacific in Victoria, British Columbia, in 1974.In 1978, Mountbatten passed the presidency of the college to his great-nephew, Charles, Prince of Wales.Mountbatten also helped to launch the International Baccalaureate; in 1971 he presented the first IB diplomas in the Greek Theatre of the International School of Geneva, Switzerland.In 1975 Mountbatten finally visited the Soviet Union, leading the delegation from UK as personal representative of Queen Elizabeth II at the celebrations to mark the 30th anniversary of Victory Day in Second World War in Moscow." ], [ "Alleged plots against Harold Wilson", "Peter Wright, in his 1987 book ''Spycatcher'', claimed that in May 1968 Mountbatten attended a private meeting with press baron Cecil King and the government's Chief Scientific Adviser, Solly Zuckerman.", "Wright alleged that \"up to thirty\" MI5 officers had joined a secret campaign to undermine the crisis-stricken Labour government of Harold Wilson and that King was an MI5 agent.", "In the meeting, King allegedly urged Mountbatten to become the leader of a government of national salvation.", "Solly Zuckerman pointed out that it was \"rank treachery\" and the idea came to nothing because of Mountbatten's reluctance to act.", "In contrast, Andrew Lownie has suggested that it took the intervention of the Queen to dissuade Mountbatten from plotting against Wilson.In 2006, the BBC documentary ''The Plot Against Harold Wilson'' alleged that there had been another plot involving Mountbatten to oust Wilson during his second term in office (1974–1976).", "The period was characterised by high inflation, increasing unemployment, and widespread industrial unrest.", "The alleged plot revolved around right-wing former military figures who were supposedly building private armies to counter the perceived threat from trade unions and the Soviet Union.", "They believed that the Labour Party was unable and unwilling to counter these developments and that Wilson was either a Soviet agent or at the very least a Communist sympathiser – claims Wilson strongly denied.", "The documentary makers alleged that a coup was planned to overthrow Wilson and replace him with Mountbatten using the private armies and sympathisers in the military and MI5.The first official history of MI5, ''The Defence of the Realm'' (2009), implied that there was a plot against Wilson and that MI5 did have a file on him.", "Yet it also made clear that the plot was in no way official and that any activity centred on a small group of discontented officers.", "This much had already been confirmed by former cabinet secretary Lord Hunt, who concluded in a secret inquiry conducted in 1996 that \"there is absolutely no doubt at all that a few, a very few, malcontents in MI5 ... a lot of them like Peter Wright who were right-wing, malicious and had serious personal grudges – gave vent to these and spread damaging malicious stories about that Labour government.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "=== Marriage ===Louis and Edwina MountbattenMountbatten was married on 18 July 1922 to Edwina Cynthia Annette Ashley, daughter of Wilfred William Ashley, later 1st Baron Mount Temple, himself a grandson of the 7th Earl of Shaftesbury.", "She was the favourite granddaughter of the Edwardian magnate Sir Ernest Cassel and the principal heir to his fortune.", "The couple spent heavily on households, luxuries, and entertainment.", "There followed a honeymoon tour of European royal courts and North America which included a visit to Niagara Falls (because \"all honeymooners went there\").", "During their honeymoon in California, the newlyweds starred in a silent home movie by Charlie Chaplin called ''Nice And Friendly'', which was not shown in cinemas.Mountbatten admitted: \"Edwina and I spent all our married lives getting into other people's beds.\"", "He maintained an affair for several years with Yola Letellier, the wife of Henri Letellier, publisher of ''Le Journal'' and mayor of Deauville (1925–28).", "Yola Letellier's life story was the inspiration for Colette's novel ''Gigi''.After Edwina died in 1960, Mountbatten was involved in relationships with young women, according to his daughter Patricia, his secretary John Barratt, his valet Bill Evans, and William Stadiem, an employee of Madame Claude.", "He had a long-running affair with American actress Shirley MacLaine, whom he met in the 1960s.=== Sexuality and child abuse allegations===Ron Perks, Mountbatten's driver in Malta in 1948, alleged that he used to visit the Red House, an upmarket gay brothel in Rabat used by naval officers.", "Andrew Lownie, a fellow of the Royal Historical Society, wrote that the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) maintained files regarding Mountbatten's alleged homosexuality.", "Lownie also interviewed several young men who claimed to have been in a relationship with Mountbatten.", "John Barratt, Mountbatten's personal and private secretary for 20 years, has said Mountbatten was not a homosexual, and that it would have been impossible for such a fact to have been hidden from him.In 2019, files became public showing that the FBI knew in the 1940s of allegations that Mountbatten was homosexual and a paedophile.", "The FBI file on Mountbatten, begun after he took on the role of Supreme Allied Commander in Southeast Asia in 1944, describes Mountbatten and his wife Edwina as \"persons of extremely low morals\", and contains a claim by American author Elizabeth, Baroness Decies, that Mountbatten was known to be a homosexual and had \"a perversion for young boys\".", "Norman Nield, Mountbatten's driver from 1942 to 1943, told the tabloid ''New Zealand Truth'' that he transported young boys aged 8 to 12 who had been procured for the Admiral to Mountbatten's official residence and was paid to keep quiet.", "Robin Bryans had also claimed to the Irish magazine ''Now'' that Mountbatten and Anthony Blunt, along with others, were part of a ring that engaged in homosexual orgies and procured boys in their first year at public schools such as the Portora Royal School in Enniskillen.", "Former residents of the Kincora Boys' Home in Belfast have asserted that they were trafficked to Mountbatten at Classiebawn Castle, his residence in Mullaghmore, County Sligo.", "These claims were dismissed by the Historical Institution Abuse (HIA) Inquiry.", "The HIA stated that the article making the original allegations \"did not give any basis for the assertions that any of these people Mountbatten and others were connected with Kincora\".In October 2022 Arthur Smyth, a former resident of Kincora, waived his anonymity to make allegations of child abuse against Mountbatten.", "The allegations are part of a civil case against state authorities responsible for the care of children in Kincora.=== Daughter as heir ===Lord and Lady Mountbatten had two daughters: Patricia Knatchbull (14 February 1924 – 13 June 2017), sometime lady-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth II, and Lady Pamela Hicks (born 19 April 1929), who accompanied them to India in 1947–1948 and was also sometime lady-in-waiting to the Queen.Since Mountbatten had no sons when he was created Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, of Romsey in the County of Southampton on 27 August 1946 and then Earl Mountbatten of Burma and Baron Romsey, in the County of Southampton on 18 October 1947, the Letters Patent were drafted such that in the event he left no sons or issue in the male line, the titles could pass to his daughters, in order of seniority of birth.=== Leisure interests ===Mountbatten was passionate about genealogy, an interest he shared with other European royalty and nobility; according to Ziegler, he spent a great deal of his leisure time in studying his links with European royal houses.", "From 1957 until his death, Lord Mountbatten was Patron of the Cambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society.", "He was equally passionate about orders, decorations and military ranks and uniforms, though he himself considered this interest to be a sign of vanity and constantly tried to distance himself from it, with limited success.", "Over the course of his career, he consistently attempted to secure as many orders and decorations as possible.", "Particular about details of dress, Mountbatten took an interest in fashion design, introducing trouser zips, a tail-coat with broad, high lapels and a \"buttonless waistcoat\" that could be pulled on over the head.", "In 1949, having by then relinquished the office of Governor-General of India but retaining a keen interest in Indian affairs, he designed new flags, insignia, and details of uniforms for the Indian Armed Forces ahead of the transition from British dominion to republic; many of his designs were implemented and remain in use.Like many members of the royal family, Mountbatten was an aficionado of polo.", "Mountbatten introduced the sport to the Royal Navy in the 1920s and wrote a book on the subject.", "He received US patent 1,993,334 in 1931 for a polo stick.", "He also served as Commodore of Emsworth Sailing Club in Hampshire from 1931.He was a long-serving Patron of the Society for Nautical Research (1951–1979).", "Apart from official documents, Mountbatten was not much of a reader, though he liked P. G. Wodehouse's books.", "He enjoyed the cinema; his favourite stars were Fred Astaire, Rita Hayworth, Grace Kelly and Shirley MacLaine.", "In general, however, he had a limited interest in the arts.=== Mentorship of King Charles III ===Mountbatten was a strong influence in the upbringing of his great-nephew, the future King Charles III, and later as a mentor – \"Honorary Grandfather\" and \"Honorary Grandson\", they fondly called each other according to the Jonathan Dimbleby biography of the then-Prince – though according to both the Ziegler biography of Mountbatten and the Dimbleby biography of the Prince, the results may have been mixed.", "He from time to time strongly upbraided the Prince for showing tendencies towards the idle pleasure-seeking dilettantism of his predecessor as Prince of Wales, King Edward VIII, whom Mountbatten had known well in their youth.", "Yet he also encouraged the Prince to enjoy the bachelor life while he could, and then to marry a young and inexperienced girl so as to ensure a stable married life.Mountbatten's qualification for offering advice to this particular heir to the throne was unique; it was he who had arranged the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Dartmouth Royal Naval College on 22 July 1939, taking care to include the young Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret in the invitation, but assigning his nephew, Cadet Prince Philip of Greece, to keep them amused while their parents toured the facility.", "This was the first recorded meeting of Charles's future parents but a few months later, Mountbatten's efforts nearly came to naught when he received a letter from his sister Alice in Athens informing him that Philip was visiting her and had agreed to repatriate permanently to Greece.", "Within days, Philip received a command from his cousin and sovereign, King George II of Greece, to resume his naval career in Britain which, though given without explanation, the young prince obeyed.In 1974, Mountbatten began corresponding with Charles about a potential marriage to his granddaughter, Amanda Knatchbull, who was also Charles's second cousin.", "It was about this time he also recommended that the 25-year-old prince get on with \"sowing some wild oats\".", "Charles dutifully wrote to Amanda's mother (who was also his godmother and his father's first cousin), Lady Brabourne, about his interest.", "Her answer was supportive, but advised him that she thought her daughter still rather young to be courted.In February 1975, Charles visited New Delhi to play polo and was shown around Rashtrapati Bhavan, the former Viceroy's House, by Mountbatten.Four years later, Mountbatten secured an invitation for himself and Amanda to accompany Charles on his planned 1980 tour of India.", "Their fathers promptly objected.", "Prince Philip thought that the Indian public's reception would more likely reflect their response to the uncle than to the nephew.", "Lord Brabourne counselled that the intense scrutiny of the press would be more likely to drive Mountbatten's godson and granddaughter apart than together.Charles was rescheduled to tour India alone, but Mountbatten did not live to the planned date of departure.", "When Charles finally did propose marriage to Amanda later in 1979, the circumstances were changed and she refused him." ], [ "Television appearances", "On 27 April 1977, shortly before his 77th birthday, Mountbatten became the first member of the Royal Family to appear on the TV guest show ''This Is Your Life''.", "In the UK, 22.22 million people tuned in to watch the programme." ], [ "Assassination", "''Christ in Triumph over Darkness and Evil'' by Gabriel Loire (1982) at St. George's Cathedral, Cape Town, South Africa, in memory of MountbattenMountbatten usually holidayed at his summer home, Classiebawn Castle, on the Mullaghmore Peninsula in County Sligo, in the north-west of Ireland.", "The village was only from the border with County Fermanagh in Northern Ireland and near an area known to be used as a cross-border refuge by IRA members.", "In 1978, the IRA had allegedly attempted to shoot Mountbatten as he was aboard his boat, but poor weather had prevented the sniper taking his shot.On 27 August 1979, Mountbatten went lobster-potting and tuna fishing in his wooden boat, ''Shadow V'', which had been moored in the harbour at Mullaghmore.", "IRA member Thomas McMahon had slipped onto the unguarded boat the previous night and attached a radio-controlled bomb weighing .", "When Mountbatten and his party had taken the boat just a few hundred yards from the shore, the bomb was detonated.", "The boat was destroyed by the force of the blast and Mountbatten's legs were almost blown off.", "Mountbatten, then aged 79, was pulled alive from the water by nearby fishermen, but died from his injuries before being brought to shore.Also aboard the boat were his elder daughter Patricia, Lady Brabourne; her husband Lord Brabourne; their twin sons Nicholas and Timothy Knatchbull; Lord Brabourne's mother Doreen, Dowager Lady Brabourne; and Paul Maxwell, a young crew member from Enniskillen in County Fermanagh.", "Nicholas (aged 14) and Paul (aged 15) were killed by the blast and the others were seriously injured.", "Doreen, Dowager Lady Brabourne (aged 83), died from her injuries the following day.The attack triggered outrage and condemnation around the world.", "Queen Elizabeth II received messages of condolence from leaders including US President Jimmy Carter and Pope John Paul II.", "Carter expressed his \"profound sadness\" at the death.", "The Irish American community was disgusted with the attack, especially since many American soldiers served under Mountbatten during World War II.", "Jim Rooney, son of Pittsburgh Steelers president Dan M. Rooney (who co-founded The Ireland Funds in 1976), recalled that:Mountbatten's murder shocked many Irish-Americans, my parents included, because they remembered him for the role he played in defeating the Axis.", "\"It was quite sad because being in America, you were familiar with Lord Mountbatten because of World War II,\" my mother recalled.", "\"It was a very sad time.\"", "But my father didn't give in to despair.", "\"That didn't show down my father one bit.", "It more or less gave him more energy,\" my mother said.Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said:His death leaves a gap that can never be filled.", "The British people give thanks for his life and grieve at his passing.George Colley, the ''Tánaiste'' (Deputy head of the Government of Ireland), said:No effort will be spared to bring those responsible to justice.", "It is understood that subversives have claimed responsibility for the explosion.", "Assuming that police investigations substantiate the claim, I know that the Irish people will join me in condemning this heartless and terrible outrage.The IRA issued a statement afterward, saying:The IRA claim responsibility for the execution of Lord Louis Mountbatten.", "This operation is one of the discriminate ways we can bring to the attention of the English people the continuing occupation of our country. ...", "The death of Mountbatten and the tributes paid to him will be seen in sharp contrast to the apathy of the British Government and the English people to the deaths of over three hundred British soldiers, and the deaths of Irish men, women, and children at the hands of their forces.Six weeks later, Sinn Féin vice-president Gerry Adams said of Mountbatten's death:The IRA gave clear reasons for the execution.", "I think it is unfortunate that anyone has to be killed, but the furor created by Mountbatten's death showed up the hypocritical attitude of the media establishment.", "As a member of the House of Lords, Mountbatten was an emotional figure in both British and Irish politics.", "What the IRA did to him is what Mountbatten had been doing all his life to other people; and with his war record I don't think he could have objected to dying in what was clearly a war situation.", "He knew the danger involved in coming to this country.", "In my opinion, the IRA achieved its objective: people started paying attention to what was happening in Ireland.In 2015, Adams said in an interview, \"I stand over what I said then.", "I'm not one of those people that engages in revisionism.", "Thankfully the war is over.", "\"On the day of the bombing, the IRA also ambushed and killed eighteen British soldiers at the gates of Narrow Water Castle, just outside Warrenpoint, in County Down in Northern Ireland, sixteen of them from the Parachute Regiment, in what became known as the Warrenpoint ambush.", "It was the deadliest attack on the British Army during the Troubles.=== Funeral ===Mountbatten's tomb at Romsey Abbey in Hampshire, near to his home, Broadlands.On 5 September 1979, Mountbatten received a ceremonial funeral at Westminster Abbey, which was attended by Queen Elizabeth II, the royal family, and members of the European royal houses.", "Watched by thousands of people, the funeral procession, which started at Wellington Barracks, included representatives of all three British Armed Services, and military contingents from Burma, India, the United States (represented by 70 sailors of the US Navy and 50 US Marines), France (represented by the French Navy) and Canada.", "His coffin was drawn on a gun carriage by 118 Royal Navy ratings.", "During the televised service, his great-nephew Charles read the lesson from Psalm 107.In an address, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Donald Coggan, highlighted his various achievements and his \"lifelong devotion to the Royal Navy\".", "After the public ceremonies, which he had planned himself, Mountbatten was buried in Romsey Abbey.", "As part of the funeral arrangements, his body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley.=== Aftermath ===Two hours before the bomb detonated, Thomas McMahon had been arrested at a Garda checkpoint between Longford and Granard on suspicion of driving a stolen vehicle.", "He was tried for the assassinations in Ireland and convicted on 23 November 1979 based on forensic evidence supplied by James O'Donovan that showed flecks of paint from the boat and traces of nitroglycerine on his clothes.", "He was released in 1998 under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement.On hearing of Mountbatten's death, the then Master of the Queen's Music, Malcolm Williamson, wrote the ''Lament in Memory of Lord Mountbatten of Burma'' for violin and string orchestra.", "The 11-minute work was given its first performance on 5 May 1980 by the Scottish Baroque Ensemble, conducted by Leonard Friedman.On his death his estate was valued for probate purposes at £2,196,494 ()." ], [ "Legacy", "Mountbatten's faults, according to his biographer Philip Ziegler, like everything else about him, \"were on the grandest scale.", "His vanity though child-like, was monstrous, his ambition unbridled ...", "He sought to rewrite history with cavalier indifference to the facts to magnify his own achievements.\"", "However, Ziegler concludes that Mountbatten's virtues outweighed his defects:He was generous and loyal ...", "He was warm-hearted, predisposed to like everyone he met, quick-tempered but never bearing grudges ... His tolerance was extraordinary; his readiness to respect and listen to the views of others was remarkable throughout his life.Ziegler argues he was truly a great man, although not profound or original.What he could do with superlative aplomb was to identify the object at which he was aiming, and force it through to its conclusion.", "A powerful, analytic mind of crystalline clarity, a superabundance of energy, great persuasive powers, endless resilience in the face of setback or disaster rendered him the most formidable of operators.", "He was infinitely resourceful, quick in his reactions, always ready to cut his losses and start again ...", "He was an executor of policy rather than an initiator; but whatever the policy, he espoused it with such energy and enthusiasm, made it so completely his own, that it became identified with him and, in the eyes of the outside world as well as his own, his creation.Others were not so conflicted.", "Field Marshal Sir Gerald Templer, the former Chief of the Imperial General Staff, once told him, \"You are so crooked, Dickie, that if you swallowed a nail, you would shit a corkscrew\".Mountbatten supported the burgeoning nationalist movements which grew up in the shadow of Japanese occupation.", "His priority was to maintain practical, stable government, but driving him was an idealism in which he believed every people should be allowed to control their own destiny.", "Critics said he was too ready to overlook their faults, and especially their subordination to communist control.", "Ziegler says that in Malaya, where the main resistance to the Japanese came from Chinese who were under considerable communist influence, \"Mountbatten proved to have been naïve in his assessment. ...", "He erred, however, not because he was 'soft on Communism' ... but from an over-readiness to assume the best of those with whom he had dealings.\"", "Furthermore, Ziegler argues, he was following a practical policy based on the assumption that it would take a long and bloody struggle to drive the Japanese out, and he needed the support of all the anti-Japanese elements, most of which were either nationalists or communists.Mountbatten took pride in enhancing intercultural understanding and in 1984, with his elder daughter as the patron, the Mountbatten Institute was developed to allow young adults the opportunity to enhance their intercultural appreciation and experience by spending time abroad.", "The IET annually awards the Mountbatten Medal for an outstanding contribution, or contributions over a period, to the promotion of electronics or information technology and their application.Canada's capital city of Ottawa named Mountbatten Avenue in his memory.", "The Mountbatten estate in Singapore and Mountbatten MRT station were named after him.Mountbatten's personal papers (containing approximately 250,000 papers and 50,000 photographs) are preserved in the University of Southampton Library." ], [ "Awards and decorations", " Ribbon Name Date awarded 80px Knight Companion of the Garter (KG) 1946 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) 1955 Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) 1945 Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) 1943 80px Member of the Order of Merit (Military Division) (OM) 1965 80x80px Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India (GCSI) 1947 80px Knight Grand Commander of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE) 1947 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) 1937 Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) 1922 Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) 1920 80px Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) 1941 80px Knight of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ) 1940 Commander of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (CStJ) 1929 80px British War Medal 1918 80px Victory Medal 1918 80px 1939–45 Star 1945 80px Atlantic Star 1945 80px Africa Star 1945 80px Burma Star 1945 80px Italy Star 1945 80px Defence Medal 1945 80px War Medal 1939–1945 1945 80px Naval General Service Medal 80px King George V Coronation Medal 1911 80px King George V Silver Jubilee Medal 1935 80px King George VI Coronation Medal 1937 80px Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal 1952 80px Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal 1977 80px Indian Independence Medal 1949 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Kingdom of Spain) – 1922 80px Order of the Nile, Fourth Class (Kingdom of Egypt) – 1922 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (Romania) – 1924 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania (Romania) – 1937 80px War Cross (Kingdom of Greece) – 1941 80px Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (United States) – 1943 80px Special Grand Cordon of the Order of the Cloud and Banner (Republic of China) – 1945 80px Distinguished Service Medal (United States) – 1945 Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (United States) – 1945 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the White Elephant (Kingdom of Thailand) – 21 January 1946 80px Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of Nepal (Kingdom of Nepal) – 10 May 1946 80px Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France) – 3 June 1946 80px 1939–1945 War Cross (France) – 3 June 1946 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of George I (Kingdom of Greece) – 1946 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (Kingdom of the Netherlands) – 1948 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Aviz (Portuguese Republic) – 1951 80px Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Kingdom of Sweden) – 1952 80px Grand Commander of the Order of Thiri Thudhamma (Union of Burma) – 1956 80px Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog (Kingdom of Denmark) – 1962 80px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Seal of Solomon (Ethiopian Empire) – 1965 80px Order of the Distinguished Rule of Izzuddin (Maldives) – 1972 80px King Birendra Coronation Medal (Kingdom of Nepal) – 24 February 1975He was appointed personal aide-de-camp by Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II, and therefore bore the unusual distinction of being allowed to wear three royal cyphers on his epaulettes." ], [ "Arms" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * published in * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Tribute & Memorial Website to Louis, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma* 70th Anniversary of Indian Independence – Mountbatten: The Last Viceroy – UK Parliament Living Heritage* * Papers of Louis, Earl Mountbatten of Burma* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elbridge Gerry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elbridge Gerry''' (; July 17, 1744 – November 23, 1814) was an American Founding Father, merchant, politician, and diplomat who served as the fifth vice president of the United States under President James Madison from 1813 until his death in 1814.The political practice of gerrymandering is named after him.", "Born into a wealthy merchant family, Gerry vocally opposed British colonial policy in the 1760s and was active in the early stages of organizing the resistance in the American Revolutionary War.", "Elected to the Second Continental Congress, Gerry signed both the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation.", "He was one of three men who attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787, but refused to sign the Constitution because originally it did not include a Bill of Rights.", "After its ratification, he was elected to the inaugural United States Congress, where he was actively involved in the drafting and passage of the Bill of Rights as an advocate of individual and state liberties.Gerry was at first opposed to the idea of political parties and cultivated enduring friendships on both sides of the political divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.", "He was a member of a diplomatic delegation to France that was treated poorly in the XYZ Affair, in which Federalists held him responsible for a breakdown in negotiations.", "Gerry thereafter became a Democratic-Republican, running unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts several times before winning the office in 1810.During his second term, the legislature approved new state senate districts that led to the coining of the word \"gerrymander\"; he lost the next election, although the state senate remained Democratic-Republican.", "Gerry was nominated by the Democratic-Republican party and elected as vice president in the 1812 election.", "Advanced in age and in poor health, Gerry served 21 months of his term before dying in office.", "Gerry is the only signatory of the Declaration of Independence to be buried in Washington, D.C." ], [ "Early life and education", "Gerry was born on July 17, 1744, in the North Shore town of Marblehead, Massachusetts.", "His father, Thomas Gerry, was a merchant who operated ships out of Marblehead, and his mother, Elizabeth (Greenleaf) Gerry, was the daughter of a successful Boston merchant.", "Gerry's first name came from John Elbridge, one of his mother's ancestors.", "Gerry's parents had 11 children in all, although only five survived to adulthood.", "Of these, Elbridge was the third.", "He was first educated by private tutors and entered Harvard College shortly before turning 14.After receiving a Bachelor of Arts in 1762 and a Master of Arts in 1765, he entered his father's merchant business.", "By the 1770s, the Gerrys numbered among the wealthiest Massachusetts merchants, with trading connections in Spain, the West Indies, and along the North American coast.", "Gerry's father, who had emigrated from England in 1730, was active in local politics and had a leading role in the local militia." ], [ "Colonial business and politics", "Gerry was from an early time a vocal opponent of Parliamentary efforts to tax the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in 1763.In 1770, he sat on a Marblehead committee that sought to enforce importation bans on taxed British goods.", "He frequently communicated with other Massachusetts opponents of British policy, including Samuel Adams, John Adams, Mercy Otis Warren, and others.In May 1772, he won election to the Great and General Court of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which served as the state's legislative assembly.", "He worked closely with Samuel Adams to advance colonial opposition to Parliamentary colonial policies.", "He was responsible for establishing Marblehead's committee of correspondence, one of the first to be set up after that of Boston.", "However, an incident of mob action prompted him to resign from the committee the next year.", "Gerry and other prominent Marbleheaders had established a hospital for performing smallpox inoculations on Cat Island; because the means of transmission of the disease were not known at the time, fears amongst the local population led to protests which escalated into violence that wrecked the hospital and threatened the proprietors' other properties.Gerry reentered politics after the Boston Port Act closed that city's port in 1774, and Marblehead became an alternative port to which relief supplies from other colonies could be delivered.", "As one of the town's leading merchants and Patriots, Gerry played a major role in ensuring the storage and delivery of supplies from Marblehead to Boston, interrupting those activities only to care for his dying father.", "He was elected as a representative to the First Continental Congress in September 1774, but declined, still grieving the loss of his father." ], [ "American Revolution", "John Adams, who held Gerry in high regardAnn ThompsonGerry was elected to the provincial assembly, which reconstituted itself as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress after Governor Thomas Gage dissolved the body in October 1774.He was assigned to its committee of safety, responsible for ensuring that the province's limited supplies of weapons and gunpowder did not fall into British hands.", "His actions were partly responsible for the storage of weapons and ammunition in Concord; these stores were the target of the British expedition that sparked the start of the American Revolutionary War with the battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775.", "(Gerry was staying at an inn at Menotomy, now Arlington, when the British Army marched through on the night of April 18.)", "During the Siege of Boston that followed, Gerry continued to take a leading role in supplying the nascent Continental Army, something he would continue to do as the war progressed.", "He leveraged business contacts in France and Spain to acquire not just munitions, but supplies of all types, and was involved in the transfer of financial subsidies from Spain to Congress.", "He sent ships to ports all along the American coast and dabbled in financing privateering operations against British merchant shipping.Unlike some other merchants, there is no evidence that Gerry profiteered directly from the hostilities.", "He spoke out against price gouging and in favor of price controls, although his war-related merchant activities notably increased the family's wealth.", "His gains were tempered to some extent by the precipitous decline in the value of paper currencies, which he held in large quantities and speculated in.Gerry served in the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia from February 1776 to 1780, when matters of the ongoing war occupied the body's attention.", "He was influential in convincing several delegates to support passage of the Declaration of Independence in the debates held during the summer of 1776; John Adams wrote of him, \"If every Man here was a Gerry, the Liberties of America would be safe against the Gates of Earth and Hell.\"", "He was implicated as a member of the so-called \"Conway Cabal\", a group of Congressmen and military officers who were dissatisfied with the performance of General George Washington during the 1777 military campaign.", "However, Gerry took Pennsylvania leader Thomas Mifflin, one of Washington's critics, to task early in the episode and specifically denied knowledge of any sort of conspiracy against Washington in February 1778.Gerry's political philosophy was one of limited central government, and he regularly advocated for the maintenance of civilian control of the military.", "He held these positions fairly consistently throughout his political career (wavering principally on the need for stronger central government in the wake of the 1786–87 Shays' Rebellion) and was well known for his personal integrity.", "In later years he opposed the idea of political parties, remaining somewhat distant from both the developing Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties until later in his career.", "It was not until 1800 that he formally associated with the Democratic-Republicans in opposition to what he saw as attempts by the Federalists to centralize too much power in the national government.In 1780, he resigned from the Continental Congress over the issue and refused offers from the state legislature to return to the Congress.", "He also refused appointment to the state senate, claiming he would be more effective in the state's lower chamber, and also refused appointment as a county judge, comparing the offer by Governor John Hancock to those made by royally-appointed governors to benefit their political allies.", "He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1781.Gerry was convinced to rejoin the Confederation Congress in 1783, when the state legislature agreed to support his call for needed reforms.", "He served in that body, which met in New York City, until September 1785.The following year, he married Ann Thompson, the daughter of a wealthy New York City merchant who was 20 years his junior; his best man was his good friend James Monroe.", "The couple had ten children between 1787 and 1801, straining Ann's health.The war made Gerry sufficiently wealthy that when it ended he sold off his merchant interests and began investing in land.", "In 1787, he purchased the Cambridge, Massachusetts, estate of the last royal lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Oliver, which had been confiscated by the state.", "This property, known as Elmwood, became the family home for the rest of Gerry's life.", "He continued to own property in Marblehead and bought several properties in other Massachusetts communities.", "He also owned shares in the Ohio Company, prompting some political opponents to characterize him as an owner of vast tracts of western lands.===Constitutional Convention===Gerry played a major role in the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787.In its deliberations, he consistently advocated for a strong delineation between state and federal government powers, with state legislatures shaping the membership of federal government positions.", "Gerry's opposition to popular election of representatives was rooted in part by the events of Shays' Rebellion in western Massachusetts in the year preceding the convention.", "He also sought to maintain individual liberties by providing checks on government power that might abuse or limit those freedoms.He supported the idea that the Senate composition should not be determined by population; the view that it should instead be composed of equal numbers of members for each state prevailed in the Connecticut Compromise.", "The compromise was adopted on a narrow vote in which the Massachusetts delegation was divided, Gerry and Caleb Strong voting in favor.", "Gerry further proposed that senators of a state, rather than casting a single vote on behalf of the state, vote instead as individuals.", "Gerry was also vocal in opposing the Three-fifths Compromise, which counted slaves as three-fifths of a free person for the purposes of apportionment in the House of Representatives, whereas counting each slave individually would have given southern slave states a decided advantage.", "Gerry opposed slavery and said the constitution should have \"nothing to do\" with slavery so as \"not to sanction it.", "\"Because of his fear of demagoguery and belief the people of the United States could be easily misled, Gerry also advocated indirect elections.", "Although he was unsuccessful in obtaining them for the lower house of Congress, Gerry did obtain such indirect elections for the Senate, whose members were to be selected by the state legislatures.", "Gerry also advanced numerous proposals for indirect elections of the President of the United States, most of them involving limiting the right to vote to the state governors and electors.Gerry was unhappy about the lack of enumeration of any specific individual liberties in the proposed constitution and generally opposed proposals that strengthened the central government.", "He was one of only three delegates who voted against the proposed constitution in the convention (the others were George Mason and Edmund Randolph), citing a concern about the convention's lack of authority to enact such major changes to the nation's system of government and to the constitution's lack of \"federal features.\"", "Ultimately, Gerry refused to sign because of concerns over the rights of private citizens and the power of the legislature to raise armies and revenue.===State ratification and Bill of Rights===During the ratification debates that took place in the states following the convention, Gerry continued his opposition, publishing a widely circulated letter documenting his objections to the proposed constitution.", "In the document, he cites the lack of a Bill of Rights as his primary objection but also expresses qualified approval of the Constitution, indicating that he would accept it with some amendment.", "Strong pro-Constitution forces attacked him in the press, comparing him unfavorably to the Shaysites.", "Henry Jackson was particularly vicious: \"Gerry has done more injury to this country by that infamous Letter than he will be able to make atonement in his whole life\", and Oliver Ellsworth, a convention delegate from Connecticut, charged him with deliberately courting the Shays faction.One consequence of the furor over his letter was that he was not selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts ratifying convention although he was later invited to attend by the convention's leadership.", "The convention leadership was dominated by Federalists, and Gerry was not given any formal opportunity to speak.", "He left the convention after a shouting match with convention chair Francis Dana.", "Massachusetts ratified the constitution by a vote of 187 to 168.The debate had the result of estranging Gerry from several previously-friendly politicians, including chairman Dana and Rufus King.===U.S.", "House of Representatives===Gerry supported the federalist economic policies of Alexander HamiltonAnti-Federalist forces nominated Gerry for governor in 1788, but he was predictably defeated by the popular incumbent John Hancock.", "Following its ratification, Gerry recanted his opposition to the Constitution, noting that other state ratifying conventions had called for amendments that he supported.", "He was nominated by friends (over his own opposition to the idea) for a seat in the inaugural House of Representatives, where he served two terms.In June 1789, Gerry proposed that Congress consider all of the proposed constitutional amendments that various state ratifying conventions had called for (notably those of Rhode Island and North Carolina, which had at the time still not ratified the Constitution).", "In the debate that followed, he led opposition to some of the proposals, arguing that they did not go far enough in ensuring individual liberties.", "He successfully lobbied for inclusion of freedom of assembly in the First Amendment and was a leading architect of the Fourth Amendment protections against search and seizure.", "He sought unsuccessfully to insert the word \"expressly\" into the Tenth Amendment, which might have more significantly limited the federal government's power.He was successful in efforts to severely limit the federal government's ability to control state militias.", "In tandem with this protection, he had once argued against the idea of the federal government controlling a large standing army, saying, \"A standing army is like a standing member.", "It's an excellent assurance of domestic tranquility, but a dangerous temptation to foreign adventure.", "\"Gerry vigorously supported Alexander Hamilton's reports on public credit, including the assumption at full value of state debts, and supported Hamilton's Bank of the United States, positions consistent with earlier calls he had made for economic centralization.", "Although he had speculated in depreciated Continental bills of credit (the IOUs at issue), there is no evidence he participated in large-scale speculation that attended the debate when it took place in 1790, and he became a major investor in the new bank.", "He used the floor of the House to speak out against aristocratic and monarchical tendencies he saw as threats to republican ideals, and generally opposed laws and their provisions that he perceived as limiting individual and state liberties.", "He opposed any attempt to give officers of the executive significant powers, specifically opposing establishment of the Treasury Department because its head might gain more power than the president.", "He opposed measures that strengthened the presidency, such as the ability to fire Cabinet officers, seeking instead to give the legislature more power over appointments.Gerry did not stand for re-election in 1792, returning home to raise his children and care for his sickly wife.", "He agreed to serve as a presidential elector for John Adams in the 1796 election.", "During Adams' term in office, Gerry maintained good relations with both Adams and Vice President Thomas Jefferson, hoping that the divided executive might lead to less friction.", "His hopes were not realized: the split between Federalists (Adams) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) widened." ], [ "XYZ Affair", "Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, depicted in this portrait by François Gérard, insisted Gerry remain in Paris even after negotiations failed.President Adams appointed Gerry to be a member of a special diplomatic commission sent to Republican France in 1797.Tensions had risen between the two nations after the 1796 ratification of the Jay Treaty, made between the United States and Great Britain.", "It was seen by French leaders as signs of an Anglo-American alliance, and France had consequently stepped up seizures of American ships.", "Adams chose Gerry, over his cabinet's opposition (on political grounds that Gerry was insufficiently Federalist), because of their long-standing relationship; Adams described Gerry as one of the \"two most impartial men in America\" (Adams himself being the other).Gerry joined co-commissioners Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and John Marshall in France in October 1797 and met briefly with Foreign Minister Talleyrand.", "Some days after that meeting, the delegation was approached by three French agents (at first identified as \"X\", \"Y\", and \"Z\" in published papers, leading the controversy to be called the \"XYZ Affair\") who demanded substantial bribes from the commissioners before negotiations could continue.", "The commissioners refused and sought unsuccessfully to engage Talleyrand in formal negotiations.", "Believing Gerry to be the most approachable of the commissioners, Talleyrand successively froze first Pinckney and then Marshall out of the informal negotiations, and they left France in April 1798.Gerry, who sought to leave with them, stayed behind because Talleyrand threatened war if he left.", "Gerry refused to make any significant negotiations afterward and left Paris in August.By then, dispatches describing the commission's reception had been published in the United States, raising calls for war.", "The undeclared naval Quasi-War (1798–1800) followed.", "Federalists, notably Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, accused Gerry of supporting the French and abetting the breakdown of the talks, while Adams and Republicans such as Thomas Jefferson supported him.", "The negative press damaged Gerry's reputation, and he was burned in effigy by protestors in front of his home.", "He was only later vindicated, when his correspondence with Talleyrand was published in 1799.In response to the Federalist attacks on him, and because of his perception that the Federalist-led military buildup threatened republican values, Gerry formally joined the Democratic-Republican Party in early 1800, standing for election as Governor of Massachusetts." ], [ "Governor of Massachusetts", "gerrymander\", originally written as \"Gerry-mander\", was used for the first time in the ''Boston Gazette'' on March 26, 1812.Appearing with the term, and helping spread and sustain its popularity, was this political cartoon, which depicts a state senate district in Essex County, Massachusetts as a strange animal with claws, wings, and a dragon-type head, satirizing the district's odd shape.For years (in the 1800, 1801, 1802, and 1803 elections) Gerry unsuccessfully sought the governorship of Massachusetts.", "His opponent in these races, Caleb Strong, was a popular moderate Federalist, whose party dominated the state's politics despite a national shift toward the Republicans.", "In 1803, Republicans in the state were divided, and Gerry only had regional support of the party.", "He decided not to run in the 1804 election, returning to semi-retirement and to deal with a personal financial crisis.", "His brother Samuel Russell had mismanaged his own business affairs, and Gerry had propped him up by guaranteeing a loan that was due.", "The matter ultimately ruined Gerry's finances for his remaining years.Republican James Sullivan won the governor's seat from Strong in the 1807 election, but his successor was unable to hold the seat in the 1809 election, which went to Federalist Christopher Gore.", "Gerry stood for election again in the 1810 election against Gore and won a narrow victory.", "Republicans cast Gore as an ostentatious British-loving Tory who wanted to restore the monarchy (his parents were Loyalists during the Revolution), and Gerry as a patriotic American, while Federalists described Gerry as a \"French partizan\" and Gore as an honest man devoted to ridding the government of foreign influence.", "A temporary lessening in the threat of war with Britain aided Gerry.", "The two battled again in 1811, with Gerry once again victorious in a highly acrimonious campaign.Gerry's first year as governor was less controversial than his second, because the Federalists controlled the state senate.", "He preached moderation in the political discourse, noting that it was important that the nation present a unified front in its dealings with foreign powers.", "In his second term, with full Republican control of the legislature, he became notably more partisan, purging much of the state government of Federalist appointees.", "The legislature also enacted \"reforms\" of the court system that resulted in an increase in the number of judicial appointments, which Gerry filled with Republican partisans.", "However, infighting within the party and a shortage of qualified candidates played against Gerry, and the Federalists scored points by complaining vocally about the partisan nature of the reforms.Other legislation passed during Gerry's second year included a bill broadening the membership of Harvard's Board of Overseers to diversify its religious membership, and another that liberalized religious taxes.", "The Harvard bill had significant political slant because the recent split between orthodox Congregationalists and Unitarians also divided the state to some extent along party lines, and Federalist Unitarians had recently gained control over the Harvard board.In 1812, the state adopted new constitutionally mandated electoral district boundaries.", "The Republican-controlled legislature had created district boundaries designed to enhance their party's control over state and national offices, leading to some oddly shaped legislative districts.", "Although Gerry was unhappy about the highly partisan districting (according to his son-in-law, he thought it \"highly disagreeable\"), he signed the legislation.", "The shape of one of the state senate districts in Essex County was compared to a salamander by a local Federalist newspaper in a political cartoon, calling it a \"Gerry-mander\".", "Ever since, the creation of such districts has been called gerrymandering.Gerry also engaged in partisan investigations of potential libel against him by elements of the Federalist press, further damaging his popularity with moderates.", "The redistricting controversy, along with the libel investigation and the impending War of 1812, contributed to Gerry's defeat in 1812 (once again at the hands of Caleb Strong, whom the Federalists had brought out of retirement).", "The gerrymandering of the state Senate was a notable success in the 1812 election: the body was thoroughly dominated by Republicans, even though the house and the governor's seat went to Federalists by substantial margins." ], [ "Vice presidency and death", "Gerry's financial difficulties prompted him to ask President James Madison for a federal position after his loss in the 1812 election (which was held early in the year).", "He was chosen by the party Congressional nominating caucus to be Madison's vice presidential running mate in the 1812 presidential election, although the nomination was first offered to John Langdon.", "He was viewed as a relatively safe choice who would attract Northern votes but not pose a threat to James Monroe, who was thought likely to succeed Madison.", "Madison narrowly won re-election, and Gerry took the oath of office at Elmwood in March 1813.At that time the office of vice president was largely a sinecure; Gerry's duties included advancing the administration's agenda in Congress and dispensing patronage positions in New England.", "Gerry's actions in support of the War of 1812 had a partisan edge: he expressed concerns over a possible Federalist seizure of Fort Adams (as Boston's Fort Independence was then known) as a prelude to Anglo-Federalist cooperation and sought the arrest of printers of Federalist newspapers.Gerry's grave in Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C.On November 23, 1814, Gerry suffered a heart attack while visiting Joseph Nourse of the Treasury Department, and he died soon after returning to his home in the Seven Buildings.", "He was 70 years old.", "He is buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C., with a memorial by John Frazee.", "He is the only signer of the Declaration of Independence who was buried in the nation's capital city.", "The estate he left his wife and children was rich in land and poor in cash, but he had managed to repay his brother's debts with his pay as vice president.", "Aged 68 at the start of his vice presidency, he was the oldest person to become vice president until Charles Curtis in 1929." ], [ "Legacy", "The Elbridge Gerry House in Marblehead, MassachusettsGerry is generally remembered for the use of his name in the word ''gerrymander'', for his refusal to sign the United States Constitution, and for his role in the XYZ Affair.", "His path through the politics of the age has been difficult to characterize.", "Early biographers, including his son-in-law James T. Austin and Samuel Eliot Morison, struggled to explain his apparent changes in position.", "Biographer George Athan Billias posits that Gerry was a consistent advocate and practitioner of republicanism as it was originally envisioned, and that his role in the Constitutional Convention had a significant impact on the document it eventually produced.Gerry had ten children, nine of whom survived into adulthood:# Catharine Gerry (1787–1850)# Eliza Gerry (1791–1882)# Ann Gerry (1791–1883)# Elbridge Gerry, Jr. (1793–1867)# Thomas Russell Gerry (1794–1848), who married Hannah Green Goelet (1804–1845)# Helen Maria Gerry (1796–1864)# James Thompson Gerry (1797–1854), who left West Point upon his father's death and was Commander of the war-sloop USS ''Albany''; the sloop disappeared with all hands September 28 or 29, 1854 near the West Indies.# Eleanor Stanford Gerry (1800–1871)# Emily Louisa Gerry (1802–1894)Gerry's grandson Elbridge Thomas Gerry became a distinguished lawyer and philanthropist in New York.", "His great-grandson, Peter G. Gerry, was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives and later a U.S.", "Senator from Rhode Island.", "''General George Washington Resigning His Commission'', a portrait by John Trumbull depicting Gerry standing on the leftGerry is depicted in two of John Trumbull's paintings, the ''Declaration of Independence'' and ''General George Washington Resigning His Commission''.", "Both are on view in the rotunda of the United States Capitol.The upstate New York town of Elbridge is believed to have been named in his honor, as is the western New York town of Gerry.", "The town of Phillipston, Massachusetts was originally incorporated in 1786 under the name Gerry in his honor but was changed to its present name after the town submitted a petition in 1812, citing Democratic-Republican support for the War of 1812.Gerry's Landing Road in Cambridge, Massachusetts, is located near the Eliot Bridge not far from Elmwood.", "During the 19th century, the area was known as Gerry's Landing (formerly known as Sir Richard's Landing) and was used by a Gerry relative for a short time as a landing and storehouse.", "The supposed house of his birth, the Elbridge Gerry House (it is uncertain whether he was born in the house currently standing on the site or an earlier structure) stands in Marblehead, and Marblehead's Elbridge Gerry School is named in his honor." ], [ "See also", "* Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Volume 2 Austin was Gerry's son-in-law.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * (five volume history of Massachusetts until the early 20th century)* * * * * * * Shows that Gerry ignored Jefferson's 1799 letter inviting him to switch parties.", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Billias, George.", "''Elbridge Gerry: Founding Father and Republican Statesman''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976." ], [ "External links", "* * Biography by Rev.", "Charles A. Goodrich, 1856* A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825* Delegates to the Constitutional Convention: Massachusetts (Brief Biography of Gerry)* Gerry family archive at Hartwick College* Elbridge Gerry, the Unfairly Maligned Revolutionary at New England Historical Society" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Encryption" ], [ "Introduction", "A simple illustration of public-key cryptography, one of the most widely used forms of encryptionIn cryptography, '''encryption''' is the process of encoding information.", "This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext.", "Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information.", "Encryption does not itself prevent interference but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor.For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an algorithm.", "It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required.", "An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.Historically, various forms of encryption have been used to aid in cryptography.", "Early encryption techniques were often used in military messaging.", "Since then, new techniques have emerged and become commonplace in all areas of modern computing.", "Modern encryption schemes use the concepts of public-key and symmetric-key.", "Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption." ], [ "History", "=== Ancient ===One of the earliest forms of encryption is symbol replacement, which was first found in the tomb of Khnumhotep II, who lived in 1900 BC Egypt.", "Symbol replacement encryption is “non-standard,” which means that the symbols require a cipher or key to understand.", "This type of early encryption was used throughout Ancient Greece and Rome for military purposes.", "One of the most famous military encryption developments was the Caesar Cipher, which was a system in which a letter in normal text is shifted down a fixed number of positions down the alphabet to get the encoded letter.", "A message encoded with this type of encryption could be decoded with the fixed number on the Caesar Cipher.", "''''''Around 800 AD, Arab mathematician Al-Kindi developed the technique of frequency analysis – which was an attempt to systematically crack Caesar ciphers.", "This technique looked at the frequency of letters in the encrypted message to determine the appropriate shift.", "This technique was rendered ineffective after the creation of the polyalphabetic cipher by Leon Battista Alberti in 1465, which incorporated different sets of languages.", "In order for frequency analysis to be useful, the person trying to decrypt the message would need to know which language the sender chose.=== 19th–20th century ===Around 1790, Thomas Jefferson theorized a cipher to encode and decode messages in order to provide a more secure way of military correspondence.", "The cipher, known today as the Wheel Cipher or the Jefferson Disk, although never actually built, was theorized as a spool that could jumble an English message up to 36 characters.", "The message could be decrypted by plugging in the jumbled message to a receiver with an identical cipher.", "''''''A similar device to the Jefferson Disk, the M-94, was developed in 1917 independently by US Army Major Joseph Mauborne.", "This device was used in U.S. military communications until 1942.In World War II, the Axis powers used a more advanced version of the M-94 called the Enigma Machine.", "The Enigma Machine was more complex because unlike the Jefferson Wheel and the M-94, each day the jumble of letters switched to a completely new combination.", "Each day's combination was only known by the Axis, so many thought the only way to break the code would be to try over 17,000 combinations within 24 hours.", "The Allies used computing power to severely limit the number of reasonable combinations they needed to check every day, leading to the breaking of the Enigma Machine.=== Modern ===Today, encryption is used in the transfer of communication over the Internet for security and commerce.", "As computing power continues to increase, computer encryption is constantly evolving to prevent eavesdropping attacks.", "With one of the first \"modern\" cipher suites, DES, utilizing a 56-bit key with 72,057,594,037,927,936 possibilities being able to be cracked in 22 hours and 15 minutes by EFF's DES cracker in 1999, which used a brute-force method of cracking.", "Modern encryption standards often use stronger key sizes often 256, like AES(256-bit mode), TwoFish, ChaCha20-Poly1305, Serpent(configurable up to 512-bit).", "Cipher suites utilizing a 128-bit or higher key, like AES, will not be able to be brute-forced due to the total amount of keys of 3.4028237e+38 possibilities.", "The most likely option for cracking ciphers with high key size is to find vulnerabilities in the cipher itself, like inherent biases and backdoors.", "For example, RC4, a stream cipher, was cracked due to inherent biases and vulnerabilities in the cipher." ], [ "Encryption in cryptography", "In the context of cryptography, encryption serves as a mechanism to ensure confidentiality.", "Since data may be visible on the Internet, sensitive information such as passwords and personal communication may be exposed to potential interceptors.", "The process of encrypting and decrypting messages involves keys.", "The two main types of keys in cryptographic systems are symmetric-key and public-key (also known as asymmetric-key).Many complex cryptographic algorithms often use simple modular arithmetic in their implementations.===Types===In symmetric-key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same.", "Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication.", "The German Enigma Machine utilized a new symmetric-key each day for encoding and decoding messages.In public-key encryption schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages.", "However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read.", "Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973; beforehand, all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key).", "Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described.", "The method became known as the Diffie-Hellman key exchange.RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is another notable public-key cryptosystem.", "Created in 1978, it is still used today for applications involving digital signatures.", "Using number theory, the RSA algorithm selects two prime numbers, which help generate both the encryption and decryption keys.A publicly available public-key encryption application called Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) was written in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann, and distributed free of charge with source code.", "PGP was purchased by Symantec in 2010 and is regularly updated." ], [ "Uses", "Encryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication.", "It is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems.", "For example, the Computer Security Institute reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage.", "Encryption can be used to protect data \"at rest\", such as information stored on computers and storage devices (e.g.", "USB flash drives).", "In recent years, there have been numerous reports of confidential data, such as customers' personal records, being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives; encrypting such files at rest helps protect them if physical security measures fail.", "Digital rights management systems, which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against reverse engineering (see also copy protection), is another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via networks (e.g.", "the Internet, e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphones, wireless intercom systems, Bluetooth devices and bank automatic teller machines.", "There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years.", "Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against eavesdropping of network traffic by unauthorized users.=== Data erasure ===Conventional methods for permanently deleting data from a storage device involve overwriting the device's whole content with zeros, ones, or other patterns – a process which can take a significant amount of time, depending on the capacity and the type of storage medium.", "Cryptography offers a way of making the erasure almost instantaneous.", "This method is called crypto-shredding.", "An example implementation of this method can be found on iOS devices, where the cryptographic key is kept in a dedicated 'effaceable storage'.", "Because the key is stored on the same device, this setup on its own does not offer full privacy or security protection if an unauthorized person gains physical access to the device." ], [ "Limitations", "Encryption is used in the 21st century to protect digital data and information systems.", "As computing power increased over the years, encryption technology has only become more advanced and secure.", "However, this advancement in technology has also exposed a potential limitation of today's encryption methods.The length of the encryption key is an indicator of the strength of the encryption method.", "For example, the original encryption key, DES (Data Encryption Standard), was 56 bits, meaning it had 2^56 combination possibilities.", "With today's computing power, a 56-bit key is no longer secure, being vulnerable to brute force attacks.Quantum computing utilizes properties of quantum mechanics in order to process large amounts of data simultaneously.", "Quantum computing has been found to achieve computing speeds thousands of times faster than today's supercomputers.", "This computing power presents a challenge to today's encryption technology.", "For example, RSA encryption utilizes the multiplication of very large prime numbers to create a semiprime number for its public key.", "Decoding this key without its private key requires this semiprime number to be factored, which can take a very long time to do with modern computers.", "It would take a supercomputer anywhere between weeks to months to factor in this key.", "However, quantum computing can use quantum algorithms to factor this semiprime number in the same amount of time it takes for normal computers to generate it.", "This would make all data protected by current public-key encryption vulnerable to quantum computing attacks.", "Other encryption techniques like elliptic curve cryptography and symmetric key encryption are also vulnerable to quantum computing.While quantum computing could be a threat to encryption security in the future, quantum computing as it currently stands is still very limited.", "Quantum computing currently is not commercially available, cannot handle large amounts of code, and only exists as computational devices, not computers.", "Furthermore, quantum computing advancements will be able to be utilized in favor of encryption as well.", "The National Security Agency (NSA) is currently preparing post-quantum encryption standards for the future.", "Quantum encryption promises a level of security that will be able to counter the threat of quantum computing." ], [ "Attacks and countermeasures", "Encryption is an important tool but is not sufficient alone to ensure the security or privacy of sensitive information throughout its lifetime.", "Most applications of encryption protect information only at rest or in transit, leaving sensitive data in clear text and potentially vulnerable to improper disclosure during processing, such as by a cloud service for example.", "Homomorphic encryption and secure multi-party computation are emerging techniques to compute on encrypted data; these techniques are general and Turing complete but incur high computational and/or communication costs.In response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks.", "These more recent threats to encryption of data at rest include cryptographic attacks, stolen ciphertext attacks, attacks on encryption keys, insider attacks, data corruption or integrity attacks, data destruction attacks, and ransomware attacks.", "Data fragmentation and active defense data protection technologies attempt to counter some of these attacks, by distributing, moving, or mutating ciphertext so it is more difficult to identify, steal, corrupt, or destroy." ], [ "The debate around encryption", "The question of balancing the need for national security with the right to privacy has been debated for years, since encryption has become critical in today's digital society.", "The modern encryption debate started around the '90 when US government tried to ban cryptography because, according to them, it would threaten national security.", "The debate is polarized around two opposing views.", "Those who see strong encryption as a problem making it easier for criminals to hide their illegal acts online and others who argue that encryption keep digital communications safe.", "The debate heated up in 2014, when Big Tech like Apple and Google set encryption by default in their devices.", "This was the start of a series of controversies that puts governments, companies and internet users at stake.=== Integrity protection of Ciphertexts ===Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code (MAC) or a digital signature usually done by a hashing algorithm or a PGP signature.", "Authenticated encryption algorithms are designed to provide both encryption and integrity protection together.", "Standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem.", "A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks.", "Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption.", "See for example traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse.Integrity protection mechanisms such as MACs and digital signatures must be applied to the ciphertext when it is first created, typically on the same device used to compose the message, to protect a message end-to-end along its full transmission path; otherwise, any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it.", "Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has correct keys and has not been tampered with.", "If an endpoint device has been configured to trust a root certificate that an attacker controls, for example, then the attacker can both inspect and tamper with encrypted data by performing a man-in-the-middle attack anywhere along the message's path.", "The common practice of TLS interception by network operators represents a controlled and institutionally sanctioned form of such an attack, but countries have also attempted to employ such attacks as a form of control and censorship.=== Ciphertext length and padding ===Even when encryption correctly hides a message's content and it cannot be tampered with at rest or in transit, a message's ''length'' is a form of metadata that can still leak sensitive information about the message.", "For example, the well-known CRIME and BREACH attacks against HTTPS were side-channel attacks that relied on information leakage via the length of encrypted content.", "Traffic analysis is a broad class of techniques that often employs message lengths to infer sensitive implementation about traffic flows by aggregating information about a large number of messages.Padding a message's payload before encrypting it can help obscure the cleartext's true length, at the cost of increasing the ciphertext's size and introducing or increasing bandwidth overhead.", "Messages may be padded randomly or deterministically, with each approach having different tradeoffs.", "Encrypting and padding messages to form padded uniform random blobs or PURBs is a practice guaranteeing that the cipher text leaks no metadata about its cleartext's content, and leaks asymptotically minimal information via its length." ], [ "See also", "* Cryptosystem* Cold boot attack* Cyberspace Electronic Security Act (US)* Dictionary attack* Disk encryption* Encrypted function* Export of cryptography* Geo-blocking* Indistinguishability obfuscation* Key management* Multiple encryption* Physical Layer Encryption* Rainbow table* Rotor machine* Substitution cipher* Television encryption* Tokenization (data security)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Kahn, David (1967), ''The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing'' ()* Preneel, Bart (2000), \"Advances in Cryptology – EUROCRYPT 2000\", Springer Berlin Heidelberg, * Sinkov, Abraham (1966): ''Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach'', Mathematical Association of America.", "* Tenzer, Theo (2021): ''SUPER SECRETO – The Third Epoch of Cryptography: Multiple, exponential, quantum-secure and above all, simple and practical Encryption for Everyone'', Norderstedt, .", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox" ], [ "Introduction", "Albert EinsteinThe '''Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen''' ('''EPR''') '''paradox''' is a thought experiment proposed by physicists Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen which argues that the description of physical reality provided by quantum mechanics is incomplete.", "In a 1935 paper titled \"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?", "\", they argued for the existence of \"elements of reality\" that were not part of quantum theory, and speculated that it should be possible to construct a theory containing these hidden variables.", "Resolutions of the paradox have important implications for the interpretation of quantum mechanics.The thought experiment involves a pair of particles prepared in what would later become known as an entangled state.", "Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted.", "If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted.", "They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity.", "They invoked a principle, later known as the \"EPR criterion of reality\", positing that: \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\"", "From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured.", "But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system.", "Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality." ], [ "The \"Paradox\" paper", "The term \"Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox\" or \"EPR\" arose from a paper written in 1934 after Einstein joined the Institute for Advanced Study, having fled the rise of Nazi Germany.The original paper purports to describe what must happen to \"two systems I and II, which we permit to interact\", and after some time \"we suppose that there is no longer any interaction between the two parts.\"", "The EPR description involves \"two particles, A and B, which interact briefly and then move off in opposite directions.\"", "According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is impossible to measure both the momentum and the position of particle B exactly; however, it is possible to measure the exact position of particle A.", "By calculation, therefore, with the exact position of particle A known, the exact position of particle B can be known.", "Alternatively, the exact momentum of particle A can be measured, so the exact momentum of particle B can be worked out.", "As Manjit Kumar writes, \"EPR argued that they had proved that ... particle B can have simultaneously exact values of position and momentum.", "...", "Particle B has a position that is real and a momentum that is real.", "EPR appeared to have contrived a means to establish the exact values of ''either'' the momentum ''or'' the position of B due to measurements made on particle A, without the slightest possibility of particle B being physically disturbed.", "\"EPR tried to set up a paradox to question the range of true application of quantum mechanics: Quantum theory predicts that both values cannot be known for a particle, and yet the EPR thought experiment purports to show that they must all have determinate values.", "The EPR paper says: \"We are thus forced to conclude that the quantum-mechanical description of physical reality given by wave functions is not complete.\"", "The EPR paper ends by saying: \"While we have thus shown that the wave function does not provide a complete description of the physical reality, we left open the question of whether or not such a description exists.", "We believe, however, that such a theory is possible.\"", "The 1935 EPR paper condensed the philosophical discussion into a physical argument.", "The authors claim that given a specific experiment, in which the outcome of a measurement is known before the measurement takes place, there must exist something in the real world, an \"element of reality\", that determines the measurement outcome.", "They postulate that these elements of reality are, in modern terminology, local, in the sense that each belongs to a certain point in spacetime.", "Each element may, again in modern terminology, only be influenced by events which are located in the backward light cone of its point in spacetime (i.e.", "in the past).", "These claims are founded on assumptions about nature that constitute what is now known as '''local realism'''.Article headline regarding the EPR paradox paper in the May 4, 1935, issue of ''The New York Times''.Though the EPR paper has often been taken as an exact expression of Einstein's views, it was primarily authored by Podolsky, based on discussions at the Institute for Advanced Study with Einstein and Rosen.", "Einstein later expressed to Erwin Schrödinger that, \"it did not come out as well as I had originally wanted; rather, the essential thing was, so to speak, smothered by the formalism.\"", "Einstein would later go on to present an individual account of his local realist ideas.", "Shortly before the EPR paper appeared in the ''Physical Review,'' ''The New York Times'' ran a news story about it, under the headline \"Einstein Attacks Quantum Theory\".", "The story, which quoted Podolsky, irritated Einstein, who wrote to the ''Times,'' \"Any information upon which the article 'Einstein Attacks Quantum Theory' in your issue of May 4 is based was given to you without authority.", "It is my invariable practice to discuss scientific matters only in the appropriate forum and I deprecate advance publication of any announcement in regard to such matters in the secular press.", "\"The ''Times'' story also sought out comment from physicist Edward Condon, who said, \"Of course, a great deal of the argument hinges on just what meaning is to be attached to the word 'reality' in physics.\"", "The physicist and historian Max Jammer later noted, \"It remains a historical fact that the earliest criticism of the EPR paper — moreover, a criticism which correctly saw in Einstein's conception of physical reality the key problem of the whole issue — appeared in a daily newspaper prior to the publication of the criticized paper itself.", "\"=== Bohr's reply ===The publication of the paper prompted a response by Niels Bohr, which he published in the same journal (''Physical Review''), in the same year, using the same title.", "(This exchange was only one chapter in a prolonged debate between Bohr and Einstein about the nature of quantum reality.", ")He argued that EPR had reasoned fallaciously.", "Bohr said measurements of position and of momentum are complementary, making the choice to measure one excludes the possibility of measuring the other.", "Consequently, a fact deduced regarding one arrangement of laboratory apparatus could not be combined with a fact deduced by means of the other, and so, the inference of predetermined position and momentum values for the second particle was not valid.", "Bohr concluded that EPR's \"arguments do not justify their conclusion that the quantum description turns out to be essentially incomplete.", "\"=== Einstein's own argument ===In his own publications and correspondence, Einstein indicated that he was not satisfied with the EPR paper and that Rosen had authored most of it.", "He later used a different argument to insist that quantum mechanics is an incomplete theory.", "He explicitly de-emphasized EPR's attribution of \"elements of reality\" to the position and momentum of particle B, saying that \"I couldn't care less\" whether the resulting states of particle B allowed one to predict the position and momentum with certainty.For Einstein, the crucial part of the argument was the demonstration of nonlocality, that the choice of measurement done in particle A, either position or momentum, would lead to two different quantum states of particle B.", "He argued that, because of locality, the real state of particle B could not depend on which kind of measurement was done in A and that the quantum states therefore cannot be in one-to-one correspondence with the real states.", "Einstein struggled unsuccessfully for the rest of his life to find a theory that could better comply with his idea of locality." ], [ "Later developments", "=== Bohm's variant ===In 1951, David Bohm proposed a variant of the EPR thought experiment in which the measurements have discrete ranges of possible outcomes, unlike the position and momentum measurements considered by EPR.", "The EPR–Bohm thought experiment can be explained using electron–positron pairs.", "Suppose we have a source that emits electron–positron pairs, with the electron sent to destination ''A'', where there is an observer named Alice, and the positron sent to destination ''B'', where there is an observer named Bob.", "According to quantum mechanics, we can arrange our source so that each emitted pair occupies a quantum state called a spin singlet.", "The particles are thus said to be entangled.", "This can be viewed as a quantum superposition of two states, which we call state I and state II.", "In state I, the electron has spin pointing upward along the ''z''-axis (''+z'') and the positron has spin pointing downward along the ''z''-axis (−''z'').", "In state II, the electron has spin −''z'' and the positron has spin +''z''.", "Because it is in a superposition of states, it is impossible without measuring to know the definite state of spin of either particle in the spin singlet.The EPR thought experiment, performed with electron–positron pairs.", "A source (center) sends particles toward two observers, electrons to Alice (left) and positrons to Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements.Alice now measures the spin along the ''z''-axis.", "She can obtain one of two possible outcomes: +''z'' or −''z''.", "Suppose she gets +''z''.", "Informally speaking, the quantum state of the system collapses into state I.", "The quantum state determines the probable outcomes of any measurement performed on the system.", "In this case, if Bob subsequently measures spin along the ''z''-axis, there is 100% probability that he will obtain −''z''.", "Similarly, if Alice gets −''z'', Bob will get +''z''.", "There is nothing special about choosing the ''z''-axis: according to quantum mechanics the spin singlet state may equally well be expressed as a superposition of spin states pointing in the ''x'' direction.Whatever axis their spins are measured along, they are always found to be opposite.", "In quantum mechanics, the ''x''-spin and ''z''-spin are \"incompatible observables\", meaning the Heisenberg uncertainty principle applies to alternating measurements of them: a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both of these variables.", "Suppose Alice measures the ''z''-spin and obtains ''+z'', so that the quantum state collapses into state I.", "Now, instead of measuring the ''z''-spin as well, Bob measures the ''x''-spin.", "According to quantum mechanics, when the system is in state I, Bob's ''x''-spin measurement will have a 50% probability of producing +''x'' and a 50% probability of -''x''.", "It is impossible to predict which outcome will appear until Bob actually ''performs'' the measurement.", "Therefore, Bob's positron will have a definite spin when measured along the same axis as Alice's electron, but when measured in the perpendicular axis its spin will be uniformly random.", "It seems as if information has propagated (faster than light) from Alice's apparatus to make Bob's positron assume a definite spin in the appropriate axis.=== Bell's theorem ===In 1964, John Stewart Bell published a paper investigating the puzzling situation at that time: on one hand, the EPR paradox purportedly showed that quantum mechanics was nonlocal, and suggested that a hidden-variable theory could heal this nonlocality.", "On the other hand, David Bohm had recently developed the first successful hidden-variable theory, but it had a grossly nonlocal character.", "Bell set out to investigate whether it was indeed possible to solve the nonlocality problem with hidden variables, and found out that first, the correlations shown in both EPR's and Bohm's versions of the paradox could indeed be explained in a local way with hidden variables, and second, that the correlations shown in his own variant of the paradox couldn't be explained by ''any'' local hidden-variable theory.", "This second result became known as the Bell theorem.To understand the first result, consider the following toy hidden-variable theory introduced later by J.J. Sakurai: in it, quantum spin-singlet states emitted by the source are actually approximate descriptions for \"true\" physical states possessing definite values for the ''z''-spin and ''x''-spin.", "In these \"true\" states, the positron going to Bob always has spin values opposite to the electron going to Alice, but the values are otherwise completely random.", "For example, the first pair emitted by the source might be \"(+''z'', −''x'') to Alice and (−''z'', +''x'') to Bob\", the next pair \"(−''z'', −''x'') to Alice and (+''z'', +''x'') to Bob\", and so forth.", "Therefore, if Bob's measurement axis is aligned with Alice's, he will necessarily get the opposite of whatever Alice gets; otherwise, he will get \"+\" and \"−\" with equal probability.Bell showed, however, that such models can only reproduce the singlet correlations when Alice and Bob make measurements on the same axis or on perpendicular axes.", "As soon as other angles between their axes are allowed, local hidden-variable theories become unable to reproduce the quantum mechanical correlations.", "This difference, expressed using inequalities known as \"Bell's inequalities\", is in principle experimentally testable.", "After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments to test Bell's inequalities were carried out, notably by the group of Alain Aspect in the 1980s; all experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of quantum mechanics.", "The present view of the situation is that quantum mechanics flatly contradicts Einstein's philosophical postulate that any acceptable physical theory must fulfill \"local realism\".", "The fact that quantum mechanics violates Bell inequalities indicates that any hidden-variable theory underlying quantum mechanics must be non-local; whether this should be taken to imply that quantum mechanics ''itself'' is non-local is a matter of debate." ], [ "Steering", "Inspired by Schrödinger's treatment of the EPR paradox back in 1935, Howard M. Wiseman et al.", "formalised it in 2007 as the phenomenon of quantum steering.", "They defined steering as the situation where Alice's measurements on a part of an entangled state ''steer'' Bob's part of the state.", "That is, Bob's observations cannot be explained by a ''local hidden state'' model, where Bob would have a fixed quantum state in his side, that is classically correlated but otherwise independent of Alice's." ], [ "Locality", "''Locality'' has several different meanings in physics.", "EPR describe the principle of locality as asserting that physical processes occurring at one place should have no immediate effect on the elements of reality at another location.", "At first sight, this appears to be a reasonable assumption to make, as it seems to be a consequence of special relativity, which states that energy can never be transmitted faster than the speed of light without violating causality; however, it turns out that the usual rules for combining quantum mechanical and classical descriptions violate EPR's principle of locality without violating special relativity or causality.", "Causality is preserved because there is no way for Alice to transmit messages (i.e., information) to Bob by manipulating her measurement axis.", "Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50% probability of obtaining \"+\" and 50% probability of obtaining \"−\", completely at random; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets.", "Furthermore, Bob is able to perform his measurement only ''once'': there is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, the no-cloning theorem, which makes it impossible for him to make an arbitrary number of copies of the electron he receives, perform a spin measurement on each, and look at the statistical distribution of the results.", "Therefore, in the one measurement he is allowed to make, there is a 50% probability of getting \"+\" and 50% of getting \"−\", regardless of whether or not his axis is aligned with Alice's.As a summary, the results of the EPR thought experiment do not contradict the predictions of special relativity.", "Neither the EPR paradox nor any quantum experiment demonstrates that superluminal signaling is possible; however, the principle of locality appeals powerfully to physical intuition, and Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen were unwilling to abandon it.", "Einstein derided the quantum mechanical predictions as \"spooky action at a distance\".", "The conclusion they drew was that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory." ], [ "Mathematical formulation", "Bohm's variant of the EPR paradox can be expressed mathematically using the quantum mechanical formulation of spin.", "The spin degree of freedom for an electron is associated with a two-dimensional complex vector space ''V'', with each quantum state corresponding to a vector in that space.", "The operators corresponding to the spin along the ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' direction, denoted ''Sx'', ''Sy'', and ''Sz'' respectively, can be represented using the Pauli matrices:where is the reduced Planck constant (or the Planck constant divided by 2π).The eigenstates of ''Sz'' are represented asand the eigenstates of ''Sx'' are represented asThe vector space of the electron-positron pair is , the tensor product of the electron's and positron's vector spaces.", "The spin singlet state iswhere the two terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state I and state II above.From the above equations, it can be shown that the spin singlet can also be written aswhere the terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state Ia and state IIa.To illustrate the paradox, we need to show that after Alice's measurement of ''Sz'' (or ''Sx''), Bob's value of ''Sz'' (or ''Sx'') is uniquely determined and Bob's value of ''Sx'' (or ''Sz'') is uniformly random.", "This follows from the principles of measurement in quantum mechanics.", "When ''S''z is measured, the system state collapses into an eigenvector of ''S''z.", "If the measurement result is ''+z'', this means that immediately after measurement the system state collapses toSimilarly, if Alice's measurement result is −''z'', the state collapses toThe left hand side of both equations show that the measurement of ''S''z on Bob's positron is now determined, it will be −''z'' in the first case or +''z'' in the second case.", "The right hand side of the equations show that the measurement of ''S''x on Bob's positron will return, in both cases, +''x'' or -''x'' with probability 1/2 each." ], [ "See also", "* Aspect's experiment* Bohr-Einstein debates: The argument of EPR* CHSH inequality* Coherence* Correlation does not imply causation* ER=EPR* GHZ experiment* Measurement problem* Philosophy of information* Philosophy of physics* Popper's experiment* Superdeterminism* Quantum entanglement* Quantum information* Quantum pseudo-telepathy* Quantum teleportation* Quantum Zeno effect* Synchronicity* Ward's probability amplitude" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Selected papers ===* * * * * A.", "Fine, ''Do Correlations need to be explained?", "'', in ''Philosophical Consequences of Quantum Theory: Reflections on Bell's Theorem'', edited by Cushing & McMullin (University of Notre Dame Press, 1986).", "* * M. Mizuki, ''A classical interpretation of Bell's inequality''.", "Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie '''26''' 683 (2001)* * P. Pluch, \"Theory for Quantum Probability\", PhD Thesis University of Klagenfurt (2006)* * === Books ===* Bell, John S. (1987).", "''Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics''.", "Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* Fine, Arthur (1996).", "''The Shaky Game: Einstein, Realism and the Quantum Theory''.", "2nd ed.", "Univ.", "of Chicago Press.", "* Gribbin, John (1984).", "''In Search of Schrödinger's Cat''.", "Black Swan.", "* Leaderman, Leon; Teresi, Dick (1993).", "''The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?''", "Houghton Mifflin Company, pp.", "21, 187–189.", "* Selleri, Franco (1988).", "''Quantum Mechanics Versus Local Realism: The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen Paradox''.", "New York: Plenum Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory; 1.2 The argument in the text* ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'': \" The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument and the Bell Inequalities\"* ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'': Abner Shimony (2019) \" Bell's Theorem\"* EPR, Bell & Aspect: The Original References* Does Bell's Inequality Principle rule out local theories of quantum mechanics?", "from the Usenet Physics FAQ* Theoretical use of EPR in teleportation* Effective use of EPR in cryptography* EPR experiment with single photons interactive* Spooky Actions At A Distance?", ": Oppenheimer Lecture by Prof. Mermin* Original paper" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Encapsulation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Encapsulation''' may refer to:" ], [ "Chemistry", "* Molecular encapsulation, in chemistry, the confinement of an individual molecule within a larger molecule* Micro-encapsulation, in material science, the coating of microscopic particles with another material" ], [ "Biology", "* Cell encapsulation, technology made to overcome the existing problem of graft rejection in tissue engineering applications" ], [ "Computing and electronics", "* An alternate term for conformal coating or potting, which protects electronic components* Encapsulation (networking), the process of adding control information as it passes through the layered model* Encapsulation (computer programming), the combination of program code and data, and/or restriction (hide) of access to data except through dedicated code" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ethnologue" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Ethnologue: Languages of the World''''' (stylized as '''''Ethnoloɠue''''') is an annual reference publication in print and online that provides statistics and other information on the living languages of the world.", "It is the world's most comprehensive catalogue of languages.", "It was first issued in 1951, and is now published by SIL International, an American evangelical Christian non-profit organization." ], [ "Overview and content", "''Ethnologue'' has been published by SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics), a Christian linguistic service organization with an international office in Dallas, Texas.", "The organization studies numerous minority languages to facilitate language development, and to work with speakers of such language communities in translating portions of the Bible into their languages.", "Despite the Christian orientation of its publisher, ''Ethnologue'' is not ideologically or theologically biased.", "''Ethnologue'' includes alternative names and autonyms, the number of L1 and L2 speakers, language prestige, domains of use, literacy rates, locations, dialects, language classification, linguistic affiliations, typology, language maps, country maps, publication and use in media, availability of the Bible in each language and dialect described, religious affiliations of speakers, a cursory description of revitalization efforts where reported, intelligibility and lexical similarity with other dialects and languages, writing scripts, an estimate of language viability using the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS), and bibliographic resources.", "Coverage varies depending on languages.", "For instance, as of 2008, information on word order was present for 15% of entries while religious affiliations were mentioned for 38% of languages.", "According to Lyle Campbell \"language maps are highly valuable\" and most country maps are of high quality and user-friendly.", "''Ethnologue'' gathers information from SIL's thousands of field linguists, surveys done by linguists and literacy specialists, observations of Bible translators, and crowdsourced contributions.", "SIL's field linguists use an online collaborative research system to review current data, update it, or request its removal.", "SIL has a team of editors by geographical area who prepare reports to Ethnologue's general editor.", "These reports combine opinions from SIL area experts and feedback solicited from non-SIL linguists.", "Editors have to find compromises when opinions differ.", "Most of SIL's linguists have taken three to four semesters of graduate linguistics courses, and half of them have a master's degree.", "They're trained by 300 PhD linguists in SIL.", "The determination of what characteristics define a single language depends upon sociolinguistic evaluation by various scholars; as the preface to ''Ethnologue'' states, \"Not all scholars share the same set of criteria for what constitutes a 'language' and what features define a 'dialect'.\"", "The criteria used by ''Ethnologue'' are mutual intelligibility and the existence or absence of a common literature or ethnolinguistic identity.", "The number of languages identified has been steadily increasing, from 5,445 in the 10th edition (in 1984) to 6,909 in the 16th (in 2009), partly due to governments according designation as languages to mutually intelligible varieties and partly due to SIL establishing new Bible translation teams.", "''Ethnologue'' codes were used as the base to create the new ISO 639-3 international standard.", "Since 2007, ''Ethnologue'' relies only on this standard, administered by SIL International, to determine what is listed as a language.In addition to choosing a primary name for a language, ''Ethnologue'' provides listings of other name(s) for the language and any dialects that are used by its speakers, government, foreigners and neighbors.", "Also included are any names that have been commonly referenced historically, regardless of whether a name is considered official, politically correct or offensive; this allows more complete historic research to be done.", "These lists of names are not necessarily complete." ], [ "History", "''Ethnologue'' was founded in 1951 by Richard S. Pittman and was initially focused on minority languages, to share information on Bible translation needs.", "The first edition included information on 46 languages.", "Hand-drawn maps were introduced in the fourth edition (1953).", "The seventh edition (1969) listed 4,493 languages.", "In 1971, ''Ethnologue'' expanded its coverage to all known languages of the world.", "''Ethnologue'' database was created in 1971 at the University of Oklahoma under a grant from the National Science Foundation.", "In 1974 the database was moved to Cornell University.", "Since 2000, the database has been maintained by SIL International in their Dallas headquarters.", "In 1997 (13th edition), the website became the primary means of access.In 1984, ''Ethnologue'' released a three-letter coding system, called an 'SIL code', to identify each language that it described.", "This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of other existing standards, e.g.", "ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2.The 14th edition, published in 2000, included 7,148 language codes.", "In 2002, ''Ethnologue'' was asked to work with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to integrate its codes into a draft international standard.", "''Ethnologue'' codes have then been adopted by ISO as the international standard, ISO 639-3.The 15th edition of ''Ethnologue'' was the first edition to use this standard.", "This standard is now administered separately from Ethnologue.", "SIL International is the registration authority for languages names and codes, according to rules established by ISO.", "Since then ''Ethnologue'' relies on the standard to determine what is listed as a language.", "In only one case, ''Ethnologue'' and the ISO standards treat languages slightly differently.", "ISO 639-3 considers Akan to be a macrolanguage consisting of two distinct languages, Twi and Fante, whereas ''Ethnologue'' considers Twi and Fante to be dialects of a single language (Akan), since they are mutually intelligible.", "This anomaly resulted because the ISO 639-2 standard has separate codes for Twi and Fante, which have separate literary traditions, and all 639-2 codes for individual languages are automatically part of 639-3, even though 639-3 would not normally assign them separate codes.In 2014, with the 17th edition, ''Ethnologue'' introduced a numerical code for language status using a framework called EGIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale), an elaboration of Fishman's GIDS (Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale).", "It ranks a language from 0 for an international language to 10 for an extinct language, i.e.", "a language with which no-one retains a sense of ethnic identity.In 2015, SIL's funds decreased and in December 2015, ''Ethnologue'' launched a metered paywall to cover its cost, as it is financially self-sustaining.", "Users in high-income countries who wanted to refer to more than seven pages of data per month had to buy a paid subscription.", "The 18th edition released that year included a new section on language policy country by country.In 2016, ''Ethnologue'' added date about language planning agencies to the 19th edition.As of 2017, ''Ethnologue'''s 20th edition described 237 language families including 86 language isolates and six typological categories, namely sign languages, creoles, pidgins, mixed languages, constructed languages, and as yet unclassified languages.The early focus of the Ethnologue was on native use (L1) but was gradually expanded to cover L2 use as well.In 2019, ''Ethnologue'' disabled trial views and introduced a hard paywall to cover its nearly $1 million in annual operating costs (website maintenance, security, researchers, and SIL's 5,000 field linguists).", "Subscriptions start at $480 per person per year, while full access costs $2,400 per person per year.", "Users in low and middle-income countries as defined by the World Bank are eligible for free access and there are discounts for libraries and independent researchers.", "Subscribers are mostly institutions: 40% of the world's top 50 universities subscribe to ''Ethnologue'', and it is also sold to business intelligence firms and Fortune 500 companies.", "The introduction of the paywall was harshly criticized by the community of linguists who rely on ''Ethnologue'' to do their work and cannot afford the subscription The same year, ''Ethnologue'' launched its contributor program to fill gaps and improve accuracy, allowing contributors to submit corrections and additions and to get a complimentary access to the website.", "''Ethnologue'''s editors gradually review crowdsourced contributions before publication.", "As 2019 was the International Year of Indigenous Languages, this edition focused on language loss: it added the date when last fluent speaker of the language died, standardized the age range of language users, and improved the EGIDS estimates.In 2020, the 23rd edition listed 7,117 living languages, an increase of 6 living languages from the 22nd edition.", "In this edition, ''Ethnologue'' expanded its coverage of immigrant languages: previous editions only had full entries for languages considered to be \"established\" within a country.", "From this edition, ''Ethnologue'' includes data about first and second languages of refugees, temporary foreign workers and immigrants.In 2021, the 24th edition had 7,139 modern languages, an increase of 22 living languages from the 23rd edition.", "Editors especially improved data about language shift in this edition.In 2022, the 25th edition listed a total of 7,151 living languages, an increase of 12 living languages from the 24th edition.", "This edition specifically improved the use of languages in education.In 2023, the 26th edition listed a total of 7,168 living languages, an increase of 17 living languages from the 25th edition." ], [ "Reception, reliability, and use", "In 1986, William Bright, then editor of the journal ''Language'', wrote of ''Ethnologue'' that it \"is indispensable for any reference shelf on the languages of the world\".", "The 2003 ''International Encyclopedia of Linguistics'' described ''Ethnologue'' as \"a comprehensive listing of the world's languages, with genetic classification\", and follows Ethnologue's classification.", "In 2005, linguists Lindsay J. Whaley and Lenore Grenoble considered that ''Ethnologue'' \"continues to provide the most comprehensive and reliable count of numbers of speakers of the world's languages\", still they recognize that \"individual language surveys may have far more accurate counts for a specific language, but ''The Ethnologue'' is unique in bringing together speaker statistics on a global scale\".", "In 2006, computational linguists John C. Paolillo and Anupam Das conducted a systematic evaluation of available information on language populations for the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.", "They reported that ''Ethnologue'' and Linguasphere were the only comprehensive sources of information about language populations and that ''Ethnologue'' had more specific information.", "They concluded that: \"the language statistics available today in the form of the ''Ethnologue'' population counts are already good enough to be useful\" According to linguist William Poser, ''Ethnologue'' was, as of 2006, the \"best single source of information\" on language classification.", "In 2008 linguists Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona highly commended ''Ethnologue'' in ''Language''.", "They described it as a highly valuable catalogue of the world's languages that \"has become the standard reference\" and whose \"usefulness is hard to overestimate\".", "They concluded that ''Ethnologue'' was \"truly excellent, highly valuable, and the very best book of its sort available.", "\"In a review of ''Ethnologue'''s 2009 edition in ''Ethnopolitics'', Richard O. Collin, professor of politics, noted that \"''Ethnologue'' has become a standard resource for scholars in the other social sciences: anthropologists, economists, sociologists and, obviously, sociolinguists\".", "According to Collin, ''Ethnologue'' is \"stronger in languages spoken by indigenous peoples in economically less-developed portions of the world\" and \"when recent in-depth country-studies have been conducted, information can be very good; unfortunately ... data are sometimes old\".In 2012, linguist Asya Pereltsvaig described ''Ethnologue'' as \"a reasonably good source of thorough and reliable geographical and demographic information about the world's languages\".", "She added in 2021 that its maps \"are generally fairly accurate although they often depict the linguistic situation as it once was or as someone might imagine it to be but not as it actually is\".", "Linguist George Tucker Childs wrote in 2012 that: \"''Ethnologue'' is the most widely referenced source for information on languages of the world\", but he added that regarding African languages, \"when evaluated against recent field experience Ethnologue seems at least out of date\".", "In 2014, ''Ethnologue'' admitted that some of its data was out-of-date and switched from a four-year publication cycle (in print and online) to yearly online updates.In 2017, Robert Phillipson and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas described ''Ethnologue'' as \"the most comprehensive global source list for (mostly oral) languages\".", "According to the 2018 ''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics'', ''Ethnologue'' is a \"comprehensive, frequently updated database on languages and language families'.", "According to quantitative linguists Simon Greenhill, ''Ethnologue'' offers, as of 2018, \"sufficiently accurate reflections of speaker population size\".", "Linguists Lyle Campbell and Kenneth Lee Rehg wrote in 2018 that ''Ethnologue'' was \"the best source that list the non-endangered languages of the world\".", "Lyle Campbell and Russell Barlow also noted that the 2017 edition of ''Ethnologue'' \"improved its classification markedly\".", "They note that ''Ethnologue'''s genealogy is similar to that of the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) but different from that of the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat) and Glottolog.", "Linguist Lisa Matthewson commented in 2020 that ''Ethnologue'' offers \"accurate information about speaker numbers\".", "In a 2021 review of ''Ethnologue'' and Glottolog, linguist Shobhana Chelliah noted that \"For better or worse, the impact of the site is indeed considerable.", "... Clearly, the site has influence on the field of linguistics and beyond.\"", "She added that she, among other linguists, integrated ''Ethnologue'' in her linguistics classes.", "\"The ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'' uses ''Ethnologue'' as its primary source for the list of languages and language maps.", "According to linguist Suzanne Romaine, ''Ethnologue'' is also the leading source for research on language diversity.", "According to ''The Oxford Handbook of Language and Society'', ''Ethnologue'' is \"the standard reference source for the listing and enumeration of Endangered Languages, and for all known and \"living\" languages of the world\".\"", "Similarly, linguist David Bradley describes ''Ethnologue'' as \"the most comprehensive effort to document the level of endangerment in languages around the world.\"", "The US National Science Foundation uses ''Ethnologue'' to determine which languages are endangered.", "According to Hammarström et al., ''Ethnologue'' is, as of 2022, one of the three global databases documenting language endangerment with the ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger'' and the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat).", "The University of Hawaii Kaipuleohone language archive uses ''Ethnologue'''s metadata as well.", "The ''World Atlas of Language Structures'' uses ''Ethnologue'''s genealogical classification.", "The Rosetta Project uses ''Ethnologue'''s language metadata.In 2005, linguist Harald Hammarström wrote that ''Ethnologue'' was consistent with specialist views most of the time and was a catalog \"of very high absolute value and by far the best of its kind\".", "In 2011, Hammarström created Glottolog in response to the lack of a comprehensive language bibliography, especially in ''Ethnologue''.", "In 2015, Hammarström reviewed the 16th, 17th, and 18th editions of ''Ethnologue'' and described the frequent lack of citations as its only \"serious fault\" from a scientific perspective.", "He concluded: \"''Ethnologue'' is at present still better than any other nonderivative work of the same scope.", "It is an impressively comprehensive catalogue of world languages, and it is far superior to anything else produced prior to 2009.In particular, it is superior by virtue of being explicit.\"", "According to Hammarström, as of 2016, ''Ethnologue'' and Glottolog are the only global-scale continually maintained inventories of the world's languages.", "The main difference is that ''Ethnologue'' includes additional information (such as speaker numbers or vitality) but lacks systematic sources for the information given.", "In contrast, Glottolog provides no language context information but points to primary sources for further data.", "Contrary to ''Ethnologue'', Glottolog does not run its own surveys, but it uses ''Ethnologue'' as one of its primary sources.", "As of 2019, Hammarström uses ''Ethnologue'' in his articles, noting that it \"has (unsourced, but) detailed information associated with each speech variety, such as speaker numbers and map location\".", "In response to feedback about the lack of references, ''Ethnologue'' added in 2013 a link on each language to language resources from the Open Language Archives Community (OLAC) ''Ethnologue'' acknowledges that it rarely quotes any source verbatim but cites sources wherever specific statements are directly attributed to them, and corrects missing attributions upon notification.", "The website provides a list of all of the references cited.", "In her 2021 review, Shobhana Chelliah noted that Glottolog aims to be better than ''Ethnologue'' in language classification and genetic and areal relationships by using linguists' original sources." ], [ "Editions", "Starting with the 17th edition, ''Ethnologue'' has been published every year, on February 21, which is International Mother Language Day.EditionDateEditorNotes1 1951 Richard S. Pittman 10 mimeographed pages; 40 languages 2 1951 Pittman 3 1952 Pittman 4 1953 Pittman first to include maps5 1958 Pittman first edition in book format6 1965 Pittman 7 1969 Pittman 4,493 languages8 1974 Barbara Grimes 9 1978 Grimes 10 1984 Grimes SIL codes first included11 1988 Grimes 6,253 languages12 1992 Grimes 6,662 languages13 1996 Grimes 6,883 languages14 2000 Grimes 6,809 languages15 2005 Raymond G. Gordon Jr. 6,912 languages; draft ISO standard; first edition to provide color maps16 2009 M. Paul Lewis 6,909 languages17 2013, updated 2014 M. Paul Lewis, Gary F. Simons and Charles D. Fennig 7,106 living languages18 2015 Lewis, Simons & Fennig 7,102 living languages; 7,472 total19 2016 Lewis, Simons & Fennig 7,097 living languages20 2017 Simons & Fennig 7,099 living languages21 2018 Simons & Fennig 7,097 living languages22 2019 Eberhard, David M., Simons & Fennig 7,111 living languages232020Eberhard, Simons & Fennig7,117 living languages242021Eberhard, Simons & Fennig7,139 living languages252022Eberhard, Simons & Fennig7,151 living languages262023Eberhard, Simons & Fennig7,168 living languages" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Evaporation" ], [ "Introduction", "Aerosol of microscopic water droplets suspended in the air above a cup of hot tea after the water vapor has sufficiently cooled and condensed.", "Water vapor is an invisible gas, but the clouds of condensed droplets refract and scatter the sunlight and are thus visible.", "Droplets of water vapor in a pan.Demonstration of evaporative cooling.", "When the sensor is dipped in ethanol and then taken out to evaporate, the instrument shows progressively lower temperature as the ethanol evaporates.Rain evaporating after falling on hot pavement'''Evaporation''' is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase.", "A high concentration of the evaporating substance in the surrounding gas significantly slows down evaporation, such as when humidity affects rate of evaporation of water.", "When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each other based on how they collide.", "When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to overcome the vapor pressure, it will escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas.", "When evaporation occurs, the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.On average, only a fraction of the molecules in a liquid have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid.", "The evaporation will continue until an equilibrium is reached when the evaporation of the liquid is equal to its condensation.", "In an enclosed environment, a liquid will evaporate until the surrounding air is saturated.Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle.", "The sun (solar energy) drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water.", "In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration.", "Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor; this vapor can then rise up and form clouds.", "With sufficient energy, the liquid will turn into vapor." ], [ "Theory", "For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, they have to be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces.", "When only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low.", "Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures.", "As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases.", "This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling.", "This is why evaporating sweat cools the human body.Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure.", "For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day.", "Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure (determines the percent humidity), and air movement.On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state.", "Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined.", "Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen.Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor.", "However, these liquids ''are'' evaporating.", "It is just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible.=== Evaporative equilibrium ===Vapor pressure of water vs. temperature.", "760 Torr = 1 atm.If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid.", "Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases.", "When the process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium, the vapor is said to be \"saturated\", and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur.", "For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:: where ''P''1, ''P''2 are the vapor pressures at temperatures ''T''1, ''T''2 respectively, Δ''H''vap is the enthalpy of vaporization, and ''R'' is the universal gas constant.", "The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system.", "If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil.The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is based largely on the amount of kinetic energy an individual particle may possess.", "Even at lower temperatures, individual molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for vaporization." ], [ "Factors influencing the rate of evaporation", "Note: Air is used here as a common example of the surrounding gas; however, other gases may hold that role.", ";Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air: If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more slowly.", ";Flow rate of air: This is in part related to the concentration points above.", "If \"fresh\" air (i.e., air which is neither already saturated with the substance nor with other substances) is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation.", "This is the result of the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, decreasing the diffusion distance in the stagnant layer.", ";The amount of minerals dissolved in the liquid;Inter-molecular forces: The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more energy one must get to escape.", "This is characterized by the enthalpy of vaporization.", ";Pressure: Evaporation happens faster if there is less exertion on the surface keeping the molecules from launching themselves.", ";Surface area: A substance that has a larger surface area will evaporate faster, as there are more surface molecules per unit of volume that are potentially able to escape.", ";Temperature of the substance: the higher the temperature of the substance the greater the kinetic energy of the molecules at its surface and therefore the faster the rate of their evaporation.In the US, the National Weather Service measures, at various outdoor locations nationwide, the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized \"pan\" open water surface.", "Others do likewise around the world.", "The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map.", "The measurements range from under 30 to over per year.Because it typically takes place in a complex environment, where 'evaporation is an extremely rare event', the mechanism for the evaporation of water is not completely understood.", "Theoretical calculations require prohibitively long and large computer simulations.", "'The rate of evaporation of liquid water is one of the principal uncertainties in modern climate modeling.'" ], [ "Thermodynamics", "Evaporation is an endothermic process, since heat is absorbed during evaporation." ], [ "Applications", "* Industrial applications include many printing and coating processes; recovering salts from solutions; and drying a variety of materials such as lumber, paper, cloth and chemicals.", "* The use of evaporation to dry or concentrate samples is a common preparatory step for many laboratory analyses such as spectroscopy and chromatography.", "Systems used for this purpose include rotary evaporators and centrifugal evaporators.", "* When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below the boiling point of water, water evaporates.", "This is accelerated by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind.", "In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.", "* The Matki/Matka, a traditional Indian porous clay container used for storing and cooling water and other liquids.", "* The botijo, a traditional Spanish porous clay container designed to cool the contained water by evaporation.", "* Evaporative coolers, which can significantly cool a building by simply blowing dry air over a filter saturated with water.=== Combustion vaporization ===Fuel droplets vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber.", "Heat (energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber.=== Pre-combustion vaporization ===Internal combustion engines rely upon the vaporization of the fuel in the cylinders to form a fuel/air mixture in order to burn well.The chemically correct air/fuel mixture for total burning of gasoline has been determined to be 15 parts air to one part gasoline or 15/1 by weight.", "Changing this to a volume ratio yields 8000 parts air to one part gasoline or 8,000/1 by volume.=== Film deposition ===Thin films may be deposited by evaporating a substance and condensing it onto a substrate, or by dissolving the substance in a solvent, spreading the resulting solution thinly over a substrate, and evaporating the solvent.", "The Hertz–Knudsen equation is often used to estimate the rate of evaporation in these instances." ], [ "See also", "* Atmometer (evaporimeter)* Boiling point* Cryophorus* Crystallisation* Desalination* Distillation* Drying* Eddy covariance flux (a.k.a.", "eddy correlation, eddy flux)* Evaporator* Evapotranspiration* Flash evaporation* Heat of vaporization* Hertz–Knudsen equation* Hydrology (agriculture)* Latent heat* Latent heat flux* Pan evaporation* Sublimation (phase transition) (phase transfer from solid directly to gas)* Transpiration" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Has an especially detailed discussion of film deposition by evaporation." ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Esbat" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''esbat''' is a coven meeting or ritual at a time other than one of the Sabbats within Wicca and other Wiccan-influenced forms of contemporary Paganism.Esbats can span a wide range of purposes from coven business meetings and initiation ceremonies to social gatherings, times of merriment, and opportunities to commune with the divine.", "Janet and Stewart Farrar describe esbats as an opportunity for a \"love feast, healing work, psychic training and all.", "\"Esbats are typically held once per month on or near the night of a full moon or new moon.", "Due to the connection between the Moon and femininity in Wicca, esbats are associated with goddesses.Esbats are a time set aside for formal worship and have been described as similar to Sundays for Christians or Friday nights for Jewish people.", "They can be solitary affairs but tend to be conducted in groups.", "Sources vary on whether these rituals are open to the public or only to initiated members." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''esbat'' is derived from Old French ''s'esbattre'' (Modern French ''ébat''), meaning ''to frolic and amuse oneself'', ''diversion''.", "It was a borrowing by 20th century anthropologist Margaret Murray's use of French witch trial sources on supposed Witches' Sabbaths in her attempts to \"reconstruct\" a ''Witch Cult in Western Europe''." ], [ "Observance", "An esbat is commonly understood to be a ritual observance on the night of a full moon.", "However, the late high priestess Doreen Valiente distinguished between \"full moon Esbats\" and other esbatic occasions.The term ''esbat'' in this sense was described by Margaret Murray.Esbats vary greatly and can be simple or elaborate.", "Rituals use symbolism to enhance the properties of a particular moon, of which there are 13 per solar year.", "They are typically held at coven members' homes or outdoors.", "Tools such as candles, athames, incense, pentacles, items from nature, bowls of water, mirrors, and crystals are commonly placed on an altar.", "The ceremony begins with participants establishing a sacred space by casting a circle or purifying the area by smudging.", "Then, they commune with the divine, pray, and meditate.", "Central elements are reflection on changes that have occurred in the past moon cycle, things you wish to change by the next moon, and gratitude.", "Once the ceremony is completed, a ritual closing is performed.", "Participants describe esbats as \"spiritually fulfilling\" and \"immensely beneficial to our personal spiritual growth.", "\"=== New Moon ===When esbat rituals occur during a new moon (also known as a dark moon), it is an occasion to worship the darker aspects of witchcraft.", "This represents elements that are hidden or in shadow, and is not necessarily associated with evil.", "New moon esbats may be used to worship a dark or maiden goddess, to banish something unwanted, or to end a phase in life.", "Because esbats typically occur when the moon is at its highest point, covens may choose for new moon esbats to take place in the mid-afternoon.=== Full Moon ===The full moon esbat tends to be a frenetic celebration.", "Spells for wholeness, children, mothers, families, clairvoyance, and love are performed.", "Most full moon esbats are held at midnight because the moon is most visible which allows participants to feel closer to it.", "One major component of full moon esbats is drawing down the moon.", "The idea is to draw the essence of the lunar goddess into the body of a coven member, usually a priestess or leader.", "This is done by another member who channels lunar energy down through a receptacle such as a chalice or knife.", "The two stand facing each other in the center of the circle and the group asks the goddess to come down.", "Once the divine energy enters the tool, it is touched to the head, chest, or abdomen of the priestess.", "Through her body, the goddess speaks to the group by answering questions, giving instructions, offering blessings, or simply \"pouring her loving energy into the circle and leading you in a merry spiral dance.\"", "After returning the energy to the goddess, the sign of a pentagram may be used as a dismissal.The ceremony of cakes and ale is the other main component which typically concludes the full moon esbat.", "This ritual uses cookies or a loaf of bread and a chalice of wine or other drink which are placed on a central altar.", "The bread and wine symbolize the body and blood of the mother goddess, who gives life to all things.", "Each participant takes turns blessing the bread, breaking off a piece, eating it, then passing it clockwise.", "The same process happens with the chalice.", "This allows everyone to honor the body and blood of the goddess as they wish." ], [ "See also", "* Lunar calendar* Wheel of the Year* Lunar effect* List of lunar deities* Modern paganism" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Equal temperament" ], [ "Introduction", "12 tone equal temperament chromatic scale on , one full octave ascending, notated only with sharps.", "An '''equal temperament''' is a musical temperament or tuning system that approximates just intervals by dividing an octave (or other interval) into steps such that the ratio of the frequencies of any adjacent pair of notes is the same.", "This system yields pitch steps perceived as equal in size, due to the logarithmic changes in pitch frequency.In classical music and Western music in general, the most common tuning system since the 18th century has been 12 equal temperament (also known as ''12 tone equal temperament'', '''' or '''', informally abbreviated as ''12 equal''), which divides the octave into 12 parts, all of which are equal on a logarithmic scale, with a ratio equal to the 12th root of 2, (  ≈ 1.05946 ).", "That resulting smallest interval, the width of an octave, is called a semitone or half step.", "In Western countries the term ''equal temperament'', without qualification, generally means ''''.In modern times, is usually tuned relative to a standard pitch of 440 Hz, called A 440, meaning one note, , is tuned to 440 hertz and all other notes are defined as some multiple of semitones away from it, either higher or lower in frequency.", "The standard pitch has not always been 440 Hz; it has varied considerably and generally risen over the past few hundred years.Other equal temperaments divide the octave differently.", "For example, some music has been written in and , while the Arab tone system uses Instead of dividing an octave, an equal temperament can also divide a different interval, like the equal-tempered version of the Bohlen–Pierce scale, which divides the just interval of an octave and a fifth (ratio 3:1), called a \"tritave\" or a \"pseudo-octave\" in that system, into 13 equal parts.For tuning systems that divide the octave equally, but are not approximations of just intervals, the term '''equal division of the octave''', or '''' can be used.Unfretted string ensembles, which can adjust the tuning of all notes except for open strings, and vocal groups, who have no mechanical tuning limitations, sometimes use a tuning much closer to just intonation for acoustic reasons.", "Other instruments, such as some wind, keyboard, and fretted instruments, often only approximate equal temperament, where technical limitations prevent exact tunings.Some wind instruments that can easily and spontaneously bend their tone, most notably trombones, use tuning similar to string ensembles and vocal groups." ], [ "General properties", "In an equal temperament, the distance between two adjacent steps of the scale is the same interval.", "Because the perceived identity of an interval depends on its ratio, this scale in even steps is a geometric sequence of multiplications.", "(An arithmetic sequence of intervals would not sound evenly spaced and would not permit transposition to different keys.)", "Specifically, the smallest interval in an equal-tempered scale is the ratio:::where the ratio divides the ratio (typically the octave, which is 2:1) into equal parts.", "(''See Twelve-tone equal temperament below.", "'')Scales are often measured in cents, which divide the octave into 1200 equal intervals (each called a cent).", "This logarithmic scale makes comparison of different tuning systems easier than comparing ratios, and has considerable use in ethnomusicology.", "The basic step in cents for any equal temperament can be found by taking the width of above in cents (usually the octave, which is 1200 cents wide), called below , and dividing it into parts::In musical analysis, material belonging to an equal temperament is often given an integer notation, meaning a single integer is used to represent each pitch.", "This simplifies and generalizes discussion of pitch material within the temperament in the same way that taking the logarithm of a multiplication reduces it to addition.", "Furthermore, by applying the modular arithmetic where the modulus is the number of divisions of the octave (usually 12), these integers can be reduced to pitch classes, which removes the distinction (or acknowledges the similarity) between pitches of the same name, e.g., is 0 regardless of octave register.", "The MIDI encoding standard uses integer note designations.=== General formulas for the equal-tempered interval ===" ], [ "Twelve-tone equal temperament", "12 tone equal temperament, which divides the octave into 12 intervals of equal size, is the musical system most widely used today, especially in Western music.=== History ===The two figures frequently credited with the achievement of exact calculation of equal temperament are Zhu Zaiyu (also romanized as Chu-Tsaiyu.", "Chinese: ) in 1584 and Simon Stevin in 1585.According to F.A.", "Kuttner, a critic of giving credit to Zhu, it is known that Zhu \"presented a highly precise, simple and ingenious method for arithmetic calculation of equal temperament mono-chords in 1584\" and that Stevin \"offered a mathematical definition of equal temperament plus a somewhat less precise computation of the corresponding numerical values in 1585 or later.", "\"The developments occurred independently.Kenneth Robinson credits the invention of equal temperament to Zhu and provides textual quotations as evidence.", "In 1584 Zhu wrote:: I have founded a new system.", "I establish one foot as the number from which the others are to be extracted, and using proportions I extract them.", "Altogether one has to find the exact figures for the pitch-pipers in twelve operations.Kuttner disagrees and remarks that his claim \"cannot be considered correct without major qualifications\".", "Kuttner proposes that neither Zhu nor Stevin achieved equal temperament and that neither should be considered its inventor.==== China ====Zhu Zaiyu's equal temperament pitch pipesChinese theorists had previously come up with approximations for , but Zhu was the first person to mathematically solve 12 tone equal temperament, which he described in two books, published in 1580 and 1584.Needham also gives an extended account.Zhu obtained his result by dividing the length of string and pipe successively by and for pipe length by such that after 12 divisions (an octave), the length was halved.Zhu created several instruments tuned to his system, including bamboo pipes.==== Europe ====Some of the first Europeans to advocate equal temperament were lutenists Vincenzo Galilei, Giacomo Gorzanis, and Francesco Spinacino, all of whom wrote music in it.Simon Stevin was the first to develop 12  based on the twelfth root of two, which he described in ''van de Spiegheling der singconst'' (), published posthumously in 1884.Plucked instrument players (lutenists and guitarists) generally favored equal temperament, while others were more divided.", "In the end, 12-tone equal temperament won out.", "This allowed enharmonic modulation, new styles of symmetrical tonality and polytonality, atonal music such as that written with the 12-tone technique or serialism, and jazz (at least its piano component) to develop and flourish.=== Mathematics ===One octave of 12  on a monochordIn 12 tone equal temperament, which divides the octave into 12 equal parts, the width of a semitone, i.e.", "the frequency ratio of the interval between two adjacent notes, is the twelfth root of two::This interval is divided into 100 cents.==== Calculating absolute frequencies ====To find the frequency, , of a note in 12 , the following formula may be used::In this formula represents the pitch, or frequency (usually in hertz), you are trying to find.", "is the frequency of a reference pitch.", "The indes numbers and are the labels assigned to the desired pitch () and the reference pitch ().", "These two numbers are from a list of consecutive integers assigned to consecutive semitones.", "For example, (the reference pitch) is the 49th key from the left end of a piano (tuned to 440 Hz), and (middle ), and are the 40th and 46th keys, respectively.", "These numbers can be used to find the frequency of and :::==== Converting frequencies to their equal temperament counterparts ====To convert a frequency (in Hz) to its equal 12  counterpart, the following formula can be used:: where in general is the frequency of a pitch in equal temperament, and is the frequency of a reference pitch.", "For example, if we let the reference pitch equal 440 Hz, we can see that and have the following frequencies, respectively:: where in this case : where in this case ==== Comparison with just intonation ====Comparison of intervals in 12-TET with just intonationThe intervals of 12  closely approximate some intervals in just intonation.The fifths and fourths are almost indistinguishably close to just intervals, while thirds and sixths are further away.In the following table, the sizes of various just intervals are compared to their equal-tempered counterparts, given as a ratio as well as cents.", ": Interval Name Exact value in 12  Decimal value in 12  Cents Just intonation interval Cents in just intonation Difference Unison () = 1 0 = 0 0 Minor second () = 100 = Major second () = 200 = Minor third () = 300 = Major third () = 400 = + Perfect fourth () = 500 = + Tritone () = 600 = Perfect fifth () = 700 = Minor sixth () = 800 = Major sixth () = 900 = + Minor seventh () = 1000 = + Major seventh () = 1100 = 0 + Octave () = 1200 = 1200.00 0=== Seven-tone equal division of the fifth ===Violins, violas, and cellos are tuned in perfect fifths ( for violins and for violas and cellos), which suggests that their semitone ratio is slightly higher than in conventional 12 tone equal temperament.", "Because a perfect fifth is in 3:2 relation with its base tone, and this interval comprises seven steps, each tone is in the ratio of to the next (100.28 cents), which provides for a perfect fifth with ratio of 3:2, but a slightly widened octave with a rather than the usual 2:1, because 12 perfect fifths do not equal seven octaves.", "During actual play, however, violinists choose pitches by ear, and only the four unstopped pitches of the strings are guaranteed to exhibit this 3:2 ratio.==Other equal temperaments===== Five-, seven-, and nine-tone temperaments in ethnomusicology ===Approximation of Five- and seven-tone equal temperament ('''' and '''' ), with 240 cent and 171 cent steps, respectively, are fairly common.", "and mark the endpoints of the syntonic temperament's valid tuning range, as shown in Figure 1.", "* In the tempered perfect fifth is 720 cents wide (at the top of the tuning continuum), and marks the endpoint on the tuning continuum at which the width of the minor second shrinks to a width of 0 cents.", "* In the tempered perfect fifth is 686 cents wide (at the bottom of the tuning continuum), and marks the endpoint on the tuning continuum, at which the minor second expands to be as wide as the major second (at 171 cents each).====5 tone and 9 tone equal temperament====According to Kunst (1949), Indonesian gamelans are tuned to but according to Hood (1966) and McPhee (1966) their tuning varies widely, and according to Tenzer (2000) they contain stretched octaves.", "It is now accepted that of the two primary tuning systems in gamelan music, slendro and pelog, only slendro somewhat resembles five-tone equal temperament, while pelog is highly unequal; however, in 1972 Surjodiningrat, Sudarjana and Susanto analyze pelog as equivalent to 9-TET (133-cent steps ).====7-tone equal temperament====A Thai xylophone measured by Morton in 1974 \"varied only plus or minus 5 cents\" from .", "According to Morton,: \"Thai instruments of fixed pitch are tuned to an equidistant system of seven pitches per octave ... As in Western traditional music, however, all pitches of the tuning system are not used in one mode (often referred to as 'scale'); in the Thai system five of the seven are used in principal pitches in any mode, thus establishing a pattern of nonequidistant intervals for the mode.\"", "A South American Indian scale from a pre-instrumental culture measured by Boiles in 1969 featured 175 cent seven-tone equal temperament, which stretches the octave slightly, as with instrumental gamelan music.Chinese music has traditionally used .=== Various equal temperaments ===Easley Blackwood's notation system for 16 equal temperament: Intervals are notated similarly to those they approximate and there are fewer enharmonic equivalents.", "Comparison of equal temperaments from 9 to 25; 19 EDO: Many instruments have been built using 19 EDO tuning.", "Equivalent to meantone, it has a slightly flatter perfect fifth (at 695 cents), but its minor third and major sixth are less than one-fifth of a cent away from just, with the lowest EDO that produces a better minor third and major sixth than 19 EDO being 232 EDO.", "Its perfect fourth (at 505 cents), is seven cents sharper than just intonation's and five cents sharper than 12 EDO's.", "; 23 EDO: 23 EDO is the largest EDO that fails to approximate the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 11th harmonics (3:2, 5:4, 7:4, 11:8) within 20 cents.", "But it does approximate ratios between them (including the justly-tuned 6/5 minor third) very well, making it attractive to microtonalists seeking unusual harmonic territory.", "; 24 EDO: 24 EDO, the quarter-tone scale, is particularly popular, as it represents a convenient access point for composers conditioned on standard Western 12 EDO pitch and notation practices who are also interested in microtonality.", "Because 24 EDO contains all the pitches of 12 EDO, musicians employ the additional colors without losing any tactics available in 12 tone harmony.", "That 24 is a multiple of 12 also makes 24 EDO easy to achieve instrumentally by employing two traditional 12 EDO instruments tuned a quarter-tone apart, such as two pianos, which also allows each performer (or one performer playing a different piano with each hand) to read familiar 12 tone notation.", "Various composers, including Charles Ives, experimented with music for quarter-tone pianos.", "24 EDO also approximates the 11th and 13th harmonics very well, unlike 12 EDO.", "; 26 EDO: 26 is the lowest number of equal divisions of the octave that almost purely tunes the 7th harmonic (7:4).", "Although it is a meantone temperament, it is a very flat one, with four of its perfect fifths producing a neutral third rather than a major third.", "26 EDO has two minor thirds and two minor sixths and could be an alternate temperament for barbershop harmony.", "; 27 EDO: 27 is the lowest number of equal divisions of the octave that uniquely represents all intervals involving the first eight harmonics.", "It tempers out the septimal comma but not the syntonic comma.", "; 29 EDO: 29 is the lowest number of equal divisions of the octave whose perfect fifth is closer to just than in 12 EDO, in which the fifth is 1.5 cents sharp instead of 2 cents flat.", "Its classic major third is roughly as inaccurate as 12 EDO, but is tuned 14 cents flat rather than 14 cents sharp.", "It also tunes the 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics flat, by roughly the same amount, allowing 29 EDO to match intervals such as 7:5, 11:7, and 13:11 very accurately.", "Cutting all 29 intervals in half produces 58 EDO, which allows for lower errors for some just tones.", "; 31 EDO: 31 EDO was advocated by Christiaan Huygens and Adriaan Fokker and represents a standardization of quarter-comma meantone.", "31 EDO does not have as accurate a perfect fifth as 12 EDO (like 19 EDO), but its major thirds and minor sixths are less than 1 cent away from just.", "It also provides good matches for harmonics up to 11, of which the seventh harmonic is particularly accurate.", "; 34 EDO: 34 EDO gives slightly lower total combined errors of approximation to 3:2, 5:4, 6:5, and their inversions than 31 EDO does, despite having a slightly less accurate fit for 5:4.34 EDO does not accurately approximate the seventh harmonic or ratios involving 7, and is not meantone since its fifth is sharp instead of flat.", "It enables the 600 cent tritone, since 34 is an even number.", "; 41 EDO: 41 is the second-lowest number of equal divisions of the octave with a better perfect fifth than 12 EDO.", "Its classic major third is more accurate than 12 EDO and 29 EDO, at six cents flat.", "It is not meantone, so it distinguishes 10:9 and 9:8, along with the classic and Pythagorean major thirds, unlike 31 EDO.", "It is more accurate in the 13 limit than 31 EDO.", "; 46 EDO: 46 EDO provides major thirds and perfect fifths that are both slightly sharp of just, and many say that this gives major triads a characteristic bright sound.", "The harmonics up to 11 are within 5 cents of accuracy, with 10:9 and 9:5 a fifth of a cent away from pure.", "As it is not a meantone system, it distinguishes 10:9 and 9:8.; 53 EDO: 53 EDO has only had occasional use, but is better at approximating the traditional just consonances than 12, 19 or 31 EDO.", "Its extremely accurate perfect fifths make it equivalent to an extended Pythagorean tuning, and it is sometimes used in Turkish music theory.", "It does not, however, fit the technical requirements of meantone temperaments, which put good thirds within easy reach, via the cycle of fifths.", "In 53 EDO, the very consonant thirds are instead reached by using a Pythagorean diminished fourth (C-F), as it is an example of schismatic temperament, like 41 EDO.", "; 58 EDO: 58 equal temperament is a duplication of 29 EDO, which it contains as an embedded temperament.", "Like 29 EDO it can match intervals such as 7:4, 7:5, 11:7, and 13:11 very accurately, as well as better approximating just thirds and sixths.", "; 72 EDO: 72 EDO approximates many just intonation intervals well, providing near-just equivalents to the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 11th harmonics.", "72 EDO has been taught, written and performed in practice by Joe Maneri and his students (whose atonal inclinations typically avoid any reference to just intonation whatsoever).", "It can be considered an extension of 12 EDO because 72 is a multiple of 12.72 EDO does not accurately approximate the 13th harmonic or most simple ratios involving 13.It contains six copies of 12 EDO starting on different pitches, three copies of 24 EDO, and two copies of 36 EDO, which are themselves multiples of 12.; 96 EDO: 96 EDO approximates all intervals within 6.25 cents, which is barely distinguishable.", "As an eightfold multiple of 12, it can be used fully like the common 12 EDO.", "It has been advocated by several composers, especially Julián Carrillo.Other equal divisions of the octave that have found occasional use include 15 EDO, 17 EDO, and 22 EDO.2, 5, 12, 41, 53, 306, 665 and 15601 are denominators of first convergents of log(3), so 2, 5, 12, 41, 53, 306, 665 and 15601 twelfths (and fifths), being in correspondent equal temperaments equal to an integer number of octaves, are better approximations of 2, 5, 12, 41, 53, 306, 665 and 15601 just twelfths/fifths than in any equal temperament with fewer tones.1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 12, 29, 41, 53, 200, ... is the sequence of divisions of octave that provides better and better approximations of the perfect fifth.", "Related sequences containing divisions approximating other just intervals are listed in a footnote.=== Equal temperaments of non-octave intervals ===The equal-tempered version of the Bohlen–Pierce scale consists of the ratio 3:1 (1902 cents) conventionally a perfect fifth plus an octave (that is, a perfect twelfth), called in this theory a tritave (), and split into 13 equal parts.", "This provides a very close match to justly tuned ratios consisting only of odd numbers.", "Each step is 146.3 cents (), or .Wendy Carlos created three unusual equal temperaments after a thorough study of the properties of possible temperaments with step size between 30 and 120 cents.", "These were called ''alpha'', ''beta'', and ''gamma''.", "They can be considered equal divisions of the perfect fifth.", "Each of them provides a very good approximation of several just intervals.", "Their step sizes:* ''alpha'': (78.0 cents) * ''beta'': (63.8 cents) * ''gamma'': (35.1 cents) Alpha and beta may be heard on the title track of Carlos's 1986 album ''Beauty in the Beast''.=== Proportions between semitone and whole tone ===In this section, ''semitone'' and ''whole tone'' may not have their usual 12 EDO meanings, as it discusses how they may be tempered in different ways from their just versions to produce desired relationships.", "Let the number of steps in a semitone be , and the number of steps in a tone be .There is exactly one family of equal temperaments that fixes the semitone to any proper fraction of a whole tone, while keeping the notes in the right order (meaning that, for example, , , , , and are in ascending order if they preserve their usual relationships to ).", "That is, fixing to a proper fraction in the relationship also defines a unique family of one equal temperament and its multiples that fulfil this relationship.For example, where is an integer, sets sets and sets The smallest multiples in these families (e.g.", "12, 19 and 31 above) has the additional property of having no notes outside the circle of fifths.", "(This is not true in general; in 24 , the half-sharps and half-flats are not in the circle of fifths generated starting from .)", "The extreme cases are where and the semitone becomes a unison, and , where and the semitone and tone are the same interval.Once one knows how many steps a semitone and a tone are in this equal temperament, one can find the number of steps it has in the octave.", "An equal temperament with the above properties (including having no notes outside the circle of fifths) divides the octave into and the perfect fifth into If there are notes outside the circle of fifths, one must then multiply these results by , the number of nonoverlapping circles of fifths required to generate all the notes (e.g., two in 24 , six in 72 ).", "(One must take the small semitone for this purpose: 19  has two semitones, one being tone and the other being .", "Similarly, 31  has two semitones, one being tone and the other being ).The smallest of these families is and in particular, 12  is the smallest equal temperament with the above properties.", "Additionally, it makes the semitone exactly half a whole tone, the simplest possible relationship.", "These are some of the reasons 12  has become the most commonly used equal temperament.", "(Another reason is that 12 EDO is the smallest equal temperament to closely approximate 5 limit harmony, the next-smallest being 19 EDO.", ")Each choice of fraction for the relationship results in exactly one equal temperament family, but the converse is not true: 47  has two different semitones, where one is tone and the other is , which are not complements of each other like in 19  ( and ).", "Taking each semitone results in a different choice of perfect fifth." ], [ "Related tuning systems", "=== Regular diatonic tunings ===Figure 1: The regular diatonic tunings continuum, which include many notable \"equal temperament\" tunings.The diatonic tuning in ''12 tone equal temperament'' can be generalized to any regular diatonic tuning dividing the octave as a sequence of steps (or some circular shift or \"rotation\" of it).", "To be called a ''regular'' diatonic tuning, each of the two semitones () must be smaller than either of the tones (greater tone, , and lesser tone, ).The comma is implicit as the size ratio between the greater and lesser tones: Expressed as frequencies or as cents .The notes in a regular diatonic tuning are connected in a cycle of three perfect fifths , interrupted by a grave fifth (''grave'' means \"flat by a comma\"), another sequence of two perfect fifths, and another grave fifth, and then it repeats indefinitely, flattening by two commas with every transition from natural to sharp pitches (or single sharps to double sharps), and reciprocally sharpening by two commas with every transition from natural pitches to flattened pitches (or flats to double flats).", "If left unmodified, the two grave fifths in each octave are the source of \"wolf\" intervals.Since the comma, , expands the lesser tone into the greater tone, just intonation can be broken up into a sequence (or a circular shift of it) of diatonic semitones , chromatic semitones , and commas Various equal temperaments alter the interval sizes, usually breaking apart the three commas and then redistributing their parts into the seven diatonic semitones , or into the five chromatic semitones , or into both and , with some fixed proportion for each type of semitone.The sequence of intervals , , and can be repeatedly appended to itself into a greater spiral of 12 fifths, and made to connect at its far ends by slight adjustments to the size of one or several of the intervals, or left unmodified with occasional less-than-perfect fifths, flat by a comma.=== Morphing diatonic tunings into EDO ===An equal temperament can be created if the sizes of the major and minor tones (, ) are altered to be the same (say, by setting , with the others expanded to still fill out the octave), and both semitones ( and ) the same size, then twelve equal semitones, two per tone, result.", "In 12 equal temperament|, the semitone, , is exactly half the size of the same-size whole tones = .Some of the intermediate sizes of tones and semitones can also be generated in equal temperament systems, by modifying the sizes of the comma and semitones.", "One obtains in the limit as the size of and tend to zero, with the octave kept fixed, and in the limit as and tend to zero; is of course, the case and For instance:; and : There are two extreme cases that bracket this framework: When and reduce to zero with the octave size kept fixed, the result is a 5 tone equal temperament.", "As the gets larger (and absorbs the space formerly used for the comma ), eventually the steps are all the same size, and the result is seven-tone equal temperament.", "These two extremes are not included as \"regular\" diatonic tunings.", ";: If the diatonic semitone is set double the size of the chromatic semitone, i.e.", "(in cents) and the result is with one step for the chromatic semitone , two steps for the diatonic semitone , three steps for the tones = , and the total number of steps 19 steps.", "The imbedded 12 tone sub-system closely approximates the historically important meantone system.", ";: If the chromatic semitone is two-thirds the size of the diatonic semitone, i.e.", "with the result is 31 , with two steps for the chromatic semitone, three steps for the diatonic semitone, and five steps for the tone, where 31 steps.", "The imbedded 12 tone sub-system closely approximates the historically important meantone.", ";: If the chromatic semitone is made the same size as three commas, (in cents, in frequency ) the diatonic the same as five commas, that makes the lesser tone eight commas and the greater tone nine, Hence for 53 steps of one comma each.", "The comma size / step size is exactly, or the syntonic comma.", "It is an exceedingly close approximation to just intonation, and is still in use for classical Turkish music theory." ], [ "See also", "* Just intonation* Musical acoustics(the physics of music)* Music and mathematics* Microtuner* Microtonal music* Piano tuning* List of meantone intervals* Diatonic and chromatic* Electronic tuner* Musical tuning" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * As cited by * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* — A foundational work on acoustics and the perception of sound.", "Especially the material in ''Appendix XX: Additions by the translator'', pages 430–556, (pdf pages 451–577) (see also wiki article ''On Sensations of Tone'')" ], [ "External links", "* An Introduction to Historical Tunings by Kyle Gann* Xenharmonic wiki on EDOs vs.", "Equal Temperaments* Huygens-Fokker Foundation Centre for Microtonal Music* A.Orlandini: Music Acoustics* \"Temperament\" from ''A supplement to Mr.", "Chambers's cyclopædia'' (1753)* Barbieri, Patrizio.", "Enharmonic instruments and music, 1470–1900.", "(2008) Latina, Il Levante Libreria Editrice* Fractal Microtonal Music, ''Jim Kukula''.", "* All existing 18th century quotes on J.S.", "Bach and temperament* Dominic Eckersley: \" Rosetta Revisited: Bach's Very Ordinary Temperament\"* Well Temperaments, based on the Werckmeister Definition* FAVORED CARDINALITIES OF SCALES by PETER BUCH" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Gibbon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Gibbon''' (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English essayist, historian, and politician.", "His most important work, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1789, is known for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its polemical criticism of organised religion." ], [ "Early life: 1737–1752", "Edward Gibbon was born in 1737, the son of Edward and Judith Gibbon, at Lime Grove in the town of Putney, Surrey.", "He had five brothers and one sister, all of whom died in infancy.", "His grandfather, also named Edward, had lost his assets as a result of the South Sea bubble stock-market collapse in 1720 but eventually regained much of his wealth.", "Gibbon's father thus inherited a substantial estate.", "His paternal grandmother, Catherine Acton, was granddaughter of Sir Walter Acton, 2nd Baronet.As a youth, Gibbon's health was under constant threat.", "He described himself as \"a puny child, neglected by my Mother, starved by my nurse\".", "At age nine, he was sent to Dr. Woddeson's school at Kingston upon Thames (now Kingston Grammar School), shortly after which his mother died.", "He then took up residence in the Westminster School boarding house, owned by his adored \"Aunt Kitty\", Catherine Porten.", "Soon after she died in 1786, he remembered her as rescuing him from his mother's disdain, and imparting \"the first rudiments of knowledge, the first exercise of reason, and a taste for books which is still the pleasure and glory of my life\".", "From 1747 Gibbon spent time at the family home in Buriton.", "By 1751, Gibbon's reading was already extensive and pointed toward his future pursuits: Laurence Echard's ''Roman History'' (1713), William Howel(l)'s ''An Institution of General History'' (1680–85), and several of the 65 volumes of the acclaimed ''Universal History from the Earliest Account of Time'' (1747–1768)." ], [ "Career", "===Oxford, Lausanne, and a religious journey: 1752–1758===Magdalen College, OxfordFollowing a stay at Bath in 1752 to improve his health at the age of 15, Gibbon was sent by his father to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner.", "He was ill-suited, however, to the college atmosphere, and later rued his 14 months there as the \"most idle and unprofitable\" of his life.", "Because he says so in his autobiography, it used to be thought that a penchant from his aunt for \"theological controversy\" bloomed under the influence of the deist or rationalist theologian Conyers Middleton (1683–1750), the author of ''Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers'' (1749).", "In that tract, Middleton denied the validity of such powers; Gibbon promptly objected, or so the argument used to run.", "The product of that disagreement, with some assistance from the work of Catholic Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704), and that of the Elizabethan Jesuit Robert Parsons (1546–1610), yielded the most memorable event of his time at Oxford: his conversion to Roman Catholicism on 8 June 1753.He was further \"corrupted\" by the 'free thinking' deism of the playwright/poet couple David and Lucy Mallet; and finally Gibbon's father, already \"in despair,\" had had enough.", "David Womersley has shown, however, that Gibbon's claim to having been converted by a reading of Middleton is very unlikely, and was introduced only into the final draft of the \"Memoirs\" in 1792–93.Within weeks of his conversion, he was removed from Oxford and sent to live under the care and tutelage of Daniel Pavillard, Reformed pastor of Lausanne, Switzerland.", "There, he made one of his life's two great friendships, that of Jacques Georges Deyverdun (the French-language translator of Goethe's ''The Sorrows of Young Werther''), and that of John Baker Holroyd (later Lord Sheffield).", "Just a year and a half later, after his father threatened to disinherit him, on Christmas Day, 1754, he reconverted to Protestantism.", "\"The various articles of the Romish creed,\" he wrote, \"disappeared like a dream\".===Thwarted romance===Suzanne CurchodHe also met the one romance in his life: the daughter of the pastor of Crassy, a young woman named Suzanne Curchod, who was later to become the wife of Louis XVI's finance minister Jacques Necker, and the mother of Madame de Staël.", "The two developed a warm affinity; Gibbon proceeded to propose marriage, but ultimately this was out of the question, blocked both by his father's staunch disapproval and Curchod's equally staunch reluctance to leave Switzerland.", "Gibbon returned to England in August 1758 to face his father.", "No refusal of the elder's wishes could be allowed.", "Gibbon put it this way: \"I sighed as a lover, I obeyed as a son.\"", "He proceeded to cut off all contact with Curchod, even as she vowed to wait for him.", "Their final emotional break apparently came at Ferney, France, in early 1764, though they did see each other at least one more time a year later.===First fame and the Grand tour: 1758–1765===Portchester Castle came under Gibbon's command for a brief period while he was an officer in the South Hampshire Militia.Upon his return to England, Gibbon published his first book, ''Essai sur l'Étude de la Littérature'' in 1761, which produced an initial taste of celebrity and distinguished him, in Paris at least, as a man of letters.", "From 1759 to 1770, Gibbon served on active duty and in reserve with the South Hampshire Militia, his deactivation in December 1762 coinciding with the militia's dispersal at the end of the Seven Years' War.", "The following year, he returned, via Paris, to Lausanne, where he made the acquaintance of a \"prudent worthy young man\" William Guise.", "On 18 April 1764, he and Guise set off for Italy, crossed the Alps, and after spending the summer in Florence arrived in Rome, via Lucca, Pisa, Livorno and Siena, in early October.", "In his autobiography, Gibbon vividly records his rapture when he finally neared \"the great object of my pilgrimage\":...at the distance of twenty-five years I can neither forget nor express the strong emotions which agitated my mind as I first approached and entered the ''eternal City''.", "After a sleepless night, I trod, with a lofty step the ruins of the Forum; each memorable spot where Romulus ''stood'', or Tully spoke, or Caesar fell, was at once present to my eye; and several days of intoxication were lost or enjoyed before I could descend to a cool and minute investigation.Here, Gibbon first conceived the idea of composing a history of the city, later extended to the entire empire, a moment he described later as his \"Capitoline vision\":It was at Rome, on the fifteenth of October 1764, as I sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the barefooted fryars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that the idea of writing the decline and fall of the City first started to my mind.Womersley (''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', p. 12) notes the existence of \"good reasons\" to doubt the statement's accuracy.", "Elaborating, Pocock (\"Classical History,\" ¶ #2) refers to it as a likely \"creation of memory\" or a \"literary invention\", given that Gibbon, in his autobiography, claimed that his journal dated the reminiscence to 15 October, when in fact the journal gives no date.===Late career: 1765–1776=======Work====In June 1765, Gibbon returned to his father's house, remaining there until the latter's death in 1770.These five years were considered by Gibbon as the worst of his life, but he tried to remain busy by making early attempts at full histories.", "His first historical narrative, known as the ''History of Switzerland'', representing Gibbon's love for Switzerland, was never finished nor published.", "Even under the guidance of Deyverdun, his German translator, Gibbon became too self-critical and completely abandoned the project after writing only 60 pages of text.", "Soon after abandoning his ''History of Switzerland'', Gibbon made another attempt towards completing a full history.", "His second work, ''Memoires Litteraires de la Grande Bretagne'', was a two-volume set describing the literary and social conditions of England at the time, such as Lord Lyttelton's history of Henry II and Nathaniel Lardner's ''The Credibility of the Gospel History''.", "Gibbon's ''Memoires Litteraires'' failed to gain any notoriety and was considered a flop by fellow historians and literary scholars.Blue plaque to Gibbon on Bentinck Street, LondonAfter he tended to his father's estate—which was in poor condition—enough remained for Gibbon to settle fashionably in London at 7 Bentinck Street free of financial concern.", "By February 1773, he was writing in earnest, but not without the occasional self-imposed distraction.", "He took to London society quite easily, joined the better social clubs (including Dr. Johnson's Literary Club), and looked in from time to time on his friend Holroyd in Sussex.", "He succeeded Oliver Goldsmith at the Royal Academy as 'professor in ancient history', an honorary but prestigious position.", "In late 1774, he was initiated as a Freemason of the Premier Grand Lodge of England.He was also, perhaps least productively in that same year, returned to the House of Commons for Liskeard, Cornwall through the intervention of his relative and patron, Edward Eliot.", "He became the archetypal back-bencher, benignly \"mute\" and \"indifferent,\" his support of the Whig ministry invariably automatic.", "Gibbon lost the Liskeard seat in 1780 when Eliot joined the opposition, taking with him \"the Electors of Leskeard who are commonly of the same opinion as Mr.", "Elliot.\"", "(Murray, p. 322.)", "The following year, owing to the good grace of Prime Minister Lord North, he was again returned to Parliament, this time for Lymington on a by-election.====''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'': 1776–1788====After several rewrites, with Gibbon \"often tempted to throw away the labours of seven years,\" the first volume of what was to become his life's major achievement, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', was published on 17 February 1776.Through 1777, the reading public eagerly consumed three editions, for which Gibbon was rewarded handsomely: two-thirds of the profits, amounting to approximately £1,000.Volumes II and III appeared on 1 March 1781, eventually rising \"to a level with the previous volume in general esteem.\"", "Volume IV was finished in June 1784; the final two were completed during a second Lausanne sojourn (September 1783 to August 1787) where Gibbon reunited with his friend Deyverdun in leisurely comfort.", "By early 1787, he was \"straining for the goal\" and with great relief the project was finished in June.", "Gibbon later wrote:Volumes IV, V, and VI finally reached the press in May 1788, their publication having been delayed since March so it could coincide with a dinner party celebrating Gibbon's 51st birthday (the 8th).", "Mounting a bandwagon of praise for the later volumes were such contemporary luminaries as Adam Smith, William Robertson, Adam Ferguson, Lord Camden, and Horace Walpole.", "Adam Smith told Gibbon that \"by the universal assent of every man of taste and learning, whom I either know or correspond with, it sets you at the very head of the whole literary tribe at present existing in Europe.", "\"In November 1788, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, the main proposer being his good friend Lord Sheffield.In 1783 Gibbon had been intrigued by the cleverness of Sheffield's 12-year-old eldest daughter, Maria, and he proposed to teach her himself.", "Over the following years he continued, creating a girl of sixteen who was both well educated, confident and determined to choose her own husband.", "Gibbon described her as a \"mixture of just observation and lively imagery, the strong sense of a man expressed with the easy elegance of a female\"." ], [ "Later life: 1789–1794", "Gibbon's memorial tablet on the Sheffield Mausoleum in St Andrew & St Mary The Virgin's church in Fletching, East SussexThe years following Gibbon's completion of ''The History'' were filled largely with sorrow and increasing physical discomfort.", "He had returned to London in late 1787 to oversee the publication process alongside Lord Sheffield.", "With that accomplished, in 1789 it was back to Lausanne only to learn of and be \"deeply affected\" by the death of Deyverdun, who had willed Gibbon his home, La Grotte.", "He resided there with little commotion, took in the local society, received a visit from Sheffield in 1791, and \"shared the common abhorrence\" of the French Revolution.", "In 1793, word came of Lady Sheffield's death; Gibbon immediately left Lausanne and set sail to comfort a grieving but composed Sheffield.", "His health began to fail critically in December, and at the turn of the new year, he was on his last legs.Among Edward Gibbon's maladies was gout.", "Gibbon is also believed to have suffered from an extreme case of scrotal swelling, probably a hydrocele testis, a condition that causes the scrotum to swell with fluid in a compartment overlying either testicle.", "In an age when close-fitting clothes were fashionable, his condition led to a chronic and disfiguring inflammation that left Gibbon a lonely figure.", "As his condition worsened, he underwent numerous procedures to alleviate the condition, but with no enduring success.", "In early January, the last of a series of three operations caused an unremitting peritonitis to set in and spread, from which he died.The \"English giant of the Enlightenment\" finally succumbed at 12:45 pm, 16 January 1794 at age 56.He was buried in the Sheffield Mausoleum attached to the north transept of the Church of St Mary and St Andrew, Fletching, East Sussex, having died in Fletching while staying with his great friend, Lord Sheffield.", "Gibbon's estate was valued at approximately £26,000.He left most of his property to cousins.", "As stipulated in his will, Sheffield oversaw the sale of his library at auction to William Beckford for £950.What happened next suggests that Beckford may have known of Gibbon's moralistic, 'impertinent animadversion' at his expense in the presence of the Duchess of Devonshire at Lausanne.", "Gibbon's wish that his 6,000-book library would not be locked up 'under the key of a jealous master' was effectively denied by Beckford who retained it in Lausanne until 1801 before inspecting it, then locking it up again until at least as late as 1818 before giving most of the books back to Gibbon's physician Dr Scholl who had helped negotiate the sale in the first place.", "Beckford's annotated copy of the ''Decline and Fall'' turned up in Christie's in 1953, complete with his critique of what he considered the author's 'ludicrous self-complacency ... your frequent distortion of historical Truth to provoke a gibe, or excite a sneer ... your ignorance of oriental languages etc.", "'." ], [ "Legacy", "A view frequently attributed to Gibbon, that the Roman Empire fell due to its embrace of Christianity, is not widely accepted by scholars today.", "Gibbon argued that with the empire's new Christian character, large sums of wealth that would have otherwise been used in the secular affairs in promoting the state were transferred to promoting the activities of the Church.", "However, the pre-Christian empire also spent large financial sums on religious affairs and it is unclear whether or not the change of religion increased the amount of resources the empire spent on religion.", "Gibbon further argued that new attitudes in Christianity caused many Christians of wealth to renounce their lifestyles and enter a monastic lifestyle, and so stop participating in the support of the empire.", "However, while many Christians of wealth did become monastics, this paled in comparison to the participants in the imperial bureaucracy.", "Although Gibbon further pointed out that the importance Christianity placed on peace caused a decline in the number of people serving the military, the decline was so small as to be negligible for the army's effectiveness.Many scholars argue that Gibbon did not in fact blame Christianity for the empire's fall, rather attributing its decline to the effects of luxury and the consequent erosion of its martial character.", "Such a view echoes the outlook of the Greek historian Polybius, who similarly explained the decadent Greek world's eclipse by the ascendant Roman Republic in Mediterranean affairs.", "In this understanding of Gibbon, the process of Rome's decay was well underway before Christian adherents numbered a large proportion of the empire.", "Hence, although Christianity may have helped hasten Rome's fall (e.g.", "by luring thousands of men to live ascetic lives in the deserts of Egypt in the fourth century), it was not the root cause.Gibbon's work has been criticised for its scathing view of the Christian church as laid down in chapters XV and XVI, a situation that resulted in the banning of the book in several countries.", "Gibbon's alleged crime was disrespecting, and none too lightly, the character of sacred Christian doctrine, by \"treating the Christian church as a phenomenon of general history, not a special case admitting supernatural explanations and disallowing criticism of its adherents\".", "More specifically, the chapters excoriated the church for \"supplanting in an unnecessarily destructive way the great culture that preceded it\" and for \"the outrage of practising religious intolerance and warfare\".Gibbon, in letters to Holroyd and others, expected some type of church-inspired backlash, but the harshness of the ensuing torrents exceeded anything he or his friends had anticipated.", "Contemporary detractors such as Joseph Priestley and Richard Watson stoked the nascent fire, but the most severe of these attacks was an \"acrimonious\" piece by the young cleric, Henry Edwards Davis.Gibbon's apparent antagonism to Christian doctrine spilled over into the Jewish faith, leading to charges of anti-Semitism.", "For example, he wrote:From the reign of Nero to that of Antoninus Pius, the Jews discovered a fierce impatience of the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke out in the most furious massacres and insurrections.", "Humanity is shocked at the recital of the horrid cruelties which they committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the unsuspecting natives; and we are tempted to applaud the severe retaliation which was exercised by the arms of legions against a race of fanatics, whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render them the implacable enemies not only of the Roman government, but also of mankind.===Influence===Henry WaltonGibbon is considered to be a son of the Enlightenment and this is reflected in his famous verdict on the history of the Middle Ages: \"I have described the triumph of barbarism and religion.\"", "However, politically, he aligned himself with the conservative Edmund Burke's rejection of the radical egalitarian movements of the time as well as with Burke's dismissal of overly rationalistic applications of the \"rights of man\".Gibbon's work has been praised for its style, his piquant epigrams and its effective irony.", "Winston Churchill memorably noted in ''My Early Life'', \"I set out upon...Gibbon's ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' and was immediately dominated both by the story and the style.", "...I devoured Gibbon.", "I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all.\"", "Churchill modelled much of his own literary style on Gibbon's.", "Like Gibbon, he dedicated himself to producing a \"vivid historical narrative, ranging widely over period and place and enriched by analysis and reflection.", "\"Unusually for the 18th century, Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible (though most of these were drawn from well-known printed editions).", "\"I have always endeavoured,\" he says, \"to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend.\"", "In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon is considered by many to be one of the first modern historians:In accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable.", "It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive...Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period.The subject of Gibbon's writing, as well as his ideas and style, have influenced other writers.", "Besides his influence on Churchill, Gibbon was also a model for Isaac Asimov in his writing of ''The Foundation Trilogy'', which he said involved \"a little bit of cribbin' from the works of Edward Gibbon\".Evelyn Waugh admired Gibbon's style, but not his secular viewpoint.", "In Waugh's 1950 novel ''Helena'', the early Christian author Lactantius worries about the possibility of \"'a false historian, with the mind of Cicero or Tacitus and the soul of an animal,' and he nodded towards the gibbon who fretted his golden chain and chattered for fruit.\"" ], [ "Monographs by Gibbon", "* ''Essai sur l’Étude de la Littérature'' (London: Becket & De Hondt, 1761).", "* ''Critical Observations on the Sixth Book of Vergil's The Aeneid'' (London: Elmsley, 1770).", "* ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (vol.", "I, 1776; vols.", "II, III, 1781; vols.", "IV, V, VI, 1788–1789).", "all London: Strahan & Cadell.", "* ''A Vindication of some passages in the fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (London: J. Dodsley, 1779).", "* ''Mémoire Justificatif pour servir de Réponse à l’Exposé, etc.", "de la Cour de France'' (London: Harrison & Brooke, 1779)." ], [ "Other writings by Gibbon", "* \"Lettre sur le gouvernement de Berne\" Letter No.", "IX.", "Mr. Gibbon to *** on the Government of Berne, in ''Miscellaneous Works'', First (1796) edition, vol.", "1 (below).", "Scholars differ on the date of its composition (Norman, D.M.", "Low: 1758–59; Pocock: 1763–64).", "* ''Mémoires Littéraires de la Grande-Bretagne''.", "co-author: Georges Deyverdun (2 vols.", ": vol.", "1, London: Becket & De Hondt, 1767; vol.", "2, London: Heydinger, 1768).", "* ''Miscellaneous Works of Edward Gibbon, Esq.", "'', ed.", "John Lord Sheffield (2 vols., London: Cadell & Davies, 1796; 5 vols., London: J. Murray, 1814; 3 vols., London: J. Murray, 1815).", "Includes ''Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Edward Gibbon, Esq.''.", "* of Edward Gibbon'', ed.", "John Murray (London: J. Murray, 1896).", "EG's complete memoirs (six drafts) from the original manuscripts.", "* ''The Private Letters of Edward Gibbon'', 2 vols., ed.", "Rowland E. Prothero (London: J. Murray, 1896).", "* '' The works of Edward Gibbon, Volume 3'' 1906.", "* ''Gibbon's Journal to 28 January 1763'', ed.", "D.M.", "Low (London: Chatto and Windus, 1929).", "* ''Le Journal de Gibbon à Lausanne'', ed.", "Georges A. Bonnard (Lausanne: Librairie de l'Université, 1945).", "* ''Miscellanea Gibboniana'', eds.", "G.R.", "de Beer, L. Junod, G.A.", "Bonnard (Lausanne: Librairie de l'Université, 1952).", "* ''The Letters of Edward Gibbon'', 3 vols., ed.", "J.E.", "Norton (London: Cassell & Co., 1956).", "vol.", "1: 1750–1773; vol.", "2: 1774–1784; vol.", "3: 1784–1794.cited as 'Norton, ''Letters''.", "* ''Gibbon's Journey from Geneva to Rome'', ed.", "G.A.", "Bonnard (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1961).", "journal.", "* ''Edward Gibbon: Memoirs of My Life'', ed.", "G.A.", "Bonnard (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969; 1966).", "portions of EG's memoirs arranged chronologically, omitting repetition.", "* ''The English Essays of Edward Gibbon'', ed.", "Patricia Craddock (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972); hb: ." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Work of J.G.A.", "Pocock'': ''Edward Gibbon'' section* ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Further reading''* ''The Miscellaneous Works of Edward Gibbon''* ''A Gibbon chronology''* Historiography of the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes", "Most of this article, including quotations unless otherwise noted, has been adapted from Stephen's entry on Edward Gibbon in the ''Dictionary of National Biography''." ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* Beer, G. R. de.", "\"The Malady of Edward Gibbon, F.R.S.\"", "''Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London'' 7:1 (December 1949), 71–80.", "* Craddock, Patricia B.", "''Edward Gibbon, Luminous Historian 1772–1794''.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.HB: .", "Biography.", "* Dickinson, H. T. \"The Politics of Edward Gibbon\".", "''Literature and History'' 8:4 (1978), 175–196.", "** Low, D. M., ''Edward Gibbon.", "1737–1794'' (London: Chatto & Windus, 1937).", "* Murray, John (ed.", "), ''The Autobiographies of Edward Gibbon.", "Second Edition'' (London: John Murray, 1897).", "* Norton, J. E. ''A Bibliography of the Works of Edward Gibbon''.", "New York: Burt Franklin Co., 1940, repr.", "1970.", "* Norton, J .E.", "''The Letters of Edward Gibbon''.", "3 vols.", "London: Cassell & Co. Ltd., 1956.", "* Pocock, J. G. A.", "''The Enlightenments of Edward Gibbon, 1737–1764''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.HB: .", "* Pocock, J. G. A.", "''Religion: The First Triumph''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.HB: .", "* Pocock, J. G. A.", "\"Classical and Civil History: The Transformation of Humanism\".", "''Cromohs'' 1 (1996).", "Online at the Università degli Studi di Firenze.", "Retrieved 20 November 2009.", "* Pocock, J. G. A.", "\"The Ironist\".", "Review of David Womersley's ''The Watchmen of the Holy City''.", "''London Review of Books'' 24:22 (14 November 2002).", "Online at the London Review of Books (subscribers only).", "Retrieved 20 November 2009.", "* Gibbon, Edward.", "''Memoirs of My Life and Writings''.", "Online at Gutenberg.", "Retrieved 20 November 2009.", "* Stephen, Sir Leslie, \"Gibbon, Edward (1737–1794)\".", "In the ''Dictionary of National Biography'', eds.", "Sir Leslie Stephen and Sir Sidney Lee.", "Oxford: 1921, repr.", "1963.Vol.", "7, 1129–1135.", "* Womersley, David, ed.", "''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''.", "3 vols.", "(London and New York: Penguin, 1994).", "* Womersley, David.", "\"Introduction,\" in Womersley, ''Decline and Fall'', vol.", "1, xi–cvi.", "* Womersley, David.", "\"Gibbon, Edward (1737–1794)\".", "In the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', eds.", "H.C.G.", "Matthew and Brian Harrison.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.Vol.", "22, 8–18." ], [ "Further reading", "===Before 1985===* Barlow, J. W. (1879).", "“Gibbon and Julian”.", "In: ''Hermathena'', Volume 3, 142–159.Dublin: Edward Posonby.", "* Beer, Gavin de.", "''Gibbon and His World''.", "London: Thames and Hudson, 1968.HB: .", "* Bowersock, G. W., ''et al''.", "eds.", "''Edward Gibbon and the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977.", "* Craddock, Patricia B.", "''Young Edward Gibbon: Gentleman of Letters''.", "Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.HB: .", "Biography.", "* Jordan, David.", "''Gibbon and his Roman Empire''.", "Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1971.", "* Keynes, Geoffrey, ed.", "''The Library of Edward Gibbon''.", "2nd ed.", "Godalming, England: St. Paul's Bibliographies, 1940, repr.", "1980.", "* Lewis, Bernard.", "\"Gibbon on Muhammad\".", "''Daedalus'' 105:3 (Summer 1976), 89–101.", "* Low, D. M. ''Edward Gibbon 1737–1794''.", "London: Chatto and Windus, 1937.Biography.", "* Momigliano, Arnaldo.", "\"Gibbon's Contributions to Historical Method\".", "''Historia'' 2 (1954), 450–463.Reprinted in Momigliano, ''Studies in Historiography'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1966; Garland Pubs., 1985), 40–55.PB: .", "* Porter, Roger J.", "\"Gibbon's Autobiography: Filling Up the Silent Vacancy\".", "''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 8:1 (Autumn 1974), 1–26.", "* Stephen, Leslie, \"Gibbon's Autobiography\" in ''Studies of a Biographer'', Vol.", "1 (1898)* Swain, J. W. ''Edward Gibbon the Historian''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press, 1966.", "* * White, Jr. Lynn, ed.", "''The Transformation of the Roman World: Gibbon's Problem after Two Centuries''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.HB: .===Since 1985===* Berghahn, C.-F., and T. Kinzel, eds., ''Edward Gibbon im deutschen Sprachraum.", "Bausteine einer Rezeptionsgeschichte''.", "Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2015.", "* Bowersock, G. W. ''Gibbon's Historical Imagination''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988.", "* Burrow, J. W. ''Gibbon (Past Masters)''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.HB: .", "PB: .", "* Carnochan, W. Bliss.", "''Gibbon's Solitude: The Inward World of the Historian''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987.HB: .", "* Chaney, Edward, \"Reiseerlebnis und 'Traumdeutung' bei Edward Gibbon und William Beckford\", ''Europareisen politisch-sozialer Eliten im 18.Jahrhundert'', eds.", "J. Rees, W. Siebers and H. Tilgner (Berlin 2002), pp. 243–60.", "* Chaney, Edward, \"Gibbon, Beckford and the Interpretation of ''Dreams, Waking Thoughts, and Incidents''\", ''The Beckford Society Annual Lectures 2000-2003'', ed.", "Jon Millinton (Beckford Society, 2004).", "* Craddock, Patricia B.", "''Edward Gibbon: a Reference Guide''.", "Boston: G. K. Hall, 1987.PB: .", "A comprehensive listing of secondary literature through 1985.See also her supplement covering the period through 1997.", "* Ghosh, Peter R. \"Gibbon Observed\".", "''Journal of Roman Studies'' 81 (1991), 132–156.", "* Ghosh, Peter R. \"Gibbon's First Thoughts: Rome, Christianity and the ''Essai sur l'Étude de la Litterature'' 1758–61\".", "''Journal of Roman Studies'' 85 (1995), 148–164.", "* Ghosh, Peter R. \"The Conception of Gibbon's ''History''\", in McKitterick and Quinault, eds.", "''Edward Gibbon and Empire'', 271–316.", "* Ghosh, Peter R. \"Gibbon's Timeless Verity: Nature and Neo-Classicism in the Late Enlightenment,\" in Womersley, Burrow, Pocock, eds.", "''Edward Gibbon: bicentenary essays''.", "* Ghosh, Peter R. \"Gibbon, Edward 1737–1794 British historian of Rome and universal historian,\" in Kelly Boyd, ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing'' (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999), 461–463.", "* Kapossy, Béla, Lovis, Béatrice (dir.", "), ''Edward Gibbon et Lausanne.", "Le Pays de Vaud à la rencontre des Lumières européennes''.", "Gollion: Infolio, 2022, 528 p.* Levine, Joseph M., \"Edward Gibbon and the Quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns,\" in Levine, ''Humanism and History: origins of modern English historiography'' (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987).", "* Levine, Joseph M. \"Truth and Method in Gibbon's Historiography,\" in Levine, ''The Autonomy of History: truth and method from Erasmus to Gibbon'' (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1999).", "* McKitterick, R., and R. Quinault, eds.", "''Edward Gibbon and Empire''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.", "* Norman, Brian.", "\"The Influence of Switzerland on the Life and Writings of Edward Gibbon,\" in ''Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century'' SVEC v.2002:03.Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2002.", "* O'Brien, Karen.", "\"English Enlightenment Histories, 1750–c.1815\" in .", "* Pocock, J. G. A.", "''Barbarism and Religion'', 4 vols.", ": vol.", "1, ''The Enlightenments of Edward Gibbon, 1737–1764'', 1999 hb: ; vol.", "2, ''Narratives of Civil Government'', 1999 hb: ; vol.", "3, ''The First Decline and Fall'', 2003 pb: ; vol.", "4, ''Barbarians, Savages and Empires'', 2005 pb: .", "all Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "* Porter, Roy.", "''Gibbon: Making History''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989, HB: .", "* Turnbull, Paul.", "\"'Une marionnette infidele': the Fashioning of Edward Gibbon's Reputation as the English Voltaire,\" in Womersley, Burrow, Pocock, eds.", "''Edward Gibbon: bicentenary essays''.", "* Womersley, David P. ''The Transformation of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.HB: .", "* Womersley, David P., John Burrow, and J. G. A. Pocock, eds.", "''Edward Gibbon: bicentenary essays''.", "Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1997.HB: .", "* Womersley, David P. ''Gibbon and the ‘Watchmen of the Holy City’: The Historian and His Reputation, 1776–1815''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.PB: ." ], [ "External links", "* * ** * * * Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire.", "Part 1: The Man and his Book* Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire.", "Part 2: A closer look at The Decline and Fall ( ''archive link'')* DeclineandFallResources.com – Original Maps and Footnote Translations* Biographer Patricia Craddock's comprehensive bibliography through May 1999 (archived 16 July 2012)* Craddock's supplement to her Reference Guide (archived 23 September 2012)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "East Pakistan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''East Pakistan''' was the eastern polity of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, established in 1955 under the One Unit Policy, renaming and restructuring the province as such from East Bengal, which, in modern times, is split between India and Bangladesh.", "Its land borders were with India and Burma, with a coastline on the Bay of Bengal.", "East Pakistanis were popularly known as \"Pakistani Bengalis\"; to distinguish this region from India's state West Bengal (which is also known as \"Indian Bengal\"), East Pakistan was known as \"Pakistani Bengal\".", "In 1971, East Pakistan became the newly independent state Bangladesh, which means \"country of Bengal\" or \"country of Bengalis\" in Bengali language.East Pakistan was renamed from East Bengal by the One Unit Scheme of Pakistani Prime Minister Mohammad Ali of Bogra.", "The Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 replaced the Pakistani monarchy with an Islamic republic.", "Bengali politician H.S.", "Suhrawardy served as the Prime Minister of Pakistan between 1956 and 1957 and a Bengali bureaucrat Iskander Mirza became the first President of Pakistan.", "The 1958 Pakistani coup d'état brought general Ayub Khan to power.", "Khan replaced Mirza as president and launched a crackdown against pro-democracy leaders.", "Khan enacted the Constitution of Pakistan of 1962 which ended universal suffrage.", "By 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman emerged as the preeminent opposition leader in Pakistan and launched the six-point movement for autonomy and democracy.", "The 1969 uprising in East Pakistan contributed to Ayub Khan's overthrow.", "Another general, Yahya Khan, usurped the presidency and enacted martial law.", "In 1970, Yahya Khan organised Pakistan's first federal general election.", "The Awami League emerged as the single largest party, followed by the Pakistan Peoples Party.", "The military junta stalled in accepting the results, leading to civil disobedience, the Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971 Bangladesh genocide and persecution of Biharis.", "East Pakistan seceded with the help of India.The East Pakistan Provincial Assembly was the legislative body of the territory, it was the largest provincial legislature in Pakistan and elections were held only twice in 1954 and 1970.During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, most Bengali members elected to the Pakistani National Assembly and the East Pakistani provincial assembly became members of the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh.", "Due to the strategic importance of East Pakistan, the Pakistani union was a member of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.", "The economy of East Pakistan grew at an average of 2.6% between 1960 and 1965.The federal government invested more funds and foreign aid in West Pakistan, even though East Pakistan generated a major share of exports.", "However, President Ayub Khan did implement significant industrialisation in East Pakistan.", "The Kaptai Dam was built in 1965.The Eastern Refinery was established in Chittagong.", "Dacca was declared as the ''second capital'' of Pakistan and planned as the home of the national parliament.", "The government recruited American architect Louis Kahn to design the national assembly complex in Dacca." ], [ "Etymology", "Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, who did not include Bengal in the coined word \"PAKISTAN\", created a state among many in India in his book ''Now or Never pamphlet'' (1933).", "He called Bengal \"Bang-e-Islam\" (call to prayer of Islam) and included all of Bengal, West Bengal too.", "Bengal was a Muslim-majority province.", "Although he had punned on the word.", "To common Pakistanis it was called \"Oriental Pakistan\" or Islamically, as \"Bangalistan\".", "The word ''Mashriqi'' implies as Eastern.", "Kazim, in his book of reviews, ''Kal ki Baat'' (''Readings Lahore'', 2010), tells us that Aurangzeb's minister Abul Fazl had opined that Bangla was actually '''Bangal''' and that 'al' in it meant enclosure.", "Today, 'aal' is taken to mean home, from a sense of 'outer wall making an enclosure', which is exactly what Bangla-Desh is today." ], [ "History", "===One Unit and Islamic Republic===Suhrawardy (middle) with US President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster DullesIn 1955, Prime Minister Mohammad Ali Bogra implemented the One Unit scheme which merged the four western provinces into a single unit called West Pakistan while East Bengal was renamed as East Pakistan.Pakistan ended its dominion status and adopted a republican constitution in 1956, which proclaimed an Islamic republic.", "The populist leader H. S. Suhrawardy of East Pakistan was appointed prime minister of Pakistan.", "As soon as he became the prime minister, Suhrawardy initiated legal work reviving the joint electorate system.", "There was strong opposition and resentment to the joint electorate system in West Pakistan.", "The Muslim League had taken the cause to the public and began calling for the implementation of a separate electorate system.", "In contrast to West Pakistan, the joint electorate was highly popular in East Pakistan.", "The tug of war with the Muslim League to establish the appropriate electorate caused problems for his government.The constitutionally obliged National Finance Commission Program (NFC Program) was immediately suspended by Prime Minister Suhrawardy despite the reserves of the four provinces of West Pakistan in 1956.Suhrawardy advocated for the USSR-based Five-Year Plans to centralise the national economy.", "In this view, East Pakistan's economy would be quickly centralised and all major economic planning would be shifted to West Pakistan.Efforts leading to centralising the economy were met with great resistance in West Pakistan when the elite monopolist and the business community angrily refused to adhere to his policies.", "The business community in Karachi began its political struggle to undermine any attempts of financial distribution of the US$10 million ICA aid to the better part of East Pakistan and to set up a consolidated national shipping corporation.", "In the financial cities of West Pakistan, such as Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, and Peshawar, a series of major labour strikes against the economic policies of Suhrawardy were supported by the elite business community and the private sector.Furthermore, in order to divert attention from the controversial One Unit Program, Prime Minister Suhrawardy tried to end the crisis by calling a small group of investors to set up small businesses in the country.", "Despite many initiatives and holding off the NFC Award Program, Suhrawardy's political position and image deteriorated in the four provinces in West Pakistan.", "Many nationalist leaders and activists of the Muslim League were dismayed by the suspension of the constitutionally obliged NFC Program.", "His critics and Muslim League leaders observed that with the suspension of the NFC Award Program, Suhrawardy tried to give more financial allocations, aids, grants, and opportunities to East Pakistan than West Pakistan, including West Pakistan's four provinces.", "During the last days of his Prime ministerial years, Suhrawardy tried to remove the economic disparity between the Eastern and Western wings of the country but to no avail.", "He also tried unsuccessfully to alleviate the food shortage in the country.Suhrawardy strengthened relations with the United States by reinforcing Pakistani membership in the Central Treaty Organization and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.", "Suhrawardy also promoted relations with the People’s Republic of China.His contribution in formulating the 1956 constitution of Pakistan was substantial as he played a vital role in incorporating provisions for civil liberties and universal adult franchise in line with his adherence to the parliamentary form of liberal democracy.===Era of Ayub Khan===Elizabeth II, seen here visiting Chittagong in 1961, was Pakistan's Queen until 1956.In 1958, President Iskandar Mirza enacted martial law as part of a military coup by the Pakistan Army's chief Ayub Khan.", "Roughly after two weeks, President Mirza's relations with Pakistan Armed Forces deteriorated leading Army Commander General Ayub Khan relieving the president from his presidency and forcefully exiling President Mirza to the United Kingdom.", "General Ayub Khan justified his actions after appearing on national radio declaring that: \"the armed forces and the people demanded a clean break with the past...\".", "Until 1962, the martial law continued while Field Marshal Ayub Khan purged a number of politicians and civil servants from the government and replaced them with military officers.", "Ayub called his regime a \"revolution to clean up the mess of black marketing and corruption\".", "Khan replaced Mirza as president and became the country’s strongman for eleven years.", "Martial law continued until 1962 when the government of Field Marshal Ayub Khan commissioned a constitutional bench under Chief Justice of Pakistan Muhammad Shahabuddin, composed of ten senior justices, each five from East Pakistan and five from West Pakistan.", "On 6 May 1961, the commission sent its draft to President Ayub Khan.", "He thoroughly examined the draft while consulting with his cabinet.In January 1962, the cabinet finally approved the text of the new constitution, promulgated by President Ayub Khan on 1 March 1962, which came into effect on 8 June 1962.Under the 1962 constitution, Pakistan became a presidential republic.", "Universal suffrage was abolished in favour of a system dubbed 'Basic Democracy'.", "Under the system, an electoral college would be responsible for electing the president and national assembly.", "The 1962 constitution created a gubernatorial system in West and East Pakistan.", "Each province ran its own separate provincial gubernatorial governments.", "The constitution defined a division of powers between the central government and the provinces.", "Fatima Jinnah received strong support in East Pakistan during her failed bid to unseat Ayub Khan in the 1965 presidential election.Dacca was declared as the ''second capital'' of Pakistan in 1962.It was designated as the legislative capital and Louis Kahn was tasked with designing a national assembly complex.", "Dacca's population increased in the 1960s.", "Seven natural gas fields were tapped in the province.", "The petroleum industry developed as the Eastern Refinery was established in the port city of Chittagong.===Six Points===Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announcing the Six PointsIn 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced the six-point movement in Lahore.", "The movement demanded greater provincial autonomy and the restoration of democracy in Pakistan.", "Rahman was indicted for treason during the Agartala Conspiracy Case after launching the six-point movement.", "He was later released in the 1969 uprising in East Pakistan.", "Ayub Khan resigned in March 1969.Below includes the historical six points:===Final years===Surrender of Pakistan in December 1971Muhammad Ayub Khan was replaced by general Yahya Khan who became the Chief Martial Law Administrator.", "Khan organised the 1970 Pakistani general election.", "The 1970 Bhola cyclone was one of the deadliest natural disasters of the 20th century.", "The cyclone claimed half a million lives.", "The disastrous effects of the cyclone caused huge resentment against the federal government.", "After a decade of military rule, East Pakistan was a hotbed of Bengali nationalism.", "There were open calls for self-determination.When the federal general election was held, the Awami League emerged as the single largest party in the Pakistani parliament.", "The League won 167 out of 169 seats in East Pakistan, thereby crossing the half way mark of 150 in the 300-seat National Assembly of Pakistan.", "In theory, this gave the League the right to form a government under the Westminster tradition.", "But the League failed to win a single seat in West Pakistan, where the Pakistan Peoples Party emerged as the single largest party with 81 seats.", "The military junta stalled the transfer of power and conducted prolonged negotiations with the League.", "A civil disobedience movement erupted across East Pakistan demanding the convening of parliament.", "Rahman announced a struggle for independence from Pakistan during a speech on 7 March 1971 and called for a non-cooperation movement from the Bengali populace.", "Between 7–26 March, East Pakistan was virtually under the popular control of the Awami League.", "On Pakistan's Republic Day on 23 March 1971, the first flag of Bangladesh was hoisted in many East Pakistani households.", "Pakistan Army was ordered to immediately launch a crackdown on 26 March whose purpose was to curb the resistance, some of these operations include Operation Searchlight and the 1971 Dhaka University massacre.", "This led to the Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence.As the Bangladesh Liberation War and the 1971 Bangladesh genocide continued for nine months, East Pakistani military units like the East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles defected and formed the Bangladesh Forces.", "The Provisional Government of Bangladesh allied with neighbouring India which intervened in the final two weeks of the war and secured the surrender of Pakistan's eastern command.====Role of the Pakistani military====With Ayub Khan ousted from office in 1969, Commander of the Pakistani Army, General Yahya Khan became the country's second ruling chief martial law administrator.", "Both Bhutto and Mujib strongly disliked General Khan, but patiently endured him and his government as he had promised to hold an election in 1970.During this time, strong nationalistic sentiments in East Pakistan were perceived by the Pakistani Armed Forces and the central military government.", "Therefore, Khan and his military government wanted to divert the nationalistic threats and violence against non-East Pakistanis.", "The Eastern Command was under constant pressure from the Awami League and requested an active-duty officer to control the command under such extreme pressure.", "The high flag rank officers, junior officers, and many high command officers from Pakistan's Armed Forces were highly cautious about their appointment in East-Pakistan, and the assignment of governing East Pakistan and appointment of an officer was considered highly difficult for the Pakistan High Military Command.Third president of Pakistan, Yahya Khan, with Richard Nixon in 1970Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1971East Pakistan's Armed Forces, under the military administrations of Major-General Muzaffaruddin and Lieutenant-General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan, used an excessive amount of show of military force to curb the uprising in the province.", "With such action, the situation became highly critical and civil control over the province slipped away from the government.", "On 24 March, dissatisfied with the performance of his generals, Yahya Khan removed General Muzaffaruddin and General Yaqub Khan from office on 1 September 1969.The appointment of a military administrator was considered quite difficult and challenging with the crisis continually deteriorating.", "Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Navy, had previously served as political and military adviser of East Pakistan to former President Ayub Khan.", "Having such a strong background in administration, and being an expert on East Pakistan affairs, General Yahya Khan appointed Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan as Martial Law Administrator, with absolute authority in his command.", "He was relieved as naval chief and received an extension from the government.The tense relations between East and West Pakistan reached a climax in 1970 when the Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, (Mujib), won a landslide victory in the national elections in East Pakistan.", "The party won 160 of the 162 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 300 seats in the Parliament.", "This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government without forming a coalition with any other party.", "Khan invited Mujib to Rawalpindi to take the charge of the office, and negotiations took place between the military government and the Awami Party.", "Bhutto was shocked with the results and threatened his fellow Peoples Party members if they attended the inaugural session at the National Assembly, famously saying he would \"break the legs\" of any member of his party who dared enter and attend the session.", "However, fearing East Pakistani separatism, Bhutto demanded Mujib to form a coalition government.", "After a secret meeting held in Larkana, Mujib agreed to give Bhutto the office of the presidency with Mujib as prime minister.", "General Yahya Khan and his military government were kept unaware of these developments and under pressure from his own military government, refused to allow Rahman to become the prime minister of Pakistan.", "This increased agitation for greater autonomy in East Pakistan.", "The military police arrested Mujib and Bhutto and placed them in Adiala Jail in Rawalpindi.", "The news spread like a fire in both East and West Pakistan, and the struggle for independence began in East Pakistan.The senior high command officers in Pakistan Armed Forces, and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, began to pressure General Yahya Khan to take armed action against Mujib and his party.", "Bhutto later distanced himself from Yahya Khan after he was arrested by Military Police along with Mujib.", "Soon after the arrests, a high-level meeting was chaired by Yahya Khan.", "During the meeting, high commanders of the Pakistan Armed Forces unanimously recommended an armed and violent military action.", "East Pakistan's Martial Law Administrator Admiral Ahsan, Governor of East Pakistan, and Air Commodore Zafar Masud, Air Officer Commanding of Dacca's only airbase, were the only officers to object to the plans.", "When it became obvious that military action in East Pakistan was inevitable, Admiral Ahsan resigned from his position as martial law administrator in protest, and immediately flew back to Karachi, West Pakistan.", "Disheartened and isolated, Admiral Ahsan took early retirement from the Navy and quietly settled in Karachi.", "Once Operation Searchlight and Operation Barisal commenced, Air Marshal Masud flew to West Pakistan, and unlike Admiral Ahsan, tried to stop the violence in East Pakistan.", "When he failed in his attempts to meet General Yahya Khan, Masud too resigned from his position as AOC of Dacca airbase and took retirement from Air Force.Lieutenant-General Sahibzada Yaqub Khan was sent into East Pakistan in an emergency, following a major blow of the resignation of Vice Admiral Ahsan.", "General Yaqub temporarily assumed the control of the province, he was also made the corps-commander of Eastern Corps.", "General Yaqub mobilised the entire major forces in East Pakistan.Sheikh Mujibur Rahman made a declaration of independence at Dacca on 26 March 1971.All major Awami League leaders including elected leaders of the National Assembly and Provincial Assembly fled to neighbouring India and an exile government was formed headed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.", "While he was in a Pakistan prison, Syed Nazrul Islam was the acting president with Tajuddin Ahmed as the prime minister.", "The exile government took oath on 17 April 1971 at Mujib Nagar, within East Pakistan territory of Kushtia district, and formally formed the government.", "Colonel MOG Osmani was appointed the Commander in Chief of Liberation Forces and whole East Pakistan was divided into eleven sectors headed by eleven sector commanders.", "All sector commanders were Bengali officers who had defected from the Pakistan Army.", "This started the nine-month long Bangladesh Liberation War in which the freedom fighters, joined in December 1971 by 400,000 Indian soldiers, faced the Pakistani Armed Forces of 365,000 plus paramilitary and collaborationist forces.", "An additional approximately 25,000 ill-equipped civilian volunteers and police forces also sided with the Pakistan Armed Forces.", "Bloody guerrilla warfare ensued in East Pakistan.The Pakistan Armed Forces were unable to counter such threats.", "With no intel and low morale, they performed poorly and were inexperienced in guerrilla tactics, Pakistan Armed Forces and their assets were defeated by the Bangladesh Liberation Forces.", "In April 1971, Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan succeeded General Yaqub Khan as the Corps Commander.", "General Tikka Khan led the massive violent and massacre campaigns in the region.", "He is held responsible for killing hundreds of thousands of Bengali people in East Pakistan, mostly civilians and unarmed peoples.", "For his role, General Tikka Khan gained the title of \"Butcher of Bengal\".", "General Khan faced an international reaction against Pakistan, and therefore, General Tikka was removed as Commander of the Eastern front.", "He installed a civilian administration under Abdul Motaleb Malik on 31 August 1971, which proved to be ineffective.", "However, during the meeting, with no high officers willing to assume the command of East Pakistan, Lieutenant-General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi volunteered for the command of East Pakistan.", "Inexperienced and the large magnitude of this assignment, the government sent Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff as Flag Officer Commanding of Eastern Naval Command (Pakistan).", "Admiral Shariff served as the deputy of General Niazi when doing joint military operations.", "However, General Niazi proved to be a failure and ineffective ruler.", "Therefore, General Niazi and Air Commodore Inamul Haque Khan, AOC, PAF Base Dacca, failed to launch any operation in East Pakistan against Indian or its allies.", "Except for Admiral Shariff who continued to keep pressure on the Indian Navy until the end of the conflict.", "Admiral Shariff's effective plans made it nearly impossible for the Indian Navy to land its naval forces on the shores of East Pakistan.", "The Indian Navy was unable to land forces in East Pakistan and the Pakistan Navy was still offering resistance.", "The Indian Army, entered East Pakistan from all three directions of the province.", "The Indian Navy then decided to wait near the Bay of Bengal until the Army reached the shore.The Indian Air Force dismantled the capability of the Pakistan Air Force in East Pakistan.", "Air Commodore Inamul Haque Khan, Dacca airbase's AOC, failed to offer any serious resistance to the actions of the Indian Air Force.", "For the most part of the war, the IAF enjoyed complete dominance in the skies over East Pakistan.On 16 December 1971, the Pakistan Armed Forces surrendered to the joint liberation forces of Mukti Bahini and the Indian Army, headed by Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Arora, the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of the Eastern Command of the Indian Army.", "Lieutenant General AAK Niazi, the last corps commander of Eastern Corps, signed the Instrument of Surrender at about 4:31 pm.", "Over 93,000 personnel, including Lt. General Niazi and Admiral Shariff, were taken as prisoners of war.On 16 December 1971, the territory of East Pakistan was handed over to Indian Army under the surrender agreement from West Pakistan and in the Simla Agreement became the newly independent state of Bangladesh.", "The Eastern Command, civilian institutions, and paramilitary forces were disbanded in the following months." ], [ "Geography", "In contrast to the desert and rugged mountainous terrain of West Pakistan, East Pakistan featured the world's largest delta, 700 rivers, and tropical hilly jungles.", "The Chittagong Division of East Pakistan was home to hill ranges and forests (mainly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet).", "The Khulna Division and parts of the Dacca and Chittagong Divisions were largely Deltaic.", "East Pakistan was almost entirely an alluvial plain which consists of lower course of the Padma and Jamuna.", "Climatically, East Pakistan was essentially humid, hot climate with heavy to very heavy rainfall.", "The implication of East Pakistan's heavy rainfall was that the main crops that were grown in East Pakistan were rice, tea, and jute.===Administrative geography===East Pakistan inherited 17 districts from British Bengal.", "In 1960, Lower Tippera was renamed Comilla.", "In 1969, two new districts were created with Tangail separated from Mymensingh and Patuakhali from Bakerganj.", "East Pakistan's districts are listed in the following.East and West PakistanProvincial Map of East Pakistan, 1962 Division East Pakistani District Current Bangladeshi Districts Dacca Division Dacca District Dhaka Division (without Greater Faridpur) Faridpur District Greater Faridpur Mymensingh District Mymensingh Division, Tangail and Kishoreganj Tangail District Tangail (Part of Greater Mymensingh) Chittagong Division Hill Tracts District Chittagong Hill Tracts Chittagong District Chittagong, Cox's Bazar Comilla (Lower Tippera) District Comilla, Chandpur, Brahmanbaria Noakhali District Noakhali, Feni, Lakshmipur Sylhet District Sylhet, Moulvibazar, Habiganj, Sunamganj Rajshahi Division Bogra District Bogra, Joypurhat Dinajpur District Dinajpur, Thakurgaon, Panchagarh Rajshahi District Rajshahi, Nawabganj, Natore, Naogaon Rangpur District Rangpur Division (without Dinajpur, Thakurgaon, Panchagarh) Pabna District Pabna, Sirajganj Khulna Division Bakerganj District Barisal, Jhalokati, Pirojpur Jessore District Jessore, Jhenaidah, Narail, Magura Khulna District Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat Kushtia District Kushtia, Meherpur, Chuadanga Patuakhali District Patuakhali, Barguna, Bhola" ], [ "Economy", "The Kaptai Dam in 19651971 documentary film about East PakistanPresident Ayub Khan (left) with Bengali industrialist Abul Kashem Khan (right) in ChittagongEntrance to the Adamjee Jute Mills, the world's largest jute processing plant, in 1950At the time of the Partition of British India, East Bengal had a plantation economy.", "The Chittagong Tea Auction was established in 1949 as the region was home to the world's largest tea plantations.", "The East Pakistan Stock Exchange Association was established in 1954.Many wealthy Muslim immigrants from India, Burma, and former British colonies settled in East Pakistan.", "The Ispahani family, Africawala brothers, and the Adamjee family were pioneers of industrialisation in the region.", "Many of modern Bangladesh's leading companies were born in the East Pakistan period.An airline founded in British Bengal, Orient Airways, launched the vital air link between East and West Pakistan with DC-3 aircraft on the Dacca-Calcutta-Delhi-Karachi route.", "Orient Airways later evolved into Pakistan International Airlines, whose first chairman was the East Pakistan-based industrialist Mirza Ahmad Ispahani.By the 1950s, East Bengal surpassed West Bengal in having the largest jute industries in the world.", "The Adamjee Jute Mills was the largest jute processing plant in history and its location in Narayanganj was nicknamed the ''Dundee of the East''.", "The Adamjees were descendants of Sir Haji Adamjee Dawood, who made his fortune in British Burma.Natural gas was discovered in the northeastern part of East Pakistan in 1955 by the Burmah Oil Company.", "Industrial use of natural gas began in 1959.The Shell Oil Company and Pakistan Petroleum tapped 7 gas fields in the 1960s.", "The industrial seaport city of Chittagong hosted the headquarters of Burmah Eastern and Pakistan National Oil.", "Iran, an erstwhile leading oil producer, assisted in establishing the Eastern Refinery in Chittagong.The Comilla Model of the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development (present-day Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development) was conceived by Akhtar Hameed Khan and replicated in many developing countries.In 1965, Pakistan implemented the Kaptai Dam hydroelectric project in the southeastern part of East Pakistan with American assistance.", "It was the sole hydroelectric dam in East Pakistan.", "The project was controversial for displacing over 40,000 indigenous people from the area.The centrally located metropolis Dacca witnessed significant urban growth.Central Dacca in East Pakistan.jpg|Central business district in Dacca, 1960sChittagong port 1960.jpg|Chittagong Port in 1960Dacca East Pakistan 1967.jpg|Baitul Mukarram Market Area, Dacca, 1967Pakistani rupee pre-1971.jpg|Pakistani banknotes included Bengali script until 1971.East Pakistan helicopter poster.jpg|A poster of the East Pakistan Helicopter ServiceStamp of New Dacca Railway Station.jpg|Pakistani Postage stamp issued on the occasion of first anniversary of New Railway Station—Dacca in 1969===Economic discrimination and disparity===Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.", "According to the World Bank, there was much economic discrimination against East Pakistan, including higher government spending on West Pakistan, financial transfers from East to West, and the use of the East's foreign exchange surpluses to finance the West's imports.The discrimination occurred despite the fact that East Pakistan generated a major share of Pakistan's exports.", "Year Spending on West Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees) Spending on East Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees) Amount spent on East as percentage of West 1950–55 11,290 5,240 46.4 1955–60 16,550 5,240 31.7 1960–6533,550 14,040 41.8 1965–70 51,950 21,410 41.2 '''Total''' '''113,340''' '''45,930''' '''40.5''' ''Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970–75, Vol.", "I, published by the planning commission of Pakistan.", "''The annual rate of growth of the gross domestic product per capita was 4.4% in West Pakistan versus 2.6% in East Pakistan from 1960 to 1965.Bengali politicians pushed for more autonomy, arguing that much of Pakistan's export earnings were generated in East Pakistan from the exportation of Bengali jute and tea.", "As late as 1960, approximately 70% of Pakistan's export earnings originated in East Pakistan, although this percentage declined as international demand for jute dwindled.", "By the mid-1960s, East Pakistan was accounting for less than 60% of the nation's export earnings, and by the time Bangladesh gained its independence in 1971, this percentage had dipped below 50%.", "In 1966, Mujib demanded that separate foreign exchange accounts be kept and that separate trade offices be opened overseas.", "By the mid-1960s, West Pakistan was benefiting from Ayub's \"Decade of Progress\" with its successful Green Revolution in wheat and from the expansion of markets for West Pakistani textiles, while East Pakistan's standard of living remained at an abysmally low level.", "Bengalis were also upset that West Pakistan, the seat of the national government, received more foreign aid.", "However, East Pakistan did nonetheless benefit from industrialisation and development, which was discerned by the Kaptai Dam in the Chittagong Hill Tracts for instance.Economists in East Pakistan argued a \"Two Economies Theory\" within Pakistan itself, which was founded on the Two-Nation Theory with India.", "The so-called Two Economies Theory suggested that East and West Pakistan had different economic features which should not be regulated by a federal government in Islamabad." ], [ "Demographics and culture", "''The Daily Ittefaq'', edited by Tofazzal Hossain, was the leading Bengali newspaper in Pakistan.The first Bangladeshi flag was hoisted on 23 March 1971 across East Pakistan, as a protest on Republic Day.East Pakistan was home to 55% of Pakistan's population.", "The largest ethnic group of the province were Bengalis, who in turn were the largest ethnic group in Pakistan.", "Bengali Muslims formed the predominant majority, followed by Bengali Hindus, Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians.", "East Pakistan also had many tribal groups, including the Chakmas, Marmas, Tangchangyas, Garos, Manipuris, Tripuris, Santhals and Bawms.", "They largely followed the religions of Buddhism, Christianity and Hinduism.", "East Pakistan was home to immigrant Muslims from across the Indian subcontinent, including West Bengal, Bihar, Sindh, Gujarat, the Northwest Frontier Province, Assam, Orissa, the Punjab and Kerala.", "A small Armenian and Jewish minority resided in East Pakistan.The Asiatic Society of Pakistan was founded in Old Dacca by Ahmad Hasan Dani in 1948.The Varendra Research Museum in Rajshahi was an important center of research on the Indus Valley civilization.", "The Bangla Academy was established in 1954.Among East Pakistan's newspapers, ''The Daily Ittefaq'' was the leading Bengali language title; while ''Holiday'' was a leading English title.At the time of partition, East Bengal had 80 cinemas.", "The first movie produced in East Pakistan was The Face and the Mask in 1955.Pakistan Television established its second studio in Dacca after Lahore in 1965.Runa Laila was Pakistan's first pop star and became popular in India as well.", "Shabnam was a leading actress from East Pakistan.", "Feroza Begum was a leading exponent of Bengali classical Nazrul geeti.", "Jasimuddin and Abbasuddin Ahmed promoted Bengali folk music.", "Munier Chowdhury, Syed Mujtaba Ali, Nurul Momen, Sufia Kamal and Shamsur Rahman were among the leading literary figures in East Pakistan.", "Several East Pakistanis were awarded the Sitara-e-Imtiaz and the Pride of Performance.===Religion===As per the 1951 census, East Pakistan had a population of 44,251,826 people, of which 34,029,654 followed Islam, 9,757,527 people followed Hinduism and 464,644 people followed other religions: Buddhism, Christianity and Animism.", "According to the 1961 census, Muslims made up 80.4% of the population, Hindus were 18.4%, and the remaining 1.2% belonged to other religions, mainly Christianity and Buddhism.===Ethnic and linguistic discrimination===Bengalis were hugely under-represented in Pakistan's bureaucracy and military.", "In the federal government, only 15% of offices were occupied by East Pakistanis.", "Only 10% of the military were from East Pakistan.", "Cultural discrimination also prevailed, causing the eastern wing to forge a distinct political identity.", "There was a bias against Bengali culture in state media, such as a ban on broadcasts of the works of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore." ], [ "Military", "U.S. Army, c. 1960Since its unification with Pakistan, the East Pakistan Army had consisted of only one infantry brigade made up of two battalions, the 1st East Bengal Regiment and the 1/14 or 3/8 Punjab Regiment in 1948.These two battalions boasted only five rifle companies between them (an infantry battalion normally had 5 companies).", "This weak brigade was under the command of Brigadier Ayub Khan (acting Major-General – GOC of 14th Army Division), together with the East Pakistan Rifles, which was tasked with defending East Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947.The PAF, Marines, and the Navy had little presence in the region.", "Only one PAF combatant squadron, No.", "14 Squadron ''Tail Choppers'', was active in East Pakistan.", "This combatant squadron was commanded by Squadron Leader Parvaiz Mehdi Qureshi, who later became a four-star general.", "The East Pakistan military personnel were trained in combat diving, demolitions, and guerrilla/anti-guerrilla tactics by the advisers from the Special Service Group (Navy) who were also charged with intelligence data collection and management cycle.The East Pakistan Navy had only one active-duty combatant destroyer, the PNS ''Sylhet''; one submarine ''Ghazi'' (which was repeatedly deployed in the West); four gunboats, inadequate to function in deep water.", "The joint special operations were managed and undertaken by the Naval Special Service Group (SSG(N)) who was assisted by the army, air force, and marines unit.", "The entire service, the Marines were deployed in East Pakistan, initially tasked with conducting exercises and combat operations in riverine areas and at the near shoreline.", "The small directorate of Naval Intelligence (while the headquarters and personnel, facilities, and directions were coordinated by West) had a vital role in directing special and reconnaissance missions, and intelligence gathering also was charged with taking reasonable actions to slow down the Indian threat.", "The armed forces of East Pakistan also consisted of the paramilitary organisation, the ''Razakars'' from the intelligence unit of the ISI's Covert Action Division (CAD)." ], [ "Governors", "TenureGovernor of East PakistanPolitical Affiliation14 October 1955 – March 1956Amiruddin Ahmad Muslim LeagueMarch 1956 – 13 April 1958A.", "K. Fazlul Huq Muslim League13 April 1958 – 3 May 1958Muhammad Hamid Ali (acting) Awami League3 May 1958 – 10 October 1958Sultanuddin Ahmad Awami League10 October 1958 – 11 April 1960Zakir Husain Muslim League11 April 1960 – 11 May 1962Lieutenant-General Azam Khan, PA Military Administration11 May 1962 – 25 October 1962Ghulam Faruque Independent25 October 1962 – 23 March 1969Abdul Monem Khan Civil Administration23 March 1969 – 25 March 1969Mirza Nurul Huda Civil Administration25 March 1969 – 23 August 1969Major-General Muzaffaruddin, PA Military Administration23 August 1969 – 1 September 1969Lieutenant-General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan, PA Military Administration1 September 1969 – 7 March 1971Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, PN Military Administration7 March 1971 – 25 March 1971Lieutenant-General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan, PA Military Administration25 March 1971 – 31 August 1971Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, PA Military Administration31 August 1971 – 14 December 1971Abdul Motaleb Malik Independent14 December 1971 – 16 December 1971Lieutenant-General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, PA Military Administration16 December 1971Province of East Pakistan dissolved" ], [ "Chief ministers", "TenureChief Minister of East PakistanPolitical Party20 June 1955 – 30 August 1956Abu Hussain Sarkar1 September 1956 – March 1958Ataur Rahman KhanAwami LeagueMarch 1958Abu Hussain SarkarMarch 1958 – 18 June 1958Ataur Rahman KhanAwami League18 June 1958 – 22 June 1958Abu Hussain Sarkar22 June 1958 – 25 August 1958Governor's Rule25 August 1958 – 7 October 1958Ataur Rahman KhanAwami League7 October 1958Post abolished16 December 1971Province of East Pakistan dissolved" ], [ "Legacy in Pakistan", "The trauma was extremely severe in Pakistan when the news of secession of East Pakistan as Bangladesh arrived—a psychological setback, complete and humiliating defeat that shattered the prestige of the Pakistan Armed Forces.", "The governor and martial law administrator, Lieutenant-General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, was defamed, his image was maligned and he was stripped of his honours.", "The people of Pakistan could not come to terms with the magnitude of the defeat, and spontaneous demonstrations and mass protests erupted on the streets of major cities in (West) Pakistan.", "General Yahya Khan surrendered powers to Nurul Amin of the Pakistan Muslim League, the first and last vice-president and prime minister of Pakistan.Prime Minister Amin invited then-President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and the Pakistan Peoples Party to take control of Pakistan in a colourful ceremony where Bhutto gave a daring speech to the nation on national television.", "At the ceremony, Bhutto waved his fist in the air and pledged to his nation to never again allow the surrender of his country like what happened with East Pakistan.", "He launched and orchestrated the large-scale atomic bomb project in 1972.In memorial of East Pakistan, the East-Pakistan diaspora in Pakistan established the East-Pakistan colony in Karachi, Sindh.", "In accordance, the East-Pakistani diaspora also composed patriotic tributes to Pakistan after the war; songs such as \"Sohni Dharti\" (lit.", "\"Beautiful Land\") and \"Jeevay, Jeevay Pakistan\" (lit.", "\"long-live, long-live Pakistan\"), were composed by Bengali singer Shahnaz Rahmatullah in the 1970s and 1980s.According to William Langewiesche, writing for ''The Atlantic'', \"it may seem obvious that the loss of Bangladesh was a blessing\"—but it has never been seen that way in Pakistan.", "In the book ''Scoop!", "Inside Stories from the Partition to the Present'', Indian politician Kuldip Nayar opined, \"Losing East Pakistan and Bhutto's releasing of Mujib did not mean anything to Pakistan's policy—as if there was no liberation war\".", "Bhutto's policy, and even today the policy of Pakistan, is that \"she will continue to fight for the honour and integrity of Pakistan\"." ], [ "See also", "* The Blood telegram* Bangladesh–Pakistan relations* Indo-Pakistani War of 1971* List of East Pakistan first-class cricketers* Partition of India* Provincial Government of East Pakistan* West Pakistan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Government of Bangladesh* Government of Pakistan" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "E. O. Wilson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Osborne Wilson''' ForMemRS (June 10, 1929 – December 26, 2021) was an American biologist, naturalist, ecologist, and entomologist known for developing the field of sociobiology.Born in Alabama, Wilson found an early interest in nature and frequented the outdoors.", "At age seven, he was partially blinded in a fishing accident.", "Due to his reduced sight, Wilson resolved to study entomology.", "After matriculating at the University of Alabama, Wilson transferred to complete his dissertation at Harvard University, where he distinguished himself in multiple fields.", "In 1956, he co-authored a paper defining the theory of character displacement.", "In 1967, he developed the theory of island biogeography with Robert MacArthur.Wilson was the Pellegrino University Research Professor Emeritus in Entomology for the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, a lecturer at Duke University, and a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.", "The Royal Swedish Academy awarded Wilson the Crafoord Prize.", "He was a humanist laureate of the International Academy of Humanism.", "He was a two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction (for ''On Human Nature'' in 1979, and ''The Ants'' in 1991) and a ''New York Times'' bestselling author for ''The Social Conquest of Earth'', ''Letters to a Young Scientist'', and ''The Meaning of Human Existence''.Wilson's work received both praise and criticism during his lifetime.", "His book ''Sociobiology'' was a particular flashpoint for controversy, and drew criticism from the Sociobiology Study Group.", "Wilson's interpretation of the theory of evolution resulted in a widely reported dispute with Richard Dawkins.", "Examinations of his letters after his death revealed that he had supported the psychologist J. Philippe Rushton, whose work on race and intelligence is widely regarded by the scientific community as deeply flawed and racist." ], [ "Early life", "Edward Osborne Wilson was born on June 10, 1929, in Birmingham, Alabama.", "He was the only child of Inez Linnette Freeman and Edward Osborne Wilson Sr.", "According to his autobiography, ''Naturalist'', he grew up in various towns in the Southern United States which included Mobile, Decatur, and Pensacola.", "From an early age, he was interested in natural history.", "His father was an alcoholic who eventually committed suicide.", "His parents allowed him to bring home black widow spiders and keep them on the porch.", "They divorced when he was seven years old.In the same year that his parents divorced, Wilson blinded himself in his right eye in a fishing accident.", "Despite the prolonged pain, he did not stop fishing.", "He did not complain because he was anxious to stay outdoors, and never sought medical treatment.", "Several months later, his right pupil clouded over with a cataract.", "He was admitted to Pensacola Hospital to have the lens removed.", "Wilson writes, in his autobiography, that the \"surgery was a terrifying 19th century ordeal\".", "Wilson retained full sight in his left eye, with a vision of 20/10.The 20/10 vision prompted him to focus on \"little things\": \"I noticed butterflies and ants more than other kids did, and took an interest in them automatically.\"", "Although he had lost his stereoscopic vision, he could still see fine print and the hairs on the bodies of small insects.", "His reduced ability to observe mammals and birds led him to concentrate on insects.At the age of nine, Wilson undertook his first expeditions at Rock Creek Park in Washington, D.C.", "He began to collect insects and he gained a passion for butterflies.", "He would capture them using nets made with brooms, coat hangers, and cheesecloth bags.", "Going on these expeditions led to Wilson's fascination with ants.", "He describes in his autobiography how one day he pulled the bark of a rotting tree away and discovered citronella ants underneath.", "The worker ants he found were \"short, fat, brilliant yellow, and emitted a strong lemony odor\".", "Wilson said the event left a \"vivid and lasting impression\".", "He also earned the Eagle Scout award and served as Nature Director of his Boy Scouts summer camp.", "At age 18, intent on becoming an entomologist, he began by collecting flies, but the shortage of insect pins during World War II caused him to switch to ants, which could be stored in vials.", "With the encouragement of Marion R. Smith, a myrmecologist from the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, Wilson began a survey of all the ants of Alabama.", "This study led him to report the first colony of fire ants in the U.S., near the port of Mobile.=== Education ===Wilson said he went to 15 or 16 schools during 11 years of schooling.", "Hewas concerned that he might not be able to afford to go to a university, and he tried to enlist in the United States Army, intending to earn U.S. government financial support for his education.", "He failed the Army medical examination due to his impaired eyesight, but was able to afford to enroll in the University of Alabama, where he earned his Bachelor of Science in 1949 and Master of Science in biology in 1950.The next year, Wilson transferred to Harvard University.", "Appointed to the Harvard Society of Fellows, he could travel on overseas expeditions, collecting ant species of Cuba and Mexico and travel the South Pacific, including Australia, New Guinea, Fiji, and New Caledonia, as well as to Sri Lanka.", "In 1955, he received his Ph.D. and married Irene Kelley." ], [ "Career", "Wilson in 2003From 1956 until 1996, Wilson was part of the faculty of Harvard.", "He began as an ant taxonomist and worked on understanding their microevolution, how they developed into new species by escaping environmental disadvantages and moving into new habitats.", "He developed a theory of the \"taxon cycle\".In collaboration with mathematician William H. Bossert, Wilson developed a classification of pheromones based on insect communication patterns.", "In the 1960s, he collaborated with mathematician and ecologist Robert MacArthur in developing the theory of species equilibrium.", "In the 1970s he and biologist Daniel S. Simberloff tested this theory on tiny mangrove islets in the Florida Keys.", "They eradicated all insect species and observed the repopulation by new species.", "Wilson and MacArthur's book ''The Theory of Island Biogeography'' became a standard ecology text.In 1971, he published ''The Insect Societies'', which argued that insect behavior and the behavior of other animals are influenced by similar evolutionary pressures.", "In 1973, Wilson was appointed the curator of entomology at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology.", "In 1975, he published the book ''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis'' applying his theories of insect behavior to vertebrates, and in the last chapter, to humans.", "He speculated that evolved and inherited tendencies were responsible for hierarchical social organization among humans.", "In 1978 he published ''On Human Nature'', which dealt with the role of biology in the evolution of human culture and won a Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.Wilson was named the Frank B. Baird, Jr., Professor of Science in 1976 and, after his retirement from Harvard in 1996, he became the Pellegrino University Professor Emeritus.In 1981 after collaborating with biologist Charles Lumsden, he published ''Genes, Mind and Culture'', a theory of gene-culture coevolution.", "In 1990 he published ''The Ants'', co-written with zoologist Bert Hölldobler, winning his second Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.In the 1990s, he published ''The Diversity of Life'' (1992); an autobiography, ''Naturalist'' (1994); and ''Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge'' (1998) about the unity of the natural and social sciences.", "Wilson was praised for his environmental advocacy, and his secular-humanist and deist ideas pertaining to religious and ethical matters.Wilson was characterized by several titles during his career, including the \"father of biodiversity,\" \"ant man,\" and \"Darwin's heir.\"", "In a PBS interview, David Attenborough described Wilson as \"a magic name to many of us working in the natural world, for two reasons.", "First, he is a towering example of a specialist, a world authority.", "Nobody in the world has ever known as much as Ed Wilson about ants.", "But, in addition to that intense knowledge and understanding, he has the widest of pictures.", "He sees the planet and the natural world that it contains in amazing detail but extraordinary coherence\".=== Disagreement with Richard Dawkins ===Although Dawkins defended Wilson during the so-called \"sociobiology debate\", a disagreement between them arose over the theory of evolution.", "The disagreement began in 2012 when Dawkins wrote a critical review of Wilson's book ''The Social Conquest of Earth'' in ''Prospect Magazine''.", "In the review, Dawkins criticized Wilson for rejecting kin selection and for supporting group selection, labeling it \"bland\" and \"unfocused,\" and he wrote that the book's theoretical errors were \"important, pervasive, and integral to its thesis in a way that renders it impossible to recommend\".", "Wilson responded in the same magazine and wrote that Dawkins made \"little connection to the part he criticizes\" and accused him of engaging in rhetoric.In 2014, Wilson said in an interview, \"There is no dispute between me and Richard Dawkins and there never has been, because he's a journalist, and journalists are people that report what the scientists have found and the arguments I’ve had have actually been with scientists doing research\".", "Dawkins responded in a tweet: \"I greatly admire EO Wilson & his huge contributions to entomology, ecology, biogeography, conservation, etc.", "He's just wrong on kin selection\" and later added, \"Anybody who thinks I'm a journalist who reports what other scientists think is invited to read ''The Extended Phenotype''\".", "Biologist Jerry Coyne wrote that Wilson's remarks were \"unfair, inaccurate, and uncharitable\".", "In 2021, in an obituary to Wilson, Dawkins stated that their dispute was \"purely scientific\".", "Dawkins wrote that he stands by his critical review and doesn't regret \"its outspoken tone\", but noted that he also stood by his \"profound admiration for Professor Wilson and his life work\".=== Support of J. Philippe Rushton ===Prior to Wilson's death, his personal correspondences were donated to the Library of Congress at the library's request.", "Following his death, several articles were published discussing the discrepancy between Wilson's legacy as a champion of biogeography and conservation biology, and his support of scientific racist pseudoscientist J. Philippe Rushton over several years.", "Rushton was a controversial psychologist at the University of Western Ontario, who later headed the Pioneer Fund.From the late 1980s to the early 1990s, Wilson wrote several emails to Rushton's colleagues defending Rushton's work in the face of widespread criticism for scholarly misconduct, misrepresentation of data, and confirmation bias, all of which were allegedly used by Rushton to support his personal ideas on race.", "Wilson also sponsored an article written by Rushton in ''PNAS'', and during the review process, Wilson intentionally sought out reviewers for the article who he believed would likely already agree with its premise.", "Wilson kept his support of Rushton's racist ideologies behind-the-scenes so as to not draw too much attention to himself or tarnish his own reputation.", "Wilson responded to another request from Rushton to sponsor a second PNAS article with the following: \"You have my support in many ways, but for me to sponsor an article on racial differences in the PNAS would be counterproductive for both of us.\"", "Wilson also remarked that the reason Rushton's ideologies were not more widely supported is because of the \"... fear of being called racist, which is virtually a death sentence in American academia if taken seriously.", "I admit that I myself have tended to avoid the subject of Rushton's work, out of fear.", "\"In 2022, the E.O.", "Wilson Biodiversity Foundation issued a statement rejecting Wilson's support of Rushton and racism, on behalf of the board of directors and staff." ], [ "Work", "===''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis'', 1975===Wilson at the Peabody Museum of Natural History, 2007Wilson used sociobiology and evolutionary principles to explain the behavior of social insects and then to understand the social behavior of other animals, including humans, thus establishing sociobiology as a new scientific field.", "He argued that all animal behavior, including that of humans, is the product of heredity, environmental stimuli, and past experiences, and that free will is an illusion.", "He referred to the biological basis of behavior as the \"genetic leash\".", "The sociobiological view is that all animal social behavior is governed by epigenetic rules worked out by the laws of evolution.", "This theory and research proved to be seminal, controversial, and influential.Wilson argued that the unit of selection is a gene, the basic element of heredity.", "The ''target'' of selection is normally the individual who carries an ensemble of genes of certain kinds.", "With regard to the use of kin selection in explaining the behavior of eusocial insects, the \"new view that I'm proposing is that it was group selection all along, an idea first roughly formulated by Darwin.", "\"Sociobiological research was at the time particularly controversial with regard to its application to humans.", "The theory established a scientific argument for rejecting the common doctrine of tabula rasa, which holds that human beings are born without any innate mental content and that culture functions to increase human knowledge and aid in survival and success.====Reception and controversy====''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis'' was initially met with praise by most biologists.", "After substantial criticism of the book was launched by the Sociobiology Study Group, associated with the organization Science for the People, a major controversy known as the \"sociobiology debate\" ensued, and Wilson was accused of racism, misogyny, and support for eugenics.", "Several of Wilson's colleagues at Harvard, such as Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould, both members of the Group, were strongly opposed.", "Both focused their criticism mostly on Wilson's sociobiological writings.", "Gould, Lewontin, and other members, wrote \"Against 'Sociobiology'\" in an open letter criticizing Wilson's \"deterministic view of human society and human action\".", "Other public lectures, reading groups, and press releases were organized criticizing Wilson's work.", "In response, Wilson produced a discussion article entitled \"Academic Vigilantism and the Political Significance of Sociobiology\" in ''BioScience''.In February 1978, while participating in a discussion on sociobiology at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Wilson was surrounded, chanted at and doused with water by members of the International Committee Against Racism, who accused Wilson of advocating racism and genetic determinism.", "Steven Jay Gould, who was present at the event, and Science for the People, which had previously protested Wilson, condemned the attack.Philosopher Mary Midgley encountered ''Sociobiology'' in the process of writing ''Beast and Man'' (1979) and significantly rewrote the book to offer a critique of Wilson's views.", "Midgley praised the book for the study of animal behavior, clarity, scholarship, and encyclopedic scope, but extensively critiqued Wilson for conceptual confusion, scientism, and anthropomorphism of genetics.===''On Human Nature'', 1978===Wilson wrote in his 1978 book ''On Human Nature'', \"The evolutionary epic is probably the best myth we will ever have.\"", "Wilson's fame prompted use of the morphed phrase epic of evolution.", "The book won the Pulitzer Prize in 1979.===''The Ants'', 1990===Wilson, along with Bert Hölldobler, carried out a systematic study of ants and ant behavior, culminating in the 1990 encyclopedic work ''The Ants''.", "Because much self-sacrificing behavior on the part of individual ants can be explained on the basis of their genetic interests in the survival of the sisters, with whom they share 75% of their genes (though the actual case is some species' queens mate with multiple males and therefore some workers in a colony would only be 25% related), Wilson argued for a sociobiological explanation for all social behavior on the model of the behavior of the social insects.Wilson said in reference to ants that \"Karl Marx was right, socialism works, it is just that he had the wrong species\".", "He asserted that individual ants and other eusocial species were able to reach higher Darwinian fitness putting the needs of the colony above their own needs as individuals because they lack reproductive independence: individual ants cannot reproduce without a queen, so they can only increase their fitness by working to enhance the fitness of the colony as a whole.", "Humans, however, do possess reproductive independence, and so individual humans enjoy their maximum level of Darwinian fitness by looking after their own survival and having their own offspring.===''Consilience'', 1998===In his 1998 book ''Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge'', Wilson discussed methods that have been used to unite the sciences and might be able to unite the sciences with the humanities.", "He argued that knowledge is a single, unified thing, not divided between science and humanistic inquiry.", "Wilson used the term \"consilience\" to describe the synthesis of knowledge from different specialized fields of human endeavor.", "He defined human nature as a collection of epigenetic rules, the genetic patterns of mental development.", "He argued that culture and rituals are products, not parts, of human nature.", "He said art is not part of human nature, but our appreciation of art is.", "He suggested that concepts such as art appreciation, fear of snakes, or the incest taboo (Westermarck effect) could be studied by scientific methods of the natural sciences and be part of interdisciplinary research." ], [ "Spiritual and political beliefs", "===Scientific humanism===Wilson coined the phrase ''scientific humanism'' as \"the only worldview compatible with science's growing knowledge of the real world and the laws of nature\".", "Wilson argued that it is best suited to improve the human condition.", "In 2003, he was one of the signers of the ''Humanist Manifesto''.===God and religion===On the question of God, Wilson described his position as \"provisional deism\" and explicitly denied the label of \"atheist\", preferring \"agnostic\".", "He explained his faith as a trajectory away from traditional beliefs: \"I drifted away from the church, not definitively agnostic or atheistic, just Baptist & Christian no more.\"", "Wilson argued that belief in God and the rituals of religion are products of evolution.", "He argued that they should not be rejected or dismissed, but further investigated by science to better understand their significance to human nature.", "In his book ''The Creation'', Wilson wrote that scientists ought to \"offer the hand of friendship\" to religious leaders and build an alliance with them, stating that \"Science and religion are two of the most potent forces on Earth and they should come together to save the creation.", "\"Wilson made an appeal to the religious community on the lecture circuit at Midland College, Texas, for example, and that \"the appeal received a 'massive reply'\", that a covenant had been written and that a \"partnership will work to a substantial degree as time goes on\".In a ''New Scientist'' interview published on January 21, 2015, however, Wilson said that religious faith is \"dragging us down\", and:===Ecology===Wilson said that, if he could start his life over he would work in microbial ecology, when discussing the reinvigoration of his original fields of study since the 1960s.", "He studied the mass extinctions of the 20th century and their relationship to modern society, and identifying mass extinction as the greatest threat to Earth's future.", "In 1998 argued for an ecological approach at the Capitol:From the late 1970s Wilson was actively involved in the global conservation of biodiversity, contributing and promoting research.", "In 1984 he published ''Biophilia'', a work that explored the evolutionary and psychological basis of humanity's attraction to the natural environment.", "This work introduced the word biophilia which influenced the shaping of modern conservation ethics.", "In 1988 Wilson edited the ''BioDiversity'' volume, based on the proceedings of the first US national conference on the subject, which also introduced the term biodiversity into the language.", "This work was very influential in creating the modern field of biodiversity studies.", "In 2011, Wilson led scientific expeditions to the Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique and the archipelagos of Vanuatu and New Caledonia in the southwest Pacific.", "Wilson was part of the international conservation movement, as a consultant to Columbia University's Earth Institute, as a director of the American Museum of Natural History, Conservation International, The Nature Conservancy and the World Wildlife Fund.Understanding the scale of the extinction crisis led him to advocate for forest protection, including the \"Act to Save America's Forests\", first introduced in 1998 and reintroduced in 2008, but never passed.", "The Forests Now Declaration called for new markets-based mechanisms to protect tropical forests.", "Wilson once said destroying a rainforest for economic gain was like burning a Renaissance painting to cook a meal.", "In 2014, Wilson called for setting aside 50% of Earth's surface for other species to thrive in as the only possible strategy to solve the extinction crisis.", "The idea became the basis for his book ''Half-Earth'' (2016) and for the Half-Earth Project of the E.O.", "Wilson Biodiversity Foundation.", "Wilson's influence regarding ecology through popular science was discussed by Alan G. Gross in ''The Scientific Sublime'' (2018).Wilson was instrumental in launching the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) initiative with the goal of creating a global database to include information on the 1.9 million species recognized by science.", "Currently, it includes information on practically all known species.", "This open and searchable digital repository for organism traits, measurements, interactions and other data has more than 300 international partners and countless scientists providing global users' access to knowledge of life on Earth.", "For his part, Wilson discovered and described more than 400 species of ants." ], [ "Retirement and death", "In 1996, Wilson officially retired from Harvard University, where he continued to hold the positions of Professor Emeritus and Honorary Curator in Entomology.", "He fully retired from Harvard in 2002 at age 73.After stepping down, he published more than a dozen books, including a digital biology textbook for the iPad.He founded the E.O.", "Wilson Biodiversity Foundation, which finances the PEN/E.", "O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award and is an \"independent foundation\" at the Nicholas School of the Environment at Duke University.", "Wilson became a special lecturer at Duke University as part of the agreement.Wilson and his wife, Irene, resided in Lexington, Massachusetts.", "He had a daughter, Catherine.", "He was preceded in death by his wife (on August 7, 2021) and died in nearby Burlington on December 26, 2021, at the age of 92." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Wilson at a \"fireside chat\" during which he received the Addison Emery Verrill Medal in 2007Wilson addresses the audience at the dedication of the Biophilia Center named for him at Nokuse Plantation in Walton County, Florida.Wilson's scientific and conservation honors include:* Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, elected 1959* Member of the National Academy of Sciences, elected 1969* Member of the American Philosophical Society, elected 1976.", "* U.S. National Medal of Science, 1977* Leidy Award, 1979, from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia* Pulitzer Prize for ''On Human Nature'', 1979* Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement, 1984* ECI Prize, International Ecology Institute, terrestrial ecology, 1987* Honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Mathematics and Science at Uppsala University, Sweden, 1987* Academy of Achievement Golden Plate Award, 1988* His books ''The Insect Societies'' and ''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis'' were honored with the Science Citation Classic award by the Institute for Scientific Information.", "* Crafoord Prize, 1990, a prize awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences * Pulitzer Prize for ''The Ants'' (with Bert Hölldobler), 1991* International Prize for Biology, 1993* Carl Sagan Award for Public Understanding of Science, 1994* The National Audubon Society's Audubon Medal, 1995* ''Time'' magazine's 25 Most Influential People in America, 1995* Certificate of Distinction, International Congresses of Entomology, Florence, Italy 1996* Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society, 1998.", "* American Humanist Association's 1999 Humanist of the Year* Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science, 2000* Nierenberg Prize, 2001* Distinguished Eagle Scout Award 2004* Dauphin Island Sea Lab christened one of its research vessel the ''R/V E.O.", "Wilson''.", "* Linnean Tercentenary Silver Medal, 2006* Addison Emery Verrill Medal from the Peabody Museum of Natural History, 2007* TED Prize 2007 given yearly to \"honor a maximum of three individuals who have shown that they can, in some way, positively impact life on this planet.", "\"* XIX Premi Internacional Catalunya 2007* E.O.", "Wilson Biophilia Center on Nokuse Plantation in Walton County, Florida 2009 video* The Explorers Club Medal, 2009* 2010 BBVA Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Ecology and Conservation Biology Category* Thomas Jefferson Medal in Architecture, 2010* 2010 Heartland Prize for fiction for his first novel ''Anthill: A Novel''* EarthSky Science Communicator of the Year, 2010* International Cosmos Prize, 2012* Kew International Medal (2014)* Doctor of Science, honoris causa, from the American Museum of Natural History (2014)* 2016 Harper Lee Award* Commemoration in the species' epithet of ''Myrmoderus eowilsoni'' (2018)* Commemoration in the species' epithet of ''Miniopterus wilsoni'' (2020)" ], [ "Main works", "* , coauthored with William Brown Jr.; paper honored in 1986 as a Science Citation Classic, i.e., as one of the most frequently cited scientific papers of all time.", "* ''The Theory of Island Biogeography'', 1967, Princeton University Press (2001 reprint), , with Robert H. MacArthur* ''The Insect Societies'', 1971, Harvard University Press, * ''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis'' 1975, Harvard University Press, (Twenty-fifth Anniversary Edition, 2000 )* ''On Human Nature'', 1979, Harvard University Press, , winner of the 1979 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.", "* ''Genes, Mind and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process'', 1981, Harvard University Press, * ''Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind'', 1983, Harvard University Press, * ''Biophilia'', 1984, Harvard University Press, * ''Success and Dominance in Ecosystems: The Case of the Social Insects'', 1990, Inter-Research, * ''The Ants'', 1990, Harvard University Press, , Winner of the 1991 Pulitzer Prize, with Bert Hölldobler* ''The Diversity of Life'', 1992, Harvard University Press, , ''The Diversity of Life: Special Edition'', * ''The Biophilia Hypothesis'', 1993, Shearwater Books, , with Stephen R. Kellert* ''Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration'', 1994, Harvard University Press, , with Bert Hölldobler* ''Naturalist'', 1994, Shearwater Books, * ''In Search of Nature'', 1996, Shearwater Books, , with Laura Simonds Southworth* ''Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge'', 1998, Knopf, * ''The Future of Life'', 2002, Knopf, * ''Pheidole in the New World: A Dominant, Hyperdiverse Ant Genus'', 2003, Harvard University Press, * ''The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth'', September 2006, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. * ''Nature Revealed: Selected Writings 1949–2006'', * ''The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies'', 2009, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. , with Bert Hölldobler* ''Anthill: A Novel'', April 2010, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. * ''Kingdom of Ants: Jose Celestino Mutis and the Dawn of Natural History in the New World'', 2010, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, with José María Gómez Durán * ''The Leafcutter Ants: Civilization by Instinct'', 2011, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. , with Bert Hölldobler* ''The Social Conquest of Earth'', 2012, Liveright Publishing Corporation, New York, * ''Letters to a Young Scientist'', 2014, Liveright, * ''A Window on Eternity: A Biologist's Walk Through Gorongosa National Park'', 2014, Simon & Schuster, * ''The Meaning of Human Existence'', 2014, Liveright, * ''Half-Earth'', 2016, Liveright, * ''The Origins of Creativity'', 2017, Liveright, * ''Genesis: The Deep Origin of Societies'', 2019, Liveright; * ''Tales from the Ant World'', 2020, Liveright, * ''Naturalist: A Graphic Adaptation'' November 10, 2020, Island Press; ===Edited works===* ''From So Simple a Beginning: Darwin's Four Great Books'', edited with introductions by Edward O. Wilson (2005, W. W. Norton)" ], [ "References", " === Sources ======= Books ====* * ==== Journals ====* * ==== Newspapers ====*" ], [ "External links", "* Curriculum vitae* E.O.", "Wilson Foundation* Review of ''The Social Conquest of Earth''* * * E.O.", "Wilson Biophilia Center* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edwin Howard Armstrong" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edwin Howard Armstrong''' (December 18, 1890 – February 1, 1954) was an American electrical engineer and inventor, who developed FM (frequency modulation) radio and the superheterodyne receiver system.", "He held 42 patents and received numerous awards, including the first Medal of Honor awarded by the Institute of Radio Engineers (now IEEE), the French Legion of Honor, the 1941 Franklin Medal and the 1942 Edison Medal.", "He achieved the rank of major in the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War I and was often referred to as \"Major Armstrong\" during his career.", "He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and included in the International Telecommunication Union's roster of great inventors.", "Armstrong attended Columbia University, and served as a professor there for most of his life." ], [ "Early life", "Armstrong's boyhood home, overlooking the Hudson River in Yonkers, New York, c. 1975Armstrong was born in the Chelsea district of New York City, the oldest of John and Emily (née Smith) Armstrong's three children.", "His father began working at a young age at the American branch of the Oxford University Press, which published bibles and standard classical works, eventually advancing to the position of vice president.", "His parents first met at the North Presbyterian Church, located at 31st Street and Ninth Avenue.", "His mother's family had strong ties to Chelsea, and an active role in church functions.", "When the church moved north, the Smiths and Armstrongs followed, and in 1895 the Armstrong family moved from their brownstone row house at 347 West 29th Street to a similar house at 26 West 97th Street in the Upper West Side.", "The family was comfortably middle class.At the age of eight, Armstrong contracted Sydenham's chorea (then known as St. Vitus' Dance), an infrequent but serious neurological disorder precipitated by rheumatic fever.", "For the rest of his life, Armstrong was afflicted with a physical tic exacerbated by excitement or stress.", "Due to this illness, he withdrew from public school and was home-tutored for two years.", "To improve his health, the Armstrong family moved to a house overlooking the Hudson River, at 1032 Warburton Avenue in Yonkers.", "The Smith family subsequently moved next door.", "Armstrong's tic and the time missed from school led him to become socially withdrawn.From an early age, Armstrong showed an interest in electrical and mechanical devices, particularly trains.", "He loved heights and constructed a makeshift backyard antenna tower that included a bosun's chair for hoisting himself up and down its length, to the concern of neighbors.", "Much of his early research was conducted in the attic of his parents' house.In 1909, Armstrong enrolled at Columbia University in New York City, where he became a member of the Epsilon Chapter of the Theta Xi engineering fraternity, and studied under Professor Michael Pupin at the Hartley Laboratories, a separate research unit at Columbia.", "Another of his instructors, Professor John H. Morecroft, later remembered Armstrong as being intensely focused on the topics that interested him, but somewhat indifferent to the rest of his studies.", "Armstrong challenged conventional wisdom and was quick to question the opinions of both professors and peers.", "In one case, he recounted how he tricked a visiting professor from Cornell University that he disliked into receiving a severe electrical shock.", "He also stressed the practical over the theoretical, stating that progress was more likely the product of experimentation and reasoning than on mathematical calculation and the formulae of \"mathematical physics\".Armstrong graduated from Columbia in 1913, earning an electrical engineering degree.During World War I, Armstrong served in the Signal Corps as a captain and later a major.Following college graduation, he received a $600 one-year appointment as a laboratory assistant at Columbia, after which he nominally worked as a research assistant, for a salary of $1 a year, under Professor Pupin.", "Unlike most engineers, Armstrong never became a corporate employee.", "He set up a self-financed independent research and development laboratory at Columbia, and owned his patents outright.In 1934, he filled the vacancy left by John H. Morecroft's death, receiving an appointment as a professor of Electrical Engineering at Columbia, a position he held the remainder of his life." ], [ "Early work", "===Regenerative circuit===Armstrong's \"feed back\" circuit drawing, from ''Radio Broadcast'' vol.", "1 no.", "1 1922.Armstrong began working on his first major invention while still an undergraduate at Columbia.", "In late 1906, Lee de Forest had invented the three-element (triode) \"grid Audion\" vacuum-tube.", "How vacuum tubes worked was not understood at the time.", "De Forest's initial Audions did not have a high vacuum and developed a blue glow at modest plate voltages; De Forest improved the vacuum for Federal Telegraph.", "By 1912, vacuum tube operation was understood, and regenerative circuits using high-vacuum tubes were appreciated.While growing up, Armstrong had experimented with the early temperamental, \"gassy\" Audions.", "Spurred by the later discoveries, he developed a keen interest in gaining a detailed scientific understanding of how vacuum tubes worked.", "In conjunction with Professor Morecroft he used an oscillograph to conduct comprehensive studies.", "His breakthrough discovery was determining that employing positive feedback (also known as \"regeneration\") produced amplification hundreds of times greater than previously attained, with the amplified signals now strong enough so that receivers could use loudspeakers instead of headphones.", "Further investigation revealed that when the feedback was increased beyond a certain level a vacuum-tube would go into oscillation, thus could also be used as a continuous-wave radio transmitter.Beginning in 1913 Armstrong prepared a series of comprehensive demonstrations and papers that carefully documented his research, and in late 1913 applied for patent protection covering the regenerative circuit.", "On October 6, 1914, was issued for his discovery.", "Although Lee de Forest initially discounted Armstrong's findings, beginning in 1915 de Forest filed a series of competing patent applications that largely copied Armstrong's claims, now stating that he had discovered regeneration first, based on a notebook entry made on August 6, 1912, while working for the Federal Telegraph company, prior to the date recognized for Armstrong of January 31, 1913.The result was an interference hearing at the patent office to determine priority.", "De Forest was not the only other inventor involved – the four competing claimants included Armstrong, de Forest, General Electric's Langmuir, and Alexander Meissner, who was a German national, which led to his application being seized by the Office of Alien Property Custodian during World War I.Following the end of WWI Armstrong enlisted representation by the law firm of Pennie, Davis, Martin and Edmonds.", "To finance his legal expenses he began issuing non-transferable licenses for use of the regenerative patents to a select group of small radio equipment firms, and by November 1920, 17 companies had been licensed.", "These licensees paid 5% royalties on their sales which were restricted to only \"amateurs and experimenters\".", "Meanwhile, Armstrong explored his options for selling the commercial rights to his work.", "Although the obvious candidate was the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), on October 5, 1920, the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company took out an option for $335,000 for the commercial rights for both the regenerative and superheterodyne patents, with an additional $200,000 to be paid if Armstrong prevailed in the regenerative patent dispute.", "Westinghouse exercised this option on November 4, 1920.Legal proceedings related to the regeneration patent became separated into two groups of court cases.", "An initial court action was triggered in 1919 when Armstrong sued de Forest's company in district court, alleging infringement of patent 1,113,149.This court ruled in Armstrong's favor on May 17, 1921.A second line of court cases, the result of the patent office interference hearing, had a different outcome.", "The interference board had also sided with Armstrong, but he was unwilling to settle with de Forest for less than what he considered full compensation.", "Thus pressured, de Forest continued his legal defense, and appealed the interference board decision to the District of Columbia district court.", "On May 8, 1924, that court ruled that it was de Forest who should be considered regeneration's inventor.", "Armstrong (along with much of the engineering community) was shocked by these events, and his side appealed this decision.", "Although the legal proceeding twice went before the US Supreme Court, in 1928 and 1934, he was unsuccessful in overturning the decision.In response to the second Supreme Court decision upholding de Forest as the inventor of regeneration, Armstrong attempted to return his 1917 IRE Medal of Honor, which had been awarded \"in recognition of his work and publications dealing with the action of the oscillating and non-oscillating audion\".", "The organization's board refused to allow him, and issued a statement that it \"strongly affirms the original award\".===Superheterodyne circuit===Armstrong in his Signal Corps uniform during World War IThe United States entered WWI in April 1917.Later that year Armstrong was commissioned as a captain in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, and assigned to a laboratory in Paris, France to help develop radio communication for the Allied war effort.", "He returned to the US in the autumn of 1919, after being promoted to the rank of Major.", "(During both world wars, Armstrong gave the US military free use of his patents.", ")During this period, Armstrong's most significant accomplishment was the development of a \"supersonic heterodyne\" – soon shortened to \"superheterodyne\" – radio receiver circuit.", "This circuit made radio receivers more sensitive and selective and is used extensively today.", "The key feature of the superheterodyne approach is the mixing of the incoming radio signal with a locally generated, different frequency signal within a radio set.", "That circuit is called the mixer.", "The result is a fixed, unchanging intermediate frequency, or I.F.", "signal which is easily amplified and detected by following circuit stages.", "In 1919, Armstrong filed an application for a US patent of the superheterodyne circuit which was issued the next year.", "This patent was subsequently sold to Westinghouse.", "The patent was challenged, triggering another patent office interference hearing.", "Armstrong ultimately lost this patent battle; although the outcome was less controversial than that involving the regeneration proceedings.The challenger was Lucien Lévy of France who had worked developing Allied radio communication during WWI.", "He had been awarded French patents in 1917 and 1918 that covered some of the same basic ideas used in Armstrong's superheterodyne receiver.", "AT&T, interested in radio development at this time, primarily for point-to-point extensions of its wired telephone exchanges, purchased the US rights to Lévy's patent and contested Armstrong's grant.", "The subsequent court reviews continued until 1928, when the District of Columbia Court of Appeals disallowed all nine claims of Armstrong's patent, assigning priority for seven of the claims to Lévy, and one each to Ernst Alexanderson of General Electric and Burton W. Kendall of Bell Laboratories.Although most early radio receivers used regeneration Armstrong approached RCA's David Sarnoff, whom he had known since giving a demonstration of his regeneration receiver in 1913, about the corporation offering superheterodynes as a superior offering to the general public.", "(The ongoing patent dispute was not a hindrance, because extensive cross-licensing agreements signed in 1920 and 1921 between RCA, Westinghouse and AT&T meant that Armstrong could freely use the Lévy patent.)", "Superheterodyne sets were initially thought to be prohibitively complicated and expensive as the initial designs required multiple tuning knobs and used nine vacuum tubes.", "In conjunction with RCA engineers, Armstrong developed a simpler, less costly design.", "RCA introduced its superheterodyne Radiola sets in the US market in early 1924, and they were an immediate success, dramatically increasing the corporation's profits.", "These sets were considered so valuable that RCA would not license the superheterodyne to other US companies until 1930.===Super-regeneration circuit===Armstrong explaining the superregenerative circuit, New York, 1922The regeneration legal battle had one serendipitous outcome for Armstrong.", "While he was preparing apparatus to counteract a claim made by a patent attorney, he \"accidentally ran into the phenomenon of super-regeneration\", where, by rapidly \"quenching\" the vacuum-tube oscillations, he was able to achieve even greater levels of amplification.", "A year later, in 1922, Armstrong sold his super-regeneration patent to RCA for $200,000 plus 60,000 shares of corporation stock, which was later increased to 80,000 shares in payment for consulting services.", "This made Armstrong RCA's largest shareholder, and he noted that \"The sale of that invention was to net me more than the sale of the regenerative circuit and the superheterodyne combined\".", "RCA envisioned selling a line of super-regenerative receivers until superheterodyne sets could be perfected for general sales, but it turned out the circuit was not selective enough to make it practical for broadcast receivers." ], [ "Wide-band FM radio", "\"Static\" interference – extraneous noises caused by sources such as thunderstorms and electrical equipment – bedeviled early radio communication using amplitude modulation and perplexed numerous inventors attempting to eliminate it.", "Many ideas for static elimination were investigated, with little success.", "In the mid-1920s, Armstrong began researching a solution.", "He initially, and unsuccessfully, attempted to resolve the problem by modifying the characteristics of AM transmissions.One approach used frequency modulation (FM) transmissions.", "Instead of varying the strength of the carrier wave as with AM, the frequency of the carrier was changed to represent the audio signal.", "In 1922 John Renshaw Carson of AT&T, inventor of Single-sideband modulation (SSB), had published a detailed mathematical analysis which showed that FM transmissions did not provide any improvement over AM.", "Although the Carson bandwidth rule for FM is important today, Carson's review turned out to be incomplete, as it analyzed only (what is now known as) \"narrow-band\" FM.In early 1928 Armstrong began researching the capabilities of FM.", "Although there were others involved in FM research at this time, he knew of an RCA project to see if FM shortwave transmissions were less susceptible to fading than AM.", "In 1931 the RCA engineers constructed a successful FM shortwave link transmitting the Schmeling–Stribling fight broadcast from California to Hawaii, and noted at the time that the signals seemed to be less affected by static.", "The project made little further progress.Working in secret in the basement laboratory of Columbia's Philosophy Hall, Armstrong developed \"wide-band\" FM, in the process discovering significant advantages over the earlier \"narrow-band\" FM transmissions.", "In a \"wide-band\" FM system, the deviations of the carrier frequency are made to be much larger than the frequency of the audio signal which can be shown to provide better noise rejection.", "He was granted five US patents covering the basic features of the new system on December 26, 1933.Initially, the primary claim was that his FM system was effective at filtering out the noise produced in receivers, by vacuum tubes.Armstrong had a standing agreement to give RCA the right of first refusal to his patents.", "In 1934 he presented his new system to RCA president Sarnoff.", "Sarnoff was somewhat taken aback by its complexity, as he had hoped it would be possible to eliminate static merely by adding a simple device to existing receivers.", "From May 1934 until October 1935 Armstrong conducted field tests of his FM technology from an RCA laboratory located on the 85th floor of the Empire State Building in New York City.", "An antenna attached to the building's spire transmitted signals for distances up to .", "These tests helped demonstrate FM's static-reduction and high-fidelity capabilities.", "RCA, which was heavily invested in perfecting TV broadcasting, chose not to invest in FM, and instructed Armstrong to remove his equipment.Denied the marketing and financial clout of RCA, Armstrong decided to finance his own development and form ties with smaller members of the radio industry, including Zenith and General Electric, to promote his invention.", "Armstrong thought that FM had the potential to replace AM stations within 5 years, which he promoted as a boost for the radio manufacturing industry, then suffering from the effects of the Great Depression.", "Making existing AM radio transmitters and receivers obsolete would necessitate that stations buy replacement transmitters and listeners purchase FM-capable receivers.", "In 1936 he published a landmark paper in the ''Proceedings of the IRE'' that documented the superior capabilities of using wide-band FM.", "(This paper would be reprinted in the August 1984 issue of ''Proceedings of the IEEE''.)", "A year later, a paper by Murray G. Crosby (inventor of Crosby system for FM Stereo) in the same journal provided further analysis of the wide-band FM characteristics, and introduced the concept of \"threshold\", demonstrating that there is a superior signal-to-noise ratio when the signal is stronger than a certain level.In June 1936, Armstrong gave a formal presentation of his new system at the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) headquarters.", "For comparison, he played a jazz record using a conventional AM radio, then switched to an FM transmission.", "A United Press correspondent was present, and recounted in a wire service report that: \"if the audience of 500 engineers had shut their eyes they would have believed the jazz band was in the same room.", "There were no extraneous sounds.\"", "Moreover, \"Several engineers said after the demonstration that they consider Dr. Armstrong's invention one of the most important radio developments since the first earphone crystal sets were introduced.\"", "Armstrong was quoted as saying he could \"visualize a time not far distant when the use of ultra-high frequency wave bands will play the leading role in all broadcasting\", although the article noted that \"A switchover to the ultra-high frequency system would mean the junking of present broadcasting equipment and present receivers in homes, eventually causing the expenditure of billions of dollars.", "\"Armstrong arranged for the construction of a transmission tower in Alpine, New Jersey, near New York City, and financed demonstration operation of W2XMN, the first FM radio station.", "W2MXN's antenna is mounted between the top two tiers, visible as a vertical line at the far upper right.", "In the late 1930s, as technical advances made it possible to transmit on higher frequencies, the FCC investigated options for increasing the number of broadcasting stations, in addition to ideas for better audio quality, known as \"high-fidelity\".", "In 1937 it introduced what became known as the Apex band, consisting of 75 broadcasting frequencies from 41.02 to 43.98 MHz.", "As on the standard broadcast band these were AM stations, but with higher quality audio – in one example, a frequency response from 20 Hz to 17,000 Hz +/- 1 dB – because station separations were 40 kHz instead of the 10 kHz spacings used on the original AM band.", "Armstrong worked to convince the FCC that a band of FM broadcasting stations would be a superior approach.", "That year he financed the construction of the first FM radio station, W2XMN (later KE2XCC) at Alpine, New Jersey.", "FCC engineers had believed that transmissions using high frequencies would travel little farther than line-of-sight distances, limited by the horizon.", "When operating with 40 kilowatts on 42.8 MHz, the station could be clearly heard away, matching the daytime coverage of a full power 50-kilowatt AM station.FCC studies comparing the Apex station transmissions with Armstrong's FM system concluded that his approach was superior.", "In early 1940, the FCC held hearings on whether to establish a commercial FM service.", "Following this review, the FCC announced the establishment of an FM band effective January 1, 1941, consisting of forty 200 kHz-wide channels on a band from 42 to 50 MHz, with the first five channels reserved for educational stations.", "Existing Apex stations were notified that they would not be allowed to operate after January 1, 1941, unless they converted to FM.Although there was interest in the new FM band by station owners, construction restrictions that went into place during WWII limited the growth of the new service.", "Following the end of WWII, the FCC moved to standardize its frequency allocations.", "One area of concern was the effects of tropospheric and Sporadic E propagation, which at times reflected station signals over great distances, causing mutual interference.", "A particularly controversial proposal, spearheaded by RCA, was that the FM band needed to be shifted to higher frequencies to avoid this problem.", "This reassignment was fiercely opposed as unneeded by Armstrong, but he lost.", "The FCC made its decision final on June 27, 1945.It allocated 100 FM channels from 88 to 108 MHz, and assigned the former FM band to 'non government fixed and mobile' (42–44 MHz), and television channel 1 (44–50 MHz), now sidestepping the interference concerns.", "A period of allowing existing FM stations to broadcast on both low and high bands ended at midnight on January 8, 1949, at which time any low band transmitters were shut down, making obsolete 395,000 receivers that had already been purchased by the public for the original band.", "Although converters allowing low band FM sets to receive high band were manufactured, they ultimately proved to be complicated to install, and often as (or more) expensive than buying a new high band set outright.Armstrong felt the FM band reassignment had been inspired primarily by a desire to cause a disruption that would limit FM's ability to challenge the existing radio industry, including RCA's AM radio properties that included the NBC radio network, plus the other major networks including CBS, ABC and Mutual.", "The change was thought to have been favored by AT&T, as the elimination of FM relaying stations would require radio stations to lease wired links from that company.", "Particularly galling was the FCC assignment of TV channel 1 to the 44–50 MHz segment of the old FM band.", "Channel 1 was later deleted, since periodic radio propagation would make local TV signals unviewable.Although the FM band shift was an economic setback, there was reason for optimism.", "A book published in 1946 by Charles A. Siepmann heralded FM stations as \"Radio's Second Chance\".", "In late 1945, Armstrong contracted with John Orr Young, founding member of the public relations firm Young & Rubicam, to conduct a national campaign promoting FM broadcasting, especially by educational institutions.", "Article placements promoting both Armstrong personally and FM were made with general circulation publications including ''The Nation'', ''Fortune'', ''The New York Times'', ''Atlantic Monthly'', and ''The Saturday Evening Post''.In 1940, RCA offered Armstrong $1,000,000 for a non-exclusive, royalty-free license to use his FM patents.", "He refused this offer, because he felt this would be unfair to the other licensed companies, which had to pay 2% royalties on their sales.", "Over time this impasse with RCA dominated Armstrong's life.", "RCA countered by conducting its own FM research, eventually developing what it claimed was a non-infringing FM system.", "The corporation encouraged other companies to stop paying royalties to Armstrong.", "Outraged by this, in 1948 Armstrong filed suit against RCA and the National Broadcasting Company, accusing them of patent infringement and that they had \"deliberately set out to oppose and impair the value\" of his invention, for which he requested treble damages.", "Although he was confident that this suit would be successful and result in a major monetary award, the protracted legal maneuvering that followed eventually began to impair his finances, especially after his primary patents expired in late 1950." ], [ "FM radar", "During World War II, Armstrong turned his attention to investigations of continuous-wave FM radar funded by government contracts.", "Armstrong hoped that the interference fighting characteristic of wide-band FM and a narrow receiver bandwidth to reduce noise would increase range.", "Primary development took place at Armstrong's Alpine, NJ laboratory.", "A duplicate set of equipment was sent to the U.S. Army's Evans Signal Laboratory.", "The results of his investigations were inconclusive, the war ended, and the project was dropped by the Army.Under the name Project Diana, the Evans staff took up the possibility of bouncing radar signals off the moon.", "Calculations showed that standard pulsed radar like the stock SCR-271 would not do the job; higher average power, much wider transmitter pulses, and very narrow receiver bandwidth would be required.", "They realized that the Armstrong equipment could be modified to accomplish the task.", "The FM modulator of the transmitter was disabled and the transmitter keyed to produce quarter-second CW pulses.", "The narrow-band (57 Hz) receiver, which tracked the transmitter frequency, got an incremental tuning control to compensate for the possible 300 Hz Doppler shift on the lunar echoes.", "They achieved success on 10 January 1946." ], [ "Death", "Bitter and overtaxed by years of litigation and mounting financial problems, Armstrong lashed out at his wife one day with a fireplace poker, striking her on the arm.", "She left their apartment to stay with her sister.Sometime during the night of January 31February 1, 1954, Armstrong jumped to his death from a window in his 12-room apartment on the 13th floor of River House in Manhattan, New York City.", "The ''New York Times'' described the contents of his two-page suicide note to his wife: \"he was heartbroken at being unable to see her once again, and expressing deep regret at having hurt her, the dearest thing in his life.\"", "The note concluded, \"God keep you and Lord have mercy on my Soul.\"", "David Sarnoff disclaimed any responsibility, telling Carl Dreher directly that \"I did not kill Armstrong.\"", "After his death, a friend of Armstrong estimated that 90 percent of his time was spent on litigation against RCA.", "U.S.", "Senator Joseph McCarthy (R-Wisconsin) reported that Armstrong had recently met with one of his investigators, and had been \"mortally afraid\" that secret radar discoveries by him and other scientists \"were being fed to the Communists as fast as they could be developed\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Following her husband's death, Marion Armstrong took charge of pursuing his estate's legal cases.", "In late December 1954, it was announced that through arbitration a settlement of \"approximately $1,000,000\" had been made with RCA.", "Dana Raymond of Cravath, Swaine & Moore in New York served as counsel in that litigation.", "Marion Armstrong was able to formally establish Armstrong as the inventor of FM following protracted court proceedings over five of his basic FM patents, with a series of successful suits, which lasted until 1967, against other companies that were found guilty of infringement.It was not until the 1960s that FM stations in the United States started to challenge the popularity of the AM band, helped by the development of FM stereo by General Electric, followed by the FCC's FM Non-Duplication Rule, which limited large-city broadcasters with AM and FM licenses to simulcasting on those two frequencies for only half of their broadcast hours.", "Armstrong's FM system was also used for communications between NASA and the Apollo program astronauts.A US Postage Stamp was released in his honor in 1983 in a series commemorating American Inventors.Armstrong has been called \"the most prolific and influential inventor in radio history\".", "The superheterodyne process is still extensively used by radio equipment.", "Eighty years after its invention, FM technology has started to be supplemented, and in some cases replaced, by more efficient digital technologies.", "The introduction of digital television eliminated the FM audio channel that had been used by analog television, HD Radio has added digital sub-channels to FM band stations, and, in Europe and Pacific Asia, Digital Audio Broadcasting bands have been created that will, in some cases, eliminate existing FM stations altogether.", "However, FM broadcasting is still used internationally, and remains the dominant system employed for audio broadcasting services." ], [ "Personal life", "Armstrong and his new wife Esther Marion MacInnis in Palm Beach in 1923.The radio is a portable superheterodyne that Armstrong built as a present for her.In 1923, combining his love for high places with courtship rituals, Armstrong climbed the WJZ (now WABC) antenna located atop a 20-story building in New York City, where he reportedly did a handstand, and when a witness asked him what motivated him to \"do these damnfool things\", Armstrong replied \"I do it because the spirit moves me.\"", "Armstrong had arranged to have photographs taken, which he had delivered to David Sarnoff's secretary, Marion MacInnis.", "Armstrong and MacInnis married later that year.", "Armstrong bought a Hispano-Suiza motor car before the wedding, which he kept until his death, and which he drove to Palm Beach, Florida for their honeymoon.", "A publicity photograph was made of him presenting Marion with the world's first portable superheterodyne radio as a wedding gift.He was an avid tennis player until an injury in 1940, and drank an Old Fashioned with dinner.", "Politically, he was described by one of his associates as \"a revolutionist only in technology – in politics he was one of the most conservative of men.", "\"In 1955, Marion Armstrong founded the Armstrong Memorial Research Foundation, and participated in its work until her death in 1979 at the age of 81.She was survived by two nephews and a niece.Among Armstrong's living relatives are Steven McGrath, of Cape Elizabeth, Maine, formerly energy advisor to Maine's Governor, and Adam Brecht, a media executive in New York City, whose paternal great-grandfather, John Frank MacInnis, was the brother of Marion Armstrong.", "Edwin Howard Armstrong's niece, Jeanne Hammond, who represented the family in the Ken Burns documentary \"Empire of the Air\", died on May 1, 2019, in Scarborough, Maine.", "Ms. Hammond worked in her uncle's radio laboratory at Columbia University for several years following her graduation from Wellesley College in 1943." ], [ "Honors", "The Philosophy Hall at Columbia University, in the basement of which Armstrong developed FM radio.In 1917, Armstrong was the first recipient of the IRE's (now IEEE) Medal of Honor.For his wartime work on radio, the French government gave him the Legion of Honor in 1919.He was awarded the 1941 Franklin Medal, and in 1942 received the AIEEs Edison Medal \"for distinguished contributions to the art of electric communication, notably the regenerative circuit, the superheterodyne, and frequency modulation.\"", "The ITU added him to its roster of great inventors of electricity in 1955.He later received two honorary doctorates, from Columbia in 1929, and Muhlenberg College in 1941.In 1980, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, and appeared on a U.S. postage stamp in 1983.The Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame inducted him in 2000, \"in recognition of his contributions and pioneering spirit that have laid the foundation for consumer electronics.\"", "Columbia University established the Edwin Howard Armstrong Professorship in the School of Engineering and Applied Science in his memory.Philosophy Hall, the Columbia building where Armstrong developed FM, was declared a National Historic Landmark.", "Armstrong's boyhood home in Yonkers, New York was recognized by the National Historic Landmark program and the National Register of Historic Places, although this was withdrawn when the house was demolished.Armstrong Hall at Columbia was named in his honor.", "The hall, located at the northeast corner of Broadway and 112th Street, was originally an apartment house but was converted to research space after being purchased by the university.", "It is currently home to the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, a research institute dedicated to atmospheric and climate science that is jointly operated by Columbia and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.", "A storefront in a corner of the building houses Tom's Restaurant, a longtime neighborhood fixture that inspired Susanne Vega's song \"Tom's Diner\" and was used for establishing shots for the fictional \"Monk's diner\" in the \"Seinfeld\" television series.A second Armstrong Hall, also named for the inventor, is located at the United States Army Communications and Electronics Life Cycle Management Command (CECOM-LCMC) Headquarters at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland." ], [ "Patents", "E. H. Armstrong patents:* : \"Frequency Modulation Multiplex System\"* : \"Radio Signaling\"* : \"Frequency-Modulated Carrier Signal Receiver\"* : \"Frequency Modulation Signaling System\"* : \"Means for Receiving Radio Signals\"* : \"Method and Means for Transmitting Frequency Modulated Signals\"* : \"Current Limiting Device\"* : \"Frequency Modulation System\"* : \"Radio Rebroadcasting System\"* : \"Means and Method for Relaying Frequency Modulated Signals\"* : \"Means and Method for Relaying Frequency Modulated Signals\"* : \"Frequency Modulation Signaling System\"* : \"Radio Transmitting System\"* : \"Radio Transmitting System\"* : \"Radio Transmitting System\"* : \"Frequency Changing System\"* : \"Radio Receiving System\"* : \"Radio Receiving System\"* : \"Multiplex Radio Signaling System\"* : \"Radio Signaling System\"* : \"Radio Transmitting System\"* : \"Phase Control System\"* : \"Radio Signaling System\"* : \"Radio Transmitting System\"* : \"Radio Signaling System\"* : \"Radio Telephone Signaling\"* : \"Radiosignaling\" * : \"Radiosignaling\" * : \"Radio Broadcasting and Receiving System\" * : \"Radio Signaling System\" * : \"Wave Signaling System\"* : \"Wave Signaling System\"* : \"Wireless Receiving System for Continuous Wave\"* : \"Wave Signaling System\"* : \"Wave Signaling System\"* : \"Wave Signaling System\"* : \"Wave Signaling System\"* : \"Wave Signaling System\"* : \"Signaling System\"* : \"Radioreceiving System Having High Selectivity\"* : \"Selectively Opposing Impedance to Received Electrical Oscillations\" * : \"Multiple Antenna for Electrical Wave Transmission\"* : \"Method of Receiving High Frequency Oscillation\"* : \"Antenna with Distributed Positive Resistance\"* : \"Electric Wave Transmission\" (Note: Co-patentee with Mihajlo Pupin)* : \"Wireless Receiving System\" U.S. Patent and Trademark Office Database SearchThe following patents were issued to Armstrong's estate after his death:* : \"Radio detection and ranging systems\" 1956 * : \"Multiplex frequency modulation transmitter\" 1956* : \"Linear detector for subcarrier frequency modulated waves\" 1958* : \"Noise reduction in phase shift modulation\" 1959* : \"Stabilized multiple frequency modulation receiver\" 1959" ], [ "See also", "*Awards named after E. H. Armstrong*Grid-leak detector" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Frost, Gary L. (2010), ''Early FM Radio: Incremental Technology in Twentieth-Century America.''", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010., .", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ira Brodsky.", "''The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses.''", "St. Louis: Telescope Books, 2008.", "* Ken Burns.", "Empire of the Air .", "Documentary that first aired on PBS in 1992.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Armstrong Memorial Research Foundation – The Armstrong Foundation disseminates knowledge of Armstrong's research and achievements* Houck Collection – A collection of images and documents that belonged to Armstrong's assistant, Harry W. Houck, which have been annotated by Mike Katzdorn.", "* Rare Book & Manuscript Library Collections – A collection of images and documents at Columbia University* Biography* The Broadcast Archive – A brief biography by Donna Halper* Ammon, Richard T., \"'' The Rolls Royce Of Reception : Super Heterodynes – 1918 to 1930''\".", "* IEEE History Center's Edwin H. Armstrong : Excerpt from \"The Legacy of Edwin Howard Armstrong,\" by J. E. Brittain Proceedings of the IEEE, vol.", "79, no.", "2, February 1991* Hong, Sungook, \"'' A History of the Regeneration Circuit: From Invention to Patent Litigation''\" University, Seoul, Korea (PDF)* Who Invented the Superhetrodyne?", "The history of the invention of the superhetrodyne receiver and related patent disputes* Yannis Tsividis, \" Edwin Armstrong: Pioneer of the Airwaves\", 2002.A profile on the web site of Columbia University, Armstrong's alma mater" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EverQuest" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''EverQuest''''' is a 3D fantasy-themed massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) originally developed by Verant Interactive and 989 Studios for Windows PCs.", "It was released by Sony Online Entertainment in March 1999 in North America, and by Ubisoft in Europe in April 2000.A dedicated version for Mac OS X was released in June 2003, which operated for ten years before being shut down in November 2013.In June 2000, Verant Interactive was absorbed into Sony Online Entertainment, who took over full development and publishing duties of the title.", "Later, in February 2015, SOE's parent corporation, Sony Computer Entertainment, sold the studio to investment company Columbus Nova and it was rebranded as Daybreak Game Company, which continues to develop and publish ''EverQuest''.It was the first commercially successful MMORPG to employ a 3D game engine, and its success was on an unprecedented scale.", "''EverQuest'' has had a wide influence on subsequent releases within the market, and holds an important position in the history of massively multiplayer online games.The game surpassed early subscription expectations and increased in popularity for many years after its release.", "It is now considered one of the greatest video games ever made.", "It has received numerous awards, including the 1999 GameSpot Game of the Year and a 2007 Technology & Engineering Emmy Award.", "While dozens of similar games have come and gone over the years, ''EverQuest'' still endures as a viable commercial enterprise with new expansions still being released on a regular basis, over twenty years after its initial launch.", "It has spawned a number of spin-off media, including books and video games, as well as a sequel, ''EverQuest II'', which launched in 2004." ], [ "Gameplay", "Many of the elements in ''EverQuest'' have been drawn from text-based MUD (Multi-User Dungeon) games, particularly DikuMUDs, which in turn were inspired by traditional role-playing games such as ''Dungeons & Dragons''.", "In ''EverQuest'', players create a character (also known as an avatar, or colloquially as a ''char'' or ''toon'') by selecting one of twelve races in the game, which were humans, high-elves, wood-elves, half-elves, dark-elves, erudites, barbarians, dwarves, halflings, gnomes, ogres, and trolls.", "In the first expansion, lizard-people (Iksar) were introduced.", "Cat-people (Vah Shir), frog-people (Froglok), and dragon-people (Drakkin) were all introduced in later expansions.", "At creation, players select each character's adventuring occupation (such as a wizard, ranger, or cleric — called a ''class'' — see below for particulars), a patron deity, and starting city.", "Customization of the character facial appearance is available at creation (hair, hair color, face style, facial hair, facial hair color, eye color, etc.", ").A Sand Giant engaging a group in the Oasis of Marr, a desert zone.", "The low-polygon character models and simple user interface suggest this screenshot was taken between 1999 and 2002.Players move their character throughout the medieval fantasy world of Norrath, often fighting monsters and enemies for treasure and experience points, and optionally mastering trade skills.", "As they progress, players advance in level, gaining power, prestige, spells, and abilities through valorous deeds such as entering overrun castles and keeps, defeating worthy opponents found within, and looting their remains.", "Experience and prestigious equipment can also be obtained by completing quests given out by non-player characters found throughout the land.", "''EverQuest'' allows players to interact with other people through role-play, joining player guilds, and dueling other players (in restricted situations – ''EverQuest'' only allows player versus player (PVP) combat on the PvP-specific server, specified arena zones and through agreed upon dueling).The game-world of ''EverQuest'' consists of over five hundred zones.Multiple instances of the world exist on various servers.", "In the past, game server populations were visible during log-in, and showed peaks of more than 3000 players per server.", "The design of ''EverQuest'', like other massively multiplayer online role-playing games, makes it highly amenable to cooperative play, with each player having a specific role within a given group.===Classes===''EverQuest'' featured fourteen playable character classes upon release in 1999, with two others - Beastlord and Berzerker - added in the ''Shadows of Luclin'' (2001) and ''Gates of Discord'' (2004) expansions, respectively.", "Each class falls within one of four general categories based on playstyle and the type of abilities they use, with certain classes being restricted to particular races.Melee classes are those which fight at close quarters and often use direct physical attacks as opposed to magic.", "These include the Warrior, a tank-based character which wears heavy armor and is designed to take damage for its group using a taunt ability; the Monk, a character which uses a combination of martial arts and barehanded fighting techniques; the Rogue, a combination of thief and assassin classes which can sneak and hide in the shadows as well as steal from enemies; and the Berserker, a strong fighter who specialize in two-handed weapons such as axes and are able to enter a state of increased fury and power.Priest classes are primarily healers who learn magic that can heal their allies or themselves.", "The Priest classes are made up of the Cleric, a heavily specialized support class that wears heavy armor and is adept at healing and strengthening their allies; the Druid, a magic-user who draws power from nature which can restore the vitality and magic power of their teammates; and the Shaman, tribal warriors who draw upon the spirit realm to heal, empower those around them, and weaken their enemies.Casters are magic-users and sorcerers which wear light armor but command powerful spells.", "Those among them include the Wizard, a specialized damage-dealing class which uses the power of fire, ice, and pure magic energy for devastating effect as well as teleportation abilities; the Magician, a summoner who is able to call upon elemental servants which aid them in dealing damage; the Necromancer, a dark caster who uses the power of disease and poison to wither away their opponents while commanding undead allies to aid them; and the Enchanter, an illusionist who can take on many forms, support allies with strengthening spells, and pacify enemies with mesmerizing abilities.Hybrid classes are those which can perform multiple roles or have abilities of various types.", "These include Paladins, knights who possess the ability to take damage or heal with magic or laying on of hands; Shadowknights, dark warriors who use a combination of melee attacks and disease/poison abilities to damage foes as well as take damage for the party; the Bard, a minstrel who is able to use magical songs for a number of effects - including damaging enemies, strengthening allies, and improving the movement speed of themselves and others; Rangers, protectors of nature who learn healing and support magic in addition to being able to damage enemies in close combat or at a distance with bows and arrows; and Beastlords, primal fighters who are constantly joined by their animal wards which help them deal damage, and can assist their teammates with healing and support skills.===Deities===There are several deities in ''EverQuest'' who each have a certain area of responsibility and play a role in the backstory of the game setting.", "A wide array of armor and weapons are tied to certain deities, making it only possible for those who worship that specific deity to wear/equip them.", "Additionally, deities determine, to some extent, where characters may and may not go without being attacked on sight by the deity's minions and devoted followers.===Zones===The ''EverQuest'' universe is divided into more than five hundred zones.", "These zones represent a wide variety of geographical features, including plains, oceans, cities, deserts, and other planes of existence.", "One of the most popular zones in the game is the Plane of Knowledge, one of the few zones in which all races and classes can coexist harmoniously without interference.", "The Plane of Knowledge is also home to portals to many other zones, including portals to other planes and to the outskirts of nearly every starting city." ], [ "History", "===Development===''EverQuest'' began as a concept by John Smedley in 1996.The original design is credited to Brad McQuaid, Steve Clover, and Bill Trost.", "It was developed by Sony's 989 Studios and its early-1999 spin-off Verant Interactive, and published by Sony Online Entertainment (SOE).", "Since its acquisition of Verant in late 1999, EverQuest was developed by Sony Online Entertainment.The design and concept of ''EverQuest'' is heavily indebted to text-based MUDs, in particular DikuMUD, and as such ''EverQuest'' is considered a 3D evolution of the text MUD genre like some of the MMOs that preceded it, such as ''Meridian 59'' and ''The Realm Online''.", "John Smedley, Brad McQuaid, Steve Clover and Bill Trost, who jointly are credited with creating the world of ''EverQuest'', have repeatedly pointed to their shared experiences playing MUDs such as ''Sojourn'' and ''TorilMUD'' as the inspiration for the game.", "Famed book cover illustrator Keith Parkinson created the box covers for earlier installments of ''EverQuest''.Development of ''EverQuest'' began in 1996 when Sony Interactive Studios America (SISA) executive John Smedley secured funding for a 3D game like text-based MUDs following the successful launch of ''Meridian 59'' the previous year.", "To implement the design, Smedley hired programmers Brad McQuaid and Steve Clover, who had come to Smedley's attention through their work on the single player RPG ''Warwizard''.", "McQuaid soon rose through the ranks to become executive producer for the ''EverQuest'' franchise and emerged during development of ''EverQuest'' as a popular figure among the fan community through his in-game avatar, Aradune.", "Other key members of the development team included Bill Trost, who created the history, lore and major characters of Norrath (including ''EverQuest'' protagonist Firiona Vie), Geoffrey \"GZ\" Zatkin, who implemented the spell system, and artist Milo D. Cooper, who did the original character modeling in the game.The start of beta testing was announced by Brad McQuaid in November 1997.===Release===''EverQuest'' launched with modest expectations from Sony on 16 March 1999 under its Verant Interactive brand and quickly became successful.", "By the end of the year, it had surpassed competitor ''Ultima Online'' in number of subscriptions.", "Numbers continued rising rapidly until mid-2001 when growth slowed.", "The game initially launched with volunteer \"Guides\" who would act as basic customer service/support via 'petitions'.", "Issues could be forwarded to the Game Master assigned to the server or resolved by the volunteer.", "Other guides would serve in administrative functions within the program or assisting the Quest Troupe with dynamic and persistent live events throughout the individual servers.", "Volunteers were compensated with free subscription and expansions to the game.", "In 2003 the program changed for the volunteer guides taking them away from the customer service focus and placing them into their current roles as roving 'persistent characters' role-playing with the players.In anticipation of PlayStation's launch, Sony Interactive Studios America made the decision to focus primarily on console titles under the banner 989 Studios, while spinning off its sole computer title, ''EverQuest'', which was ready to launch, to a new computer game division named Redeye (renamed Verant Interactive).", "Executives initially had very low expectations for ''EverQuest'', but in 2000, following the surprising continued success and unparalleled profits of ''EverQuest'', Sony reorganized Verant Interactive into Sony Online Entertainment (SOE) with Smedley retaining control of the company.", "Many of the original ''EverQuest'' team, including Brad McQuaid and Steve Clover left SOE by 2002.===Growth and sequels===The first four expansions were released in traditional physical boxes at roughly one-year intervals.", "These were highly ambitious and offered huge new landmasses, new playable races and new classes.", "The expansion ''Shadows of Luclin'' (2001) gave a significant facelift to player character models, bringing the dated 1999 graphics up to modern standards.", "However, non-player characters which do not correspond to any playable race-gender-class combination (such as vendors) were not updated, leading to the coexistence of 1999-era and 2001-era graphics in many locations.", "The expansion ''Planes of Power'' (2002) introduced The Plane of Knowledge, a hub zone from which players could quickly teleport to many other destinations.", "This made the pre-existing roads and ships largely redundant, and long-distance overland travel is now virtually unheard of.", "''EverQuest'' made a push to enter the European market in 2002 with the ''New Dawn'' promotional campaign, which not only established local servers in Germany, France and Great Britain but also offered localized versions of the game in German and French to accommodate players who prefer those languages to English.", "In the following year the game also moved beyond the PC market with a Mac OS X version.In 2003 experiments began with digital distribution of expansions, starting with the ''Legacy of Ykesha''.", "From this point on expansions would be less ambitious in scope than the original four, but the production rate increased to two expansions a year instead of one.In the same year the franchise also ventured into the console market with ''EverQuest Online Adventures'', released for Sony's internet-capable PlayStation 2.It was the second MMORPG for this console, after ''Final Fantasy XI''.", "Story-wise it was a prequel, with the events taking place 500 years before the original ''EverQuest''.", "Other spin-off projects were the PC strategy game ''Lords of EverQuest'' (2003) and the co-op ''Champions of Norrath'' (2004) for the PlayStation 2.After these side projects, the first proper sequel was released in late 2004, titled simply ''EverQuest II''.", "The game is set 500 years after the original.", "''EverQuest II'' faced severe competition from Blizzard's ''World of Warcraft'', which was released at virtually the same time and quickly grew to dominate the MMORPG genre.===Decline===Since the release of ''World of Warcraft'' and other modern MMORPGs, there have been a number of signs that the ''EverQuest'' population is shrinking.", "The national ''New Dawn'' servers were discontinued in 2005 and merged into a general (English-language) European server.The 2006 expansion ''The Serpent's Spine'' introduced the \"adventure-friendly\" city of Crescent Reach in which all races and classes are able (and encouraged) to start.", "Crescent Reach is supposed to provide a more pedagogic starting environment than the original 1999 cities, where players were given almost no guidance on what to do.", "The common starting city also concentrates the dwindling number of new players in a single location, making grouping easier.", "2008's ''Seeds of Destruction'' expansion introduced computer controlled companions called \"mercenaries\" that can join groups in place of human players, a response to the increasing difficulty of finding other players of appropriate level for group activities.", "As of ''Seeds'' the production rate also returned to one expansion a year instead of two.In March 2012 ''EverQuest'' departed from the traditional monthly subscription business model by introducing three tiers of commitment: a completely free-to-play Bronze Level, a one-time fee Silver Level, and a subscription Gold Level.", "The same month saw the closure of ''EverQuest Online Adventures''.", "Just a few months earlier ''EverQuest II'' had gone free-to-play and SOE flagship ''Star Wars Galaxies'' was also closed.In June of the same year SOE removed the ability to buy game subscription time with Station Cash without any warning to players.", "SOE apologized for this abrupt change in policy and reinstated the option for an additional week, after which it was removed permanently.The sole Mac OS server Al'Kabor was closed on November 18, 2013.In February 2015 Sony sold its online entertainment division to private equity group Columbus Nova, with Sony Online Entertainment subsequently renamed Daybreak Game Company (DBG).", "An initial period of uncertainty followed, with all projects such as expansions and sequels put on hold and staff laid off.", "The situation stabilized around the game's 16th anniversary celebrations, and a new expansion was released nine months later." ], [ "Expansions", "There have been thirty expansions to the original game since release.", "Expansions are purchased separately and provide additional content to the game (for example: raising the maximum character level; adding new races, classes, zones, continents, quests, equipment, game features).", "When the players purchase the latest expansion they receive all previous expansions they may not have previously purchased.", "Additionally, the game is updated through downloaded patches.", "The ''EverQuest'' expansions are as follows: # Title Release date Level cap 1 ''The Ruins of Kunark'' 60 2 ''The Scars of Velious'' 60 3 ''The Shadows of Luclin'' 60 4 ''The Planes of Power'' 65 5 ''The Legacy of Ykesha'' 65 6 ''Lost Dungeons of Norrath'' 65 7 ''Gates of Discord'' 65 8 ''Omens of War'' 70 9 ''Dragons of Norrath'' 70 10 ''Depths of Darkhollow'' 70 11 ''Prophecy of Ro'' 70 12 ''The Serpent's Spine'' 75 13 ''The Buried Sea'' 75 14 ''Secrets of Faydwer'' 80 15 ''Seeds of Destruction'' 85 16 ''Underfoot'' 85 17 ''House of Thule'' 90 18 ''Veil of Alaris'' 95 19 ''Rain of Fear'' 100 20 ''Call of the Forsaken'' 100 21 ''The Darkened Sea'' 105 22 ''The Broken Mirror'' 105 23 ''Empires of Kunark'' 105 24 ''Ring of Scale'' 110 25 ''The Burning Lands'' 110 26 ''Torment of Velious'' 115 27 ''Claws of Veeshan'' 115 28 ''Terror of Luclin'' 120 29 ''Night of Shadows'' December 6, 2022 120 30 ''Laurion's Song'' December 6, 2023 125 31 ''Expansion 31'' December 2024 125" ], [ "Servers", "The game runs on multiple game servers, each with a unique name for identification.", "These names were originally the deities of the world of Norrath.", "In technical terms, each game server is actually a cluster of server machines.", "Once a character is created, it can be played only on that server unless the character is transferred to a new server by the customer service staff, generally for a fee.", "Each server often has a unique community and people often include the server name when identifying their character outside of the game.There is an official ''EverQuest'' server list, as well as unofficial 3rd-party servers.", "For example, the Project 1999 EverQuest servers are intended to recreate ''EverQuest'' in the state it existed in the year it launched and the two subsequent expansions, referred to as the \"Classic Trilogy\".===OS X===SOE devoted one server (Al'Kabor) to an OS X version of the game, which opened for beta testing in early 2003, and officially released on June 24 of the same year.", "The game was never developed beyond the ''Planes of Power'' expansion, and contained multiple features and bugs not seen on PC servers, as a side-effect of the codebase having been split from an early ''Planes of Power'' date but not updated with the PC codebase.", "In January 2012, SOE announced plans to shut down the server, but based on the passionate response of the player base, rescinded the decision and changed Al'Kabor to a free-to-play subscription model.", "At about the same time, SOE revised the Macintosh client software to run natively on Intel processors.", "Players running on older, PowerPC-based systems lost access to the game at that point.", "SOE closed Al'Kabor server in November 2013.===European===Two SOE servers were set up to better support players in and around Europe: Antonius Bayle and Kane Bayle.", "Kane Bayle was merged into Antonius Bayle.With the advent of the ''New Dawn'' promotion, three additional servers were set up and maintained by Ubisoft: Venril Sathir (British), Sebilis (French) and Kael Drakkal (German).", "The downside of the servers was that while it was possible to transfer to them, it was impossible to transfer off.The servers were subsequently acquired by SOE and all three were merged into Antonius Bayle server." ], [ "Reception", "Reviews of ''Everquest'' were mostly positive upon release in 1999, earning an 85 out of 100 score from aggregate review website Metacritic.", "Comparing it to other online role-playing titles at the time, critics called it \"the best game in its class\", and the \"most immersive and most addictive online RPG to date\".", "Dan Amrich of ''GamePro'' magazine declared that \"the bar for online gaming has not so much been raised as obliterated\" and that the game's developers had \"created the first true online killer app\".", "The reviewer would find fault with its repetitive gameplay in the early levels and lack of sufficient documentation to help new players, urging them to turn to fansites for help instead.", "Greg Kasavin of GameSpot similarly felt that the game's combat was \"uninteresting\" but did note that, unlike earlier games in the genre, ''EverQuest'' offered the opportunity to play on servers that wouldn't allow players to fight each other unless they chose to, and that it heavily promoted cooperation.", "Despite saying that the combat was little \"boring\", that the manual was \"horrible\", that the quest system is \"half-baked\", and the game having small share of miscellaneous bugs, he ultimately called ''EverQuest'' as one of the most memorable gaming experiences he had.", "Baldric of Game Revolution likewise stated that the game was more co-operative than ''Ultima Online'', but that there was less interaction with the environment, calling it more \"player oriented\" instead of \"'world' oriented\".Despite server issues during the initial launch, reviewers felt that the game played well even on lower-end network cards, with Tal Blevins of IGN remarking that it rarely suffered from major lag issues.", "The reviewer did feel that the title suffered from a lack of player customization aside from different face types, meaning all characters of the same race looked mostly the same, but its visual quality on the whole was \"excellent\" with \"particularly impressive\" spell, lighting, and particle effects.", "''Next Generation'' said that ''EverQuest'' set a high standards for its genre.", "''Computer Games Magazine'' commended the game's three-dimensional graphics, first-person perspective, environments, and simple combat system, remarking that ''EverQuest'' gave the players the first step towards to the true virtual world.===Accolades===''Everquest'' was named GameSpot's 1999 Game of the Year in its Best & Worst of 1999 awards, remarking that after the game's release in March, the whole gaming industry was grounded to a halt, that a least one prominent game developer blamed ''EverQuest'' for product delays, and that for several weeks GameSpot's editors were spending more time exploring Norrath than they were doing their jobs.", "The website would also include the game in their list of the Greatest Games of All Time in 2004.GameSpot UK would also rank the title 14th on its list of the 100 Best Computer Games of the Millennium in 2000, calling it \"a technological tour de force\" and the first online RPG to bring the production values of single-player games to the online masses.", "The Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences named ''EverQuest'' their \"Online Game of the Year\" during the 3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, while Game Revolution named it the Best PC RPG of 1999.It was included in ''Time'' magazine's Best of 1999 in the \"Tech\" category, and ''Entertainment Weekly'' would include the game in their Top Ten Hall of Fame Video Games of the '90s.", "In 2007, Sony Online Entertainment received a Technology & Engineering Emmy Award for ''EverQuest'' under the category of \"Development of Massively Multiplayer Online Graphical Role Playing Games\".", "During the 2nd annual Game Developers Choice Online Awards in 2011, ''EverQuest'' received a Hall of Fame award for its long-term advancement of online gaming, such as being the first MMORPG to feature a guild system and raiding.Editors of ''Computer Gaming World'' and GameSpot each nominated ''EverQuest'' for their 1999 \"Role-Playing Game of the Year\" awards, both of which ultimately went to ''Planescape: Torment''.", "CNET Gamecenter likewise nominated it in this category, but gave the award to ''Asheron's Call''.", "GameSpot would also nominate the title for Best Multiplayer Game of 1999, but would give the award to ''Quake III Arena''.", "In 2012, 1UP.com ranked ''EverQuest'' 57th on its list of the Top 100 Essential Games.", "Game Informer placed the game 33rd on their top 100 video games of all time in 2009.===Sales and subscriptions===''EverQuest'' was the most pre-ordered PC title on EBGames.com prior to its release in March 1999.The game had 10,000 active subscribers 24 hours after launch, making it the high-selling online role-playing game up until that point.", "It achieved 60,000 subscribers by April 1999.Six months later, around 225,000 copies of the game had been sold in total, with 150,000 active subscribers.", "By early 2000, the game's domestic sales alone reached 231,093 copies, which drew revenues of $10.6 million.", "NPD Techworld, a firm that tracked sales the United States, reported 559,948 units sold of ''EverQuest'' by December 2002.Subscription numbers would rise to over 500,000 active accounts four years after release in 2003.By the end of 2004 the title's lifetime sales exceeded 3 million copies worldwide and reached an active subscriber peak of 550,000.As of September 2020, ''EverQuest'' had 66,000 subscribers and 82,000 monthly active players." ], [ "Controversies", "===Sale of in-game objects/real world economics===The sale of in-game objects for real currency is a controversial and lucrative industry with topics concerning issues practices of hacking/stealing accounts for profit.", "Critics often cite how it affects the virtual economy inside the game.", "In 2001, the sales of in-game items for real life currency was banned on eBay.A practice in the real-world trade economy is of companies creating characters, powerleveling them to make them powerful, and then reselling the characters for large sums of money or in-game items of other games.Sony discourages the payment of real-world money for online goods, except on certain \"Station Exchange\" servers in ''EverQuest II'', launched in July 2005.The program facilitates buying in-game items for real money from fellow players for a nominal fee.", "At this point this system only applies to select ''EverQuest II'' servers; none of the pre-''Station Exchange'' ''EverQuest II'' or ''EverQuest'' servers are affected.In 2012, Sony added an in-game item called a \"Krono\", which adds 30 days of game membership throughout ''EverQuest'' and ''EverQuest II''.", "The item can be initially bought starting at US$17.99.Up to 25 \"Kronos\" can be bought for US$424.99.Krono can be resold via player trading, which has allowed Krono to be frequently used in the real-world trade economy due to its inherent value.===Intellectual property and role-playing======= Mystere incident ====In October 2000, Verant banned a player by the name of Mystere, allegedly for creating controversial fan fiction, causing outrage among some ''EverQuest'' players and sparking a debate about players' rights and the line between roleplaying and intellectual property infringement.", "The case was used by several academics in discussing such rights in the digital age.===Addiction===Some argue the game has addictive qualities.", "Some players jokingly refer to it as \"EverCrack\" (a comparison to crack cocaine).", "There was one well-publicized suicide of an ''EverQuest'' user named Shawn Woolley, that inspired his mother, Liz, to found Online Gamers Anonymous.", "In November 2001, Shawn Woolley committed suicide.", "Although he had been diagnosed with depression and schizoid personality disorder, Shawn's mother said the suicide was due to a rejection or betrayal in the game from a character Shawn called \"iluvyou\".===Sociological aspects of MMORPGs===Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) are described by some players as \"chat rooms with a graphical interface\".", "The sociological aspects of ''EverQuest'' (and other MMORPGs) are explored in a series of online studies on a site known as \"the HUB\".", "The studies make use of data gathered from player surveys and discuss topics like virtual relationships, player personalities, gender issues, and more.===Organized protests===In May 2004, Woody Hearn of GU Comics called for all ''EverQuest'' gamers to boycott the ''Omens of War'' expansion in an effort to force SOE to address existing issues with the game rather than release another \"quick-fire\" expansion.", "The call to boycott was rescinded after SOE held a summit to address player concerns, improve (internal and external) communication, and correct specific issues within the game.===Prohibition in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil===On 17 January 2008, the Judge of the 17th Federal Court of Minas Gerais State forbade the sales of the game in that Brazilian territory.", "The reason was that \"the game leads the players to a loss of moral virtue and takes them into 'heavy' psychological conflicts because of the game quests\"." ], [ "''EverQuest'' franchise", "Since ''EverQuest''s release, Sony Online Entertainment has added several ''EverQuest''-related games.", "These include:* ''EverQuest Hero's Call'' (Pocket PC, January 2003)* ''EverQuest Online Adventures'' (PlayStation 2, February 2003)* ''EverQuest Online Adventures Frontiers'' (PlayStation 2, November 2003)* ''Lords of EverQuest'' (PC, December 2003)* ''Champions of Norrath'' (PlayStation 2, February 2004)* ''EverQuest Hero's Call 2'' (Pocket PC, April 2004)* ''EverQuest War On Faydwer'' (Pocket PC, April 2004)* ''EverQuest II'' (PC, November 2004)* ''Champions: Return to Arms'', sequel to ''Champions of Norrath'' (PlayStation 2, February 2005)* ''EverQuest Role-Playing Game'' (a role-playing game produced in collaboration with White Wolf which uses the d20 system).", "* ''Legends of Norrath'' (a virtual card game which launched sometime in 2007 or early 2008 which also awards ''EverQuest'' and ''EverQuest II'' players with in-game items).", "* ''EverQuest Next'', newest story-based ''EverQuest'' game (cancelled)* ''EverQuest Next Landmark'', only world-building ''EverQuest'' game (cancelled)A line of novels have been published in the world of ''EverQuest'', including:* ''Rogue's Hour'', by Scott Ciencin (October 2004)* ''Ocean of Tears'', by Stewart Wieck (October 2005)* ''Truth and Steel'', by Thomas M. Reid (September 2006)* ''The Blood Red Harp'', by Elaine Cunningham (October 2006)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "General and cited references", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * ''EverQuest'' at MobyGames" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Human evolution" ], [ "Introduction", "The hominoids are descendants of a common ancestor.", "'''Human evolution''' is the evolutionary process within the history of primates that led to the emergence of ''Homo sapiens'' as a distinct species of the hominid family, which includes all the great apes.", "This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism, dexterity, and complex language, as well as interbreeding with other hominins (a tribe of the African hominid subfamily), indicating that human evolution was not linear but weblike.", "The study of the origins of humans, also called '''anthropogeny''', '''anthropogenesis''', or '''anthropogony''', involves several scientific disciplines, including physical and evolutionary anthropology, paleontology, and genetics.Primates diverged from other mammals about (mya), in the Late Cretaceous period, with their earliest fossils appearing over 55 mya, during the Paleocene.", "Primates produced successive clades leading to the ape superfamily, which gave rise to the hominid and the gibbon families; these diverged some 15–20 mya.", "African and Asian hominids (including orangutans) diverged about 14 mya.", "Hominins (including the Australopithecine and Panina subtribes) parted from the Gorillini tribe (gorillas) between 8–9 mya; Australopithecine (including the extinct biped ancestors of humans) separated from the ''Pan'' genus (containing chimpanzees and bonobos) 4–7 mya.", "The ''Homo'' genus is evidenced by the appearance of ''H.", "habilis'' over 2 mya, while anatomically modern humans emerged in Africa approximately 300,000 years ago." ], [ "Before ''Homo''", "=== Early evolution of primates ===The evolutionary history of primates can be traced back 65 million years.", "One of the oldest known primate-like mammal species, the ''Plesiadapis'', came from North America; another, ''Archicebus'', came from China.", "Other similar basal primates were widespread in Eurasia and Africa during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene.", "''Notharctus tenebrosus'', American Museum of Natural History, New YorkDavid R. Begun concluded that early primates flourished in Eurasia and that a lineage leading to the African apes and humans, including to ''Dryopithecus'', migrated south from Europe or Western Asia into Africa.", "The surviving tropical population of primates—which is seen most completely in the Upper Eocene and lowermost Oligocene fossil beds of the Faiyum depression southwest of Cairo—gave rise to all extant primate species, including the lemurs of Madagascar, lorises of Southeast Asia, galagos or \"bush babies\" of Africa, and to the anthropoids, which are the Platyrrhines or New World monkeys, the Catarrhines or Old World monkeys, and the great apes, including humans and other hominids.The earliest known catarrhine is ''Kamoyapithecus'' from the uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Great Rift Valley in Kenya, dated to 24 million years ago.", "Its ancestry is thought to be species related to ''Aegyptopithecus'', ''Propliopithecus'', and ''Parapithecus'' from the Faiyum, at around 35 mya.", "In 2010, ''Saadanius'' was described as a close relative of the last common ancestor of the crown catarrhines, and tentatively dated to 29–28 mya, helping to fill an 11-million-year gap in the fossil record.Proconsul'' skeletonIn the Early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, the many kinds of arboreally-adapted (tree-dwelling) primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification.", "Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to ''Victoriapithecus'', the earliest Old World monkey.", "Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13 million years ago are ''Proconsul'', ''Rangwapithecus'', ''Dendropithecus'', ''Limnopithecus'', ''Nacholapithecus'', ''Equatorius'', ''Nyanzapithecus'', ''Afropithecus'', ''Heliopithecus'', and ''Kenyapithecus'', all from East Africa.The presence of other generalized non-cercopithecids of Middle Miocene from sites far distant—''Otavipithecus'' from cave deposits in Namibia, and ''Pierolapithecus'' and ''Dryopithecus'' from France, Spain and Austria—is evidence of a wide diversity of forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the Early and Middle Miocene.", "The youngest of the Miocene hominoids, ''Oreopithecus'', is from coal beds in Italy that have been dated to 9 million years ago.Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons diverged from the line of great apes some 18–12 mya, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) diverged from the other great apes at about 12 million years; there are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so-far-unknown Southeast Asian hominoid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by ''Sivapithecus'' from India and ''Griphopithecus'' from Turkey, dated to around 10 mya.Hominidae subfamily Homininae (African hominids) diverged from Ponginae (orangutans) about 14 mya.", "Hominins (including humans and the Australopithecine and Panina subtribes) parted from the Gorillini tribe (gorillas) between 8–9 mya; Australopithecine (including the extinct biped ancestors of humans) separated from the ''Pan'' genus (containing chimpanzees and bonobos) 4–7 mya.", "The ''Homo'' genus is evidenced by the appearance of ''H.", "habilis'' over 2 mya, while anatomically modern humans emerged in Africa approximately 300,000 years ago.=== Divergence of the human clade from other great apes ===Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by ''Nakalipithecus'' fossils found in Kenya and ''Ouranopithecus'' found in Greece.", "Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzees (genus ''Pan'') split off from the line leading to the humans.", "Human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics).", "The fossil record, however, of gorillas and chimpanzees is limited; both poor preservation – rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone – and sampling bias probably contribute to this problem.Other hominins probably adapted to the drier environments outside the equatorial belt; and there they encountered antelope, hyenas, dogs, pigs, elephants, horses, and others.", "The equatorial belt contracted after about 8 million years ago, and there is very little fossil evidence for the split—thought to have occurred around that time—of the hominin lineage from the lineages of gorillas and chimpanzees.", "The earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis'' (7 Ma) and ''Orrorin tugenensis'' (6 Ma), followed by ''Ardipithecus'' (5.5–4.4 Ma), with species ''Ar.", "kadabba'' and ''Ar.", "ramidus''.It has been argued in a study of the life history of ''Ar.", "ramidus'' that the species provides evidence for a suite of anatomical and behavioral adaptations in very early hominins unlike any species of extant great ape.", "This study demonstrated affinities between the skull morphology of ''Ar.", "ramidus'' and that of infant and juvenile chimpanzees, suggesting the species evolved a juvenalised or paedomorphic craniofacial morphology via heterochronic dissociation of growth trajectories.", "It was also argued that the species provides support for the notion that very early hominins, akin to bonobos (''Pan paniscus'') the less aggressive species of the genus ''Pan'', may have evolved via the process of self-domestication.", "Consequently, arguing against the so-called \"chimpanzee referential model\" the authors suggest it is no longer tenable to use chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes'') social and mating behaviors in models of early hominin social evolution.", "When commenting on the absence of aggressive canine morphology in ''Ar.", "ramidus'' and the implications this has for the evolution of hominin social psychology, they wrote:The authors argue that many of the basic human adaptations evolved in the ancient forest and woodland ecosystems of late Miocene and early Pliocene Africa.", "Consequently, they argue that humans may not represent evolution from a chimpanzee-like ancestor as has traditionally been supposed.", "This suggests many modern human adaptations represent phylogenetically deep traits and that the behavior and morphology of chimpanzees may have evolved subsequent to the split with the common ancestor they share with humans.=== Genus ''Australopithecus'' ===Lucy\"The genus ''Australopithecus'' evolved in eastern Africa around 4 million years ago before spreading throughout the continent and eventually becoming extinct 2 million years ago.", "During this time period various forms of australopiths existed, including ''Australopithecus anamensis'', ''Au.", "afarensis'', ''Au.", "sediba'', and ''Au.", "africanus''.", "There is still some debate among academics whether certain African hominid species of this time, such as ''Au.", "robustus'' and ''Au.", "boisei'', constitute members of the same genus; if so, they would be considered to be ''Au.", "robust australopiths'' whilst the others would be considered ''Au.", "gracile australopiths''.", "However, if these species do indeed constitute their own genus, then they may be given their own name, ''Paranthropus''.", "* ''Australopithecus'' (4–1.8 Ma), with species ''Au.", "anamensis'', ''Au.", "afarensis'', ''Au.", "africanus'', ''Au.", "bahrelghazali'', ''Au.", "garhi'', and ''Au.", "sediba'';* ''Kenyanthropus'' (3–2.7 Ma), with species ''K.", "platyops'';* ''Paranthropus'' (3–1.2 Ma), with species ''P.", "aethiopicus'', ''P.", "boisei'', and ''P.", "robustus''A new proposed species ''Australopithecus deyiremeda'' is claimed to have been discovered living at the same time period of ''Au.", "afarensis''.", "There is debate if Au.", "deyiremeda is a new species or is ''Au.", "afarensis.''", "''Australopithecus prometheus'', otherwise known as Little Foot has recently been dated at 3.67 million years old through a new dating technique, making the genus ''Australopithecus'' as old as ''afarensis''.", "Given the opposable big toe found on Little Foot, it seems that the specimen was a good climber.", "It is thought given the night predators of the region that he built a nesting platform at night in the trees in a similar fashion to chimpanzees and gorillas." ], [ "Evolution of genus ''Homo''", "The earliest documented representative of the genus ''Homo'' is ''Homo habilis'', which evolved around , and is arguably the earliest species for which there is positive evidence of the use of stone tools.", "The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, although it has been suggested that this was the time in which the human SRGAP2 gene doubled, producing a more rapid wiring of the frontal cortex.", "During the next million years a process of rapid encephalization occurred, and with the arrival of ''Homo erectus'' and ''Homo ergaster'' in the fossil record, cranial capacity had doubled to 850 cm3.", "(Such an increase in human brain size is equivalent to each generation having 125,000 more neurons than their parents.)", "It is believed that ''H.", "erectus'' and ''H.", "ergaster'' were the first to use fire and complex tools, and were the first of the hominin line to leave Africa, spreading throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe between .A model of the phylogeny of ''H.", "sapiens'' during the Middle Paleolithic.", "The horizontal axis represents geographic location; the vertical axis represents time in millions of years ago.", "''Homo heidelbergensis'' is shown as diverging into Neanderthals, Denisovans and ''H. sapiens''.", "With the expansion of ''H.", "sapiens'' after 200 kya, Neanderthals, Denisovans and unspecified archaic African hominins are shown as again subsumed into the ''H.", "sapiens'' lineage.", "In addition, admixture events in modern African populations are indicated.According to the recent African origin of modern humans theory, modern humans evolved in Africa possibly from ''H.", "heidelbergensis'', ''H.", "rhodesiensis'' or ''H.", "antecessor'' and migrated out of the continent some 50,000 to 100,000 years ago, gradually replacing local populations of ''H.", "erectus'', Denisova hominins, ''H.", "floresiensis'', ''H.", "luzonensis'' and ''H. neanderthalensis''.", "Archaic ''Homo sapiens'', the forerunner of anatomically modern humans, evolved in the Middle Paleolithic between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago.", "Recent DNA evidence suggests that several haplotypes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non-African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day humans, suggestive of a limited interbreeding between these species.", "The transition to behavioral modernity with the development of symbolic culture, language, and specialized lithic technology happened around 50,000 years ago, according to some anthropologists, although others point to evidence that suggests that a gradual change in behavior took place over a longer time span.", "''Homo sapiens'' is the only extant species of its genus, ''Homo''.", "While some (extinct) ''Homo'' species might have been ancestors of ''Homo sapiens'', many, perhaps most, were likely \"cousins\", having speciated away from the ancestral hominin line.", "There is yet no consensus as to which of these groups should be considered a separate species and which should be a subspecies; this may be due to the dearth of fossils or to the slight differences used to classify species in the genus ''Homo''.", "The Sahara pump theory (describing an occasionally passable \"wet\" Sahara desert) provides one possible explanation of the early variation in the genus ''Homo''.Based on archaeological and paleontological evidence, it has been possible to infer, to some extent, the ancient dietary practices of various ''Homo'' species and to study the role of diet in physical and behavioral evolution within ''Homo''.Some anthropologists and archaeologists subscribe to the Toba catastrophe theory, which posits that the supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatran island in Indonesia some 70,000 years ago caused global consequences, killing the majority of humans and creating a population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.", "The genetic and archaeological evidence for this remains in question however.", "Nonetheless, on 31 August 2023, researchers reported, based on genetic studies, that a human ancestor population bottleneck (from a possible 100,000 to 1000 individuals) occurred \"around 930,000 and 813,000 years ago ... lasted for about 117,000 years and brought human ancestors close to extinction.", "\"=== ''H.", "habilis'' and ''H.", "gautengensis'' ===''Homo habilis'' lived from about 2.8 to 1.4 Ma.", "The species evolved in South and East Africa in the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene, 2.5–2 Ma, when it diverged from the australopithecines with the development of smaller molars and larger brains.", "One of the first known hominins, it made tools from stone and perhaps animal bones, leading to its name ''homo'' ''habilis'' (Latin 'handy man') bestowed by discoverer Louis Leakey.", "Some scientists have proposed moving this species from ''Homo'' into ''Australopithecus'' due to the morphology of its skeleton being more adapted to living in trees rather than walking on two legs like later hominins.In May 2010, a new species, ''Homo gautengensis'', was discovered in South Africa.=== ''H.", "rudolfensis'' and ''H.", "georgicus'' ===These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1.9–1.6 Ma, whose relation to ''Homo habilis'' is not yet clear.", "* ''Homo rudolfensis'' refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya.", "Scientists have suggested that this was a specimen of ''Homo habilis'', but this has not been confirmed.", "* ''Homo georgicus'', from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between ''Homo habilis'' and ''Homo erectus'', or a subspecies of ''Homo erectus''.=== ''H.", "ergaster'' and ''H.", "erectus'' ===Reconstruction of Turkana boy who lived 1.5 to 1.6 million years agoThe first fossils of ''Homo erectus'' were discovered by Dutch physician Eugene Dubois in 1891 on the Indonesian island of Java.", "He originally named the material ''Anthropopithecus erectus'' (1892–1893, considered at this point as a chimpanzee-like fossil primate) and ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' (1893–1894, changing his mind as of based on its morphology, which he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes).", "Years later, in the 20th century, the German physician and paleoanthropologist Franz Weidenreich (1873–1948) compared in detail the characters of Dubois' Java Man, then named ''Pithecanthropus erectus'', with the characters of the Peking Man, then named ''Sinanthropus pekinensis''.", "Weidenreich concluded in 1940 that because of their anatomical similarity with modern humans it was necessary to gather all these specimens of Java and China in a single species of the genus ''Homo'', the species ''H. erectus''.", "''Homo erectus'' lived from about 1.8 Ma to about 70,000 years ago – which would indicate that they were probably wiped out by the Toba catastrophe; however, nearby ''H.", "floresiensis'' survived it.", "The early phase of ''H.", "erectus'', from 1.8 to 1.25 Ma, is considered by some to be a separate species, ''H.", "ergaster'', or as ''H.", "erectus ergaster'', a subspecies of ''H. erectus''.", "Many paleoanthropologists now use the term ''Homo ergaster'' for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserve ''H.", "erectus'' only for those fossils that are found in Asia and meet certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from ''H.", "ergaster''.In Africa in the Early Pleistocene, 1.5–1 Ma, some populations of ''Homo habilis'' are thought to have evolved larger brains and to have made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, ''Homo erectus''—in Africa.", "The evolution of locking knees and the movement of the foramen magnum are thought to be likely drivers of the larger population changes.", "This species also may have used fire to cook meat.", "Richard Wrangham notes that Homo seems to have been ground dwelling, with reduced intestinal length, smaller dentition, and \"brains swollen to their current, horrendously fuel-inefficient size\", and hypothesizes that control of fire and cooking, which released increased nutritional value, was the key adaptation that separated Homo from tree-sleeping Australopithecines.=== ''H.", "cepranensis'' and ''H.", "antecessor'' ===These are proposed as species intermediate between ''H.", "erectus'' and ''H. heidelbergensis''.", "* ''H.", "antecessor'' is known from fossils from Spain and England that are dated 1.2 Ma–500 ka.", "* ''H.", "cepranensis'' refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old.=== ''H.", "heidelbergensis'' ===''H.", "heidelbergensis'' (\"Heidelberg Man\") lived from about 800,000 to about 300,000 years ago.", "Also proposed as ''Homo sapiens heidelbergensis'' or ''Homo sapiens paleohungaricus''.=== ''H.", "rhodesiensis'', and the Gawis cranium ===* ''H.", "rhodesiensis'', estimated to be 300,000–125,000 years old.", "Most current researchers place Rhodesian Man within the group of ''Homo heidelbergensis'', though other designations such as archaic ''Homo sapiens'' and ''Homo sapiens rhodesiensis'' have been proposed.", "* In February 2006 a fossil, the Gawis cranium, was found which might possibly be a species intermediate between ''H.", "erectus'' and ''H.", "sapiens'' or one of many evolutionary dead ends.", "The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000–250,000 years old.", "Only summary details are known, and the finders have not yet released a peer-reviewed study.", "Gawis man's facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species or an example of a \"Bodo man\" female.=== Neanderthal and Denisovan ===Reconstruction of an elderly Neanderthal man''Homo neanderthalensis'', alternatively designated as ''Homo sapiens neanderthalensis'', lived in Europe and Asia from 400,000 to about 28,000 years ago.There are a number of clear anatomical differences between anatomically modern humans (AMH) and Neanderthal specimens, many relating to the superior Neanderthal adaptation to cold environments.", "Neanderthal surface to volume ratio was even lower than that among modern Inuit populations, indicating superior retention of body heat.Neanderthals also had significantly larger brains, as shown from brain endocasts, casting doubt on their intellectual inferiority to modern humans.", "However, the higher body mass of Neanderthals may have required larger brain mass for body control.", "Also, recent research by Pearce, Stringer, and Dunbar has shown important differences in brain architecture.", "The larger size of the Neanderthal orbital chamber and occipital lobe suggests that they had a better visual acuity than modern humans, useful in the dimmer light of glacial Europe.Neanderthals may have had less brain capacity available for social functions.", "Inferring social group size from endocranial volume (minus occipital lobe size) suggests that Neanderthal groups may have been limited to 120 individuals, compared to 144 possible relationships for modern humans.", "Larger social groups could imply that modern humans had less risk of inbreeding within their clan, trade over larger areas (confirmed in the distribution of stone tools), and faster spread of social and technological innovations.", "All these may have all contributed to modern Homo sapiens replacing Neanderthal populations by 28,000 BP.Earlier evidence from sequencing mitochondrial DNA suggested that no significant gene flow occurred between ''H.", "neanderthalensis'' and ''H.", "sapiens'', and that the two were separate species that shared a common ancestor about 660,000 years ago.", "However, a sequencing of the Neanderthal genome in 2010 indicated that Neanderthals did indeed interbreed with anatomically modern humans c. 45,000-80,000 years ago, around the time modern humans migrated out from Africa, but before they dispersed throughout Europe, Asia and elsewhere.", "The genetic sequencing of a 40,000-year-old human skeleton from Romania showed that 11% of its genome was Neanderthal, implying the individual had a Neanderthal ancestor 4–6 generations previously, in addition to a contribution from earlier interbreeding in the Middle East.", "Though this interbred Romanian population seems not to have been ancestral to modern humans, the finding indicates that interbreeding happened repeatedly.All modern non-African humans have about 1% to 4% (or 1.5% to 2.6% by more recent data) of their DNA derived from Neanderthals.", "This finding is consistent with recent studies indicating that the divergence of some human alleles dates to one Ma, although this interpretation has been questioned.", "Neanderthals and AMH ''Homo sapiens'' could have co-existed in Europe for as long as 10,000 years, during which AMH populations exploded, vastly outnumbering Neanderthals, possibly outcompeting them by sheer numbers.In 2008, archaeologists working at the site of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia uncovered a small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile member of another human species, the Denisovans.", "Artifacts, including a bracelet, excavated in the cave at the same level were carbon dated to around 40,000 BP.", "As DNA had survived in the fossil fragment due to the cool climate of the Denisova Cave, both mtDNA and nuclear DNA were sequenced.While the divergence point of the mtDNA was unexpectedly deep in time, the full genomic sequence suggested the Denisovans belonged to the same lineage as Neanderthals, with the two diverging shortly after their line split from the lineage that gave rise to modern humans.", "Modern humans are known to have overlapped with Neanderthals in Europe and the Near East for possibly more than 40,000 years, and the discovery raises the possibility that Neanderthals, Denisovans, and modern humans may have co-existed and interbred.", "The existence of this distant branch creates a much more complex picture of humankind during the Late Pleistocene than previously thought.", "Evidence has also been found that as much as 6% of the DNA of some modern Melanesians derive from Denisovans, indicating limited interbreeding in Southeast Asia.Alleles thought to have originated in Neanderthals and Denisovans have been identified at several genetic loci in the genomes of modern humans outside Africa.", "HLA haplotypes from Denisovans and Neanderthal represent more than half the HLA alleles of modern Eurasians, indicating strong positive selection for these introgressed alleles.", "Corinne Simoneti at Vanderbilt University, in Nashville and her team have found from medical records of 28,000 people of European descent that the presence of Neanderthal DNA segments may be associated with a higher rate of depression.The flow of genes from Neanderthal populations to modern humans was not all one way.", "Sergi Castellano of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology reported in 2016 that while Denisovan and Neanderthal genomes are more related to each other than they are to us, Siberian Neanderthal genomes show more similarity to modern human genes than do European Neanderthal populations.", "This suggests Neanderthal populations interbred with modern humans around 100,000 years ago, probably somewhere in the Near East.Studies of a Neanderthal child at Gibraltar show from brain development and tooth eruption that Neanderthal children may have matured more rapidly than Homo sapiens.=== ''H.", "floresiensis'' ===A facial reconstruction of ''Homo floresiensis''''H.", "floresiensis'', which lived from approximately 190,000 to 50,000 years before present (BP), has been nicknamed the ''hobbit'' for its small size, possibly a result of insular dwarfism.", "''H.", "floresiensis'' is intriguing both for its size and its age, being an example of a recent species of the genus ''Homo'' that exhibits derived traits not shared with modern humans.", "In other words, ''H.", "floresiensis'' shares a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed a distinct evolutionary path.", "The main find was a skeleton believed to be a woman of about 30 years of age.", "Found in 2003, it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old.", "The living woman was estimated to be one meter in height, with a brain volume of just 380 cm3 (considered small for a chimpanzee and less than a third of the ''H.", "sapiens'' average of 1400 cm3).However, there is an ongoing debate over whether ''H.", "floresiensis'' is indeed a separate species.", "Some scientists hold that ''H.", "floresiensis'' was a modern ''H.", "sapiens'' with pathological dwarfism.", "This hypothesis is supported in part, because some modern humans who live on Flores, the Indonesian island where the skeleton was found, are pygmies.", "This, coupled with pathological dwarfism, could have resulted in a significantly diminutive human.", "The other major attack on ''H.", "floresiensis'' as a separate species is that it was found with tools only associated with ''H.", "sapiens''.The hypothesis of pathological dwarfism, however, fails to explain additional anatomical features that are unlike those of modern humans (diseased or not) but much like those of ancient members of our genus.", "Aside from cranial features, these features include the form of bones in the wrist, forearm, shoulder, knees, and feet.", "Additionally, this hypothesis fails to explain the find of multiple examples of individuals with these same characteristics, indicating they were common to a large population, and not limited to one individual.In 2016, fossil teeth and a partial jaw from hominins assumed to be ancestral to ''H.", "floresiensis'' were discovered at Mata Menge, about from Liang Bua.", "They date to about 700,000 years ago and are noted by Australian archaeologist Gerrit van den Bergh for being even smaller than the later fossils.=== ''H.", "luzonensis'' ===A small number of specimens from the island of Luzon, dated 50,000 to 67,000 years ago, have recently been assigned by their discoverers, based on dental characteristics, to a novel human species, ''H.", "luzonensis''.=== ''H.", "sapiens'' ===Reconstruction of early ''Homo sapiens'' from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco ''H.", "sapiens'' (the adjective ''sapiens'' is Latin for \"wise\" or \"intelligent\") emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago, likely derived from ''H.", "heidelbergensis'' or a related lineage.", "In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans, of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans/''H.", "sapiens'', representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East and South Africa.Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle Pleistocene, around 250,000 years ago, the trend in intra-cranial volume expansion and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from ''H.", "erectus'' to ''H. sapiens''.", "The direct evidence suggests there was a migration of ''H.", "erectus'' out of Africa, then a further speciation of ''H.", "sapiens'' from ''H.", "erectus'' in Africa.", "A subsequent migration (both within and out of Africa) eventually replaced the earlier dispersed ''H. erectus''.", "This migration and origin theory is usually referred to as the \"recent single-origin hypothesis\" or \"out of Africa\" theory.", "''H.", "sapiens'' interbred with archaic humans both in Africa and in Eurasia, in Eurasia notably with Neanderthals and Denisovans.The Toba catastrophe theory, which postulates a population bottleneck for ''H.", "sapiens'' about 70,000 years ago, was controversial from its first proposal in the 1990s and by the 2010s had very little support.", "Distinctive human genetic variability has arisen as the result of the founder effect, by archaic admixture and by recent evolutionary pressures." ], [ "Anatomical changes", "Since ''Homo sapiens'' separated from its last common ancestor shared with chimpanzees, human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, behavioral, and environmental changes.", "Environmental (cultural) evolution discovered much later during the Pleistocene played a significant role in human evolution observed via human transitions between subsistence systems.", "The most significant of these adaptations are bipedalism, increased brain size, lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), and decreased sexual dimorphism.", "The relationship between these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.", "Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a change first occurring in ''H.", "erectus''.=== Bipedalism ===Bipedalism shown by a man and a womanBipedalism is the basic adaptation of the hominid and is considered the main cause behind a suite of skeletal changes shared by all bipedal hominids.", "The earliest hominin, of presumably primitive bipedalism, is considered to be either ''Sahelanthropus'' or ''Orrorin'', both of which arose some 6 to 7 million years ago.", "The non-bipedal knuckle-walkers, the gorillas and chimpanzees, diverged from the hominin line over a period covering the same time, so either ''Sahelanthropus'' or ''Orrorin'' may be our last shared ancestor.", "''Ardipithecus'', a full biped, arose approximately 5.6 million years ago.The early bipeds eventually evolved into the australopithecines and still later into the genus ''Homo''.", "There are several theories of the adaptation value of bipedalism.", "It is possible that bipedalism was favored because it freed the hands for reaching and carrying food, saved energy during locomotion, enabled long-distance running and hunting, provided an enhanced field of vision, and helped avoid hyperthermia by reducing the surface area exposed to direct sun; features all advantageous for thriving in the new savanna and woodland environment created as a result of the East African Rift Valley uplift versus the previous closed forest habitat.", "A 2007 study provides support for the hypothesis that walking on two legs, or bipedalism, evolved because it used less energy than quadrupedal knuckle-walking.^ However, recent studies suggest that bipedality without the ability to use fire would not have allowed global dispersal.", "This change in gait saw a lengthening of the legs proportionately when compared to the length of the arms, which were shortened through the removal of the need for brachiation.", "Another change is the shape of the big toe.", "Recent studies suggest that australopithecines still lived part of the time in trees as a result of maintaining a grasping big toe.", "This was progressively lost in habilines.Anatomically, the evolution of bipedalism has been accompanied by a large number of skeletal changes, not just to the legs and pelvis, but also to the vertebral column, feet and ankles, and skull.", "The femur evolved into a slightly more angular position to move the center of gravity toward the geometric center of the body.", "The knee and ankle joints became increasingly robust to better support increased weight.", "To support the increased weight on each vertebra in the upright position, the human vertebral column became S-shaped and the lumbar vertebrae became shorter and wider.", "In the feet the big toe moved into alignment with the other toes to help in forward locomotion.", "The arms and forearms shortened relative to the legs making it easier to run.", "The foramen magnum migrated under the skull and more anterior.The most significant changes occurred in the pelvic region, where the long downward facing iliac blade was shortened and widened as a requirement for keeping the center of gravity stable while walking; bipedal hominids have a shorter but broader, bowl-like pelvis due to this.", "A drawback is that the birth canal of bipedal apes is smaller than in knuckle-walking apes, though there has been a widening of it in comparison to that of australopithecine and modern humans, thus permitting the passage of newborns due to the increase in cranial size.", "This is limited to the upper portion, since further increase can hinder normal bipedal movement.The shortening of the pelvis and smaller birth canal evolved as a requirement for bipedalism and had significant effects on the process of human birth, which is much more difficult in modern humans than in other primates.", "During human birth, because of the variation in size of the pelvic region, the fetal head must be in a transverse position (compared to the mother) during entry into the birth canal and rotate about 90 degrees upon exit.", "The smaller birth canal became a limiting factor to brain size increases in early humans and prompted a shorter gestation period leading to the relative immaturity of human offspring, who are unable to walk much before 12 months and have greater neoteny, compared to other primates, who are mobile at a much earlier age.", "The increased brain growth after birth and the increased dependency of children on mothers had a major effect upon the female reproductive cycle, and the more frequent appearance of alloparenting in humans when compared with other hominids.", "Delayed human sexual maturity also led to the evolution of menopause with one explanation, the grandmother hypothesis, providing that elderly women could better pass on their genes by taking care of their daughter's offspring, as compared to having more children of their own.=== Encephalization ===Mya – million years ago, kya – thousand years agoBrain size and tooth size in homininsThe human species eventually developed a much larger brain than that of other primates—typically in modern humans, nearly three times the size of a chimpanzee or gorilla brain.", "After a period of stasis with ''Australopithecus anamensis'' and ''Ardipithecus'', species which had smaller brains as a result of their bipedal locomotion, the pattern of encephalization started with ''Homo habilis'', whose brain was slightly larger than that of chimpanzees.", "This evolution continued in ''Homo erectus'' with , and reached a maximum in Neanderthals with , larger even than modern ''Homo sapiens''.", "This brain increase manifested during postnatal brain growth, far exceeding that of other apes (heterochrony).", "It also allowed for extended periods of social learning and language acquisition in juvenile humans, beginning as much as 2 million years ago.", "Encephalization may be due to a dependency on calorie-dense, difficult-to-acquire food.Furthermore, the changes in the structure of human brains may be even more significant than the increase in size.", "Fossilized skulls shows the brain size in early humans fell within the range of modern humans 300,000 years ago, but only got its present-day brain shape between 100,000 and 35,000 years ago.", "The size and shape of the skull changed over time.", "The leftmost, and largest, is a replica of a modern human skull.", "The temporal lobes, which contain centers for language processing, have increased disproportionately, as has the prefrontal cortex, which has been related to complex decision-making and moderating social behavior.", "Encephalization has been tied to increased starches and meat in the diet, however a 2022 meta study called into question the role of meat.", "Other factors are the development of cooking, and it has been proposed that intelligence increased as a response to an increased necessity for solving social problems as human society became more complex.", "Changes in skull morphology, such as smaller mandibles and mandible muscle attachments, allowed more room for the brain to grow.The increase in volume of the neocortex also included a rapid increase in size of the cerebellum.", "Its function has traditionally been associated with balance and fine motor control, but more recently with speech and cognition.", "The great apes, including hominids, had a more pronounced cerebellum relative to the neocortex than other primates.", "It has been suggested that because of its function of sensory-motor control and learning complex muscular actions, the cerebellum may have underpinned human technological adaptations, including the preconditions of speech.The immediate survival advantage of encephalization is difficult to discern, as the major brain changes from ''Homo erectus'' to ''Homo heidelbergensis'' were not accompanied by major changes in technology.", "It has been suggested that the changes were mainly social and behavioural, including increased empathic abilities, increases in size of social groups, and increased behavioral plasticity.", "Humans are unique in the ability to acquire information through social transmission and adapt that information.", "The emerging field of cultural evolution studies human sociocultural change from an evolutionary perspective.Evolution of the shape, size, and contours of the human (''Homo'') skull=== Sexual dimorphism ===The reduced degree of sexual dimorphism in humans is visible primarily in the reduction of the male canine tooth relative to other ape species (except gibbons) and reduced brow ridges and general robustness of males.", "Another important physiological change related to sexuality in humans was the evolution of hidden estrus.", "Humans are the only hominoids in which the female is fertile year round and in which no special signals of fertility are produced by the body (such as genital swelling or overt changes in proceptivity during estrus).Nonetheless, humans retain a degree of sexual dimorphism in the distribution of body hair and subcutaneous fat, and in the overall size, males being around 15% larger than females.", "These changes taken together have been interpreted as a result of an increased emphasis on pair bonding as a possible solution to the requirement for increased parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of offspring.=== Ulnar opposition ===Only the human is able to touch the little finger with the thumb.The ulnar opposition—the contact between the thumb and the tip of the little finger of the same hand—is unique to the genus ''Homo'', including Neanderthals, the Sima de los Huesos hominins and anatomically modern humans.", "In other primates, the thumb is short and unable to touch the little finger.", "The ulnar opposition facilitates the precision grip and power grip of the human hand, underlying all the skilled manipulations.=== Other changes ===A number of other changes have also characterized the evolution of humans, among them an increased reliance on vision rather than smell (highly reduced olfactory bulb); a longer juvenile developmental period and higher infant dependency; a smaller gut and small, misaligned teeth; faster basal metabolism; loss of body hair; an increase ineccrine sweat gland density that is ten times higher than any other catarrhinian primates, yet humans uses 30% to 50% less water per day compared to chimps and gorillas; more REM sleep but less sleep in total; a change in the shape of the dental arcade from u-shaped to parabolic; development of a chin (found in ''Homo sapiens'' alone); styloid processes; and a descended larynx.", "As the human hand and arms adapted to the making of tools and were used less for climbing, the shoulder blades changed too.", "As a side effect, it allowed human ancestors to throw objects with greater force, speed and accuracy." ], [ "Use of tools", "\"A sharp rock\", an Oldowan pebble tool, the most basic of human stone toolsThe harnessing of fire was a pivotal milestone in human history.Acheulean hand-axes from Kent.", "''H.", "erectus'' flint work.", "The types shown are (clockwise from top) cordate, ficron and ovate.Venus of Willendorf, an example of Paleolithic art, dated 24–26,000 years agoThe use of tools has been interpreted as a sign of intelligence, and it has been theorized that tool use may have stimulated certain aspects of human evolution, especially the continued expansion of the human brain.", "Paleontology has yet to explain the expansion of this organ over millions of years despite being extremely demanding in terms of energy consumption.", "The brain of a modern human consumes, on average, about 13 watts (260 kilocalories per day), a fifth of the body's resting power consumption.", "Increased tool use would allow hunting for energy-rich meat products, and would enable processing more energy-rich plant products.", "Researchers have suggested that early hominins were thus under evolutionary pressure to increase their capacity to create and use tools.Precisely when early humans started to use tools is difficult to determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human artifacts.", "There is some evidence that the australopithecines (4 Ma) may have used broken bones as tools, but this is debated.Many species make and use tools, but it is the human genus that dominates the areas of making and using more complex tools.", "The oldest known tools are flakes from West Turkana, Kenya, which date to 3.3 million years ago.", "The next oldest stone tools are from Gona, Ethiopia, and are considered the beginning of the Oldowan technology.", "These tools date to about 2.6 million years ago.", "A ''Homo'' fossil was found near some Oldowan tools, and its age was noted at 2.3 million years old, suggesting that maybe the ''Homo'' species did indeed create and use these tools.", "It is a possibility but does not yet represent solid evidence.", "The third metacarpal styloid process enables the hand bone to lock into the wrist bones, allowing for greater amounts of pressure to be applied to the wrist and hand from a grasping thumb and fingers.", "It allows humans the dexterity and strength to make and use complex tools.", "This unique anatomical feature separates humans from apes and other nonhuman primates, and is not seen in human fossils older than 1.8 million years.Bernard Wood noted that ''Paranthropus'' co-existed with the early ''Homo'' species in the area of the \"Oldowan Industrial Complex\" over roughly the same span of time.", "Although there is no direct evidence which identifies ''Paranthropus'' as the tool makers, their anatomy lends to indirect evidence of their capabilities in this area.", "Most paleoanthropologists agree that the early ''Homo'' species were indeed responsible for most of the Oldowan tools found.", "They argue that when most of the Oldowan tools were found in association with human fossils, ''Homo'' was always present, but ''Paranthropus'' was not.In 1994, Randall Susman used the anatomy of opposable thumbs as the basis for his argument that both the ''Homo'' and ''Paranthropus'' species were toolmakers.", "He compared bones and muscles of human and chimpanzee thumbs, finding that humans have 3 muscles which are lacking in chimpanzees.", "Humans also have thicker metacarpals with broader heads, allowing more precise grasping than the chimpanzee hand can perform.", "Susman posited that modern anatomy of the human opposable thumb is an evolutionary response to the requirements associated with making and handling tools and that both species were indeed toolmakers." ], [ "Transition to behavioral modernity", "Anthropologists describe modern human behavior to include cultural and behavioral traits such as specialization of tools, use of jewellery and images (such as cave drawings), organization of living space, rituals (such as grave gifts), specialized hunting techniques, exploration of less hospitable geographical areas, and barter trade networks, as well as more general traits such as language and complex symbolic thinking.", "Debate continues as to whether a \"revolution\" led to modern humans (\"big bang of human consciousness\"), or whether the evolution was more gradual.Until about 50,000–40,000 years ago, the use of stone tools seems to have progressed stepwise.", "Each phase (''H.", "habilis'', ''H.", "ergaster'', ''H.", "neanderthalensis'') marked a new technology, followed by very slow development until the next phase.", "Currently paleoanthropologists are debating whether these ''Homo'' species possessed some or many modern human behaviors.", "They seem to have been culturally conservative, maintaining the same technologies and foraging patterns over very long periods.Around 50,000 BP, human culture started to evolve more rapidly.", "The transition to behavioral modernity has been characterized by some as a \"'''Great Leap Forward'''\", or as the \"Upper Palaeolithic Revolution\", due to the sudden appearance in the archaeological record of distinctive signs of modern behavior and big game hunting.", "Evidence of behavioral modernity significantly earlier also exists from Africa, with older evidence of abstract imagery, widened subsistence strategies, more sophisticated tools and weapons, and other \"modern\" behaviors, and many scholars have recently argued that the transition to modernity occurred sooner than previously believed.Other scholars consider the transition to have been more gradual, noting that some features had already appeared among archaic African ''Homo sapiens'' 300,000–200,000 years ago.", "Recent evidence suggests that the Australian Aboriginal population separated from the African population 75,000 years ago, and that they made a sea journey 60,000 years ago, which may diminish the significance of the Upper Paleolithic Revolution.Modern humans started burying their dead, making clothing from animal hides, hunting with more sophisticated techniques (such as using pit traps or driving animals off cliffs), and cave painting.", "As human culture advanced, different populations innovated existing technologies: artifacts such as fish hooks, buttons, and bone needles show signs of cultural variation, which had not been seen prior to 50,000 BP.", "Typically, the older ''H.", "neanderthalensis'' populations did not vary in their technologies, although the Chatelperronian assemblages have been found to be Neanderthal imitations of ''H.", "sapiens'' Aurignacian technologies." ], [ "Recent and ongoing human evolution", "Anatomically modern human populations continue to evolve, as they are affected by both natural selection and genetic drift.", "Although selection pressure on some traits, such as resistance to smallpox, has decreased in the modern age, humans are still undergoing natural selection for many other traits.", "Some of these are due to specific environmental pressures, while others are related to lifestyle changes since the development of agriculture (10,000 years ago), urbanization (5,000), and industrialization (250 years ago).", "It has been argued that human evolution has accelerated since the development of agriculture 10,000 years ago and civilization some 5,000 years ago, resulting, it is claimed, in substantial genetic differences between different current human populations, and more recent research indicates that for some traits, the developments and innovations of human culture have driven a new form of selection that coexists with, and in some cases has largely replaced, natural selection.upper Palaeolithic human Oase 2 Particularly conspicuous is variation in superficial characteristics, such as Afro-textured hair, or the recent evolution of light skin and blond hair in some populations, which are attributed to differences in climate.", "Particularly strong selective pressures have resulted in high-altitude adaptation in humans, with different ones in different isolated populations.", "Studies of the genetic basis show that some developed very recently, with Tibetans evolving over 3,000 years to have high proportions of an allele of EPAS1 that is adaptive to high altitudes.Other evolution is related to endemic diseases: the presence of malaria selects for sickle cell trait (the heterozygous form of sickle cell gene), while in the absence of malaria, the health effects of sickle-cell anemia select against this trait.", "For another example, the population at risk of the severe debilitating disease kuru has significant over-representation of an immune variant of the prion protein gene G127V versus non-immune alleles.", "The frequency of this genetic variant is due to the survival of immune persons.", "Some reported trends remain unexplained and the subject of ongoing research in the novel field of evolutionary medicine: polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) reduces fertility and thus is expected to be subject to extremely strong negative selection, but its relative commonality in human populations suggests a counteracting selection pressure.", "The identity of that pressure remains the subject of some debate.Recent human evolution related to agriculture includes genetic resistance to infectious disease that has appeared in human populations by crossing the species barrier from domesticated animals, as well as changes in metabolism due to changes in diet, such as lactase persistence.Culturally-driven evolution can defy the expectations of natural selection: while human populations experience some pressure that drives a selection for producing children at younger ages, the advent of effective contraception, higher education, and changing social norms have driven the observed selection in the opposite direction.", "However, culturally-driven selection need not necessarily work counter or in opposition to natural selection: some proposals to explain the high rate of recent human brain expansion indicate a kind of feedback whereupon the brain's increased social learning efficiency encourages cultural developments that in turn encourage more efficiency, which drive more complex cultural developments that demand still-greater efficiency, and so forth.", "Culturally-driven evolution has an advantage in that in addition to the genetic effects, it can be observed also in the archaeological record: the development of stone tools across the Palaeolithic period connects to culturally-driven cognitive development in the form of skill acquisition supported by the culture and the development of increasingly complex technologies and the cognitive ability to elaborate them.In contemporary times, since industrialization, some trends have been observed: for instance, menopause is evolving to occur later.", "Other reported trends appear to include lengthening of the human reproductive period and reduction in cholesterol levels, blood glucose and blood pressure in some populations." ], [ "History of study", "=== Before Darwin ===The word ''homo'', the name of the biological genus to which humans belong, is Latin for \"human\".", "It was chosen originally by Carl Linnaeus in his classification system.", "The word \"human\" is from the Latin ''humanus'', the adjectival form of ''homo''.", "The Latin \"homo\" derives from the Indo-European root *''dhghem'', or \"earth\".", "Linnaeus and other scientists of his time also considered the great apes to be the closest relatives of humans based on morphological and anatomical similarities.=== Darwin ===The possibility of linking humans with earlier apes by descent became clear only after 1859 with the publication of Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'', in which he argued for the idea of the evolution of new species from earlier ones.", "Darwin's book did not address the question of human evolution, saying only that \"Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.", "\"The first debates about the nature of human evolution arose between Thomas Henry Huxley and Richard Owen.", "Huxley argued for human evolution from apes by illustrating many of the similarities and differences between humans and other apes, and did so particularly in his 1863 book ''Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature''.", "Many of Darwin's early supporters (such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell) did not initially agree that the origin of the mental capacities and the moral sensibilities of humans could be explained by natural selection, though this later changed.", "Darwin applied the theory of evolution and sexual selection to humans in his 1871 book ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex''.=== First fossils ===A major problem in the 19th century was the lack of fossil intermediaries.", "Neanderthal remains were discovered in a limestone quarry in 1856, three years before the publication of ''On the Origin of Species'', and Neanderthal fossils had been discovered in Gibraltar even earlier, but it was originally claimed that these were the remains of a modern human who had suffered some kind of illness.", "Despite the 1891 discovery by Eugène Dubois of what is now called ''Homo erectus'' at Trinil, Java, it was only in the 1920s when such fossils were discovered in Africa, that intermediate species began to accumulate.", "In 1925, Raymond Dart described ''Australopithecus africanus''.", "The type specimen was the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant which was discovered in a cave.", "The child's remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an endocast of the brain.Although the brain was small (410 cm3), its shape was rounded, unlike that of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like a modern human brain.", "Also, the specimen showed short canine teeth, and the position of the foramen magnum (the hole in the skull where the spine enters) was evidence of bipedal locomotion.", "All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung Child was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between apes and humans.=== The East African fossils ===Fossil hominid evolution display at The Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USDuring the 1960s and 1970s, hundreds of fossils were found in East Africa in the regions of the Olduvai Gorge and Lake Turkana.", "These searches were carried out by the Leakey family, with Louis Leakey and his wife Mary Leakey, and later their son Richard and daughter-in-law Meave, fossil hunters and paleoanthropologists.", "From the fossil beds of Olduvai and Lake Turkana they amassed specimens of the early hominins: the australopithecines and ''Homo'' species, and even ''H.", "erectus''.These finds cemented Africa as the cradle of humankind.", "In the late 1970s and the 1980s, Ethiopia emerged as the new hot spot of paleoanthropology after \"Lucy\", the most complete fossil member of the species ''Australopithecus afarensis'', was found in 1974 by Donald Johanson near Hadar in the desertic Afar Triangle region of northern Ethiopia.", "Although the specimen had a small brain, the pelvis and leg bones were almost identical in function to those of modern humans, showing with certainty that these hominins had walked erect.", "Lucy was classified as a new species, ''Australopithecus afarensis'', which is thought to be more closely related to the genus ''Homo'' as a direct ancestor, or as a close relative of an unknown ancestor, than any other known hominid or hominin from this early time range.", "(The specimen was nicknamed \"Lucy\" after the Beatles' song \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", which was played loudly and repeatedly in the camp during the excavations.)", "The Afar Triangle area would later yield discovery of many more hominin fossils, particularly those uncovered or described by teams headed by Tim D. White in the 1990s, including ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' and ''A.", "kadabba''.In 2013, fossil skeletons of ''Homo naledi'', an extinct species of hominin assigned (provisionally) to the genus ''Homo'', were found in the Rising Star Cave system, a site in South Africa's Cradle of Humankind region in Gauteng province near Johannesburg.", ", fossils of at least fifteen individuals, amounting to 1,550 specimens, have been excavated from the cave.", "The species is characterized by a body mass and stature similar to small-bodied human populations, a smaller endocranial volume similar to ''Australopithecus'', and a cranial morphology (skull shape) similar to early ''Homo'' species.", "The skeletal anatomy combines primitive features known from australopithecines with features known from early hominins.", "The individuals show signs of having been deliberately disposed of within the cave near the time of death.", "The fossils were dated close to 250,000 years ago, and thus are not a direct ancestor but a contemporary with the first appearance of larger-brained anatomically modern humans.=== The genetic revolution ===The genetic revolution in studies of human evolution started when Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson measured the strength of immunological cross-reactions of blood serum albumin between pairs of creatures, including humans and African apes (chimpanzees and gorillas).", "The strength of the reaction could be expressed numerically as an immunological distance, which was in turn proportional to the number of amino acid differences between homologous proteins in different species.", "By constructing a calibration curve of the ID of species' pairs with known divergence times in the fossil record, the data could be used as a molecular clock to estimate the times of divergence of pairs with poorer or unknown fossil records.In their seminal 1967 paper in ''Science'', Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as four to five million years ago, at a time when standard interpretations of the fossil record gave this divergence as at least 10 to as much as 30 million years.", "Subsequent fossil discoveries, notably \"Lucy\", and reinterpretation of older fossil materials, notably ''Ramapithecus'', showed the younger estimates to be correct and validated the albumin method.Progress in DNA sequencing, specifically mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and then Y-chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) advanced the understanding of human origins.", "Application of the molecular clock principle revolutionized the study of molecular evolution.On the basis of a separation from the orangutan between 10 and 20 million years ago, earlier studies of the molecular clock suggested that there were about 76 mutations per generation that were not inherited by human children from their parents; this evidence supported the divergence time between hominins and chimpanzees noted above.", "However, a 2012 study in Iceland of 78 children and their parents suggests a mutation rate of only 36 mutations per generation; this datum extends the separation between humans and chimpanzees to an earlier period greater than 7 million years ago (Ma).", "Additional research with 226 offspring of wild chimpanzee populations in eight locations suggests that chimpanzees reproduce at age 26.5 years on average; which suggests the human divergence from chimpanzees occurred between 7 and 13 mya.", "And these data suggest that ''Ardipithecus'' (4.5 Ma), ''Orrorin'' (6 Ma) and ''Sahelanthropus'' (7 Ma) all may be on the hominid lineage, and even that the separation may have occurred outside the East African Rift region.Furthermore, analysis of the two species' genes in 2006 provides evidence that after human ancestors had started to diverge from chimpanzees, interspecies mating between \"proto-human\" and \"proto-chimpanzees\" nonetheless occurred regularly enough to change certain genes in the new gene pool:: A new comparison of the human and chimpanzee genomes suggests that after the two lineages separated, they may have begun interbreeding... A principal finding is that the X chromosomes of humans and chimpanzees appear to have diverged about 1.2 million years more recently than the other chromosomes.The research suggests:: There were in fact two splits between the human and chimpanzee lineages, with the first being followed by interbreeding between the two populations and then a second split.", "The suggestion of a hybridization has startled paleoanthropologists, who nonetheless are treating the new genetic data seriously.=== The quest for the earliest hominin ===In the 1990s, several teams of paleoanthropologists were working throughout Africa looking for evidence of the earliest divergence of the hominin lineage from the great apes.", "In 1994, Meave Leakey discovered ''Australopithecus anamensis''.", "The find was overshadowed by Tim D. White's 1995 discovery of ''Ardipithecus ramidus'', which pushed back the fossil record to .In 2000, Martin Pickford and Brigitte Senut discovered, in the Tugen Hills of Kenya, a 6-million-year-old bipedal hominin which they named ''Orrorin tugenensis''.", "And in 2001, a team led by Michel Brunet discovered the skull of ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis'' which was dated as , and which Brunet argued was a bipedal, and therefore a hominid—that is, a hominin ( Hominidae; terms \"hominids\" and hominins).=== Human dispersal ===Anthropologists in the 1980s were divided regarding some details of reproductive barriers and migratory dispersals of the genus ''Homo''.", "Subsequently, genetics has been used to investigate and resolve these issues.", "According to the Sahara pump theory evidence suggests that the genus ''Homo'' have migrated out of Africa at least three and possibly four times (e.g.", "''Homo erectus'', ''Homo heidelbergensis'' and two or three times for ''Homo sapiens'').", "Recent evidence suggests these dispersals are closely related to fluctuating periods of climate change.Recent evidence suggests that humans may have left Africa half a million years earlier than previously thought.", "A joint Franco-Indian team has found human artifacts in the Siwalk Hills north of New Delhi dating back at least 2.6 million years.", "This is earlier than the previous earliest finding of genus ''Homo'' at Dmanisi, in Georgia, dating to 1.85 million years.", "Although controversial, tools found at a Chinese cave strengthen the case that humans used tools as far back as 2.48 million years ago.", "This suggests that the Asian \"Chopper\" tool tradition, found in Java and northern China may have left Africa before the appearance of the Acheulian hand axe.==== Dispersal of modern ''Homo sapiens'' ====Up until the genetic evidence became available, there were two dominant models for the dispersal of modern humans.", "The multiregional hypothesis proposed that the genus ''Homo'' contained only a single interconnected population as it does today (not separate species), and that its evolution took place worldwide continuously over the last couple of million years.", "This model was proposed in 1988 by Milford H. Wolpoff.", "In contrast, the \"out of Africa\" model proposed that modern ''H.", "sapiens'' speciated in Africa recently (that is, approximately 200,000 years ago) and the subsequent migration through Eurasia resulted in the nearly complete replacement of other ''Homo'' species.", "This model has been developed by Chris Stringer and Peter Andrews.Known ''H.", "sapiens'' migration routes in the PleistoceneSequencing mtDNA and Y-DNA sampled from a wide range of indigenous populations revealed ancestral information relating to both male and female genetic heritage, and strengthened the \"out of Africa\" theory and weakened the views of multiregional evolutionism.", "Aligned in genetic tree differences were interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin.", "\"Out of Africa\" has thus gained much support from research using female mitochondrial DNA and the male Y chromosome.", "After analysing genealogy trees constructed using 133 types of mtDNA, researchers concluded that all were descended from a female African progenitor, dubbed Mitochondrial Eve.", "\"Out of Africa\" is also supported by the fact that mitochondrial genetic diversity is highest among African populations.A broad study of African genetic diversity, headed by Sarah Tishkoff, found the San people had the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 \"ancestral population clusters\".", "The research also located a possible origin of modern human migration in southwestern Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.", "The fossil evidence was insufficient for archaeologist Richard Leakey to resolve the debate about exactly where in Africa modern humans first appeared.", "Studies of haplogroups in Y-chromosomal DNA and mitochondrial DNA have largely supported a recent African origin.", "All the evidence from autosomal DNA also predominantly supports a Recent African origin.", "However, evidence for archaic admixture in modern humans, both in Africa and later, throughout Eurasia has recently been suggested by a number of studies.Recent sequencing of Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes shows that some admixture with these populations has occurred.", "All modern human groups outside Africa have 1–4% or (according to more recent research) about 1.5–2.6% Neanderthal alleles in their genome, and some Melanesians have an additional 4–6% of Denisovan alleles.", "These new results do not contradict the \"out of Africa\" model, except in its strictest interpretation, although they make the situation more complex.", "After recovery from a genetic bottleneck that some researchers speculate might be linked to the Toba supervolcano catastrophe, a fairly small group left Africa and interbred with Neanderthals, probably in the Middle East, on the Eurasian steppe or even in North Africa before their departure.", "Their still predominantly African descendants spread to populate the world.", "A fraction in turn interbred with Denisovans, probably in southeastern Asia, before populating Melanesia.", "HLA haplotypes of Neanderthal and Denisova origin have been identified in modern Eurasian and Oceanian populations.", "The Denisovan EPAS1 gene has also been found in Tibetan populations.", "Studies of the human genome using machine learning have identified additional genetic contributions in Eurasians from an \"unknown\" ancestral population potentially related to the Neanderthal-Denisovan lineage.", "A map of early human migrationsThere are still differing theories on whether there was a single exodus from Africa or several.", "A multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory, which has gained support in recent years from genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence.", "In this theory, there was a coastal dispersal of modern humans from the Horn of Africa crossing the Bab el Mandib to Yemen at a lower sea level around 70,000 years ago.", "This group helped to populate Southeast Asia and Oceania, explaining the discovery of early human sites in these areas much earlier than those in the Levant.", "This group seems to have been dependent upon marine resources for their survival.Stephen Oppenheimer has proposed a second wave of humans may have later dispersed through the Persian Gulf oases, and the Zagros mountains into the Middle East.", "Alternatively it may have come across the Sinai Peninsula into Asia, from shortly after 50,000 yrs BP, resulting in the bulk of the human populations of Eurasia.", "It has been suggested that this second group possibly possessed a more sophisticated \"big game hunting\" tool technology and was less dependent on coastal food sources than the original group.", "Much of the evidence for the first group's expansion would have been destroyed by the rising sea levels at the end of each glacial maximum.", "The multiple dispersal model is contradicted by studies indicating that the populations of Eurasia and the populations of Southeast Asia and Oceania are all descended from the same mitochondrial DNA L3 lineages, which support a single migration out of Africa that gave rise to all non-African populations.On the basis of the early date of Badoshan Iranian Aurignacian, Oppenheimer suggests that this second dispersal may have occurred with a pluvial period about 50,000 years before the present, with modern human big-game hunting cultures spreading up the Zagros Mountains, carrying modern human genomes from Oman, throughout the Persian Gulf, northward into Armenia and Anatolia, with a variant travelling south into Israel and to Cyrenicia.Recent genetic evidence suggests that all modern non-African populations, including those of Eurasia and Oceania, are descended from a single wave that left Africa between 65,000 and 50,000 years ago." ], [ "Evidence", "The evidence on which scientific accounts of human evolution are based comes from many fields of natural science.", "The main source of knowledge about the evolutionary process has traditionally been the fossil record, but since the development of genetics beginning in the 1970s, DNA analysis has come to occupy a place of comparable importance.", "The studies of ontogeny, phylogeny and especially evolutionary developmental biology of both vertebrates and invertebrates offer considerable insight into the evolution of all life, including how humans evolved.", "The specific study of the origin and life of humans is anthropology, particularly paleoanthropology which focuses on the study of human prehistory.=== Evidence from genetics ===extant hominoids: humans (genus ''Homo''), chimpanzees and bonobos (genus ''Pan''), gorillas (genus ''Gorilla''), orangutans (genus ''Pongo''), and gibbons (four genera of the family Hylobatidae: ''Hylobates'', ''Hoolock'', ''Nomascus'', and ''Symphalangus'').", "All except gibbons are hominids.The closest living relatives of humans are bonobos and chimpanzees (both genus ''Pan'') and gorillas (genus ''Gorilla'').", "With the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, estimates of the similarity between their DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%.", "By using the technique called the molecular clock which estimates the time required for the number of divergent mutations to accumulate between two lineages, the approximate date for the split between lineages can be calculated.The gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and then the orangutans (genus ''Pongo'') were the first groups to split from the line leading to the hominins, including humans—followed by gorillas (genus ''Gorilla''), and, ultimately, by the chimpanzees (genus ''Pan'').", "The splitting date between hominin and chimpanzee lineages is placed by some between , that is, during the Late Miocene.", "Speciation, however, appears to have been unusually drawn out.", "Initial divergence occurred sometime between , but ongoing hybridization blurred the separation and delayed complete separation during several millions of years.", "Patterson (2006) dated the final divergence at .Genetic evidence has also been employed to compare species within the genus ''Homo'', investigating gene flow between early modern humans and Neanderthals, and to enhance the understanding of the early human migration patterns and splitting dates.", "By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor.Each time a certain mutation (single-nucleotide polymorphism) appears in an individual and is passed on to his or her descendants, a haplogroup is formed including all of the descendants of the individual who will also carry that mutation.", "By comparing mitochondrial DNA which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 200,000 years ago.Human evolutionary genetics studies how human genomes differ among individuals, the evolutionary past that gave rise to them, and their current effects.", "Differences between genomes have anthropological, medical and forensic implications and applications.", "Genetic data can provide important insight into human evolution.In May 2023, scientists reported a more complicated pathway of human evolution than previously understood.", "According to the studies, humans evolved from different places and times in Africa, instead of from a single location and period of time.=== Evidence from the fossil record ===Replica of fossil skull of ''H. habilis''.", "Fossil number KNM ER 1813, found at Koobi Fora, Kenya.Replica of fossil skull of ''H.", "ergaster'' (African ''H. erectus'').", "Fossil number Khm-Heu 3733 discovered in 1975 in Kenya.There is little fossil evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee and hominin lineages.", "The earliest fossils that have been proposed as members of the hominin lineage are ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis'' dating from , ''Orrorin tugenensis'' dating from , and ''Ardipithecus kadabba'' dating to .", "Each of these have been argued to be a bipedal ancestor of later hominins but, in each case, the claims have been contested.", "It is also possible that one or more of these species are ancestors of another branch of African apes, or that they represent a shared ancestor between hominins and other apes.The question then of the relationship between these early fossil species and the hominin lineage is still to be resolved.", "From these early species, the australopithecines arose around and diverged into robust (also called ''Paranthropus'') and gracile branches, one of which (possibly ''A.", "garhi'') probably went on to become ancestors of the genus ''Homo''.", "The australopithecine species that is best represented in the fossil record is ''Australopithecus afarensis'' with more than 100 fossil individuals represented, found from Northern Ethiopia (such as the famous \"Lucy\"), to Kenya, and South Africa.", "Fossils of robust australopithecines such as ''Au.", "robustus'' (or alternatively ''Paranthropus robustus'') and ''Au./P.", "boisei'' are particularly abundant in South Africa at sites such as Kromdraai and Swartkrans, and around Lake Turkana in Kenya.The earliest member of the genus ''Homo'' is ''Homo habilis'' which evolved around .", "''H.", "habilis'' is the first species for which we have positive evidence of the use of stone tools.", "They developed the Oldowan lithic technology, named after the Olduvai Gorge in which the first specimens were found.", "Some scientists consider ''Homo rudolfensis'', a larger bodied group of fossils with similar morphology to the original ''H.", "habilis'' fossils, to be a separate species, while others consider them to be part of ''H.", "habilis''—simply representing intraspecies variation, or perhaps even sexual dimorphism.", "The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main adaptation was bipedalism as an adaptation to terrestrial living.During the next million years, a process of encephalization began and, by the arrival (about ) of ''H.", "erectus'' in the fossil record, cranial capacity had doubled.", "''H.", "erectus'' were the first of the hominins to emigrate from Africa, and, from , this species spread through Africa, Asia, and Europe.", "One population of ''H.", "erectus'', also sometimes classified as separate species ''H.", "ergaster'', remained in Africa and evolved into ''H. sapiens''.", "It is believed that ''H.", "erectus'' and ''H.", "ergaster'' were the first to use fire and complex tools.", "In Eurasia, ''H.", "erectus'' evolved into species such as ''H.", "antecessor'', ''H.", "heidelbergensis'' and ''H. neanderthalensis''.", "The earliest fossils of anatomically modern humans are from the Middle Paleolithic, about 300–200,000 years ago such as the Herto and Omo remains of Ethiopia, Jebel Irhoud remains of Morocco, and Florisbad remains of South Africa; later fossils from the Skhul Cave in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years ago ().As modern humans spread out from Africa, they encountered other hominins such as ''H.", "neanderthalensis'' and the Denisovans, who may have evolved from populations of ''H.", "erectus'' that had left Africa around .", "The nature of interaction between early humans and these sister species has been a long-standing source of controversy, the question being whether humans replaced these earlier species or whether they were in fact similar enough to interbreed, in which case these earlier populations may have contributed genetic material to modern humans.This migration out of Africa is estimated to have begun about 70–50,000 years BP and modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominins either through competition or hybridization.", "They inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years BP, and the Americas by at least 14,500 years BP.=== Inter-species breeding ===Out of Africa\" expansion of ''H.", "sapiens'' is indicated at the top of the diagram, with admixture indicated with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and unspecified archaic African hominins.The hypothesis of interbreeding, also known as hybridization, admixture or hybrid-origin theory, has been discussed ever since the discovery of Neanderthal remains in the 19th century.", "The linear view of human evolution began to be abandoned in the 1970s as different species of humans were discovered that made the linear concept increasingly unlikely.", "In the 21st century with the advent of molecular biology techniques and computerization, whole-genome sequencing of Neanderthal and human genome were performed, confirming recent admixture between different human species.", "In 2010, evidence based on molecular biology was published, revealing unambiguous examples of interbreeding between archaic and modern humans during the Middle Paleolithic and early Upper Paleolithic.", "It has been demonstrated that interbreeding happened in several independent events that included Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as several unidentified hominins.", "Today, approximately 2% of DNA from all non-African populations (including Europeans, Asians, and Oceanians) is Neanderthal, with traces of Denisovan heritage.", "Also, 4–6% of modern Melanesian genetics are Denisovan.", "Comparisons of the human genome to the genomes of Neandertals, Denisovans and apes can help identify features that set modern humans apart from other hominin species.", "In a 2016 comparative genomics study, a Harvard Medical School/UCLA research team made a world map on the distribution and made some predictions about where Denisovan and Neanderthal genes may be impacting modern human biology.For example, comparative studies in the mid-2010s found several traits related to neurological, immunological, developmental, and metabolic phenotypes, that were developed by archaic humans to European and Asian environments and inherited to modern humans through admixture with local hominins.Although the narratives of human evolution are often contentious, several discoveries since 2010 show that human evolution should not be seen as a simple linear or branched progression, but a mix of related species.", "In fact, genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages is the rule, not the exception, in human evolution.", "Furthermore, it is argued that hybridization was an essential creative force in the emergence of modern humans.=== Stone tools ===Stone tools are first attested around 2.6 million years ago, when hominins in Eastern Africa used so-called core tools, choppers made out of round cores that had been split by simple strikes.", "This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago.", "The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age), ending around 350,000–300,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age), until 50,000–30,000 years ago, and the Upper Paleolithic, (Late Stone Age), 50,000–10,000 years ago.Archaeologists working in the Great Rift Valley in Kenya have discovered the oldest known stone tools in the world.", "Dated to around 3.3 million years ago, the implements are some 700,000 years older than stone tools from Ethiopia that previously held this distinction.The period from 700,000 to 300,000 years ago is also known as the Acheulean, when ''H.", "ergaster'' (or ''erectus'') made large stone hand axes out of flint and quartzite, at first quite rough (Early Acheulian), later \"retouched\" by additional, more-subtle strikes at the sides of the flakes.", "After 350,000 BP the more refined so-called Levallois technique was developed, a series of consecutive strikes, by which scrapers, slicers (\"racloirs\"), needles, and flattened needles were made.", "Finally, after about 50,000 BP, ever more refined and specialized flint tools were made by the Neanderthals and the immigrant Cro-Magnons (knives, blades, skimmers).", "Bone tools were also made by ''H.", "sapiens'' in Africa by 90–70,000 years ago and are also known from early ''H.", "sapiens'' sites in Eurasia by about 50,000 years ago." ], [ "Species list", "This list is in chronological order across the table by '''''genus'''''.", "Some species/subspecies names are well-established, and some are less established – especially in genus ''Homo''.", "Please see articles for more information.", "''Sahelanthropus''''Homo'' (human)''S.", "tchadensis''''H.", "gautengensis''''Orrorin''''H.", "habilis''''O.", "tugenensis''''H.", "rudolfensis''''Ardipithecus''''H.", "floresiensis''''A.", "kadabba''''H.", "ergaster''''A.", "ramidus''''H.", "erectus''''Australopithecus''• ''H.", "e. georgicus''''A.", "anamensis''''H.", "cepranensis''''A.", "afarensis''''H.", "antecessor''''A.", "bahrelghazali''''H.", "heidelbergensis''''A.", "africanus''''H.", "rhodesiensis''''A.", "garhi''''H.", "naledi''''A.", "sediba''''H.", "helmei''''Kenyanthropus''''H.", "neanderthalensis''''K.", "platyops''''H.", "sapiens''''Paranthropus''• ''H.", "s. idaltu''''P.", "aethiopicus''• ''H.", "s. sapiens'' (early)''P.", "boisei''• ''H.", "s. sapiens'' (modern)''P.", "robustus''" ], [ "See also", "* Adaptive evolution in the human genome* Amity-enmity complex* Archaeogenetics* Dual inheritance theory* Dysgenics* Evolution of human intelligence* Evolution of morality* Evolutionary medicine* Evolutionary neuroscience* Evolutionary origin of religions* Evolutionary psychology* Human behavioral ecology* Human origins* Human vestigiality* List of human evolution fossils* Molecular paleontology* Obstetrical dilemma* Origin of language* Origin of speech* Prehistory of nakedness and clothing* Sexual selection in humans* Transgenerational trauma" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* * * * (9th edition 2021)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * \"The Conference on the Comparative Reception of Darwinism was held in Austin, Texas, on April 22 and 23, 1972, under the joint sponsorship of the American Council of Learned Societies and the University of Texas at Austin\"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \"Contributions from the Third Stony Brook Human Evolution Symposium and Workshop October 3–7, 2006.\"" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * – two ancestral ape chromosomes fused to give rise to human chromosome 2* * (Note: this book contains very useful, information dense chapters on primate evolution in general, and human evolution in particular, including fossil history).", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (Note: this book contains very accessible descriptions of human and non-human primates, their evolution, and fossil history).", "*" ], [ "External links", "* \" Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins\" by Allison Hopper, ''Scientific American'' (July 5, 2021).", "* * * * – Illustrations from the book ''Evolution'' (2007)* * * \"Human Trace\" video (2015) Normandy University UNIHAVRE, CNRS, IDEES, E.Laboratory on Human Trace Unitwin Complex System Digital Campus UNESCO.", "* * Shaping Humanity Video 2013 Yale University* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).", "* Human Evolution, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Steve Jones, Fred Spoor & Margaret Clegg (''In Our Time'', February 16, 2006)* Evolutionary Timeline of Home Sapiens − Smithsonian (February 2021)* History of Human Evolution in the United States – Salon (August 24, 2021)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Evliya Çelebi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dervish Mehmed Zillî''' (25 March 1611 – 1682), known as '''Evliya Çelebi''' (), was an Ottoman explorer who travelled through the territory of the Ottoman Empire and neighboring lands during the empire's cultural zenith.", "He travelled for over 40 years, recording his commentary in a travelogue called the ''Seyahatnâme'' (\"Book of Travel\").", "The name Çelebi is an honorific meaning \"gentleman\" or \"man of God\"." ], [ "Life", "The house of Evliya Çelebi in Kütahya, now used as a museum Evliya Çelebi was born in Istanbul in 1611 to a wealthy family from Kütahya.", "Both his parents were attached to the Ottoman court, his father, Dervish Mehmed Zilli, as a jeweller, and his mother as an Abkhazian relation of the grand vizier Melek Ahmed Pasha.", "In his book, Evliya Çelebi traces his paternal genealogy back to Ahmad Yasawi, the earliest known Turkic poet and an early Sufi mystic.", "Evliya Çelebi received a court education from the Imperial ''ulama'' (scholars).", "He may have joined the Gulshani Sufi order, as he shows an intimate knowledge of their ''khanqah'' in Cairo, and a graffito exists in which he referred to himself as ''Evliya-yı Gülşenî'' (\"Evliya of the Gülşenî\").A devout Muslim opposed to fanaticism, Evliya could recite the Quran from memory and joked freely about Islam.", "Though employed as a clergyman and entertainer at the Imperial Court of Sultan Murad IV, Evliya refused employment that would keep him from travelling.", "Çelebi had studied vocal and instrumental music as a pupil of a renowned Khalwati dervish by the name of 'Umar Gulshani, and his musical gifts earned him much favor at the Imperial Palace, impressing even the chief musician Amir Guna.", "He was also trained in the theory of music called .", "His journal-writing began in Istanbul, with the taking of notes on buildings, markets, customs and culture, and in 1640 it was augmented with accounts of his travels beyond the confines of the city.", "The collected notes of his travels form a ten-volume work called the ''Seyahâtname'' (\"Travelogue\").", "Departing from the Ottoman literary convention of the time, he wrote in a mixture of vernacular and high Turkish, with the effect that the Seyahatname has remained a popular and accessible reference work about life in the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century, including two chapters on musical instruments.Evliya Çelebi died in 1684, it is unclear whether he was in Istanbul or Cairo at the time." ], [ "Travels", "=== Europe ===Çelebi claimed to have encountered Native Americans as a guest in Rotterdam during his visit of 1663.He wrote: \"they cursed those priests, saying, 'Our world used to be peaceful, but it has been filled by greedy people, who make war every year and shorten our lives.", "'\"While visiting Vienna in 1665–66, Çelebi noted some similarities between words in German and Persian, an early observation of the relationship between what would later be known as two Indo-European languages.Çelebi visited Crete and in book II describes the fall of Chania to the Sultan; in book VIII he recounts the Candia campaign.==== Croatia ====During his travels in the Balkan regions of the Ottoman Empire Çelebi visited various regions of the modern-day Croatia including northern Dalmatia, parts of Slavonia, Međimurje and Banija.", "He recorded variety of historiographic and ethnographic sources.", "They included descriptions of first hand encounters, third party narrator witnesses and invented elements.==== Circassia ====Çelebi traveled to Circassia as well, in 1640.He commented on the women's beauty and talked about the absence of mosques and bazaars despite being a Muslim country.", "He talks about the hospitality of Circassians and mentions that he could not write the Circassian language using letters, and compared the language to a \"magpie shout\".==== Bosnia ====The Old Bridge in MostarEvliya Çelebi visited the town of Mostar, then in Ottoman Bosnia.", "He wrote that the name ''Mostar'' means \"bridge-keeper\", in reference to the town's celebrated bridge, 28 meters long and 20 meters high.", "Çelebi wrote that it \"is like a rainbow arch soaring up to the skies, extending from one cliff to the other.", "...I, a poor and miserable slave of Allah, have passed through 16 countries, but I have never seen such a high bridge.", "It is thrown from rock to rock as high as the sky.", "\"==== Bulgaria (Dobruja) ====Evliya Çelebi, who traveled around Anatolia and the Balkans in the 17th century, mentioned the northeast of Bulgaria as the Uz (Oğuz) region, and that a Turkish speaking Muslim society named '''Çıtak''' consisting of medium-sized, cheerful and strong people lived in Silistra, and also known as the '''\"Dobruca Çitakları\"''' in Dobruja.", "He also emphasizes that \"Çıtaklar\" is made up of a mixture of Tatars, Vlachs, and Bulgarians.==== Kosovo ====In 1660 Çelebi went to Kosovo and referred to the central part of the region as ''Arnavud'' (آرناوود) and noted that in Vushtrri its inhabitants were speakers of Albanian or Turkish and few spoke Bosnian.", "The highlands around the Tetovo, Peja and Prizren areas Çelebi considered as being the \"mountains of Arnavudluk\".", "Çelebi referred to the \"mountains of Peja\" as being in Arnavudluk (آرناوودلق) and considered the Ibar river that converged in Mitrovica as forming Kosovo's border with Bosnia.", "He viewed the \"Kılab\" or Llapi river as having its source in Arnavudluk (Albania) and by extension the Sitnica as being part of that river.", "Çelebi also included the central mountains of Kosovo within Arnavudluk.==== Albania ====Çelebi travelled extensively throughout Albania, visiting it on 3 occasions.", "He visited Tirana, Lezha, Shkodra and Bushat in 1662, Delvina, Gjirokastra, Tepelena, Skrapar, Përmet, Berat, Kanina, Vlora, Bashtova, Durrës, Kavaja, Peqin, Elbasan, Pogradec, Kavaja and Durrës in 1670.==== Parthenon ====In 1667 Çelebi expressed his marvel at the Parthenon's sculptures and described the building as \"like some impregnable fortress not made by human agency.\"", "He composed a poetic supplication that the Parthenon, as \"a work less of human hands than of Heaven itself, should remain standing for all time.", "\"=== Asia ======= Shirvan ====Of oil merchants in Baku Çelebi wrote: \"By Allah's decree oil bubbles up out of the ground, but in the manner of hot springs, pools of water are formed with oil congealed on the surface like cream.", "Merchants wade into these pools and collect the oil in ladles and fill goatskins with it, these oil merchants then sell them in different regions.", "Revenues from this oil trade are delivered annually directly to the Safavid Shah.", "\"==== Crimean Khanate ====Evliya Çelebi remarked on the impact of Cossack raids from Azak upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate, destroying trade routes and severely depopulating the regions.", "By the time of Çelebi's arrival, many of the towns visited were affected by the Cossacks, and the only place in Crimea he reported as safe was the Ottoman fortress at Arabat.Çelebi wrote of the slave trade in the Crimea:Çelebi estimated that there were about 400,000 slaves in the Crimea but only 187,000 free Muslims.==== Syria and Palestine ====In contrast to many European and some Jewish travelogues of Syria and Palestine in the 17th century, Çelebi wrote one of the few detailed travelogues from an Islamic point of view.", "Çelebi visited Palestine twice, once in 1649 and once in 1670–1.An English translation of the first part, with some passages from the second, was published in 1935–1940 by the self-taught Palestinian scholar Stephan Hanna Stephan who worked for the Palestine Department of Antiquities.", "Significant are the many references to Palestine, or \"Land of Palestine\", and Evliya notes, \"All chronicles call this country Palestine.", "\"==== Mecca ====Evliya reported that the sheriffs of Mecca promoted trade in the region by encouraging fairs from the wealthy merchants.", "Evliya went on to explain that a large amount of buying and selling occurred in Mecca during the pilgrimage season." ], [ "Seyahatnâme", "He wrote one of history's longest and most ambitious accounts of travel writing in any language, the ''Seyahatnâme''.", "Although many of the descriptions in the ''Seyahatnâme'' were written in an exaggerated manner or were plainly inventive fiction or third-source misinterpretation, his notes remain a useful guide to the culture and lifestyles of the 17th century Ottoman Empire.", "The first volume deals exclusively with Istanbul, the final volume with Egypt.Currently there is no English translation of the entire ''Seyahatnâme'', although there are translations of various parts.", "The longest single English translation was published in 1834 by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, an Austrian orientalist: it may be found under the name \"Evliya Efendi.\"", "Von Hammer-Purgstall's work covers the first two volumes (Istanbul and Anatolia) but its language is antiquated.", "Other translations include Erich Prokosch's nearly complete translation into German of the tenth volume, the 2004 introductory work entitled ''The World of Evliya Çelebi: An Ottoman Mentality'' written by Robert Dankoff, and Dankoff and Sooyong Kim's 2010 translation of select excerpts of the ten volumes, ''An Ottoman Traveller: Selections from the Book of Travels of Evliya Çelebi''.Evliya is noted for having collected samples of the languages in each region he traveled in.", "There are some 30 Turkic dialects and languages cataloged in the ''Seyahatnâme''.", "Çelebi notes the similarities between several words from the German and Persian, though he denies any common Indo-European heritage.", "The ''Seyahatnâme'' also contains the first transcriptions of many languages of the Caucasus and Tsakonian, and the only extant specimens of written Ubykh outside the linguistic literature.", "He also wrote in detail about Arabian horses and their different strains.In the 10 volumes of his ''Seyahatnâme'', he describes the following journeys:# Constantinople and surrounding areas (1630)# Anatolia, the Caucasus, Crete and Azerbaijan (1640)# Syria, Palestine, Armenia and Rumelia (1648)# Kurdistan, Iraq, and Iran (1655)# Russia and the Balkans (1656)# Military Campaigns in Hungary during the fourth Austro-Turkish War (1663/64)# Austria, the Crimea, and the Caucasus for the second time (1664)# Greece and then the Crimea and Rumelia for the second time (1667–1670)# the Hajj to Mecca (1671)# Egypt and the Sudan (1672)" ], [ "In popular culture", "Evlija Čelebija (Evliya Çelebi) street in modern Skopje, North Macedonia* Çelebi appears in Orhan Pamuk's 1985 novel ''The White Castle'', and is featured in ''The Adventures of Captain Bathory'' (Dobrodružstvá kapitána Báthoryho) novels by Slovak writer Juraj Červenák.", "* ''İstanbul Kanatlarımın Altında'' (''Istanbul Under My Wings'', 1996) is a film about the lives of legendary aviator brothers Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi and Lagâri Hasan Çelebi, and the Ottoman society in the early 17th century, during the reign of Murad IV, as witnessed and narrated by Evliya Çelebi.", "* ''Evliya Çelebi ve Ölümsüzlük Suyu'' (Evliya Çelebi and the Water of Life, 2014, dir.", "Serkan Zelzele), a children's adaptation of Çelebi's adventures, is the first full-length Turkish animated film.", "* UNESCO included the 400th anniversary of Çelebi's birth in its timetable for the celebration of anniversaries.", "* In the 2015 TV series ''Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem'', is portrayed by Turkish actor Necip Memili.", "* On 25 March 2011, Google celebrated 400th Birthday of Evliya Çelebi with a doodle." ], [ "Taxa named in his honor", "*The '''Lycian spring minnow''', '''''Pseudophoxinus evliyae''''' Freyhof & Özuluğ, 2010 is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae.It is found in drainages in western Anatolia in Turkey." ], [ "See also", "*Ahmad ibn Fadlan*Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi*Kâtip Çelebi*Evliya Çelebi Way*Turkish literature" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources and further reading", "===In Turkish===* Evliya Çelebi.", "''Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi''.", "Beyoğlu, İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları Ltd.", "Şti., 1996.10 vols.", "* Evliya Çelebi: ''Seyahatnamesi''.", "2 Vol.", "Cocuk Klasikleri Dizisi.", "Berlin 2005.", "(A selection translated into modern Turkish for children)* Robert Dankoff, Nuran Tezcan, Evliya Çelebi'nin Nil Haritası - Dürr-i bî misîl în ahbâr-ı Nîl, Yapı Kredi Yayınları 2011* Nuran Tezcan, Semih Tezcan (Edit.", "), Doğumunun 400.Yılında Evliya Çelebi, T.C.", "Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara 2011=== In English ===* (+ contents) + via Hathi Trust* (+ contents)* ''Narrative of travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa, in the seventeenth century, by Evliyá Efendí''.", "Trans.", "Ritter Joseph von Hammer.", "London: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, 1846.", "* * ''Evliya Çelebi in Diyarbekir: The Relevant Section of The Seyahatname''.", "Trans.", "and Ed.", "Martin van Bruinessen and Hendrik Boeschoten.", "New York : E.J.", "Brill, 1988.", "* ''The Intimate Life of an Ottoman Statesman: Melek Ahmed Pasha (1588–1662) as Portrayed in Evliya Çelebi's Book of Travels''.", "Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.", "* ''Evliya Çelebi's Book of Travels.", "Evliya Çelebi in Albania and Adjacent Regions (Kosovo, Montenegro).", "The Relevant Sections of the Seyahatname''.", "Trans.", "and Ed.", "Robert Dankoff.", "Leiden and Boston 2000.", "* Robert Dankoff: ''An Ottoman Mentality.", "The World of Evliya Çelebi''.", "Leiden: E.J.", "Brill, 2004.", "* Klaus Kreiser, \"Evliya Çelebi\", eds.", "C. Kafadar, H. Karateke, C. Fleischer.", "October 2005.", "* Evliya Çelebi: ''Selected Stories by Evliya Çelebi'', edited by Zeynep Üstün, translated by Havva Aslan, Profil Yayıncılık, Istanbul 2007 * * ===In German===* Helena Turková: ''Die Reisen und Streifzüge Evliyâ Çelebîs in Dalmatien und Bosnien in den Jahren 1659/61''.", "Prag 1965.", "* Klaus Kreiser: ''Edirne im 17.Jahrhundert nach Evliyâ Çelebî.", "Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der osmanischen Stadt''.", "Freiburg 1975.", "* ''Im Reiche des Goldenen Apfels.", "Des türkischen Weltenbummlers Evliâ Çelebis denkwürdige Reise in das Giaurenland und die Stadt und Festung Wien anno 1665''.", "Trans.", "R. Kreutel, Graz, et al.", "1987.", "* ''Ins Land der geheimnisvollen Func: des türkischen Weltenbummlers, Evliyā Çelebi, Reise durch Oberägypten und den Sudan nebst der osmanischen Provinz Habes in den Jahren 1672/73''.", "Trans.", "Erich Prokosch.", "Graz: Styria, 1994.", "* ''Evliyā Çelebis Anatolienreise aus dem dritten Band des Seyāḥatnāme''.", "Trans.", "Korkut M. Buğday.", "New York: E.J.", "Brill, 1996.", "* ''Evliya Çelebis Reise von Bitlis nach Van: ein Auszug aus dem Seyahatname''.", "Trans.", "Christiane Bulut.", "Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1997.", "* ''Manisa nach Evliyā Çelebi: aus dem neunten Band des Seyāḥat-nāme''.", "Trans.", "Nuran Tezcan.", "Boston: Brill, 1999.", "* ''Kairo in der zweiten Hälfte des 17.Jahrhunderts.", "Beschrieben von Evliya Çelebi''.", "Trans.", "Erich Prokosch.", "Istanbul 2000." ], [ "External links", "* Ottoman text edition (1896)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ancient Egyptian religion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ancient Egyptian religion''' was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals that formed an integral part of ancient Egyptian culture.", "It centered on the Egyptians' interactions with many deities believed to be present and in control of the world.", "About 1500 deities are known.", "Rituals such as prayer and offerings were provided to the gods to gain their favor.", "Formal religious practice centered on the pharaohs, the rulers of Egypt, believed to possess divine powers by virtue of their positions.", "They acted as intermediaries between their people and the gods, and were obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain Ma'at, the order of the cosmos, and repel Isfet, which was chaos.", "The state dedicated enormous resources to religious rituals and to the construction of temples.Individuals could interact with the gods for their own purposes, appealing for help through prayer or compelling the gods to act through magic.", "These practices were distinct from, but closely linked with, the formal rituals and institutions.", "The popular religious tradition grew more prominent over the course of Egyptian history as the status of the pharaoh declined.", "Egyptian belief in the afterlife and the importance of funerary practices is evident in the great efforts made to ensure the survival of their souls after death – via the provision of tombs, grave goods and offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the deceased.The religion had its roots in Egypt's prehistory and lasted for 3,500 years.", "The details of religious belief changed over time as the importance of particular gods rose and declined, and their intricate relationships shifted.", "At various times, certain gods became preeminent over the others, including the sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis.", "For a brief period, in the theology promulgated by the pharaoh Akhenaten, a single god, the Aten, replaced the traditional pantheon.", "Ancient Egyptian religion and mythology left behind many writings and monuments, along with significant influences on ancient and modern cultures." ], [ "Beliefs", "The beliefs and rituals now referred to as \"ancient Egyptian religion\" were integral within every aspect of Egyptian culture thus the Egyptian language possessed no single term corresponding to the concept of religion.", "Ancient Egyptian religion consisted of a vast and varying set of beliefs and practices, linked by their common focus on the interaction between the world of humans and the world of the divine.", "The characteristics of the gods who populated the divine realm were inextricably linked to the Egyptians' understanding of the properties of the world in which they lived.===Deities===The gods Osiris, Anubis, and Horus in the Tomb of Horemheb (KV57) in the Valley of the KingsThe Egyptians believed that the phenomena of nature were divine forces in and of themselves.", "These deified forces included the elements, animal characteristics, or abstract forces.", "The Egyptians believed in a pantheon of gods, which were involved in all aspects of nature and human society.", "Their religious practices were efforts to sustain and placate these phenomena and turn them to human advantage.", "This polytheistic system was very complex, as some deities were believed to exist in many different manifestations, and some had multiple mythological roles.", "Conversely, many natural forces, such as the sun, were associated with multiple deities.", "The diverse pantheon ranged from gods with vital roles in the universe to minor deities or \"demons\" with very limited or localized functions.", "It could include gods adopted from foreign cultures, and sometimes humans: deceased pharaohs were believed to be divine, and occasionally, distinguished commoners such as Imhotep also became deified.The depictions of the gods in art were not meant as literal representations of how the gods might appear if they were visible, as the gods' true natures were believed to be mysterious.", "Instead, these depictions gave recognizable forms to the abstract deities by using symbolic imagery to indicate each god's role in nature.", "This iconography was not fixed, and many of the gods could be depicted in more than one form.Many gods were associated with particular regions in Egypt where their cults were most important.", "However, these associations changed over time, and they did not mean that the god associated with a place had originated there.", "For instance, the god Montu was the original patron of the city of Thebes.", "Over the course of the Middle Kingdom, however, he was displaced in that role by Amun, who may have arisen elsewhere.", "The national popularity and importance of individual gods fluctuated in a similar way.Deities had complex interrelationships, which partly reflected the interaction of the forces they represented.", "The Egyptians often grouped gods together to reflect these relationships.", "One of the more common combinations was a family triad consisting of a father, mother, and child, who were worshipped together.", "Some groups had wide-ranging importance.", "One such group, the Ennead, assembled nine deities into a theological system that was involved in the mythological areas of creation, kingship, and the afterlife.The relationships between deities could also be expressed in the process of syncretism, in which two or more different gods were linked to form a composite deity.", "This process was a recognition of the presence of one god \"in\" another when the second god took on a role belonging to the first.", "These links between deities were fluid, and did not represent the permanent merging of two gods into one; therefore, some gods could develop multiple syncretic connections.", "Sometimes, syncretism combined deities with very similar characteristics.", "At other times, it joined gods with very different natures, as when Amun, the god of hidden power, was linked with Ra, the god of the sun.", "The resulting god, Amun-Ra, thus united the power that lay behind all things with the greatest and most visible force in nature.Many deities could be given epithets that seem to indicate that they were greater than any other god, suggesting some kind of unity beyond the multitude of natural forces.", "This is particularly true of a few gods who, at various points, rose to supreme importance in Egyptian religion.", "These included the royal patron Horus, the sun-god Ra, and the mother-goddess Isis.", "During the New Kingdom (–), Amun held this position.", "The theology of the period described in particular detail Amun's presence in and rule over all things, so that he, more than any other deity, embodied the all-encompassing power of the divine.===Cosmology===primeval waters around itNun lifts the solar barque with the new-born sun from the waters of creation.The Egyptian conception of the universe centered on ''Ma'at'', a word that encompasses several concepts in English, including \"truth\", \"justice\", and \"order\".", "It was the fixed, eternal order of the universe, both in the cosmos and in human society, and was often personified as a goddess.", "It had existed since the creation of the world, and without it the world would lose its cohesion.", "In Egyptian belief, ''Ma'at'' was constantly under threat from the forces of disorder, so all of society was required to maintain it.", "On the human level this meant that all members of society should cooperate and coexist; on the cosmic level it meant that all of the forces of nature—the gods—should continue to function in balance.", "This latter goal was central to Egyptian religion.", "The Egyptians sought to maintain ''Ma'at'' in the cosmos by sustaining the gods through offerings and by performing rituals which staved off disorder and perpetuated the cycles of nature.The most important part of the Egyptian view of the cosmos was the conception of time, which was greatly concerned with the maintenance of ''Ma'at''.", "Throughout the linear passage of time, a cyclical pattern recurred, in which ''Ma'at'' was renewed by periodic events which echoed the original creation.", "Among these events were the annual Nile flood and the succession from one king to another, but the most important was the daily journey of the sun god Ra.When thinking of the shape of the cosmos, the Egyptians saw the earth as a flat expanse of land, personified by the god Geb, over which arched the sky goddess Nut.", "The two were separated by Shu, the god of air.", "Beneath the Earth lay a parallel underworld and undersky, and beyond the skies lay the infinite expanse of Nu, the chaos and primordial watery abyss that had existed before creation.", "The Egyptians also believed in a place called the Duat, a mysterious region associated with death and rebirth, that may have lain in the underworld or in the sky.", "Each day, Ra traveled over the earth across the underside of the sky, and at night he passed through the Duat to be reborn at dawn.In Egyptian belief, this cosmos was inhabited by three types of sentient beings: one was the gods; another was the spirits of deceased humans, who existed in the divine realm and possessed many of the gods' abilities; living humans were the third category, and the most important among them was the pharaoh, who bridged the human and divine realms.===Kingship===Statue of Khafre, an Old Kingdom pharaoh, embraced by Horuslife to the pharaoh, Ramesses II.", "Painted limestone.", ".", "19th dynasty.", "From the small temple built by Ramses II in Abydos.Louvre museum, Paris, France.Egyptologists have long debated the degree to which the pharaoh was considered a god.", "It seems most likely that the Egyptians viewed royal authority itself as a divine force.", "Therefore, although the Egyptians recognized that the pharaoh was human and subject to human weakness, they simultaneously viewed him as a god, because the divine power of kingship was incarnated in him.", "He therefore acted as intermediary between Egypt's people and the gods.", "He was key to upholding ''Ma'at'', both by maintaining justice and harmony in human society and by sustaining the gods with temples and offerings.", "For these reasons, he oversaw all state religious activity.", "However, the pharaoh's real-life influence and prestige could differ from his portrayal in official writings and depictions, and beginning in the late New Kingdom his religious importance declined drastically.The king was also associated with many specific deities.", "He was identified directly with Horus, who represented kingship itself, and he was seen as the son of Ra, who ruled and regulated nature as the pharaoh ruled and regulated society.", "By the New Kingdom he was also associated with Amun, the supreme force in the cosmos.", "Upon his death, the king became fully deified.", "In this state, he was directly identified with Ra, and was also associated with Osiris, god of death and rebirth and the mythological father of Horus.", "Many mortuary temples were dedicated to the worship of deceased pharaohs as gods.===Afterlife===The Weighing of the Heart in the Hall of Maat as depicted in the Papyrus of Hunefer (19th Dynasty, c. 1300 BCE)The elaborate beliefs about death and the afterlife reinforced the Egyptians theology in humans possessions a ''ka'', or life-force, which left the body at the point of death.", "In life, the ''ka'' received its sustenance from food and drink, so it was believed that, to endure after death, the ''ka'' must continue to receive offerings of food, whose spiritual essence it could still consume.", "Each person also had a ''ba'', the set of spiritual characteristics unique to each individual.", "Unlike the ''ka'', the ''ba'' remained attached to the body after death.", "Egyptian funeral rituals were intended to release the ''ba'' from the body so that it could move freely, and to rejoin it with the ''ka'' so that it could live on as an ''akh''.", "However, it was also important that the body of the deceased be preserved, as the Egyptians believed that the ''ba'' returned to its body each night to receive new life, before emerging in the morning as an ''akh''.Ma'at wearing the feather of truthIn early times the deceased pharaoh was believed to ascend to the sky and dwell among the stars.", "Over the course of the Old Kingdom (–2181 BC), however, he came to be more closely associated with the daily rebirth of the sun god Ra and with the underworld ruler Osiris as those deities grew more important.In the fully developed afterlife beliefs of the New Kingdom, the soul had to avoid a variety of supernatural dangers in the Duat, before undergoing a final judgement, known as the \"Weighing of the Heart\", carried out by Osiris and by the Assessors of Ma'at.", "In this judgement, the gods compared the actions of the deceased while alive (symbolized by the heart) to the feather of Ma'at, to determine whether he or she had behaved in accordance with Ma'at.", "If the deceased was judged worthy, his or her ''ka'' and ''ba'' were united into an ''akh''.", "Several beliefs coexisted about the ''akh'' destination.", "Often the dead were said to dwell in the realm of Osiris, a lush and pleasant land in the underworld.", "The solar vision of the afterlife, in which the deceased soul traveled with Ra on his daily journey, was still primarily associated with royalty, but could extend to other people as well.", "Over the course of the Middle and New Kingdoms, the notion that the ''akh'' could also travel in the world of the living, and to some degree magically affect events there, became increasingly prevalent.===Atenism===Relief depicting Akhenaten and Nefertiti with three of their daughters under the rays of Aten.During the New Kingdom the pharaoh Akhenaten abolished the official worship of other gods in favor of the sun-disk Aten.", "This is often seen as the first instance of true monotheism in history, although the details of Atenist theology are still unclear and the suggestion that it was monotheistic is disputed.", "The exclusion of all but one god from worship was a radical departure from Egyptian tradition and some see Akhenaten as a practitioner of monolatry or henotheism rather than monotheism, as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshipping any but the Aten.", "Under Akhenaten's successors Egypt reverted to its traditional religion, and Akhenaten himself came to be reviled as a heretic." ], [ "Writings", "While the Egyptians had no unified religious scripture, they produced many religious writings of various types.", "Together the disparate texts provide an extensive, but still incomplete, understanding of Egyptian religious practices and beliefs.===Mythology===Ra (at center) travels through the underworld in his barque, accompanied by other godsEgyptian myths were stories intended to illustrate and explain the gods' actions and roles in nature.", "The details of the events they recounted could change to convey different symbolic perspectives on the mysterious divine events they described, so many myths exist in different and conflicting versions.", "Mythical narratives were rarely written in full, and more often texts only contain episodes from or allusions to a larger myth.", "Knowledge of Egyptian mythology, therefore, is derived mostly from hymns that detail the roles of specific deities, from ritual and magical texts which describe actions related to mythic events, and from funerary texts which mention the roles of many deities in the afterlife.", "Some information is also provided by allusions in secular texts.", "Finally, Greeks and Romans such as Plutarch recorded some of the extant myths late in Egyptian history.Among the significant Egyptian myths were the creation myths.", "According to these stories, the world emerged as a dry space in the primordial ocean of chaos.", "Because the sun is essential to life on earth, the first rising of Ra marked the moment of this emergence.", "Different forms of the myth describe the process of creation in various ways: a transformation of the primordial god Atum into the elements that form the world, as the creative speech of the intellectual god Ptah, and as an act of the hidden power of Amun.", "Regardless of these variations, the act of creation represented the initial establishment of Ma'at and the pattern for the subsequent cycles of time.Wall relief depicting the Osiris myth.", "Isis, in the form of a bird, copulates with the deceased Osiris.", "At either side are Horus, although he is as yet unborn, and Isis in human form.The most important of all Egyptian myths was the Osiris myth.", "It tells of the divine ruler Osiris, who was murdered by his jealous brother Set, a god often associated with chaos.", "Osiris' sister and wife Isis resurrected him so that he could conceive an heir, Horus.", "Osiris then entered the underworld and became the ruler of the dead.", "Once grown, Horus fought and defeated Set to become king himself.", "Set's association with chaos, and the identification of Osiris and Horus as the rightful rulers, provided a rationale for pharaonic succession and portrayed the pharaohs as the upholders of order.", "At the same time, Osiris' death and rebirth were related to the Egyptian agricultural cycle, in which crops grew in the wake of the Nile inundation, and provided a template for the resurrection of human souls after death.Another important mythic motif was the journey of Ra through the Duat each night.", "In the course of this journey, Ra met with Osiris, who again acted as an agent of regeneration, so that his life was renewed.", "He also fought each night with Apep, a serpentine god representing chaos.", "The defeat of Apep and the meeting with Osiris ensured the rising of the sun the next morning, an event that represented rebirth and the victory of order over chaos.===Ritual and magical texts===The procedures for religious rituals were frequently written on papyri, which were used as instructions for those performing the ritual.", "These ritual texts were kept mainly in the temple libraries.", "Temples themselves are also inscribed with such texts, often accompanied by illustrations.", "Unlike the ritual papyri, these inscriptions were not intended as instructions, but were meant to symbolically perpetuate the rituals even if, in reality, people ceased to perform them.", "Magical texts likewise describe rituals, although these rituals were part of the spells used for specific goals in everyday life.", "Despite their mundane purpose, many of these texts also originated in temple libraries and later became disseminated among the general populace.===Hymns and prayers===The Egyptians produced numerous prayers and hymns, written in the form of poetry.", "Hymns and prayers follow a similar structure and are distinguished mainly by the purposes they serve.", "Hymns were written to praise particular deities.", "Like ritual texts, they were written on papyri and on temple walls, and they were probably recited as part of the rituals they accompany in temple inscriptions.", "Most are structured according to a set literary formula, designed to expound on the nature, aspects, and mythological functions of a given deity.", "They tend to speak more explicitly about fundamental theology than other Egyptian religious writings, and became particularly important in the New Kingdom, a period of particularly active theological discourse.", "Prayers follow the same general pattern as hymns, but address the relevant god in a more personal way, asking for blessings, help, or forgiveness for wrongdoing.", "Such prayers are rare before the New Kingdom, indicating that in earlier periods such direct personal interaction with a deity was not believed possible, or at least was less likely to be expressed in writing.", "They are known mainly from inscriptions on statues and stelae left in sacred sites as votive offerings.===Funerary texts===Section of the Book of the Dead for the scribe Hunefer, depicting the Weighing of the Heart.Among the most significant and extensively preserved Egyptian writings are funerary texts designed to ensure that deceased souls reached a pleasant afterlife.", "The earliest of these are the Pyramid Texts.", "They are a loose collection of hundreds of spells inscribed on the walls of royal pyramids during the Old Kingdom, intended to magically provide pharaohs with the means to join the company of the gods in the afterlife.", "The spells appear in differing arrangements and combinations, and few of them appear in all of the pyramids.At the end of the Old Kingdom a new body of funerary spells, which included material from the Pyramid Texts, began appearing in tombs, inscribed primarily on coffins.", "This collection of writings is known as the Coffin Texts, and was not reserved for royalty, but appeared in the tombs of non-royal officials.", "In the New Kingdom, several new funerary texts emerged, of which the best-known is the Book of the Dead.", "Unlike the earlier books, it often contains extensive illustrations, or vignettes.", "The book was copied on papyrus and sold to commoners to be placed in their tombs.The Coffin Texts included sections with detailed descriptions of the underworld and instructions on how to overcome its hazards.", "In the New Kingdom, this material gave rise to several \"books of the netherworld\", including the Book of Gates, the Book of Caverns, and the Amduat.", "Unlike the loose collections of spells, these netherworld books are structured depictions of Ra's passage through the Duat, and by analogy, the journey of the deceased person's soul through the realm of the dead.", "They were originally restricted to pharaonic tombs, but in the Third Intermediate Period they came to be used more widely." ], [ "Practices", "pylon and colonnade of the Temple of Isis at Philae===Temples===Temples existed from the beginning of Egyptian history, and at the height of the civilization they were present in most of its towns.", "They included both mortuary temples to serve the spirits of deceased pharaohs and temples dedicated to patron gods, although the distinction was blurred because divinity and kingship were so closely intertwined.", "The temples were not primarily intended as places for worship by the general populace, and the common people had a complex set of religious practices of their own.", "Instead, the state-run temples served as houses for the gods, in which physical images which served as their intermediaries were cared for and provided with offerings.", "This service was believed to be necessary to sustain the gods, so that they could in turn maintain the universe itself.", "Thus, temples were central to Egyptian society, and vast resources were devoted to their upkeep, including both donations from the monarchy and large estates of their own.", "Pharaohs often expanded them as part of their obligation to honor the gods, so that many temples grew to enormous size.", "However, not all gods had temples dedicated to them, as many gods who were important in official theology received only minimal worship, and many household gods were the focus of popular veneration rather than temple ritual.The earliest Egyptian temples were small, impermanent structures, but through the Old and Middle Kingdoms their designs grew more elaborate, and they were increasingly built out of stone.", "In the New Kingdom, a basic temple layout emerged, which had evolved from common elements in Old and Middle Kingdom temples.", "With variations, this plan was used for most of the temples built from then on, and most of those that survive today adhere to it.", "In this standard plan, the temple was built along a central processional way that led through a series of courts and halls to the sanctuary, which held a statue of the temple's god.", "Access to this most sacred part of the temple was restricted to the pharaoh and the highest-ranking priests.", "The journey from the temple entrance to the sanctuary was seen as a journey from the human world to the divine realm, a point emphasized by the complex mythological symbolism present in temple architecture.", "Well beyond the temple building proper was the outermost wall.", "Between the two lay many subsidiary buildings, including workshops and storage areas to supply the temple's needs, and the library where the temple's sacred writings and mundane records were kept, and which also served as a center of learning on a multitude of subjects.Theoretically it was the duty of the pharaoh to carry out temple rituals, as he was Egypt's official representative to the gods.", "In reality, ritual duties were almost always carried out by priests.", "During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, there was no separate class of priests; instead, many government officials served in this capacity for several months out of the year before returning to their secular duties.", "Only in the New Kingdom did professional priesthood become widespread, although most lower-ranking priests were still part-time.", "All were still employed by the state, and the pharaoh had final say in their appointments.", "However, as the wealth of the temples grew, the influence of their priesthoods increased, until it rivaled that of the pharaoh.", "In the political fragmentation of the Third Intermediate Period (–664 BC), the high priests of Amun at Karnak even became the effective rulers of Upper Egypt.", "The temple staff also included many people other than priests, such as musicians and chanters in temple ceremonies.", "Outside the temple were artisans and other laborers who helped supply the temple's needs, as well as farmers who worked on temple estates.", "All were paid with portions of the temple's income.", "Large temples were therefore very important centers of economic activity, sometimes employing thousands of people.===Official rituals and festivals===Re-HorakhtyState religious practice included both temple rituals involved in the cult of a deity, and ceremonies related to divine kingship.", "Among the latter were coronation ceremonies and the Sed festival, a ritual renewal of the pharaoh's strength that took place periodically during his reign.", "There were numerous temple rituals, including rites that took place across the country and rites limited to single temples or to the temples of a single god.", "Some were performed daily, while others took place annually or on rare occasions.", "The most common temple ritual was the morning offering ceremony, performed daily in temples across Egypt.", "In it, a high-ranking priest, or occasionally the pharaoh, washed, anointed, and elaborately dressed the god's statue before presenting it with offerings.", "Afterward, when the god had consumed the spiritual essence of the offerings, the items themselves were taken to be distributed among the priests.The less frequent temple rituals, or festivals, were still numerous, with dozens occurring every year.", "These festivals often entailed actions beyond simple offerings to the gods, such as reenactments of particular myths or the symbolic destruction of the forces of disorder.", "Most of these events were probably celebrated only by the priests and took place only inside the temple.", "However, the most important temple festivals, like the Opet Festival celebrated at Karnak, usually involved a procession carrying the god's image out of the sanctuary in a model barque to visit other significant sites, such as the temple of a related deity.", "Commoners gathered to watch the procession and sometimes received portions of the unusually large offerings given to the gods on these occasions.===Animal cults===The Apis bullAt many sacred sites, the Egyptians worshipped individual animals which they believed to be manifestations of particular deities.", "These animals were selected based on specific sacred markings which were believed to indicate their fitness for the role.", "Some of these cult animals retained their positions for the rest of their lives, as with the Apis bull worshipped in Memphis as a manifestation of Ptah.", "Other animals were selected for much shorter periods.", "These cults grew more popular in later times, and many temples began raising stocks of such animals from which to choose a new divine manifestation.", "A separate practice developed in the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, when people began mummifying any member of a particular animal species as an offering to the god whom the species represented.", "Millions of mummified cats, birds, and other creatures were buried at temples honoring Egyptian deities.", "Worshippers paid the priests of a particular deity to obtain and mummify an animal associated with that deity, and the mummy was placed in a cemetery near the god's cult center.===Oracles===The Egyptians used oracles to ask the gods for knowledge or guidance.", "Egyptian oracles are known mainly from the New Kingdom and afterward, though they probably appeared much earlier.", "People of all classes, including the king, asked questions of oracles.", "The most common means of consulting an oracle was to pose a question to the divine image while it was being carried in a festival procession, and interpret an answer from the barque's movements.", "Other methods included interpreting the behavior of cult animals, drawing lots, or consulting statues through which a priest apparently spoke.", "The means of discerning the god's will gave great influence to the priests who spoke and interpreted the god's message.===Popular religion===While the state cults were meant to preserve the stability of the Egyptian world, lay individuals had their own religious practices that related more directly to daily life.", "This popular religion left less evidence than the official cults, and because this evidence was mostly produced by the wealthiest portion of the Egyptian population, it is uncertain to what degree it reflects the practices of the populace as a whole.Popular religious practice included ceremonies marking important transitions in life.", "These included birth, because of the danger involved in the process, and naming, because the name was held to be a crucial part of a person's identity.", "The most important of these ceremonies were those surrounding death, because they ensured the soul's survival beyond it.", "Other religious practices sought to discern the gods' will or seek their knowledge.", "These included the interpretation of dreams, which could be seen as messages from the divine realm, and the consultation of oracles.", "People also sought to affect the gods' behavior to their own benefit through magical rituals.Individual Egyptians also prayed to gods and gave them private offerings.", "Evidence of this type of personal piety is sparse before the New Kingdom.", "This is probably due to cultural restrictions on depiction of nonroyal religious activity, which relaxed during the Middle and New Kingdoms.", "Personal piety became still more prominent in the late New Kingdom, when it was believed that the gods intervened directly in individual lives, punishing wrongdoers and saving the pious from disaster.", "Official temples were important venues for private prayer and offering, even though their central activities were closed to laypeople.", "Egyptians frequently donated goods to be offered to the temple deity and objects inscribed with prayers to be placed in temple courts.", "Often they prayed in person before temple statues or in shrines set aside for their use.", "Yet in addition to temples, the populace also used separate local chapels, smaller but more accessible than the formal temples.", "These chapels were very numerous and probably staffed by members of the community.", "Households, too, often had their own small shrines for offering to gods or deceased relatives.The deities invoked in these situations differed somewhat from those at the center of state cults.", "Many of the important popular deities, such as the fertility goddess Taweret and the household protector Bes, had no temples of their own.", "However, many other gods, including Amun and Osiris, were very important in both popular and official religion.", "Some individuals might be particularly devoted to a single god.", "Often they favored deities affiliated with their own region, or with their role in life.", "The god Ptah, for instance, was particularly important in his cult center of Memphis, but as the patron of craftsmen he received the nationwide veneration of many in that occupation.===Magic===Amulet in the shape of the Eye of Horus, a common magical symbolThe word \"''magic''\" is normally used to translate the Egyptian term ''heka'', which meant, as James P. Allen puts it, \"the ability to make things happen by indirect means\".", "''Heka'' was believed to be a natural phenomenon, the force which was used to create the universe and which the gods employed to work their will.", "Humans could also use it, and magical practices were closely intertwined with religion.", "In fact, even the regular rituals performed in temples were counted as magical.", "Individuals also frequently employed magical techniques for personal purposes.", "Although these ends could be harmful to other people, no form of magic was considered inimical in itself.", "Instead, magic was seen primarily as a way for humans to prevent or overcome negative events.Magic was closely associated with the priesthood.", "Because temple libraries contained numerous magical texts, great magical knowledge was ascribed to the lector priests, who studied these texts.", "These priests often worked outside their temples, hiring out their magical services to laymen.", "Other professions also commonly employed magic as part of their work, including doctors, scorpion-charmers, and makers of magical amulets.", "It is also possible that the peasantry used simple magic for their own purposes, but because this magical knowledge would have been passed down orally, there is limited evidence of it.Language was closely linked with ''heka'', to such a degree that Thoth, the god of writing, was sometimes said to be the inventor of ''heka''.", "Therefore, magic frequently involved written or spoken incantations, although these were usually accompanied by ritual actions.", "Often these rituals invoked an appropriate deity to perform the desired action, using the power of ''heka'' to compel the deity to act.", "Sometimes this entailed casting the practitioner or subject of a ritual in the role of a character in mythology, thus inducing the god to act toward that person as it had in the myth.Rituals also employed sympathetic magic, using objects believed to have a magically significant resemblance to the subject of the rite.", "The Egyptians also commonly used objects believed to be imbued with ''heka'' of their own, such as the magically protective amulets worn in great numbers by ordinary Egyptians.===Funerary practices===The Opening of the Mouth ceremony being performed before the tombBecause it was considered necessary for the survival of the soul, preservation of the body was a central part of Egyptian funerary practices.", "Originally the Egyptians buried their dead in the desert, where the arid conditions mummified the body naturally.", "In the Early Dynastic Period, however, they began using tombs for greater protection, and the body was insulated from the desiccating effect of the sand and was subject to natural decay.", "Thus, the Egyptians developed their elaborate embalming practices, in which the corpse was artificially desiccated and wrapped to be placed in its coffin.", "The quality of the process varied according to cost, however, and those who could not afford it were still buried in desert graves.Once the mummification process was complete, the mummy was carried from the deceased person's house to the tomb in a funeral procession that included his or her relatives and friends, along with a variety of priests.", "Before the burial, these priests performed several rituals, including the Opening of the mouth ceremony intended to restore the dead person's senses and give him or her the ability to receive offerings.", "Then the mummy was buried and the tomb sealed.", "Afterwards, relatives or hired priests gave food offerings to the deceased in a nearby mortuary chapel at regular intervals.", "Over time, families inevitably neglected offerings to long-dead relatives, so most mortuary cults only lasted one or two generations.", "However, while the cult lasted, the living sometimes wrote letters asking deceased relatives for help, in the belief that the dead could affect the world of the living as the gods did.The first Egyptian tombs were mastabas, rectangular brick structures where kings and nobles were entombed.", "Each of them contained a subterranean burial chamber and a separate, above ground chapel for mortuary rituals.", "In the Old Kingdom the mastaba developed into the pyramid, which symbolized the primeval mound of Egyptian myth.", "Pyramids were reserved for royalty, and were accompanied by large mortuary temples sitting at their base.", "Middle Kingdom pharaohs continued to build pyramids, but the popularity of mastabas waned.", "Increasingly, commoners with sufficient means were buried in rock-cut tombs with separate mortuary chapels nearby, an approach which was less vulnerable to tomb robbery.", "By the beginning of the New Kingdom even the pharaohs were buried in such tombs, and they continued to be used until the decline of the religion itself.Tombs could contain a great variety of other items, including statues of the deceased to serve as substitutes for the body in case it was damaged.", "Because it was believed that the deceased would have to do work in the afterlife, just as in life, burials often included small models of humans to do work in place of the deceased.", "Human sacrifices found in early royal tombs were probably meant to serve the pharaoh in his afterlife.The tombs of wealthier individuals could also contain furniture, clothing, and other everyday objects intended for use in the afterlife, along with amulets and other items intended to provide magical protection against the hazards of the spirit world.", "Further protection was provided by funerary texts included in the burial.", "The tomb walls also bore artwork, such as images of the deceased eating food that were believed to allow him or her to magically receive sustenance even after the mortuary offerings had ceased." ], [ "History", "===Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods===Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied by men carrying the standards of various local godsThe Narmer Palette.", "The face of a woman with the horns and ears of a cow, representing Bat or Hathor, appears twice at the top of the palette, and a falcon representing Horus appears to the right of the palette.The beginnings of Egyptian religion extend into prehistory, though evidence for them comes only from the sparse and ambiguous archaeological record.", "Careful burials during the Predynastic period imply that the people of this time believed in some form of an afterlife.", "At the same time, animals were ritually buried, a practice which may reflect the development of zoomorphic deities like those found in the later religion.", "The evidence is less clear for gods in human form, and this type of deity may have emerged more slowly than those in animal shape.", "Each region of Egypt originally had its own patron deity, but it is likely that as these small communities conquered or absorbed each other, the god of the defeated area was either incorporated into the other god's mythology or entirely subsumed by it.", "This resulted in a complex pantheon in which some deities remained only locally important while others developed more universal significance.Archaeological data has suggested that the Egyptian religious system had close, cultural affinities with Eastern African populations and arose from an African substratum rather than deriving from the Mesopotamian or Mediterranean regions.The Early Dynastic Period began with the unification of Egypt around 3000 BC.", "This event transformed Egyptian religion, as some deities rose to national importance and the cult of the divine pharaoh became the central focus of religious activity.", "Horus was identified with the king, and his cult center in the Upper Egyptian city of Nekhen was among the most important religious sites of the period.", "Another important center was Abydos, where the early rulers built large funerary complexes.===Old and Middle Kingdoms===During the Old Kingdom, the priesthoods of the major deities attempted to organize the complicated national pantheon into groups linked by their mythology and worshipped in a single cult center, such as the Ennead of Heliopolis, which linked important deities such as Atum, Ra, Osiris, and Set in a single creation myth.", "Meanwhile, pyramids, accompanied by large mortuary temple complexes, replaced mastabas as the tombs of pharaohs.", "In contrast with the great size of the pyramid complexes, temples to gods remained comparatively small, suggesting that official religion in this period emphasized the cult of the divine king more than the direct worship of deities.", "The funerary rituals and architecture of this time greatly influenced the more elaborate temples and rituals used in worshipping the gods in later periods.The pyramid complex of Djedkare IsesiThe Ancient Egyptians regarded the sun as a powerful life force.", "The sun god Ra had been worshipped from the Early Dynastic period (3100–2686 BCE), but it was not until the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BCE), when Ra became the dominant figure in the Egyptian pantheon, that the Sun Cult took power.", "Early in the Old Kingdom, Ra grew in influence, and his cult center at Heliopolis became the nation's most important religious site.", "By the Fifth Dynasty, Ra was the most prominent god in Egypt and had developed the close links with kingship and the afterlife that he retained for the rest of Egyptian history.", "Around the same time, Osiris became an important afterlife deity.", "The Pyramid Texts, first written at this time, reflect the prominence of the solar and Osirian concepts of the afterlife, although they also contain remnants of much older traditions.", "The texts are an extremely important source for understanding early Egyptian theology.Symbols such as the 'winged disc' took on new features.", "Originally, the solar disk with the wings of a hawk was originally the symbol of Horus and associated with his cult in the Delta town of Behdet.", "The sacred cobras were added on either side of the disc during the Old Kingdom.", "The winged disc had protective significance and was found on temple ceilings and ceremonial entrances.In the 22nd century BC, the Old Kingdom collapsed into the disorder of the First Intermediate Period.", "Eventually, rulers from Thebes reunified the Egyptian nation in the Middle Kingdom (–1650 BC).", "These Theban pharaohs initially promoted their patron god Montu to national importance, but during the Middle Kingdom, he was eclipsed by the rising popularity of Amun.", "In this new Egyptian state, personal piety grew more important and was expressed more freely in writing, a trend that continued in the New Kingdom.===New Kingdom===The Middle Kingdom crumbled in the Second Intermediate Period (–1550 BC), but the country was again reunited by Theban rulers, who became the first pharaohs of the New Kingdom.", "Under the new regime, Amun became the supreme state god.", "He was syncretized with Ra, the long-established patron of kingship and his temple at Karnak in Thebes became Egypt's most important religious center.", "Amun's elevation was partly due to the great importance of Thebes, but it was also due to the increasingly professional priesthood.", "Their sophisticated theological discussion produced detailed descriptions of Amun's universal power.Increased contact with outside peoples in this period led to the adoption of many Near Eastern deities into the pantheon.", "At the same time, the subjugated Nubians absorbed Egyptian religious beliefs, and in particular, adopted Amun as their own.Akhenaten and his family worshipping the AtenThe New Kingdom religious order was disrupted when Akhenaten acceded, and replaced Amun with the Aten as the state god.", "Eventually, he eliminated the official worship of most other gods and moved Egypt's capital to a new city at Amarna.", "This part of Egyptian history, the Amarna Period, is named after this.", "In doing so, Akhenaten claimed unprecedented status: only he could worship the Aten, and the populace directed their worship toward him.", "The Atenist system lacked well-developed mythology and afterlife beliefs, and the Aten seemed distant and impersonal, so the new order did not appeal to ordinary Egyptians.", "Thus, many probably continued to worship the traditional gods in private.", "Nevertheless, the withdrawal of state support for the other deities severely disrupted Egyptian society.", "Akhenaten's successors restored the traditional religious system, and eventually, they dismantled all Atenist monuments.Before the Amarna Period, popular religion had trended toward more personal relationships between worshippers and their gods.", "Akhenaten's changes had reversed this trend, but once the traditional religion was restored, there was a backlash.", "The populace began to believe that the gods were much more directly involved in daily life.", "Amun, the supreme god, was increasingly seen as the final arbiter of human destiny, the true ruler of Egypt.", "The pharaoh was correspondingly more human and less divine.", "The importance of oracles as a means of decision-making grew, as did the wealth and influence of the oracles' interpreters, the priesthood.", "These trends undermined the traditional structure of society and contributed to the breakdown of the New Kingdom.===Later periods===Copper-alloy statuettes of Anubis (left) and Horus (centre) as Roman officers with ''contrapposto'' stances (National Archaeological Museum, Athens)Roman statue of Isis holding a sistrum and a situlaIn the 1st millennium BC, Egypt was significantly weaker than in earlier times, and in several periods foreigners seized the country and assumed the position of pharaoh.", "The importance of the pharaoh continued to decline, and the emphasis on popular piety continued to increase.", "Animal cults, a characteristically Egyptian form of worship, became increasingly popular in this period, possibly as a response to the uncertainty and foreign influence of the time.", "Isis grew more popular as a goddess of protection, magic, and personal salvation, and became the most important goddess in Egypt.In the 4th century BC, Egypt became a Hellenistic kingdom under the Ptolemaic dynasty (305–30 BC), which assumed the pharaonic role, maintaining the traditional religion and building or rebuilding many temples.", "The kingdom's Greek ruling class identified the Egyptian deities with their own.", "From this cross-cultural syncretism emerged Serapis, a god who combined Osiris and Apis with characteristics of Greek deities, and who became very popular among the Greek population.", "Nevertheless, for the most part the two belief systems remained separate, and the Egyptian deities remained Egyptian.Ptolemaic-era beliefs changed little after Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, with the Ptolemaic kings replaced by distant emperors.", "The cult of Isis appealed even to Greeks and Romans outside Egypt, and in Hellenized form it spread across the empire.", "In Egypt itself, as the empire weakened, official temples fell into decay, and without their centralizing influence religious practice became fragmented and localized.", "Meanwhile, Christianity spread across Egypt, and in the third and fourth centuries AD, edicts by Christian emperors and the missionary activity of Christians eroded traditional beliefs.Nevertheless, the traditional Egyptian religion persisted for a long time.", "The traditional worship in the temples of the city of Philae apparently survived at least until the 5th century, despite the active Christianization of Egypt.", "In fact, the fifth-century historian Priscus mentions a treaty between the Roman commander Maximinus and the Blemmyes and Nobades in 452, which among other things ensured access to the cult image of Isis.According to the 6th-century historian Procopius, the temples in Philae was closed down officially in AD 537 by the local commander Narses the Persarmenian in accordance with an order of Byzantine emperor Justinian I.", "This event is conventionally considered to mark the end of ancient Egyptian religion.", "However, its importance has recently come into question, following a major study by Jitse Dijkstra who argues that organized paganism at Philae ended in the fifth century, based on the fact that the last inscriptional evidence of an active pagan priesthood there dates to the 450s.", "Nevertheless, some adherence to traditional religion seems to have survived into the sixth century, based on a petition from Dioscorus of Aphrodito to the governor of the Thebaid dated to 567.The letter warns of an unnamed man (the text calls him \"eater of raw meat\") who, in addition to plundering houses and stealing tax revenue, is alleged to have restored paganism at \"the sanctuaries,\" possibly referring to the temples at Philae.While it persisted among the populace for some time, Egyptian religion slowly faded away.File:Sousse mosaic calendar November.JPG|Hermanubis in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, TunisiaFile:Pompeii - Temple of Isis - Io and Isis - MAN.jpg|Isis (seated right) welcoming the Greek Io into Egypt, depicted on the southern wall of the EkklesiasterionFile:Casa degli Amorini Dorati.", "Fresco.", "09.JPG|Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Serapis, antique fresco in Pompeii, ItalyFile:Statue of the god Anubis.jpg|Statue of Hermanubis from RomeFile:Wien KHM Isis I 158.jpg|Roman black and white marble statue of Isis===Legacy===Egyptian religion produced the temples and tombs which are ancient Egypt's most enduring monuments, but it also influenced other cultures.", "In pharaonic times many of its symbols, such as the sphinx and winged solar disk, were adopted by other cultures across the Mediterranean and Near East, as were some of its deities, such as Bes.", "Some of these connections are difficult to trace.", "The Greek concept of Elysium may have derived from the Egyptian vision of the afterlife.", "In late antiquity, the Christian conception of Hell was most likely influenced by some of the imagery of the Duat.", "Egyptian beliefs also influenced or gave rise to several esoteric belief systems developed by Greeks and Romans, who considered Egypt as a source of mystic wisdom.", "Hermeticism, for instance, derived from the tradition of secret magical knowledge associated with Thoth.====Modern times====Altar to Thoth of a Kemetic followerTraces of ancient beliefs remained in Egyptian folk traditions into modern times, but its influence on modern societies greatly increased with the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798 and their seeing the monuments and images.", "As a result of it, Westerners began to study Egyptian beliefs firsthand, and Egyptian religious motifs were adopted into Western art.", "Egyptian religion has since had a significant influence in popular culture.", "Due to continued interest in Egyptian beliefs, in the late 20th century, several new religious groups going under the blanket term of Kemetism have formed based on different reconstructions of ancient Egyptian religion.", "Kemetism is a neopagan religion and revival of the ancient Egyptian religion and related expressions of religion in classical and late antiquity, emerging during the 1970s.", "Kemetics do not consider themselves direct descendants of the ancient Egyptian religion but consistently speak of its recreation or restoration." ], [ "See also", "*Prehistoric religion*Religions of the ancient Near East*Outline of ancient Egypt*Index of Egyptian mythology articles" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "******* in .", "**** in .", "*, in .", "***, in .", "******** in .", "*** in .", "*, in .", "** in .", "**" ], [ "Further reading", "***.*.*.**.*.*.*.*.", "*." ], [ "External links", "*.*.", "*." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Educational psychology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Educational psychology''' is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning.", "The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning.", "The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines.", "It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology.", "It is also informed by neuroscience.", "Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education, classroom management, and student motivation.", "Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences.", "In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.The field of educational psychology involves the study of memory, conceptual processes, and individual differences (via cognitive psychology) in conceptualizing new strategies for learning processes in humans.", "Educational psychology has been built upon theories of operant conditioning, functionalism, structuralism, constructivism, humanistic psychology, Gestalt psychology, and information processing.Educational psychology has seen rapid growth and development as a profession in the last twenty years.", "School psychology began with the concept of intelligence testing leading to provisions for special education students, who could not follow the regular classroom curriculum in the early part of the 20th century.", "Another main focus of school psychology was to help close the gap for children of colour, as the fight against racial inequality and segregation was still very prominent, during the early to mid-1900s.", "However, \"school psychology\" itself has built a fairly new profession based upon the practices and theories of several psychologists among many different fields.", "Educational psychologists are working side by side with psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and counselors in an attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining behavioral, cognitive, and social psychology in the classroom setting." ], [ "History", "As a field of study, educational psychology is fairly new and was not considered a specific practice until the 20th century.", "Reflections on everyday teaching and learning allowed some individuals throughout history to elaborate on developmental differences in cognition, the nature of instruction, and the transfer of knowledge and learning.", "These topics are important to education and, as a result, they are important in understanding human cognition, learning, and social perception.=== Antiquity ===Some of the ideas and issues pertaining to educational psychology date back to the time of Plato and Aristotle.", "Philosophers as well as sophists discussed the purpose of education, training of the body and the cultivation of psycho-motor skills, the formation of good character, the possibilities and limits of moral education.", "Some other educational topics they spoke about were the effects of music, poetry, and the other arts on the development of the individual, role of the teacher, and the relations between teacher and student.", "Plato saw knowledge acquisition as an innate ability, which evolves through experience and understanding of the world.", "This conception of human cognition has evolved into a continuing argument of nature vs. nurture in understanding conditioning and learning today.", "Aristotle, on the other hand, ascribed to the idea of knowledge by association or schema.", "His four laws of association included succession, contiguity, similarity, and contrast.", "His studies examined recall and facilitated learning processes.=== Early Modern era ===John Locke is considered one of the most influential philosophers in post-renaissance Europe, a time period that began around the mid-1600s.", "Locke is considered the \"Father of English Psychology\".", "One of Locke's most important works was written in 1690, named ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''.", "In this essay, he introduced the term \"tabula rasa\" meaning \"blank slate.\"", "Locke explained that learning was attained through experience only and that we are all born without knowledge.He followed by contrasting Plato's theory of innate learning processes.", "Locke believed the mind was formed by experiences, not innate ideas.", "Locke introduced this idea as \"empiricism\", or the understanding that knowledge is only built on knowledge and experience.In the late 1600s, John Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learn primarily from external forces.", "He believed that the mind was like a blank tablet (tabula rasa), and that successions of simple impressions give rise to complex ideas through association and reflection.", "Locke is credited with establishing \"empiricism\" as a criterion for testing the validity of knowledge, thus providing a conceptual framework for later development of experimental methodology in the natural and social sciences.In the 18th century the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau espoused a set of theories which would become highly influential in the field of education, particularly through his philosophical novel ''Emile, or On Education''.", "Despite stating that the book should not be used as a practical guide to nurturing children, the pedagogical approach outlined in it was lauded by Enlightenment contemporaries including Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.", "Rousseau advocated a child-centered approach to education, and that the age of the child should be accounted for in choosing what and how to teach them.", "In particular he insisted on the primacy of experiential education, in order to develop the child's ability to reason autonomously.", "Rousseau's philosophy influenced educational reformers including Johann Bernhard Basedow, whose practice in his model school the Philanthropinum drew upon his ideas, as well as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.", "More generally Rousseau's thinking had significant direct and indirect influence on the development of pedagogy in Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands.", "In addition, Jean Piaget's stage-based approach to child development has been observed to have parallels to Rousseau's theories.===Before 1890===Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s.====Juan Vives====Juan Vives (1493–1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature.", "His studies focused on humanistic learning, which opposed scholasticism and was influenced by a variety of sources including philosophy, psychology, politics, religion, and history.", "He was one of the first prominent thinkers to emphasize that the location of a school is important to learning.", "He suggested that a school should be located away from disturbing noises; the air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students and teachers.", "Vives emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning.Vives introduced his educational ideas in his writing, \"De anima et vita\" in 1538.In this publication, Vives explores moral philosophy as a setting for his educational ideals; with this, he explains that the different parts of the soul (similar to that of Aristotle's ideas) are each responsible for different operations, which function distinctively.", "The first book covers the different \"souls\": \"The Vegetative Soul\"; this is the soul of nutrition, growth, and reproduction, \"The Sensitive Soul\", which involves the five external senses; \"The Cogitative soul\", which includes internal senses and cognitive facilities.", "The second book involves functions of the rational soul: mind, will, and memory.", "Lastly, the third book explains the analysis of emotions.====Johann Pestalozzi====Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827), a Swiss educational reformer, emphasized the child rather than the content of the school.", "Pestalozzi fostered an educational reform backed by the idea that early education was crucial for children, and could be manageable for mothers.", "Eventually, this experience with early education would lead to a \"wholesome person characterized by morality.\"", "Pestalozzi has been acknowledged for opening institutions for education, writing books for mother's teaching home education, and elementary books for students, mostly focusing on the kindergarten level.", "In his later years, he published teaching manuals and methods of teaching.During the time of The Enlightenment, Pestalozzi's ideals introduced \"educationalization\".", "This created the bridge between social issues and education by introducing the idea of social issues to be solved through education.", "Horlacher describes the most prominent example of this during The Enlightenment to be \"improving agricultural production methods.", "\"====Johann Herbart====Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the father of educational psychology.", "He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher.", "He thought that teachers should consider the students' existing mental sets—what they already know—when presenting new information or material.", "Herbart came up with what are now known as the formal steps.", "The 5 steps that teachers should use are:# Review material that has already been learned by the student# Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next# Present the new material.# Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.# Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.===1890–1920===There were three major figures in educational psychology in this period: William James, G. Stanley Hall, and John Dewey.", "These three men distinguished themselves in general psychology and educational psychology, which overlapped significantly at the end of the 19th century.====William James (1842–1910)====William JamesThe period of 1890–1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology when aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems.", "From 1840 to 1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States.", "This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools.", "The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island.", "Darwinism influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists.", "Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach.", "The pioneering American psychologist William James commented that:James is the father of psychology in America, but he also made contributions to educational psychology.", "In his famous series of lectures ''Talks to Teachers on Psychology'', published in 1899, James defines education as \"the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior\".", "He states that teachers should \"train the pupil to behavior\" so that he fits into the social and physical world.", "Teachers should also realize the importance of habit and instinct.", "They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about.", "He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas.====Alfred Binet====Alfred Binet published ''Mental Fatigue'' in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology.", "In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom.", "In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education.", "This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities.", "Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that \"abnormality\" could be cured.", "The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between \"normal children\" and those with developmental disabilities.", "Binet believed that it was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age.", "He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students' strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment.", "He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the curriculum to the students.", "Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important.", "In 1916 Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100.The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence.", "Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence.", "In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.====Edward Thorndike====Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) supported the scientific movement in education.", "He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement.", "Thorndike developed the theory of instrumental conditioning or the law of effect.", "The law of effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not pleasing.", "He also found that learning is done a little at a time or in increments, learning is an automatic process and its principles apply to all mammals.", "Thorndike's research with Robert Woodworth on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence your ability to learn another subject if the subjects are similar.", "This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the classics because they found that studying the classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence.", "Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive tasks were due to how many stimulus-response patterns a person had rather than general intellectual ability.", "He contributed word dictionaries that were scientifically based to determine the words and definitions used.", "The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration the users' maturity level.", "He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the definitions.", "Thorndike contributed arithmetic books based on learning theory.", "He made all the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to improve the general intelligence.", "He developed tests that were standardized to measure performance in school-related subjects.", "His biggest contribution to testing was the CAVD intelligence test which used a multidimensional approach to intelligence and was the first to use a ratio scale.", "His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning, and computer-based learning:====John Dewey====John Dewey (1859–1952) had a major influence on the development of progressive education in the United States.", "He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence.", "He pushed for the creation of practical classes that could be applied outside of a school setting.", "He also thought that education should be student-oriented, not subject-oriented.", "For Dewey, education was a social experience that helped bring together generations of people.", "He stated that students learn by doing.", "He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation, problem-solving, and enquiry.", "In his 1910 book ''How We Think'', he emphasizes that material should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting to the student since it encourages original thought and problem-solving.", "He also stated that material should be relative to the student's own experience.====Jean Piaget====Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was one of the most powerful researchers in of developmental psychology during the 20th century.", "He developed the theory of cognitive development.", "The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages.", "The stages are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational state from 2 to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7 to 10 years old, and the formal operational stage from 12 years old and up.", "He also believed that learning was constrained to the child's cognitive development.", "Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first to believe that cognitive development was important and something that should be paid attention to in education.", "Most of the research on Piagetian theory was carried out by American educational psychologists.===1920–present===The number of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960.Because very few jobs were available to teens coming out of eighth grade, there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s.", "The progressive movement in the United States took off at this time and led to the idea of progressive education.", "John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training.", "In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education.", "From the 1960s to present day, educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive-based perspective because of the influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time.====Jerome Bruner====Jerome Bruner is notable for integrating Piaget's cognitive approaches into educational psychology.", "He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create a problem solving environment that allows the student to question, explore and experiment.", "In his book ''The Process of Education'' Bruner stated that the structure of the material and the cognitive abilities of the person are important in learning.", "He emphasized the importance of the subject matter.", "He also believed that how the subject was structured was important for the student's understanding of the subject and that it was the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in a way that was easy for the student to understand.", "In the early 1960s, Bruner went to Africa to teach math and science to school children, which influenced his view as schooling as a cultural institution.", "Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, Man: a Course of Study, which was an educational program that combined anthropology and science.", "The program explored human evolution and social behavior.", "He also helped with the development of the head start program.", "He was interested in the influence of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational development.====Benjamin Bloom====Benjamin Bloom (1903–1999) spent over 50 years at the University of Chicago, where he worked in the department of education.", "He believed that all students can learn.", "He developed the taxonomy of educational objectives.", "The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.", "The cognitive domain deals with how we think.", "It is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more complex.", "The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.", "The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories.", "The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon, valuing, organization, and internalizing values.", "The psychomotor domain deals with the development of motor skills, movement, and coordination and has 7 categories that also go from simplest to most complex.", "The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.", "The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy.", "The taxonomy is considered to have a greater influence internationally than in the United States.", "Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of education from the training of the teachers to the development of testing material.", "Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active student.", "He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on their strengths and weaknesses.", "Bloom also did research on college students and their problem-solving processes.", "He found that they differ in understanding the basis of the problem and the ideas in the problem.", "He also found that students differ in process of problem-solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem.====Nathaniel Gage====Nathaniel Gage (1917–2008) is an important figure in educational psychology as his research focused on improving teaching and understanding the processes involved in teaching.", "He edited the book ''Handbook of Research on Teaching'' (1963), which helped develop early research in teaching and educational psychology.", "Gage founded the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching, which contributed research on teaching as well as influencing the education of important educational psychologists." ], [ "Perspectives", "===Behavioral===Applied behavior analysis, a research-based science utilizing behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings.", "For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items.", "Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation.", "There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.", "But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.", "Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including pivotal response therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders.===Cognitive===Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations, and emotions.", "Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten.", "Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio's dual coding theory.", "Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations.Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education.", "For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).", "Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to the education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and delayed retention of information.Problem solving, according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is fundamental to learning.", "It resides as an important research topic in educational psychology.", "A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory.", "A problem students run into while reading is called \"activation.\"", "This is when the student's representations of the text are present during working memory.", "This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it.", "When working memory is absent from the reader's representations of the working memory, they experience something called \"deactivation.\"", "When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information.", "If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading.", "The reader will only need to reread to get a \"gist\" of the text to spark their memory.", "When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.", "The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem-solving.====Cognitive view of intelligence====An example of an item from a cognitive abilities testEach person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities, and challenges that result from predisposition, learning, and development.", "These manifest as individual differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation, and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others.", "The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder.", "Less common disabilities include intellectual disability, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology and is coincident with the development of that discipline.", "Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether it can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence, multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all.", "In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment.", "Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs.", "Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness.", "In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness and hope attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.===Developmental===Developmental psychology, and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology.", "This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions.", "First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development.", "Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills that are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages.", "Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades.", "This is the reason why Piaget's theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.", "In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory capacities that characterize successive age levels.Second, the psychology of cognitive development involves understanding how cognitive change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop.", "Education also capitalizes on cognitive change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding.", "Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or mental actions vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning.Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change.", "The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.===Constructivist===Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior \"knowing\" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process.", "Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from social constructivism.", "The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself.", "It regards learning as a process of enculturation.", "People learn by exposure to the culture of practitioners.", "They observe and practice the behavior of practitioners and 'pick up relevant jargon, imitate behavior, and gradually start to act in accordance with the norms of the practice'.", "So, a student learns to become a mathematician through exposure to mathematician using tools to solve mathematical problems.", "So in order to master a particular domain of knowledge it is not enough for students to learn the concepts of the domain.", "They should be exposed to the use of the concepts in authentic activities by the practitioners of the domain.A dominant influence on the social constructivist paradigm is Lev Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs.", "\"Zone of Proximal Development\" (ZPD) is a term Vygotsky used to characterize an individual's mental development.", "He believed that tasks individuals can do on their own do not give a complete understanding of their mental development.", "He originally defined the ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” He cited a famous example to make his case.", "Two children in school who originally can solve problems at an eight-year-old developmental level (that is, typical for children who were age 8) might be at different developmental levels.", "If each child received assistance from an adult, one was able to perform at a nine-year-old level and one was able to perform at a twelve-year-old level.", "He said “This difference between twelve and eight, or between nine and eight, is what we call ''the zone of proximal development.", "''” He further said that the ZPD “defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state.” The zone is bracketed by the learner's current ability and the ability they can achieve with the aid of an instructor of some capacity.Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between children's learning and cognitive development.", "Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always precedes learning (e.g., constructivism): children first need to meet a particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and development cannot be separated, but instead occur simultaneously (e.g., behaviorism): essentially, learning is development; and 3) learning and development are separate, but interactive processes (e.g., gestaltism): one process always prepares the other process, and vice versa.", "Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning should always precede development in the ZPD.", "According to Vygotsky, through the assistance of a more knowledgeable other, a child can learn skills or aspects of a skill that go beyond the child's actual developmental or maturational level.", "The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred to as the child's developmental level).", "The upper limit is the level of potential skill that the child can reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor.", "In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to a retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a child's independent capabilities.", "The advancement through and attainment of the upper limit of the ZPD is limited by the instructional and scaffolding-related capabilities of the more knowledgeable other (MKO).", "The MKO is typically assumed to be an older, more experienced teacher or parent, but often can be a learner's peer or someone their junior.", "The MKO need not even be a person, it can be a machine or book, or other source of visual and/or audio input.Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.==== Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development ====Jean Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment.", "Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with a schema operating at birth that he called \"reflexes\".", "Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development.", "The four stages are sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage." ], [ "Conditioning and learning", "An abacus provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts.To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development.", "Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability.", "Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples.", "Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains.", "A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships.", "Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a naïve understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions.", "Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Lawrence Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development.", "There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior.", "For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social cognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying.Rudolf Steiner's model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions.", "Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts.", "People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.===Motivation===Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior.", "Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter:* Provide direction towards goals.", "* Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance.", "* Direct behavior toward specific goals.", "* Lead to increased effort and energy.", "* Increase initiation of and persistence in activities.Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure.", "As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by consequences or punishments.", "A form of attribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations.", "For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance.", "In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase effort and show improved performance.The self-determination theory (SDT) was developed by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan.", "SDT focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and development tendencies.", "It emphasizes the degree to which an individual's behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.", "When applied to the realm of education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes.Motivational theories also explain how learners' goals affect the way they engage with academic tasks.", "Those who have ''mastery goals'' strive to increase their ability and knowledge.", "Those who have ''performance approach goals'' strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities.", "Those who have ''performance avoidance'' goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed.", "Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity, and intrinsic motivation.", "Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing, and test anxiety.", "Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.Locus of control is a salient factor in the successful academic performance of students.", "During the 1970s and '80s, Cassandra B. Whyte did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework.", "Much of her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of Julian B. Rotter in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic performance.", "Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level.", "Therefore, it is important to provide education and counseling in this regard." ], [ "Technology", "Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domainInstructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities, and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research.", "For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a taxonomy of educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues.", "Bloom also researched mastery learning, an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives.", "Bloom discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction.", "Gagné, another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task analysis in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives connected by prerequisite relationships.The following list of technological resources incorporate computer-aided instruction and intelligence for educational psychologists and their students:* Intelligent tutoring system* Cognitive tutor* Cooperative learning* Collaborative learning* Problem-based learning* Computer-supported collaborative learning* Constructive alignmentTechnology is essential to the field of educational psychology, not only for the psychologist themselves as far as testing, organization, and resources, but also for students.", "Educational psychologists who reside in the K-12 setting focus most of their time on special education students.", "It has been found that students with disabilities learning through technology such as iPad applications and videos are more engaged and motivated to learn in the classroom setting.", "Liu et al.", "explain that learning-based technology allows for students to be more focused, and learning is more efficient with learning technologies.", "The authors explain that learning technology also allows for students with social-emotional disabilities to participate in distance learning." ], [ "Applications", "===Teaching===A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low-income families.Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs.", "The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills.", "More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs.", "When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management.", "A developing Wikibook about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education.", "* Special education* Secondary Education* Lesson plan===Counseling=======Training====In order to become an educational psychologist, students can complete an undergraduate degree of their choice.", "They then must go to graduate school to study education psychology, counseling psychology, or school counseling.", "Most students today are also receiving their doctoral degrees in order to hold the \"psychologist\" title.", "Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings.", "Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education.", "Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses.", "Educational psychologists who work in K–12 school settings (closely related are school psychologists in the US and Canada) are trained at the master's and doctoral levels.", "In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention.", "However, school psychologists are generally more individual-oriented towards students.Many high schools and colleges are increasingly offering educational psychology courses, with some colleges offering it as a general education requirement.", "Similarly, colleges offer students opportunities to obtain a Ph.D. in educational psychology.Within the UK, students must hold a degree that is accredited by the British Psychological Society (either undergraduate or at the master's level) before applying for a three-year doctoral course that involves further education, placement, and a research thesis.In recent years, many university training programs in the US have included curriculum that focuses on issues of race, gender, disability, trauma, and poverty, and how those issues affect learning and academic outcomes.", "A growing number of universities offer specialized certificates that allow professionals to work and study in these fields (i.e.", "autism specialists, trauma specialists).====Employment outlook====Anticipated to grow by 18–26%, employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations in 2014.One in four psychologists is employed in educational settings.", "In the United States, the median salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is US$58,360 as of May 2004.In recent decades, the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically." ], [ "Methods of research", "As opposed to some other fields of educational research, quantitative methods are the predominant mode of inquiry in educational psychology, but qualitative and mixed-methods studies are also common.", "Educational psychology, as much as any other field of psychology relies on a balance of observational, correlational, and experimental study designs.", "Given the complexities of modeling dependent data and psychological variables in school settings, educational psychologists have been at the forefront of the development of several common statistical tools, including psychometric methods, meta-analysis, regression discontinuity and latent variable modeling." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * ** * – an educational psychology action research method*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Barry, W.J.", "(2012).", "Challenging the Status Quo Meaning of Educational Quality: Introducing Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory©.", "''Educational Journal of Living Theories''.", "4, 1-29.http://ejolts.net/node/191" ], [ "External links", "* Educational Psychology Resources by Athabasca University* Division 15 of the American Psychological Association* Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society* Explorations in Learning & Instructional Design: Theory Into Practice Database (archived 30 September 2011)* Classics in the History of Psychology* The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing* The Psychology of Educational Quality-Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory (video on YouTube)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EFTPOS" ], [ "Introduction", "Varieties of EFTPOS terminals in SingaporeToronto Airport'''Electronic funds transfer at point of sale''' ('''EFTPOS'''; ) is an electronic payment system involving electronic funds transfers based on the use of payment cards, such as debit cards or credit cards, at payment terminals located at points of sale.", "EFTPOS technology was developed during the 1980s.", "In Australia and New Zealand, it is also the brand name of a specific system used for such payments; these systems are country-specific and do not interconnect.", "Other countries use different brand names for their EFTPOS systems, such as NETS in Singapore.", "Since the early 2010s, country specific EFTPOS systems have been overtaken by global EMV based systems with contactless payments or QR code payment systems.The payment cards used by EFTPOS systems are plastic cards complying with ISO/IEC 7810 ID-1 standard that have a bank card number conforming with the ISO/IEC 7812 numbering standard." ], [ "History", "EFTPOS technology originated in the United States in 1981 and was rolled out in 1982.Initially, a number of nationwide systems were set up, such as ''Interlink'', which were limited to participating correspondent banking relationships, not being linked to each other.", "Consumers and merchants were slow to accept it, and there was minimal marketing.", "As a result, growth and market penetration of EFTPOS was minimal in the US up to the turn of the century.In a short time, other countries adopted the EFTPOS technology, these systems were limited to the national borders.", "Each country adopted various interbank co-operative models.", "In Australia, in 1984 Westpac was the first major Australian bank to implement an EFTPOS system, at BP petrol stations.", "The other major banks implemented EFTPOS systems during 1984, initially with petrol stations.", "The banks' existing debit and credit cards (but only allowed to access debit accounts) were used in the EFTPOS systems.", "In 1985, the State Bank of Victoria developed the capacity to host connect individual ATMS and helped create the ATM (Financial) Network.", "Banks started to link their EFTPOS systems to provide access for all customers across all EFTPOS devices.", "Cards issued by all banks could then be used at all EFTPOS terminals nationally, but debit cards issued in other countries could not.", "Prior to 1986, the Australian banks organised a widespread uniform credit card, called Bankcard, which had been in existence since 1974.There was a dispute between the banks whether Bankcard (or credit cards in general) should be permitted into the proposed EFTPOS system.", "At that time several banks were actively promoting MasterCard and Visa credit cards.", "Store cards and proprietary cards were shut out of the new system.In New Zealand, a trial scheme of EFTPOS began in 1984, with a terminal in a Shell petrol station connected to a bank computer.", "The Bank of New Zealand started issuing EFTPOS debit cards in 1985, with the first merchant terminals being installed in petrol stations.=== First Mobile EFTPOS ===In 1996, mobile EFTPOS arrived, with hotels in Singapore installing systems in 1997 and the first example of a pizza delivery in Singapore accepting Visa card via cellular payment in 1998, which was a collaboration between Singnet, Visa, Citibank, and Dynamic Data Systems, beginning the rollout of mobile systems in Asia.", "By 2004, Cellular based Eftpos infrastructure had really taken off, and by 2010, Cellular Eftpos had become the standard for the global market.Since 2002, the use of EFTPOS has grown significantly, and it has become the standard payment method, displacing the use of cash.", "Subsequently, networks facilitating the process of money transfer and payment settlement between the consumer and the merchant grew from a small number of nationwide systems to the majority of payment processing transactions.", "For EFTPOS, USA based systems allow the use of debit cards or credit cards." ], [ "Australia", "Australian eftpos logoIn Australia, debit and credit cards are the most common non-cash payment methods at “points of sale” (POS) or via ATMs.", "Not all merchants provide EFTPOS facilities, but those who wish to accept EFTPOS payments must enter an agreement with one of the many (originally seven) merchant service providers, which rent an EFTPOS terminal to the merchant.", "The EFTPOS system in Australia is managed by Eftpos Payments Australia Ltd, which also sets the EFTPOS interchange fee.", "For credit cards to be accepted by a merchant a separate agreement must be entered into with each credit card company, each of which has its own flexible merchant fee rate.", "Eftpos machines for merchants are provided by larger banks and specialists such as Live eftpos.The clearing arrangements for EFTPOS are managed by Australian Payments Clearing Association (APCA).", "The system for ATM and EFTPOS interchanges is called Issuers and Acquirers Community (formerly Consumer Electronic Clearing System; CECS) also called CS3.CECS required authorisations from the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC), which was obtained in 2001 and reaffirmed in 2009.ATM and EFTPOS clearances are the made under individual bilateral arrangements between the institutions involved.===Debit cards===Australian financial institutions provide their customers with a plastic card, which can be used as a debit card or as an ATM card, and sometimes as a credit card.", "The card merely provides the means by which a customer's linked bank or other accounts can be accessed using an EFTPOS terminal or ATM.", "These cards can also be used on some vending machines and other automatic payment mechanisms, such as ticket vending machines.Each Australian bank has given a different name to its debit cards, such as:* Commonwealth Bank: Keycard* Westpac: Handycard* National Australia Bank: FlexiCard* ANZ Bank: Access card* Bendigo Bank: Easy Money card*St George/Bank of Melbourne/BankSA: FreedomCard*Qudos Bank, Queensland Police Credit Union, Dnister and Indue sponsored financial institutions: Cue Card*People’s Choice Credit Union, Bank Australia, Credit Union SA, Beyond Bank, Teachers Mutual Bank, Nexus Mutual, and Cuscal sponsored financial institutions: rediCARD*Suncorp Bank: eftpos Card*Regional Australia Bank: Access cardSome banks offer alternative debit card facilities to their customers using the Visa or MasterCard clearance system.", "For example, St George Bank offers a Visa Debit Card, as does the National Australia Bank.", "The main difference with regular debit cards is that these cards can be used outside Australia where the respective credit card is accepted.Those merchants that enter the EFTPOS payment system must accept debit cards issued by any Australian bank, and some also accept various credit cards and other cards.", "Some merchants set minimum transaction amounts for EFTPOS transactions, which can be different for debit and credit card transactions.", "Some merchants impose a surcharge on the use of EFTPOS.", "These can vary between merchants and on the type of card being used, and generally are not imposed on debit card transactions, and widely not on MasterCard and Visa credit card transactions.A feature of a debit card is that an EFTPOS transaction will only be accepted if there is an available credit balance in the bank cheque or savings account linked to the card.Australian debit cards normally cannot be used outside Australia.", "They can only be used outside Australia if they carry the MasterCard/Maestro/Cirrus or Visa/Plus or other similar logos, in which case the non-Australian transaction will be processed through those transaction systems.", "Similarly, non-Australian debit and credit cards can only be used at Australian EFTPOS terminals or ATMs if they have these logos or the MasterCard or Visa logos.", "Diners Club and/or American Express cards will be accepted only if the merchant has an agreement with those card companies, or increasingly if the merchant has modern alternative payment options available for those cards, such as through PayPal.", "The Discover Card is accepted in Australia as a Diners Club card.In addition, credit card companies issue prepaid cards which act like generic gift cards, which are anonymous and not linked to any bank accounts.", "These cards are accepted by merchants who accept credit cards and are processed through the EFTPOS terminal in the same way as credit cards.===Cash out===A number of merchants permit customers using a debit card to withdraw cash as part of the EFTPOS transaction.", "In Australia, this facility (known as debit card cashback in many other countries) is known as \"cash out\".", "For the merchant, cash out is a way of reducing their net cash takings, saving on banking of cash.", "There is no additional cost to the merchant in providing cash out because banks charge a merchant a debit card transaction fee per EFTPOS transaction, and not on the transaction value.", "Cash out is a facility provided by the merchant, and not the bank, so the merchant can limit or vary how much cash can be withdrawn at a time, or suspend the facility at any time.", "When available, cash out is convenient for the customer, who can bypass having to visit a bank branch or ATM.", "Cash out is also cheaper for the customer, since only one bank transaction is involved.", "For people in some remote areas, cash out may be the only way they can withdraw cash from their personal accounts.", "However, most merchants who provide the facility set a relatively low limit on cash out, generally $50, and some also charge for the service.", "Some merchants in Australia only allow cash out with the purchase of goods; other merchants allow cash out whether or not customers buy any goods.", "Cash out is not available in association with credit card sales because on credit card transactions the merchant is charged a percentage commission based on the transaction value, and also because cash withdrawals are treated differently from purchase transactions by the credit card company.", "(However, though inconsistent with a merchant's agreement with each credit card company, the merchant may treat a cash withdrawal as part of an ordinary credit card sale.", ")===Cardholder verification===EFTPOS transactions involving a debit, credit or prepaid card are primarily authenticated via the entry of a personal identification number (PIN) at the point of sale.", "Historically, these transactions were authenticated by the merchant using the cardholder's signature, as signed on their receipt.", "However, merchants had become increasingly lax in enforcing this verification, resulting in an increase in fraud.", "Australian banks have since deployed chip and PIN technology using the global EMV card standard; as of 1 August 2014, Australian merchants no longer accept signatures on transactions by domestic customers at point of sale terminals.As a further security measure, if a user enters an incorrect PIN three times, the card may be locked out of EFTPOS and require reactivation over the phone or at a bank branch.", "In the case of an ATM, the card will not be returned, and the cardholder will need to visit the branch to retrieve the card, or request a new card to be issued.All debit cards now have a magnetic stripe on which is encoded the card's service codes, consisting of three-digit values.", "These codes are used to convey instructions to merchant terminals on how a card should be processed.", "The first digit indicates if a card can be used internationally or is valid for domestic use only.", "It is also used to signal if the card is chip-enabled.", "The second digit indicates if the transaction must be sent online for authorisation always or if transactions that are below floor limit can take place without authorisation.", "The third digit is used to indicate the preferred card verification method (e.g., PIN) and the environment where the card can be used (e.g., at point of sale only).", "Merchant terminals are required to recognise and act on service codes or send all transactions for online authorisation.===Contactless smart card===In the late 2000s, MasterCard and Visa introduced contactless smart debit cards under the brand names MasterCard PayPass and Visa payWave.", "These payments are made using either electronic payment networks separate from the regular EFTPOS payment networks, or newer EFTPOS with tap sensors, and is an alternative to the previous swipe or chip systems.", "These networks are operated by MasterCard and Visa, and not by the banks as is the EFTPOS network, through EFTPOS Payments Australia Limited (ePAL).These cards are based on EMV technology and contain a RFID chip and antenna loop embedded in the plastic of the card.", "To pay using this system, a customer passes the card within 4 cm of a reader at a merchant checkout.", "Using this method, for transactions under a specified limit, the customer does not need to authenticate their identity by PIN entry or signature, as on a regular EFTPOS machine.", "For transactions over the above limit, PIN verification is required.The facility is only available for cards branded with the MasterCard PayPass or Visa payWave logos, indicating that they have the system-permitted embedded chip.", "ANZ launched an ATM solution based on Visa payWave in 2015, where the customer taps the card on a reader installed at the ATM and inserts their PIN to finalise cash withdrawals.", "Since 2018, these ATMs work with Apple Pay and Google Pay as well, where a customer taps their NFC-enabled phone instead of their card.", "Bank debit cards and other credit cards do not currently offer a contactless payment facility.", "ePAL is developing a contactless payment system for debit cards based on EMV technology as well as an extension of debit cards for use for on-line transactions, and a mobile payment system.", "Using contactless debit cards on tap-and-go terminals routes the transaction through the more expensive credit card system instead of the EFTPOS route, adding to the cost to the merchant, and ultimately the consumer.=== History ===The name and logo for EFTPOS in Australia were originally owned by Shiyombo Makasa and were trade marks from 1986 until 1991.The ownership was for convenience and all the banks used the name and logo (commonly called \"fat-E\") on their cards and advertising.In 1991, dialup EFTPOS was conceived by Key Corp (John Wood) and deployment of dialup commenced in 1993.Until 1993, communications, connections and transactions between banks, ATM banks and EFTPOS devices where conducted via leased lines (a specific power assisted communication line that detects any attempt to tamper with it) but in 1993, mobile wireless EFTPOS was conceived by Dynamic Data Systems (H. Daniel Elbaum).", "In 1995, Dynamic Data Systems and the banking industry worked together to implement, certify and introduce protocols and standards for cellular networks, and by 1998, the use of mobile EFTPOS began to appear in Australia.In 2006, Commonwealth Bank and MasterCard ran a six-month trial of the contactless smart card system PayPass in Sydney and Wollongong, supplementing the traditional EFTPOS swipe or chip system.", "The system was rolled out across Australia in 2009; other systems being rolled out are Westpac Bank's MasterCard PayPass and Visa payWave branded cards.In April 2009, a company, “EFTPOS Payments Australia Ltd” (ePal) was formed to manage and promote the EFTPOS system in Australia.", "ePal regulation commenced in January 2011.The initial members of EFTPOS Payments Australia Ltd were:* Australia & New Zealand Banking Group* Australian Settlements Limited* Bank of Queensland* Bendigo & Adelaide Bank* Cashcard* Citigroup* Commonwealth Bank* Coles Group* Cuscal* Indue* National Australia Bank* Suncorp-Metway* Westpac* Woolworths The current members of EFTPOS Payments Australia Ltd are:* Adyen* Australia & New Zealand Banking Group* Australian Settlements Limited* Bank of Queensland* Bendigo & Adelaide Bank* Citigroup* Commonwealth Bank* Coles Group* Cuscal* EFTEX* First Data Network Australia* Indue* ING Australia* National Australia Bank* PayPal* Suncorp-Metway* Tyro Payments* Westpac* WoolworthsIn Australia, store cards have been excluded from participation in the EFTPOS and ATM systems.", "Consequently, several larger store accounts have entered into co-branding arrangements with credit card networks for the store-based accounts to be widely accepted.", "This was the case with Coles (previously, Coles-Myer) which co-branded with MasterCard, Myer which co-branded with Visa, and David Jones which co-branded with American Express.", "Woolworths organised its credit card called Everyday Rewards (now Woolworths Money) which initially was partnered with credit provider HSBC Bank, but changed on 26 October 2014 to Macquarie Bank.=== Usage ===As of June 2018, there were 961,247 EFTPOS terminals in Australia and 30,940 ATMs.", "Of the terminals, over 60,000 offered cash withdrawals.", "In 2010, 183 million transactions, worth A$12 billion, were made using Australian EFTPOS terminals per month.In 2011, these figures increased to 750,000 terminals, with 325,000 individual businesses, processing over 2 billion transactions with combined value of approximately $131 billion for the year.=== Network ===The EFT network in Australia is made up of seven proprietary networks in which peers have interchange agreements, making an effective single network.", "A merchant who wishes to accept EFTPOS payments must enter an agreement with one of the seven merchant service providers, which rent the terminal to the merchant.", "All the merchant's EFTPOS transactions are processed through one of these gateways.", "Some of these peers are:* Australia & New Zealand Banking Group* Commonwealth Bank* National Australia Bank* Westpac* Cuscal* First Data Network Australia (formerly Cashcard)* OtherOther organisations may have peering agreements with the one or more of the central peers.The network uses the AS 2805 protocol, which is closely related to ISO 8583." ], [ "New Zealand", "120pxEFTPOS is highly popular in New Zealand.", "The system is operated by two providers, Paymark Limited (formerly Electronic Transaction Services Limited) which processes 75% of all electronic transactions in New Zealand, and EFTPOS New Zealand.", "Although the term eftpos is popularly used to describe the system, EFTPOS is a trademark of EFTPOS New Zealand, the smaller of the two providers.", "Both providers run an interconnected financial network that allows the processing of not only of debit cards at point of sale terminals but also credit cards and charge cards.=== History ===120pxThe Bank of New Zealand introduced EFTPOS to New Zealand in 1984 through a pilot scheme with petrol stations.In 1989 the system was officially launched and two providers owned by the major banks now run the system.", "The larger of the two providers, Paymark Limited (formerly Electronic Transaction Services Limited), is owned by French company Ingenico, following its sale in 2018 by ASB Bank, Westpac, Bank of New Zealand and ANZ Bank New Zealand (formerly ANZ National Bank).", "The second is operated by EFTPOS New Zealand, which is fully owned by VeriFone Systems, following its sale by ANZ New Zealand in December 2012.1995 was the first deployment of cellular Eftpos in NZ, by Dynamic Data Systems.During July 2006 the five billionth EFTPOS payment was processed, and at the start of 2012 the 10 billionth transaction was processed.=== Usage ===EFTPOS is highly popular in New Zealand, and being used for about 60% of all retail transactions.", "In 2009, there were 200 EFTPOS transactions per person.Paymark process over 900 million transactions (worth over NZ$48 billion) yearly.", "More than 75,000 merchants and over 110,000 EFTPOS terminals are connected to Paymark." ], [ "Singapore", "In Singapore, NETS was founded in 1985 by a consortium of the country's local banks of DBS Bank, OCBC Bank and United Overseas Bank (UOB) to establish the debit network and drive the adoption of electronic payments in Singapore.===History===NETS was officially launched on 18 January 1986, allowing millions of ATM card holders in Singapore to make transactions through the initial network of 195 terminals located in various retail outlets and by 1993, consumer spending through NETS reached S$1.14 billion.", "Since the late-2010s, NETS has also adopted QR code payments through NETS QR, which is also integrated with SGQR.===Usage===The nationwide acceptance infrastructure is the largest in Singapore and includes 54,000 Unified Point-of-Sale (Unified POS) terminals and 94,000 QR acceptance points.", "In 2011, NETS’ debit system was designated as national payment system by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS)." ], [ "See also", "* Interac* Maestro* NETS* Visa Debit* ACCC v Cabcharge Australia Ltd* Cabcharge" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epistle to the Laodiceans" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Epistle to the Laodiceans''' is a purported lost letter of Paul the Apostle, the original existence of which is inferred from an instruction in the Epistle to the Colossians that the congregation should send their letter to the believing community in Laodicea, and likewise obtain a copy of the letter \"from Laodicea\" (, ''ek Laodikeas'').This letter is generally regarded as being lost.", "However, some ancient sources, such as Hippolytus of Rome, and some modern scholars consider that the epistle \"from Laodicea\" was never a lost epistle, but simply Paul re-using one of his other letters (the most common candidate is the canonical Epistle to the Ephesians), just as he asks for the copying and forwarding of the Letter to Colossians to Laodicea.", "An additional complication is that many scholars do not believe that ''Colossians'' was itself written by Paul, in which case the indicated Letter might itself not be Pauline even if it existed.At least two ancient texts purporting to be the missing \"Epistle to the Laodiceans\" are known to have existed.", "These are generally considered, both in antiquity and by modern scholarship, to be attempts to supply a forged copy of a lost document.", "The sole version that survived is a Latin '''''' (\"Epistle to the Laodiceans\"), first witnessed in Codex Fuldensis.", "The Latin epistle is actually a short compilation of verses from other Pauline epistles, principally Philippians.", "It too is generally considered a \"clumsy forgery\" and an attempt to fill the \"gap\" suggested by Colossians 4:16." ], [ "Mention in Colossians 4:16", "Paul, the earliest known Christian author, wrote several letters (or epistles) in Greek to various churches.", "Paul apparently dictated all his epistles through a secretary (or amanuensis), but wrote the final few paragraphs of each letter by his own hand.", "Many survived and are included in the New Testament, but others are known to have been lost.", "The Epistle to the Colossians, which is traditionally attributed to Paul, includes a seeming reference to a presumably Pauline letter in the possession of the church at Laodicea.", "An interlinear gloss of Colossians 4:16 reads as follows:The last words can be interpreted as \"letter written to the Laodiceans\", but also \"letter written from Laodicea\".", "The New American Standard Bible (NASB) translates this verse in the latter manner, and a few translations in other languages also translate it likewise, such as the Dutch Statenvertaling: \"When this letter is read among you, have it also read in the church of the Laodiceans; and you, for your part read my letter (that is coming) from Laodicea.\"", "Those who read here \"letter written to the Laodiceans\" presume that, at the time that the Epistle to the Colossians was written, Paul also had written an epistle to the community of believers in Laodicea.Another possibility exists: that no such epistle to the Laodiceans was ever created, despite the verse in Colossians.", "Colossians is considered a deutero-Pauline work by many scholars (meaning a letter written in Paul's name by an associate or someone else), based on a number of differences in writing style and assumed situation from Paul's earlier letters.", "While this is explained by some as due to increasing use of a secretary (amanuensis) later in Paul's life, a more skeptical approach is to suggest that Colossians was not written by Paul at all.", "If Colossians was forged in Paul's name, then the reference to the other letter to the Laodiceans could merely be a verisimilitude—a small detail to make the letter seem real.", "The letter would never have been sent to Colossae in this scenario, but rather used as an example of Paul's doctrine to win a theological dispute far from Colossae, and there would be nobody to recognize that the claimed letter to the Laodiceans was non-existent." ], [ "Identification with canonical epistles", "=== Epistle to the Ephesians ===Some scholars have suggested that it refers to the canonical Epistle to the Ephesians, contending that it was a circular letter (an ''encyclical'') to be read to many churches in the Laodicean area.", "Others dispute this view.=== Epistle to Philemon ===Others have suggested that it refers to the canonical Epistle to Philemon." ], [ "Works purporting to be the lost text", "=== Marcionite Epistle to the Laodiceans ===According to the Muratorian fragment, Marcion's canon contained an epistle called the Epistle to the Laodiceans which is commonly thought to be a forgery written to conform to his own point of view.", "This is not at all clear, however, since none of the text survives.", "It is not known what this letter might have contained.", "Most scholars believe it was explicitly Marcionist in its outlook, hence its condemnation.Others believe it to be the Epistle to the Ephesians; the proto-Orthodox author Tertullian accuses Marcion's group of using an edited version of Ephesians which was referred to as the Epistle to the Laodiceans.=== Latin Vulgate Epistle to the Laodiceans ===A claimed Epistle to the Laodiceans from Paul exists in Latin.", "It is quite short at only 20 verses.", "It is mentioned by various writers from the fourth century onwards, notably by Pope Gregory the Great; the oldest known copy of this epistle is in the Fulda manuscript written for Victor of Capua in 546.Possibly due to Gregory's endorsement of it, many Western Latin Bibles contained this epistle for centuries afterward.", "It also featured in early English Bibles: John Wycliffe included Paul's letter to the Laodiceans in his Bible translation from the Latin to English.", "Medieval German Bibles included it as well, until it was excluded from the Luther Bible in the 1500s.", "However, the epistle is essentially unknown in Eastern Christianity, where it was never used or published; the Second Council of Nicea of 787 rejected it.", "There is no evidence of a Greek text, the language Paul wrote in.", "The text was almost unanimously considered pseudepigraphal when the Christian Biblical canon was decided upon, and does not appear in any Greek copies of the Bible at all, nor is it known in Syriac or other versions.", "Jerome, who wrote the Latin Vulgate translation, wrote in the 4th century, \"it is rejected by everyone\".Scholars are unanimous in concurring with Jerome and believing this epistle forged long after Paul's death.", "Additionally, the epistle is derided for having no theological content.", "It includes Pauline greetings and farewells, but does not appear to have any substantive content: it does not address any problem or advocate for any position.", "and wrote that the epistle is \"nothing other than a worthless patching together of canonical Pauline passages and phrases, mainly from the Epistle to the Philippians.\"", "M. R. James wrote that \"It is not easy to imagine a more feebly constructed cento of Pauline phrases.\"", "Wilhelm Schneemelcher was \"amazed that it ever found a place in Bible manuscripts.\"", "However, it evidently gained a certain degree of respect, having appeared in over 100 surviving early Latin copies of the Bible.", "According to ''Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatam versionem'', there are Latin Vulgate manuscripts containing this epistle dating between the 6th and 12th century, including Latin manuscripts F (Codex Fuldensis), M, Q, B, D (Ardmachanus), C, and Lambda.The apocryphal epistle is generally considered a transparent attempt to supply this supposed lost sacred document.", "Some scholars, such as Wolfgang Speyer, suggest that it was created to offset the popularity of the Marcionite epistle; it would be easier to reject the Marcionite version if the \"real\" Epistle to the Laodiceans could be provided to counter it.An obvious question is if the Latin epistle and the Marcionite epistle are actually the same document: is it possible that the Muratorian fragment was referring to an early version of the Latin epistle?", "While the occasional scholar advocates for this (Adolf von Harnack for one), most scholars consider this unlikely, because the Latin epistle does not include any Marcionite theology or character." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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