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[ [ "Elba" ], [ "Introduction", "Enlargeable, detailed map of Elba'''Elba''' (, ; ) is a Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino on the Italian mainland, and the largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago.", "It is also part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park, and the third largest island in Italy, after Sicily and Sardinia.", "It is located in the Tyrrhenian Sea about east of the French island of Corsica.The island is part of the province of Livorno and is divided into seven municipalities, with a total population of about 30,000 inhabitants which increases considerably during the summer.", "The municipalities are Portoferraio (which is also the island's principal town), Campo nell'Elba, Capoliveri, Marciana, Marciana Marina, Porto Azzurro, and Rio.Elba was the site of Napoleon's first exile, from 1814 to 1815." ], [ "Geography", "Elba is the largest remaining stretch of land from the ancient tract that once connected the Italian peninsula to Corsica.", "The northern coast faces the Ligurian Sea, the eastern coast the Piombino Channel, the southern coast the Tyrrhenian Sea, and the Corsica Channel divides the western tip of the island from neighbouring Corsica.===Geology===The island itself is made up of slices of rocks which once formed part of the ancient Tethyan seafloor.", "These rocks have been through at least two orogenies, the Alpine orogeny and the Apennine orogeny.", "The second of these two events was associated with subduction of the Tethyan oceanic crust underneath Italy and the obduction of parts of the ancient seafloor onto the continents.", "Later extension within the stretched inner part of the Apennine mountains caused adiabatic melting and the intrusion of the Mount Capanne and the La Serra-Porto Azzuro granitoids.", "These igneous bodies brought with them skarn fluids which dissolved and replaced some of the carbonate units, precipitating iron-rich minerals in their place.", "One of the iron-rich minerals, ilvaite, was first identified on the island and takes its name from the Latin word for Elba.", "More recently, high-angle faults formed within the tectonic pile, allowing for the migration of iron-rich fluids through the crust.", "The deposits left behind by these fluids formed the island's rich seams of iron ore.Mount CapanneThe terrain is quite varied and is thus divided into several areas based on geomorphology.", "The mountainous and most recent part of the island can be found to the west, the centre of which is dominated by Mount Capanne (at a height of 1,018 metres, or 3,340 feet), also called the \"roof of the Tuscan Archipelago\".", "The mountain is home to many animal species including the mouflon and wild boar, two species that flourish despite the continuous influx of tourists.", "The central part of the island is a mostly flat section with the width being reduced to just four kilometres ().", "It is where the major centres can be found: Portoferraio, Campo nell'Elba.", "To the east is the oldest part of the island, formed over 3 million years ago.", "In the hilly area, dominated by Monte Calamita, are the deposits of iron that made Elba famous.===Hydrography===Rivers rarely exceed in length, and it is common for the shorter ones to dry up during the summer.", "The largest rivers, sorted by length, are:Fosso San Francesco ;Fosso Barion, ;Fosso Redinoce, Between Poggio and Marciana, at the foot of Mount Capanne, is a spring called Fonte Napoleone, known for its quality.===Climate===The climate of the island is predominantly Mediterranean, except for Mount Capanne, where winters tend to be moderately cold.", "Precipitation is concentrated in autumn and comprises a normal rainfall.", "The island lies in the rain shadow of the large and mountainous island of Corsica, so precipitation totals are somewhat reduced from the mainland (most of the island receives less than 750 mm (30 inches) annually).", "Snowfall in winter is rare in the lowlands and melts quickly.", "The table below shows the average temperatures for the islands by month." ], [ "History", "===Early history===The island was originally inhabited by Ligures Ilvates and was called '''Ilva''' (Ἰλούα).", "It was well known from very ancient times for its iron resources and valued mines.", "The Greeks also called it '''Aethalia''' (Αἰθαλία or Αἰθάλεια) and '''Aethale''' (Αἰθάλη) from \"smoky\" (αἰθάλη), after the fumes of the metal producing furnaces.Apollonius of Rhodes mentions it in his epic poem ''Argonautica'', describing that the Argonauts rested here during their travels.", "He writes that signs of their visit were still visible in his day, including skin-coloured pebbles that they dried their hands on and large stones which they used at discus.", "Strabo (5.2.6) presents a slightly different account: \"because the scrapings, which the Argonauts formed when they used their strigils, became congealed, the pebbles on the shore remain variegated still to this day.\"", "The port which is now called Porto Ferraio, was known in ancient times as the portus Argous (Ἀργῶος λιμήν), because it was believed that the Argonauts landed there on their return voyage.The island was then settled by the Etruscans, who started mining iron at Elba, and later (after 480 BC) by the Romans, who called the island Ilva.===Middle Ages and early modern===In the early medieval period, Elba was invaded by the Ostrogoths and the Lombards, and then it became a possession of the Republic of Pisa.", "After the battle of Meloria, the Republic of Genoa took possession of Elba, but it was regained by Pisa in 1292.The island was retained for two centuries by the Appiani family, Lords of Piombino, when they sold Pisa to the house of Visconti of Milan in 1399.In 1544, the Barbary pirates from North Africa devastated Elba and the coasts of Tuscany.", "In 1546, part of the island was handed over to Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who fortified Portoferraio and renamed it \"Cosmopoli\", while the rest of the island was returned to the Appiani in 1577.In 1596, Philip II of Spain captured Porto Longone and had two fortresses built there.", "This part of Elba came into the direct power of Spain through the State of the Presidi, including Porto Longone.", "In 1736, the sovereignty of this part of Elba was claimed by the Kingdom of Naples but remained abandoned.===Late modern and contemporary===The British landed on the island of Elba in 1796, after the occupation of Livorno by the French Republican troops, to protect the 4,000 French royalists who had found asylum in Portoferraio two years earlier.", "In 1801, the Peace of Luneville gave Elba to the Kingdom of Etruria, and it was transferred to France in 1802 by the Peace of Amiens.The French Emperor Napoleon was exiled to Elba, after his forced abdication following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and conveyed to the island on HMS ''Undaunted'' by Captain Thomas Ussher; he arrived at Portoferraio on 4 May 1814.He was allowed to keep a personal guard of 400 men and was nominally sovereign of Elba, a step down from Emperor of the French.", "However, the nearby sea was patrolled by the French and British navies to ensure he could not escape.", "During the months that he stayed on the island, Napoleon carried out a series of economic and social reforms to improve the quality of life.", "After staying for almost ten months, he managed to escape back to France on 26 February 1815 with about 1000 men.At the Congress of Vienna, Elba was given to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.", "In 1860, it became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy.During the Second World War, the island was liberated from German occupation by the French ''1er Corps d'Armée'' supported by British forces including Royal Naval Commandos on 17 June 1944, in ''Opération Brassard''.", "Faulty intelligence and strong defences made the battle more difficult than expected.In 1954 BOAC Flight 781 crashed in the waters off the coast of Elba.In recent decades, thanks to its rich cultural heritage, cuisine and nature, the island has become an important international tourist destination." ], [ "Transportation", "The island is connected to the mainland via the four ferry companies, Toremar, Moby Lines, Blunavy and Sardinia Ferries, all offering routes between Piombino and Portoferraio, the capital located in the north, Cavo, Rio Marina and Porto Azzurro, on the east coast of the island.There is an airport on the island, Marina di Campo Airport.", "It is served by Silver Air with flights to the Italian mainland.===Cycling===The island has a network of trails for road racers looking for more technical routes for their training, trails and dirt roads for bikers to have fun on, and accessible routes for families with children who need safe and relaxing routes.", "On the road from Rio nell'Elba going to Porto Azzurro is the \"Fonte di Coppi\".", "Towards the end of his career Fausto Coppi, the \"campionissimo\", came here to train on the roads of Elba.", "He still retained a celebrity status but was no longer at the peak of his career that ended with his death a few years later.", "The plaque on the fountain reads: \"1960–2010, here the champion quenched his thirst, after fifty years on the run\"." ], [ "Sport", "The '''Elba football team''' represents the island.", "They were approved as a ConIFA member at the Annual General Meeting 2020.It is not affiliated with FIFA or UEFA, and therefore cannot compete for the FIFA World Cup or in the UEFA European Championship.", "It is, however, affiliated to ConIFA, and play in the ConIFA European Football Cup.Elba Island played their first game as a ConIFA member on 11 September 2021 against the Sicily Football Team scoring a 4–4 tie against them." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Elba Enfola.jpg\|Enfola BeachFile:Marciana Marina - Hafen und Monte Capanne.jpg\|Marciana MarinaFile:Capoliveri Elbe Elba.JPG\|CapoliveriFile:Fetovaia01.jpg\|Fetovaia beachFile:Bandiera Elba.svg\|Flag of ElbaFile:Elba Drunken cake.jpg\|Schiaccia briaca (drunken cake) from Elba and Aleatico (Elban wine) used in the recipe" ], [ "See also", "List of islands of ItalyTuscan Archipelago''The Count of Monte Cristo'', 1844 novel by Alexandre Dumas" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "-*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Etna" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mount Etna''' is an active volcano on the east coast of Sicily.", "'''Etna''' or '''ETNA''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===United States===Etna, California, a cityEtna, Georgia, a villageEtna, Illinois, an unincorporated communityEtna, Indiana, an unincorporated townEtna, Kentucky, an unincorporated communityEtna, Maine, a townEtna, Minnesota, an unincorporated communityEtna, Missouri, an unincorporated communityEtna, Nebraska, an unincorporated communityEtna, Lincoln County, Nevada, a ghost townEtna, Pershing County, Nevada, a former townsiteEtna, New Hampshire, a villageEmerson, New Jersey, a borough originally named the Borough of EtnaEtna, New York, an unincorporated communityEtna, Lawrence County, Ohio, an unincorporated communityEtna Township, Licking County, OhioEtna, Licking County, Ohio, an unincorporated communityEtna, Oklahoma, an unincorporated communityEtna, Pennsylvania, a boroughWhiteside, Tennessee, an unincorporated community formerly named EtnaEtna, Texas, a ghost townEtna, Washington, an unincorporated communityEtna, Wisconsin, an unincorporated communityEtna, Wyoming, a census-designated place===Elsewhere===Etna (river), in the traditional district of Valdres, NorwayEtna Island, off the northeastern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula11249 Etna, an asteroidMount Etna, Queensland, a Mountain and a National Park in Australia" ], [ "Ships", "HMS ''Aetna'', a list of ships including those named ''Etna''''Etna''-class corvette, six sailing ships of the French Navy''Etna''-class cruiser, four ships built for the Royal Italian Navy in the late 1880s''Etna''-class cruiser (1941), two ships ordered in Italy for the Royal Thai Navy in 1938, but never completed''Etna''-class replenishment oiler, one ship built for Italy and one ship for GreeceItalian ship ''Etna'' (A 5326), the Italian Navy lead ship of the replenishment oiler classItalian ship ''Etna'' (A 5328), an attack cargo ship, originally built for the United States" ], [ "Other uses", "École des technologies numériques appliquées, a French private university in computer scienceEtna DOC, an Italian wine region designationEtna (Disgaea), a main character in the ''Disgaea'' series of console role playing gamesEtna Iron Works, a New York marine engine manufacturer active during the American Civil WarLotus Etna, a one-off concept carEtna, a steam locomotive of the Carmarthen and Cardigan Railway in WalesLG KS360, LG Etna, also known as LG KS360, a mobile phone modelObsolete name for the Bunsen burner or spirit lamp" ], [ "See also", "Aetna (disambiguation)*Mount Aetna (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enki" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enki''' ( ) is the Sumerian god of water, knowledge (''gestú''), crafts (''gašam''), and creation (''nudimmud''), and one of the Anunnaki.", "He was later known as '''Ea''' () or '''Ae''' in Akkadian (Assyrian-Babylonian) religion, and is identified by some scholars with '''Ia''' in Canaanite religion.", "The name was rendered '''Aos''' in Greek sources (e.g.", "Damascius).He was originally the patron god of the city of Eridu, but later the influence of his cult spread throughout Mesopotamia and to the Canaanites, Hittites and Hurrians.", "He was associated with the southern band of constellations called ''stars of Ea'', but also with the constellation '''AŠ-IKU''', ''the Field'' (Square of Pegasus).", "Beginning around the second millennium BCE, he was sometimes referred to in writing by the numeric ideogram for \"40\", occasionally referred to as his \"sacred number\".", "The planet Mercury, associated with Babylonian ''Nabu'' (the son of Marduk) was, in Sumerian times, identified with Enki.Many myths about Enki have been collected from various sites, stretching from Southern Iraq to the Levantine coast.", "He is mentioned in the earliest extant cuneiform inscriptions throughout the region and was prominent from the third millennium down to the Hellenistic period." ], [ "Etymology", "The exact meaning of Enki's name is uncertain: the common translation is \"Lord of the Earth\".", "The Sumerian ''En'' is translated as a title equivalent to \"lord\" and was originally a title given to the High Priest.", "''Ki'' means \"earth\", but there are theories that ''ki'' in this name has another origin, possibly ''kig'' of unknown meaning, or ''kur'' meaning \"mound\".The name Ea is allegedly Hurrian in origin while others claim that his name 'Ea' is possibly of Semitic origin and may be a derivation from the West-Semitic root hyy meaning \"life\" in this case used for \"spring\", \"running water\".", "In Sumerian E-A means \"the house of water\", and it has been suggested that this was originally the name for the shrine to the god at Eridu.", "It has also been suggested that the original non-anthropomorphic divinity at Eridu was not Enki but Abzu.", "The emergence of Enki as the divine lover of Ninhursag, and the divine battle between the younger Igigi divinities and Abzu, saw the Abzu, the underground waters of the Aquifer, becoming the place in which the foundations of the temple were built.", "With some Sumerian deity names as Enlil there are variations like Elil.", "En means \"Lord\" and E means \"temple\".", "It is likely that E-A is the Sumerian short form for \"Lord of Water\", as Enki is a god of water.", "Ab in Abzu also means water." ], [ "Worship", "The main temple to Enki was called ''E-abzu'', meaning \"abzu temple\" (also ''E-en-gur-a'', meaning \"house of the subterranean waters\"), a ziggurat temple surrounded by Euphratean marshlands near the ancient Persian Gulf coastline at Eridu.", "It was the first temple known to have been built in Southern Iraq.", "Four separate excavations at the site of Eridu have demonstrated the existence of a shrine dating back to the earliest Ubaid period, more than 6,500 years ago.", "Over the following 4,500 years, the temple was expanded 18 times, until it was abandoned during the Persian period.", "On this basis Thorkild Jacobsen has hypothesized that the original deity of the temple was Abzu, with his attributes later being taken by Enki over time.", "P. Steinkeller believes that, during the earliest period, Enki had a subordinate position to a goddess (possibly Ninhursag), taking the role of divine consort or high priest, later taking priority.", "The Enki temple had at its entrance a pool of fresh water, and excavation has found numerous carp bones, suggesting collective feasts.", "Carp are shown in the twin water flows running into the later God Enki, suggesting continuity of these features over a very long period.", "These features were found at all subsequent Sumerian temples, suggesting that this temple established the pattern for all subsequent Sumerian temples.", "\"All rules laid down at Eridu were faithfully observed\"." ], [ "Iconography", "The Adda Seal, an ancient Akkadian cylinder seal showing (from left to right) Inanna, Utu, Enki, and Isimud (circa 2300 BC)Enki was the keeper of the divine powers called ''Me'', the gifts of civilization.", "He is often shown with the horned crown of divinity.On the Adda Seal, Enki is depicted with two streams of water flowing into each of his shoulders: one the Tigris, the other the Euphrates.", "Alongside him are two trees, symbolizing the male and female aspects of nature.", "He is shown wearing a flounced skirt and a cone-shaped hat.", "An eagle descends from above to land upon his outstretched right arm.", "This portrayal reflects Enki's role as the god of water, life, and replenishment.Considered the master shaper of the world, god of wisdom and of all magic, Enki was characterized as the lord of the Abzu (Apsu in Akkadian), the freshwater sea or groundwater located within the earth.", "In the later Babylonian epic ''Enûma Eliš'', Abzu, the \"begetter of the gods\", is inert and sleepy but finds his peace disturbed by the younger gods, so sets out to destroy them.", "His grandson Enki, chosen to represent the younger gods, puts a spell on Abzu \"casting him into a deep sleep\", thereby confining him deep underground.", "Enki subsequently sets up his home \"''in the depths of the Abzu''.\"", "Enki thus takes on all of the functions of the Abzu, including his fertilising powers as lord of the waters and lord of semen.Early royal inscriptions from the third millennium BCE mention \"the reeds of Enki\".", "Reeds were an important local building material, used for baskets and containers, and collected outside the city walls, where the dead or sick were often carried.", "This links Enki to the ''Kur'' or underworld of Sumerian mythology.", "In another even older tradition, Nammu, the goddess of the primeval creative matter and the mother-goddess portrayed as having ''\"given birth to the great gods,\"'' was the mother of Enki, and as the watery creative force, was said to preexist Ea-Enki.", "Benito states \"With Enki it is an interesting change of gender symbolism, the fertilising agent is also water, Sumerian ''\"a\"'' or ''\"Ab\"'' which also means \"semen\".", "In one evocative passage in a Sumerian hymn, Enki stands at the empty riverbeds and fills them with his 'water'\"." ], [ "Mythology", "Impression of a cylinder seal of the time of Akkadian King Sharkalisharri (c.2200 BC), with central inscription: \"The Divine Sharkalisharri Prince of Akkad, Ibni-Sharrum the Scribe his servant\".", "Depiction of Ea with long-horned water buffalo.", "Circa 2217–2193 BC.", "Louvre Museum.===Creation of life and sickness===The cosmogenic myth common in Sumer was that of the hieros gamos, a sacred marriage where divine principles in the form of dualistic opposites came together as male and female to give birth to the cosmos.", "In the epic ''Enki and Ninhursag'', Enki, as lord of ''Ab'' or fresh water (also the Sumerian word for semen), is living with his wife in the paradise of Dilmun whereDespite being a place where \"the raven uttered no cries\" and \"the lion killed not, the wolf snatched not the lamb, unknown was the kid-killing dog, unknown was the grain devouring boar\", Dilmun had no water and Enki heard the cries of its goddess, Ninsikil, and orders the sun-god Utu to bring fresh water from the Earth for Dilmun.", "As a result,Dilmun was identified with Bahrain, whose name in Arabic means \"two seas\", where the fresh waters of the Arabian aquifer mingle with the salt waters of the Persian Gulf.", "This mingling of waters was known in Sumerian as Nammu, and was identified as the mother of Enki.The subsequent tale, with similarities to the Biblical story of the forbidden fruit, repeats the story of how fresh water brings life to a barren land.", "Enki, the Water-Lord then \"caused to flow the 'water of the heart\" and having fertilised his consort Ninhursag, also known as Ki or Earth, after \"Nine days being her nine months, the months of 'womanhood'... like good butter, Nintu, the mother of the land, ...like good butter, gave birth to Ninsar, (Lady Greenery)\".", "When Ninhursag left him, as Water-Lord he came upon Ninsar (Lady Greenery).", "Not knowing her to be his daughter, and because she reminds him of his absent consort, Enki then seduces and has intercourse with her.", "Ninsar then gave birth to Ninkurra (Lady Fruitfulness or Lady Pasture), and leaves Enki alone again.", "A second time, Enki, in his loneliness finds and seduces Ninkurra, and from the union Ninkurra gave birth to Uttu (weaver or spider, the weaver of the web of life).A third time Enki succumbs to temptation, and attempts seduction of Uttu.", "Upset about Enki's reputation, Uttu consults Ninhursag, who, upset at the promiscuous wayward nature of her spouse, advises Uttu to avoid the riverbanks, the places likely to be affected by flooding, the home of Enki.", "In another version of this myth, Ninhursag takes Enki's semen from Uttu's womb and plants it in the earth where eight plants rapidly germinate.", "With his two-faced servant and steward Isimud, \"Enki, in the swampland, in the swampland lies stretched out, 'What is this (plant), what is this (plant).'", "His messenger Isimud, answers him; 'My king, this is the tree-plant', he says to him.", "He cuts it off for him and he (Enki) eats it\".", "And so, despite warnings, Enki consumes the other seven fruit.", "Consuming his own semen, he falls pregnant (ill with swellings) in his jaw, his teeth, his mouth, his hip, his throat, his limbs, his side and his rib.", "The gods are at a loss to know what to do; chagrined they \"sit in the dust\".", "As Enki lacks a birth canal through which to give birth, he seems to be dying with swellings.", "The fox then asks Enlil, King of the Gods, \"If I bring Ninhursag before thee, what shall be my reward?\"", "Ninhursag's sacred fox then fetches the goddess.Ninhursag relents and takes Enki's Ab (water, or semen) into her body, and gives birth to gods of healing of each part of the body: Abu for the jaw, Nanshe for the throat, Nintul for the hip, Ninsutu for the tooth, Ninkasi for the mouth, Dazimua for the side, Enshagag for the limbs.", "The last one, Ninti (Lady Rib), is also a pun on Lady Life, a title of Ninhursag herself.", "The story thus symbolically reflects the way in which life is brought forth through the addition of water to the land, and once it grows, water is required to bring plants to fruit.", "It also counsels balance and responsibility, nothing to excess.Ninti, the title of Ninhursag, also means \"the mother of all living\", and was a title later given to the Hurrian goddess Kheba.", "This is also the title given in the Bible to Eve, the Hebrew and Aramaic ''Ḥawwah'' (חוה), who was made from the rib of Adam, in a strange reflection of the Sumerian myth, in which Adam – not Enki – walks in the Garden of Paradise.===Making of man===After six generations of gods, in the Babylonian ''Enûma Eliš'', in the seventh generation, (Akkadian ''\"shapattu\"'' or sabath), the younger Igigi gods, the sons and daughters of Enlil and Ninlil, go on strike and refuse their duties of keeping creation working.", "Abzu, god of fresh water, co-creator of the cosmos, threatens to destroy the world with his waters, and the gods gather in terror.", "Enki promises to help and puts Abzu to sleep, confining him in irrigation canals and places him in the Kur, beneath his city of Eridu.", "But the universe is still threatened, as Tiamat, angry at the imprisonment of Abzu and at the prompting of her son and vizier Kingu, decides to take back creation herself.", "The gods gather again in terror and turn to Enki for help, but Enki – who harnessed Abzu, Tiamat's consort, for irrigation – refuses to get involved.", "The gods then seek help elsewhere, and the patriarchal Enlil, their father, god of Nippur, promises to solve the problem if they make him King of the Gods.", "In the Babylonian tale, Enlil's role is taken by Marduk, Enki's son, and in the Assyrian version it is Ashur.", "After dispatching Tiamat with the \"arrows of his winds\" down her throat and constructing the heavens with the arch of her ribs, Enlil places her tail in the sky as the Milky Way, and her crying eyes become the source of the Tigris and Euphrates.", "But there is still the problem of \"who will keep the cosmos working\".", "Enki, who might have otherwise come to their aid, is lying in a deep sleep and fails to hear their cries.", "His mother Nammu (creatrix also of Abzu and Tiamat) \"brings the tears of the gods\" before Enki and saysEnki then advises that they create a servant of the gods, humankind, out of clay and blood.", "Against Enki's wish, the gods decide to slay Kingu, and Enki finally consents to use Kingu's blood to make the first human, with whom Enki always later has a close relationship, the first of the seven sages, seven wise men or ''\"Abgallu\"'' (''ab'' = water, ''gal'' = great, ''lu'' = man), also known as Adapa.", "Enki assembles a team of divinities to help him, creating a host of \"good and princely fashioners\".", "He tells his mother:Adapa, the first man fashioned, later goes and acts as the advisor to the King of Eridu, when in the Sumerian King-List, the ''me'' of \"kingship descends on Eridu\".Samuel Noah Kramer believes that behind this myth of Enki's confinement of Abzu lies an older one of the struggle between Enki and the Dragon Kur (the underworld).The Atrahasis-Epos has it that Enlil requested from Nammu the creation of humans.", "And Nammu told him that with the help of Enki (her son) she can create humans in the image of gods.===Uniter of languages===In the Sumerian epic entitled ''Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta'', in a speech of Enmerkar, an introductory spell appears, recounting Enki having had mankind communicate in one language (following Jay Crisostomo 2019); or, in other accounts, it is a hymn imploring Enki to do so.", "In either case, Enki \"facilitated the debates between the two kings by allowing the world to speak one language,\" the presumed superior language of the tablet, i.e.", "Sumerian.Jay Crisostomo's 2019 translation, based on the recent work of C. Mittermayer is:S.N.", "Kramer's 1940 translation is as follows:===The deluge===In the Sumerian version of the flood myth, the causes of the flood and the reasons for the hero's survival are unknown due to the fact that the beginning of the tablet describing the story has been destroyed.", "Nonetheless, Kramer has stated that it can probably be reasonably inferred that the hero Ziusudra survives due to Enki's aid because that is what happens in the later Akkadian and Babylonian versions of the story.In the later Legend of Atrahasis, Enlil, the King of the Gods, sets out to eliminate humanity, whose noise is disturbing his rest.", "He successively sends drought, famine and plague to eliminate humanity, but Enki thwarts his half-brother's plans by teaching Atrahasis how to counter these threats.", "Each time, Atrahasis asks the population to abandon worship of all gods except the one responsible for the calamity, and this seems to shame them into relenting.", "Humans, however, proliferate a fourth time.", "Enraged, Enlil convenes a Council of Deities and gets them to promise not to tell humankind that he plans their total annihilation.", "Enki does not tell Atrahasis directly, but speaks to him in secret via a reed wall.", "He instructs Atrahasis to build a boat in order to rescue his family and other living creatures from the coming deluge.", "After the seven-day deluge, the flood hero frees a swallow, a raven and a dove in an effort to find if the flood waters have receded.", "Upon landing, a sacrifice is made to the gods.", "Enlil is angry his will has been thwarted yet again, and Enki is named as the culprit.", "Enki explains that Enlil is unfair to punish the guiltless, and the gods institute measures to ensure that humanity does not become too populous in the future.", "This is one of the oldest of the surviving Middle Eastern deluge myths.===Enki and Inanna===The myth ''Enki and Inanna'' tells the story of how the young goddess of the É-anna temple of Uruk feasts with her father Enki.", "The two deities participate in a drinking competition; then, Enki, thoroughly inebriated, gives Inanna all of the ''mes''.", "The next morning, when Enki awakes with a hangover, he asks his servant Isimud for the ''mes'', only to be informed that he has given them to Inanna.", "Upset, he sends ''Galla'' to recover them.", "Inanna sails away in the boat of heaven and arrives safely back at the quay of Uruk.", "Eventually, Enki admits his defeat and accepts a peace treaty with Uruk.Politically, this myth would seem to indicate events of an early period when political authority passed from Enki's city of Eridu to Inanna's city of Uruk.In the myth of ''Inanna's Descent'', Inanna, in order to console her grieving sister Ereshkigal, who is mourning the death of her husband Gugalana (''gu'' 'bull', ''gal'' 'big', ''ana'' 'sky/heaven'), slain by Gilgamesh and Enkidu, sets out to visit her sister.", "Inanna tells her servant Ninshubur ('Lady Evening', a reference to Inanna's role as the evening star) to get help from Anu, Enlil or Enki if she does not return in three days.", "After Inanna has not come back, Ninshubur approaches Anu, only to be told that he knows the goddess's strength and her ability to take care of herself.", "While Enlil tells Ninshubur he is busy running the cosmos, Enki immediately expresses concern and dispatches his Galla (Galaturra or Kurgarra, sexless beings created from the dirt from beneath the god's finger-nails) to recover the young goddess.These beings may be the origin of the Greco-Roman ''Galli'', androgynous beings of the third sex who played an important part in early religious ritual.In the story ''Inanna and Shukaletuda'', Shukaletuda, the gardener, set by Enki to care for the date palm he had created, finds Inanna sleeping under the palm tree and rapes the goddess in her sleep.", "Awaking, she discovers that she has been violated and seeks to punish the miscreant.", "Shukaletuda seeks protection from Enki, whom Bottéro believes to be his father.", "In classic Enkian fashion, the father advises Shukaletuda to hide in the city where Inanna will not be able to find him.", "Enki, as the protector of whoever comes to seek his help, and as the empowerer of Inanna, here challenges the young impetuous goddess to control her anger so as to be better able to function as a great judge.Eventually, after cooling her anger, she too seeks the help of Enki, as spokesperson of the \"assembly of the gods\", the Igigi and the Anunnaki.", "After she presents her case, Enki sees that justice needs to be done and promises help, delivering knowledge of where the miscreant is hiding." ], [ "Influence", "God Ea, a statue from Khorsabad, late 8th century BCE, Iraq, now in the Iraq MuseumGod Ea, seated, holding a cup.", "From Nasiriyah, southern Iraq, 2004–1595 BCE.", "Iraq MuseumEnki and later Ea were apparently depicted, sometimes, as a man covered with the skin of a fish, and this representation, as likewise the name of his temple E-apsu, \"house of the watery deep\", points decidedly to his original character as a god of the waters (see Oannes).", "Around the excavation of the 18 shrines found on the spot, thousands of carp bones were found, consumed possibly in feasts to the god.", "Of his cult at Eridu, which goes back to the oldest period of Mesopotamian history, nothing definite is known except that his temple was also associated with Ninhursag's temple which was called ''Esaggila'', \"the lofty head house\" (''E'', house, ''sag'', head, ''ila'', high; or Akkadian goddess = Ila), a name shared with Marduk's temple in Babylon, pointing to a staged tower or ziggurat (as with the temple of Enlil at Nippur, which was known as ''E-kur'' (''kur'', hill)), and that incantations, involving ceremonial rites in which water as a sacred element played a prominent part, formed a feature of his worship.", "This seems also implicated in the epic of the hieros gamos or sacred marriage of Enki and Ninhursag (above), which seems an etiological myth of the fertilisation of the dry ground by the coming of irrigation water (from Sumerian ''a'', ''ab'', water or semen).", "The early inscriptions of Urukagina in fact go so far as to suggest that the divine pair, Enki and Ninki, were the progenitors of seven pairs of gods, including Enki as god of Eridu, Enlil of Nippur, and Su'en (or Sin) of Ur, and were themselves the children of An (sky, heaven) and Ki (earth).", "The pool of the Abzu at the front of his temple was adopted also at the temple to Nanna (Akkadian Sin) the Moon, at Ur, and spread from there throughout the Middle East.", "It is believed to remain today as the sacred pool at Mosques, or as the holy water font in Catholic or Eastern Orthodox churches.Whether Eridu at one time also played an important political role in Sumerian affairs is not certain, though not improbable.", "At all events the prominence of \"Ea\" led, as in the case of Nippur, to the survival of Eridu as a sacred city, long after it had ceased to have any significance as a political center.", "Myths in which Ea figures prominently have been found in Assurbanipal's library, and in the Hattusas archive in Hittite Anatolia.", "As Ea, Enki had a wide influence outside of Sumer, being equated with El (at Ugarit) and possibly Yah (at Ebla) in the Canaanite 'ilhm pantheon.", "He is also found in Hurrian and Hittite mythology as a god of contracts, and is particularly favourable to humankind.", "It has been suggested that etymologically the name Ea comes from the term ''hyy'' (life), referring to Enki's waters as life-giving.", "Enki/Ea is essentially a god of civilization, wisdom, and culture.", "He was also the creator and protector of man, and of the world in general.", "Traces of this version of Ea appear in the Marduk epic celebrating the achievements of this god and the close connection between the Ea cult at Eridu and that of Marduk.", "The correlation between the two rises from two other important connections: (1) that the name of Marduk's sanctuary at Babylon bears the same name, ''Esaggila'', as that of a temple in Eridu, and (2) that Marduk is generally termed the son of Ea, who derives his powers from the voluntary abdication of the father in favour of his son.", "Accordingly, the incantations originally composed for the Ea cult were re-edited by the priests of Babylon and adapted to the worship of Marduk, and, similarly, the hymns to Marduk betray traces of the transfer to Marduk of attributes which originally belonged to Ea.It is, however, as the third figure in the triad (the two other members of which were Anu and Enlil) that Ea acquires his permanent place in the pantheon.", "To him was assigned the control of the watery element, and in this capacity he becomes the ''shar apsi''; i.e.", "king of the Apsu or \"the abyss\".", "The Apsu was figured as the abyss of water beneath the earth, and since the gathering place of the dead, known as Aralu, was situated near the confines of the Apsu, he was also designated as En -Ki; i.e.", "\"lord of that which is below\", in contrast to Anu, who was the lord of the \"above\" or the heavens.", "The cult of Ea extended throughout Babylonia and Assyria.", "We find temples and shrines erected in his honour, e.g.", "at Nippur, Girsu, Ur, Babylon, Sippar, and Nineveh, and the numerous epithets given to him, as well as the various forms under which the god appears, alike bear witness to the popularity which he enjoyed from the earliest to the latest period of Babylonian-Assyrian history.", "The consort of Ea, known as Ninhursag, Ki, Uriash Damkina, \"lady of that which is below\", or Damgalnunna, \"big lady of the waters\", originally was fully equal with Ea, but in more patriarchal Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian times plays a part merely in association with her lord.", "Generally, however, Enki seems to be a reflection of pre-patriarchal times, in which relations between the sexes were characterised by a situation of greater gender equality.", "In his character, he prefers persuasion to conflict, which he seeks to avoid if possible." ], [ "Ea and West Semitic deities", "In 1964, a team of Italian archaeologists under the direction of Paolo Matthiae of the University of Rome La Sapienza performed a series of excavations of material from the third-millennium BCE city of Ebla.", "Much of the written material found in these digs was later translated by Giovanni Pettinato.", "Among other conclusions, he found a tendency among the inhabitants of Ebla, after the reign of Sargon of Akkad, to replace the name of El, king of the gods of the Canaanite pantheon (found in names such as Mikael and Ishmael), with ''Ia'' (Mikaia, Ishmaia).Jean Bottéro (1952) and others suggested that ''Ia'' in this case is a West Semitic (Canaanite) way of pronouncing the Akkadian name ''Ea'', associated to the Canaanite theonym ''Yahu'', the Hebrew ''YHWH''.", "Some scholars remain skeptical of the theory while explaining how it might have been misinterpreted.", "''Ia'' has also been compared by William Hallo with the Ugaritic god ''Yamm'' (\"Sea\"), (also called Judge Nahar, or Judge River) whose earlier name in at least one ancient source was ''Yaw'', or ''Ya'a''.Ea was also known as ''Dagon'' and ''Uanna'' (Grecised ''Oannes''), the first of the Seven Sages." ], [ "See also", "Ancient Near EastAzazelBarbar Temple, a Dilmun-era temple in Bahrain devoted to the worship of Enki Capricorn (astrology)CapricornusIahJah''Me'' (mythology)Mesopotamian mythologyAhura MazdaEl (deity)" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Works cited===*Espak, Peeter (2010) ''The God Enki in Sumerian Royal Ideology and Mythology''.", "Dissertationes Theologiae Universitatis Tartuensis 19.", "(Tartu University Press).", "" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ], [ "External links", " Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses: Enki/Ea (god)* Enki and Ninhursag* Creation of Man* Enki and Inanna" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eli Wallach" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eli Herschel Wallach''' (; December 7, 1915 – June 24, 2014) was an American film, television, and stage actor from New York City.", "Known for his character actor roles, his entertainment career spanned over six decades.", "He received a BAFTA Award, a Tony Award and an Emmy Award.", "He also was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame in 1988 and received the Academy Honorary Award in 2010.Originally trained in stage acting, he garnered over 90 film credits.", "He and his wife Anne Jackson often appeared together on stage, eventually becoming a notable acting couple in American theater.", "Wallach initially studied method acting under Sanford Meisner and later became a founding member of the Actors Studio, where he studied under Lee Strasberg.", "He played a wide variety of roles throughout his career, primarily as a supporting actor.", "He won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play for ''The Rose Tattoo'' (1951).For his debut screen performance in ''Baby Doll'' (1956), he won a BAFTA Award for Best Newcomer and a Golden Globe Award nomination.", "Among his other most famous roles are Calvera in ''The Magnificent Seven'' (1960), Guido in ''The Misfits'' (1961), and Tuco (\"The Ugly\") in ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966) and Don Altobello in ''The Godfather Part III'' (1990).", "Other notable films include ''How the West Was Won'' (1962), ''Tough Guys'' (1986), ''The Two Jakes'' (1990), ''The Associate'' (1996), ''The Holiday'' (2006), ''Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps'', and ''The Ghost Writer'' (both 2010).", "He received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for ''Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip'' (2007) and ''Nurse Jackie'' (2011)." ], [ "Early life and education", "Eli Herschel Wallach was born on December 7, 1915, at 156 Union Street in Red Hook, Brooklyn, a son of Polish Jewish immigrants Abraham and Bertha (Schorr) Wallach from Przemyśl.", "He had a brother and two sisters.", "He and his family were one of a few Jews in an otherwise Italian American neighborhood.", "His parents owned Bertha's Candy Store.", "Wallach graduated in 1936 from the University of Texas with a degree in history.", "In a later interview, Wallach said that he learned to ride horses while in Texas, explaining that he liked Texas because \"It opened my eyes to the word ''friendship...'' You could rely on people.", "If they gave you their word, that was it ...", "It was an education.", "\"Two years later he earned a master of arts degree in education from the City College of New York.", "He gained his first method acting experience at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City, where he studied under Sanford Meisner.", "There, according to Wallach, actors were forced to \"unlearn\" all their physical and vocal mannerisms, while traditional stage etiquette and \"singsong\" deliveries were \"utterly excised\" from his classroom." ], [ "Military service", "Wallach's education was cut short when he was drafted into the United States Army in 1940.He served as a staff sergeant and medic in a military hospital in Hawaii and later was sent to Officer Candidate School (OCS) in Abilene, Texas, to train as a medical administrative officer.", "Commissioned as a second lieutenant, he was ordered to Casablanca.", "Later, when he was serving in France, a senior officer noticed his acting career and asked him to create a show for the patients.", "He and his unit wrote a play called ''Is This the Army?", "'', which was inspired by Irving Berlin's ''This Is the Army''.", "In the comedy, Wallach and the other actors mocked Axis dictators, with Wallach portraying Adolf Hitler.", "Wallach was discharged as a captain following the war's end in 1945.He was awarded the Army Good Conduct Medal, the American Defense Service Medal, the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal, the European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal." ], [ "Career", "===Stage actor===Wallach took classes in acting at the Dramatic Workshop of the New School in New York City with the influential German director Erwin Piscator.", "He later became a founding member of the Actors Studio, taught by Lee Strasberg.", "There, he studied more method acting technique with founding member Robert Lewis, and with other students including Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, Herbert Berghof, Sidney Lumet, and his soon-to-be wife, Anne Jackson.", "Wallach became Marilyn Monroe's first new friend when she became a student at the Actors Studio, once insisting on watching him perform in ''The Teahouse of the August Moon'' from the backstage wings, simply to see up close how experienced actors perform a two-hour play.", "She also became friends with his wife, Anne Jackson, also studying at the Studio, and would visit the couple at their home and sometimes babysit their new child.In 1945 Wallach made his Broadway debut and he won a Tony Award in 1951 for his performance alongside Maureen Stapleton in the Tennessee Williams play ''The Rose Tattoo''.", "His other theater credits include ''Mister Roberts'', ''The Teahouse of the August Moon'', ''Camino Real'', ''Major Barbara'' (in which director Charles Laughton discouraged Wallach's established method acting style), ''Luv'', and ''Staircase'', co-starring Milo O'Shea, which was a serious depiction of an aging homosexual couple.", "He also played a role in a tour of ''Antony and Cleopatra,'' produced by the actress Katharine Cornell in 1946.He exposed Americans to the work of playwright Eugène Ionesco in plays including ''The Chairs'' and ''The Lesson'' in 1958, and in 1961 ''Rhinoceros'' opposite Zero Mostel.", "He last starred on stage as the title character in ''Visiting Mr. Green''.With Maureen Stapleton in ''The Rose Tattoo'' (1951)The stage was where Wallach focused his early career.", "From 1945 to 1950 he and his wife, Anne Jackson, worked together acting in various plays by Tennessee Williams.", "The five years following, he continued only working on stage, not becoming involved in film work until 1956.During those years, however, they were generally having a hard time making ends meet.", "He recalls they were getting along on unemployment insurance and living in a one-room, $35 a month apartment on lower Fifth Avenue in the Village.", "When he did get offered early movie parts, he turned them down with no regrets, and very early in his career he explained his reasoning:He said that the stage was what attracted him most and what he \"needed\" to do.", "\"Acting is the most alive thing I can do, and the most joyous\", he stated.Wallach and Jackson became one of the best-known acting couples in the American theater, as iconic as Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne, and Jessica Tandy and Hume Cronyn, and they looked for opportunities to work together.", "During an interview, he said of Jackson, \"I have tremendous respect and admiration for her as an actress .", ".", ".", "we have a terrific working compatibility when we're in the same play, especially when the play means something important to us.\"", "When he did gravitate toward accepting parts in films, he did so to \"help pay the bills\", he said, adding, \"for actors, movies are a means to an end.", "\"Despite the fact that he eventually acted in over 90 films and almost as many television dramas, he continued to accept stage parts throughout his career, often with Jackson.", "They played in comedies like ''The Typists'' and ''The Tiger'' in 1963, and acted together in ''Waltz of the Toreadors'' in 1973.In 1978 they played in a revival of ''The Diary of Anne Frank'', along with their daughters, and in 1984 they acted in ''Nest of the Wood Grouse,'' directed by Joseph Papp.", "Four years later, in 1988, they acted in a revival of ''Cafe Crown'', a portrait of the Yiddish theatre scene during its prime.", "They continued acting together as late as 2000, while he also took on roles alone throughout all those years.===Film and television roles===Wallach and Carroll Baker in the swing scene from ''Baby Doll''Wallach's film debut was in Elia Kazan's controversial 1956 ''Baby Doll'', for which he won the British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA) as \"Most Promising Newcomer.\"", "''Baby Doll'' was controversial because of its underlying sexual theme.", "Director Elia Kazan however, set explicit limits on Wallach's scenes, telling him not to actually seduce Carroll Baker, but instead to create an unfulfilled erotic tension.", "Kazan later explained his reasoning:Wallach went on to a prolific career as \"one of the greatest 'character actors' ever to appear on stage and screen\", notes Turner Classic Movies, acting in over 90 films.", "Having grown up on the \"mean streets\" of an Italian American neighborhood, and his versatility as a method actor, Wallach developed the ability to play a wide variety of different roles, although he tried to not get pinned down to any single type of character.", "\"Right now I'm playing an old man\", he said at age 84.But \"I've been through all the ethnic groups, from Mexican bandits to Italian Mafia heads to Okinawans to half-breeds, and now I'm playing old Jews.", "Who knows?", "\"Noting this versatility as a character actor, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences called him \"the quintessential chameleon\", with the ability to play different characters \"effortlessly\", and ''L.A.", "Times'' theater critic Charles McNulty saw Wallach's \"power to illuminate\" his various screen or stage personas as being \"radioactive.\"", "''The Guardian'' has written that \"Wallach was made for character acting\", and includes movie clips from some of his most memorable roles in a tribute to him.In 1961, Wallach co-starred with Marilyn Monroe, Montgomery Clift and Clark Gable in ''The Misfits'', Monroe's and Gable's last film before their deaths.", "Wallach never learned why he was cast in the film, although he suspected that Monroe had something to do with it.", "Its screenwriter, Arthur Miller, who was married to Monroe at the time, said that \"Eli Wallach is the happiest good actor I've ever known.", "He really enjoys the work.", "\"Some of his other films included ''The Lineup'' (1958); ''Lord Jim'' (1965) with Peter O'Toole; a comic role in ''How to Steal a Million'' (1966), again with O'Toole, and Audrey Hepburn; and as Tuco (the \"Ugly\") in Sergio Leone's ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966) with Clint Eastwood and Lee Van Cleef, followed by other Spaghetti Westerns, such as ''Ace High''.", "At one point, Henry Fonda had asked Wallach whether he himself should accept a part offered to him to act in a similar Western, ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' (1968), which would also be directed by Leone.", "Wallach said \"Yes, you'll enjoy the challenge\", and Fonda later thanked Wallach for that advice.Wallach and Eastwood became friends during the filming of ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' and he recalled their off-work time together: \"Clint was the tall, silent type.", "He's the kind where you open up and do all the talking.", "He smiles and nods and stores it all away in that wonderful calculator of a brain.\"", "In 2003 Wallach acted in ''Mystic River'', produced and directed by Eastwood, who once said \"working with Eli Wallach has been one of the great pleasures of my life.", "\"A pivotal moment in Wallach's career came in 1953, when he, along with Frank Sinatra and Harvey Lembeck, tried out for the role of Maggio in the film ''From Here to Eternity''.", "Sinatra biographer Kitty Kelly notes that while Sinatra's test was good, it had none of the \"consummate acting ability\" of Wallach.", "Producer Harry Cohn and director Fred Zinnemann were \"dazzled\" by Wallach's screen test and wanted him to play the part.", "However, Wallach had previously been offered an important role in another Tennessee Williams play, ''Camino Real'', to be directed by Elia Kazan, and turned down the movie role.", "Wallach said that when he learned that the play had finally received financing, he \"grabbed\" the opportunity: \"It was a remarkable piece of writing by the leading playwright in America and it was going to be directed by the country's best.", "There really wasn't much of a choice for me.\"", "The film, however, went on to win eight Academy Awards, including one for Sinatra, which revived his career.", "Wallach recalled afterwards, \"Whenever Sinatra saw me, he'd say, 'Hello, you crazy actor!'\"", "Wallach, however, said he had no regrets.Film historian James Welsh states that during Wallach's career, he appeared in most of the \"prestige\" television dramas during the \"Golden Age\" of the 1950s, including ''Studio One'', ''The Philco Television Playhouse'', ''The Armstrong Circle Theatre'', ''Playhouse 90'', and ''The Hallmark Hall of Fame'', among others.", "He won the 1966–1967 Emmy Award for his role in the telefilm ''The Poppy is Also a Flower''.", "In 2006 Wallach appeared on NBC's ''Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip'', playing a former writer who was blacklisted in the 1950s.", "His character was a writer on ''The Philco Comedy Hour'', a show that aired on a fictional NBS network.", "This is a reference to ''The Philco Television Playhouse'', in several episodes of which Wallach actually appeared in 1955.Wallach earned a 2007 Emmy nomination for his work on the show.Wallach at the 2010 TCM Classic Film FestivalDuring the filming of ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'', Wallach nearly died three times.", "Once, he accidentally drank a bottle of acid which was placed next to his pop bottle; another time was in a scene where he was about to be hanged, someone fired a pistol which caused the horse underneath him to bolt and run while Wallach's hands were still tied behind his back; in a different scene with him lying on a railroad track, he was close to being decapitated by steps jutting out from the train.Wallach appeared as DC Comics' supervillain Mr.", "Freeze in the 1960s ''Batman'' television series.", "He said that he received more fan mail about his role as Mr.", "Freeze than for all his other roles combined.", "He played Gus Farber in the television miniseries ''Seventh Avenue'' in 1977, and 10 years later, at the age of 71, he starred alongside Michael Landon in ''Highway to Heaven'' episode \"A Father's Faith\".", "Three years later, he played aging mob boss Don Altobello in Francis Ford Coppola's ''The Godfather Part III''.On November 13, 2010, at the age of 94, Wallach received an Academy Honorary Award for his contribution to the film industry from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.", "A few years prior to that event, Kate Winslet told another audience that Wallach, with whom she acted in ''The Holiday'' in 2006, was one of the \"most charismatic men\" she'd met, and her \"very own sexiest man alive.", "\"Wallach's final performance was in the short film ''The Train'' (2015).", "Wallach plays a Holocaust survivor who, in a meeting, teaches a self-consumed and preoccupied young man that life can change in a moment.", "The short was shot in early 2014 and premiered on August 6, 2015, at the Rhode Island International Film Festival.Between 1984 and 1997, he also performed voiceovers in a series of television commercials for the Toyota Pickup." ], [ "Personal life", "A few years before 2005, Wallach lost sight in his left eye as the result of a stroke.He also had close friendship with Lee Van Cleef and Clint Eastwood.His niece is the historian Joan Wallach Scott (the daughter of his brother, Sam Wallach).", "A. O. Scott, a film critic for ''The New York Times'', is his great-nephew." ], [ "Death", "Wallach died on June 24, 2014, of natural causes at the age of 98.His body was cremated.Katherine Wallach told ''The New York Times'' that Anne Jackson died on April 12, 2016, aged 90, at her home in Manhattan." ], [ "Filmography", "Selected filmography:" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award Category Nominated work Result Ref.1951 Tony Award Best Featured Actor in a Play ''The Rose Tattoo'' 1956 British Academy Film Awards Most Promising Newcomer ''Baby Doll'' 1956 Golden Globe Awards Best Supporting Actor 1967 Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series ''The Poppy Is Also a Flower'' 1968 Outstanding Single Performance in a Drama ''CBS Playhouse'' \t1987 Outstanding Supporting Actor – Limited Series/Movie ''Something in Common'' 2001 Grammy Award Best Spoken Word Album ''The Complete Shakespeare Sonnets'' 2006 National Board of Review Career Achievement Award 2007 Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series ''Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip'' 2011 Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series ''Nurse Jackie'' 2011 Academy Award Honorary Academy Award" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Eli Wallach at Turner Classic Movies8* * Anne Jackson and Eli Wallach Papers at the Harry Ransom Center* The Bookwrap video interviews*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electric Light Orchestra" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Electric Light Orchestra''' ('''ELO''') is an English rock band formed in Birmingham in 1970 by songwriters and multi-instrumentalists Jeff Lynne and Roy Wood with drummer Bev Bevan.", "Their music is characterised by a fusion of pop and classical arrangements with futuristic iconography.", "After Wood's departure in 1972, Lynne became the band's sole leader, arranging and producing every album while writing nearly all of their original material.", "From this point until their first break-up in 1986, Lynne, Bevan, and keyboardist Richard Tandy were the group's only consistent members.ELO was formed out of Lynne's and Wood's desire to create modern rock and pop songs with classical overtones.", "It derived as an offshoot of Wood's previous band, the Move, of which Lynne and Bevan were also members.", "During the 1970s and 1980s, ELO released a string of top 10 albums and singles, including the band's most commercially successful album, the double album ''Out of the Blue'' (1977).", "Two ELO albums reached the top of the British charts: the disco-inspired ''Discovery'' (1979) and the science-fiction-themed concept album ''Time'' (1981).", "In 1986 Lynne lost interest in the band and disbanded the group.", "Bevan responded by forming his own band, ELO Part II, which later became The Orchestra.", "Apart from a brief reunion in the early 2000s, ELO remained largely inactive until 2014, when Lynne re-formed the band with Tandy as '''Jeff Lynne's ELO'''.During ELO's original 13-year period of active recording and touring, they sold over 50 million records worldwide.", "They collected 19 CRIA, 21 RIAA, and 38 BPI awards.", "From 1972 to 1986 ELO accumulated 27 Top 40 songs on the UK Singles Chart, and fifteen Top 20 songs on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100.The band also holds the record for having the most ''Billboard'' Hot 100 Top 40 hits (20) without a number one.", "In 2017, four key members of ELO (Wood, Lynne, Bevan, and Tandy) were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." ], [ "History", "=== 1970–1973: Formation and early albums ===The Move/Electric Light Orchestra in 1972In 1968, Roy Wood — guitarist, vocalist and songwriter of the Move — had an idea to form a new band that would use violins, cellos, string basses, horns and woodwinds to give their music a classical sound, allowing rock music to \"pick up where the Beatles left off...\" in a new direction.", "The orchestral instruments would be the main focus, rather than the guitars.", "Jeff Lynne, frontman of fellow Birmingham group The Idle Race, was excited by the concept.", "When Trevor Burton left the Move in February 1969, Lynne was asked by Wood to join, only to say no, as he was still focused on finding success with his band.", "But in January 1970, when Carl Wayne quit the band, Lynne accepted Wood's second invitation to join, on the condition that they focus their energy on the new project.On 12 July 1970, when Wood added multiple cellos to a Lynne-penned song intended to be a Move B-side, the new concept became a reality and \"10538 Overture\" became the first Electric Light Orchestra song.", "The original plan was to end The Move following the release of the ''Looking On'' album at the end of 1970, crossing over to the new unit in the new year.", "But to help finance the fledgling band, one further Move album, ''Message from the Country'', was recorded during the lengthy ELO recordings and released in mid-1971.The resulting debut album ''The Electric Light Orchestra'' was released in December 1971.Only the trio of Wood, Lynne and Bevan played on all songs, with Bill Hunt supplying the French Horn parts and Steve Woolam playing violin.", "It was released in the United States in March 1972 as ''No Answer''.", "The name was chosen after a record company secretary had tried to ring the UK company to get the name of the album.", "They were unavailable so she left a note reading \"No answer\".", "\"10538 Overture\" became a UK top-ten hit.", "With both bands' albums in the stores simultaneously, the Move and ELO both appeared on television during this period.ELO's debut concert took place on 16 April 1972 at the Greyhound Pub in Croydon, Surrey, with a line-up of Wood, Lynne, Bevan, Bill Hunt (keyboards/French horn), Andy Craig (cello), Mike Edwards (cello), Wilfred Gibson (violin), Hugh McDowell (cello), and Richard Tandy (bass).", "However, this line-up did not last for long.", "First Craig departed, and then Wood, during the recordings for the band's second LP.", "Taking Hunt and McDowell with him, Wood left the band to form Wizzard.", "Both cited problems with their manager, Don Arden, who Wood felt failed in his role, and an unsatisfactory tour of Italy, where the cellos and violins could not be heard over the electric instruments.", "However, Arden would manage Wizzard, despite Wood's negative comments towards Arden.", "Despite predictions from the music press that the band would fold without Wood, who had been the driving force behind the creation of ELO, Lynne stepped up to lead the band, with Bevan, Edwards, Gibson and Tandy (who had switched from bass to keyboards to replace Hunt) remaining from the previous line-up, and new recruits Mike de Albuquerque and Colin Walker joining the band on bass and cello, respectively.The new line-up performed at the 1972 Reading Festival on 12 August 1972.Barcus Berry instrument pick-ups, now sported by the band's string trio, allowed them to have proper amplification on stage for their instruments, which had previously been all but drowned out by the electrified instruments.", "The band released their second album ''ELO 2'' in early 1973, which produced their second UK top 10 and their first US chart single, an elaborate version of the Chuck Berry classic \"Roll Over Beethoven\" (which also incorporated the first movement of Beethoven's own Fifth Symphony).", "ELO also made their first appearance on ''American Bandstand''.", "During the recording of the third album, Gibson was let go after a dispute over money, Mik Kaminski joined as violinist, and Walker left since touring was keeping him away from his family too much.", "Remaining cellist Edwards finished the cello parts for the album.", "The resulting album, ''On the Third Day'', was released in late 1973, with the American version featuring the popular single \"Showdown\".", "After leaving Wizzard, Hugh McDowell returned as the group's second cellist, also in late 1973, in time to appear on the ''On the Third Day'' cover in some regions, despite not having played on the album.===1974–1982: Global success and concept albums===For the band's fourth album, ''Eldorado'', a concept album about a daydreamer, Lynne stopped multi-tracking strings and hired Louis Clark as string arranger with an orchestra and choir.", "ELO's string players still continued to perform on recordings, however.", "The first single off the album, \"Can't Get It Out of My Head\", became their first US top 10 hit, and ''Eldorado, A Symphony'' became ELO's first gold album.", "Mike de Albuquerque departed the band during the recording sessions as he wished to spend more time with his family, and consequently much of the bass on the album was performed by Lynne.Following the release of ''Eldorado'', Kelly Groucutt was recruited as bassist and in early 1975, Melvyn Gale replaced Edwards on cello.", "The line-up stabilised as the band took to a decidedly more accessible sound.", "ELO had become successful in the US at this point and the group was a star attraction on the stadium and arena circuit, and appeared on ''The Midnight Special'' more than any other band in that show's history with four appearances (in 1973, 1975, 1976, and 1977).", "''Face the Music'' was released in 1975, producing the hit singles \"Evil Woman\", their third UK top 10, and \"Strange Magic\".", "The opening instrumental \"Fire on High\", with its mix of strings and acoustic guitars, saw heavy exposure as the theme music for the American television programme ''CBS Sports Spectacular'' in the mid-1970s.", "The group toured extensively from 3 February to 13 April 1976, playing 68 shows in 76 days in the US.Their sixth album, the platinum selling ''A New World Record'', became their first UK top 10 album when it was released in 1976.It contained the hit singles \"Livin' Thing\", \"Telephone Line\", \"Rockaria!\"", "and \"Do Ya\", the last a re-recording of The Move's final single.", "The band toured in support in the US only from September 1976 to April 1977 with a break in December, then an ''American Music Awards'' show appearance on 31 January 1977, plus a one-off gig in San Diego in August 1977.", "''A New World Record'' was followed by a multi-platinum selling album, the double-LP ''Out of the Blue'', in 1977.", "''Out of the Blue'' featured the singles \"Turn to Stone\", \"Sweet Talkin' Woman\", \"Mr. Blue Sky\", and \"Wild West Hero\", each becoming a hit in the United Kingdom.", "The band then set out on a nine-month, 92-date world tour, with an enormous set and a hugely expensive spaceship stage with fog machines and a laser display.", "In the United States the concerts were billed as ''The Big Night'' and were their largest to date, with 62,000 people seeing them at Cleveland Stadium.", "''The Big Night'' went on to become the highest-grossing live concert tour in music history up to that point (1978).", "The band played at London's Wembley Arena for eight straight sold-out nights during the tour, another record at the time.During an Australian tour in early 1978, Electric Light Orchestra were presented with 9 platinum awards for the albums ''Out of the Blue'' and ''New World Record''.In 1979, the multi-platinum album ''Discovery'' was released, reaching number one on the UK Albums Chart.", "Although the biggest hit on the album (also ELO's biggest hit overall) was the rock song \"Don't Bring Me Down\", the album was noted for its heavy disco influence.", "''Discovery'' also produced the hits \"Shine a Little Love\" (their only No.", "1 hit on a US singles chart---Radio & Records (R&R)), \"Last Train to London\", \"Confusion\", and \"The Diary of Horace Wimp\".", "Another song, \"Midnight Blue\", was released as a single in southeast Asia.", "The band recorded promotional videos for all the songs on the album.ELO performing in Oslo, Norway, in 1978By the end of 1979, ELO had reached the peak of their stardom, selling millions of albums and singles, and even inspiring a parody/tribute song on the Randy Newman album ''Born Again'', titled \"The Story of a Rock and Roll Band\".", "During 1979, Jeff Lynne also turned down an invitation for ELO to headline the August 1979 Knebworth Festival concerts.", "That allowed Led Zeppelin the chance to headline instead.In 1980, Jeff Lynne was asked to write for the soundtrack of the musical film ''Xanadu'' and provided half of the songs, with the other half written by John Farrar and performed by the film's star Olivia Newton-John.", "The film performed poorly at the box office, but the soundtrack did exceptionally well, eventually going double platinum.", "The album spawned hit singles from both Newton-John (\"Magic\", a No.", "1 hit in the United States, and \"Suddenly\" with Cliff Richard) and ELO (\"I'm Alive\", which went gold, \"All Over the World\" and \"Don't Walk Away\").", "The title track, performed by both Newton-John and ELO, is ELO's only song to top the UK singles chart.", "More than a quarter of a century later, ''Xanadu'', a Broadway musical based on the film, opened on 10 July 2007 at the Helen Hayes Theatre to uniformly good reviews.", "It received four Tony Award nominations.", "The musical received its UK premiere in London in October 2015.In 1981, ELO's sound changed again with the science fiction concept album ''Time'', a throwback to earlier, more progressive rock albums like ''Eldorado''.", "With the string section now departed, synthesisers took a dominating role, as was the trend in the larger music scene of the time; although studio strings were present on some of the tracks conducted by Rainer Pietsch, the overall soundscape had a more electronic feel in keeping with the futuristic nature of the album.", "''Time'' topped the UK charts for two weeks and was the last ELO studio album to be certified platinum in the United Kingdom until ''Alone in the Universe'' in 2015.Singles from the album included \"Hold On Tight\", \"Twilight\", \"The Way Life's Meant to Be\", \"Here Is the News\" and \"Ticket to the Moon\".", "However, the release of the single for \"Rain Is Falling\" in 1982 was the band's first single in the US to fail to reach the ''Billboard'' Top 200 since 1975, and the release of \"The Way Life's Meant to Be\" similarly was their first single in the UK to fail to chart since 1976.The band embarked on their last world tour to promote the LP.", "For the tour, Kaminski returned to the line-up on violin, whilst Louis Clark (synthesizers) and Dave Morgan (guitar, keyboards, synthesizers, vocals) also joined the on stage lineup.", "Clark had previously handled string arrangements for the band.===1983–1986: ''Secret Messages'', ''Balance of Power'', disbanding===ELO performing in 1986 (Jeff Lynne and Richard Tandy pictured)Jeff Lynne wanted to follow ''Time'' with a double album, but CBS blocked his plan on the grounds that a double vinyl album would be too expensive in the oil crisis and not sell as well as a single record, so as a result, the new album was edited down to a single disc and released as ''Secret Messages'' in 1983; many of the out-takes were later released on ''Afterglow'' or as B-sides of singles.", "The album was a hit in the UK reaching the top 5, but its release was undermined by a string of bad news that there would be no tour to promote the LP.", "Lynne, discouraged by the dwindling crowds on the ''Time'' tour, CBS's order to cut ''Secret Messages'' down to one disc, and his falling out with manager Don Arden, decided to end ELO in late 1983.Drummer Bevan moved on to play drums for Black Sabbath, and bassist Groucutt, unhappy with no touring income that year, decided to sue Lynne and Jet Records in November 1983, eventually resulting in a settlement for the sum of £300,000 (equivalent to £994,300 in 2018).", "While ''Secret Messages'' debuted at number four in the United Kingdom, it subsequently performed poorly in the charts, with a lack of hit singles (though \"Rock 'n' Roll Is King\" was a sizeable hit in UK, the US and Australia) and a lukewarm media response.That same year, Lynne moved into production work: having already produced two tracks for the Dave Edmunds album ''Information'', he would go on to produce six cuts for his next, ''Riff Raff'' in 1984, and one cut on the Everly Brothers reunion album ''EB 84''.", "He also composed a track for former ABBA member Agnetha Fältskog's 1985 album ''Eyes of a Woman''.Lynne and Tandy went on to record tracks for the 1984 ''Electric Dreams'' soundtrack under Lynne's name; however, Lynne was contractually obliged to make one more ELO album.", "So Lynne, Bevan and Tandy returned to the studio in 1984 and 1985 as a three-piece (with Christian Schneider playing saxophone on some tracks and Lynne again doubling on bass in addition to his usual guitar in the absence of an official bass player) to record ''Balance of Power'', released early in 1986 after some delays.", "Though the single \"Calling America\" placed in the Top 30 in the United Kingdom (number 28) and Top 20 in the States, subsequent singles failed to chart.", "The album lacked actual classical strings, which were replaced once again by synthesizers, played by Tandy and Lynne.", "However, despite being a 3-piece, much of the album was made by Lynne alone, with Tandy and Bevan giving their additions later.The band was then rejoined by Kaminski, Clark and Morgan, adding Martin Smith on bass guitar, and proceeded to perform a small number of live ELO performances in 1986, including shows in England and Germany along with US appearances on ''American Bandstand'', ''Solid Gold'', then at Disneyland that summer.", "ELO performed at the Heart Beat 86 charity concert organised by Bevan in the band's hometown of Birmingham on 15 March 1986; a hint of Lynne's future was seen when George Harrison appeared onstage during the encore, joining in the all-star jam of \"Johnny B. Goode\".", "ELO's last performance for several years occurred on 13 July 1986 in Stuttgart, Germany playing as opening act to Rod Stewart.", "With Lynne no longer under contractual obligation to attend further scheduled performances, ELO effectively disbanded after that final show in Stuttgart in 1986, but there was no announcement made of it for the next two years, during which George Harrison's Lynne-produced album ''Cloud Nine'' and the pair's follow-up (with Roy Orbison, Bob Dylan and Tom Petty as Traveling Wilburys) ''Traveling Wilburys Vol.", "1'' were released.=== 1989–1999: ELO Part II ===ELO Part II in concertBev Bevan (under an agreement with Lynne, who co-owned the ELO name with him) continued on in 1989 as ELO Part II, initially with no other former ELO members, but with ELO's main orchestra conductor, Louis Clark.", "Bevan also recruited Eric Troyer, Pete Haycock, and Neil Lockwood.", "ELO Part II released their debut album ''Electric Light Orchestra Part Two'' in May 1991.Mik Kaminski, Kelly Groucutt and Hugh McDowell, at the time working in a group called OrKestra, joined the group for their first tour in 1991.While McDowell did not stay, Groucutt and Kaminski became fully-fledged members.In 1994, after the departure of Haycock and Lockwood, the remaining five recorded ''Moment of Truth'' with their newest member, Phil Bates.", "This lineup toured extensively up to 1999.Bevan retired from the lineup in 1999 and sold his share of the ELO name to Jeff Lynne in 2000, after Lynne had expressed his dismay that in certain areas the band were billed as 'ELO', rather than with '...Part II' added, suggesting it was the original outfit.", "After Bevan left, the band continued after they changed its name to The Orchestra.", "In 2001 The Orchestra released their debut album ''No Rewind''.===2000–2001: Reformation===Lynne's comeback with ELO began in 2000 with the release of a retrospective box set, ''Flashback'', containing three CDs of remastered tracks and a handful of out-takes and unfinished works, most notably a new version of ELO's only UK number one hit \"Xanadu\".", "In 2001 ''Zoom,'' ELO's first album since 1986, was released.", "Though billed and marketed as an ELO album, the only returning member other than Lynne was Tandy, who performed on one track.", "Guest musicians included former Beatles Ringo Starr and George Harrison.", "Upon completion of the album, Lynne reformed the band with completely new members, including his then-girlfriend Rosie Vela (who had released her own album, ''Zazu'', in 1986) and announced that ELO would tour again.", "Tandy rejoined the band a short time afterwards for two television live performances: ''VH1 Storytellers'' and a PBS concert shot at CBS Television City, later titled ''Zoom Tour Live'' and released on DVD.", "Besides Lynne, Tandy and Vela, the new live ELO lineup included Gregg Bissonette (drums, backing vocals), Matt Bissonette (bass guitar, backing vocals), Marc Mann (guitars, keyboards, backing vocals), Peggy Baldwin (cello), and Sarah O'Brien (cello).", "However, the planned tour was cancelled, reportedly due to poor ticket sales.===2001–2013: Non-performing work, reissues and miniature reunions===The Orchestra during a performance in 2013From 2001 to 2007, Harvest and Epic/Legacy reissued ELO's back catalogue.", "Included amongst the remastered album tracks were unreleased songs and outtakes, including two new singles.", "The first was \"Surrender\" which registered on the lower end of the UK Singles Chart at number 81, some 30 years after it was written in 1976.The other single was \"Latitude 88 North\".In August 2010, Eagle Rock Entertainment released ''Live – The Early Years'' in the UK as a DVD compilation that included ''Fusion – Live in London'' (1976) along with previously unreleased live performances at Brunel University (1973) and on the German TV show ''Rockpalast'' (1974).", "''The Essential Electric Light Orchestra'' artwork was re-jigged to feature two different covers.", "The US and Australian releases shared one design, while the rest of the world featured the other for a new double album release in October 2011.''Mr.", "Blue Sky: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra'' was released on 8 October 2012.It is an album of re-recordings of ELO's greatest hits, performed by Lynne exclusively, along with a new song titled \"Point of No Return\".", "Released to coincide with Lynne's second solo album release ''Long Wave,'' these new albums contained advertisement cards, announcing the re-release of expanded and remastered versions of both the 2001 album ''Zoom'' and Lynne's debut solo album ''Armchair Theatre'', originally released in 1990.Both albums were re-released in April 2013 with various bonus tracks.", "Also released was the live album, ''Electric Light Orchestra Live'', showcasing songs from the Zoom tour.", "All three releases also featured new studio recordings as bonus tracks.Lynne and Tandy reunited again on 12 November 2013 to perform, under the name Jeff Lynne and Friends, \"Livin' Thing\" and \"Mr. Blue Sky\" at the Children in Need Rocks concert at Hammersmith Eventim Apollo, London.", "The backing orchestra was the BBC Concert Orchestra, with Chereene Allen on lead violin.===2014–present: Jeff Lynne's ELO===Hyde Park, September 2014The success of the Children in Need performance was followed by support from BBC Radio 2 DJ Chris Evans, who had Lynne as his on-air guest and asked his listeners if they wanted to see ELO perform.", "The 50,000 tickets for the resulting BBC Radio 2's \"Festival in a Day\" in Hyde Park on 14 September 2014 sold out in 15 minutes.", "Billed as \"Jeff Lynne's ELO\", Lynne and Tandy were backed by the Take That/Gary Barlow band from the Children in Need concert, led by Mike Stevens and the BBC Concert Orchestra.", "Lynne chose to use the name as a response to ELO offshoots ELO Part II and The Orchestra.", "Chereene Allen was again the lead violinist for the band.", "The development of modern digital processing added a smoother finish to the work, which led Lynne to reconsider his preference for studio work, hinting at a UK tour in 2015.On 8 February 2015, Jeff Lynne's ELO played at the Grammy Awards for the first time.", "They performed a medley of \"Evil Woman\" and \"Mr. Blue Sky\" with Ed Sheeran, who introduced them as \"A man and a band who I love\".On 10 September 2015, it was announced that a new ELO album would be released.", "The album was to be under the moniker of Jeff Lynne's ELO, with the band signed to Columbia Records.", "''Alone in the Universe'' was released on 13 November 2015.The album was ELO's first album of new material since 2001's ''Zoom''.", "The first track, and single, \"When I Was a Boy\" was made available for streaming on the same day and a music video for the song was also released.", "A small promotional tour followed the album's release which saw Jeff Lynne's ELO perform a full concert for ''BBC Radio 2'' along with their first two shows in the United States in 30 years, both which sold out very quickly.", "Jeff Lynne's ELO also made rare US television appearances on ''The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon'', ''Jimmy Kimmel Live'' and ''CBS This Morning''.", "A 19-date European tour was announced for 2016, with the band playing the Pyramid Stage at Glastonbury Festival on 26 June 2016.In 2017 they played their \"Alone in the Universe\" tour.", "That same year, on 7 April, they played at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as they were inducted during the 32nd Annual Induction Ceremony.The band continued to tour in 2018 in North America and Europe.", "A video was created for the City of Birmingham which used the original recording of \"Mr. Blue Sky\" as its music; this was played at the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Closing Ceremony during the handover presentation of Birmingham 2022.On 3 August 2018, ''Secret Messages'' was reissued \"as originally conceived\" as a double album.", "It included several cut tracks, such as the CD exclusive bonus track \"Time After Time\", B-side exclusives \"Buildings Have Eyes\" and \"After All\", the ''Afterglow'' exclusives \"Mandalay\" and \"Hello My Old Friend\", and the 2001 reissue exclusives \"Endless Lies\" and \"No Way Out\".On 22 October 2018, Lynne announced that Jeff Lynne's ELO would embark on a 2019 North American tour from June to August 2019.ELO released their 14th album, ''From Out of Nowhere'', on 1 November 2019.While a tour from the album was announced to begin in October 2020, the official Jeff Lynne's ELO Twitter page then later announced that the tour was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "According to music journalist Simon Price, ELO was In November 2016, Jeff Lynne's ELO won Band of the Year at the Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards.", "In October 2016, ELO were nominated for the 2017 class of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for the first time.", "It was the first time the Hall had announced in advance the members of bands who would be inducted; the members of ELO listed were Jeff Lynne, Roy Wood, Bev Bevan and Richard Tandy.", "On 20 December 2016, it was announced ELO had been elected to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Class of 2017." ], [ "Members", "===Current===Jeff Lynne – lead and backing vocals, guitars, bass, piano, keyboards, cello, drums, percussion (1970–1986, 2000–2001, 2014–present)Richard Tandy – piano, keyboards, synthesizer, bass, guitar, backing vocals (1971–1986, 2000–2001, 2014–present)===Former===Bev Bevan – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1970–1986)Bill Hunt – French horn, keyboard (1970–1972)Roy Wood – lead and backing vocals, guitars, bass, cello, oboe, bassoon (1970–1972)Steve Woolam – violin (1970–1971)Mike Edwards – cello (1972–1974)Hugh McDowell – cello (1972, 1973–1979)Wilfred Gibson – violin (1972–1973)Mike de Albuquerque – bass, backing vocals (1972–1974)Colin Walker – cello (1972–1973)Mik Kaminski – violin (1973–1979)Kelly Groucutt – bass, lead and backing vocals (1974–1983)Melvyn Gale – cello (1975–1979)" ], [ "Discography", "* ''The Electric Light Orchestra'' (1971)* ''ELO 2'' (1973)* ''On the Third Day'' (1973)* ''Eldorado'' (1974)* ''Face the Music'' (1975)* ''A New World Record'' (1976)* ''Out of the Blue'' (1977)* ''Discovery'' (1979)* ''Xanadu'' (1980) (with Olivia Newton-John) (soundtrack album)* ''Time'' (1981) (credited as ELO)* ''Secret Messages'' (1983)* ''Balance of Power'' (1986)* ''Zoom'' (2001)* ''Alone in the Universe'' (2015) (credited as Jeff Lynne's ELO)* ''From Out of Nowhere'' (2019) (credited as Jeff Lynne's ELO)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bevan, Bev ''The Electric Light Orchestra Story'' (London: Mushroom, 1980)* Van der Kiste, John ''Jeff Lynne: The Electric Light Orchestra, before and after'' (Stroud: Fonthill Media, 2015)" ], [ "External links", "* ** * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elo''' or '''ELO''' may refer to:" ], [ "Music", "* Electric Light Orchestra, a British rock music group ''The Electric Light Orchestra'' (album), the group's debut album ''ELO 2'', the group's second album* ELO Part II, an offshoot band of Electric Light Orchestra" ], [ "Biology", "* ELO (gene) also known as Very-long-chain 3-oxoacyl-CoA synthase, an enzyme* ''Eleorchis'', an orchid genus abbreviated Elo in trade journals" ], [ "People", "* Elo (surname)" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Elo'', a member magazine for the Tuglas Society* Elo, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community in the U.S.* East Liverpool, Ohio, a city in the U.S.* Elo rating system, a system for measuring the relative strength of players in chess and other two-player games* World Football Elo Ratings, a ranking system for men's national teams in football, based on Elo rating system* Eurolot, an airline, by ICAO airline designator* Electronic Literature Organization, a nonprofit organisation promoting electronic literary works* Saveasi'uleo, also known as Elo, a Samoan god who presides over Pulotu (the underworld)* Elo (card association), a Brazilian payment card brand" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Evil Dead II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Evil Dead II''''' (also known in publicity materials as '''''Evil Dead 2: Dead by Dawn''''') is a 1987 American comedy horror film directed by Sam Raimi, who co-wrote it with Scott Spiegel.", "The second installment in the ''Evil Dead'' film series, it is considered both a remake and sequel (or \"re-quel\") to ''The Evil Dead'' (1981).", "It stars Bruce Campbell as Ash Williams, who vacations with his girlfriend to a remote cabin in the woods.", "He discovers an audio tape of recitations from a book of ancient texts, and when the recording is played, it unleashes a number of demons which possess and torment him.After the critical and commercial failure of ''Crimewave'' (1985), Raimi, producer Robert Tapert, and Campbell began work on a sequel to ''The Evil Dead'' at the insistence of their publicist Irvin Shapiro.", "Having endorsed the original film, author Stephen King brought the project to the attention of producer Dino De Laurentiis, with whom he had been making his directorial debut ''Maximum Overdrive'' (1986).", "De Laurentiis agreed to provide financial backing, and assigned the filmmakers a considerably larger budget than they had worked with on the original film.", "Although Raimi had devised a premise set in the Middle Ages and involving time travel, De Laurentiis requested that the film be similar to its predecessor.", "''Evil Dead II'' was shot in Wadesboro, North Carolina and Detroit, Michigan in 1986, and featured extensive stop-motion animation and prosthetic makeup effects created by a team of artists that included Mark Shostrom, Greg Nicotero, Robert Kurtzman and Tom Sullivan, the latter of whom returned from the original film.", "The finished film was released in the United States on March 13, 1987; due to its high level of violence, it was released through a pseudonymous distributor to curb an anticipated X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America.", "Much like ''The Evil Dead'', it was widely acclaimed by critics, who praised its humor, Raimi's direction, and Campbell's performance; many have considered it superior to its predecessor and similarly as one of the greatest horror films ever made.", "Despite being given a somewhat limited release, it was a minor box office success, grossing just under $6 million.As with the first film, ''Evil Dead II'' has accumulated a large, international cult following.", "In 1992, it was followed by the direct sequel ''Army of Darkness'', which utilized Raimi's original premise; in 2013, it was followed by the soft reboot and continuation ''Evil Dead''; and in 2015, it was followed by the television series ''Ash vs Evil Dead''.", "A fifth film in the series, ''Evil Dead Rise'', was released on April 21, 2023." ], [ "Plot", "Ash Williams and his girlfriend, Linda, take a romantic vacation to a seemingly abandoned cabin in the woods.", "While in the cabin, Ash plays a tape of archaeologist Raymond Knowby, the cabin's previous inhabitant, reciting passages from the \"Book of the Dead\", ''Necronomicon Ex-Mortis'', which he has discovered during an archaeological dig.", "The recorded incantation unleashes an evil force (also known as the Kandarian Demon) that kills and later possesses Linda, turning her into a \"deadite\".", "Ash is then forced to decapitate her with a shovel and bury her in a shallow grave near the cabin.", "At dawn, the evil force throws Ash through the woods.", "He briefly becomes possessed by the demon, but when day breaks, he is inexplicably returned to normal.He attempts to flee the area but finds that the bridge to the cabin has been destroyed.", "The spirit chases him back to the cabin, where Linda's revived head attacks him and bites his hand.", "He runs to the shed, where her headless body attacks him with a chainsaw, but he overpowers and slashes the deadite Linda to death.", "His right hand becomes possessed and tries to kill him, and he severs it with the chainsaw before attempting to shoot it with a shotgun, but the hand mocks him and ultimately escapes.", "Meanwhile, Knowby's daughter Annie, and her research partner, Ed Getley, return from the dig with the missing pages of the ''Necronomicon'', only to find the destroyed bridge.", "They enlist repairman Jake and his girlfriend Bobby Joe to show them another route to the cabin, where they find an embattled Ash covered in blood.", "Thinking that he murdered Annie's parents, Annie and the others lock him in the cellar.The four new arrivals listen to the rest of Knowby's recording, detailing how his wife Henrietta was possessed by the Kandarian Demon, and that he killed her and buried her in the cellar.", "Henrietta, now a deadite, possesses Ed; Ash dismembers him with an axe.", "Bobby Joe tries to escape, but demonically possessed trees attack and drag her to her death.", "Annie translates two of the ''Necronomicon''s pages before Jake turns on them and throws the pages into the cellar, forcing them at gunpoint to find Bobby Joe.", "Ash becomes possessed once again and attacks Jake.", "Annie retreats to the cabin and accidentally stabs Jake (mistaking him for the possessed Ash) before Henrietta kills him.", "Deadite Ash tries to kill Annie, but returns to his normal self upon seeing Linda's necklace.With Annie's help, Ash modifies the chainsaw, attaches it to the stump of his right arm, and cuts the shotgun's barrel.", "After finding the missing pages of the ''Necronomicon'' in the cellar, Ash kills Henrietta.", "The trees outside begin to destroy the cabin.", "Annie reveals that she has only read the first half of the incantation and attempts to finish the second half.", "As she reads it, Ash's severed hand uses a Kandarian dagger to stab her in the back.", "She manages to complete the incantation before succumbing to her wound.", "The incantation opens up a whirling temporal vortex which not only draws in the demon, but also Ash and his Oldsmobile Delta 88.Ash and his Oldsmobile land in the Middle Ages.", "A group of knights confront him and initially mistake him for a deadite, but are quickly distracted when a real harpy-like deadite appears.", "Ash blasts it with his shotgun and they hail him as a hero who has come to save them, causing him to break down and scream in anguish." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Development===The concept of a sequel to ''The Evil Dead'' was discussed during location shooting on the first film.", "Irvin Shapiro, the film's publicist, pushed writer/director Sam Raimi to devise a premise for such a film.", "Working with screenwriter Sheldon Lettich, Raimi settled on a story in which Ash was sucked through a time portal to the Middle Ages, where he would encounter more deadites.", "Shapiro was enticed by the concept, and took out advertisements in trade magazines to promote the project, then titled ''Evil Dead II: Evil Dead and the Army of Darkness'', in May 1984.After Universal Pictures and 20th Century Fox passed on it, the sequel was shelved in favor of Raimi's next film, ''Crimewave'' (1985), a comedy/crime film co-written with Joel and Ethan Coen.After ''Crimewave'' was released to critical and audience disinterest, Raimi and his partners at Renaissance Pictures, producer Robert Tapert and actor/co-producer Bruce Campbell, took Shapiro up on his sequel offer, knowing that another flop would further stall their already-lagging careers.", "Development of ''Evil Dead II'' initially began in collaboration with Embassy Pictures, which had co-financed and distributed ''Crimewave'', but the filmmakers eventually felt that they were being stalled after five months' pre-production work, and began conducting interviews with prospective cast and crew members.", "Around this time, producer Dino De Laurentiis, the owner of production and distribution company De Laurentiis Entertainment Group (DEG), asked Raimi if he would be interested in directing an adaptation of the Stephen King novel ''Thinner''.", "Raimi turned down the offer, but De Laurentiis remained in touch with the young filmmaker.The ''Thinner'' adaptation was part of a deal between De Laurentiis and King to produce several adaptations of King's successful horror novels and short stories.", "At the time, King was directing the first such adaptation, ''Maximum Overdrive'' (1986), based on his short story \"Trucks\".", "He had dinner with a crew member who had been among those interviewed by Raimi and his colleagues about ''Evil Dead II'', and told King that the film was having trouble attracting funding.", "Upon hearing this, King, who had written a glowing review of the first film that helped it become an audience favorite at Cannes, called De Laurentiis and asked him to fund the film.", "While he was initially skeptical, De Laurentiis met with Renaissance, who highlighted the first film's extremely high revenue in the Italian market.", "Within twenty minutes, De Laurentiis agreed to finance ''Evil Dead II'' for $3.6 million.", "Raimi and Tapert had desired $4 million for the production, but De Laurentiis requested a film that was similar to its predecessor instead of their original medieval-themed proposal, which was instead used for the second sequel, ''Army of Darkness'' (1992).===Writing===Despite Raimi's crew having only recently received the funding necessary to produce the film, the script had been written for some time, having been composed largely during the production of ''Crimewave''.", "Raimi contacted his old friend Scott Spiegel, who had collaborated with Campbell and others on the Super 8 mm films they had produced during their childhood in Michigan.", "Most of these films had been comedies, and Spiegel felt that ''Evil Dead II'' should be less straight horror than the first.", "Initially, the opening sequence included all five of the original film's characters; however, in an effort to save time and money, all but Ash and Linda were cut from the final draft.", "The film went through several other drafts, including a group of escaped convicts holding Ash captive in the cabin while searching for buried treasure.Spiegel and Raimi wrote most of the film in their house in Silver Lake, Los Angeles, California, where they were living with the aforementioned Coen brothers, as well as actors Frances McDormand, Kathy Bates, and Holly Hunter (the primary inspiration for the Bobby Joe character).", "Due both to the distractions of their house guests and the films they were involved with, ''Crimewave'' and Josh Becker's ''Thou Shalt Not Kill...", "Except'', the script took a long time to finish.Among the film's many inspirations include the Three Stooges and slapstick comedy films.", "Ash's fights with his disembodied hand come from a film made by Spiegel as a teenager titled ''Attack of the Helping Hand'', which was itself inspired by television commercials advertising Hamburger Helper.", "The \"laughing room\" scene, where all the objects in the room seemingly come to life and begin to cackle maniacally along with Ash, came about after Spiegel jokingly used a gooseneck lamp to visually demonstrate a Popeye-esque laugh.", "Spiegel's humorous influence can be seen throughout the film, perhaps most prominently in certain visual jokes.", "For instance, when Ash traps his rogue hand under a pile of books, on top is ''A Farewell to Arms''.While Raimi and Campbell have stated that ''Evil Dead II'' was intended as a direct sequel, there are differences between the first installment and the recap at the beginning of the second: for example, the Necronomicon is destroyed in a fire by Ash during the conclusion of ''The Evil Dead'', but remains intact in ''Evil Dead II''.", "The corpses of Ash's friends from the first are absent, and are never mentioned.", "The cabin itself remains perfectly intact until the events of this film, despite much of it having been destroyed in the original film.===Filming===With the script completed and a production company secured, principal photography began on ''Evil Dead II''.", "The production commenced in Wadesboro, North Carolina, not far from De Laurentiis' offices in Wilmington.", "De Laurentiis had wanted them to film in his elaborate Wilmington studio, but the production team felt uneasy being so close to the producer, so they moved to Wadesboro, approximately three hours away.", "Steven Spielberg had previously filmed ''The Color Purple'' in Wadesboro, and the large white farmhouse used as an exterior location in that film became the production office for ''Evil Dead II''.", "Most of the film was shot in the woods near that farmhouse, or J.R. Faison Junior High School, where the interior cabin set was located.Mark Shostrom served as the film's makeup effects supervisor, and delegated work to Robert Kurtzman, Greg Nicotero, and Howard Berger of KNB EFX Group.", "The shot of undead Henrietta's flying eyeball was accomplished using a ping pong ball provided and painted by KNB EFX.", "Effects artist Verne Hyde, who joined the North Carolina unit in 1986 after filming had already begun, experimented with various rigs in order to achieve the effect Raimi desired.", "It was ultimately achieved by mounting the eyeball on a small, spinning motor, attached to a wand bolted directly onto the camera.Ted Raimi, director Sam's younger brother, had been briefly involved in the first film, acting as a fake Shemp.", "However, in ''Evil Dead II'', he plays a larger role as the undead Henrietta.", "Raimi wore a full-body, latex costume, and was also made to crouch in a small hole in the floor acting as a \"cellar\"; on one day, he did both.", "Raimi became extremely overheated to the point that his costume was filled with liters of sweat; Nicotero describes pouring the fluid into several Dixie cups so as to get it out of the costume.", "The sweat is also visible on-screen, dripping out of the costume's ear, in the scene where Henrietta spins around over Annie's head.For Ash's chainsaw hand, effects artist Verne Hyde modified a real chainsaw, replacing its gasoline engine with a small, 12-volt electric motor, leaving space for Campbell to insert his hand into the body of the saw.", "The teeth of the saw were filed down for safety purposes, and tobacco smoke was pumped through a plastic tube that ran up Campbell's leg to simulate chainsaw smoke.The crew sneaked various in-jokes into the film itself, such as the clawed glove of Freddy Krueger (the primary antagonist of Wes Craven's ''A Nightmare on Elm Street'' series of slasher films) which hangs in the cabin's basement and tool shed.", "This was, at least partially, a reference to a scene in the original ''A Nightmare on Elm Street'', where the character Nancy Thompson (portrayed by Heather Langenkamp) dozes off watching the original ''Evil Dead'' on a television set in her room.", "In turn, that scene was a reference to the torn ''The Hills Have Eyes'' poster seen in the original ''Evil Dead'' film, which was itself a reference to a torn ''Jaws'' poster in ''The Hills Have Eyes''.", "The real life clawed glove appearing in ''Evil Dead II'' has been attributed to Shostrom, who was also working on ''A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors'' at around the same time as ''Evil Dead II'', suggesting he borrowed it from the ''Dream Warriors'' set for a day.", "The rat seen in the cellar was nicknamed \"Señor Cojones\" by the crew (\"cojones\" is Spanish slang for \"testicles\").At the film's wrap party, the crew held a talent contest where Raimi and Campbell sang the Byrds' \"Eight Miles High\", with Nicotero on guitar." ], [ "Music", "The score was composed by Joseph LoDuca, who also composed the other two scores in the ''Evil Dead'' trilogy.", "In 2017, Waxwork Records released the soundtrack on vinyl for the film's 30th anniversary." ], [ "Release", "===Pre-release===Like the original film, ''Evil Dead II'' had censorship difficulties due to its high level of violence.", "Because DEG was a member of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), Raimi was contractually obliged to shoot the film with the intention of it earning an R rating.", "Upon reviewing the completed film, DEG's executives felt that ''Evil Dead II'' would almost certainly receive an X rating, which would limit its commercial prospects.", "Lawrence Gleason, the company's president of marketing and distribution, felt that if it were to be cut for an R, the film \"would have been about 62 minutes long\" and that both Raimi's vision and the audience's enjoyment would have been sabotaged as a result.Ultimately, DEG decided not to submit ''Evil Dead II'' to the MPAA for review or be credited onscreen for their involvement in it.", "Instead, Rosebud Releasing Corporation, a shell company run by De Laurentiis' son-in-law Alex De Benedetti, was set up to handle the film's US release, allowing it to be shown unrated.", "Although Rosebud technically did not have a distribution network, DEG had already booked the film in 340 cinemas across the country, and had created and paid for the film's advertising campaign.", "Rosebud's logo, a rose blooming in time-lapse photography against a painted sky backdrop, was designed and shot by Raimi himself.===Home media===The film was released on VHS by Vestron Video in 1987.Another VHS release came from Anchor Bay Entertainment on February 17, 1998.In a similar fashion to the first ''Evil Dead'' film and ''Army of Darkness'', there have been numerous DVD releases of ''Evil Dead II''.", "The film was released on DVD by Anchor Bay on August 29, 2000 in the form of a limited edition tin, and was re-released by Anchor Bay on September 27, 2005, designed to resemble the ''Necronomicon''.", "On October 2, 2007, the film was released on Blu-ray, and on November 15, 2011, it was re-released on Blu-ray and DVD by Lionsgate Home Entertainment for its 25th anniversary.", "On September 13, 2016, the film was re-released on Blu-ray by Lionsgate.", "A 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray version of the film was released on December 11, 2018.The film was released on DVD in the United Kingdom in 2003 as part of a region 2 ''Evil Dead'' trilogy box set.", "In 2013, the trilogy saw another UK release on Blu-ray, released by StudioCanal.", "A 25th Anniversary Wood Edition was released in Germany by StudioCanal in 2007.The film was released on Blu-ray in Australia in 2014, alongside ''The Evil Dead'', ''Army of Darkness'', and the 2013 reboot, as part of an ''Evil Dead'' Anthology box set.", "The film has been released together with the first ''Evil Dead'' film by Green Nara Media in South Korea in region A." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===''Evil Dead II'' opened on March 13, 1987 to an unimpressive weekend gross of $807,260, due to its limited release in 310 theaters at the time.", "However, after spending a little over a month in theaters, it ultimately grossed $5,924,421 worldwide.", "===Critical response=== ''Empire'' magazine praised the film, saying \"the gaudily gory, virtuoso, hyper-kinetic horror sequel uses every trick in the cinematic book\" and confirms that \"Bruce Campbell and Raimi are gods\".", "Caryn James of ''The New York Times'' called it \"genuine, if bizarre, proof of Sam Raimi's talent and developing skill.\"", "Leonard Maltin originally rated the film with two stars, but later increased the rating to three stars.Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' gave the film three stars out of four, describing it as \"a fairly sophisticated satire, that makes you want to get up and shuffle.\"", "He praised the film's sense of surrealism, comedic timing, and \"grubby, low-budget intensity.\"", "Ebert states that \"if you know it's all special effects, and if you've seen a lot of other movies and have a sense of humor, you might have a great time at ''Evil Dead 2''.\"", "Richard Harrington of ''The Washington Post'' wrapped up his review stating that \"the acting is straight out of '50s B-movies.", "The exposition is clumsy, the sound track corny, the denouement silly.", "Then again, who said bad taste was easy?\"", "Conversely, Pat Graham of ''Chicago Reader'' disliked the mix of horror and comedy, writing in his review that \"the pop-up humor and smirkiness suggest Raimi's aspiring to the fashionable company of the brothers Coen, though on the basis of this strained effort I'd say he's overshot the mark.", "\"''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked the film #19 on their list of the \"Top 50 Cult Films\".", "''Sight and Sound'' ranked it #34 on their 50 Funniest Films of All Time list.", "In 2008, ''Empire'' magazine included ''Evil Dead II'' on their list of ''The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time'', ranked #49.J.C.", "Maçek III of ''PopMatters'' wrote, \"Equal parts remake and sequel, the second film brought back Bruce Campbell as Ash and was every bit as gory and horrific as the first film with more tree rape and dismemberment and blood splatters than ever.", "On the other hand, ''Evil Dead II'' is also an absolutely hilarious and uproarious intentional comedy.", "\"In 2016, James Charisma of ''Playboy'' ranked the film #12 on a list of ''15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals''.===Accolades=== Award Subject Nominee ResultSaturn AwardsBest Horror FilmSam RaimiBest Special EffectsVern Hyde, Doug Beswick, and Tom SullivanBest Make-upMark ShostromSitges - Catalan International Film FestivalBest FilmSam RaimiFantasporto Awards" ], [ "In popular culture", "''The Elvis Dead'', an English comic stage show, retells ''Evil Dead II'' in the style of Elvis Presley.The 1993 hit first-person shooter video game ''Doom'' was inspired by ''Evil Dead II''.", "The game's programmer John Carmack came up with the game's concept about using technology to fight demons, inspired by the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' campaigns the team played, combining the styles of ''Evil Dead II'' and ''Aliens''.The 1991 hit song, \"People Are Still Having Sex\" by LaTour contains a dialogue sample of the, \"... hello lover!\"", "line from the film.The 2023 music video for \"Bogus Operandi\" by The Hives is heavily inspired by Evil Dead 2, featuring a demonic tape, forest point-of-view shots and white eyed zombies." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * Raimi, Sam.", "Spiegel, Scott.", "Nicotero, Greg.", "Campbell, Bruce.", "''Evil Dead II'' DVD, audio commentary.", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * * Evil Dead II at Evil Dead Archives" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edwin Hubble" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edwin Powell Hubble''' (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer.", "He played a crucial role in establishing the fields of extragalactic astronomy and observational cosmology.Hubble proved that many objects previously thought to be clouds of dust and gas and classified as \"nebulae\" were actually galaxies beyond the Milky Way.", "He used the strong direct relationship between a classical Cepheid variable's luminosity and pulsation period (discovered in 1908 by Henrietta Swan Leavitt) for scaling galactic and extragalactic distances.Hubble provided evidence that the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its distance from Earth, a property now known as Hubble's law, although it had been proposed two years earlier by Georges Lemaître.", "The Hubble law implies that the universe is expanding.", "A decade before, the American astronomer Vesto Slipher had provided the first evidence that the light from many of these nebulae was strongly red-shifted, indicative of high recession velocities.Hubble's name is most widely recognized for the Hubble Space Telescope, which was named in his honor, with a model prominently displayed in his hometown of Marshfield, Missouri." ], [ "Early life and education", "Edwin Hubble was born to Virginia Lee Hubble (née James) (1864–1934) and John Powell Hubble, an insurance executive, in Marshfield, Missouri, and moved to Wheaton, Illinois, in 1900.In his younger days, he was noted more for his athletic prowess than his intellectual abilities, although he did earn good grades in every subject except spelling.", "Edwin was a gifted athlete, playing baseball, football, and running track in both high school and college.", "He won seven first places and a third place in a single high school track and field meet in 1906, and he played a variety of positions on the basketball court from center to shooting guard.", "Hubble led the University of Chicago's basketball team to their first Big Ten Conference title in 1907.===Undergraduate studies===Hubble's studies at the University of Chicago were concentrated on mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, which resulted in a bachelor of science degree by 1910.For a year he was also a student laboratory assistant for the physicist Robert Millikan, a future Nobel Prize winner.", "Hubble also became a member of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity.", "A Rhodes Scholar, he spent three years at The Queen's College, Oxford studying jurisprudence instead of science (as a promise to his dying father), and later added studies in literature and Spanish, eventually earning his master's degree.In 1909, Hubble's father moved his family from Chicago to Shelbyville, Kentucky, so that the family could live in a small town, ultimately settling in nearby Louisville.", "His father died in the winter of 1913, while Edwin was still in England.", "In the following summer, Edwin returned home to care for his mother, two sisters, and younger brother, along with his brother William.", "The family moved once more to Everett Avenue, in Louisville's Highlands neighborhood, to accommodate Edwin and William.Hubble was also a dutiful son, who despite his intense interest in astronomy since boyhood, acquiesced to his father's request to study law, first at the University of Chicago and later at Oxford.", "In this time, he also took some math and science courses.", "After the death of his father in 1913, Edwin returned to the Midwest from Oxford but did not have the motivation to practice law.", "Instead, he proceeded to teach Spanish, physics and mathematics at New Albany High School in New Albany, Indiana, where he also coached the boys' basketball team.", "After a year of high-school teaching, he entered graduate school with the help of his former professor from the University of Chicago to study astronomy at the university's Yerkes Observatory, where he received his Ph.D. in 1921.His dissertation was titled \"Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae\".", "In Yerkes, he had access to one of the most powerful telescopes in the world at the time, which had an innovative 26 inch (61 cm) reflector.===Doctoral studies===Hubble's identity card in the American Expeditionary Forces.After the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, Hubble rushed to complete his Ph.D. dissertation so he could join the military.", "Hubble volunteered for the United States Army and was assigned to the newly created 86th Division, where he served in 2nd Battalion, 343 Infantry Regiment.", "He rose to the rank of Major, and was found fit for overseas duty on July 9, 1918, but the 86th Division never saw combat.", "After the end of World War I, Hubble spent a year at Cambridge University, where he renewed his studies of astronomy." ], [ "Career", "In 1919, Hubble was offered a staff position at the Carnegie Institution for Science's Mount Wilson Observatory, near Pasadena, California, by George Ellery Hale, the founder and director of the observatory.", "Hubble remained on staff at Mount Wilson until his death in 1953.Shortly before his death, Hubble became the first astronomer to use the newly completed giant reflector Hale Telescope at the Palomar Observatory near San Diego, California.Hubble also worked as a civilian for U.S. Army at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland during World War II as the Chief of the External Ballistics Branch of the Ballistics Research Laboratory during which he directed a large volume of research in exterior ballistics which increased the effective firepower of bombs and projectiles.", "His work was facilitated by his personal development of several items of equipment for the instrumentation used in exterior ballistics, the most outstanding development being the high-speed clock camera, which made possible the study of the characteristics of bombs and low-velocity projectiles in flight.", "The results of his studies were credited with greatly improving design, performance, and military effectiveness of bombs and rockets.", "For his work there, he received the Legion of Merit award." ], [ "Discoveries", "===Universe goes beyond the Milky Way galaxy===The Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory that Hubble used to measure galaxy distances and a value for the rate of expansion of the universe.Edwin Hubble's arrival at Mount Wilson Observatory, California, in 1919 coincided roughly with the completion of the Hooker Telescope, then the world's largest.", "At that time, the prevailing view of the cosmos was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy.Using the Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson, Hubble identified Cepheid variables, a standard candle discovered by Henrietta Leavitt.", "Comparing their apparent luminosity to their intrinsic luminosity gives their distance from Earth.", "Hubble found Cepheids in several nebulae, including the Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum Nebula.", "His observations, made in 1924, proved conclusively that these nebulae were much too distant to be part of the Milky Way and were, in fact, entire galaxies outside our own; thus today they are no longer considered nebulae.This was first hypothesized as early as 1755 when Immanuel Kant's ''General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens'' appeared.", "This hypothesis was opposed by many in the astronomy establishment of the time, in particular by Harvard Universitybased Harlow Shapley.", "Despite the opposition, Hubble, then a thirty-five-year-old scientist, had his findings first published in ''The New York Times'' on , 1924, then presented them to other astronomers at the January 1, 1925, meeting of the American Astronomical Society.", "Hubble's results for Andromeda were not formally published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal until 1929.classification schemeHubble's findings fundamentally changed the scientific view of the universe.", "Supporters state that Hubble's discovery of nebulae outside of our galaxy helped pave the way for future astronomers.", "Although some of his more renowned colleagues simply scoffed at his results, Hubble ended up publishing his findings on nebulae.", "This published work earned him an award titled the American Association Prize and five hundred dollars from Burton E. Livingston of the Committee on Awards.Hubble also devised the most commonly used system for classifying galaxies, grouping them according to their appearance in photographic images.", "He arranged the different groups of galaxies in what became known as the Hubble sequence.===Redshift increases with distance===Hubble went on to estimate the distances to 24 extra-galactic nebulae, using a variety of methods.", "In 1929 Hubble examined the relationship between these distances and their radial velocities as determined from their redshifts.", "All of his estimated distances are now known to be too small, by up to a factor of about 7.This was due to factors such as the fact that there are two kinds of Cepheid variables or confusing bright gas clouds with bright stars.", "However, his distances were more or less proportional to the true distances, and combining his distances with measurements of the redshifts of the galaxies by Vesto Slipher, and by his assistant Milton L. Humason, he found a roughly linear relationship between the distances of the galaxies and their radial velocities (corrected for solar motion), a discovery that later became known as Hubble's law.This meant that the greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation.", "If interpreted that way, Hubble's measurements on 46 galaxies lead to a value for the Hubble constant of 500 km/s/Mpc, which is much higher than the currently accepted values of 74 km/s/Mpc (cosmic distance ladder method) or 68 km/s/Mpc (CMB method) due to errors in their distance calibrations.Yet the reason for the redshift remained unclear.", "Georges Lemaître predicted on theoretical grounds based on Einstein's equations for general relativity the redshift-distance relation, and published observational support for it, two years before the discovery of Hubble's law.", "Although he used the term \"velocities\" in his paper (and \"apparent radial velocities\" in the introduction), he later expressed doubt about interpreting these as real velocities.", "In 1931 he wrote a letter to the Dutch cosmologist Willem de Sitter expressing his opinion on the theoretical interpretation of the redshift-distance relation:Today, the \"apparent velocities\" in question are usually thought of as an increase in proper distance that occurs due to the expansion of the universe.", "Light traveling through an expanding metric will experience a Hubble-type redshift, a mechanism somewhat different from the Doppler effect (although the two mechanisms become equivalent descriptions related by a coordinate transformation for nearby galaxies).In the 1930s, Hubble was involved in determining the distribution of galaxies and spatial curvature.", "These data seemed to indicate that the universe was flat and homogeneous, but there was a deviation from flatness at large redshifts.", "According to Allan Sandage,There were methodological problems with Hubble's survey technique that showed a deviation from flatness at large redshifts.", "In particular, the technique did not account for changes in luminosity of galaxies due to galaxy evolution.Earlier, in 1917, Albert Einstein had found that his newly developed theory of general relativity indicated that the universe must be either expanding or contracting.", "Unable to believe what his own equations were telling him, Einstein introduced a cosmological constant (a \"fudge factor\") to the equations to avoid this \"problem\".", "When Einstein learned of Hubble's redshifts, he immediately realized that the expansion predicted by general relativity must be real, and in later life, he said that changing his equations was \"the biggest blunder of his life.\"", "In fact, Einstein apparently once visited Hubble and tried to convince him that the universe was expanding.Hubble also discovered the asteroid 1373 Cincinnati on August 30, 1935.In 1936 he wrote ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' and ''The Realm of the Nebulae'' which explained his approaches to extra-galactic astronomy and his view of the subject's history.In December 1941, Hubble reported to the American Association for the Advancement of Science that results from a six-year survey with the Mt.", "Wilson telescope did not support the expanding universe theory.", "According to a ''Los Angeles Times'' article reporting on Hubble's remarks, \"The nebulae could not be uniformly distributed, as the telescope shows they are, and still fit the explosion idea.", "Explanations which try to get around what the great telescope sees, he said, fail to stand up.", "The explosion, for example, would have had to start long after the earth was created, and possibly even after the first life appeared here.\"", "(Hubble's estimate of what we now call the Hubble constant would put the Big Bang only 2 billion years ago.)" ], [ "Personal life", "Hubble married Grace Lillian (Burke) Leib (1889–1980), daughter of John Patrick and Luella (Kepford) Burke, on February 26, 1924.Hubble was raised as a Protestant Christian but some of his later statements suggest uncertainty.===Health issues and death===Hubble had a heart attack in July 1949 while on vacation in Colorado.", "He was cared for by his wife and continued on a modified diet and work schedule.", "He died of cerebral thrombosis (a blood clot in his brain) on September 28, 1953, in San Marino, California.", "No funeral was held for him, and his wife never revealed his burial site.Hubble's papers comprising the bulk of his correspondence, photographs, notebooks, observing logbooks, and other materials, are held by the Huntington Library in San Marino, California.", "They were donated by his wife Grace Burke Hubble upon her death in 1980." ], [ "Controversies", "===Accusations concerning Lemaître's priority===In 2011, the journal ''Nature'' reported claims that Hubble had played a role in the redaction of key parts of the translation of Lemaître's 1927 paper, which stated what is now called Hubble's Law and also gave observational evidence for it.", "Historians quoted in the article were skeptical that the redactions were part of a campaign to ensure Hubble retained priority.", "However, the observational astronomer Sidney van den Bergh published a paper suggesting that while the omissions may have been made by a translator, they may still have been deliberate.In November 2011, the astronomer Mario Livio reported in ''Nature'' that documents in the Lemaître archive demonstrated that the redaction had indeed been carried out by Lemaître himself, who apparently saw little point in including scientific content which had already been reported by Hubble.", "This, however, does not detract from the fact that Lemaître published in French, without such omissions, two years prior to Hubble.===Attempt at obtaining the Nobel Prize===At the time, the Nobel Prize in Physics did not recognize work done in astronomy.", "Hubble spent much of the later part of his career attempting to have astronomy considered an area of physics, instead of being its own science.", "He did this largely so that astronomers—including himself—could be recognized by the Nobel Prize Committee for their valuable contributions to astrophysics.", "This campaign was unsuccessful in Hubble's lifetime, but shortly after his death, the Nobel Prize Committee decided that astronomical work would be eligible for the physics prize.", "However, the prize is not one that can be awarded posthumously." ], [ "Honors", "=== Awards ===Newcomb Cleveland Prize in 1924;Bruce Medal in 1938;Franklin Medal in 1939;Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1940;Legion of Merit for outstanding contribution to ballistics research in 1946.=== Honors === Elected member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1927.", "* Elected member of the American Philosophical Society in 1929.=== Namesakes ===* Asteroid 2069 Hubble;* The crater Hubble on the Moon;* Orbiting Hubble Space Telescope;* Edwin P. Hubble Planetarium, located in the Edward R. Murrow High School, Brooklyn, NY;* Edwin Hubble Highway, the stretch of Interstate 44 passing through his birthplace of Marshfield, Missouri;* Hubble Middle School, a public school in Wheaton, Illinois, where he lived from 11 years old and up.===Stamp===On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41-cent stamp honoring Hubble on a sheet titled \"American Scientists\" designed by artist Victor Stabin.", "His citation reads:(Note that the assertion that he would have won the Nobel Prize in 1953 is likely false, although he was nominated for the prize that year.", ")The other scientists on the \"American Scientists\" sheet include Gerty Cori, biochemist; Linus Pauling, chemist, and John Bardeen, physicist.=== Other notable appearances ===* 1934 Delivered the Halley Lecture at Oxford University* Hall of Famous Missourians 2003* 2008 \"American Scientists\" US stamp series, $0.41* 2017 Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame" ], [ "In popular culture", "In the 1980 documentary ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'' by astronomer Carl Sagan, Hubble's life and work are portrayed on screen in episode 10: \"The Edge of Forever\".The play ''Creation's Birthday'', written by Cornell physicist Hasan Padamsee, tells Hubble's life story." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bartusiak, Marcia.", "''The Day We Found the Universe''.", "New York: Pantheon, 2009.", "* Christianson, Gale; ''Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae'' Farrar Straus & Giroux (T) (New York, August 1995.", ")* Hubble E.P., ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' (Oxford, 1937.", ")* Alt URL* * Mayall, N.U., Edwin Powell Hubble Biographical Memoirs NAS 41* * Harry Nussbaumer and Lydia Bieri, ''Discovering the expanding universe''.", "Cambridge University Press, 2009." ], [ "External links", "* ''Time'' profile* Astronomy at the University of Louisville — Photographs of Edwin Hubble at New Albany High School.", "* Edwin Hubble bio — Written by Allan Sandage* * American Physical Society's Hubble Bio* Edwin Powell Hubble — The man who discovered the cosmos * The problem of the expanding universe, 1942 Edwin Hubble" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Ninmyō" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 54th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Ninmyō's reign lasted from 833 to 850, during the Heian period." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Ninmyō was the second son of Emperor Saga and the Empress Tachibana no Kachiko.", "His personal name (''imina'') was .", "After his death, he was given the title .Ninmyō had nine Empresses, Imperial consorts, and concubines (''kōi''); and the emperor had 24 Imperial sons and daughters.Emperor Ninmyō is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates , in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Ninmyō's mausoleum.===Events of Ninmyō's life===''Fujiwara no Junshi'', print by Teisai Hokuba, 1800 and 1805, (Rijksmuseum Amsterdam)Ninmyō ascended to the throne following the abdication of his uncle, Emperor Junna.", "* '''6 January 823''' (): Received the title of Crown Prince at the age of 14.", "* '''22 March 833''' (): In the 10th year of Emperor Junna's reign, the emperor abdicated; and the succession (''senso'') was received by his adopted son.", "Masara''-shinnō'' was the natural son of Emperor Saga, and therefore would have been Junna's nephew.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Ninmyo is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').Shortly after Ninmyo was enthroned, he designated an heir.", "He named Prince Tsunesada, a son of former Emperor Junna, as the crown prince.", "* '''835''' (): Kūkai (known posthumously as Kōbō-Daishi) died.", "This monk, scholar, poet, and artist had been the founder of the Shingon or \"True Word\" school of Buddhism.", "* '''838-839''' (''Jōwa 5-6''): Diplomatic mission to Tang China headed by Fujiwara no Tsunetsugu.", "'''842''': Following a coup d'état called the Jōwa Incident, Tsunesada the crown prince was replaced with Ninmyō's first son, Prince Michiyasu (later Emperor Montoku) whose mother was the Empress Fujiwara no Junshi, a daughter of ''sadaijin'' Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu.", "It is supposed that this was the result of political intrigue planned by Ninmyō and Fujiwara no Yoshifusa.", "The first of what would become a powerful line of Fujiwara regents, Yoshifusa had numerous family ties to the imperial court; he was Ninmyō's brother in law (by virtue of his sister who became Ninmyō's consort), the second son of ''sadaijin'' Fuyutsugu, and uncle to the new crown prince.In his lifetime, Ninmyō could not have anticipated that his third son, Prince Tokiyasu, would eventually ascend the throne in 884 as Emperor Kōkō.", " '''6 May 850''' (''): Emperor Ninmyō died at the age of 41.He was sometimes posthumously referred to as \"the Emperor of Fukakusa\", because that was the name given to his tomb.===Eras of Ninmyō's reign===The years of Ninmyō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (''nengō'').", "* ''Tenchō'' (824–834)* ''Jōwa'' (834–848)* ''Kashō'' (848–851)" ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Ninmyō's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sadaijin'', Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 773–843.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常), 812–854.", "* ''Udaijin'', Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 782–837.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Mimori (藤原三守), d.", "840.", "* ''Udaijin'', Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常)* ''Udaijin'', Tachibana no Ujikimi (橘氏公), 783–847.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), 804–872.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Otsugu, 825–832* ''Naidaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Otsugu, ?–825." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort (''Nyōgo'') later Empress Dowager (''Tai-Kōtaigō''): Fujiwara no Junshi (藤原順子; 809–871), Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu’s daughterFirst Son: Imperial Prince Michiyasu (道康親王) later Emperor MontokuConsort (''Nyōgo''): Fujiwara no ''Takushi''/Sawako (藤原沢子; d.839), Fujiwara no Fusatsugu’s daughterSecond Son: Imperial Prince Muneyasu (宗康親王; 828–868)Third Son: Imperial Prince Tokiyasu (時康親王) later Emperor KōkōFourth Son: Imperial Prince Saneyasu (人康親王; 831–872)Imperial Princess ''Shinshi'' (新子内親王; d.897)Consort (''Nyōgo''): Fujiwara no ''Teishi''/Sadako (藤原貞子; d.864), Fujiwara no Tadamori’s daughterEighth Son: Imperial Prince Nariyasu (成康親王; 836–853)Imperial Princess ''Shinshi'' (親子内親王; d. 851)Imperial Princess ''Heishi'' (平子内親王; d. 877)Court lady: Shigeno no Tsunako (滋野縄子), Shigeno no Sadanushi’s daughterfifth Son: Imperial Prince Motoyasu (本康親王; d. 902)Ninth Daughter: Imperial Princess Tokiko (時子内親王; d. 847), 2nd Saiin in Kamo Shrine 831–833Imperial Princess ''Jūshi'' (柔子内親王; d. 869)Consort (''Nyōgo''): Tachibana no Kageko (橘影子; d. 864), Tachibana no Ujikimi’s daughterConsort (''Nyōgo''): Fujiwara Musuko (藤原息子)Court Attendant (''Koui''): Ki no Taneko (紀種子; d. 869), Ki no Natora’s daughterSeventh Prince: Imperial Prince Tsuneyasu (常康親王; d. 869)Imperial Princess ''Shinshi''/Saneko (真子内親王; d. 870)Court Attendant (''Koui'') (deposed in 845): Mikuni-machi (三国町), daughter of Mikuni clanSada no Noboru (貞登), given the family name \"Sada\" from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 866Court lady: Fujiwara no Katoko (藤原賀登子), Fujiwara no Fukutomaro's daughterSixth Son: Imperial Prince Kuniyasu (国康親王; d. 898)Court lady: Fujiwara no Warawako (藤原小童子), Fujiwara no Michitō's daughterImperial Princess Shigeko (重子内親王; d. 865)Court lady: Princess Takamune (高宗女王), Prince Okaya's daughterSeventh/eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Hisako (久子内親王; d. 876), 18th Saiō in Ise Shrine 833–850.Court lady: daughter of Yamaguchi clan (山口氏の娘)Minamoto no Satoru (源覚; 849–879)''Nyoju'': Kudaraō Toyofuku's daughterMinamoto no Masaru (源多; 831–888), ''Udaijin'' 882–888Minamoto no Hikaru (源光; 846–913), ''Udaijin'' 901–913Court lady (''Nyoju''): Kudara no Yōkyō (百済永慶), Kudara no Kyōfuku's daughterTwelfth Daughter: Imperial Princess Takaiko (高子内親王; d. 866), 3rd Saiin in Kamo Shrine 833–850(from unknown women)Minamoto no ''Suzushi'' (源冷; 835–890), ''Sangi'' 882–890Minamoto no ''Itaru'' (源効)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", " Emperor Go-Fukakusa, a later emperor named in honor of Emperor Ninmyō* Imperial cult* List of Emperors of Japan* ''Shoku Nihon Kōki'', a Japanese national history covering Emperor Ninmyō's reign." ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Adolphson, Mikael S., Edward Kamens and Stacie Matsumoto.", "(2007).", "''Heian Japan, centers and peripheries''.", "Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.", "* * * * Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia''.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Hokusai: Poem #12, image of ceremonial event in Ninmyō's court" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Montoku" ], [ "Introduction", " (August 826 – 7 October 858) was the 55th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Montoku's reign lasted from 850 to 858." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before Montoku's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (''imina'') was .", "He was also known as ''Tamura-no-mikado'' or ''Tamura-tei''.He was the eldest son of Emperor Ninmyō.", "His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Junshi (also called the Gojō empress 五条后), daughter of the minister of the left, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu.Montoku had six Imperial consorts and 29 Imperial children." ], [ "Events of Montoku's life", "* '''6 May 850''' (''Kashō 3, 21st day of the 3rd month''): In the 17th year of Ninmyō''-tennō''s reign (仁明天皇十七年), the emperor died; and his eldest son received the succession (''senso'').", "* '''850''' (''Kashō 3, 4th month''): Emperor Montoku formally acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "* '''850''' (''Kashō 3, 5th month''): The widow of Emperor Saga, who was also the mother of Emperor Ninmyō and the grandmother of Emperor Montoku, died.", "This very devout Buddhist had founded a temple called on the site of present-day – more formally known as , located in what is now Susukinobaba-chō, Ukyō Ward in Kyoto, Before her death, the former empress had been known by the honorific title, ; and she had been honored as if she were a saint.", "* '''850''' (''Kashō 3, 11th month''): The emperor named Korehito''-shinnō'', the 4th son of Emperor Montoku as his heir.", "This 9-month-old baby was also the grandson of ''udaijin'' Fujiwara no Yoshifusa.", "* '''853''' (''Ninju 3, 2nd month''): The emperor visited the home of ''udaijin'' Yoshifusa, the grandfather of his designated heir.", "* '''11 July 854''' (''Saikō 1, 13th day of the 6th month''): The ''sadaijin'' Minamoto no Tokiwa, also known as Minamoto no Tsune, died at age 43.", "* '''855''' (''Saikō 2, in the 1st month''): The Emishi organized a rebellion; and in response, a force of 1,000 men and provisions were sent to the north.", "* '''855''' (''Saikō 2, 5th month''): The head of the great statute of Buddha in the Tōdai-ji fell off; and in consequence, the emperor ordered the then ''dainagon'' Fujiwara no Yoshisuke, the brother of ''sadaijin'' Yoshifusa, to be in charge of gathering the gifts of the pious from throughout the empire to make another head for the Daibutsu.Events during his reign included the repression of insurrections among the Ebisu people in Mutsu Province in 855, and among the people of the island of Tsushima two years later.", "* '''7 October 858''' (''Ten'an 2, 27th day of the 8th month''): Montoku died at the age of 32.The actual site of Montoku's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Kyoto.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Montoku's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Tamura no misasagi''.===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.", "– ''kugyō'' of Montoku-tennō (in French)In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Montoku's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Daijō-daijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshifusa　(藤原良房), 804–872.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Tokiwa　(源常), 812–854.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Makoto　(源信), 810–868.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshifusa　(藤原良房), 804–872.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshimi　(藤原良相), 813–867.", "* ''Naidaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Dainagon''" ], [ "Eras of Montoku's reign", "The years of Montoku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "* ''Kashō'' (848–851)* ''Ninju'' (851–854)* ''Saikō'' (854–857)* ''Ten'an'' (857–859)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort (Nyōgo) (Tai-Kotaigō): Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (藤原明子; 829–899), also known as Somedono-no-Kisaki, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa's daughter.", "Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Korehito (惟仁親王) later Emperor SeiwaThird Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Gishi'' (儀子内親王; d. 879), 6th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 859–876Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no ''Koshi''/Furuko (藤原古子), Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Takakiko (藤原多賀幾子; d. 858), Fujiwara no Yoshimi's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Princess Azumako (東子女王; d. 865)Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no ''Nenshi''/Toshiko (藤原年子)Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Koreko (藤原是子)Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Fusako (橘房子), Tachibana no Ujikimi's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no ''Chushi'' (橘忠子), Tachibana no Ujikimi's daughterConsort (Koui): Ki no Shizuko (紀静子; d. 866), Ki no Natora's daughterFirst Son: Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王; 844–897)Second son: Imperial Prince Koreeda (惟条親王; 848–868)Imperial Princess ''Tenshi'' (恬子内親王; d. 913), 20th Saiō in Ise Shrine 859–876Fifth daughter: Imperial Princess ''Jutsushi'' (述子内親王; d. 897), 5th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 857–858Imperial Princess ''Chinshi'' (珍子内親王; d. 877)Court lady: Shigeno no Okuko (滋野奥子), Shigeno no Sadanushi's daughterThird Son: Imperial Prince Korehiko (惟彦親王; 850–883)Imperial Princess ''Nōshi'' (濃子内親王; d. 903)*Imperial Princess ''Shōshi'' (勝子内親王; d. 871)Court lady: Fujiwara no ''Konshi''/Imako (藤原今子), Fujiwara no Sadamori's daughterImperial Prince Koretsune (惟恒親王; d. 904)Imperial Princess ''Reishi'' (礼子内親王; d. 899)*Seventh Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Keishi'' (掲子内親王; d. 914), 22nd Saiō in Ise Shrine 882–884Court lady: Fujiwara no ''Retsushi'' (藤原列子), Fujiwara no Koreo's daughterFirst Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Anshi'' (晏子内親王; d. 900), 19th Saiō in Ise Shrine 850–858Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Akirakeiko (慧子内親王; d. 881), 4th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 850–857Court lady: Shigeno no Mineko (滋野岑子), Shigeno no Sadao's daughterMinamoto no Motoari (源本有)Minamoto no Noriari (源載有)Minamoto no Fuchiko/Shigeko (源淵子/滋子; d. 911)Court lady: Tomo clan's daughter*Minamoto no Yoshiari (源能有; 845–897), ''Udaijin'' 896–897Court lady: Fuse clan's daughter*Minamoto no Yukiari (源行有; 854–887)Court lady: Tajihi clan's daughter*Minamoto no ''Tsuneari'' (源毎有)Court lady: Kiyohara clan's daughter*Minamoto no Tokiari (源時有)Court lady: Sugawara clan's daughterMinamoto no Sadaari (源定有)Minamoto no Tomiko (源富子)(from unknown women)Minamoto no Tomiari (源富有, d.887)Minamoto no ''Hyōshi'' (源憑子)Minamoto no ''Kenshi'' (源謙子)Minamoto no Okuko (源奥子)Minamoto no ''Retsushi'' (源列子)Minamoto no ''Seishi'' (源済子), married to Emperor SeiwaMinamoto no ''Shuko'' (源修子)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Nihon Montoku Tennō Jitsuroku, one of the Six National Histories" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Seiwa" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 56th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Seiwa's reign spanned the years from 858 through 876." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Seiwa was the fourth son of Emperor Montoku.", "His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (明子), also called the Somedono empress (染殿后).", "Seiwa's mother was the daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), who was regent and great minister of the council of state.He was the younger half-brother of Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王; 844–897)===Imina===Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his ''imina'') was , the first member of the Imperial house to be personally named \"-hito\" 仁.", "One meaning of the character 仁 is the Confucian concept of ''ren''.", "Later it has been a tradition to name the personal name of all male members of the Imperial family this way.He was also known as emperor as ''Mizunoo-no-mikado'' or ''Minoo-tei''.===Events of Seiwa's life===Originally under the guardianship of his maternal grandfather Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, he displaced Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) as Crown Prince.", "Upon the death of his father in 858, Emperor Montoku, he became Emperor at the age of 9, but the real power was held by his grandfather, Yoshifusa.", "* '''7 October 858''' (''Ten'an 2, 27th day of the 8th month''): In the 8th year of Montoku''-tennō''s reign (文徳天皇8年), the emperor died; and the succession (''senso'') was received by his son.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Seiwa is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "* '''15 December 858''' (''Ten'an 2, 7th day of the 11th month''): The emperor's official announcement of his enthronement at age 9 was accompanied by the appointment of his grandfather as regent (''sesshō'').", "This is the first time that this high honor has been accorded to a member of the Fujiwara family, and it is also the first example in Japan of the accession of an heir who is too young to be emperor.", "The proclamation of the beginning of Seiwa's reign was made at the Kotaijingu at Ise Province and at all the tombs of the imperial family.", "* '''859''' (''Jōgan 1, 1st month''): All New Year's festivities were suspended because of the period of national mourning for the death of Emperor Montoku.", "* '''859''' (''Jōgan 1''): Construction began on the Iwashimizu Shrine near Heian-kyō.", "This shrine honors Hachiman, the Shinto war god.", "* '''869''' (''Jōgan 10''): Yōzei was born, and he was named Seiwa's heir in the following year.", "* '''876''' (''Jōgan 17, 11th month''): In the 18th year of Seiwa''-tennō\"s reign (清和天皇18年), the emperor ceded his throne to his five-year-old son, which meant that the young child received the succession (''senso'').", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei formally acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "* '''878''' (''Gangyō 2''): Seiwa became a Buddhist priest.", "His new priestly name was Soshin (素真).", "* '''7 January 881''' (''Gangyō 4, 4th day of the 12th month''): Former-Emperor Seiwa died at age 30." ], [ "Mausoleum", "The actual site of Seiwa's grave is known.", "The emperor is traditionally venerated at the ''misasagi'' memorial shrine in the Ukyō-ku ward of Kyoto.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seiwa's mausoleum.", "It is formally named the or Seiwa Tennō Ryō.", "From the site of his tomb the Emperor Seiwa is sometimes referred to as the .", "The ''kami'' of Emperor Seiwa is venerated at the Seiwatennō-sha near the mausoleum." ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Seiwa's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sesshō'', Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, 804–872.", "* ''Daijō-daijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshifusa.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Makoto (源信).", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Tooru (源融).", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshimi (藤原良相), 817–867.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Ujimune (藤原氏宗).", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Mototsune, 836–891.", "* ''Naidaijin''* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Mototsune." ], [ "Eras of Seiwa's reign", "The years of Seiwa's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "* ''Ten'an'' (857–859)* ''Jōgan'' (859–877)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort (Nyōgo) later ''Kōtaigō'': Fujiwara no Takako (藤原高子; 842–910) later Nijo-kisaki (二条后), Fujiwara no Nagara's daughterFirst Son: Imperial Prince Sadaakira (貞明親王) later Emperor YōzeiFourth Son: Imperial Prince Sadayasu (貞保親王; 870–924)Third/Fifth daughter: Imperial Princess Atsuko (敦子内親王; d. 930), 7th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 877–880Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Tamiko (藤原多美子; d. 886), Fujiwara no Yoshimi's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Taira no ''Kanshi'' (平寛子)Consort (Nyōgo): Princess ''Kashi'' (嘉子女王)Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Sadako (源貞子; d. 873)Consort (Nyōgo): Princess ''Ryūshi'' (隆子女王)Consort (Nyōgo): Princess ''Kenshi'' (兼子女王)Consort (Nyōgo): Princess ''Chūshi''/Tadako (忠子女王; 854–904), Emperor Kōkō's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Yoriko (藤原頼子; d. 936), Fujiwara no Mototsune's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Kazuko (藤原佳珠子; b.", "856), Fujiwara no Mototsune's daughter*Seventh Son: Imperial Prince Sadatoki (貞辰親王; 874–929)Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Takeko/Izuko (源厳子; d. 879), Minamoto no Yoshiari's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no ''Seishi'' (源済子), Emperor Montoku's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no ''Kenshi''/Atsuko (源喧子)Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no ''Gishi''/Yoshiko (源宜子), Minamoto no Okimoto's daughterCourt Attendant (Koui): Ariwara no Fumiko (在原文子), Ariwara no Yukihira's daughterEighth Son: Imperial Prince Sadakazu (貞数親王; 875–916)Imperial Princess Kaneko (包子内親王; d. 889)Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Yoshichika's daughterImperial Prince Sadahira (貞平親王; d. 914)Imperial Princess Shikiko (識子内親王; 874–906), 21st Saiō (Imperial Princess serving at Ise Grand Shrine) 877–880Court Attendant (Koui): Tachibana no Yasukage's daughter (d. 924)*Imperial Prince Sadakata (貞固親王; 868–930)Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Nakamune's daughter*third Son: Imperial Prince Sadamoto (貞元親王; 870–910)Court Attendant (Koui): Prince Munesada's daughter*Sixth Son: Imperial Prince Sadasumi (貞純親王; 873–916) – father of Minamoto no Tsunemoto, founder of the Seiwa Genji, from whom the Kamakura shogunate, Ashikaga shogunate and the Tokugawa shogunate descend.", "Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Sadamune's daughter*Imperial Prince Sadayori (貞頼親王; 876–922)Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Morofuji's daughter*Imperial Prince Sadazane (貞真親王; 876–932)Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Morokazu's daughter*Imperial Princess ''Mōshi'' (孟子内親王; d. 901)Court Attendant (Koui): Saeki no Sanefusa's daughterMinamoto no Nagami (源長鑒)Minamoto no Nagayori (源長頼; b.", "875)Court Attendant (Koui): Ben-no-miyasundokoro (弁の御息所), Ōe no Otondo's daughterCourt lady: Kamo no Mineo's daughterMinamoto no Naganori (源長猷; d. 918)Minamoto no ''Saishi''/Noriko (源載子)Court lady: Ōno no Takatori's daughterMinamoto no Nagafuchi (源長淵)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku　Corresponding to three reign of Emperor Seiwa, Yōzei, and Kōkō.", "* Gion Matsuri　Said to have originated during the reign of Emperor Seiwa (r.", "858–876).", "* Imperial cult* Emperor Go-Mizunoo" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Yōzei" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 57th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Yōzei's reign spanned the years from 876 through 884." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his ''imina'') was Sadaakira ''Shinnō'' (貞明親王).Yōzei was the oldest son of Emperor Seiwa.", "His mother was the Empress Fujiwara no Takaiko, who was also known after Seiwa's abdication as the Nijō empress.", "Yōzei's mother was the sister of Fujiwara no Mototsune, who would figure prominently in the young emperor's life.In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the ''Gempeitōkitsu'' (源平藤橘).", "One of these clans, the Minamoto clan (源氏) are also known as Genji, and of these, the ''Yōzei Genji'' (陽成源氏) are descended from the 57th emperor Yōzei.Yōzei had nine Imperial children, born after he had abdicated.He is said to have suffered from mental instability after acceding to his position at a tender young age.", "He concentrated on waka during his later years.", "His famous waka expressed his growing love by superimposing the image of the flow of the river." ], [ "Events of Yōzei's life", "Yōzei was made emperor when he was an immature, unformed young boy.", "* '''869''' (''Jōgan 10''): Yōzei was born, and he is named Seiwa's heir in the following year.", "* '''18 December 876''' (''Jōgan 18, 29th day of the 11th month''): In the 18th year of Emperor Seiwa's reign (清和天皇十八年), he ceded his throne to his son, which meant that the young child received the succession (''senso'').", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei formally acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "* '''20 January 877''' (''Gangyō 1, 3rd day of the 1st month''): Yōzei was formally enthroned at age 8; and the beginning of a new ''nengō'' was proclaimed.", "However, the new residence being constructed for the emperor had not been completed; and initially, he must live elsewhere in the palace compound.", "* '''877''' (''Gangyō 1, 2nd month''): Ambassadors from ''Baekje'' arrived in the province of Izumo; but they were turned back.", "* '''877''' (''Gangyō 1, 6th month''): There was a great drought; and sacrifices were made at the temples of Hachiman, Kamo and other temples in Ise Province.", "Eventually, it rained.", "* '''883''' (''Gangyō 7, 1st month''): In his early teens, Yōzei often spent time alone; and sometimes he would feed live frogs to snakes so that he could watch the reptile swallowing; or sometimes, he would find pleasure in setting dogs and monkeys to fight.", "In time, these amusements became more dangerous.", "He himself executed criminals.", "When he became angry, he sometimes chased after those who dared speak up; and he sometimes tried to use his sword.", "Fujiwara no Mototsune, the ''Kanpaku'', used every possible opportunity to turn Yōzei towards more seemly conduct, but the emperor closed his ears to all remonstrances.", "* '''884''' (''Gangyō 8, 1st month''): The extravagant and dangerous habits of the emperor continued unabated.", "At one point, Mototsune came to the court and discovered that Yōzei had arranged a bizarre scenario for his diversion: He ordered some men to climb high into trees, and then he ordered others to use sharp lances to poke at these men in trees until they fell to their deaths.", "This extraordinary event convinced Mototsune that the emperor was too \"undignified\" to reign.", "Mototsune reluctantly realized that someone needed to devise a strategy for deposing the emperor.", "Shortly thereafter, Mototsune approached Yōzei and remarked that it must be boring to be so often alone, and then Mototsune suggested that the emperor might be amused by a horse race.", "Yōzei was attracted to this proposition, and he eagerly encouraged Mototsune to set a time and place for the event.", "It was decided that this special amusement for the emperor would take place on the 4th day of the 2nd month of Gangyō 8.", "* '''4 March 884''' (''Gangyō 8, 4th day of the 2nd month''): The pretext of a special horse race enticed the emperor to leave his palace.", "Yōzei traveled in a carriage which was quickly surrounded by a heavy guard.", "The carriage was redirected to ''Yo seí in'' palace (''Yang tchhing yuan'') at ''Ni zio'', a town situated a short distance to the south-west of Miyako.", "Mototsune confronted the emperor, explaining that his demented behavior made him incapable of reigning, and that he was being dethroned.", "At this news, Yōzei cried sincerely, which did attract feelings of compassion from those who witnessed his contrition.According to very scanty information from the Imperial archives, including sources such as ''Rikkokushi,'' and ''Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku,'' Emperor Yōzei murdered one of his retainers, an action that caused massive scandal in the Heian court.", "Japanese society during the Heian era was very sensitive to issues of \"pollution,\" both spiritual and personal.", "Deaths (especially killing animals or people) were the worst acts of pollution possible, and warranted days of seclusion in order to purify oneself.", "Since the Emperor was seen as a divine figure and linked to the deities, pollution of such extreme degree committed by the highest source was seen as extremely ruinous.", "Many of the high court officials construed Emperor Yōzei's actions as exceeding the bounds of acceptable behavior, and as justifiable cause for the emperor to be forcibly deposed.In Kitabatake Chikafusa's 14th-century account of Emperor Yōzei's reign, the emperor is described as possessing a \"violent disposition\" and unfit to be a ruler.", "In the end, when Fujiwara no Mototsune, who was ''Sesshō'' (regent for the child-emperor, 876–880), ''Kampaku'' (chief advisor or first secretary for the emperor, 880–890), and ''Daijō Daijin'' (Great Minister of the Council of State), decided that Yōzei should be removed from the throne, he discovered that there was general agreement amongst the ''kuge'' that this was a correct and necessary decision.Yōzei was succeeded by his father's uncle, Emperor Kōkō; and in the reign of Kōkō's son, Emperor Uda, the madness re-visited the tormented former emperor:* '''889''' (''Kanpyō 1, 10th month''): The former emperor Yōzei was newly attacked by the mental illness.", "Yōzei would enter the palace and address courtiers he would meet with the greatest rudeness.", "He became increasingly furious.", "He garroted women with the strings of musical instruments and then threw the bodies into a lake.", "While riding on horseback, he directed his mount to run over people.", "Sometimes he simply disappeared into the mountains where he chased wild boars and Sika deer, which in Shinto cosmology, were considered to be messengers of the ''kami.", "''Yōzei lived in retirement until the age of 80.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Yōzei, KyotoThe actual site of Yōzei's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Kyoto.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Yōzei's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi''.===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Yozei's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sesshō'', Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経), 836–891.", "* ''Kampaku'', Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経).", "* ''Daijō-daijin'', Fujiwara no Mototsune.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Tōru (源融).", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Mototsune.", "* ''Udaijin'', Minamoto no Masaru (源多).", "* ''Naidaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Dainagon'', Minamoto no Masaru (源多).", "* ''Dainagon'', Minafuchi no Toshina (南淵年名), 807–877" ], [ "Eras of Yōzei's reign", "The years of Yōzei's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "During this time, the tradition of naming eras because of good omens changed.", "Instead, the name of an era might be chosen to limit the effects of something bad.", "* ''Jōgan'' (859–877)* ''Gangyō'' (877–885)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort (Hi): Imperial Princess Kanshin (簡子内親王) (d. 914), Emperor Kōkō's second daughterConsort (Hi): Imperial Princess Yasuko (綏子内親王) (d. 925), Emperor Kōkō's third daughterConsort (Hi): Princess ''Kyoko'' (姣子女王; d. 914), Imperial Prince Koretada's daughterImperial Prince Motonaga (元長親王; 901–976)Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Mototoshi (元利親王; d. 964)Imperial Princess ''Chōshi'' (長子内親王; d. 922)Imperial Princess ''Genshi'' (儼子内親王; d. 930)Court lady: Fujiwara no Tōnaga's daughterSecond Son: Imperial Prince Motoyoshi (元良親王)Imperial Prince Motohira (元平親王; d. 958)Court lady: daughter of Ki clanFirst son: Minamoto no Kiyokage (源清蔭; 884–950), ''Dainagon'' 948–950Court lady: Tomo Yasuhira's daughterMinamoto no Kiyomi (源清鑒; d. 936)Court lady: daughter of Saeki clanMinamoto no Kiyotō (源清遠; d. 912)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Deer (mythology)* Emperor Go-Yōzei" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kōkō" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 58th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Kōkō reigned from 884 to 887." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before the emperor's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name (''imina'') was or ''Komatsu-tei''.", "He would later be identified sometimes as \"the Emperor of Komatsu\".", "This resulted in the later Emperor Go-Komatsu adopting this name (''go-'' meaning \"later\", so \"Later Emperor Komatsu\" or \"Emperor Komatsu II\").Tokiyasu ''Shinnō'' was the third son of Emperor Ninmyō.", "His mother was Fujiwara no Sawako.Kōkō had four Imperial consorts and 41 Imperial sons and daughters." ], [ "Events of Kōkō's life", "The first ''kampaku'' Fujiwara no Mototsune was influential in the process by which Kōkō became an emperor.", "At the time Emperor Yōzei was deposed, Prince Tokiyasu was already Governor of Hitachi and Chief Minister of Ceremonies (''Jibu-kyō'', 治部卿)According to Kitabatake Chikafusa's 14th-century account, Mototsune resolved the problem of succession by simply going to visit Tokiyasu''-shinnō'', where the kampaku addressed the prince as a sovereign and assigned imperial guards.", "The prince signaled his acceptance by going into the imperial palanquin, which then conducted him to the emperor's residence within the palace.", "Curiously, he was still wearing the robes of a prince when he decided to take this ride into an entirely unanticipated future.", "* '''February 4, 884''' (''Gangyō 8, 4th day of the 1st month''): In the 8th year of Emperor Yōzei's reign (陽成天皇八年), the emperor was deposed; and scholars then construed that the succession (''senso'') was received by the third son of former Emperor Ninmyō, who was then age 55.", "* '''March 23, 884''' (''Gangyō 8, 23rd day of the 2nd month''): Emperor Kōkō is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "* '''885''' (''Gangyō 9''): The era name was changed accordingly in 885.During his reign, Kōkō revived many ancient court rituals and ceremonies, and one example is the imperial hawking excursion to Serikawa, which had been initiated in 796 by Emperor Kanmu.", "This ritual event was revived by Kōkō after a lapse of 50 years.", "* '''January 11, 886''' (''Ninna 2, 14th day of the 12th month''): Kōkō traveled to Seri-gawa to hunt with falcons.", "He very much enjoyed this kind of hunting, and he often took time for this kind of activity.", "* '''September 17, 887''' (''Ninna 3, 26th day of the 8th month '') 仁和三年八月二十六日 -->: Kōkō died at the age of 57.The actual site of Kōkō's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Kyoto.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōkō's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi''.===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Kōkō's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Kampaku'', Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経) (Shōsen-kō, 昭宣公), 836–891.", "* ''Daijō-daijin'', Fujiwara no Mototsune.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Tōru (源融).", "* ''Udaijin'', Minamoto no Masaru (源多).", "* ''Naidaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Yoshiyo (藤原良世)* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Fuyuo (藤原冬緒)" ], [ "Eras of Kōkō's reign", "The years of Kōkō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "* ''Gangyō'' (877–885)* ''Ninna'' (885–889)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort (later ''Kōtaigō''): Princess ''Hanshi'' (班子女王; 833–900) later Toin-Kisaki (洞院后), Imperial Prince Nakano's daughter (son of Emperor Kanmu)* First Son: Minamoto no Motonaga (源元長; d. 883), die before Emperor Kōkō's succession Twelfth son: Imperial Prince Koretada (是忠親王; 857–922) Thirteenth Son: Imperial Prince Koresada (是貞親王; d. 903) Fifteenth Son: Imperial Prince Sadami (定省親王) later Emperor Uda Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Tadako (忠子内親王; 854–904), married to Emperor Seiwa Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Kanshi'' (簡子内親王; d. 914) Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Yasuko (綏子内親王; d. 925), married to Emperor Yōzei** Sixteenth Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Ishi'' (為子内親王; d. 899), married to Emperor DaigoConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Kamiko (藤原佳美子; d. 898), Fujiwara no Mototsune's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Genjiko (藤原元善子), Fujiwara no Yamakage's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Taira no Motoko/''Tōshi'' (平等子), Taira no Yoshikaze's daughterCourt Attendant (Koui): Shigeno no Naoko (滋野直子; d. 915)*Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Shigeko (繁子内親王; d. 916), 23rd Saiō in Ise Shrine 884–887Court Attendant (Koui): Sanuki no Naganao's daughter** Ninth Son: Minamoto no Motomi (源旧鑒; d. 908)Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara Motoko (藤原元子)Court lady: Sugawara no ''Ruishi'' (菅原類子), Sugawara no Koreyoshi's daughterCourt lady: Princess Keishin (桂心女王), Prince Masami's daughterSeventh Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Bokushi'' (穆子内親王; d. 903), 8th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 882–887Court lady: daughter of Tajihi clan (多治氏の娘)** Minamoto no ''Kanshi''/Ayako (源緩子/綾子; d. 908)Court lady: A daughter of Fuse clan (布勢氏の娘)* Twelfth Son: Shigemizu no Kiyozane (滋水清実), given the family name \"Shigemizu\" by the Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 886Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Kadomune's daughter, later married Minamoto no NoboruThirteenth Son (adopted son): Minamoto no Koreshige (源是茂; 886–941), Minamoto no Noboru's son(from unknown women) Second Son: Minamoto no Kaneyoshi (源兼善; d. 879) Third son: Minamoto no Nazane (源名実) Fourth Son: Minamoto no Atsuyuki (源篤行) Fifth Son: Minamoto no Seiyoshi (源最善) Sixth Son: Minamoto no Chikayoshi (源近善; d. 918) Seventh son: Minamoto no Ototsune (源音恒) Eighth Son: Minamoto no Koretsune (源是恒; d. 905) Tenth Son: Minamoto no Sadatsune (源貞恒; 857–908) Eleventh Son: Minamoto no Narikage (源成蔭) Fourteenth Son: Minamoto no Kuninori (源国紀; d. 909) Sixteenth Son: Minamoto no Kosen (源香泉) Seventeenth Son: Minamoto no Tomosada (源友貞) First Daughter: Minamoto no Osoko (源遅子) Second Daughter: Minamoto no Reishi (源麗子) Third Daughter: Minamoto no ''Onshi''/Kusuko (源音子/奇子; d. 919)Sixth Daughter: Minamoto no Shushi (源崇子) Seventh Daughter: Minamoto no ''Renshi''/Tsurako (源連子; d. 905) Ninth Daughter: Minamoto no Reishi (源礼子) Tenth Daughter: Minamoto no ''Saishi'' (源最子; d. 886) Eleventh Daughter: Minamoto no ''Kaishi'' (源偕子) Twelve Daughter: Minamoto no ''Mokushi'' (源黙子; d. 902) Thirteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Koreko (源是子) Fourteenth Daughter: Minamoto no ''Heishi'' (源並子; d. 906) Fifteenth Daughter: Minamoto no ''Shinshi'' (源深子; d. 917) Seventeenth Daughter: Minamoto no ''Shūshi'' (源周子; d. 912) Eighteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Mitsuko (源密子) Minamoto no ''Washi'' (源和子; d. 947), married to Emperor Daigo Minamoto no ''Kenshi'' (源謙子; d. 924) Minamoto no Sayako (源袟子) Minamoto no ''Kaishi'' (源快子; d. 910)** Minamoto no ''Zenshi'' (源善子)" ], [ "Poetry", "Emperor Kōkō is well-remembered for his poetry, and one of his ''waka'' appeared in the ''Ogura Hyakunin Isshu'':" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor Go-Komatsu* Emperor of Japan** List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Uda" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 59th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Uda's reign spanned the years from 887 through 897." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "===Name and legacy===Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (''imina'') was or ''Chōjiin-tei''.Emperor Uda was the third son of Emperor Kōkō.", "His mother was Empress Dowager Hanshi, a daughter of Prince Nakano (who was himself a son of Emperor Kanmu).", "Uda had five Imperial consorts and 20 Imperial children.", "Particularly important sons include:* Prince Atsuhito (884–930).", "* Prince Atsuzane (敦実親王) (893–967).===Historical background===In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the ''Gempeitōkitsu'' (源平藤橘).", "One of these clans, the Minamoto clan (源氏), is also known as Genji.", "Some of Uda's grandchildren were granted the surname ''Minamoto'' (Minamoto is the most used surname for former Japanese royalty.).", "In order to distinguish Uda's descendants from other Minamoto clan families (源氏) or Genji, they became known as the Uda Genji (宇多源氏).", "Some of the Uda Genji moved to Ōmi Province and known as Sasaki clan (佐々木氏) or Ōmi Genji (近江源氏).Among the Uda Genji, Minamoto no Masazane (源雅信), a son of Prince Atsumi (敦実親王) succeeded in the court.", "Masazane became ''sadaijin'' (Minister of the Left).", "One of Masazane's daughters, Minamoto no Rinshi (源倫子) married Fujiwara no Michinaga and from this marriage three empresses dowagers and two regents (''sesshō'') were born.From Masanobu, several kuge families originated including the Niwata, Ayanokōji, Itsutsuji, Ōhara and Jikōji.", "From his fourth son Sukeyosi, the Sasaki clan originated, and thus Kyōgoku clan originated.", "These descendants are known as Ōmi Genji today.", "From this line, Sasaki Takauji made a success at the Muromachi shogunate and the Amago clan originated from his brother.===Events of Uda's life===Uda's father, Emperor Kōkō, demoted his sons from the rank of imperial royals to that of subjects in order to reduce the state expenses, as well as their political influence.", "Sadami was given the clan name of Minamoto and named Minamoto no Sadami.", "Later, in 887, when Kōkō needed to appoint his successor, Sadami was once again promoted to the Imperial Prince rank with support of ''kampaku'' Fujiwara no Mototsune, since Sadami was adopted by a half-sister of Mototsune.", "After the death of his father in November of that year, Sadami''-shinnō'' ascended to the throne.", "* '''September 17, 887''' (''Ninna 3, 26th day of the 8th month''): Emperor Kōkō died; and his third son received the succession (''senso'').", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Uda formally acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "* '''December 5, 887''' (''Ninna 3, 17th day of the 11th month''): Mototsune asked Uda for permission to retire from his duties; but the emperor is said to have responded, \"My youth limits my ability to govern; and if you stop offering me your good counsel, I will be obliged to abdicate and to retire to a monastery.\"", "Therefore, Mototsune continued to serve as the new emperor's ''kampaku''.A garden at Ninnaji* '''888''' (''Ninna 4, 8th month''): Construction of the newly created Buddhist temple of was completed; and a former disciple of Kōbō-daishi was installed as the new abbot.", "* '''889''' (''Kanpyō 1, 10th month''): The former emperor Yōzei became deranged, and afflicted by mental illness.", "Yōzei would enter the palace and address courtiers he would meet with the greatest rudeness.", "He became increasingly furious.", "He garroted women with the strings of musical instruments and then threw the bodies into a lake.", "While riding on horseback, he directed his mount to run over people.", "Sometimes he simply disappeared into the mountains where he chased wild boars and red deer.In the beginning of Uda's reign, Mototsune held the office of ''kampaku'' (or chancellor).", "Emperor Uda's reign is marked by a prolonged struggle to reassert power by the Imperial Family away from the increasing influence of the Fujiwara, beginning with the death of Mototsune in 891.Records show that shortly thereafter, Emperor Uda assigned scholars Sukeyo and Kiyoyuki, supporters of Mototsune, to provincial posts in the remote provinces of Mutsu and Higo respectively.", "Meanwhile, non-Fujiwara officials mainly from the Minamoto family were promoted to prominent ranks, while his trusted counselor, Sugawara no Michizane rapidly rose in rank within five years to reach the third rank in the court, and supervision of the Crown Prince's household.", "Meanwhile, Mototsune's son and heir, Fujiwara no Tokihira, rose in rank, but only just enough to prevent an open power struggle.Meanwhile, Emperor Uda attempted to return Court politics to the original spirit envisioned in the Ritsuryō Codes, while reviving intellectual interest in Confucian doctrine and culture.", "In the seventh month of 896, Emperor Uda dispatched Sugawara no Michizane to review prisoners in the capitol and provide a general amnesty for the wrongfully accused, in keeping with Chinese practices.", "Emperor Uda also issued edicts reinforcing peasant land rights from encroachment by powerful families in the capital or monastic institutions, while auditing tax collections made in the provinces.Emperor Uda stopped the practice of sending ambassadors to China (\"ken-toh-shi\" 遣唐使).", "The emperor's decision was informed by what he understood as persuasive counsel from Sugawara Michizane.The Special Festival of the Kamo Shrine was first held during Uda's reign.In 897, Uda abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Prince Atsuhito, who would later come to be known as Emperor Daigo.", "Uda left behind an hortatory will or testament which offered general admonitions or precepts for his son's guidance (''see excerpt at right'').", "The document praises Fujiwara no Tokihira as an advisor but cautions against his womanizing; and Sugawara no Michizane is praised as Uda's mentor.", "Both were assigned by Emperor Uda to look after his son until the latter reach maturity.Three years later, he entered the Buddhist priesthood at age 34 in 900.Having founded the temple at Ninna-ji, Uda made it his new home after his abdication.Decorative emblems (''kiri'') of the Hosokawa clan are found at Ryōan-ji.", "Uda is amongst six other emperors entombed near what had been the residence of Hosokawa Katsumoto before the Ōnin War.", "His Buddhist name was Kongō Kaku.", "He was sometimes called \"the Cloistered Emperor of Teiji(亭子の帝)\", because the name of the Buddhist hall where he resided after becoming a priest was called Teijiin.Uda died in 931 (''Shōhei 1, 19th day of the 7th month'') at the age of 65.The actual site of Uda's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Kyoto.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Uda's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi''.The former emperor is buried amongst the \"Seven Imperial Tombs\" at Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto.", "The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Uda is today named ''O-uchiyama''.", "The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Uda died.", "These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.During Uda's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Kampaku'', Fujiwara no Mototsune　 (藤原基経), 836–891.", "* ''Daijō-daijin'', Fujiwara no Mototsune.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Minamoto no Tōru　 (源融).", "* ''Sadaijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshiyo　 (藤原良世).", "* ''Udaijin'', Minamoto no Masaru (源多).", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Yoshiyo 　(藤原良世).", "* ''Udaijin'', Minamoto no Yoshiari　 (源能有).", "* ''Naidaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Dainagon''" ], [ "Eras of Uda's reign", "The years of Uda's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name, or ''nengō''.", "* ''Ninna'' (885–889)* ''Kanpyō'' (889–898)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no ''Onshi'' (藤原温子; 872–907), Fujiwara no Mototsune’s daughterImperial Princess ''Kinshi'' (均子内親王; 890–910), married to Imperial Prince AtsuyoshiConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no ''Inshi'' (藤原胤子; d.896), Fujiwara no Takafuji’s daughterFirst Son: Imperial Prince Atsugimi (敦仁親王; 885–930) later Emperor DaigoFourth Son: Imperial Prince Atsuyoshi (敦慶親王; 887–930)Imperial Prince Atsukata (敦固親王; d.926)Imperial Princess ''Jūshi'' (柔子内親王; 892–958), 25th Saiō in Ise Shrine (897–930)Eighth Son: Imperial Prince Atsumi (敦実親王; 893–967)Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Yoshiko/''Gishi'' (橘義子), Tachibana no Hiromi’s daughterSecond Son: Imperial Prince Tokinaka (斉中親王; 885–891)Third Son: Imperial Prince Tokiyo (斉世親王; 886–927) later Imperial Prince Priest Shinjaku (真寂法親王)Imperial Prince Tokikuni (斉邦親王)Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Kunshi'' (君子内親王; d.902), 10th Saiin in Kamo Shrine (893–902)Consort (Nyōgo): Sugawara no Hiroko/''Enshi'' (菅原衍子), Sugawara no Michizane’s daughter* Minamoto no Junshi (源順子; 875-925) married Fujiwara no TadahiraConsort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Fusako (橘房子; d.893)Court Attendant (Koui): Minamoto no Sadako (源貞子), Minamoto no Noboru’s daughterImperial Princess ''Ishi'' (依子内親王; 895–936)Court Attendant (Koui): Princess ''Norihime'' (徳姫女王), Prince Tōyo’s daughterImperial Princess ''Fushi'' (孚子内親王; d.958)Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Yasuko (藤原保子), Fujiwara no Arizane’s daughterImperial Princess ''Kaishi'' (誨子内親王; 894–952), married to Imperial Prince Motoyoshi (son of Emperor Yōzei)Imperial Princess ''Kishi'' (季子内親王; d.979)Court Attendant (Koui): Minamoto no Hisako (源久子)Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Shizuko (藤原静子)Lady-in-waiting: Fujiwara no ''Hōshi'' (藤原褒子), Fujiwara no Tokihira’s daughterImperial Prince Masaakira (雅明親王; 920–929)Imperial Prince Noriakira (載明親王)Imperial Prince Yukiakira (行明親王; 926–948)Court lady: A daughter of Fujiwara no Tsugukage, ''Ise'' (伊勢; 875/7–ca.", "939)prince (died young)(from unknown women)Imperial Prince Yukinaka (行中親王; d.909)Imperial Princess ''Seishi'' (成子内親王; d.979)Minamoto no ''Shinshi'' (源臣子)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Kitagawa, Hiroshi and Bruce T. Tsuchida.", "(1975).", "''The Tale of the Heike''.", "Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.", "* Moscher, Gouverneur.", "(1978).", "''Kyoto: A Contemplative Guide.''", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Odai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Emperor Go-Uda* Kanpyō Gyoki" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Daigo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daigo''' may refer to:" ], [ "Buddhism", "Daigo (Zen) (大悟), a Buddhist term meaning ''great enlightenment'' or ''great realization''Daigo (Shōbōgenzō) (大悟), or ''Great Realization'', a book in Eihei Dōgen's ShōbōgenzōDaigo Temple (醍醐寺), from which Emperor Daigo took his name" ], [ "People", "Emperor Daigo (醍醐天皇), Emperor of Japan between 897 and 930Daigo family, a branch of the Ichijō family of Japanese nobilityDaigo (musician) (born 1978), Japanese singer-songwriter, actor, talent, and voice actorDaigo (name)Daigo Umehara, or simply \"Daigo\", Japanese competitive fighting game player" ], [ "Places", "Daigo, Fushimi, Kyoto, a district in the ward of Fushimi-ku, KyotoDaigo Station (Kyoto) (醍醐駅), a train stationDaigo Station (Akita) (醍醐駅), a train stationDaigo, Ibaraki (大子町), a town in Ibaraki Prefecture" ], [ "Other uses", "Daigo (dairy product) (醍醐), or ghee, which is theorized to have been made in ancient Japan, aka from ''Gosei Sentai Dairanger''" ], [ "See also", "*Daigou (代购), the unauthorized import of foreign goods into China" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Suzaku" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Suzaku''', '''Su-zaku''', or '''Su-Zaku''' may refer to:* Vermilion Bird (Zhū Què), whose Japanese name is Suzaku, the bird guardian of the South and one of the Four Symbols of Chinese constellations* ''Suzaku'' (film), a 1997 Japanese film by Naomi Kawase* Emperor Suzaku (922–952), an emperor of Japan* Emperor Go-Suzaku (1009–1045), an emperor of Japan* SUZAK Inc., also known as Suzaku, a video game developer* Suzaku Avenue, one of the ancient main streets in Kyoto and Nara, Japan* Suzaku (satellite), the name given in 2005 to an ASTRO-EII spacecraft, a joint venture of NASA and the Japanese Space Agency JAXA" ], [ "Fiction", "* Suzaku (''YuYu Hakusho''), a character in ''YuYu Hakusho'' media* Suzaku Kururugi, a character in the anime series ''Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion''* Suzaku, an enemy in the PlayStation game ''SaGa Frontier''* Suzaku, a character in ''Descendants of Darkness'' (''Yami no Matsuei'') who is one of Tsuzuki's shikigami, or guardian beasts* Suzaku, a character in the game ''Flying Dragon''* Suzaku Seikun, a god-character in ''Fushigi Yûgi''* Suzaku, the bitbeast companion of Kai Hiwatari in the ''Beyblade'' franchise* Suzaku, an antagonist of the game ''Tenchu 2: Birth of the Stealth Assassins''* Suzaku, the 23rd rank in the video game ''Tekken Tag Tournament 2''* Ryu Suzaku, the protagonist of the anime series ''F-Zero: Legend of the Falcon'' (''F-Zero GP Legend''), known in English as Rick Wheeler* Su-Zaku, an enemy in the Game Boy game ''The Final Fantasy Legend''* Suzaku, one of the four divine guardians in the video game ''Final Fantasy XI: Rise of the Zilart''* Suzaku, the guardian of the South Gate of The Imperial Palace in ''Accel World''* Suzaku, one of the guardian spirits in the video game Nioh.", "* Suzaku, one of the Four Lords in the video game ''Final Fantasy XIV: Stormblood''" ], [ "See also", "* Shūsaku, a Japanese given name* Suzuka (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Murakami" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Murakami''' may refer to:* 3295 Murakami, a minor planet* Murakami (crater), an impact crater on the far side of the Moon* Murakami (name), a Japanese surname, including a list of people with the name* Murakami, Niigata, a city in Niigata prefecture* Murakami Domain, a clan within Feudal Japan* \"Murakami\", a song by Russian rock singer Svetlana Surganova* \"Murakami\", a song on the 2015 album ''Without My Enemy What Would I Do'' by U.S. band Made In Heights" ], [ "See also", "* Murakami Station (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Earless seal" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''earless seals''', '''phocids''', or '''true seals''' are one of the three main groups of mammals within the seal lineage, Pinnipedia.", "All true seals are members of the family '''Phocidae''' ().", "They are sometimes called '''crawling seals''' to distinguish them from the fur seals and sea lions of the family Otariidae.", "Seals live in the oceans of both hemispheres and, with the exception of the more tropical monk seals, are mostly confined to polar, subpolar, and temperate climates.", "The Baikal seal is the only species of exclusively freshwater seal." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "===Evolution===Fossil ''Pliophoca'' skull The earliest known fossil earless seal is ''Noriphoca gaudini'' from the late Oligocene or earliest Miocene (Aquitanian) of Italy.", "Other early fossil phocids date from the mid-Miocene, 15 million years ago in the north Atlantic.", "Until recently, many researchers believed that phocids evolved separately from otariids and odobenids; and that they evolved from otter-like animals, such as ''Potamotherium'', which inhabited European freshwater lakes.", "Recent evidence strongly suggests a monophyletic origin for all pinnipeds from a single ancestor, possibly ''Enaliarctos'', most closely related to the mustelids and bears.Monk seals and elephant seals were previously believed to have first entered the Pacific through the open straits between North and South America, with the Antarctic true seals either using the same route or travelled down the west coast of Africa.", "It is now thought that the monk seals, elephant seals, and Antarctic seals all evolved in the southern hemisphere, and likely dispersed to their current distributions from more southern latitudes.===Taxonomy===In the 1980s and 1990s, morphological phylogenetic analysis of the phocids led to new conclusions about the interrelatedness of the various genera.", "More recent molecular phylogenetic analyses have confirmed the monophyly of the two phocid subfamilies (Phocinae and Monachinae).", "The Monachinae (known as the \"southern\" seals), is composed of three tribes; the Lobodontini, Miroungini, and Monachini.", "The four Antarctic genera ''Hydrurga'', ''Leptonychotes'', ''Lobodon'', and ''Ommatophoca'' are part of the tribe Lobodontini.", "Tribe Miroungini is composed of the elephant seals.", "The Monk seals (''Monachus'' and ''Neomonachus'') are all part of the tribe Monachini.", "Likewise, subfamily Phocinae (the \"northern\" seals) also includes three tribes; Erignathini (''Erignathus)'', Cystophorini (''Cystophora)'', and Phocini (all other phocines).", "More recently, five species have been split off from ''Phoca'', forming three additional genera.Alternatively the three monachine tribes have been evaluated to familiar status, which elephant seals and the Antarctic seals are more closely related to the phocines.===Extant genera=== Subfamily Tribe Image Genus species '''Subfamily Monachinae''' '''Tribe Monachini'''175px ''Monachus'' Fleming, 1822 * Mediterranean monk seal, ''Monachus monachus''175px ''Neomonachus'' Slater & Helgen, 2014 Hawaiian monk seal, ''Neomonachus schauinslandi'' †Caribbean monk seal, ''Neomonachus tropicalis'' (probably extinct around 1952) '''Tribe Miroungini'''175px ''Mirounga'' Gray, 1827 * Northern elephant seal, ''Mirounga angustirostris''* Southern elephant seal, ''Mirounga leonina'' '''Tribe Lobodontini'''175px ''Ommatophoca'' Gray, 1844 * Ross seal, ''Ommatophoca rossi''175px ''Lobodon'' Gray, 1844 * Crabeater seal, ''Lobodon carcinophagus''175px ''Hydrurga'' Gistel, 1848 * Leopard seal, ''Hydrurga leptonyx''175px ''Leptonychotes'' Gill, 1872 * Weddell seal, ''Leptonychotes weddellii'' '''Subfamily Phocinae''' '''Tribe Cystophorini'''175px ''Cystophora'' Nilsson, 1820 * Hooded seal, ''Cystophora cristata'' '''Tribe Erignathini'''175px ''Erignathus'' Gill, 1866 * Bearded seal, ''Erignathus barbatus'' '''Tribe Phocini'''175px ''Phoca'' Linnaeus, 1758 * Harbor seal or common seal, ''Phoca vitulina''* Spotted seal, ''Phoca largha''175px ''Pusa'' Scopoli, 1771 * Ringed seal, ''Pusa hispida'' (formerly ''Phoca hispida'')* Baikal seal, ''Pusa sibirica'' (formerly ''Phoca sibirica'')* Caspian seal, ''Pusa caspica'' (formerly ''Phoca caspica'')175px ''Pagophilus'' Gray, 1844 * Harp seal, ''Pagophilus groenlandicus'' (formerly ''Phoca groenlandica'')175px ''Histriophoca'' Gill, 1873 * Ribbon seal, ''Histriophoca fasciata'' (formerly ''Phoca fasciata'')175px ''Halichoerus'' Nilsson, 1820 * Grey seal, ''Halichoerus grypus''" ], [ "Biology", "===External anatomy===Skeletal anatomy of a harbor seal.", "1.Skull.", "2.Spine.", "3.Tail.", "4.Hindlimb.", "5.Forelimb.", "6.Shoulder.", "7.Pelvis.", "8.Rib cage.Harbor seal skull (''Phoca vitulina'')Adult phocids vary from in length and in weight in the ringed seal to and in the southern elephant seal, which is the largest member of the order Carnivora.", "Phocids have fewer teeth than land-based members of the Carnivora, although they retain powerful canines.", "Some species lack molars altogether.", "The dental formula is:While otariids are known for speed and maneuverability, phocids are known for efficient, economical movement.", "This allows most phocids to forage far from land to exploit prey resources, while otariids are tied to rich upwelling zones close to breeding sites.", "Phocids swim by sideways movements of their bodies, using their hind flippers to fullest effect.", "Their fore flippers are used primarily for steering, while their hind flippers are bound to the pelvis in such a way that they cannot bring them under their bodies to walk on them.", "They are more streamlined than fur seals and sea lions, so they can swim more effectively over long distances.", "However, because they cannot turn their hind flippers downward, they are very clumsy on land, having to wriggle with their front flippers and abdominal muscles.Seal kidneyPhocid respiratory and circulatory systems are adapted to allow diving to considerable depths, and they can spend a long time underwater between breaths.", "Air is forced from the lungs during a dive and into the upper respiratory passages, where gases cannot easily be absorbed into the bloodstream.", "This helps protect the seal from the bends.", "The middle ear is also lined with blood sinuses that inflate during diving, helping to maintain a constant pressure.Phocids are more specialized for aquatic life than otariids.", "They lack external ears and have sleek, streamlined bodies.", "Retractable nipples, internal testicles, and an internal penile sheath provide further streamlining.", "A smooth layer of blubber lies underneath the skin.", "Phocids are able to divert blood flow to this layer to help control their temperatures.===Communication===Unlike otariids, true seals do not communicate by 'barking'.", "Instead, they communicate by slapping the water and grunting.===Reproduction===alt=Photo of seven adult and juvenile southern elephant seals packed closely on beachLiving only in Lake Saimaa, Finland, Saimaa ringed seals, a subspecies of ringed seal, are among the most endangered seals in the world, having a total population of only about 400 individuals.Phocids spend most of their time at sea, although they return to land or pack ice to breed and give birth.", "Pregnant females spend long periods foraging at sea, building up fat reserves, and then return to the breeding site to use their stored energy to nurse pups.", "However, the common seal displays a reproductive strategy similar to that used by otariids, in which the mother makes short foraging trips between nursing bouts.Because a phocid mother's feeding grounds are often hundreds of kilometers from the breeding site, she must fast while lactating.", "This combination of fasting with lactation requires the mother to provide large amounts of energy to her pup at a time when she is not eating (and often, not drinking).", "Mothers must supply their own metabolic needs while nursing.", "This is a miniature version of the humpback whales' strategy, which involves fasting during their months-long migration from arctic feeding areas to tropical breeding/nursing areas and back.Phocids produce thick, fat-rich milk that allows them to provide their pups with large amounts of energy in a short period.", "This allows the mother to return to the sea in time to replenish her reserves.", "Lactation ranges from five to seven weeks in the monk seal to just three to five days in the hooded seal.", "The mother ends nursing by leaving her pup at the breeding site to search for food (pups continue to nurse if given the opportunity).", "\"Milk stealers\" that suckle from unrelated, sleeping females are not uncommon; this often results in the death of the mother's pup, since a female can only feed one pup.===Growth and maturation===The pup's diet is so high in calories, it builds up a fat store.", "Before the pup is ready to forage, the mother abandons it, and the pup consumes its own fat for weeks or even months while it matures.", "Seals, like all marine mammals, need time to develop the oxygen stores, swimming muscles, and neural pathways necessary for effective diving and foraging.", "Seal pups typically eat no food and drink no water during the period, although some polar species eat snow.", "The postweaning fast ranges from two weeks in the hooded seal to 9–12 weeks in the northern elephant seal.", "The physiological and behavioral adaptations that allow phocid pups to endure these remarkable fasts, which are among the longest for any mammal, remain an area of active study and research.=== Feeding strategy ===Phocids make use of at least four different feeding strategies: suction feeding, grip, and tear feeding, filter feeding, and pierce feeding.", "Each of these feeding strategies is aided by a specialized skull, mandible, and tooth morphology.", "However, despite morphological specialization, most phocids are opportunistic and employ multiple strategies to capture and eat prey.", "For example, the leopard seal, ''Hydrurga leptonyx'', uses grip and tear feeding to prey on penguins, suction feeding to consume small fish, and filter feeding to catch krill." ], [ "See also", "* Eared seal* Marine mammals as food" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Espionage" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Espionage''', '''spying''', or '''intelligence gathering''' is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information (intelligence).", "A person who commits espionage is called an ''espionage agent'' or ''spy''.", "Any individual or spy ring (a cooperating group of spies), in the service of a government, company, criminal organization, or independent operation, can commit espionage.", "The practice is clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome.", "In some circumstances, it may be a legal tool of law enforcement and in others, it may be illegal and punishable by law.Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern.", "However, the term tends to be associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies for military purposes.", "Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage.One way to gather data and information about a targeted organization is by infiltrating its ranks.", "Spies can then return information such as the size and strength of enemy forces.", "They can also find dissidents within the organization and influence them to provide further information or to defect.", "In times of crisis, spies steal technology and sabotage the enemy in various ways.", "Counterintelligence is the practice of thwarting enemy espionage and intelligence-gathering.", "Almost all sovereign states have strict laws concerning espionage, including those who practice espionage in other countries, and the penalties for being caught are often severe." ], [ "History", "Espionage has been recognized as of importance in military affairs since ancient times.The oldest known classified document was a report made by a spy disguised as a diplomatic envoy in the court of King Hammurabi, who died in around 1750 BC.", "The ancient Egyptians had a developed secret service, and espionage is mentioned in the ''Iliad'', the Bible, and the Amarna letters as well as its recordings in the story of the Old Testament, ''The Twelve Spies''.", "Espionage was also prevalent in the Greco-Roman world, when spies employed illiterate subjects in civil services.The thesis that espionage and intelligence has a central role in war as well as peace was first advanced in ''The Art of War'' and in the ''Arthashastra''.", "In the Middle Ages European states excelled at what has later been termed counter-subversion when Catholic inquisitions were staged to annihilate heresy.", "Inquisitions were marked by centrally organised mass interrogations and detailed record keeping.", "During the Renaissance European states funded codebreakers to obtain intelligence through frequency analysis.", "Western espionage changed fundamentally during the Renaissance when Italian city-states installed resident ambassadors in capital cities to collect intelligence.", "Renaissance Venice became so obsessed with espionage that the Council of Ten, which was nominally responsible for security, did not even allow the doge to consult government archives freely.", "In 1481 the Council of Ten barred all Venetian government officials from making contact with ambassadors or foreigners.", "Those revealing official secrets could face the death penalty.", "Venice became obsessed with espionage because successful international trade demanded that the city-state could protect its trade secrets.", "Under Queen Elizabeth I of England (), Francis Walsingham ( 1532–1590) was appointed foreign secretary and intelligence chief.", "The novelist and journalist Daniel Defoe (died 1731) not only spied for the British government, but also developed a theory of espionage foreshadowing modern police-state methods.During the American Revolution, Nathan Hale and Benedict Arnold achieved their fame as spies, and there was considerable use of spies on both sides during the American Civil War.", "Though not a spy himself, George Washington was America's first spymaster, utilizing espionage tactics against the British.Madame Minna Craucher (''right''), a Finnish socialite and spy, with her chauffeur Boris Wolkowski (''left'') in 1930sIn the 20th century, at the height of World War I, all great powers except the United States had elaborate civilian espionage systems and all national military establishments had intelligence units.", "In order to protect the country against foreign agents, the U.S. Congress passed the Espionage Act of 1917.Mata Hari, who obtained information for Germany by seducing French officials, was the most noted espionage agent of World War I.", "Prior to World War II, Germany and Imperial Japan established elaborate espionage nets.", "In 1942 the Office of Strategic Services was founded by Gen. William J. Donovan.", "However, the British system was the keystone of Allied intelligence.", "Numerous resistance groups such as the Austrian Maier-Messner Group, the French Resistance, the Witte Brigade, Milorg and the Polish Home Army worked against Nazi Germany and provided the Allied secret services with information that was very important for the war effort.Since the end of World War II, the activity of espionage has enlarged, much of it growing out of the Cold War between the United States and the former USSR.", "The Russian Empire and its successor, the Soviet Union have had a long tradition of espionage ranging from the Okhrana to the KGB (Committee for State Security), which also acted as a secret police force.", "In the United States, the 1947 National Security Act created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate intelligence and the National Security Agency for research into codes and electronic communication.", "In addition to these, the United States has 13 other intelligence gathering agencies; most of the U.S. expenditures for intelligence gathering are budgeted to various Defense Dept.", "agencies and their programs.", "Under the intelligence reorganization of 2004, the director of national intelligence is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the activities and budgets of the U.S. intelligence agencies.In the Cold War, espionage cases included Alger Hiss, Whittaker Chambers and the Rosenberg Case.", "In 1952 the Communist Chinese captured two CIA agents and in 1960 Francis Gary Powers, flying a U-2 reconnaissance mission over the Soviet Union for the CIA, was shot down and captured.", "During the Cold War, many Soviet intelligence officials defected to the West, including Gen. Walter Krivitsky, Victor Kravchenko, Vladimir Petrov, Peter Deriabin, Pawel Monat and Oleg Penkovsky of the GRU.", "Among Western officials who defected to the Soviet Union are Guy Burgess and Donald D. Maclean of Great Britain in 1951, Otto John of West Germany in 1954, William H. Martin and Bernon F. Mitchell, U.S. cryptographers, in 1960, and Harold (Kim) Philby of Great Britain in 1962.U.S.", "acknowledgment of its U-2 flights and the exchange of Francis Gary Powers for Rudolf Abel in 1962 implied the legitimacy of some espionage as an arm of foreign policy.China has a very cost-effective intelligence program that is especially effective in monitoring neighboring countries such as Mongolia, Russia and India.", "Smaller countries can also mount effective and focused espionage efforts.", "For instance, the Vietnamese communists had consistently superior intelligence during the Vietnam War.", "Some Islamic countries, including Libya, Iran and Syria, have highly developed operations as well.", "SAVAK, the secret police of the Pahlavi dynasty, was particularly feared by Iranian dissidents before the 1979 Iranian Revolution." ], [ "Modern day", "Today, spy agencies target the illegal drug trade and terrorists as well as state actors.Intelligence services value certain intelligence collection techniques over others.", "The former Soviet Union, for example, preferred human sources over research in open sources, while the United States has tended to emphasize technological methods such as SIGINT and IMINT.", "In the Soviet Union, both political (KGB) and military intelligence (GRU) officers were judged by the number of agents they recruited." ], [ "Targets of espionage", "Espionage agents are usually trained experts in a targeted field so they can differentiate mundane information from targets of value to their own organizational development.", "Correct identification of the target at its execution is the sole purpose of the espionage operation.Broad areas of espionage targeting expertise include:* Natural resources: strategic production identification and assessment (food, energy, materials).", "Agents are usually found among bureaucrats who administer these resources in their own countries* Popular sentiment towards domestic and foreign policies (popular, middle class, elites).", "Agents often recruited from field journalistic crews, exchange postgraduate students and sociology researchers* Strategic economic strengths (production, research, manufacture, infrastructure).", "Agents recruited from science and technology academia, commercial enterprises, and more rarely from among military technologists* Military capability intelligence (offensive, defensive, manoeuvre, naval, air, space).", "Agents are trained by military espionage education facilities and posted to an area of operation with covert identities to minimize prosecution* Counterintelligence operations targeting opponent's intelligence services themselves, such as breaching the confidentiality of communications and recruiting defectors or moles" ], [ "Methods and terminology", "Although the news media may speak of \"spy satellites\" and the like, espionage is not a synonym for all intelligence-gathering disciplines.", "It is a specific form of human source intelligence (HUMINT).", "Codebreaking (cryptanalysis or COMINT), aircraft or satellite photography (IMINT), and analysis of publicly available data sources (OSINT) are all intelligence gathering disciplines, but none of them is considered espionage.", "Many HUMINT activities, such as prisoner interrogation, reports from military reconnaissance patrols and from diplomats, etc., are not considered espionage.", "Espionage is the disclosure of sensitive information (classified) to people who are not cleared for that information or access to that sensitive information.Unlike other forms of intelligence collection disciplines, espionage usually involves accessing the place where the desired information is stored or accessing the people who know the information and will divulge it through some kind of subterfuge.", "There are exceptions to physical meetings, such as the Oslo Report, or the insistence of Robert Hanssen in never meeting the people who bought his information.The US defines espionage towards itself as \"the act of obtaining, delivering, transmitting, communicating, or receiving information about the national defence with an intent, or reason to believe, that the information may be used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation\".", "''Black's Law Dictionary'' (1990) defines espionage as: \"... gathering, transmitting, or losing ... information related to the national defense\".", "Espionage is a violation of United States law, and Article 106a of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.", "The United States, like most nations, conducts espionage against other nations, under the control of the National Clandestine Service.", "Britain's espionage activities are controlled by the Secret Intelligence Service.=== Technology and techniques ===* Agent handling* Biographic leverage* Concealment device* Covert agent* Covert listening device* Cut-out* Cyber spying* Dead drop* False flag operations* Front organisation* Honeypot* Impersonation* Impostor* Interrogation* Non-official cover* Numbers messaging* Official cover* One-way voice link* Sabotage* Safe house* Side channel attack* Spy ship* Steganography* Surveillance* Surveillance aircraft* Surveillance balloon'''Source:'''" ], [ "Organization", "An intelligence officer's clothing, accessories, and behavior must be as unremarkable as possible—their lives (and others') may depend on it.A spy is a person employed to seek out top secret information from a source.", "Within the United States Intelligence Community, \"asset\" is more common usage.", "A case officer or Special Agent, who may have diplomatic status (i.e., official cover or non-official cover), supports and directs the human collector.", "Cut-outs are couriers who do not know the agent or case officer but transfer messages.", "A safe house is a refuge for spies.", "Spies often seek to obtain secret information from another source.In larger networks, the organization can be complex with many methods to avoid detection, including clandestine cell systems.", "Often the players have never met.", "Case officers are stationed in foreign countries to recruit and supervise intelligence agents, who in turn spy on targets in the countries where they are assigned.", "A spy need not be a citizen of the target country and hence does not automatically commit treason when operating within it.", "While the more common practice is to recruit a person already trusted with access to sensitive information, sometimes a person with a well-prepared synthetic identity (cover background), called a ''legend'' in tradecraft, may attempt to infiltrate a target organization.These agents can be moles (who are recruited before they get access to secrets), defectors (who are recruited after they get access to secrets and leave their country) or defectors in place (who get access but do not leave).A ''legend'' is also employed for an individual who ''is not'' an illegal agent, but is an ordinary citizen who is \"relocated\", for example, a \"protected witness\".", "Nevertheless, such a non-agent very likely will also have a case officer who will act as a controller.", "As in most, if not all synthetic identity schemes, for whatever purpose (illegal or legal), the assistance of a controller is required.Spies may also be used to spread disinformation in the organization in which they are planted, such as giving false reports about their country's military movements, or about a competing company's ability to bring a product to market.", "Spies may be given other roles that also require infiltration, such as sabotage.Many governments spy on their allies as well as their enemies, although they typically maintain a policy of not commenting on this.", "Governments also employ private companies to collect information on their behalf such as SCG International Risk, International Intelligence Limited and others.Many organizations, both national and non-national, conduct espionage operations.", "It should not be assumed that espionage is always directed at the most secret operations of a target country.", "National and terrorist organizations and other groups are also targeted.", "This is because governments want to retrieve information that they can use to be proactive in protecting their nation from potential terrorist attacks.Communications both are necessary to espionage and clandestine operations, and also a great vulnerability when the adversary has sophisticated SIGINT detection and interception capability.", "Spies rely on COVCOM or covert communication through technically advanced spy devices.", "Agents must also transfer money securely." ], [ "Industrial espionage", "Reportedly Canada is losing $12 billion and German companies are estimated to be losing about €50 billion ($87 billion) and 30,000 jobs to industrial espionage every year." ], [ "Agents in espionage", "In espionage jargon, an \"agent\" is the person who does the spying.", "They may be a citizen of a country recruited by that country to spy on another; a citizen of a country recruited by that country to carry out false flag assignments disrupting his own country; a citizen of one country who is recruited by a second country to spy on or work against his own country or a third country, and more.In popular usage, this term is sometimes confused with an ''intelligence officer'', ''intelligence operative'', or ''case officer'' who recruits and handles agents.Among the most common forms of agent are:* Agent provocateur: instigates trouble or provides information to gather as many people as possible into one location for an arrest.", "* Intelligence agent: provides access to sensitive information through the use of special privileges.", "If used in ''corporate intelligence'' gathering, this may include gathering information of a corporate business venture or stock portfolio.", "In ''economic intelligence'', \"Economic Analysts may use their specialized skills to analyze and interpret economic trends and developments, assess and track foreign financial activities, and develop new econometric and modelling methodologies.\"", "This may also include information of trade or tariff.", "* Agent-of-influence: provides political influence in an area of interest, possibly including publications needed to further an intelligence service agenda.", "The use of the media to print a story to mislead a foreign service into action, exposing their operations while under surveillance.", "* Double agent: engages in clandestine activity for two intelligence or security services (or more in joint operations), who provides information about one or about each to the other, and who wittingly withholds significant information from one on the instructions of the other or is unwittingly manipulated by one so that significant facts are withheld from the adversary.", "Peddlers, fabricators, and others who work for themselves rather than a service are not double agents because they are not agents.", "The fact that double agents have an agent relationship with both sides distinguishes them from penetrations, who normally are placed with the target service in a staff or officer capacity.", "\" Redoubled agent: forced to mislead the foreign intelligence service after being caught as a double agent.", " Unwitting double agent: offers or is forced to recruit as a double or redoubled agent and in the process is recruited by either a third-party intelligence service or his own government without the knowledge of the intended target intelligence service or the agent.", "This can be useful in capturing important information from an agent that is attempting to seek allegiance with another country.", "The '''double agent''' usually has knowledge of both intelligence services and can identify operational techniques of both, thus making third-party recruitment difficult or impossible.", "The knowledge of operational techniques can also affect the relationship between the operations officer (or case officer) and the agent if the case is transferred by an operational targeting officer to a new operations officer, leaving the new officer vulnerable to attack.", "This type of transfer ''may'' occur when an officer has completed his term of service or when his ''cover'' is blown.", "* Sleeper agent: recruited to ''wake up'' and perform a specific set of tasks or functions while living undercover in an area of interest.", "This type of agent is not the same as a ''deep cover operative'', who continually contacts a case officer to file intelligence reports.", "A sleeper agent is not in contact with anyone until ''activated''.", "* Triple agent: works for three intelligence services.Less common or lesser known forms of agent include:* Access agent: provides access to other potential agents by providing offender profiling information that can help lead to recruitment into an intelligence service.", "* Confusion agent: provides misleading information to an enemy intelligence service or attempts to discredit the operations of the ''target'' in an operation.", "* Facilities agent: provides access to buildings, such as garages or offices used for staging operations, resupply, etc.", "* Illegal agent: lives in another country under false credentials and does not report to a local station.", "A nonofficial cover operative can be dubbed an \"illegal\" when working in another country without diplomatic protection.", "* Principal agent: functions as a handler for an established network of agents, usually considered \"blue chip\"." ], [ "Law", "Espionage against a nation is a crime under the legal code of many nations.", "In the United States, it is covered by the Espionage Act of 1917.The risks of espionage vary.", "A spy violating the host country's laws may be deported, imprisoned, or even executed.", "A spy violating its own country's laws can be imprisoned for espionage or/and treason (which in the United States and some other jurisdictions can only occur if they take up arms or aids the enemy against their own country during wartime), or even executed, as the Rosenbergs were.", "For example, when Aldrich Ames handed a stack of dossiers of U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agents in the Eastern Bloc to his KGB-officer \"handler\", the KGB \"rolled up\" several networks, and at least ten people were secretly shot.", "When Ames was arrested by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), he faced life in prison; his contact, who had diplomatic immunity, was declared ''persona non grata'' and taken to the airport.", "Ames' wife was threatened with life imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did, and she was given a five-year sentence.", "Hugh Francis Redmond, a CIA officer in China, spent nineteen years in a Chinese prison for espionage—and died there—as he was operating without diplomatic cover and immunity.In United States law, treason, espionage, and spying are separate crimes.", "Treason and espionage have graduated punishment levels.The United States in World War I passed the Espionage Act of 1917.Over the years, many spies, such as the Soble spy ring, Robert Lee Johnson, the Rosenberg ring, Aldrich Hazen Ames, Robert Philip Hanssen, Jonathan Pollard, John Anthony Walker, James Hall III, and others have been prosecuted under this law.===History of espionage laws===From ancient times, the penalty for espionage in many countries was execution.", "This was true right up until the era of World War II; for example, Josef Jakobs was a Nazi spy who parachuted into Great Britain in 1941 and was executed for espionage.In modern times, many people convicted of espionage have been given penal sentences rather than execution.", "For example, Aldrich Hazen Ames is an American CIA analyst, turned KGB mole, who was convicted of espionage in 1994; he is serving a life sentence without the possibility of parole in the high-security Allenwood U.S. Penitentiary.", "Ames was formerly a 31-year CIA counterintelligence officer and analyst who committed espionage against his country by spying for the Soviet Union and Russia.", "So far as it is known, Ames compromised the second-largest number of CIA agents, second only to Robert Hanssen, who also served a prison sentence until his death in 2023.=== Use against non-spies ===Espionage laws are also used to prosecute non-spies.", "In the United States, the Espionage Act of 1917 was used against socialist politician Eugene V. Debs (at that time the Act had much stricter guidelines and amongst other things banned speech against military recruiting).", "The law was later used to suppress publication of periodicals, for example of Father Coughlin in World War II.", "In the early 21st century, the act was used to prosecute whistleblowers such as Thomas Andrews Drake, John Kiriakou, and Edward Snowden, as well as officials who communicated with journalists for innocuous reasons, such as Stephen Jin-Woo Kim., India and Pakistan were holding several hundred prisoners of each other's country for minor violations like trespass or visa overstay, often with accusations of espionage attached.", "Some of these include cases where Pakistan and India both deny citizenship to these people, leaving them stateless.", "The BBC reported in 2012 on one such case, that of Mohammed Idrees, who was held under Indian police control for approximately 13 years for overstaying his 15-day visa by 2–3 days after seeing his ill parents in 1999.Much of the 13 years were spent in prison waiting for a hearing, and more time was spent homeless or living with generous families.", "The Indian People's Union for Civil Liberties and Human Rights Law Network both decried his treatment.", "The BBC attributed some of the problems to tensions caused by the Kashmir conflict.=== Espionage laws in the UK ===Espionage is illegal in the UK under the Official Secrets Acts of 1911 and 1920.The UK law under this legislation considers espionage as \"concerning those who intend to help an enemy and deliberately harm the security of the nation\".", "According to MI5, a person commits the offence of 'spying' if they, \"for any purpose prejudicial to the safety or interests of the State\": approaches, enters or inspects a prohibited area; makes documents such as plans that are intended, calculated, or could directly or indirectly be of use to an enemy; or \"obtains, collects, records, or publishes, or communicates to any other person any secret official code word, or password, or any sketch, plan, model, article, or note, or other document which is calculated to be or might be or is intended to be directly or indirectly useful to an enemy\".", "The illegality of espionage also includes any action which may be considered 'preparatory to' spying, or encouraging or aiding another to spy.Under the penal codes of the UK, those found guilty of espionage are liable to imprisonment for a term of up to 14 years, although multiple sentences can be issued.==== Government intelligence laws and its distinction from espionage ====Government intelligence is very much distinct from espionage, and is not illegal in the UK, providing that the organisations of individuals are registered, often with the ICO, and are acting within the restrictions of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA).", "'Intelligence' is considered legally as \"information of all sorts gathered by a government or organisation to guide its decisions.", "It includes information that may be both public and private, obtained from much different public or secret sources.", "It could consist entirely of information from either publicly available or secret sources, or be a combination of the two.", "\"However, espionage and intelligence can be linked.", "According to the MI5 website, \"foreign intelligence officers acting in the UK under diplomatic cover may enjoy immunity from prosecution.", "Such persons can only be tried for spying (or, indeed, any criminal offence) if diplomatic immunity is waived beforehand.", "Those officers operating without diplomatic cover have no such immunity from prosecution\".There are also laws surrounding government and organisational intelligence and surveillance.", "Generally, the body involved should be issued with some form of warrant or permission from the government and should be enacting their procedures in the interest of protecting national security or the safety of public citizens.", "Those carrying out intelligence missions should act within not only RIPA but also the Data Protection Act and Human Rights Act.", "However, there are spy equipment laws and legal requirements around intelligence methods that vary for each form of intelligence enacted.=== War ===Painting of French spy captured during the Franco-Prussian WarIn war, espionage is considered permissible as many nations recognize the inevitability of opposing sides seeking intelligence each about the dispositions of the other.", "To make the mission easier and successful, combatants wear disguises to conceal their true identity from the enemy while penetrating enemy lines for intelligence gathering.", "However, if they are caught behind enemy lines in disguises, they are not entitled to prisoner-of-war status and subject to prosecution and punishment—including execution.The Hague Convention of 1907 addresses the status of wartime spies, specifically within \"Laws and Customs of War on Land\" (Hague IV); October 18, 1907: CHAPTER II Spies\".", "Article 29 states that a person is considered a spy who, acts clandestinely or on false pretences, infiltrates enemy lines with the intention of acquiring intelligence about the enemy and communicate it to the belligerent during times of war.", "Soldiers who penetrate enemy lines in proper uniforms for the purpose of acquiring intelligence are not considered spies but are lawful combatants entitled to be treated as prisoners of war upon capture by the enemy.", "Article 30 states that a spy captured behind enemy lines may only be punished following a trial.", "However, Article 31 provides that if a spy successfully rejoined his own military and is then captured by the enemy as a lawful combatant, he cannot be punished for his previous acts of espionage and must be treated as a prisoner of war.", "This provision does not apply to citizens who committed treason against their own country or co-belligerents of that country and may be captured and prosecuted at any place or any time regardless whether he rejoined the military to which he belongs or not or during or after the war.The ones that are excluded from being treated as spies while behind enemy lines are escaping prisoners of war and downed airmen as international law distinguishes between a disguised spy and a disguised escaper.", "It is permissible for these groups to wear enemy uniforms or civilian clothes in order to facilitate their escape back to friendly lines so long as they do not attack enemy forces, collect military intelligence, or engage in similar military operations while so disguised.", "Soldiers who are wearing enemy uniforms or civilian clothes simply for the sake of warmth along with other purposes rather than engaging in espionage or similar military operations while so attired are also excluded from being treated as unlawful combatants.Saboteurs are treated as spies as they too wear disguises behind enemy lines for the purpose of waging destruction on an enemy's vital targets in addition to intelligence gathering.", "For example, during World War II, eight German agents entered the U.S. in June 1942 as part of Operation Pastorius, a sabotage mission against U.S. economic targets.", "Two weeks later, all were arrested in civilian clothes by the FBI thanks to two German agents betraying the mission to the U.S.", "Under the Hague Convention of 1907, these Germans were classified as spies and tried by a military tribunal in Washington D.C. On August 3, 1942, all eight were found guilty and sentenced to death.", "Five days later, six were executed by electric chair at the District of Columbia jail.", "Two who had given evidence against the others had their sentences reduced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to prison terms.", "In 1948, they were released by President Harry S. Truman and deported to the American Zone of occupied Germany.The U.S. codification of enemy spies is Article 106 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.", "This provides a mandatory death sentence if a person captured in the act is proven to be \"lurking as a spy or acting as a spy in or about any place, vessel, or aircraft, within the control or jurisdiction of any of the armed forces, or in or about any shipyard, any manufacturing or industrial plant, or any other place or institution engaged in work in aid of the prosecution of the war by the United States, or elsewhere\"." ], [ "Spy fiction", "Spies have long been favorite topics for novelists and filmmakers.", "An early example of espionage literature is ''Kim'' by the English novelist Rudyard Kipling, with a description of the training of an intelligence agent in the Great Game between the UK and Russia in 19th century Central Asia.", "An even earlier work was James Fenimore Cooper's classic novel, ''The Spy,'' written in 1821, about an American spy in New York during the Revolutionary War.During the many 20th-century spy scandals, much information became publicly known about national spy agencies and dozens of real-life secret agents.", "These sensational stories piqued public interest in a profession largely off-limits to human interest news reporting, a natural consequence of the secrecy inherent in their work.", "To fill in the blanks, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st-century fiction and film.", "Attractive and sociable real-life agents such as Valerie Plame find little employment in serious fiction, however.", "The fictional secret agent is more often a loner, sometimes amoral—an existential hero operating outside the everyday constraints of society.", "Loner spy personalities may have been a stereotype of convenience for authors who already knew how to write loner private investigator characters that sold well from the 1920s to the present.Johnny Fedora achieved popularity as a fictional agent of early Cold War espionage, but James Bond is the most commercially successful of the many spy characters created by intelligence insiders during that struggle.", "Other fictional agents include Le Carré's George Smiley, and Harry Palmer as played by Michael Caine.Jumping on the spy bandwagon, other writers also started writing about spy fiction featuring female spies as protagonists, such as ''The Baroness'', which has more graphic action and sex, as compared to other novels featuring male protagonists.Spy fiction has permeated the video game world as well, in games such as ''Perfect Dark'', ''GoldenEye 007'', ''No One Lives Forever'', and the ''Metal Gear'' series.Espionage has also made its way into comedy depictions.", "The 1960s TV series ''Get Smart'', the 1983 Finnish film ''Agent 000 and the Deadly Curves'', and ''Johnny English'' film trilogy portrays an inept spy, while the 1985 movie ''Spies Like Us'' depicts a pair of none-too-bright men sent to the Soviet Union to investigate a missile.The historical novel ''The Emperor and the Spy'' highlights the adventurous life of U.S.", "Colonel Sidney Forrester Mashbir, who during the 1920s and 1930s attempted to prevent war with Japan, and when war did erupt, he became General MacArthur's top advisor in the Pacific Theater of World War Two.Black Widow is also a fictional agent who was introduced as a Russian spy, an antagonist of the superhero Iron Man.", "She later became an agent of the fictional spy agency S.H.I.E.L.D.", "and a member of the superhero team the Avengers." ], [ "See also", "* MI5* Federal Bureau of Investigation* Central Intelligence Agency* Detective* Special agent* Undercover operation* American espionage in China* Chinese espionage in the United States* Clandestine operation* Foreign agent* Intelligence assessment* History of Soviet espionage* Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)* List of intelligence agencies* List of intelligence gathering disciplines* Military intelligence* Spying on United Nations leaders by United States diplomats" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Works cited ===* " ], [ "Further reading", " Aldrich, Richard J., and Christopher Andrew, eds.", "''Secret Intelligence: A Reader'' (2nd ed.", "2018); focus on the 21st century; reprints 30 essays by scholars.", "excerpt* Andrew, Christopher, ''The Secret World: A History of Intelligence'', 2018.", "* Burnham, Frederick Russell, ''Taking Chances'', 1944.", "* Felix, Christopher pseudonym for James McCarger ''A Short Course in the Secret War, 4th Edition''.", "Madison Books, November 19, 2001.", "* Friedman, George.", "''America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies'' 2005* Gopnik, Adam, \"Spy vs. Spy vs. Spy: How valuable is espionage?", "\", ''The New Yorker'', 2 September 2019, pp. 53–59.", "\"There seems to be a paranoid paradox of espionage: the better your intelligence, the dumber your conduct; the more you know, the less you anticipate.... Hard-won information is ignored or wildly misinterpreted....", "It happens again and again that a seeming national advance in intelligence is squandered through cross-bred confusion, political rivalry, mutual bureaucratic suspicions, intergovernmental competition, and fear of the press (as well as leaks to the press), all seasoned with dashes of sexual jealousy and adulterous intrigue.\"", "(p. 54.)", "* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri.", "''In Spies, We Trust: The Story of Western Intelligence'' (2013), covers U.S. and Britain* Jenkins, Peter.", "''Surveillance Tradecraft: The Professional's Guide to Surveillance Training'' * Kahn, David, ''The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet'', 1996 revised edition.", "First published 1967.", "* Keegan, John, ''Intelligence in War: Knowledge of the Enemy from Napoleon to Al-Qaeda'', 2003.", "* Knightley, Phillip, ''The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century'', Norton, 1986.", "* Krugman, Paul, \"The American Way of Economic war: Is Washington Overusing Its Most Powerful Weapons?\"", "(review of Henry Farrell and Abraham Newman, ''Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy'', Henry Holt, 2023, 288 pp.", "), ''Foreign Affairs'', vol.", "103, no.", "1 (January/February 2024), pp.", "150–156.", "\"The U.S. dollar is one of the few currencies that almost all major banks will accept, and... the most widely used... As a result, the dollar is the currency that many companies must use... to do international business.\"", "(p.", "150.)", "\"Local banks facilitating that trade... normally... buy U.S. dollars and then use dollars to buy another local currency.", "To do so, however, the banks must have access to the U.S. financial system and... follow rules laid out by Washington.\"", "(pp.", "151–152.)", "\"But there is another, lesser-known reason why the U.S. commands overwhelming economic power.", "Most of the world's fiber-optic cables, which carry data and messages around the planet, travel through the United States.\"", "(p.", "152.)", "\"The U.S. government has installed 'splitters': prisms that divide the beams of light carrying information into two streams.", "One... goes on to the intended recipients, ... the other goes to the National Security Agency, which then uses high-powered computation to analyze the data.", "As a result, the U.S. can monitor almost all international communication.\"", "(p. 154) This has allowed the U.S. \"to effectively cut Iran out of the world financial system... Iran's economy stagnated...", "Eventually, Tehran agreed to cut back its nuclear programs in exchange for relief.\"", "(pp.", "153–154.)", "\"A few years ago, American officials... were in a panic about the Chinese company Huawei... which... seemed poised to supply 5G equipment to much of the planet thereby possibly giving China the power to eavesdrop on the rest of the world – just as the U.S. has done....", "The U.S. learned that Huawei had been dealing surreptitiously with Iran – and therefore violating U.S. sanctions.", "Then, it... used its special access to information on international bank data to show that Huawei's chief financial officer, Meng Wanzhou (... the founder's daughter), had committed bank fraud by falsely telling the British financial services company HSBC that her company was not doing business with Iran.", "Canadian authorities, acting on a U.S. request, arrested her... in December 2018.After... almost three years under house arrest... Meng... was allowed to return to China...", "But by then the prospects for Chinese dominance of 5G had vanished...\" (pp.", "154–155.)", "Farrell and Newman, writes Krugman, \"are worried about the possibility of U.S. ''Underground Empire'' overreach.", "If the U.S. weaponizes the dollar against too many countries, they might... band together and adopt alternative methods of international payment.", "If countries become deeply worried about U.S. spying, they could lay fiber-optic cables that bypass the U.S.. And if Washington puts too many restrictions on American exports, foreign firms might turn away from U.S.", "technology.\"", "(p.", "155.", ")* Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds.", "''Terrorism: essential primary sources'' Thomas Gale 2006 * Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds.", "''Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security'' (2003), worldwide recent coverage 1100 pages.", "* May, Ernest R.", "(ed.).", "''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment Before the Two World Wars'' (1984).", "* O'Toole, George.", "''Honorable Treachery: A History of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA'' 1991* Murray, Williamson, and Allan Reed Millett, eds.", "''Calculations: net assessment and the coming of World War II'' (1992).", "* Owen, David.", "''Hidden Secrets: A Complete History of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It''* Richelson, Jeffery T. ''A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (1977)* Richelson, Jeffery T. ''The U.S. Intelligence Community'' (1999, fourth edition)* Shaw, Tamsin, \"Ethical Espionage\" (review of Calder Walton, ''Spies: The Epic Intelligence War Between East and West'', Simon and Schuster, 2023, 672 pp.", "; and Cécile Fabre, ''Spying Through a Glass Darkly: The Ethics of Espionage and Counter-Intelligence'', Oxford University Press, 251 pp., 2024), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXXI, no.", "2 (8 February 2024), pp.", "32, 34–35.", "\"In Walton's view, there was scarcely a US covert action that was a long-term strategic success, with the possible exception of intervention in the Soviet-Afghan War (a disastrous military fiasco for the Soviets) and perhaps support for the anti-Soviet Solidarity movement in Poland.\"", "(p.", "34.", ")* Smith, W. Thomas Jr. ''Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency'' (2003)* Tuchman, Barbara W., ''The Zimmermann Telegram'', New York, Macmillan, 1962.", "* Warner, Michael.", "''The Rise and Fall of Intelligence: An International Security History'' (2014)* Zegart, Amy B.", "''Spies, Lies, and Algorithms: The History and Future of American Intelligence'' (2022), university textbook.", "online reviews" ], [ "External links", "* History of an espionage in Russia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Exile (1995 video game series)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Exile''''' is a series of role-playing video games created by Jeff Vogel of Spiderweb Software.", "They were released as shareware titles for Macintosh and Windows systems.", "''Exile III'' was also ported to Linux by a third party.", "There were four games released in the series.", "All of the games were later revived in the ''Avernum'' series.", "Common to all games in the ''Exile'' series are 2D graphics and basic sound.", "The graphics in the first versions of ''Exile I'' and ''II'' had simple textures, colours and outlines, which were then replaced in later versions with ''Exile III''s graphics.", "The games are designed to be non-linear and long in gameplay length." ], [ "Gameplay", "In each game, the player is required to create six characters to form a party of adventurers or may instead use a default party.", "The characters' general, combat, magic and miscellaneous skills can be customized along with the character names and graphics.", "From ''Exile II'' onward, characters can have their traits and race configured.The games have three modes including Outdoor Mode, Town Mode and Combat Mode.", "In Outdoor Mode, the party can enter a town, engage a group of enemies in Combat Mode and rest (if the party has food).", "In Town Mode, the party can talk to people, purchase from shops (provided they have enough gold), train the characters (provided they have sufficient gold and skill points), find sub-quests, pick up items (from ''Exile 2'' onward, items can be stolen) and enter Combat Mode.", "In Combat Mode, the party can attack enemies, defend themselves and pick up adjacent items.", "Combat Mode can be ended at any time in towns, but can only end outdoors when all enemies are killed.Magic is divided into Mage and Priest spell types.", "Spells for attacking can only be cast in Combat Mode.", "Some spells, such as Light spells, can be cast at any time.", "Other spells can only be cast outdoors or in town when not in Combat Mode.", "Players can create a character equipped with spells up to level 3, but higher level or certain spells must be purchased or found in special encounters." ], [ "Games", "A screenshot from the Mac edition of Exile I===''Exile I: Escape from the Pit''===The first game of the ''Exile'' trilogy released in January 1995 sees a party of newly created characters thrown from the world above into the subterranean world known as Exile.", "Once here, the party discovers a civilization formed from the outcasts of the Empire above, a culture beset by constant warfare and monsters galore.", "The party meets with many of those who wish to get revenge on the Empire for the wrongs it has done to the peoples of Exile.The characters become a rallying point around which the people of Exile who desire vengeance gather to focus their energies into finding a way to strike back against the cruel Emperor of the surface.", "Together, the party manages to assassinate Emperor Hawthorne in his throne room, banish the demon king Grah-hoth who was becoming a significant threat to the citizens of Exile, and secure an escape route to the surface.===''Exile II: Crystal Souls''===The second ''Exile'' game follows directly from the first, released in November 1996.The Empire has begun to recognise the threat the Exiles pose and begin sending their army down into Exile in huge numbers.", "To make matters worse, unknown barriers of energy are sprouting up around the world – sometimes aiding the Exiles, sometimes helping the Empire who can afford the losses much more easily than the Exiles.A new party of characters meets one of the creatures causing the barriers sprouting up in Exile and go to meet with the unknown race to negotiate.", "In the end, the party is more successful - and the Vahnatai joins with the Exiles to drive out the Empire.", "With the support of the Vahnatai the Exiles turn the tables on the Empire and successfully repulse their invasion.===''Exile III: Ruined World''===The final release in the ''Exile'' trilogy takes place some time after ''Exile II'', released in January 1997.The Linux version was ported by Boutell.com in Summer, 2000.A lot of preparation has taken place and now the Exiles are ready to send a selected few back into the light of the surface.", "However, while the members of the expedition are at first stunned by the sheer beauty of the land around them, they begin to notice that things are not as perfect as they seem.", "The slimes the party encounters are only the first part of what becomes a series of monsters and terrible occurrences that are blighting the Empire and laying it to waste.While scouting the land, as were the expedition members' orders from the nation of Exile, the members are asked by the Empire to help save the surface from its blight.", "They bring the Exiles and the Empire together as allies trying to find the cause of the destruction.A screenshot of combat in the Mac edition of Blades of Exile===''Blades of Exile''===''Blades of Exile'' was released in December 1997, consisting of three short scenarios set after the main trilogy as well as an editor that allows players to create their own scenarios, which need not be set in the ''Exile'' game world at all.", "Several hundred custom-made scenarios have been designed since the release of the game in 1997.The most prominent meeting places on the web of the ''Blades of Exile'' community are the official company-hosted internet forum.", "These forums offer support for beginning designers and players, reviews of new scenarios and general discussions about the use of the scenario editor.", "In June 2007, Jeff Vogel released the source code and game content for ''Blades of Exile'', which is currently under version 2 of the GNU General Public License." ], [ "Release", "On December 1, 1998, the first three ''Exile'' games also came packaged on a CD called the \"Exile Trilogy CD\".", "As of July 8, 2013, these games are freeware on Spiderweb Software's website." ], [ "Reception", "Reviews described the ''Exile'' trilogy as a \"throwback\" to old fashioned role-playing games, with deep, complex gameplay and simplistic graphics.", "''Computer Games Strategy Plus'' rated ''Exile: Escape from the Pit'' three and a half out of five stars, calling it \"one of the year's best shareware games.\"", "The reviewer dropped a half star for its \"primitive graphics\" but found the game addictive and recommended it to veteran players \"hungry for good, old fashioned fantasy role-playing games\".", "''Inside Mac Games'' rated ''Exile'' four out of five, calling it an Ultima-style role-playing game that required \"patience and thoroughness\" and had slightly \"cheesy\" graphics and sound.", "''Inside Mac Games'' named ''Exile'' as runner up to ''Heroes of Might and Magic: A Strategic Quest'' for the best role-playing game of 1996.", "''Inside Mac Games'' awarded ''Exile II'' 4 out 5 and said that it carried on ''Exile'' tradition as \"truly a high quality Shareware game\".", "A subsequent ''Inside Mac Games'' review said ''Exile II: Crystal Souls'' had \"a size, scope and depth of plot unmatched in Macintosh role-playing games.\"", "''Exile II: Crystal Souls'' was an honorable mention for ''MacUser''s award for the best shareware game of 1996, behind winner ''Escape Velocity''.", "''Computer Gaming World'' said that ''Exile III: Ruined World'' appears at first to be \"a shareware game with primitive graphics\" but reveals itself to be a \"remarkably deep\" traditional role-playing game with deceptive complexity.", "The reviewer praised the \"well written and witty\" NPC dialogue and elegant interface.", "Emil Pagliarulo reviewed ''Exile III'' positively for the ''Adrenaline Vault'', rating the game four out of five stars and calling it an \"engrossing, thoroughly entertaining ... epic computer role-playing game\" with simplistic presentation and \"enormous depth\".", "''Inside Mac Games'' rated ''Exile III'' 4 out of 5, saying that despite superficial similarities to previous games in the series, \"enough new features, situations and challenges\" would keep newcomers and veterans interested.", "The review concluded that ''Exile III'' was \"more of the same old thing: inexpensive, challenging, interesting, exciting and entertaining.\"", "''Inside Mac Games'' called ''Exile III'' \"huge\" and \"highly detailed\", with quality graphics, \"an elegant interface\", and \"one of the largest and most detailed worlds and plots a fantasy role-playing game has offered\".", "''Exile III'' received the 1998 ZDNet Shareware Game of the Year award, selected by the editors of Ziff-Davis magazines ''FamilyPC'', ''PC Magazine'', and ''Computer Gaming World''.", "''Inside Mac Games'' awarded ''Blades of Exile'' 3 out of 5, calling it \"a nice, solid CRPG\" that offered value for money and ran bug-free.", "The reviewer found the introductory scenario lacking in story, with too much repetitive combat and \"plot-checks that have the potential to really aggravate\"." ], [ "''Avernum''", "Spiderweb Software has remade the ''Exile'' trilogy twice.", "The games were remade in 2000–2002 as the ''First Trilogy'' of the ''Avernum'' series, which replaced the two-dimensional tile-based graphics system of ''Exile'' with an isometric one and made numerous changes to the RPG system and some changes to the content.", "The remakes were followed by a remake of ''Blades of Exile'', ''Blades of Avernum'', in 2004.The ''Exile'' trilogy was rebooted for a second time with the release of ''Avernum: Escape from the Pit'' (2011), ''Avernum 2: Crystal Souls'' (2015), and ''Avernum 3: Ruined World'' (2018); the remakes featured an enhanced game engine and expanded storylines." ], [ "Engine and interface", "While the game engine itself remained relatively similar between all games in the series, the interface went through many changes.", "Each iteration sported a new layout and color scheme, as well the individual elements, like the inventory and character roster boxes, were also changed to display information differently.", "Between ''Exile I'' and ''Exile II'' the most notable difference is a background color change as well as a change to the border of the play window.", "Between ''Exile II'' and ''Exile III'' the interface was changed significantly in that the colors and window styles were changed again but the player roster was overhauled and an inventory window was added.", "The changes between ''Exile III'' and ''Blades of Exile'' were more subtle and were again of the color and style nature." ], [ "See also", "List of open source games" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Spiderweb Software* Blades of Exile Source Code* Encyclopedia Ermariana - an extensive encyclopedia of Exile*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kazan" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 65th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Kazan's reign spanned the years from 984 through 986." ], [ "Biography", "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (''imina'') was Morosada''-shinnō'' (師貞親王).Morasada was the eldest son of Emperor Reizei.", "The prince's mother was Fujiwara no Kaneko/''Kaishi'' (藤原懐子), who was a daughter of ''sesshō'' Fujiwara no Koretada.", "Morasada was also the brother of Emperor Sanjō." ], [ "Events of Kazan's life", "Emperor Kazan, who was fooled into abdicating, on his way to the temple where he will become a Buddhist monk – woodblock prin by Yoshitoshi Tsukioka (1839–1892).Prince Morasada was seventeen years of age at the time of the succession.", "* '''October 6, 984''' (''Eikan 1, 27th day of the 8th month''): In the 15th year of Emperor En'yu's reign (円融天皇十五年), he abdicated; and the succession (''senso'') was received by a nephew.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kazan is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').He commissioned the Shūi Wakashū.", "* '''985''' (''Kanna 1, 4th month''): Fujiwara no Tokiakira and his brother, Yasusuke, contended with Fujiwara no Sukitaka and Ōe-no Masahira in a sword fight in Kyoto.", "Masahira lost the fingers of his left hand.", "The two brothers fled; and after careful searching, Tokiakira was eventually located in Ōmi Province.He faced a tough political struggle from the Fujiwara family; and at the age of nineteen, he was manipulated into abandoning the throne by Fujiwara no Kaneie.", "Kaneie told him that Ichijo (Kaneie's maternal grandson) already held the Regalia, and that there was no purpose in Kazan continuing to rule.", "Under some pressure, Kazan acquiesced, and went to the Gangyō-ji temple.", "He was accompanied by Kaneie's second son, Michikane, who was also to enter religion.", "When they arrived, however, Michikane said he would like to see his parents one final time while he was still a layman.", "Michikane never came back.", "* '''986''' (''Kanna 2, 6th month''): Kazan abdicated, and took up residence at Gangyō-ji where he became a Buddhist monk; and his new priestly name was Nyūkaku.", "* '''August 23, 986''' (''Kanna 2, 16th day of the 7th month''): Iyasada''-shinnō'' was appointed as heir and crown prince at age 11.This followed the convention that two imperial lineages took the throne in turn, although Emperor Ichijō was in fact Iyasada's junior.", "He thus gained the nickname ''Sakasa-no moke-no kimi'' (the imperial heir in reverse).", "When Emperor Kanzan abandoned the world for holy orders, one grandson of Kaneie ascended to the throne as Emperor Ichijō (the 66th sovereign); and in due course, another grandson would follow on the throne as Emperor Sanjō (the 67th sovereign).Nyūkaku went on various pilgrimages and 're-founded' the Saigoku Kannon Pilgrimage, which was established in the early 8th century by a monk to the name of Tokudo Shonin.", "This pilgrimage involves travelling to 33 locations across the eight provinces of the Western Japan.Some scholars doubt that Kazan, in his unstable mental condition at the time was involved with the founding of the pilgrimage, thereby leaving all of the credit to Shonin.It is suggested by many scholars that the mental health of Kazan, particularly in later life, was not stable; and therefore, living as a monk may have caused deteriorating behavior.Decorative emblems (''kiri'') of the Hosokawa clan are found at Ryōan-ji.", "Kazan is amongst six other emperors entombed near what had been the residence of Hosokawa Katsumoto before the Ōnin War.", "''Daijō-tennō'' Kazan died at the age of 41 on the 8th day of the 2nd month of the fifth year of ''Kankō'' (1008).The actual site of Kazan's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Kyoto.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kazan's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kamiya no hotori no misasagi''.He is buried amongst the \"Seven Imperial Tombs\" at Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto.", "The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Kazan is today named ''Kinugasa-yama.''", "The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Kazan died.", "These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers (''misasagi'') which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Kazan's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included: * ''Kampaku'', Fujiwara no Yoritada, 924–989.", "* ''Daijō-daijin'', Fujiwara no Yoritada.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Fujiwara no Kaneie, 929–990.", "* ''Naidaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Dainagon''" ], [ "Eras of Kazan's reign", "The years of Kazan's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "* ''Eikan'' (983–985)* ''Kanna'' (985–986)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no ''Shishi'' (藤原忯子; 969–985), Fujiwara no Tamemitsu’s daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no ''Teishi'' (藤原諟子; d.1035), Fujiwara no Yoritada’s daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no ''Chōshi'' (藤原姚子; 971–989), Fujiwara no Asateru's daughterConsort (Nyōgo): Princess Enshi (婉子女王; 972–998), Imperial Prince Tamehira's daughterNakatsukasa (中務), Taira no Sukeyuki's daughter, – Nurse of Emperor KazanImperial Prince Kiyohito (清仁親王; ca.", "998–1030) – Ancestor of Shirakawa family (白川家)princess (d.1024), Fujiwara no ''Shoshi''’s lady-in-waitingprincessNakatsukasa (中務), Taira no ''Heishi'' (平平子), Taira no Suketada's daughter Imperial Prince Akinori (昭登親王; 998–1035)princessprincess(from unknown women)Kakugen (覚源; 1000–1065), a Buddhist monk (Gon-no-Sōjō, 権僧正)Shinkan (深観; 1001–1050), a Buddhist monk (Gon-no-Daisōzu, 権大僧都)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Moscher, Gouverneur.", "(1978).", "''Kyoto: A Contemplative Guide.''", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Odai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ichijō" ], [ "Introduction", " literally means ''first street'' in Japanese.", "It can refer to:Emperor Ichijō (一条天皇 ''-tennō''), the 66th Emperor of Japan (980–1011)" ], [ "Japanese surname", " The Ichijō family (一条家 ''-ke''), one of the five regent houses (''go-sekke'') of the Fujiwara clan in Japan* Kazuya Ichijō, a Japanese voice actor" ], [ "Fictional characters", "* Kaoru Ichijou of ''Kamen Rider Kuuga''* ''Mashiro Ichijō'' of ''After School Nightmare''.", "* Hikaru Ichijō of the Super Dimension Fortress Macross.", "* Ichijō of ''Pani Poni''* Eika Ichijō of ''Sky Girls''* Sumireko Ichijō and Kaoruko Ichijō of ''Futakoi''* Takuma Ichijō of ''Vampire Knight''* Kou Ichijō of ''Persona 4''* Haruhiko Ichijō of ''Myriad Colors Phantom World''* Hotaru Ichijō of ''Non Non Biyori''* Supreme Commander Ichijō of ''Choujin Sentai Jetman''* Ryōma Ichijō of ''Love Stage''* Raku Ichijō of '' Nisekoi''* Ichijō Ayane of '' Full Metal Daemon: Muramasa'' (“Ichijō” being used as a given name)" ], [ "Places", "* , one of numbered east-west streets in the ancient capital of Heian-kyō, present-day Kyoto" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Sanjō" ], [ "Introduction", "In Japanese, may refer to:" ], [ "People", "Emperor Sanjō (三条天皇; Sanjō-tennō), the 67th emperor of Japan , a Japanese kuge family" ], [ "Fictional characters", "Kairi Sanjō and Yukari Sanjō, fictional characters from the manga series ''Shugo Chara!", "''Reika Sanjō, fictional characters from the anime series ''Invincible Steel Man Daitarn 3''Yukito Sanjō, fictional character from the ''Bakuryu Sentai Abaranger''" ], [ "Places", " Sanjō, Niigata (三条市; Sanjō-shi), a city in Niigata Prefecture, Japan* , one of numbered east-west streets in the ancient capital of Heian-kyō, present-day Kyoto* , one of numbered east-west streets in the ancient capital of Heijō-kyō, present-day Nara* Sanjō Station (disambiguation), train stations \"山上\" and \"三条\"" ], [ "See also", "*Sanyo" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elvis Costello" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Declan Patrick MacManus''' (born 25 August 1954), known professionally as '''Elvis Costello''', is an English singer, songwriter, record producer, author and television presenter.", "Per ''Rolling Stone'', Costello \"reinvigorated the literate, lyrical traditions of Bob Dylan and Van Morrison with the raw energy and sass that were principal ethics of punk\", noting the \"construction of his songs, which set densely layered wordplay in an ever-expanding repertoire of styles.\"", "His first album, ''My Aim Is True'' (1977), is widely regarded as one of the best debuts in popular music history.", "It spawned no hit singles, but contains some of Costello's best-known songs, including the ballad \"Alison\".", "Costello's next two albums, ''This Year's Model'' (1978) and ''Armed Forces'' (1979), recorded with his backing band the Attractions, helped define the new wave genre.", "From late 1977 through early 1980, each of the eight singles he released reached the UK Top 30.His biggest hit single, \"Oliver's Army\" (1979) sold more than 400,000 copies in Britain.", "He has had more modest commercial success in the US, but has earned much critical praise.", "From 1977 through the early 2000s, Costello's albums regularly ranked high on the ''Village Voice'' Pazz & Jop critics' poll, with ''This Year's Model'' and ''Imperial Bedroom'' (1982) voted the best album of their respective years.", "His biggest US hit single, \"Veronica\" (1989), reached number 19 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.Born into a musical family, Costello was raised with knowledge and appreciation of a wide range of musical styles and an insider's view of the music business.", "His opportunity to begin a professional career as a musician coincided with the rise of punk rock in England.", "The primitivism brought into fashion by punk led Costello to disguise his musical savvy at the beginning of his career, but his stylistic range has come to encompass R&B, country, jazz, baroque pop, Tin Pan Alley and classical music.", "He has released album-length collaborations with the classical ensemble The Brodsky Quartet, the New Orleans R&B songwriter and producer Allen Toussaint and the hip-hop group The Roots.", "Costello has written more than a dozen songs with Paul McCartney and had a long-running songwriting partnership with Burt Bacharach.Costello has had hits with covers of songs, including Sam & Dave's \"I Can't Stand Up for Falling Down\", Jerry Chesnut's \"Good Year for the Roses\" and Charles Aznavour's \"She\".", "One of the songs he is best known for, \"(What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love, and Understanding\", was written by Nick Lowe and recorded by Lowe's group Brinsley Schwarz in 1974, but remained obscure until Costello released his version in 1979.Costello's own songs have been recorded by artists including Linda Ronstadt, George Jones, Dave Edmunds, Chet Baker and Alison Krauss.Costello has won two Grammy awards, two Ivor Novello Awards awards, four Edison awards, an MTV Video Music Award, a BAFTA award, an ASCAP Founders award and a Gemini award.", "In 2003, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "In 2016, he was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.", "From 2008 to 2010,he hosted a television show, ''Spectacle: Elvis Costello with...'', on which he interviewed other musicians.", "In 2015, he published a well-received memoir, ''Unfaithful Music & Disappearing Ink''." ], [ "Early life", "Elvis Costello was born Declan Patrick MacManus, on 25 August 1954, at St Mary's Hospital in Paddington, West London, the only child of a record shop worker and a jazz musician.", "Both parents were from the Liverpool area and had moved to London together a few years earlier.", "Costello's father was Catholic and of Irish descent, but his mother is neither.=== Family background ===Costello's mother, Lillian MacManus (née Ablett, 1927-2021), was born and raised in Toxteth, Liverpool, the daughter of a gas-main layer and a mother who became increasingly disabled by rheumatoid arthritis as Lillian grew up.", "Responsible for caring for her younger brother and sick mother, Lillian left school at 13 and took the first of a series of jobs at music stores.", "After moving to London with her future husband Ross in 1951, she took a job in the record department in Selfridges department store and continued selling records through the 1960s.", "Even after she no longer worked selling records, Lillian maintained a keen interest in a wide variety of music, including the popular music of the day.Costello's father, Ross MacManus (1927-2011), was a professional trumpet player and singer, born and raised in Birkenhead, across the River Mersey from Liverpool.", "He began his career in music in the late 1940s, playing trumpet in bebop bands in Birkenhead and Liverpool.", "He segued to playing trumpet and singing in modern jazz bands after moving to London in 1951.By 1954, he was sufficiently well-known for his son's birth to be announced in the ''New Musical Express''.", "From 1955 to 1968, he was a featured singer in Joe Loss Orchestra, one of Britain's most popular big bands.", "Ross had a solo cabaret act from 1969 through the 1990s, playing workingmen's social clubs in the North of England, Scotland, and Wales.", "Ross recorded for small record labels under a variety of aliases, including Day Costello – Costello being Ross's paternal grandmother's maiden name.", "He also recorded advertising jingles.", "In 1973, he sang the \"Secret Lemonade Drinker\" jingle featured in a series of popular and long-running advertisements for R. Whites.Ross's father, Patrick Matthew McManus, known as Pat, was also a professional musician.", "Pat was raised in an orphanage from age eight, where he learned to play trumpet.", "He later played trumpet as an army bandsman, a ship's musician for the White Star Line, and an orchestra musician in music halls and in theaters showing silent films.", "Costello has said that Pat, being the first in the family to make a career in music, is the reason he himself is a musician.=== Childhood and early musical influences ===Costello spent most of his childhood in Twickenham, in west London, before moving to Liverpool with his mother in 1970.Costello was raised Roman Catholic and served as an altar boy until he was 14.Costello's parents had separated by the time Costello was ten years old, after which he was raised by his mother.", "Ross continued to be a significant presence in Costello's life and the two remained close until Ross's death in 2011.Costello has said that a childhood spent watching his father work gave him an innate sense of how to be a musician but also an understanding that a career in music was a job like any other, requiring discipline and hard work.Costello's parents never insisted he take music lessons or otherwise pushed him to follow in the family business.", "Instead, they raised him in a home filled with music, encouraged his musical curiosity, and supported his efforts to find his own way toward a career in music.", "Lillian told journalists that she knew before he was born he would have a career in music and that she listened to a broad range of music while she was pregnant with him with the intention of giving him an early start in music appreciation.As a young child, Costello's musical influences came from his parents' record collection, which encompassed a wide range of styles but centered on traditional pop and jazz.", "Ross's job with the Joe Loss Orchestra required him to sing many of the pop hits of the day for the band's weekly radio show.", "To learn these songs, Ross received demonstration copies of the original artists' records, which he brought home to rehearse.", "When Costello grew old enough to have an interest in the current pop hits, Ross began giving him five or six of these demonstration records per week.", "Costello has said, \"That's why I know so many songs.", "\"Chief among Costello's early favorites among the hit-makers of the day were the Beatles.", "Costello has said that, having turned nine years old in 1963, he was exactly the right age to experience the full force of Beatles fandom as he grew up.", "He has described the Beatles as his biggest musical influence.", "Costello was also deeply impressed by the songs of his future collaborator Burt Bacharach, which he knew through the hits British artists Cilla Black and Dusty Springfield had with them.As Costello grew into his teens, his favorites included British beat groups the Kinks, Small Faces and the Who, Jamaican rocksteady and reggae acts who were popular in Britain, and especially Motown artists, who he knew mainly through their British hit singles and through the Motown Chartbusters compilation series.", "By the time Costello reached his mid-teens, Joni Mitchell had become an important and enduring influence on him.", "When Costello moved to Liverpool, he found he did not enjoy much of the progressive rock that was popular with his peers, so, casting around for music he might like, he developed an interest in the Grateful Dead and other folk rock groups like the Byrds and the Band, and through them, country music.=== Education and decision to pursue a career in music ===Costello was a well-behaved if sometimes argumentative student, but not generally an academically outstanding one.", "Not having scored well enough on his eleven-plus exams to go on to grammar school, he attended a secondary modern school in Hounslow and then a comprehensive school in Everton, Liverpool, for sixth form.", "Costello did, however, show an early talent for writing.", "His mother told a journalist that, when Costello was 11 years old, his school entered him into a writing contest held by the ''The Times'' intended for people aged 16 to 25, for which he won a prize.", "As he finished secondary school, he earned one A-level, in English, despite having made a firm decision to pursue a career in music a few months earlier and putting little effort into his final months of school.Although he never had any alternative career plan, Costello had previously been reluctant to commit to a career in music, partly because his upbringing had made him aware of the potential pitfalls involved.", "The shock of witnessing a teenage friend's death in a traffic accident changed his mind.", "He would later write, \"Suddenly, everything but music seemed like a waste of precious time.", "\"Costello completed his formal education in 1972 and, still living at home with his mother, set out to find a job that would earn him a steady wage while he pursued a career in music.", "He soon took a job as a computer operator at the Midland Bank data center, in the Merseyside town of Bootle, because, at £20 a week, it paid slightly better than other unskilled work he felt he was qualified for.", "According to Costello, the job consisted of essentially manual labor such as mounting tape reels and loading punched cards.", "Because the job involved frequent periods of waiting for the mainframe computers to complete their tasks before beginning them on the next one, it gave Costello time to write songs while at work.", "Except for a few months in 1973 when he worked as a clerk at the Midland Bank Putney branch, he continued to work full-time as a computer operator until a few weeks before his first album was released in July 1977." ], [ "Music career", "=== 1969–1976: Pre-professional career ===Costello began writing songs and teaching himself to play guitar by age 14.To test his songs in front of an audience, he performed them in folk clubs that permitted amateur musicians to perform unpaid.", "He played these clubs regularly in London and continued in similar clubs when he moved to Liverpool at age 16, although folk music venues that welcomed original songs were scarcer in Liverpool than in London.", "By 17, he was occasionally being paid a little money.", "On the eve of the release of his debut album in 1977, Costello told a journalist that by that time he had written hundreds of songs.==== Rusty ====At the beginning of 1972, Costello was invited to join a folk-rock band called Rusty by the band's founder, an 18-year-old veteran of the Liverpool music scene named Allan Mayes.", "As other members left, Rusty soon became a duo, with Mayes and Costello singing and playing acoustic guitars.", "For a little over a year, Rusty played regularly in small venues like pubs, clubs, schools, and community centers, mostly in and around Liverpool, unpaid or for small amounts of money.", "In Mayes's estimation, Costello was already a talented songwriter, able to quickly write songs in a variety of styles, and could sing like Neil Young or Robbie Robertson.", "Mayes has said he introduced Costello to Brinsley Schwarz, a band that would be an important influence on him.", "While in Rusty, Costello wrote an early version of a song he would record in 1980 as \"Ghost Train\", although by then little remained of the Rusty version except the central narrative idea of a married double act making their way through the low end of show business.", "In 2022, Costello reunited with Mayes to record and release an EP called ''The Resurrection of Rust''.", "The EP contained songs that were typical of Rusty's shows in 1972, including the early version of \"Ghost Train\", then called \"Maureen and Sam\".==== Declan Costello ====By early 1973, Costello had determined that the music scene in Liverpool was too small to support his ambition to have a career in music, so he arranged to transfer from his job as a computer operator in the Midland Bank data center in Bootle to a position as a clerk at the bank's Putney branch.", "Returning to London, Costello moved into the same Twickenham flat where he had lived with his mother a few years earlier, by then occupied by his father (Ross), Ross's second wife, and their infant son.", "When booking himself into London clubs, he began using the name Declan Costello, adopting a family name that Ross had once made a record under, because it was easier to spell and understand than MacManus when he spoke on the phone.", "Around this time, Costello accompanied Ross to Costello's first professional recording session, for the R. White's \"Secret Lemonade Drinker\" commercial jingle.", "Ross sang the lead vocal while Costello played guitar and sang backing vocals.==== Flip City ====In the second half of 1973, Costello formed a band called Flip City with several slightly older men who, like him, were fans of Brinsley Schwarz and other pub rock bands.", "The members of Flip City also shared Costello's enthusiasm for The Band, the Grateful Dead, and Clover.", "For most of 1974, Costello shared a rented house in southwest London with some of his bandmates.", "Flip City played the London pub rock circuit through the end of 1975, occasionally opening for more prominent bands such as Dr. Feelgood, but generally making little money and attracting little notice.", "Flip City's performances consisted of a mix of Costello's original songs and covers of rock, R&B, and country songs.", "Their repertoire of Costello originals included early versions of songs that would appear on his first two albums as \"Pay It Back\", \"Miracle Man\", \"Living in Paradise\", and \"Radio Radio\".", "Costello wrote all but one Flip City's original songs, did most of the singing, and chose the cover songs they played.", "A friend from those days later told a journalist, \"It wasn't so much that he imposed the ideas; he was the one who ''had'' the ideas.\"", "None of the other members of Flip City shared Costello's commitment to pursuing a career in music and some disapproved of his desire to make money from his music.Costello became engaged to marry a former schoolmate in late 1973.By then he had found a job as a computer operator at the Elizabeth Arden cosmetics factory in North Acton, in northwest London, similar to the one he had in Bootle and with similarly low wages.", "By early 1975, Costello was a husband and father and was struggling to support his family.", "Flip City's live engagements added little to his income, rarely paying more than the band's expenses.Costello recorded demos with Flip City at several sessions from mid-1974 through mid-1975, hoping to use them to get live bookings, secure a recording contract, or sell Costello's songs for other artists to record.", "All but the first of these sessions were at a small studio owned by Dave Robinson, future Stiff Records founder.", "Robinson later said that he thought Flip City \"could not play at all\" but Costello was talented and ought to \"find a real band.", "\"After Costello became successful, Flip City's demos were widely bootleged, often misleadingly labeled to imply they were outtakes from the ''My Aim Is True'' sessions or otherwise affiliated with Stiff Records.", "The only Flip City recording to have been officially released is Costello's song \"Imagination (Is a Powerful Deceiver)\", recorded in early 1975, which appeared as a bonus track on the 1993 and 2001 reissues of ''My Aim Is True''.", "In the liner notes to the 2001 reissue, Costello wrote that, in retrospect, the song sounded to him like \"a very early attempt to write a song like 'Alison'.", "\"==== D.P.", "Costello ====Even before disbanding Flip City in late 1975, Costello was writing songs he did not include in the band's repertoire.", "He recorded some of these as solo demos for Dave Robinson in mid-1975.For the next year, he shopped these and other solo demos to music publishers and record companies, hoping to be hired either as a songwriter or a recording artist.", "He sent out as many as 20 songs on a single tape to publishers, not yet realizing that no publisher would have the patience to listen to so many songs.", "Sometimes he went to publishers' offices to perform his songs in person.", "None of this generated anything but rejections until he began creating \"show reels\" of no more than six of what he believed were his most attention-getting songs, selected to appeal to the recipient of each demo tape.By February 1976, Costello was booking himself into clubs as a solo act under the name D.P.", "Costello, D.P.", "being his initials and a nickname he was sometimes called by his family.", "While working as D.P.", "Costello, he learned to sing and play guitar very loudly and developed a forceful stage presence, although he was still playing to small audiences for very little money.", "Few of the songs he had played with Flip City were included in these performances.", "Instead, he was debuting some of the songs that would start to get the attention of the music industry, such as \"Mystery Dance\" and \"Wave a White Flag\".", "Costello included both songs on a six-track demo tape he sent to London radio presenter Charlie Gillett, who thought \"Wave a White Flag\" was the best of the six.", "Gillett played several songs from the tape on his radio show later that year, the first time any Costello song received airplay.Sometime in 1976, lack of money forced Costello, his wife and their toddler son to move in with relatives near Heathrow Airport, on the far west side of London.", "This meant Costello's commute to work in North Acton took him past the Hoover Building in Perivale.", "Around the same time, he was starting to become aware of the nascent punk movement, although he would not hear any of the British punk bands until they began releasing records.", "He was, however, inspired by the Modern Lovers' song \"Roadrunner\", with its reference to such quotidian landmarks as the Stop & Shop, to write a song about the historical Art Deco building he rode past every day.", "Although he did not record it until 1980, Costello regarded this song, \"Hoover Factory\", as an artistic breakthrough.", "In the period just prior, he had been trying to imitate songwriters Randy Newman and John Prine.", "\"Hoover Factory\", he later recalled, got him \"through the door to a different, less ingratiating way of speaking\" in his songwriting.", "The next song he wrote was \"Radio Sweetheart\", which would become the B-side of his first single.=== 1976–1977: ''My Aim Is True'' ===In mid-August 1976, Costello included \"Mystery Dance\" and \"Radio Sweetheart\" on a demo tape he gave to Stiff Records, a new independent label that had just released its first single.", "Partly due to the airplay received from Gillett around the same time, Costello was soon evaluating offers from several record companies, including Gillett's own Oval Records.", "Costello chose to work with Stiff Records because they seemed prepared to move the fastest.", "Stiff had been founded by Jake Riviera, who managed several acts Costello admired, and Dave Robinson.", "Nick Lowe, whom Costello was on friendly terms with because he had attended so many performances by Lowe's band Brinsley Schwarz, was the label's first artist and soon became its in-house producer.Following a successful test-session in mid-September at Pathway Studios, an inexpensive studio in North London, Stiff agreed to finance more sessions for Costello with Clover, an American country-rock band from Marin County, California, as the backing band.", "Starting in late November or early December, Costello travelled to Headley Grange in East Hampshire, where Clover were living, to spend the day rehearsing and working out arrangements for a batch of his songs and then recording the songs with the band the next day at Pathway.", "Costello still held a full-time office job, so the sessions were spaced over several weeks to accommodate his work schedule and Stiff's tight finances.", "''My Aim Is True'' was recorded and mixed in six four-hour sessions for a total cost of about £1,000.The final mix was completed in late January 1977.Producer Nick Lowe, recording engineer Barry Farmer and Clover bassist John Ciambotti have all said they found Costello confident, well-prepared, and mature beyond his years during the making of the album.By February 1977, Riviera and Robinson, who were now Costello's managers, had given him his new stage name, Elvis.", "The reference to Elvis Presley, who was still alive at the time, was simply intended to get attention.", "Costello neither particularly liked nor disliked Presley.", "Because Costello had seen his father, Ross, work under a variety of stage names, he gave little thought to the name change.", "Riviera and Robinson also helped give Costello a distinctive appearance that contrasted with the contemporaneous ideas how pop stars looked; they swapped the unobtrusive rimless glasses Costello had worn to correct astigmatism since he was a teenager for a pair with large black frames.Costello's first single, \"Less than Zero\", was released at the end of March 1977.It received a few brief, mixed reviews in the British music press and sold very few copies.", "Two further singles, \"Alison\" and \"(The Angels Wanna Wear My) Red Shoes\", also sold poorly; the former would become one of his best-regarded and best-known songs.", "However, Costello was receiving increasingly prominent, positive coverage in the British music press.", "''My Aim Is True'' had been completed since the end of January but its release was delayed, first because Stiff had wanted to release records by other artists who seemed more tied to transient music trends and then because of legal difficulties with Stiff's distributor, Island Records.", "It was released on 22 July 1977.Two weeks earlier, Costello had left his job as a computer operator at Elizabeth Arden on the condition that Stiff pay him, as an advance on future royalties, a regular stipend equal to the wages he had been earning at his job.=== 1977–1979: Peak pop stardom ===In mid-June 1977, Costello held auditions for a bassist and keyboardist for a backing band for a tour to promote ''My Aim Is True'', wanting a sparser sound than on the album.", "Pete Thomas, formerly of pub-rock band Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers, who were managed by Riviera, agreed to be drummer, although Thomas was then living in California and needed to be brought back to England.", "Steve Goulding and Andrew Bodnar, rhythm section of the Rumour, also participated in these audition sessions, so that Costello could test how the musicians auditioning played as part of a band.", "Chosen were bassist Bruce Thomas (no relation to Pete), who was 28 years old and had ten years' experience in professional bands, the most successful being the Sutherland Brothers and Quiver; and keyboardist Steve Nieve (then Steve Nason), a 19-year-old student at the Royal College of Music who had formal musical training but no experience in any kind of pop group.", "The band, soon named the Attractions, would be Costello's touring and recording band for the next seven years.==== \"Watching the Detectives\" and commercial breakthrough ====Costello used the time with Goulding and Bodnar to arrange and rehearse \"Watching the Detectives\".", "He recorded the song with them at Pathway a few days later.", "Costello had written the song a few weeks earlier, partly inspired by the Clash's newly released debut album.", "Some of the musical ideas, which Nieve fleshed out when he overdubbed his piano and organ parts a few weeks later, were inspired by film scores Bernard Herrmann had done for Alfred Hitchcock.", "Costello later called the recording of \"Watching the Detectives\" his first experience of \"making records as opposed to recording some songs in a room\".", "The song would be released as a non-album single in the UK and as a track on the US version of ''My Aim Is True''.", "''My Aim Is True'' received extensive, favorable coverage in the UK music press through a combination of effective publicity stunts, such as Costello busking in front of the London hotel hosting the CBS Records business convention, and genuine enthusiasm for his music among music journalists.", "The album reached number 14 on the UK Albums Chart within a few weeks of its release.", "\"Watching the Detectives\", released in mid-October, reaching number 15 in the UK Singles Chart, becoming Costello's first single to chart in any country.", "This was the first of an unbroken streak of eight Costello singles to reach the UK top 30.When Costello began touring the US in mid-November, he received prominent coverage in the US press, even though he played venues holding fewer than a thousand people.", "By this time, Costello had signed to Columbia Records, who released ''My Aim Is True'' in the US in early November.", "The album gradually climbed to number 32 on the US ''Billboard'' Top LPs & Tape chart and was named among the best albums of the year by US music critics.", "In mid-December, Costello and the Attractions appeared on ''Saturday Night Live'', where they angered the show's producer by unexpectedly playing the then-unrecorded song \"Radio Radio\" during the live broadcast.By late 1977, Costello had moved from Stiff Records to Radar Records, a new label founded by an associate of Jake Riviera.", "Riviera had split from Dave Robinson and was now Costello's sole manager.", "For the next year and a half, Costello's records were released on Radar in Britain.==== ''This Year's Model'' ====Costello recorded his second album and his first with the Attractions, ''This Year's Model'', during short breaks from touring, from November 1977 through January 1978.Produced by Nick Lowe, it was recorded at Eden Studios, in west London, in eleven days.", "Inspirations for the album's sound included 1960s beat groups like the Who, the Kinks and Small Faces, as well as contemporary acts like Talking Heads, but the biggest influence was the Rolling Stones' album ''Aftermath'' (1966).", "Costello himself called ''This Year's Model'' \"a ghost version of ''Aftermath''\" and \"This Year's Girl\" an answer song to the Rolling Stones' \"Stupid Girl\".Costello onstage at Massey Hall, Toronto, April 1978Most of the songs on ''This Year's Model'' were written while Costello was still working a full-time office job, before his first album was released.", "Among them was \"(I Don't Want to Go to) Chelsea\", which was released as the album's first single in early March 1978, reaching number 16 on the UK Singles Chart.", "The second single, \"Pump It Up\", which reached number 24, was written later, while Costello was on tour with other Stiff acts, in reaction to what he later called his \"first exposure to idiotic rock and roll decadence.\"", "Upon release in March, ''This Year's Model'' entered the UK Albums Chart at number 4.The US version of the album dropped \"(I Don't Want to Go to) Chelsea\" and \"Night Rally\", a song written in response to the rise of the British National Front, and replaced them with \"Radio Radio\".", "The US release reached number 30 on the ''Billboard'' chart but spent fewer weeks on the chart than ''My Aim Is True''.", "\"Radio Radio\" was released as a non-album single in the UK in October 1978, where it reached number 29.", "''This Year's Model'' was highly praised by critics in Britain and the US.", "''Melody Maker'' called it an \"achievement so comprehensive, so inspired, that it exhausts superlatives.\"", "The ''NME'' review read similarly, saying the album was \"so ridiculously good that one's immediate inclinations are to clamber effusively over the top, superlative peaking superlative.\"", "The ''Village Voice'' Pazz & Jop critics' poll voted it the best album of 1978.", "''Rolling Stone'' named it among the best five albums of 1978.For the seven months following the completion of ''This Year's Model'', Costello and the Attractions continued touring Britain, Europe and North America, playing larger venues and debuting new songs that Costello was writing for his next album.", "In July 1978, Costello performed at the Danish Roskilde Festival, topping the bill with three other artists, premiering the song \"Oliver's Army\" that would become his biggest hit in the UK.==== ''Armed Forces'' ====Costello and the Attractions recorded his third album, ''Armed Forces'', at Eden Studios in six weeks from August and September 1978.It was again produced by Nick Lowe, but Costello himself provided greater creative control.", "Like ''This Year's Model'', the album's influences came from the music Costello and the Attractions listened to while touring, from the Berlin-era records of David Bowie and Iggy Pop to ABBA and Kraftwerk.", "Costello later said that ''Armed Forces'' was his first album of songs he wrote with an awareness of having an audience.", "The album's lyrics reflected his experiences on the road in the US, as well his continued concern over the rise of far-right political groups in the UK; the album was originally to be called ''Emotional Fascism''.", "Just before the album's completion in late September, Costello and the Attractions played to an audience of 150,000 in Brockwell Park, south London, as part of the second Rock Against Racism music festival.", "A few weeks later, they began six months of touring that included, for the first time, Japan and Australia, as well as the UK, Europe, Canada and the US.", "Released in early January 1979, ''Armed Forces'' debuted at number 2 on the UK Albums Chart, and spent 28 weeks on the chart.", "In the US, it spent 25 weeks on the ''Billboard'' chart, peaking at number 10 in mid-March.", "The US release replaced \"Sunday's Best\" with Costello's cover of Lowe's \"(What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love, and Understanding\".", "Costello's best-selling single, \"Oliver's Army\", was released in Britain in February.", "Costello has said he wrote the song after his first visit to Northern Ireland and was inspired by seeing young British soldiers on the streets of Belfast as a part of the Troubles.", "The song reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart.", "It was also his biggest hit single in the Republic of Ireland, reaching number 4 on the Irish singles chart.", "The second single, \"Accidents Will Happen\", was released in early May.", "According to Costello, the song was written in response to his own marital infidelities.", "The song reached number 28 in the UK.", "In the US, it reached number 101, missing the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 but charting higher than any previous Costello single.The concert tour promoting ''Armed Forces'' was marked by bad publicity.", "Costello and the Attractions played some shows that audiences considered too brief and refused to return for encores.", "Audiences in Sydney, Australia, and Berkley, California, responded by vandalizing the concert venues.", "After a concert in Columbus, Ohio, on 15 March, Costello got into a drunken argument at a hotel bar with members of the Stephen Stills band and entourage.", "The argument culminated in Costello disparaging James Brown and Ray Charles with racially charged insults, in comments he would later call \"the exact opposite of my true feelings\".", "When Costello's comments were reported in the press a few weeks later, the bad publicity was sufficiently severe and widespread to be regarded, including by Costello himself, as the reason he never achieved the top-level commercial success in the US that had been predicted for him.", "In June, Costello had a hit as a songwriter when Dave Edmunds released his recording of \"Girls Talk\", a song Costello had written but not yet recorded.", "Edmunds' version reached number 4 on the UK Singles Chart and number 65 on ''Billboard'' Hot 100.===1980s===Costello's 1980 ''Get Happy'' album featured a sound based on vintage American soul music.", "Some songs marked a distinct change in mood from the angry, frustrated tone of his first three albums to a more upbeat, happy manner.", "The single, \"I Can't Stand Up for Falling Down\", was a rendition of a Sam and Dave song.", "Lyrically, the songs are full of Costello's signature wordplay.", "His only 1980 appearance in North America was at the Heatwave festival in August near Toronto.In January 1981, Costello released ''Trust'' amidst growing tensions within the Attractions.", "The single \"Watch Your Step\" was released in the US only and played live on Tom Snyder's ''Tomorrow'' show, and received airplay on FM rock radio.", "In the UK, the single \"Clubland\" scraped the lower reaches of the UK Singles Chart; follow-up single \"From a Whisper to a Scream\" (a duet with Glenn Tilbrook of Squeeze) became the first Costello single in over four years to completely miss the chart.", "Costello also co-produced Squeeze's 1981 album ''East Side Story'' (with Roger Béchirian) and performed backing vocals on the group's hit \"Tempted\".October saw the release of ''Almost Blue'', a cover album of country music including songs written by Hank Williams (\"Why Don't You Love Me (Like You Used to Do?", ")\"), Merle Haggard (\"Tonight the Bottle Let Me Down\"), Gram Parsons (\"How Much I Lied\") and George Jones (\"Brown to Blue\").", "The album received mixed reviews.", "The first pressings of the record in the UK bore a sticker with the message: \"WARNING: This album contains country & western music and may cause a radical reaction in narrow minded listeners\".", "''Almost Blue'' did spawn a surprise UK hit single with a version of Jerry Chesnut's \"Good Year for the Roses\", which reached number 6.Costello had long been an avid country music fan and has cited George Jones as his favourite country singer.", "He had appeared on Jones' duet album ''My Very Special Guests'', contributing \"Stranger in the House\", which they later performed together on a 1981 HBO special dedicated to Jones.", "''Imperial Bedroom'' (1982) featured lavish production by Geoff Emerick, engineer of several Beatles records.", "It remains one of his most critically acclaimed records, but again it failed to produce any hit singles—\"You Little Fool\" and the critically acclaimed \"Man Out of Time\" both failed to reach the Top 40 in the UK.", "Costello collaborated with Chris Difford, also of Squeeze, to write the song \"Boy With a Problem\".", "Costello has said he disliked the marketing pitch for the album.", "''Imperial Bedroom'' also featured Costello's song \"Almost Blue\", inspired by the music of jazz singer and trumpeter Chet Baker.", "Baker later recorded his own version of the song.", "''Imperial Bedroom'' placed first on the ''Village Voice'''s annual Pazz & Jop poll.In 1983, he released ''Punch the Clock'', featuring female backing vocal duo (Afrodiziak) and a four-piece horn section (the TKO Horns), alongside the Attractions.", "Clive Langer (who co-produced with Alan Winstanley), provided Costello with a melody which eventually became \"Shipbuilding\", which featured a trumpet solo by Baker.", "Prior to the release of Costello's own version, a version of the song was a minor UK hit for former Soft Machine founder Robert Wyatt.Under the pseudonym The Imposter, Costello released \"Pills and Soap\", an attack on the changes in British society brought on by Thatcherism, released to coincide with the run-up to the 1983 UK general election.", "''Punch the Clock'' also generated an international hit in the single \"Everyday I Write the Book\", aided by a music video featuring lookalikes of Prince Charles and Princess Diana undergoing domestic strife in a suburban home.", "The song became Costello's first Top 40 hit single in the U.S. Also in the same year, Costello provided vocals on a version of the Madness song \"Tomorrow's Just Another Day\" released as a B-side.Tensions within the band – notably between Costello and bassist Bruce Thomas – were beginning to tell, and Costello announced his retirement and the break-up of the group shortly before they were to record ''Goodbye Cruel World'' (1984).", "Costello later expressed disappointment with the final album's production, describing it as \"probably the worst record that I could have made of a decent bunch of songs.\".", "The record was poorly received upon its initial release; the liner notes to the 1995 Rykodisc re-release, penned by Costello, begin with the words \"Congratulations!", "You've just purchased our worst album\".", "Costello's retirement, although short-lived, was accompanied by two compilations, ''Elvis Costello: The Man'' in the UK, Europe and Australia, and ''The Best of Elvis Costello & The Attractions'' in the U.S. Daryl Hall provided backing vocals on the song \"The Only Flame in Town\" from the album ''Goodbye Cruel World''.In 1985, he appeared in the Live Aid benefit concert in England, singing the Beatles' \"All You Need Is Love\" as a solo artist.", "(The event was overrunning and Costello was asked to \"ditch the band\".)", "Costello introduced the song as an \"old northern English folk song\", and the audience was invited to sing the chorus.", "In the same year Costello teamed up with friend T-Bone Burnett for the single \"The People's Limousine\" under the moniker of The Coward Brothers.", "That year, Costello also produced ''Rum Sodomy & the Lash'' for the Irish punk/folk band the Pogues and he sang with Annie Lennox on the song \"Adrian\" from the Eurythmics record ''Be Yourself Tonight''.Growing antipathy between Costello and Bruce Thomas contributed to the Attractions' first split in 1986 when Costello was preparing to make a comeback.", "Working in the U.S. with Burnett, a band containing a number of Elvis Presley's sidemen (including James Burton and Jerry Scheff), and minor input from the Attractions, he produced ''King of America'', an acoustic guitar-driven album with a country sound.", "It was billed as performed by \"The Costello Show featuring the Attractions and Confederates\" in the UK and Europe and \"The Costello Show featuring Elvis Costello\" in North America.", "Around this time he legally changed his name back to Declan MacManus, adding Aloysius as an extra middle name.", "Costello retooled his upcoming tour to allow for multiple nights in each city, playing one night with the Confederates, one night with the Attractions, and one night solo acoustic.", "In May 1986, he performed at Self Aid, a benefit concert held in Dublin that focused on the chronic unemployment which was widespread in Ireland at that time.Later that year, Costello returned to the studio with the Attractions and recorded ''Blood & Chocolate'', which was lauded for a post-punk fervour not heard since 1978's ''This Year's Model''.", "It also marked the return of producer Nick Lowe, who had produced Costello's first five albums.", "While ''Blood & Chocolate'' failed to chart a hit single of any significance, it did produce what has since become one of Costello's signature concert songs, \"I Want You\".", "On this album, Costello adopted the alias Napoleon Dynamite, the name he later attributed to the character of the emcee that he played during the vaudeville-style tour to support ''Blood & Chocolate''.", "(The pseudonym had previously been used in 1982, when the B-side single \"Imperial Bedroom\" was credited to Napoleon Dynamite & the Royal Guard; whether the title of the 2004 film ''Napoleon Dynamite'' was inspired by Costello is disputed).", "After the tour for ''Blood & Chocolate'', Costello split from the Attractions, due mostly to tensions between Costello and Bruce Thomas.", "Costello continued to work with another Attraction, Pete Thomas, as a session musician for future releases.Costello's recording contract with Columbia Records ended after ''Blood & Chocolate''.", "In 1987, he released a compilation album, ''Out of Our Idiot'', on his UK label, Demon Records consisting of B-sides, side projects, and unreleased songs from recording sessions from 1980 to 1987.He signed a new contract with Warner Bros. and in early 1989 released ''Spike'', which spawned his biggest single in the U.S., the Top 20 hit (it reached number 19) \"Veronica\", one of several songs Costello co-wrote with Paul McCartney.", "At the 1989 MTV Video Music Awards on 6 September in Los Angeles, \"Veronica\" won the MTV Award for Best Male Video.Costello and McCartney wrote several songs together over a short period, which were released over a number of years:* \"Back On My Feet\", the B-side of McCartney's 1987 single \"Once Upon a Long Ago\", later added as a bonus track on the 1993 re-issue of McCartney's ''Flowers in the Dirt''* Costello's \"Veronica\" and \"Pads, Paws and Claws\" from his album ''Spike'' (1989)* McCartney's \"My Brave Face\", \"Don't Be Careless Love\", \"That Day Is Done\" and the McCartney/Costello duet \"You Want Her Too\", all from McCartney's ''Flowers in the Dirt'' (1989)* \"So Like Candy\" and \"Playboy to a Man\" from Costello's ''Mighty Like a Rose'' (1991)* \"The Lovers That Never Were\" and \"Mistress and Maid\" from McCartney's ''Off the Ground'' (1993).", "* \"Shallow Grave\" from Costello's ''All This Useless Beauty'' (1996).", "* Costello has also issued solo demo recordings of \"Veronica\", \"Pads, Paws and Claws\" and \"Mistress and Maid\" (a song he did not otherwise record).", "Two other McCartney/Costello compositions remained officially unissued, while existing as widely bootlegged demos (\"Tommy's Coming Home\" and \"Twenty Fine Fingers\").", "These two tracks, along with demos of other songs from their collaboration, did eventually see release on the Paul McCartney Archive edition of ''Flowers in the Dirt''.In 1987, he appeared on the HBO special ''Roy Orbison and Friends, A Black and White Night'', a tribute to his long-time idol Roy Orbison.", "In 1988, Costello co-wrote \"The Other End (Of the Telescope)\" with Aimee Mann, this song appears on the Til Tuesday album ''Everything's Different Now''.=== 1990s ===In 1991, Costello released ''Mighty Like a Rose'', which featured the single \"The Other Side of Summer\".", "He also co-composed and co-produced, with Richard Harvey, the title and incidental music for the mini-series ''G.B.H.''", "by Alan Bleasdale.", "This entirely instrumental, and largely orchestral, soundtrack garnered a BAFTA, for Best Music for a TV Series for the pair.In 1993, Costello experimented with classical music with a critically acclaimed collaboration with the Brodsky Quartet on ''The Juliet Letters''.", "During this period, he wrote a full album's worth of material for Wendy James, and these songs became the tracks on her 1993 solo album ''Now Ain't the Time for Your Tears''.", "Costello returned to rock and roll the following year with a project that reunited him with the Attractions, ''Brutal Youth''.", "In 1995, he released ''Kojak Variety'', an album of cover songs recorded five years earlier, and followed in 1996 with an album of songs originally written for other artists, ''All This Useless Beauty''.", "This was the final album of original material that he issued under his Warner Bros. contract, and also his final album with the Attractions.In 1994, he sang \"They Can't Take That Away from Me\" with Tony Bennett for ''MTV Unplugged'', appearing on the album released from the broadcast.In the spring of 1996, Costello played a series of intimate club dates, backed only by Steve Nieve on the piano, in support of ''All This Useless Beauty''.", "An ensuing mid-year tour with the Attractions proved to be the death knell, with relations between Costello and bassist Bruce Thomas at a breaking point, Costello announced that the current tour would be the Attractions' last.", "The quartet performed their final U.S. show in Seattle, Washington on 1 September 1996, before wrapping up their tour in Japan.", "Costello continued to work frequently with Attractions Steve Nieve and Pete Thomas; eventually, both became members of Costello's new back-up band, The Imposters.To fulfill his contractual obligations to Warner Bros., Costello released a greatest hits album titled ''Extreme Honey'' (1997).", "It contained an original track titled \"The Bridge I Burned\", featuring Costello's son, Matt, on bass.", "In the intervening period, Costello had served as artistic chair for the 1995 Meltdown Festival, which gave him the opportunity to explore his increasingly eclectic musical interests.", "His involvement in the festival yielded a one-off live EP with jazz guitarist Bill Frisell, which featured both cover material and a few of his own songs.In 1998, Costello signed a multi-label contract with Polygram Records, sold by its parent company the same year to become part of the Universal Music Group.", "Costello released his new work on what he deemed the suitable imprimatur within the family of labels.", "His first new release as part of this contract involved a collaboration with Burt Bacharach.", "Their work had commenced earlier, in 1996, on \"God Give Me Strength\" for the movie ''Grace of My Heart''.", "This led the pair to write and record the critically acclaimed album ''Painted From Memory'', released under his new contract in 1998, on the Mercury Records label, featuring songs that were largely inspired by the dissolution of his relationship with Cait O'Riordan.", "Costello and Bacharach performed several concerts with full orchestral backing, and also recorded an updated version of Bacharach's \"I'll Never Fall in Love Again\" for the soundtrack to ''Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me'', with both appearing in the film to perform the song.", "He also wrote \"I Throw My Toys Around\" for ''The Rugrats Movie'' and performed it with No Doubt.", "The same year, he collaborated with Paddy Moloney of The Chieftains on \"The Long Journey Home\" on the soundtrack of the PBS/Disney ''The Irish in America: Long Journey Home'' miniseries.", "The soundtrack won a Grammy Award in 1999.In 1999, Costello contributed a version of \"She\", released in 1974 by Charles Aznavour and Herbert Kretzmer, for the soundtrack of the film ''Notting Hill'', with Trevor Jones producing.", "Costello's version of the song reached number 19 on the UK singles chart.", "For the 25th anniversary of ''Saturday Night Live'', Costello was invited to the programme, where he re-enacted his abrupt song-switch: This time, however, he interrupted the Beastie Boys' \"Sabotage\", and they acted as his backing group for \"Radio Radio\".", "He also co-wrote another song with Aimee Mann, \"The Fall of the World's Own Optimist\", for her 2000 album ''Bachelor No.", "2''.=== 2000s ===Costello performing at Glastonbury, 2005Costello performing in 2006From 2001 to 2005, Costello re-issued his back catalogue in the U.S., from ''My Aim Is True'' (1977) to ''All This Useless Beauty'' (1996), on double-disc collections on the Rhino Records label.", "These releases, which each contained second discs of bonus material, ultimately fell out of print by 2007 after Universal Music acquired the rights to Costello's catalogue.", "Universal subsequently released new deluxe editions of ''My Aim Is True'' and ''This Year's Model'' with new bonus material of full-length concerts from the time of each album's release.", "These deluxe editions also fell out of print and Universal has reverted to re-releasing Costello's pre-1987 albums in their original context without bonus material.In 2000, Costello wrote lyrics to \"Green Song\", a solo cello piece by Svante Henryson; this song appears on the Anne Sofie von Otter album ''For the Stars''.In 2000, Costello appeared at the Town Hall, New York, in Steve Nieve's opera ''Welcome to the Voice'', alongside Ron Sexsmith and John Flansburgh of They Might Be Giants.", "In 2001, Costello was artist-in-residence at UCLA and wrote the music for a new ballet.", "He produced and appeared on an album of pop songs for the classical singer Anne Sofie von Otter.", "He released the album ''When I Was Cruel'' in 2002 on Island Records, and toured with a new band, the Imposters (essentially the Attractions but with a different bass player, Davey Faragher, formerly of Cracker).On 23 February 2003, Costello, along with Bruce Springsteen, Steven Van Zandt and Dave Grohl, performed a version of The Clash's \"London Calling\" at the 45th Grammy Awards ceremony, in honour of Clash frontman Joe Strummer, who had died the previous December.", "In March, Elvis Costello & the Attractions were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "In May, he announced his engagement to Canadian jazz singer and pianist Diana Krall, whom he had seen in concert and then met backstage at the Sydney Opera House in Australia.", "That September, he released ''North'', an album of piano-based ballads concerning the breakdown of his former marriage, and his falling in love with Krall.The song \"Scarlet Tide\" (co-written by Costello and T-Bone Burnett and used in the film ''Cold Mountain'') was nominated for a 2004 Academy Award; he performed it at the awards ceremony with Alison Krauss, who sang the song on the official soundtrack.", "Costello co-wrote many songs on Krall's 2004 CD, ''The Girl in the Other Room'', the first of hers to feature several original compositions.", "In July 2004, Costello's first full-scale orchestral work, ''Il Sogno'', was performed in New York.", "The work, a ballet based on Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', was commissioned by Italian dance troupe Aterballeto, and received critical acclaim from classical music critics.", "Performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas, the recording was released on CD in September by Deutsche Grammophon.", "In September 2004, Costello released the album ''The Delivery Man'', recorded in Oxford, Mississippi, on Lost Highway Records, and it was hailed as one of his best.Costello's hand prints on the European Walk of Fame, RotterdamA CD recording of a collaboration with Marian McPartland on her show ''Piano Jazz'' was released in 2005.It featured Costello singing six jazz standards and two of his own songs, accompanied by McPartland on piano.", "A 2005 tour included a gig at Glastonbury that Costello considered so dreadful that he said \"I don't care if I ever play England again.", "That gig made up my mind I wouldn't come back.", "I don't get along with it.", "We lost touch.", "It's 25 years since I lived there.", "I don't dig it, they don't dig me....British music fans don't have the same attitude to age as they do in America, where young people come to check out, say Willie Nelson.", "They feel some connection with him and find a role for that music in their lives\".In 2005, Costello performed with Green Day frontman Billie Joe Armstrong.", "They played both Costello and Green Day songs together, including \"Alison\", \"No Action\", \"Basket Case\" and \"Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)\".", "In November, Costello started recording a new album with Allen Toussaint and producer Joe Henry.", "Costello had a collaborative history with Toussaint, beginning with a couple of scattered album tracks in the 1980s.", "In September 2006, Costello and Allen Toussaint performed in New York at a series of benefit concerts for victims of Hurricane Katrina.", "By week's end, Costello had written ''The River in Reverse'', performed it with Toussaint and discussed plans for an album with Verve Records executives.", "Costello turned to older songs to reflect the national malaise at the time.In a studio recording of Nieve's opera ''Welcome to the Voice'' (2006, Deutsche Grammophon), Costello interpreted the character of Chief of Police, with Barbara Bonney, Robert Wyatt, Sting and Amanda Roocroft, and the album reached No.", "2 in the ''Billboard'' classical charts.", "Costello later reprised the piece on the stage of the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris in 2008, with Sting, Joe Sumner (Sting's son) and Sylvia Schwartz.", "Also released in 2006 was a live recording of a concert with the Metropole Orkest at the North Sea Jazz Festival, entitled ''My Flame Burns Blue''.", "The soundtrack for ''House, M.D.''", "featured Costello's interpretation of \"Beautiful\" by Christina Aguilera, with the song appearing in the second episode of Season 2.Costello was commissioned to write a chamber opera by the Danish Royal Opera, Copenhagen, on the subject of Hans Christian Andersen's infatuation with Swedish soprano Jenny Lind.", "Called ''The Secret Songs'', it remained unfinished.", "In a performance in 2007 directed by Kasper Bech Holten at the Opera's studio theatre (Takelloftet), finished songs were interspersed with pieces from Costello's 1993 collaborative classical album ''The Juliet Letters'', featuring Danish soprano Sine Bundgaard as Lind.", "The 2009 album ''Secret, Profane & Sugarcane'' includes material from ''Secret Songs''.On 22 April 2008, ''Momofuku'' was released on Lost Highway Records, the same imprint that released ''The Delivery Man'', his previous studio album.", "The album was, at least initially, released exclusively on vinyl (with a code to download a digital copy).", "That summer, in support of the album, Costello toured with the Police on the final leg of their 2007/2008 Reunion Tour.", "Costello played a homecoming gig at the Liverpool Philharmonic Hall on 25 June 2006.and, that month, gave his first performance in Poland, appearing with The Imposters for the closing gig of the Malta theatre festival in Poznań.In 2006, Costello performed with Fiona Apple in the Decades Rock TV special.", "Apple performed two Costello songs and Costello performed two Apple songs.In 2007, Costello collaborated with the Argentinean/Uruguayan electro-tango band Bajofondo on the song \"Fairly Right\" from the album ''Mar Dulce''.", "In 2008, Costello collaborated with Fall Out Boy on the track \"What a Catch, Donnie\" from their album ''Folie a Deux''.", "In Jenny Lewis' 2008 release, ''Acid Tongue'', Costello provided vocals for the song \"Carpetbaggers\".", "In November 2009, Costello appeared live with Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band at Madison Square Garden and performed the Jackie Wilson song \"(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher\".In July 2008, Costello (as Declan McManus) appeared in his home city Liverpool where he was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Music from the University of Liverpool.", "Costello was featured on Fall Out Boy's 2008 album ''Folie à Deux'', providing vocals on the track \"What a Catch, Donnie\", along with other artists who are friends with the band.Costello appeared in Stephen Colbert's television special ''A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All''.", "In the program, he was eaten by a bear, but later saved by Santa Claus; he also sang a duet with Colbert.", "The special was first aired on 23 November 2008.Costello released ''Secret, Profane & Sugarcane'', a collaboration with T-Bone Burnett, on 9 June 2009.It was his first on the Starbucks Hear Music label and a return to country music in the manner of ''Good Year for the Roses''.Costello performing in tribute to music legends Chuck Berry and Leonard Cohen, who were the recipients of the first annual PEN Awards for songwriting excellence, at the JFK Presidential Library, in Boston, Massachusetts on 26 February 2012In May 2009, Costello made a surprise cameo appearance on-stage at the Beacon Theatre in New York as part of Spinal Tap's ''Unwigged and Unplugged'' show, singing their fictional 1965 hit \"Gimme Some Money\" with the band backing him up.In December 2009, Costello portrayed The Shape on the album ''Ghost Brothers of Darkland County'', a collaboration between rock singer John Mellencamp and novelist Stephen King.", "In February 2010, Costello appeared in the live cinecast of Garrison Keillor's ''Prairie Home Companion'', singing some of his own songs, and participating in many of the show's other musical and acting performances.", "On 30 April 2011, he played the song \"Pump it Up\" with the Odds before the start of a Vancouver Canucks playoff game at Rogers Arena in Vancouver, British Columbia.===2010–present===Costello released the album ''National Ransom'' in autumn of 2010.On 26 February 2012, Costello paid tribute to music legends Chuck Berry and Leonard Cohen, who were the recipients of the first annual PEN Awards for songwriting excellence, at the JFK Presidential Library, in Boston, Massachusetts, on 26 February 2012.In September 2013 Costello released ''Wise Up Ghost'', a collaboration with the Roots.", "On 25 October 2013, Costello was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from the New England Conservatory.In 2012, he played ukulele, mandolin, guitar and added backing vocals on Diana Krall's 11th studio album, ''Glad Rag Doll'' (as \"Howard Coward\").", "On 10 September 2013, he played during the Apple September 2013 Event after the introduction of iTunes Radio, iPhone 5C and 5S at Town Hall, at the Apple campus.On Gov't Mule's album ''Shout!", "'', released in September 2013, he sang on the track \"Funny Little Tragedy\".", "In March 2014, Costello recorded ''Lost on the River: The New Basement Tapes'' with Rhiannon Giddens, Taylor Goldsmith, Jim James and Marcus Mumford.", "During the 2016 Detour, he performs with Larkin Poe.On 12 October 2018, Costello released his first studio album in five years, ''Look Now'', recorded with The Imposters.", "The album features three songs co-written with Burt Bacharach, and one song co-written with Carole King.", "Costello wrote and produced a large majority of the album himself, with help from producer Sebastian Krys.", "On 26 January 2020, ''Look Now'' won the Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album at the 62nd Grammy Awards.Costello was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2019 Birthday Honours for services to music.In 2021, Costello released ''Spanish Model'', a remix of 1978's ''This Year's Model'' with Spanish lyrics.", "Singers from Spanish-speaking parts of the world, with help from Spanish-speaking songwriters, translated all 16 songs of the album into Spanish, with the new vocals set to the original recording and instrumentation by the Attractions.", "The singers included Juanes, Jorge Drexler, Luis Fonsi, Francisca Valenzuela, Fuego, Draco Rosa, and Fito Páez.In 2021, Costello appeared at the Royal Variety Performance playing two songs with the Imposters.", "He was introduced by the MC Alan Carr as a man who has achieved everything except appearing at the Royal Variety Performance.", "Between songs Costello informed the audience that he was the second McManus to appear.", "His father Ross appeared in the 1960s singing \"If I Had a Hammer\".In January 2022, he performed on ''The Graham Norton Show''.", "That same month he released the LP ''The Boy Named If'', recorded with the Imposters.", "''The Resurrection of Rust'' by a reformed Rusty followed later that year.In April 2023, Costello collaborated with Slovenian band Joker Out on their single, \"New Wave\".", "The compilation ''The Songs of Bacharach & Costello'' was also released at this time.", "In August 2023, he made a three-dates mini-tour together with Italian singer-songwriter Carmen Consoli, a project the two had originally planned in 2012 but that at the time had been shelved due to Consoli's pregnancy." ], [ "Writing", "Since the early 1980s, Costello has written about music for publications including ''Hot Press,'' ''Details'', ''Mojo'', ''Musician'', ''NME'', ''Rolling Stone'', and ''Vanity Fair.''", "He has also written several articles about football (soccer), as an avid and knowledgeable fan, for the ''Times'' of London.", "A ''Vanity Fair'' editor who worked with Costello said, \"His copy was clean, elegant, and ready to run.", "\"Costello has written liner notes for releases by artists including Gram Parsons, the Fairfield Four, Dusty Springfield, Booker T. & the M.G.", "'s, Burt Bacharach, and Bill Frisell.", "He has written forewords to books by Geoff Emerick, Loretta Lynn, and Wanda Jackson.In 1993, Costello began reissuing his catalog of albums from 1977 through 1986, on Rykodisc, and wrote detailed liner notes for each reissued album.", "Reviewers praised these liner notes as frank and charming.", "In 2001, he began a second round of reissues, this time of his catalog from 1977 through 1996, on Rhino Entertainment, and wrote even more detailed liner notes.", "''Goldmine'' said the Rhino liner notes brought \"a wealth of insight into the songs and the creative process itself\" and that \"liner notes simply don't get any better than this.\"", "''Pitchfork'' called them \"truly fascinating.\"", "Several journalists noted that, at a total of 60,000 words, the Rhino liner notes amounted to a serialized memoir.", "In 2012, ''Slate'' magazine published a book review of the Rhino liner notes in which it called them \"one of the best rock-star memoirs of the last decade.", "\"In 2015, Costello published ''Unfaithful Music & Disappearing Ink'', a memoir that had little overlap with his reissue liner notes.", "In this book, Costello recounted his life in music and traced parallels between his own experiences and those of his father and grandfather, both of whom were musicians.", "The book received enthusiastic positive reviews from prominent publications.", "The ''New York Times'' said it contained \"some of the best writing – funny, strange, spiteful, anguished – we've ever had from an important musician.\"", "The ''Washington Post'' praised it as having more in common with Frank McCourt's memoir ''Angela's Ashes'' than Mötley Crüe's ''The Dirt'' and said it was more enjoyable than Keith Richards' ''Life'' and Bob Dylan's ''Chronicles: Volume One''.", "However, some positive reviews noted that the quality of the writing in the book was uneven and that the book might have been improved by being shorter, more focused thematically, or both.", "The few negative reviews the book received criticized its nonlinear structure, its relative lack of emphasis on Costello's pop-star period, and its lack of details about his romantic relationships.", "The book reached number 7 on the ''New York Times'' Best Seller list.", "It was shortlisted for the Penderyn Music Book Prize, a British award for excellence in writing about music.", "The audiobook, narrated by Costello, was nominated for a Grammy Award." ], [ "Acting and television presenting", "Costello has played himself or fictional characters very similar to himself in movies and television shows including ''Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me'' (1999), ''The Simpsons'' (2002), ''Frasier'' (2003), ''Two and a Half Men'' (2004), ''30 Rock'' (2009), ''Treme'' (2010), and ''Sesame Street'' (2011).", "He has also played more character-based roles, such as the title character's eccentric brother in screenwriter Alan Bleasdale's television series ''Scully'' (1984), an inept magician in Bleasdale's movie ''No Surrender'' (1985)'','' a teacher at an impoverished school in the movie ''Prison Song'' (2001), and the title character's father in the children's animated series ''The Adventures of Pete the Cat'' (2017).", "In 1995, he appeared as a guest pundit on the British football commentary television show ''Football Italia''.In 2003, Costello substituted for an ailing David Letterman as the host of ''Late Show with David Letterman'''', making him the only musical guest of the show to have served as guest host.", "Costello's performance on that show led to interest in developing a music-oriented talk show with him as the host, which came to fruition a few years later.In 2008, Costello began production on ''Spectacle: Elvis Costello with...'', a show on which he interviewed and performed songs with other musicians.", "Guests included Tony Bennett, Bruce Springsteen, Smokey Robinson, Bono and the Edge of U2, opera singer Renée Fleming, and former president (and accomplished saxophonist) Bill Clinton.", "The series ran for 20 episodes over two seasons from 2008 through 2010.It aired on Sundance Channel in the US, CTV in Canada, and Channel 4 in the UK.", "The show received favorable reviews in the US, with reviewers praising Costello's ability to get his guests to reveal insights into their creative processes and calling him a \"deeply knowledgeable, erudite and witty host.\"", "In Canada, the show won a Gemini Award for Best Talk Series.", "In Britain, however, it was aired in an overnight time slot and largely ignored." ], [ "Public image and controversies", "Costello revealed little about his background and gave few interviews in the first five years of his career, so the few widely published interviews he gave played a large role in forming his early public image.", "In a widely quoted August 1977 interview with Nick Kent, Costello said the only things that mattered to him were \"revenge and guilt\".", "This phrase would be associated with him throughout his career.=== 1977 ''Saturday Night Live'' appearance ===On 17 December 1977, Costello and the Attractions appeared on ''Saturday Night Live'' as last-minute replacements for the Sex Pistols.", "One of the songs Costello was scheduled to perform, at the request of his record company, was \"Less Than Zero\", a song Costello wrote in reaction to seeing British fascist Oswald Mosley being treated with what Costello felt was undeserved deference during an interview on British television.", "Costello did not want to play the song because he thought the subject was too obscure for American audiences and the song was too low-key to make a strong impression.", "Instead, he wanted to play the then-unrecorded song, \"Radio Radio\".", "During the live broadcast, Costello played a few bars of \"Less Than Zero\" and then told the Attractions to play \"Radio Radio\", which they played in its entirety.", "This angered the show's producer, Lorne Michaels, because Michaels was not prepared for the change and because \"Radio Radio\" had not been cleared by NBC's censors.", "When asked about the incident on NBC's ''Tomorrow Show'' three years later, Costello said he was told he would never appear on American television again.", "He appeared as musical guest on ''Saturday Night Live'' again in 1989 and 1991.Although the incident provoked little comment at the time, by 1999 it had become so well-known that ''Saturday Night Live'' invited Costello to perform a parody of it with the Beastie Boys on the show 25th-anniversary special.=== 1979 Columbus, Ohio, incident ===In March 1979, during a drunken argument with Bonnie Bramlett and other members of the Stephen Stills band, at a Holiday Inn bar in Columbus, Ohio, the singer referred to James Brown as a \"jive-ass nigger,\" then upped the ante by pronouncing Ray Charles a \"blind, ignorant nigger.\"", "Costello addressed the controversy at a New York City press conference a few days later, stating that he had been drunk and had been attempting to be obnoxious to bring the conversation to a swift conclusion, not anticipating that Bramlett would bring his comments to the press.", "According to Costello, \"it became necessary for me to outrage these people with about the most obnoxious and offensive remarks that I could muster\".", "In his liner notes for the expanded version of ''Get Happy'' Costello writes that some time after the incident he had declined an offer to meet Charles out of guilt and embarrassment, although Charles himself had forgiven Costello, saying \"Drunken talk isn't meant to be printed in the paper.\"", "Costello worked extensively in Britain's Rock Against Racism campaign both before and after the incident.", "In an interview with Questlove (drummer for the Roots, with whom Costello collaborated in 2013), he stated: \"It's upsetting because I can't explain how I even got to think you could be funny about something like that,\" and further elaborating with, \"I'm sorry.", "You know?", "It's about time I said it out loud.", "\"=== 2010 canceled Tel Aviv concerts ===In early 2010, Costello was invited to play his first concert in Israel, on 30 June of that year, at the Caesarea Amphitheater north of Tel Aviv.", "Due to high demand for tickets, a second concert was added for 1 July.", "At first, Costello seemed resolved to resist political pressure on artists to refrain from performing in Israel due to the country's controversial treatment of Palestinians.", "In early May, Costello told Israel's largest daily newspaper, ''Yedioth Ahronoth'', As soon as you play you are going to get criticized.\"", "Costello told the newspaper he did not agree with organizations that \"think that they need to boycott Israel to pressure it,\" saying he thought \"culture is the only way in which humanity shares experiences, and that is why I need to come and perform here.\"", "Two weeks later, he announced on his website that he had canceled the concerts because of what he called the \"grave and complex\" sensitivities of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.", "He told ''The Jerusalem Post'' his decision was part of a \"30-year conundrum\" that he had been dealing with regarding playing in Israel.", "He also told the ''Post'' that he had not been threatened or coerced, but that he \"woke up one day and realized he couldn't go on with the shows.\"", "The promoters of the concerts expressed shock.", "Israeli Culture Minister Limor Livnat, a member of right-wing Likud Party, denounced the decision.", "The organization Palestinian Campaign for the Academic and Cultural Boycott of Israel praised it." ], [ "Personal life", "Costello and Diana Krall in 2009Costello has no full siblings.", "He has four half-brothers from his father's second marriage, all of whom are musicians.In November 1974, Costello married Mary Burgoyne.", "Costello has said he had hoped to marry Burgoyne since he was 14 years old and they were at school together in London, although they did not begin dating until four years later, when Costello moved back to London after living with his mother in Liverpool for two and a half years.", "They have one child, Matthew MacManus, born in early 1975.Costello's rapid rise to fame put a strain on their marriage almost immediately.", "The couple separated in early 1978 but reconciled the following year.", "They separated permanently in mid-1984 and finalized their divorce in 1988.Costello has said that his inability to remain faithful in his first marriage, and the emotional turmoil it caused him, has been a major inspiration for his songs.In early 1985, Costello began a romantic relationship with Cait O'Riordan, then bass player for the Pogues, whom he met in October 1984 while their respective bands were on tour together.", "In May 1986, they exchanged wedding rings and thereafter presented themselves, and were regarded, as husband and wife.", "They were never legally married.", "In September 2002, Costello ended the relationship.", "O'Riordan said that she was never married, that there was \"no piece of paper with marriage on it\".", "They have no children.", "Since their split, both Costello and O'Riordan have described the union as unhappy.In early 2003, Costello became engaged to marry singer and pianist Diana Krall, whom he met at the Grammy Awards ceremony the year before.", "They married in December 2003.The couple has twin sons, born in December 2006.=== Health ===In July 2018, Costello announced that he had been successfully treated for a cancerous growth six weeks earlier, but needed to cancel the remaining six dates of his European tour to continue recovering from the surgery.", "Costello said he had underestimated how much time he would need to recover.", "He resumed performing in September 2018.=== Humanitarian causes ===In 2017, Costello helped establish the Musician Treatment Foundation as a member of its board of directors.", "The foundation, which is based in Austin, Texas, helps under- and uninsured professional musicians receive free orthopedic care for upper limb injuries.", "He performed concerts for the foundation's benefit in October 2017 and December 2022.Costello sits on the Advisory Board of the board of directors of the Jazz Foundation of America, which provides emergency financial support and other services to working and retired musicians.===Vegetarianism===A pescatarian since the early 1980s, Costello says he was moved to reject meat after seeing the documentary ''The Animals Film'' (1982), which also helped inspire his song \"Pills and Soap\" from 1983's ''Punch the Clock''.", "In January 2013, Costello teamed up with Paul McCartney to create an advertisement campaign backing vegetarian foods produced by the Linda McCartney Foods brand." ], [ "Legacy", "Costello is considered by experts in pop and rock music to be one of the best songwriters of his generation.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic summarized Costello as, \"The most evocative, innovative, and gifted songwriter since Bob Dylan, with songs that offer highly personal takes on love and politics.\"", "In 2015, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked him 24th their list of the greatest songwriters of all time, calling him a songwriter of \"almost unparalleled versatility.\"", "When he was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2016, the induction announcement said the impact of Costello's songs \"far out-distanced their commercial performance.", "\"Costello's debut album, ''My Aim Is True'', is widely considered one of the best debut albums in the history of rock music.", "On the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the album's release, ''Billboard'' called it \"one of the most influential albums in the history of rock and punk\" and \"one of the strongest debut albums in history\".", "Although Costello never applied the term \"new wave\" to his music, Costello's early records helped defined the new wave music genre.", "AllMusic said, \"Costello's early albums changed the face of pop music by harnessing punk's energy to a leaner, more incisive aesthetic that included pop hooks, virtually inventing new wave in the process.\"", "In their 2013 list of greatest albums of all time, the ''NME'' described ''This Year's Model'' as \"defining the British new wave.\"", "In their 2009 list of greatest albums of all time, ''Rolling Stone'' said \"the keyboard-driven sound of Costello's 1979 song 'Accidents Will Happen' helped define New Wave.", "\"Musical artists with little connection to new wave have also claimed influence by Costello.", "Bruce Springsteen has said that comments Costello made in the press criticizing Springsteen's early songs as overly romantic led Springsteen to write darker songs for his 1978 album ''Darkness on the Edge of Town''.", "Thom Yorke called ''Blood & Chocolate'' \"the album that made me change the way I thought about recording and writing music and lyrics\" and named it as an important influence on his band Radiohead's album ''OK Computer''.", "Liz Phair, in her appreciation of Costello for ''Rolling Stone'' 100 Greatest Artists of All Time, wrote: \"I'd pay a great amount of money to audit a course taught by him.\"", "Suzanne Vega has called Costello one of the \"melodic geniuses\" whose music she listens to in order to \"stretch my sense of melody.", "\"Prominent artists in other fields have claimed influence or inspiration from Costello.", "Filmmaker and comedian Judd Apatow has called Costello \"a gigantic inspiration to me\" and has suggested that he and other comedians are \"fanatical\" about Costello's music because of the \"spirit of standing up for what you believe in and the humor\" in it.", "Satirist and television host Stephen Colbert has described Costello as \"probably my favorite rock artist\" and said he sees parallels between his own humor and Costello's \"wry, sardonic\" songs.", "Novelist Bret Easton Ellis titled his 1985 novel ''Less Than Zero'' after a Costello song and its 2010 sequel ''Imperial Bedrooms'' after a Costello album.", "Ellis has said Costello was once his \"idol\".", "Visual artist Peter Blake featured Costello prominently in his 2012 reworking of the artwork he created for the cover of the Beatles' 1967 album ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''.", "Blake said he included people he admired and who had contributed to British culture since he created the original work." ], [ "Awards and honours", "=== Entertainment industry awards ==='''United States:'''* ASCAP Founders Award (2003)* Grammy Award, Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, \"I Still Have That Other Girl\" (1998)* Grammy Award, Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album, ''Look Now'' (2019)* Grammy Hall of Fame, ''My Aim Is True'' (2007)* MTV Video Music Award, Best Male Video, \"Veronica\" (1989)* Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, with the Attractions (2003)* Songwriters Hall of Fame (2016)'''United Kingdom:'''* BAFTA, Best Original Television Music, ''G.B.H.''", "(1992)* Ivor Novello Award, Outstanding Contemporary Song Collection (1995)* Ivor Novello Award, PRS Outstanding Contribution to British Music Award (1997)'''Netherlands:'''* Edison Award, Pop category, ''My Aim Is True'' (1978)* Edison Award, singer-songwriter, ''Spike'' (1989)* Edison Award, Extra/special production, innovative, ''The Juliet Letters'' (1993)* Edison Award, International singer, ''Painted from Memory'' (1999)'''Canada:'''* Gemini Award, Best Talk Series, ''Spectacle: Elvis Costello with...'' (2010)=== Critics' best-of lists and music press awards ==='''Best of year:'''* NME Awards Best Songwriter (1978)* NME Awards Best Songwriter (1983)* NME Awards Best Album, ''Punch the Clock'' (1983)* ''Village Voice'' Pazz and Jop critics' poll, number 1 album of the year, ''This Years Model'' (1978)* ''Village Voice'' Pazz and Jop critics' poll, number 1 album of the year, ''Imperial Bedroom'' (1982)'''Best of all time:'''* Five albums on NME's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (2013): ''This Year's Mode''l (#256) ''My Aim is True'' (#281) ''Imperial Bedroom'' (#316) ''Punch the Clock'' (#345)** ''Blood and Chocolate'' (#483)* Four albums on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (2009):''This Years Model'' (#98) ''Imperial Bedroom'' (#166) ''My Aim Is True'' (#168) ''Armed Forces'' (#475)* Number 24 on Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time (2015)* Number 80 on Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time (2010)=== Honorary degrees ===* Doctor of Music, University of Liverpool (2008)* Doctor of Music, New England Conservatory of Music (2013)==Discography===== Albums as solo artist and bandleader ===''My Aim Is True'' (1977)''This Year's Model'' (1978)''Armed Forces'' (1979)''Get Happy'' (1980)''Trust'' (1981)''Almost Blue'' (1981)''Imperial Bedroom'' (1982)''Punch the Clock'' (1983)''Goodbye Cruel World'' (1984)''King of America'' (1986)''Blood & Chocolate'' (1986)''Spike'' (1989)''Mighty Like a Rose'' (1991)''Brutal Youth'' (1994)''Kojak Variety'' (1995)''All This Useless Beauty'' (1996)''When I Was Cruel'' (2002)''North'' (2003)''The Delivery Man'' (2004)''Momofuku'' (2008)''Secret, Profane & Sugarcane'' (2009)''National Ransom'' (2010)''Look Now'' (2018)''Hey Clockface'' (2020)''The Boy Named If'' (2022)=== Collaborative albums ===''The Juliet Letters'', with the Brodsky Quartet (1993)''Painted from Memory'', with Burt Bacharach (1998)''For the Stars'', with Anne Sofie von Otter (2001)''Piano Jazz'', with Marian McPartland (2005)''My Flame Burns Blue'', with the Metropole Orkest (2006)''The River in Reverse'', with Allen Toussaint (2006)''Wise Up Ghost'', with the Roots (2013)''Lost on the River'', as member of The New Basement Tapes (2014)''The Resurrection of Rust'', with Allan Mayes (2022)=== Composer, soundtracks and scores ===''G.B.H.", "'', with Richard Harvey (1991)''Jake's Progress'', with Richard Harvey (1995)''Il Sogno'' (2004)=== Producer for others ===''The Specials'' – the Specials (1980, with the Specials)''East Side Story'' – Squeeze (1981, with Roger Béchirian)\"Free Nelson Mandela\" – the Special A.K.A (1984)''Rum Sodomy & the Lash'' – the Pogues (1985)" ], [ "Filmography", "===As actor=== 1979 film debut as \"The Earl of Manchester\" in ''Americathon''.", "Costello and the Attractions mime the song \"Crawling to the U.S.A.\" in the film, which also appears on its soundtrack album.", "* 1984 as \"Henry Scully\" in the UK TV series, ''Scully''* 1984 as \"Stone Deaf A&R Man\" in ''The Bullshitters'', a movie made by members of the comedy troupe The Comic Strip, first aired on Channel 4* 1985 as inept magician \"Rosco de Ville\" in the Alan Bleasdale film, ''No Surrender''* 1987 as \"Hives the Butler\" in the Alex Cox film, ''Straight to Hell'', starring Joe Strummer and Courtney Love.", "Costello's \"Big Nothing\" (AKA \"Town Called Big Nothing\") appears in the film and on its soundtrack album.", "* 1994 as himself on ''The Larry Sanders Show'' in the episode \"People's Choice\"* 1996 as himself on ''The Larry Sanders Show'' in the episode \"Everybody Loves Larry\"* 1997 as a barman in ''Spice World''* 1999 as himself in ''Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me'', performing Burt Bacharach's \"I'll Never Fall In Love Again\" (with Bacharach), which also appears on its soundtrack album.", "* 1999 as a younger version of himself in ''200 Cigarettes''* 2000 as himself, filling his car with petrol in the full-length feature ''Sans plomb'', whose soundtrack includes several of his songs* 2001 as himself performing \"Fly Me to the Moon\" on the series finale of ''3rd Rock from the Sun''* 2002 as himself on the episode \"How I Spent My Strummer Vacation\" of ''The Simpsons''* 2003 as Ben on ''Frasier'', in the season 10 episode \"Farewell Nervosa\"* 2003 as himself in ''I Love Your Work'' * 2004 as himself in the UK TV ''Dead Ringers'' New Year Special, apparently and reportedly having serendipitously entered a filming venue.", "* 2004 as himself in ''Two and a Half Men'' – Season 2, Episode 1* 2004 as himself in ''De-Lovely''* 2006 as himself in ''Delirious''* 2006 as himself in ''Before the Music Dies''* 2006 as himself in ''Putting the River in Reverse''* 2006 as himself in ''Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby''* 2008 as himself in ''A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All!", "''* 2009 as himself on the ''30 Rock'' episode \"Kidney Now!", "\"* 2010 as himself on ''Treme''* 2017 as himself in ''Ex Libris – The New York Public Library''* 2017–2019 as Pete's Dad (voice) in ''Pete the Cat'' (Season 1)===As part of soundtracks===* 1983, \"Party Party\" appears in the film of the same name and on its soundtrack album.", "* 1991, \"Days\" (a cover of the Kinks song) appears in the film ''Until the end of the World'' and on its soundtrack album.", "* 1995, \"My Dark Life,\" a collaboration with Brian Eno, appears on the album ''Songs in the Key of X''.", "* 1996, \"God Give Me Strength,\" a collaboration with Burt Bacharach, appears in the film ''Grace of My Heart'' and on its soundtrack album.", "Nominated for Satellite Award for Best Original Song.", "* 1998, \"My Mood Swings\" appears in the film ''The Big Lebowski'' and on its soundtrack album.", "* 1998, \"I Throw My Toys Around,\" a collaboration with No Doubt, appears in the film ''The Rugrats Movie'' and on its soundtrack album.", "* 1999, \"She\" (a cover of the Charles Aznavour song) appears in the film ''Notting Hill'' and on its soundtrack album.", "The song peaked at No.", "19 on the UK Singles Chart.", "* 2003, \"The Scarlet Tide,\" written by Costello and T-Bone Burnett and performed by Alison Krauss, appears in the film ''Cold Mountain'' and on its soundtrack album.", "Nominated for Academy Award for Best Original Song and Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media.", "* 2019, \"I Want You\" appears twice in the critically acclaimed British film ''Only You''." ], [ "Bibliography", "1980: ''A Singing Dictionary'' sheet music 1983: sheet music 2016: memoir" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources=== * **" ], [ "Further reading", " Paumgarten, Nick (8 November 2010).", "\"Brilliant Mistakes\".", "Profiles.", "''The New Yorker''.", "Vol.", "86, no.", "35.pp. 48–59.", "* Perone, James E. (1998).", "''Elvis Costello: A Bio-Bibliography''.", "Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.", ".", "* Wilson, Carl (6 November 2015).", "\"When He Was Cruel\".", "Books.", "''Slate''." ], [ "External links", "** Official Elvis Costello Lost Highway Records Artist Page* ** * The Elvis Costello Wiki (moved 2007 from original The Elvis Costello Home Page)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Epilepsy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Epilepsy''' is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures.", "An epileptic seizure is the clinical manifestation of an abnormal, excessive, and synchronized electrical discharge in the brain cells called neurons.", "The occurrence of two or more unprovoked seizures defines epilepsy.", "The occurrence of just one seizure may warrant the definition (set out by the International League Against Epilepsy) in a more clinical usage where recurrence may be able to be prejudged.", "Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain.", "These episodes can result in physical injuries, either directly such as broken bones or through causing accidents.", "In epilepsy, seizures tend to recur and may have no immediate underlying cause.", "Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy.", "People with epilepsy may be treated differently in various areas of the world and experience varying degrees of social stigma due to the alarming nature of their symptoms.The underlying mechanism of an epileptic seizure is excessive and abnormal neuronal activity in the cortex of the brain which can be observed in the electroencephalogram (EEG) of an individual.", "The reason this occurs in most cases of epilepsy is unknown (cryptogenic); some cases occur as the result of brain injury, stroke, brain tumors, infections of the brain, or birth defects through a process known as epileptogenesis.", "Known genetic mutations are directly linked to a small proportion of cases.", "The diagnosis involves ruling out other conditions that might cause similar symptoms, such as fainting, and determining if another cause of seizures is present, such as alcohol withdrawal or electrolyte problems.", "This may be partly done by imaging the brain and performing blood tests.", "Epilepsy can often be confirmed with an EEG, but a normal test does not rule out the condition.Epilepsy that occurs as a result of other issues may be preventable.", "Seizures are controllable with medication in about 69% of cases; inexpensive anti-seizure medications are often available.", "In those whose seizures do not respond to medication; surgery, neurostimulation or dietary changes may then be considered.", "Not all cases of epilepsy are lifelong, and many people improve to the point that treatment is no longer needed., about 50 million people have epilepsy.", "Nearly 80% of cases occur in the developing world.", "In 2015, it resulted in 125,000 deaths, an increase from 112,000 in 1990.Epilepsy is more common in older people.", "In the developed world, onset of new cases occurs most frequently in babies and the elderly.", "In the developing world, onset is more common at the extremes of age – in younger children and in older children and young adults due to differences in the frequency of the underlying causes.", "About 5–10% of people will have an unprovoked seizure by the age of 80.The chance of experiencing a second seizure within two years after the first is around 40%.", "In many areas of the world, those with epilepsy either have restrictions placed on their ability to drive or are not permitted to drive until they are free of seizures for a specific length of time.", "The word ''epilepsy'' is from Ancient Greek , 'to seize, possess, or afflict'." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "A still image of a generalized seizureEpilepsy is characterized by a long-term risk of recurrent epileptic seizures.", "These seizures may present in several ways depending on the parts of the brain involved and the person's age.===Seizures===The most common type (60%) of seizures are convulsive which involve involuntary muscle contractions.", "Of these, one-third begin as generalized seizures from the start, affecting both hemispheres of the brain and impairing consciousness.", "Two-thirds begin as focal seizures (which affect one hemisphere of the brain) which may progress to generalized seizures.", "The remaining 40% of seizures are non-convulsive.", "An example of this type is the absence seizure, which presents as a decreased level of consciousness and usually lasts about 10 seconds.Certain experiences, known as auras often precede focal seizures.", "The seizures can include sensory (visual, hearing, or smell), psychic, autonomic, and motor phenomena depending on which part of the brain is involved.", "Muscle jerks may start in a specific muscle group and spread to surrounding muscle groups in which case it is known as a Jacksonian march.", "Automatisms may occur, which are non-consciously generated activities and mostly simple repetitive movements like smacking the lips or more complex activities such as attempts to pick up something.There are six main types of generalized seizures:* tonic-clonic,* tonic,* clonic,* myoclonic,* absence, and* atonic seizures.They all involve loss of consciousness and typically happen without warning.Tonic-clonic seizures occur with a contraction of the limbs followed by their extension and arching of the back which lasts 10–30 seconds (the tonic phase).", "A cry may be heard due to contraction of the chest muscles, followed by a shaking of the limbs in unison (clonic phase).", "Tonic seizures produce constant contractions of the muscles.", "A person often turns blue as breathing is stopped.", "In clonic seizures there is shaking of the limbs in unison.", "After the shaking has stopped it may take 10–30 minutes for the person to return to normal; this period is called the \"postictal state\" or \"postictal phase.\"", "Loss of bowel or bladder control may occur during a seizure.", "People experiencing a seizure may bite their tongue, either the tip or on the sides; in tonic-clonic seizure, bites to the sides are more common.", "Tongue bites are also relatively common in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures.", "Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures are seizure like behavior without an associated synchronised electrical discharge on EEG and are considered a dissociative disorder.Myoclonic seizures involve very brief muscle spasms in either a few areas or all over.", "These sometimes cause the person to fall, which can cause injury.", "Absence seizures can be subtle with only a slight turn of the head or eye blinking with impaired consciousness; typically, the person does not fall over and returns to normal right after it ends.", "Atonic seizures involve losing muscle activity for greater than one second, typically occurring on both sides of the body.", "Rarer seizure types can cause involuntary unnatural laughter (gelastic), crying (dyscrastic), or more complex experiences such as ''déjà vu''.About 6% of those with epilepsy have seizures that are often triggered by specific events and are known as reflex seizures.", "Those with reflex epilepsy have seizures that are only triggered by specific stimuli.", "Common triggers include flashing lights and sudden noises.", "In certain types of epilepsy, seizures happen more often during sleep, and in other types they occur almost only when sleeping.", "In 2017, the International League Against Epilepsy published new uniform guidelines for the classification of seizures as well as epilepsies along with their cause and comorbidities.==== Seizure clusters ====Patients with epilepsy may experience seizure clusters which may be broadly defined as an acute deterioration in seizure control.", "The prevalence of seizure clusters is uncertain given that studies have used different definitions to define them.", "However, estimates suggest that the prevalence may range from 5% to 50% of epilepsy patients.", "Refractory epilepsy patients who have a high seizure frequency are at the greatest risk for having seizure clusters.", "Seizure clusters are associated with increased healthcare use, worse quality of life, impaired psychosocial functioning, and possibly increased mortality.", "Benzodiazepines are used as an acute treatment for seizure clusters.===Post-ictal===After the active portion of a seizure (the ictal state) there is typically a period of recovery during which there is confusion, referred to as the postictal period, before a normal level of consciousness returns.", "It usually lasts 3 to 15 minutes but may last for hours.", "Other common symptoms include feeling tired, headache, difficulty speaking, and abnormal behavior.", "Psychosis after a seizure is relatively common, occurring in 6–10% of people.", "Often people do not remember what happened during this time.", "Localized weakness, known as Todd's paralysis, may also occur after a focal seizure.", "It would typically last for seconds to minutes but may rarely last for a day or two.===Psychosocial===Epilepsy can have adverse effects on social and psychological well-being.", "These effects may include social isolation, stigmatization, or disability.", "They may result in lower educational achievement and worse employment outcomes.", "Learning disabilities are common in those with the condition, and especially among children with epilepsy.", "The stigma of epilepsy can also affect the families of those with the disorder.Certain disorders occur more often in people with epilepsy, depending partly on the epilepsy syndrome present.", "These include depression, anxiety, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), and migraine.", "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects three to five times more children with epilepsy than children without the condition.", "ADHD and epilepsy have significant consequences on a child's behavioral, learning, and social development.", "Epilepsy is also more common in children with autism.Approximately, one-in-three people with epilepsy have a lifetime history of a psychiatric disorder.", "There are believed to be multiple causes for this including pathophysiological changes related to the epilepsy itself as well as adverse experiences related to living with epilepsy (e.g., stigma, discrimination).", "In addition, it is thought that the relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric disorders is not unilateral but rather bidirectional.", "For example, patients with depression have an increased risk for developing new-onset epilepsy.The presence of comorbid depression or anxiety in patients with epilepsy is associated with a poorer quality of life, increased mortality, increased healthcare use and a worse response to treatment (including surgical).", "Anxiety disorders and depression may explain more variability in quality of life than seizure type or frequency.", "There is evidence that both depression and anxiety disorders are underdiagnosed and undertreated in patients with epilepsy." ], [ "Causes", "Epilepsy can have both genetic and acquired causes, with the interaction of these factors in many cases.", "Established acquired causes include serious brain trauma, stroke, tumours, and brain problems resulting from a previous infection.", "In about 60% of cases, the cause is unknown.", "Epilepsies caused by genetic, congenital, or developmental conditions are more common among younger people, while brain tumors and strokes are more likely in older people.Seizures may also occur as a consequence of other health problems; if they occur right around a specific cause, such as a stroke, head injury, toxic ingestion, or metabolic problem, they are known as acute symptomatic seizures and are in the broader classification of seizure-related disorders rather than epilepsy itself.===Genetics===Genetics is believed to be involved in the majority of cases, either directly or indirectly.", "Some epilepsies are due to a single gene defect (1–2%); most are due to the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors.", "Each of the single gene defects is rare, with more than 200 in all described.", "Most genes involved affect ion channels, either directly or indirectly.", "These include genes for ion channels, enzymes, GABA, and G protein-coupled receptors.In identical twins, if one is affected, there is a 50–60% chance that the other will also be affected.", "In non-identical twins, the risk is 15%.", "These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than focal seizures.", "If both twins are affected, most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome (70–90%).", "Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population.", "Between 1 and 10% of those with Down syndrome and 90% of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy.==== Phakomatoses ====Phakomatoses, also known as neurocutaneous disorders, are a group of multisystemic diseases that most prominently affect the skin and central nervous system.", "They are caused by defective development of the embryonic ectodermal tissue that is most often due to a single genetic mutation.", "The brain, as well as other neural tissue and the skin, are all derived from the ectoderm and thus defective development may result in epilepsy as well as other manifestations such as autism and intellectual disability.", "Some types of phakomatoses such as tuberous sclerosis complex and Sturge-Weber syndrome have a higher prevalence of epilepsy relative to others such as neurofibromatosis type 1.Tuberous sclerosis complex is an autosomal dominant disorder that is caused by mutations in either the TSC1 or TSC2 gene and it affects approximately 1 in 6,000–10,000 live births.", "These mutations result in the upregulation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway which leads to the growth of tumors in many organs including the brain, skin, heart, eyes and kidneys.", "In addition, abnormal mTOR activity is believed to alter neural excitability.", "The prevalence of epilepsy is estimated to be 80-90%.", "The majority of cases of epilepsy present within the first 3 years of life and are medically refractory.", "Relatively recent developments for the treatment of epilepsy in TSC patients include mTOR inhibitors, cannabidiol and vigabatrin.", "Epilepsy surgery is often pursued.Sturge-Weber syndrome is caused by an activating somatic mutation in the GNAQ gene and it affects approximately 1 in 20,000–50,000 live births.", "The mutation results in vascular malformations affecting the brain, skin and eyes.", "The typical presentation includes a facial port-wine birthmark, ocular angiomas and cerebral vascular malformations which are most often unilateral but are bilateral in 15% of cases.", "The prevalence of epilepsy is 75-100% and is higher in those with bilateral involvement.", "Seizures typically occur within the first two years of life and are refractory in nearly half of cases.", "However, high rates of seizure freedom with surgery have been reported in as many as 83%.Neurofibromatosis type 1 is the most common phakomatoses and occurs in approximately 1 in 3,000 live births.", "It is caused by autosomal dominant mutations in the Neurofibromin 1 gene.", "Clinical manifestations are variable but may include hyperpigmented skin marks, hamartomas of the iris called Lisch nodules, neurofibromas, optic pathway gliomas and cognitive impairment.", "The prevalence of epilepsy is estimated to be 4–7%.", "Seizures are typically easier to control with anti-seizure medications relative to other phakomatoses but in some refractory cases surgery may need to be pursued.===Acquired===Epilepsy may occur as a result of several other conditions, including tumors, strokes, head trauma, previous infections of the central nervous system, genetic abnormalities, and as a result of brain damage around the time of birth.", "Of those with brain tumors, almost 30% have epilepsy, making them the cause of about 4% of cases.", "The risk is greatest for tumors in the temporal lobe and those that grow slowly.", "Other mass lesions such as cerebral cavernous malformations and arteriovenous malformations have risks as high as 4060%.", "Of those who have had a stroke, 6–10% develop epilepsy.", "Risk factors for post-stroke epilepsy include stroke severity, cortical involvement, hemorrhage and early seizures.", "Between 6 and 20% of epilepsy is believed to be due to head trauma.", "Mild brain injury increases the risk about two-fold while severe brain injury increases the risk seven-fold.", "In those who have experienced a high-powered gunshot wound to the head, the risk is about 50%.Some evidence links epilepsy and celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity, while other evidence does not.", "There appears to be a specific syndrome that includes coeliac disease, epilepsy, and calcifications in the brain.", "A 2012 review estimates that between 1% and 6% of people with epilepsy have coeliac disease while 1% of the general population has the condition.The risk of epilepsy following meningitis is less than 10%; it more commonly causes seizures during the infection itself.", "In herpes simplex encephalitis the risk of a seizure is around 50% with a high risk of epilepsy following (up to 25%).", "A form of an infection with the pork tapeworm (cysticercosis), in the brain, is known as neurocysticercosis, and is the cause of up to half of epilepsy cases in areas of the world where the parasite is common.", "Epilepsy may also occur after other brain infections such as cerebral malaria, toxoplasmosis, and toxocariasis.", "Chronic alcohol use increases the risk of epilepsy: those who drink six units of alcohol per day have a 2.5-fold increase in risk.", "Other risks include Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and autoimmune encephalitis.", "Getting vaccinated does not increase the risk of epilepsy.", "Malnutrition is a risk factor seen mostly in the developing world, although it is unclear however if it is a direct cause or an association.", "People with cerebral palsy have an increased risk of epilepsy, with half of people with spastic quadriplegia and spastic hemiplegia having the disease." ], [ "Mechanism", "Normally brain electrical activity is non-synchronous, as large numbers of neurons do not normally fire at the same time, but rather fire in order as signals travel throughout the brain.", "Neuron activity is regulated by various factors both within the cell and the cellular environment.", "Factors within the neuron include the type, number and distribution of ion channels, changes to receptors and changes of gene expression.", "Factors around the neuron include ion concentrations, synaptic plasticity and regulation of transmitter breakdown by glial cells.===Epilepsy===The exact mechanism of epilepsy is unknown, but a little is known about its cellular and network mechanisms.", "However, it is unknown under which circumstances the brain shifts into the activity of a seizure with its excessive synchronization.", "Changes in microRNAs (miRNAs) levels seems to play a leading role.", "MicroRNAs are a family of small non-coding RNAs that control the expression levels of multiple proteins by decreasing mRNA stability and translation, and could therefore be key regulatory mechanisms and therapeutic targets in epilepsyIn epilepsy, the resistance of excitatory neurons to fire during this period is decreased.", "This may occur due to changes in ion channels or inhibitory neurons not functioning properly.", "This then results in a specific area from which seizures may develop, known as a \"seizure focus\".", "Another mechanism of epilepsy may be the up-regulation of excitatory circuits or down-regulation of inhibitory circuits following an injury to the brain.", "These secondary epilepsies occur through processes known as epileptogenesis.", "Failure of the blood–brain barrier may also be a causal mechanism as it would allow substances in the blood to enter the brain.===Seizures===There is evidence that epileptic seizures are usually not a random event.", "Seizures are often brought on by factors (also known as triggers) such as stress, excessive alcohol use, flickering light, or a lack of sleep, among others.", "The term seizure threshold is used to indicate the amount of stimulus necessary to bring about a seizure; this threshold is lowered in epilepsy.In epileptic seizures a group of neurons begin firing in an abnormal, excessive, and synchronized manner.", "This results in a wave of depolarization known as a paroxysmal depolarizing shift.", "Normally, after an excitatory neuron fires it becomes more resistant to firing for a period of time.", "This is due in part to the effect of inhibitory neurons, electrical changes within the excitatory neuron, and the negative effects of adenosine.Focal seizures begin in one area of the brain while generalized seizures begin in both hemispheres.", "Some types of seizures may change brain structure, while others appear to have little effect.", "Gliosis, neuronal loss, and atrophy of specific areas of the brain are linked to epilepsy but it is unclear if epilepsy causes these changes or if these changes result in epilepsy.The seizures can be described on different scales, from the cellular level to the whole brain.", "These are several concomitant factor, which on different scale can \"drive\" the brain to pathological states and trigger a seizure." ], [ "Diagnosis", "EEG can aid in locating the focus of the epileptic seizure.The diagnosis of epilepsy is typically made based on observation of the seizure onset and the underlying cause.", "An electroencephalogram (EEG) to look for abnormal patterns of brain waves and neuroimaging (CT scan or MRI) to look at the structure of the brain are also usually part of the initial investigations.", "While figuring out a specific epileptic syndrome is often attempted, it is not always possible.", "Video and EEG monitoring may be useful in difficult cases.===Definition===Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain defined by any of the following conditions::# At least two unprovoked (or reflex) seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart# One unprovoked (or reflex) seizure and a probability of further seizures similar to the general recurrence risk (at least 60%) after two unprovoked seizures, occurring over the next 10 years# Diagnosis of an epilepsy syndromeFurthermore, epilepsy is considered to be resolved for individuals who had an age-dependent epilepsy syndrome but are now past that age or those who have remained seizure-free for the last 10 years, with no seizure medicines for the last 5 years.This 2014 definition of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) is a clarification of the ILAE 2005 conceptual definition, according to which epilepsy is \"a disorder of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures and by the neurobiologic, cognitive, psychological, and social consequences of this condition.", "The definition of epilepsy requires the occurrence of at least one epileptic seizure.", "\"It is, therefore, possible to outgrow epilepsy or to undergo treatment that causes epilepsy to be resolved, but with no guarantee that it will not return.", "In the definition, epilepsy is now called a disease, rather than a disorder.", "This was a decision of the executive committee of the ILAE, taken because the word ''disorder'', while perhaps having less stigma than does ''disease'', also does not express the degree of seriousness that epilepsy deserves.The definition is practical in nature and is designed for clinical use.", "In particular, it aims to clarify when an \"enduring predisposition\" according to the 2005 conceptual definition is present.", "Researchers, statistically minded epidemiologists, and other specialized groups may choose to use the older definition or a definition of their own devising.", "The ILAE considers doing so is perfectly allowable, so long as it is clear what definition is being used.The ILAE definition for one seizure needs an understanding of projecting an ''enduring predisposition'' to the generation of epileptic seizures.", "WHO, for instance, chooses to just use the traditional definition of two unprovoked seizures.===Classification===Revised operational scheme of seizure classification, ILAE, 2017In contrast to the classification of seizures which focuses on what happens during a seizure, the classification of epilepsies focuses on the underlying causes.", "When a person is admitted to hospital after an epileptic seizure the diagnostic workup results preferably in the seizure itself being classified (e.g.", "tonic-clonic) and in the underlying disease being identified (e.g.", "hippocampal sclerosis).", "The name of the diagnosis finally made depends on the available diagnostic results and the applied definitions and classifications (of seizures and epilepsies) and its respective terminology.The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) provided a classification of the epilepsies and epileptic syndromes in 1989 as follows::# Localization-related epilepsies and syndromes## Unknown cause (e.g.", "benign childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes)## Symptomatic/cryptogenic (e.g.", "temporal lobe epilepsy)# Generalized## Unknown cause (e.g.", "childhood absence epilepsy)## Cryptogenic or symptomatic (e.g.", "Lennox-Gastaut syndrome)## Symptomatic (e.g.", "early infantile epileptic encephalopathy with burst suppression)# Epilepsies and syndromes undetermined whether focal or generalized## With both generalized and focal seizures (e.g.", "epilepsy with continuous spike-waves during slow wave sleep)# Special syndromes (with situation-related seizures)This classification was widely accepted but has also been criticized mainly because the underlying causes of epilepsy (which are a major determinant of clinical course and prognosis) were not covered in detail.", "In 2010 the ILAE Commission for Classification of the Epilepsies addressed this issue and divided epilepsies into three categories (genetic, structural/metabolic, unknown cause) which were refined in their 2011 recommendation into four categories and a number of subcategories reflecting recent technological and scientific advances.", ":# Unknown cause (mostly genetic or presumed genetic origin)## Pure epilepsies due to single gene disorders## Pure epilepsies with complex inheritance# Symptomatic (associated with gross anatomic or pathologic abnormalities)## Mostly genetic or developmental causation### Childhood epilepsy syndromes### Progressive myoclonic epilepsies### Neurocutaneous syndromes### Other neurologic single gene disorders### Disorders of chromosome function### Developmental anomalies of cerebral structure## Mostly acquired causes### Hippocampal sclerosis### Perinatal and infantile causes### Cerebral trauma, tumor or infection### Cerebrovascular disorders### Cerebral immunologic disorders### Degenerative and other neurologic conditions# Provoked (a specific systemic or environmental factor is the predominant cause of the seizures)## Provoking factors## Reflex epilepsies# Cryptogenic (presumed symptomatic nature in which the cause has not been identified)===Syndromes===Cases of epilepsy may be organized into epilepsy syndromes by the specific features that are present.", "These features include the age that seizure begin, the seizure types, EEG findings, among others.", "Identifying an epilepsy syndrome is useful as it helps determine the underlying causes as well as what anti-seizure medication should be tried.The ability to categorize a case of epilepsy into a specific syndrome occurs more often with children since the onset of seizures is commonly early.", "Less serious examples are benign rolandic epilepsy (2.8 per 100,000), childhood absence epilepsy (0.8 per 100,000) and juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (0.7 per 100,000).", "Severe syndromes with diffuse brain dysfunction caused, at least partly, by some aspect of epilepsy, are also referred to as developmental and epileptic encephalopathies.", "These are associated with frequent seizures that are resistant to treatment and cognitive dysfunction, for instance Lennox–Gastaut syndrome (1–2% of all persons with epilepsy), Dravet syndrome(1: 15000-40000 worldwide), and West syndrome(1–9: 100000).", "Genetics is believed to play an important role in epilepsies by a number of mechanisms.", "Simple and complex modes of inheritance have been identified for some of them.", "However, extensive screening have failed to identify many single gene variants of large effect.", "More recent exome and genome sequencing studies have begun to reveal a number of de novo gene mutations that are responsible for some epileptic encephalopathies, including CHD2 and SYNGAP1 and DNM1, GABBR2, FASN and RYR3.Syndromes in which causes are not clearly identified are difficult to match with categories of the current classification of epilepsy.", "Categorization for these cases was made somewhat arbitrarily.", "The ''idiopathic'' (unknown cause) category of the 2011 classification includes syndromes in which the general clinical features and/or age specificity strongly point to a presumed genetic cause.", "Some childhood epilepsy syndromes are included in the unknown cause category in which the cause is presumed genetic, for instance benign rolandic epilepsy.", "Clinical syndromes in which epilepsy is not the main feature (e.g.", "Angelman syndrome) were categorized ''symptomatic'' but it was argued to include these within the category ''idiopathic''.", "Classification of epilepsies and particularly of epilepsy syndromes will change with advances in research.===Tests===An electroencephalogram (EEG) can assist in showing brain activity suggestive of an increased risk of seizures.", "It is only recommended for those who are likely to have had an epileptic seizure on the basis of symptoms.", "In the diagnosis of epilepsy, electroencephalography may help distinguish the type of seizure or syndrome present.", "In children it is typically only needed after a second seizure unless specified by a specialist.", "It cannot be used to rule out the diagnosis and may be falsely positive in those without the disease.", "In certain situations it may be useful to perform the EEG while the affected individual is sleeping or sleep deprived.Diagnostic imaging by CT scan and MRI is recommended after a first non-febrile seizure to detect structural problems in and around the brain.", "MRI is generally a better imaging test except when bleeding is suspected, for which CT is more sensitive and more easily available.", "If someone attends the emergency room with a seizure but returns to normal quickly, imaging tests may be done at a later point.", "If a person has a previous diagnosis of epilepsy with previous imaging, repeating the imaging is usually not needed even if there are subsequent seizures.For adults, the testing of electrolyte, blood glucose and calcium levels is important to rule out problems with these as causes.", "An electrocardiogram can rule out problems with the rhythm of the heart.", "A lumbar puncture may be useful to diagnose a central nervous system infection but is not routinely needed.", "In children additional tests may be required such as urine biochemistry and blood testing looking for metabolic disorders.", "Together with EEG and neuroimaging, genetic testing is becoming one of the most important diagnostic technique for epilepsy, as a diagnosis might be achieved in a relevant proportion of cases with severe epilepsies, both in children and adults.", "For those with negative genetic testing, in some it might be important to repeat or re-analyze previous genetic studies after 2–3 years.A high blood prolactin level within the first 20 minutes following a seizure may be useful to help confirm an epileptic seizure as opposed to psychogenic non-epileptic seizure.", "Serum prolactin level is less useful for detecting focal seizures.", "If it is normal an epileptic seizure is still possible and a serum prolactin does not separate epileptic seizures from syncope.", "It is not recommended as a routine part of the diagnosis of epilepsy.===Differential diagnosis===Diagnosis of epilepsy can be difficult.", "A number of other conditions may present very similar signs and symptoms to seizures, including syncope, hyperventilation, migraines, narcolepsy, panic attacks and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES).", "In particular, syncope can be accompanied by a short episode of convulsions.", "Nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy, often misdiagnosed as nightmares, was considered to be a parasomnia but later identified to be an epilepsy syndrome.", "Attacks of the movement disorder paroxysmal dyskinesia may be taken for epileptic seizures.", "The cause of a drop attack can be, among many others, an atonic seizure.Children may have behaviors that are easily mistaken for epileptic seizures but are not.", "These include breath-holding spells, bedwetting, night terrors, tics and shudder attacks.", "Gastroesophageal reflux may cause arching of the back and twisting of the head to the side in infants, which may be mistaken for tonic-clonic seizures.Misdiagnosis is frequent (occurring in about 5 to 30% of cases).", "Different studies showed that in many cases seizure-like attacks in apparent treatment-resistant epilepsy have a cardiovascular cause.", "Approximately 20% of the people seen at epilepsy clinics have PNES and of those who have PNES about 10% also have epilepsy; separating the two based on the seizure episode alone without further testing is often difficult." ], [ "Prevention", "While many cases are not preventable, efforts to reduce head injuries, provide good care around the time of birth, and reduce environmental parasites such as the pork tapeworm may be effective.", "Efforts in one part of Central America to decrease rates of pork tapeworm resulted in a 50% decrease in new cases of epilepsy." ], [ "Complications", "Epilepsy can be dangerous when seizure occurs at certain times.", "The risk of drowning or being involved in a motor vehicle collision is higher.", "It is also found that people with epilepsy are more likely to have psychological problems.", "Other complications include aspiration pneumonia and difficulty learning." ], [ "Management", "Wristbands or bracelets denoting their condition are occasionally worn by people with epilepsy should they need medical assistance.Epilepsy is usually treated with daily medication once a second seizure has occurred, while medication may be started after the first seizure in those at high risk for subsequent seizures.", "Supporting people's self-management of their condition may be useful.", "In drug-resistant cases different management options may be considered, including special diets, the implantation of a neurostimulator, or neurosurgery.===First aid===Rolling people with an active tonic-clonic seizure onto their side and into the recovery position helps prevent fluids from getting into the lungs.", "Putting fingers, a bite block or tongue depressor in the mouth is not recommended as it might make the person vomit or result in the rescuer being bitten.", "Efforts should be taken to prevent further self-injury.", "Spinal precautions are generally not needed.If a seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes or if there are more than two seizures in 5 minutes without a return to a normal level of consciousness between them, it is considered a medical emergency known as status epilepticus.", "This may require medical help to keep the airway open and protected; a nasopharyngeal airway may be useful for this.", "At home the recommended initial medication for seizure of a long duration is midazolam placed in the nose or mouth.", "Diazepam may also be used rectally.", "In hospital, intravenous lorazepam is preferred.If two doses of benzodiazepines are not effective, other medications such as phenytoin are recommended.", "Convulsive status epilepticus that does not respond to initial treatment typically requires admission to the intensive care unit and treatment with stronger agents such as midazolam infusion, ketamine, thiopentone or propofol.", "Most institutions have a preferred pathway or protocol to be used in a seizure emergency like status epilepticus.", "These protocols have been found to be effective in reducing time to delivery of treatment.===Medications===AnticonvulsantsThe mainstay treatment of epilepsy is anticonvulsant medications, possibly for the person's entire life.", "The choice of anticonvulsant is based on seizure type, epilepsy syndrome, other medications used, other health problems, and the person's age and lifestyle.", "A single medication is recommended initially; if this is not effective, switching to a single other medication is recommended.", "Two medications at once is recommended only if a single medication does not work.", "In about half, the first agent is effective; a second single agent helps in about 13% and a third or two agents at the same time may help an additional 4%.", "About 30% of people continue to have seizures despite anticonvulsant treatment.There are a number of medications available including phenytoin, carbamazepine and valproate.", "Evidence suggests that phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate may be equally effective in both focal and generalized seizures.", "Controlled release carbamazepine appears to work as well as immediate release carbamazepine, and may have fewer side effects.", "In the United Kingdom, carbamazepine or lamotrigine are recommended as first-line treatment for focal seizures, with levetiracetam and valproate as second-line due to issues of cost and side effects.", "Valproate is recommended first-line for generalized seizures with lamotrigine being second-line.", "In those with absence seizures, ethosuximide or valproate are recommended; valproate is particularly effective in myoclonic seizures and tonic or atonic seizures.", "If seizures are well-controlled on a particular treatment, it is not usually necessary to routinely check the medication levels in the blood.The least expensive anticonvulsant is phenobarbital at around US$5 a year.", "The World Health Organization gives it a first-line recommendation in the developing world and it is commonly used there.", "Access, however, may be difficult as some countries label it as a controlled drug.Adverse effects from medications are reported in 10 to 90% of people, depending on how and from whom the data is collected.", "Most adverse effects are dose-related and mild.", "Some examples include mood changes, sleepiness, or an unsteadiness in gait.", "Certain medications have side effects that are not related to dose such as rashes, liver toxicity, or suppression of the bone marrow.", "Up to a quarter of people stop treatment due to adverse effects.", "Some medications are associated with birth defects when used in pregnancy.", "Many of the common used medications, such as valproate, phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbital, and gabapentin have been reported to cause increased risk of birth defects, especially when used during the first trimester.", "Despite this, treatment is often continued once effective, because the risk of untreated epilepsy is believed to be greater than the risk of the medications.", "Among the antiepileptic medications, levetiracetam and lamotrigine seem to carry the lowest risk of causing birth defects.Slowly stopping medications may be reasonable in some people who do not have a seizure for two to four years; however, around a third of people have a recurrence, most often during the first six months.", "Stopping is possible in about 70% of children and 60% of adults.", "Measuring medication levels is not generally needed in those whose seizures are well controlled.===Surgery===Epilepsy surgery should be considered for any person with epilepsy who is medically refractory.", "Patients are evaluated on a case-by-case basis in centres that are familiar with and have expertise in epilepsy surgery.", "Epilepsy surgery may be an option for people with focal seizures that remain a problem despite other treatments.", "These other treatments include at least a trial of two or three medications.", "The goal of surgery has been total control of seizures.", "However, most physicians believe that even palliative surgery where the burden of seizures is reduced significantly can help in achieving developmental progress or reversal of developmental stagnation in children with drug-resistant epilepsy and this may be achieved in 60–70% of cases.", "Common procedures include cutting out the hippocampus via an anterior temporal lobe resection, removal of tumors, and removing parts of the neocortex.", "Some procedures such as a corpus callosotomy are attempted in an effort to decrease the number of seizures rather than cure the condition.", "Following surgery, medications may be slowly withdrawn in many cases.=== Neurostimulation ===Neurostimulation via neuro-cybernetic prosthesis implantation may be another option in those who are not candidates for surgery, providing chronic, pulsatile electrical stimulation of specific nerve or brain regions, alongside standard care.", "Three types have been used in those who do not respond to medications: vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), anterior thalamic stimulation, and closed-loop responsive stimulation (RNS).==== Vagus nerve stimulation ====Non-pharmacological modulation of neurotransmitters via high-level VNS (h-VNS) may reduce seizure frequency in children and adults who do not respond to medical and/or surgical therapy, when compared with low-level VNS (l-VNS).", "In a 2022 Cochrane review of four randomized controlled trials, with moderate certainty of evidence, people receiving h-VNS treatment were 73% more likely (13% more likely to 164% more likely) to experience a reduction in seizure frequency by at least 50% (the minimum threshold defined for individual clinical response).", "Potentially 249 (163 to 380) per 1000 people with drug-resistant epilepsy may achieve a 50% reduction in seizures following h-VNS, benefiting an additional 105 per 1000 people compared with l-VNS.This outcome was limited by the number of studies available, and the quality of one trial in particular, wherein three people received l-VNS in error.", "A sensitivity analysis suggested that the best case scenario was that the likelihood of clinical response to h-VNS may be 91% (27% to 189%) higher than those receiving l-VNS.", "In the worst-case scenario, the likelihood of clinical response to h-VNS was still 61% higher (7% higher to 143% higher) than l-VNS.Despite the potential benefit for h-VNS treatment, the Cochrane review also found that the risk of several adverse-effects was greater than those receiving l-VNS.", "There was moderate certainty of evidence that voice alteration or hoarseness risk may be 2.17(1.49 to 3.17) fold higher than people receiving l-VNS.", "Dyspnoea risk was also 2.45 (1.07 to 5.60) times that of l-VNS recipients, although the low number of events and studies meant that the certainty of evidence was low.", "The risk of rebound-withdrawal symptoms, coughing, pain and paraesthesia was unclear.===Diet===There is promising evidence that a ketogenic diet (high-fat, low-carbohydrate, adequate-protein) decreases the number of seizures and eliminates seizures in some; however, further research is necessary.", "A 2022 systematic review of the literature has found some evidence to support that a ketogenic diet or modified Atkins diet can be helpful in the treatment of epilepsy in some infants.", "It is a reasonable option in those who have epilepsy that is not improved with medications and for whom surgery is not an option.", "About 10% stay on the diet for a few years due to issues of effectiveness and tolerability.", "Side effects include stomach and intestinal problems in 30%, and there are long-term concerns about heart disease.", "Less radical diets are easier to tolerate and may be effective.", "It is unclear why this diet works.", "In people with coeliac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity and occipital calcifications, a gluten-free diet may decrease the frequency of seizures.===Other===Avoidance therapy consists of minimizing or eliminating triggers.", "For example, those who are sensitive to light may have success with using a small television, avoiding video games, or wearing dark glasses.", "Operant-based biofeedback based on the EEG waves has some support in those who do not respond to medications.", "Psychological methods should not, however, be used to replace medications.Exercise has been proposed as possibly useful for preventing seizures, with some data to support this claim.", "Some dogs, commonly referred to as seizure dogs, may help during or after a seizure.", "It is not clear if dogs have the ability to predict seizures before they occur.There is moderate-quality evidence supporting the use of psychological interventions along with other treatments in epilepsy.", "This can improve quality of life, enhance emotional wellbeing, and reduce fatigue in adults and adolescents.", "Psychological interventions may also improve seizure control for some individuals by promoting self-management and adherence.As an add-on therapy in those who are not well controlled with other medications, cannabidiol appears to be useful in some children.", "In 2018 the FDA approved this product for Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome.There are a few studies on the use of dexamethasone for the successful treatment of drug-resistant seizures in both adults and children.===Alternative medicine===Alternative medicine, including acupuncture, routine vitamins, and yoga, have no reliable evidence to support their use in epilepsy.", "Melatonin, , is insufficiently supported by evidence.", "The trials were of poor methodological quality and it was not possible to draw any definitive conclusions.Several supplements (with varied reliabilities of evidence) have been reported to be helpful for drug-resistant epilepsy.", "These include high-dose Omega-3, berberine, Manuka honey, reishi and lion's mane mushrooms, curcumin, vitamin E, coenzyme Q-10, and resveratrol.", "The reason these can work (in theory) is that they reduce inflammation or oxidative stress, two of the major mechanism contributing to epilepsy." ], [ "Contraception and pregnancy", "Women of child-bearing age, including those with epilepsy, are at risk of unintended pregnancies if they are not using an effective form of contraception.", "Women with epilepsy may experience a temporary increase in seizure frequency when they begin hormonal contraception.Some anti-seizure medications interact with enzymes in the liver and cause the drugs in hormonal contraception to be broken down more quickly.", "These enzyme inducing drugs make hormonal contraception less effective, and this is particularly hazardous if the anti-seizure medication is associated with birth defects.", "Potent enzyme-inducing anti-seizure medications include carbamazepine, eslicarbazepine acetate, oxcarbazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin, primidone, and rufinamide.", "The drugs perampanel and topiramate can be enzyme-inducing at higher doses.", "Conversely, hormonal contraception can lower the amount of the anti-seizure medication lamotrigine circulating in the body, making it less effective.", "The failure rate of oral contraceptives, when used correctly, is 1%, but this increases to between 3–6% in women with epilepsy.", "Overall, intrauterine devices (IUDs) are preferred for women with epilepsy who are not intending to become pregnant.Women with epilepsy, especially if they have other medical conditions, may have a slightly lower, but still high, chance of becoming pregnant.", "Women with infertility have about the same chance of success with in vitro fertilisation or other forms of assisted reproductive technology as women without epilepsy.", "There may be a higher risk of pregnancy loss.Once pregnant, there are two main concerns related to pregnancy.", "The first concern is about the risk of seizures during pregnancy, and the second concern is that the anti-seizure medications may result in birth defects.", "Most women with epilepsy must continue treatment with anti-seizure drugs, and the treatment goal is to balance the need to prevent seizures with the need to prevent drug-induced birth defects.Pregnancy does not seem to change seizure frequency very much.", "When seizures happen, however, they can cause some pregnancy complications, such as pre-term births or the babies being smaller than usual when they are born.", "All pregnancies have a risk of birth defects, e.g., due to smoking during pregnancy.", "In addition to this typical level of risk, some anti-seizure drugs significantly increase the risk of birth defects and intrauterine growth restriction, as well as developmental, neurocognitive, and behavioral disorders.", "Most women with epilepsy receive safe and effective treatment and have typical, healthy children.", "The highest risks are associated with specific anti-seizure drugs, such as valproic acid and carbamazepine, and with higher doses.", "Folic acid supplementation, such as through prenatal vitamins, reduced the risk.", "Planning pregnancies in advance gives women with epilepsy an opportunity to switch to a lower-risk treatment program and reduced drug doses.", "Although anti-seizure drugs can be found in breast milk, women with epilepsy can breastfeed their babies, and the benefits usually outweigh the risks." ], [ "Prognosis", "Deaths due to epilepsy per million persons in 2012 Epilepsy cannot usually be cured, but medication can control seizures effectively in about 70% of cases.", "Of those with generalized seizures, more than 80% can be well controlled with medications while this is true in only 50% of people with focal seizures.", "One predictor of long-term outcome is the number of seizures that occur in the first six months.", "Other factors increasing the risk of a poor outcome include little response to the initial treatment, generalized seizures, a family history of epilepsy, psychiatric problems, and waves on the EEG representing generalized epileptiform activity.", "In the developing world, 75% of people are either untreated or not appropriately treated.", "In Africa, 90% do not get treatment.", "This is partly related to appropriate medications not being available or being too expensive.===Mortality===People with epilepsy are at an increased risk of death.", "This increase is between 1.6 and 4.1-fold greater than that of the general population.", "The greatest increase in mortality from epilepsy is among the elderly.", "Those with epilepsy due to an unknown cause have little increased risk.Mortality is often related to the underlying cause of the seizures, status epilepticus, suicide, trauma, and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP).", "Death from status epilepticus is primarily due to an underlying problem rather than missing doses of medications.", "The risk of suicide is between two and six times higher in those with epilepsy; the cause of this is unclear.", "SUDEP appears to be partly related to the frequency of generalized tonic-clonic seizures and accounts for about 15% of epilepsy-related deaths; it is unclear how to decrease its risk.Risk factors for SUDEP include nocturnal generalized tonic-clonic seizures, seizures, sleeping alone and medically intractable epilepsy.In the United Kingdom, it is estimated that 40–60% of deaths are possibly preventable.", "In the developing world, many deaths are due to untreated epilepsy leading to falls or status epilepticus." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Epilepsy is one of the most common serious neurological disorders affecting about 39 million people .", "It affects 1% of the population by age 20 and 3% of the population by age 75.It is more common in males than females with the overall difference being small.", "Most of those with the disorder (80%) are in low income populations or the developing world.The estimated prevalence of active epilepsy () is in the range 3–10 per 1,000, with active epilepsy defined as someone with epilepsy who has had a least one unprovoked seizure in the last five years.", "Epilepsy begins each year in 40–70 per 100,000 in developed countries and 80–140 per 100,000 in developing countries.", "Poverty is a risk and includes both being from a poor country and being poor relative to others within one's country.", "In the developed world epilepsy most commonly starts either in the young or in the old.", "In the developing world its onset is more common in older children and young adults due to the higher rates of trauma and infectious diseases.", "In developed countries the number of cases a year has decreased in children and increased among the elderly between the 1970s and 2003.This has been attributed partly to better survival following strokes in the elderly." ], [ "History", "Hippocrates, 17th century engraving by Peter Paul Rubens of an antique bustThe oldest medical records show that epilepsy has been affecting people at least since the beginning of recorded history.", "Throughout ancient history, the disease was thought to be a spiritual condition.", "The world's oldest description of an epileptic seizure comes from a text in Akkadian (a language used in ancient Mesopotamia) and was written around 2000 BC.", "The person described in the text was diagnosed as being under the influence of a moon god, and underwent an exorcism.", "Epileptic seizures are listed in the Code of Hammurabi () as reason for which a purchased slave may be returned for a refund, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus () describes cases of individuals with epileptic convulsions.The oldest known detailed record of the disease itself is in the ''Sakikku'', a Babylonian cuneiform medical text from 10671046 BC.", "This text gives signs and symptoms, details treatment and likely outcomes, and describes many features of the different seizure types.", "As the Babylonians had no biomedical understanding of the nature of disease, they attributed the seizures to possession by evil spirits and called for treating the condition through spiritual means.", "Around 900 BC, Punarvasu Atreya described epilepsy as loss of consciousness; this definition was carried forward into the Ayurvedic text of Charaka Samhita ().The ancient Greeks had contradictory views of the disease.", "They thought of epilepsy as a form of spiritual possession, but also associated the condition with genius and the divine.", "One of the names they gave to it was the ''sacred disease'' ().", "Epilepsy appears within Greek mythology: it is associated with the Moon goddesses Selene and Artemis, who afflicted those who upset them.", "The Greeks thought that important figures such as Julius Caesar and Hercules had the disease.", "The notable exception to this divine and spiritual view was that of the school of Hippocrates.", "In the fifth century BC, Hippocrates rejected the idea that the disease was caused by spirits.", "In his landmark work ''On the Sacred Disease'', he proposed that epilepsy was not divine in origin and instead was a medically treatable problem originating in the brain.", "He accused those of attributing a sacred cause to the disease of spreading ignorance through a belief in superstitious magic.", "Hippocrates proposed that heredity was important as a cause, described worse outcomes if the disease presents at an early age, and made note of the physical characteristics as well as the social shame associated with it.", "Instead of referring to it as the ''sacred disease'', he used the term ''great disease'', giving rise to the modern term ''grand mal'', used for tonic–clonic seizures.", "Despite his work detailing the physical origins of the disease, his view was not accepted at the time.", "Evil spirits continued to be blamed until at least the 17th century.In Ancient Rome people did not eat or drink with the same pottery as that used by someone who was affected.", "People of the time would spit on their chest believing that this would keep the problem from affecting them.", "According to Apuleius and other ancient physicians, to detect epilepsy, it was common to light a piece of ''gagates'', whose smoke would trigger the seizure.", "Occasionally a spinning potter's wheel was used, perhaps a reference to photosensitive epilepsy.In most cultures, persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized, shunned, or even imprisoned.", "As late as in the second half of the 20th century, in Tanzania and other parts of Africa epilepsy was associated with possession by evil spirits, witchcraft, or poisoning and was believed by many to be contagious.", "In the Salpêtrière, the birthplace of modern neurology, Jean-Martin Charcot found people with epilepsy side by side with the mentally ill, those with chronic syphilis, and the criminally insane.", "In Ancient Rome, epilepsy was known as the or 'disease of the assembly hall' and was seen as a curse from the gods.", "In northern Italy, epilepsy was traditionally known as Saint Valentine's malady.", "In at least the 1840s in the United States of America, epilepsy was known as the ''falling sickness'' or ''the falling fits'', and was considered a form of medical insanity.", "Around the same time period, epilepsy was known in France as the , , , , and .", "Patients of epilepsy in France were also known as , due to the seizures and loss of consciousness in an epileptic episode.In the mid-19th century, the first effective anti-seizure medication, bromide, was introduced.", "The first modern treatment, phenobarbital, was developed in 1912, with phenytoin coming into use in 1938." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Stigma===Social stigma is commonly experienced, around the world, by those with epilepsy.", "It can affect people economically, socially and culturally.", "In India and China, epilepsy may be used as justification to deny marriage.", "People in some areas still believe those with epilepsy to be cursed.", "In parts of Africa, such as Tanzania and Uganda, epilepsy is claimed to be associated with possession by evil spirits, witchcraft, or poisoning and is incorrectly believed by many to be contagious.", "Before 1971 in the United Kingdom, epilepsy was considered grounds for the annulment of marriage.", "The stigma may result in some people with epilepsy denying that they have ever had seizures.===Economics===Seizures result in direct economic costs of about one billion dollars in the United States.", "Epilepsy resulted in economic costs in Europe of around 15.5 billion euros in 2004.In India epilepsy is estimated to result in costs of US$1.7 billion or 0.5% of the GDP.", "It is the cause of about 1% of emergency department visits (2% for emergency departments for children) in the United States.===Vehicles===Those with epilepsy are at about twice the risk of being involved in a motor vehicular collision and thus in many areas of the world are not allowed to drive or only able to drive if certain conditions are met.", "Diagnostic delay has been suggested to be a cause of some potentially avoidable motor vehicle collisions since at least one study showed that most motor vehicle accidents occurred in those with undiagnosed non-motor seizures as opposed to those with motor seizures at epilepsy onset.", "In some places physicians are required by law to report if a person has had a seizure to the licensing body while in others the requirement is only that they encourage the person in question to report it himself.", "Countries that require physician reporting include Sweden, Austria, Denmark and Spain.", "Countries that require the individual to report include the UK and New Zealand, and physicians may report if they believe the individual has not already.", "In Canada, the United States and Australia the requirements around reporting vary by province or state.", "If seizures are well controlled most feel allowing driving is reasonable.", "The amount of time a person must be free from seizures before he can drive varies by country.", "Many countries require one to three years without seizures.", "In the United States the time needed without a seizure is determined by each state and is between three months and one year.Those with epilepsy or seizures are typically denied a pilot license.", "* In Canada if an individual has had no more than one seizure, they may be considered after five years for a limited license if all other testing is normal.", "Those with febrile seizures and drug related seizures may also be considered.", "* In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration does not allow those with epilepsy to get a commercial pilot license.", "Rarely, exceptions can be made for persons who have had an isolated seizure or febrile seizures and have remained free of seizures into adulthood without medication.", "* In the United Kingdom, a full national private pilot license requires the same standards as a professional driver's license.", "This requires a period of ten years without seizures while off medications.", "Those who do not meet this requirement may acquire a restricted license if free from seizures for five years.===Support organizations===There are organizations that provide support for people and families affected by epilepsy.", "The ''Out of the Shadows'' campaign, a joint effort by the World Health Organization, the ILAE and the International Bureau for Epilepsy, provides help internationally.", "In the United States, the Epilepsy Foundation is a national organization that works to increase the acceptance of those with the disorder, their ability to function in society and to promote research for a cure.", "The Epilepsy Foundation, some hospitals, and some individuals also run support groups in the United States.", "In Australia, the Epilepsy Foundation provides support, delivers education and training and funds research for people living with epilepsy.International Epilepsy Day (World Epilepsy Day) began in 2015 and occurs on the second Monday in February.Purple Day, a different world-wide epilepsy awareness day for epilepsy, was initiated by a nine-year-old Canadian named Cassidy Megan in 2008, and is every year on 26 March." ], [ "Research", "===Seizure prediction and modeling===Seizure prediction refers to attempts to forecast epileptic seizures based on the EEG before they occur.", ", no effective mechanism to predict seizures has been developed.", "Although no effective device that can predict seizures is available, the science behind seizure prediction and ability to deliver such a tool has made progress.Kindling, where repeated exposures to events that could cause seizures eventually causes seizures more easily, has been used to create animal models of epilepsy.Different animal models of epilepsy have been characterized in rodents that recapitulate the EEG and behavioral concomitants of different forms of epilepsy, in particular the occurrence of recurrent spontaneous seizures.", "Because epileptic seizures of different kinds are observed naturally in some of these animals, strains of mice and rats have been selected to be used as genetic models of epilepsy.", "In particular, several lines of mice and rats display spike-and-wave discharges when EEG recorded and have been studied to understand absence epilepsy.", "Among these models, the strain of GAERS (Genetic Absence Epilepsy Rats from Strasbourg) was characterized in the 1980s and has helped to understand the mechanisms underlying childhood absence epilepsy.One of the hypotheses present in the literature is based on inflammatory pathways.", "Studies supporting this mechanism revealed that inflammatory, glycolipid, and oxidative factors are higher in epilepsy patients, especially those with generalized epilepsy.===Potential future therapies===Gene therapy is being studied in some types of epilepsy.", "Medications that alter immune function, such as intravenous immunoglobulins, may reduce the frequency of seizures when including in normal care as an add-on therapy; however, further research is required to determine whether these medications are very well tolerated in children and in adults with epilepsy.", "Noninvasive stereotactic radiosurgery is, , being compared to standard surgery for certain types of epilepsy." ], [ "Other animals", "Epilepsy occurs in a number of other animals including dogs and cats; it is in fact the most common brain disorder in dogs.", "It is typically treated with anticonvulsants such as phenobarbital or bromide in dogs and phenobarbital in cats.", "Imepitoin is also used in dogs.", "While generalized seizures in horses are fairly easy to diagnose, it may be more difficult in non-generalized seizures and EEGs may be useful." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " * * * World Health Organization fact sheet" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Extrasensory perception" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Extrasensory perception''' or '''ESP''', also called '''sixth sense''', is a claimed paranormal ability pertaining to reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses, but sensed with the mind.", "The term was adopted by Duke University botanist J.", "B. Rhine to denote psychic abilities such as intuition, telepathy, psychometry, clairvoyance, clairaudience, clairsentience, empathy and their trans-temporal operation as precognition or retrocognition.", "'''Second sight''' is an alleged form of extrasensory perception, whereby a person perceives information, in the form of a vision, about future events before they happen (precognition), or about things or events at remote locations (remote viewing).", "There is no evidence that second sight exists.", "Reports of second sight are known only from anecdotes.", "Second sight and ESP are classified as pseudosciences." ], [ "History", "Zener cards were first used in the 1930s for experimental research into ESP.Hubert Pearce with J.", "B. RhineIn the 1930s, at Duke University in North Carolina, J.", "B. Rhine and his wife Louisa E. Rhine conducted an investigation into extrasensory perception.", "While Louisa Rhine concentrated on collecting accounts of spontaneous cases, J.", "B. Rhine worked largely in the laboratory, carefully defining terms such as ESP and ''psi'' and designing experiments to test them.", "A simple set of cards was developed, originally called Zener cards – now called ESP cards.", "They bear the symbols circle, square, wavy lines, cross, and star.", "There are five of each type of card in a pack of 25.In a telepathy experiment, the \"sender\" looks at a series of cards while the \"receiver\" guesses the symbols.", "To try to observe clairvoyance, the pack of cards is hidden from everyone while the receiver guesses.", "To try to observe precognition, the order of the cards is determined after the guesses are made.", "Later he used dice to test for psychokinesis.The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked criticism from academics and others who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP.", "A number of psychological departments attempted, unsuccessfully, to repeat Rhine's experiments.", "W. S. Cox (1936) from Princeton University with 132 subjects produced 25,064 trials in a playing card ESP experiment.", "Cox concluded \"There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the 'average man' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group.", "The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects.\"", "Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine's results.In 1938, the psychologist Joseph Jastrow wrote that much of the evidence for extrasensory perception collected by Rhine and other parapsychologists was anecdotal, biased, dubious and the result of \"faulty observation and familiar human frailties\".", "Rhine's experiments were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues.In the 1960s, parapsychologists became increasingly interested in the cognitive components of ESP, the subjective experience involved in making ESP responses, and the role of ESP in psychological life.", "This called for experimental procedures that were not limited to Rhine's favored forced-choice methodology.", "Such procedures have included dream telepathy experiments, and the ganzfeld experiments (a mild sensory deprivation procedure).Second sight may have originally been so called because normal vision was regarded as coming first, while supernormal vision is a secondary thing, confined to certain individuals.", "''An dà shealladh'' or \"the two sights\", meaning \"the sight of the seer\", is the way Gaels refer to \"second sight\", the involuntary ability of seeing the future or distant events.", "There are many Gaelic words for the various aspects of second sight, but ''an dà shealladh'' is the one mostly recognized by non-Gaelic speakers, even though, strictly speaking, it does not really mean second sight, but rather \"two sights\"." ], [ "Skepticism", "Parapsychology is the study of paranormal psychic phenomena, including ESP.", "Parapsychology has been criticized for continuing investigation despite being unable to provide convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomena after more than a century of research.", "The scientific community rejects ESP due to the absence of an evidence base, the lack of a theory which would explain ESP and the lack of positive experimental results; it considers ESP to be pseudoscience.The scientific consensus does not view extrasensory perception as a scientific phenomenon.", "Skeptics have pointed out that there is no viable theory to explain the mechanism behind ESP, and that there are historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies.There are many criticisms pertaining to experiments involving extrasensory perception, particularly surrounding methodological flaws.", "These flaws are not unique to a single experimental design, and are effective in discrediting much of the positive research surrounding ESP.", "Many of the flaws seen in the Zener cards experiment are present in the Ganzfeld experiment as well.", "First is the stacking effect, an error that occurs in ESP research.", "Trial-by-trial feedback given in studies using a \"closed\" ESP target sequence (e.g., a deck of cards) violates the condition of independence used for most standard statistical tests.", "Multiple responses for a single target cannot be evaluated using statistical tests that assume independence of responses.", "This increases the likelihood of card counting and, in turn, increases the chances for the subject to guess correctly without using ESP.", "Another methodological flaw involves cues through sensory leakage, for example, when the subject receives a visual cue.", "This could be the reflection of a Zener card in the holder's glasses.", "In this case, the subject is able to guess the card correctly because they can see it in the reflection, not because of ESP.", "Finally, poor randomization of target stimuli could be happening.", "Poor shuffling methods can make the orders of the cards easier to predict, or the cards could have been marked and manipulated, again, making it easier to predict which cards come next.", "The results of a meta-analysis found that when these errors were corrected and accounted for, there was still no significant effect of ESP.", "Many of the studies only appeared to have significant occurrence of ESP, when in fact, this result was due to the many methodological errors in the research.===Dermo-optical perception===In the early 20th century, Joaquin María Argamasilla, known as the \"Spaniard with X-ray Eyes\", claimed to be able to read handwriting or numbers on dice through closed metal boxes.", "Argamasilla managed to fool Gustav Geley and Charles Richet into believing he had genuine psychic powers.", "In 1924, he was exposed by Harry Houdini as a fraud.", "Argamasilla peeked through his simple blindfold and lifted the edge of the box, so he could look inside it without others noticing.Science writer Martin Gardner has written that the ignorance of blindfold deception methods has been widespread in investigations into objects at remote locations from persons who claim to possess second sight.", "Gardner documented various conjuring techniques psychics such as Rosa Kuleshova, Lina Anderson and Nina Kulagina have used to peek from their blindfolds to deceive investigators into believing they used second sight." ], [ "See also", "* ''Extrasensory Perception'' (book)* Inner eye* List of psychic abilities* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* Magic* Outline of parapsychology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Georges Charpak, Henri Broch, and Bart K. Holland (2004).", "''Debunked!", "ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience''.", "Johns Hopkins University.", ".", "* Milbourne Christopher (1970).", "''ESP, Seers & Psychics: What the Occult Really Is''.", "Thomas Y. Crowell Co. * Henry Gordon (1988).", "''Extrasensory Deception: ESP, Psychics, Shirley MacLaine, Ghosts, UFOs''.", "Macmillan of Canada.", ".", "* Donald Hebb (1980).", "\"Extrasensory Perception: A Problem\".", "In ''Essays on Mind''.", "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.", ".", "* Paul Kurtz (1985).", "''A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology''.", "Prometheus Books.", ".", "Targ, Russell (2012).", "''The Reality of ESP: a physicist's proof of psychic abilities''.", "Quest Books.", ".", " Richard Wiseman.", "(1997).", "''Deception and Self-Deception: Investigating Psychics''.", "Prometheus Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * FBI file on Extrasensory perception" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economies of scale" ], [ "Introduction", "average cost of each unit decreases from C to C1.LRAC is the long-run average cost.In microeconomics, '''economies of scale''' are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation, and are typically measured by the amount of output produced per unit of time.", "A decrease in cost per unit of output enables an increase in scale.", "At the basis of economies of scale, there may be technical, statistical, organizational or related factors to the degree of market control.Economies of scale arise in a variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a production, plant or an entire enterprise.", "When average costs start falling as output increases, then economies of scale occur.", "Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation and industrial equipment, have a physical or engineering basis.", "The economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor.", "Diseconomies of scale are the opposite.Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase.", "Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, pulp and paper industry.", "A common limit for a low cost per unit weight commodities is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship products uneconomic distances.", "Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a higher defect rate.Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch grades frequently.", "They will, therefore, avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins.", "Often smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity-grade production to specialty products.", "Economies of scale must be distinguished from economies stemming from an increase in the production of a given plant.", "When a plant is used below its optimal production capacity, increases in its degree of utilization bring about decreases in the total average cost of production.", "Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1966) and Nicholas Kaldor (1972) both argue that these economies should not be treated as economies of scale." ], [ "Overview", "The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size.", "Common sources of economies of scale are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-interest charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), marketing (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets), and technological (taking advantage of returns to scale in the production function).", "Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production by shifting the short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right.Economies of scale is a concept that may explain patterns in international trade or in the number of firms in a given market.", "The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries.", "It is also a justification for free trade policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular country—for example, it would not be efficient for Liechtenstein to have its own carmaker if they only sold to their local market.", "A lone carmaker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market.", "Economies of scale also play a role in a \"natural monopoly\".", "There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale: internal and external.", "An industry that exhibits an internal economy of scale is one where the costs of production fall when the number of firms in the industry drops, but the remaining firms increase their production to match previous levels.", "Conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery.Economies of scale exist whenever the total cost of producing two quantities of a product X is lower when a single firm instead of two separate firms produce it.", "See Economies of scope#Economics.", ":" ], [ "Determinants of economies of scale", "===Physical and engineering basis: economies of increased dimension===Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the square–cube law, by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the cube.", "This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and airplanes.In structural engineering, the strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness.Drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated.", "Therefore, making them larger usually results in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed.Heat loss from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in a relationship somewhat similar to the square–cube law.", "In some productions, an increase in the size of the plant reduces the average variable cost, thanks to the energy savings resulting from the lower dispersion of heat.Economies of increased dimension are often misinterpreted because of the confusion between indivisibility and three-dimensionality of space.", "This confusion arises from the fact that three-dimensional production elements, such as pipes and ovens, once installed and operating, are always technically indivisible.", "However, the economies of scale due to the increase in size do not depend on indivisibility but exclusively on the three-dimensionality of space.", "Indeed, indivisibility only entails the existence of economies of scale produced by the balancing of productive capacities, considered above; or of increasing returns in the utilisation of a single plant, due to its more efficient use as the quantity produced increases.", "However, this latter phenomenon has nothing to do with the economies of scale which, by definition, are linked to the use of a larger plant.===Economies in holding stocks and reserves===At the base of economies of scale there are also returns to scale linked to statistical factors.", "In fact, the greater of the number of resources involved, the smaller, in proportion, is the quantity of reserves necessary to cope with unforeseen contingencies (for instance, machine spare parts, inventories, circulating capital, etc.", ").===Transaction economies===One of the reasons firms appear is to reduce transaction costs.", "A larger scale generally determines greater bargaining power over input prices and therefore benefits from pecuniary economies in terms of purchasing raw materials and intermediate goods compared to companies that make orders for smaller amounts.", "In this case, we speak of pecuniary economies, to highlight the fact that nothing changes from the \"physical\" point of view of the returns to scale.", "Furthermore, supply contracts entail fixed costs which lead to decreasing average costs if the scale of production increases.", "This is of important utility in the study of corporate finance.===Economies deriving from the balancing of production capacity===Economies of productive capacity balancing derives from the possibility that a larger scale of production involves a more efficient use of the production capacities of the individual phases of the production process.", "If the inputs are indivisible and complementary, a small scale may be subject to idle times or to the underutilization of the productive capacity of some sub-processes.", "A higher production scale can make the different production capacities compatible.", "The reduction in machinery idle times is crucial in the case of a high cost of machinery.===Economies resulting from the division of labour and the use of superior techniques===A larger scale allows for a more efficient division of labour.", "The economies of division of labour derive from the increase in production speed, from the possibility of using specialized personnel and adopting more efficient techniques.", "An increase in the division of labour inevitably leads to changes in the quality of inputs and outputs.===Managerial economics===Many administrative and organizational activities are mostly cognitive and, therefore, largely independent of the scale of production.", "When the size of the company and the division of labour increase, there are a number of advantages due to the possibility of making organizational management more effective and perfecting accounting and control techniques.", "Furthermore, the procedures and routines that turned out to be the best can be reproduced by managers at different times and places.===Learning and growth economies===Learning and growth economies are at the base of dynamic economies of scale, associated with the process of growth of the scale dimension and not to the dimension of scale per se.", "Learning by doing implies improvements in the ability to perform and promotes the introduction of incremental innovations with a progressive lowering of average costs.", "Learning economies are directly proportional to the cumulative production (experience curve).Growth economies emerge if a company gains an added benefit by expanding its size.", "These economies are due to the presence of some resource or competence that is not fully utilized, or to the existence of specific market positions that create a differential advantage in expanding the size of the firms.", "That growth economies disappear once the scale size expansion process is completed.", "For example, a company that owns a supermarket chain benefits from an economy of growth if, opening a new supermarket, it gets an increase in the price of the land it owns around the new supermarket.", "The sale of these lands to economic operators, who wish to open shops near the supermarket, allows the company in question to make a profit, making a profit on the revaluation of the value of building land.===Capital and operating cost===Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale.", "A crude estimate is that if the capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the 0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the point six to the power rule).In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity.The cost of a unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases.", "Also, the efficiency increases with size.===Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes===Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity.", "(Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc.", "and does not include passenger service personnel.)", "Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or \"stretched\" to increase payload.Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant capacity.", "This is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the complexity of the operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity.===Economical use of byproducts===Karl Marx noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be waste.", "Marx cited the chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products.", "In the pulp and paper industry, it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce process steam and to recover the spent pulping chemicals for conversion back to a usable form.===Economies of scale and the size of exporter===Large and more productive firms typically generate enough net revenues abroad to cover the fixed costs associated with exporting.", "However, in the event of trade liberalization, resources will have to be reallocated toward the more productive firm, which raises the average productivity within the industry.", "Firms differ in their labor productivity and the quality of their products, so more efficient firms are more likely to generate more net income abroad and thus become exporters of their goods or services.", "There is a correlating relationship between a firm's total sales and underlying efficiency.", "Firms with higher productivity will always outperform a firm with lower productivity which will lead to lower sales.", "Through trade liberalization, organizations are able to drop their trade costs due to export growth.", "However, trade liberalization does not account for any tariff reduction or shipping logistics improvement.", "However, total economies of scale is based on the exporters individual frequency and size.", "So large-scale companies are more likely to have a lower cost per unit as opposed to small-scale companies.", "Likewise, high trade frequency companies are able to reduce their overall cost attributed per unit when compared to those of low-trade frequency companies." ], [ "Economies of scale and returns to scale", "Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to scale.", "Where economies of scale refer to a firm's costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function.", "A production function has ''constant'' returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion.", "Returns are ''decreasing'' if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and ''increasing'' if more than double the output.", "If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production function is homogeneous, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function.", "Homogeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one.If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale if and only if it has increasing returns to scale, has diseconomies of scale if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale.", "In this case, with perfect competition in the output market the long-run equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale).If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified.", "For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input's per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels.", "Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.In essence, returns to scale refer to the variation in the relationship between inputs and output.", "This relationship is therefore expressed in \"physical\" terms.", "But when talking about economies of scale, the relation taken into consideration is that between the average production cost and the dimension of scale.", "Economies of scale therefore are affected by variations in input prices.", "If input prices remain the same as their quantities purchased by the firm increase, the notions of increasing returns to scale and economies of scale can be considered equivalent.", "However, if input prices vary in relation to their quantities purchased by the company, it is necessary to distinguish between returns to scale and economies of scale.", "The concept of economies of scale is more general than that of returns to scale since it includes the possibility of changes in the price of inputs when the quantity purchased of inputs varies with changes in the scale of production.The literature assumed that due to the competitive nature of reverse auctions, and in order to compensate for lower prices and lower margins, suppliers seek higher volumes to maintain or increase the total revenue.", "Buyers, in turn, benefit from the lower transaction costs and economies of scale that result from larger volumes.", "In part as a result, numerous studies have indicated that the procurement volume must be sufficiently high to provide sufficient profits to attract enough suppliers, and provide buyers with enough savings to cover their additional costs.However, Shalev and Asbjornse found, in their research based on 139 reverse auctions conducted in the public sector by public sector buyers, that the higher auction volume, or economies of scale, did not lead to better success of the auction.", "They found that auction volume did not correlate with competition, nor with the number of bidders, suggesting that auction volume does not promote additional competition.", "They noted, however, that their data included a wide range of products, and the degree of competition in each market varied significantly, and offer that further research on this issue should be conducted to determine whether these findings remain the same when purchasing the same product for both small and high volumes.", "Keeping competitive factors constant, increasing auction volume may further increase competition." ], [ "Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis", "===Economies of scale in classical economists===The first systematic analysis of the advantages of the division of labour capable of generating economies of scale, both in a static and dynamic sense, was that contained in the famous First Book of Wealth of Nations (1776) by Adam Smith, generally considered the founder of political economy as an autonomous discipline.John Stuart Mill, in Chapter IX of the First Book of his Principles, referring to the work of Charles Babbage (On the economics of machines and manufactories), widely analyses the relationships between increasing returns and scale of production all inside the production unit.===Economies of scale in Marx and distributional consequences ===In (1867), Karl Marx, referring to Charles Babbage, extensively analyzed economies of scale and concludes that they are one of the factors underlying the ever-increasing concentration of capital.", "Marx observes that in the capitalist system the technical conditions of the work process are continuously revolutionized in order to increase the surplus by improving the productive force of work.", "According to Marx, with the cooperation of many workers brings about an economy in the use of the means of production and an increase in productivity due to the increase in the division of labour.", "Furthermore, the increase in the size of the machinery allows significant savings in construction, installation and operation costs.", "The tendency to exploit economies of scale entails a continuous increase in the volume of production which, in turn, requires a constant expansion of the size of the market.", "However, if the market does not expand at the same rate as production increases, overproduction crises can occur.", "According to Marx the capitalist system is therefore characterized by two tendencies, connected to economies of scale: towards a growing concentration and towards economic crises due to overproduction.In his 1844 ''Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts'', Karl Marx observes that economies of scale have historically been associated with an increasing concentration of private wealth and have been used to justify such concentration.", "Marx points out that concentrated private ownership of large-scale economic enterprises is a historically contingent fact, and not essential to the nature of such enterprises.", "In the case of agriculture, for example, Marx calls attention to the sophistical nature of the arguments used to justify the system of concentrated ownership of land:: As for large landed property, its defenders have always sophistically identified the economic advantages offered by large-scale agriculture with large-scale landed property, as if it were not precisely as a result of the abolition of property that this advantage, for one thing, received its greatest possible extension, and, for another, only then would be of social benefit.Instead of concentrated private ownership of land, Marx recommends that economies of scale should instead be realized by associations::Association, applied to land, shares the economic advantage of large-scale landed property, and first brings to realization the original tendency inherent in land-division, namely, equality.", "In the same way association re-establishes, now on a rational basis, no longer mediated by serfdom, overlordship and the silly mysticism of property, the intimate ties of man with the earth, for the earth ceases to be an object of huckstering, and through free labor and free enjoyment becomes once more a true personal property of man.===Economies of scale in Marshall===Alfred Marshall notes that Antoine Augustin Cournot and others have considered \"the internal economies ... apparently without noticing that their premises lead inevitably to the conclusion that, whatever firm first gets a good start will obtain a monopoly of the whole business of its trade … \".", "Marshall believes that there are factors that limit this trend toward monopoly, and in particular:* the death of the founder of the firm and the difficulty that the successors may have inherited his/her entrepreneurial skills;* the difficulty of reaching new markets for one's goods;* the growing difficulty of being able to adapt to changes in demand and to new techniques of production;* The effects of external economies, that is the particular type of economies of scale connected not to the production scale of an individual production unit, but to that of an entire sector.===Sraffa's critique===Piero Sraffa observes that Marshall, in order to justify the operation of the law of increasing returns without it coming into conflict with the hypothesis of free competition, tended to highlight the advantages of external economies linked to an increase in the production of an entire sector of activity.", "However, \"those economies which are external from the point of view of the individual firm, but internal as regards the industry in its aggregate, constitute precisely the class which is most seldom to be met with.\"", "\"In any case - Sraffa notes – in so far as external economies of the kind in question exist, they are not linked to be called forth by small increases in production,\" as required by the marginalist theory of price.", "Sraffa points out that, in the equilibrium theory of the individual industries, the presence of external economies cannot play an important role because this theory is based on marginal changes in the quantities produced.Sraffa concludes that, if the hypothesis of perfect competition is maintained, economies of scale should be excluded.", "He then suggests the possibility of abandoning the assumption of free competition to address the study of firms that have their own particular market.", "This stimulated a whole series of studies on the cases of imperfect competition in Cambridge.", "However, in the succeeding years Sraffa followed a different path of research that brought him to write and publish his main work ''Production of commodities by means of commodities'' .", "In this book, Sraffa determines relative prices assuming no changes in output, so that no question arises as to the variation or constancy of returns.===Economies of scale and the tendency towards monopoly: \"Cournot's dilemma\"===It has been noted that in many industrial sectors there are numerous companies with different sizes and organizational structures, despite the presence of significant economies of scale.", "This contradiction, between the empirical evidence and the logical incompatibility between economies of scale and competition, has been called the 'Cournot dilemma'.", "As Mario Morroni observes, Cournot's dilemma appears to be unsolvable if we only consider the effects of economies of scale on the dimension of scale.", "If, on the other hand, the analysis is expanded, including the aspects concerning the development of knowledge and the organization of transactions, it is possible to conclude that economies of scale do not always lead to monopoly.", "In fact, the competitive advantages deriving from the development of the firm's capabilities and from the management of transactions with suppliers and customers can counterbalance those provided by the scale, thus counteracting the tendency towards a monopoly inherent in economies of scale.", "In other words, the heterogeneity of the organizational forms and of the size of the companies operating in a sector of activity can be determined by factors regarding the quality of the products, the production flexibility, the contractual methods, the learning opportunities, the heterogeneity of preferences of customers who express a differentiated demand with respect to the quality of the product, and assistance before and after the sale.", "Very different organizational forms can therefore co-exist in the same sector of activity, even in the presence of economies of scale, such as, for example, flexible production on a large scale, small-scale flexible production, mass production, industrial production based on rigid technologies associated with flexible organizational systems and traditional artisan production.", "The considerations regarding economies of scale are therefore important, but not sufficient to explain the size of the company and the market structure.", "It is also necessary to take into account the factors linked to the development of capabilities and the management of transaction costs." ], [ "External economies of scale", "External economies of scale tend to be more prevalent than internal economies of scale.", "Through the external economies of scale, the entry of new firms benefits all existing competitors as it creates greater competition and also reduces the average cost for all firms as opposed to internal economies of scale which only allows benefits to the individual firm.", "Advantages that arise from external economies of scale include; * Expansion of the industry.", "* Benefits most or all of the firms within the industry.", "* Can lead to rapid growth of local governments.Graph Depicting External Economies of Scale" ], [ "Sources", "===Purchasing===Firms are able to lower their average costs by buying their inputs required for the production process in bulk or from special wholesalers.", "===Managerial===Firms might be able to lower their average costs by improving their management structure within the firm.", "This can range from hiring better skilled or more experienced managers from the industry.===Technological===Technological advancements change production processes and subsequently reduce the overall cost per unit.", "Tim Hindle argues that the rollout of the internet \"has completely reshaped the assumptions underlying economies of scale\"." ], [ "See also", "* Wright's Law unit cost curve* Economies of density* Economies of scope* Ideal firm size* Mass production* Network effect" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===**** New ed.", "with Appendices by Léon Walras, Joseph Bertrand and Vilfredo Pareto, Introduction and notes by Georges Lutfalla, Paris: Librairie des Sciences Politiques et Sociales Marcel Rivière, 1938.English translation: Repr.", "New York: A.M. Kelley, 1971.", "* Repr.", "1997.", "******* Repr.", "1990.", "* Repr.", "1990.", "* Repr.", "2009.", " Repr.", "(1997).", "**** English translation: Repr.", "in * Repr.", "in ** " ], [ "External links", " Economies of Scale Definition by The Linux Information Project (LINFO)* Economies of Scale by Economics Online" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elie Wiesel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eliezer''' \"'''Elie'''\" '''Wiesel''' ( or ; ; September 30, 1928 – July 2, 2016) was a Romanian-born American writer, professor, political activist, Nobel laureate, and Holocaust survivor.", "He authored 57 books, written mostly in French and English, including ''Night'', a work based on his experiences as a Jewish prisoner in the Auschwitz and Buchenwald concentration camps.In his political activities Wiesel became a regular speaker on the subject of the Holocaust and remained a strong defender of human rights during his lifetime.", "He also advocated for many other causes like the state of Israel and against Hamas and victims of oppression including Soviet and Ethiopian Jews, the apartheid in South Africa, the Bosnian genocide, Sudan, the Kurds and the Armenian genocide, Argentina's Desaparecidos or Nicaragua's Miskito people.", "He was a professor of the humanities at Boston University, which created the Elie Wiesel Center for Jewish Studies in his honor.", "He was involved with Jewish causes and human rights causes and helped establish the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. Wiesel was awarded various prestigious awards including the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986.He was a founding board member of the New York Human Rights Foundation and remained active in it throughout his life." ], [ "Early life", "The house in which Wiesel was born in SighetEliezer Wiesel was born in Sighet (now Sighetu Marmației), Maramureș, in the Carpathian Mountains of Romania.", "His parents were Sarah Feig and Shlomo Wiesel.", "At home, Wiesel's family spoke Yiddish most of the time, but also German, Hungarian, and Romanian.", "Wiesel's mother, Sarah, was the daughter of Dodye Feig, a Vizhnitz Hasid and farmer from the nearby village of Bocskó.", "Dodye was active and trusted within the community.Wiesel's father, Shlomo, instilled a strong sense of humanism in his son, encouraging him to learn Hebrew and to read literature, whereas his mother encouraged him to study the Torah.", "Wiesel said his father represented reason, while his mother Sarah promoted faith.", "Wiesel was instructed that his genealogy traced back to Rabbi Schlomo Yitzhaki (Rashi), and was a descendant of Rabbi Yeshayahu ben Abraham Horovitz ha-Levi.Wiesel had three siblings—older sisters Beatrice and Hilda, and younger sister Tzipora.", "Beatrice and Hilda survived the war, and were reunited with Wiesel at a French orphanage.", "They eventually emigrated to North America, with Beatrice moving to Montreal, Quebec, Canada.", "Tzipora, Shlomo, and Sarah did not survive the Holocaust." ], [ "Imprisonment and orphaning during the Holocaust", "Buchenwald concentration camp, photo taken April 16, 1945, five days after liberation of the camp.", "Wiesel is in the second row from the bottom, seventh from the left, next to the bunk post.In March 1944, Germany occupied Hungary, thus extending the Holocaust into Northern Transylvania as well.", "Wiesel was 15, and he, with his family, along with the rest of the town's Jewish population, was placed in one of the two confinement ghettos set up in Máramarossziget (Sighet), the town where he had been born and raised.", "In May 1944, the Hungarian authorities, under German pressure, began to deport the Jewish community to the Auschwitz concentration camp, where up to 90 percent of the people were murdered on arrival.Immediately after they were sent to Auschwitz, his mother and his younger sister were murdered.", "Wiesel and his father were selected to perform labor so long as they remained able-bodied, after which they were to be murdered in the gas chambers.", "Wiesel and his father were later deported to the concentration camp at Buchenwald.", "Until that transfer, he admitted to Oprah Winfrey, his primary motivation for trying to survive Auschwitz was knowing that his father was still alive: \"I knew that if I died, he would die.\"", "After they were taken to Buchenwald, his father died before the camp was liberated.", "In ''Night'', Wiesel recalled the shame he felt when he heard his father being beaten and was unable to help.Wiesel was tattooed with inmate number \"A-7713\" on his left arm.", "The camp was liberated by the U.S. Third Army on April 11, 1945, when they were just prepared to be evacuated from Buchenwald." ], [ "Post-war career as a writer", "===France===After World War II ended and Wiesel was freed, he joined a transport of 1,000 child survivors of Buchenwald to Ecouis, France, where the Œuvre de secours aux enfants (OSE) had established a rehabilitation center.", "Wiesel joined a smaller group of 90 to 100 boys from Orthodox homes who wanted kosher facilities and a higher level of religious observance; they were cared for in a home in Ambloy under the directorship of Judith Hemmendinger.", "This home was later moved to Taverny and operated until 1947.Afterwards, Wiesel traveled to Paris where he learned French and studied literature, philosophy and psychology at the Sorbonne.", "He heard lectures by philosopher Martin Buber and existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre and he spent his evenings reading works by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Franz Kafka, and Thomas Mann.By the time he was 19, he had begun working as a journalist, writing in French, while also teaching Hebrew and working as a choirmaster.", "He wrote for Israeli and French newspapers, including ''Tsien in Kamf'' (in Yiddish).In 1946, after learning of the Irgun's bombing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, Wiesel made an unsuccessful attempt to join the underground Zionist movement.", "In 1948, he translated articles from Hebrew into Yiddish for Irgun periodicals, but never became a member of the organization.", "In 1949, he traveled to Israel as a correspondent for the French newspaper ''L'arche''.", "He then was hired as Paris correspondent for the Israeli newspaper ''Yedioth Ahronoth'', subsequently becoming its roaming international correspondent.For ten years after the war, Wiesel refused to write about or discuss his experiences during the Holocaust.", "He began to reconsider his decision after a meeting with the French author François Mauriac, the 1952 Nobel Laureate in Literature who eventually became Wiesel's close friend.", "Mauriac was a devout Christian who had fought in the French Resistance during the war.", "He compared Wiesel to \"Lazarus rising from the dead\", and saw from Wiesel's tormented eyes, \"the death of God in the soul of a child\".", "Mauriac persuaded him to begin writing about his harrowing experiences.Wiesel first wrote the 900-page memoir ''Un di velt hot geshvign'' (''And the World Remained Silent'') in Yiddish, which was published in abridged form in Buenos Aires.", "Wiesel rewrote a shortened version of the manuscript in French, ''La Nuit'', in 1955.It was translated into English as ''Night'' in 1960.The book sold few copies after its initial publication, but still attracted interest from reviewers, leading to television interviews with Wiesel and meetings with writers such as Saul Bellow.As its profile rose, ''Night'' was eventually translated into 30 languages with ten million copies sold in the United States.", "At one point film director Orson Welles wanted to make it into a feature film, but Wiesel refused, feeling that his memoir would lose its meaning if it were told without the silences in between his words.", "Oprah Winfrey made it a spotlight selection for her book club in 2006.===United States===In 1955, Wiesel moved to New York as foreign correspondent for the Israel daily, ''Yediot Ahronot''.", "In 1969, he married Austrian Marion Erster Rose, who also translated many of his books.", "They had one son, Shlomo Elisha Wiesel, named after Wiesel's father.Wiesel in 1987In the U.S., he eventually wrote over 40 books, most of them non-fiction Holocaust literature, and novels.", "As an author, he was awarded a number of literary prizes and is considered among the most important in describing the Holocaust from a highly personal perspective.", "As a result, some historians credited Wiesel with giving the term ''Holocaust'' its present meaning, although he did not feel that the word adequately described that historical event.", "In 1975, he co-founded the magazine ''Moment'' with writer Leonard Fein.The 1979 book and play ''The Trial of God'' are said to have been based on his real-life Auschwitz experience of witnessing three Jews who, close to death, conduct a trial against God, under the accusation that He has been oppressive towards the Jewish people.Wiesel also played a role in the initial success of ''The Painted Bird'' by Jerzy Kosinski by endorsing it before it became known the book was fiction and, in the sense that it was presented as all Kosinski's true experience, a hoax.Wiesel published two volumes of memoirs.", "The first, ''All Rivers Run to the Sea'', was published in 1994 and covered his life up to the year 1969.The second, titled ''And the Sea is Never Full'' and published in 1999, covered the years from 1969 to 1999." ], [ "Political activism", "Wiesel and his wife, Marion, started the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity in 1986.He served as chairman of the President's Commission on the Holocaust (later renamed the US Holocaust Memorial Council) from 1978 to 1986, spearheading the building of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. Sigmund Strochlitz was his close friend and confidant during these years.The Holocaust Memorial Museum gives the Elie Wiesel Award to \"internationally prominent individuals whose actions have advanced the Museum's vision of a world where people confront hatred, prevent genocide, and promote human dignity\".", "The Foundation had invested its endowment in money manager Bernard L. Madoff's investment Ponzi scheme, costing the Foundation $15 million and Wiesel and his wife much of their own personal savings.A staunch foe of the death penalty, Wiesel stated that he believed that even Adolf Eichmann should not have been executed.===Support for Israeli government policy===In 1982, at the request of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, Wiesel agreed to resign from his position as chairman of a planned international conference on the Holocaust and the Armenian genocide.", "Wiesel then worked with the Foreign Ministry in its attempts to get the conference either canceled or to remove all discussion of the Armenian genocide from it, and to those ends he provided the Foreign Ministry with internal documents on the conference's planning and lobbied fellow academics to not attend the conference.Following his death, Wiesel was criticized by some for his perceived silence on certain Israeli government policies with regards to the Palestinians.", "During his lifetime, Wiesel had deflected questions on the topic, claiming to abstain from commenting on Israel's internal debates.", "Hussein Ibish claimed after his death that despite this position, Wiesel had gone on record as supporting the idea of expanding Jewish settlements into the Palestinian territories conquered by Israel during the 6 Day War, such settlements are considered illegal by the international community.=== Awards ===Wiesel was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986 for speaking out against violence, repression, and racism.", "The Norwegian Nobel Committee described Wiesel as \"one of the most important spiritual leaders and guides in an age when violence, repression, and racism continue to characterize the world\" and called him a \"messenger to mankind\".", "It also stressed that Wiesel's commitment originated in the sufferings of the Jewish people but that he expanded it to embrace all repressed peoples and races.In his acceptance speech he delivered a message \"of peace, atonement, and human dignity\".", "He explained his feelings: \"Silence encourages the tormentor, never the tormented.", "Sometimes we must interfere.", "When human lives are endangered, when human dignity is in jeopardy, national borders and sensitivities become irrelevant.", "\"He received many other prizes and honors for his work, including the Congressional Gold Medal in 1985, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and The International Center in New York's Award of Excellence.", "He was also elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1996.Wiesel co-founded ''Moment'' magazine with Leonard Fein in 1975.They founded the magazine to provide a voice for American Jews.", "He was also a member of the International Advisory Board of NGO Monitor.In April 1999, Wiesel delivered the speech \"The Perils of Indifference\" in Washington D.C., criticizing the people and countries who chose to be indifferent while the Holocaust was happening.", "He defined indifference as being neutral between two sides, which, in this case, amounts to overlooking the victims of the Holocaust.", "Throughout the speech, he expressed the view that a little bit of attention, either positive or negative, is better than no attention at all.In 2003, he discovered and publicized the fact that at least 280,000 Romanian and Ukrainian Jews, along with other groups, were massacred in Romanian-run death camps.In 2005, he gave a speech at the opening ceremony of the new building of Yad Vashem, the Israeli Holocaust History Museum:I know what people say – it is so easy.", "Those that were there won't agree with that statement.", "The statement is: it was man's inhumanity to man.", "NO!", "It was man's inhumanity to Jews!", "Jews were not killed because they were human beings.", "In the eyes of the killers they were not human beings!", "They were Jews!In early 2006, Wiesel accompanied Oprah Winfrey as she visited Auschwitz, a visit which was broadcast as part of ''The Oprah Winfrey Show''.", "On November 30, 2006, Wiesel received a knighthood in London in recognition of his work toward raising Holocaust education in the United Kingdom.In September 2006, he appeared before the UN Security Council with actor George Clooney to call attention to the humanitarian crisis in Darfur.", "When Wiesel died, Clooney wrote, \"We had a champion who carried our pain, our guilt, and our responsibility on his shoulders for generations.", "\"In 2007, Wiesel was awarded the Dayton Literary Peace Prize's Lifetime Achievement Award.", "That same year, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity issued a letter condemning Armenian genocide denial, a letter that was signed by 53 Nobel laureates including Wiesel.", "Wiesel repeatedly called Turkey's 90-year-old campaign to downplay its actions during the Armenian genocide a double killing.President George W. Bush, joined by the Dalai Lama and Wiesel, October 17, 2007, to the ceremony at the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., for the presentation of the Congressional Gold Medal to the Dalai LamaIn 2009, Wiesel criticized the Vatican for lifting the excommunication of controversial bishop Richard Williamson, a member of the Society of Saint Pius X.", "The excommunication was later reimposed.In June 2009, Wiesel accompanied US President Barack Obama and German Chancellor Angela Merkel as they toured the Buchenwald concentration camp.", "Wiesel was an adviser at the Gatestone Institute.", "In 2010, Wiesel accepted a five-year appointment as a Distinguished Presidential Fellow at Chapman University in Orange County, California.", "In that role, he made a one-week visit to Chapman annually to meet with students and offer his perspective on subjects ranging from Holocaust history to religion, languages, literature, law and music.In July 2009, Wiesel announced his support to the minority Tamils in Sri Lanka.", "He said that, \"Wherever minorities are being persecuted, we must raise our voices to protest ...", "The Tamil people are being disenfranchised and victimized by the Sri Lanka authorities.", "This injustice must stop.", "The Tamil people must be allowed to live in peace and flourish in their homeland.", "\"In 2009, Wiesel returned to Hungary for his first visit since the Holocaust.", "During this visit, Wiesel participated in a conference at the Upper House Chamber of the Hungarian Parliament, met Prime Minister Gordon Bajnai and President László Sólyom, and made a speech to the approximately 10,000 participants of an anti-racist gathering held in Faith Hall.", "However, in 2012, he protested against \"the whitewashing\" of Hungary's involvement in the Holocaust, and he gave up the Great Cross award he had received from the Hungarian government.Wiesel was active in trying to prevent Iran from making nuclear weapons, stating that, \"The words and actions of the leadership of Iran leave no doubt as to their intentions\".", "He also condemned Hamas for the \"use of children as human shields\" during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict by running an ad in several large newspapers.", "''The Times'' refused to run the advertisement, saying, \"The opinion being expressed is too strong, and too forcefully made, and will cause concern amongst a significant number of ''Times'' readers.", "\"Wiesel often emphasized the Jewish connection to Jerusalem, and criticized the Obama administration for pressuring Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to halt East Jerusalem Israeli settlement construction.", "He stated that \"Jerusalem is above politics.", "It is mentioned more than six hundred times in Scripture—and not a single time in the Koran ...", "It belongs to the Jewish people and is much more than a city\"." ], [ "Teaching", "Wiesel held the position of Andrew Mellon Professor of the Humanities at Boston University from 1976, teaching in both its religion and philosophy departments.", "He became a close friend of the president and chancellor John Silber.", "The university created the Elie Wiesel Center for Jewish Studies in his honor.", "From 1972 to 1976 Wiesel was a Distinguished Professor at the City University of New York and member of the American Federation of Teachers.In 1982 he served as the first Henry Luce Visiting Scholar in Humanities and Social Thought at Yale University.", "He also co-instructed Winter Term (January) courses at Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, Florida.", "From 1997 to 1999 he was Ingeborg Rennert Visiting Professor of Judaic Studies at Barnard College of Columbia University." ], [ "Personal life", "2012 ''Time'' 100In 1969 he married Marion Erster Rose, who originally was from Austria and also translated many of his books.", "They had one son, Shlomo Elisha Wiesel, named after Wiesel's father.", "The family lived in Greenwich, Connecticut.Wiesel was attacked in a San Francisco hotel by 22-year-old Holocaust denier Eric Hunt in February 2007, but was not injured.", "Hunt was arrested the following month and charged with multiple offenses.In May 2011, Wiesel served as the Washington University in St. Louis commencement speaker.", "In February 2012, a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints performed a posthumous baptism for Simon Wiesenthal's parents without proper authorization.", "After his own name was submitted for proxy baptism, Wiesel spoke out against the unauthorized practice of posthumously baptizing Jews and asked presidential candidate and Latter-day Saint Mitt Romney to denounce it.", "Romney's campaign declined to comment, directing such questions to church officials." ], [ "Death and aftermath", "Wiesel died on the morning of July 2, 2016, at his home in Manhattan, aged 87.After a private funeral service was conducted in honor of him at the Fifth Avenue Synagogue, he was buried at the Sharon Gardens Cemetery in Valhalla, New York, on July 3.Utah senator Orrin Hatch paid tribute to Wiesel in a speech on the Senate floor the following week, in which he said that \"With Elie's passing, we have lost a beacon of humanity and hope.", "We have lost a hero of human rights and a luminary of Holocaust literature.", "\"In 2018, antisemitic graffiti was found on the house where Wiesel was born." ], [ "Awards and honors", "* Prix de l'Université de la Langue Française (Prix Rivarol) for ''The Town Beyond the Wall'', 1963.", "National Jewish Book Award for ''The Town Beyond the Wall'', 1965.", " Ingram Merrill award, 1964.", "* Prix Médicis for ''A Beggar in Jerusalem'', 1968.", "National Jewish Book Award for ''Souls on Fire: Portraits and Legends of Hasidic Masters'', 1973.", " Jewish Heritage Award, Haifa University, 1975.", "* Holocaust Memorial Award, New York Society of Clinical Psychologists, 1975.", "* S.Y.", "Agnon Medal, 1980.", "* Jabotinsky Medal, State of Israel, 1980.", "* Prix Livre Inter, France, for ''The Testament'', 1980.", "* Grand Prize in Literature from the City of Paris for ''The Fifth Son'', 1983.", "* Commander in the French Legion of Honor, 1984.", "* U.S. Congressional Gold Medal, 1984.", "* Four Freedoms Award for the Freedom of Worship, 1985.", "* Medal of Liberty, 1986.", "* Nobel Peace Prize, 1986.", "* Grand Officer in the French Legion of Honor, 1990.", "* Presidential Medal of Freedom, 1992* Niebuhr Medal, Elmhurst College, Illinois, 1995.", "* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1996, presented by Awards Council member Rosa Parks at the Academy's 35th annual Summit in Sun Valley, Idaho.", "* Grand Cross in the French Legion of Honor, 2000.", "* Order of the Star of Romania, 2002.", "* Man of the Year award, Tel Aviv Museum of Art, 2005.", "* Light of Truth award, International Campaign for Tibet, 2005.", "* Honorary Knighthood, United Kingdom, 2006.", "* Honorary Visiting Professor of Humanities, Rochester College, 2008.", "* National Humanities Medal, 2009.", "* Norman Mailer Prize, Lifetime Achievement, 2011.", "* Loebenberg Humanitarian Award, Florida Holocaust Museum, 2012.", "* Kenyon Review Award for Literary Achievement, 2012* Nadav Award, 2012.", "* S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards, 2013.", "* John Jay Medal for Justice John Jay College, 2014.", "* Bust of Wiesel was carved on the Human Rights Porch of the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., 2021.===Honorary degrees===Wiesel had received more than 90 honorary degrees from colleges worldwide.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1985.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, DePaul University, Chicago, Illinois, 1997.", "* Doctorate, Seton Hall University, New Jersey, 1998.", "* Doctor of Humanities, Michigan State University, 1999.", "* Doctorate, McDaniel College, Westminster, Maryland, 2005.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, Chapman University, 2005.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, Dartmouth College, 2006.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, Cabrini College, Radnor, Pennsylvania, 2007.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, University of Vermont, 2007.", "* Doctor of Humanities, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, 2007.", "* Doctor of Letters, City College of New York, 2008.", "* Doctorate, Tel Aviv University, 2008.", "* Doctorate, Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel, 2008.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, 2009.", "* Doctor of Letters, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 2010.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, Washington University in St. Louis, 2011.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, College of Charleston, 2011.", "* Doctorate, University of Warsaw, June 25, 2012.", "* Doctorate, The University of British Columbia, September 10, 2012.", "Doctorate, Pontifical University of John Paul II, June 30, 2015Doctorate of Humane Letters, Fairfield University, May 22, 1983" ], [ "See also", "* ''The Boys of Buchenwald'' – documentary about the orphanage in which he stayed after the Holocaust* Canadian Institute for the Study of Antisemitism* Elie Wiesel bibliography* Elie Wiesel National Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania* Genesis Prize* ''God on Trial'' – a 2008 joint BBC / WGBH Boston dramatization of his book ''The Trial of God''* Holocaust research* List of civil rights leaders* List of investors in Bernard L. Madoff Securities* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations''''''Speeches and interviews'''* Elie Wiesel Video Gallery* * * * \"Perils of Indifference\" Speech by Elie Wiesel , Washington, D.C., Transcript (as delivered), Audio, Video, April 12, 1999.", "* \"Perils of Indifference\" Speech by Elie Wiesel , Washington, D.C., Text and Audio, April 12, 1999.", "* The Kennedy Center Presents: Speak Truth to Power: Elie Wiesel , PBS, October 8, 2000.", "* An Evening with Elie Wiesel .", "Herman P. and Sophia Taubman Endowed Symposia in Jewish Studies.", "UCTV (University of California).", "August 19, 2002* ''Elie Wiesel: First Person Singular'' , PBS, October 24, 2002.", "* .", "* ''Voices on Antisemitism'' Interview with Elie Wieselfrom the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, May 24, 2007.", "* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Berenbaum, Michael.", "''The Vision of the Void: Theological Reflections on the Works of Elie Wiesel''.", "Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1979.", "* * * Davis, Colin.", "''Elie Wiesel's Secretive Texts''.", "Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1994.", "* * Downing, Frederick L. ''Elie Wiesel: A Religious Biography''.", "Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2008.", "* Fine, Ellen S. ''Legacy of Night: The Literary Universe of Elie Wiesel''.", "New York: State University of New York Press, 1982.", "* Fonseca, Isabel.", "''Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey''.", "London: Vintage, 1996.", "* * Rota, Olivier.", "''Choisir le français pour exprimer l'indicible.", "Elie Wiesel'', in , 2006, pp.", "47–55.Re-published in Sens, dec. 2007, pp.", "659–668." ], [ "External links", "* The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity* Elie Wiesel's acceptance speech of the Nobel Peace Prize ()* * * Biography on The Elie Wiesel Foundation For Humanity* * * * * * * * \"Free At Last: Elie Wiesel, Plainclothes Nuns, and Breakthroughs – Or Witnessing a Witness of History\", pp.", "19–21 in 'Spirit of America, Vol.", "39: Simple Gifts', La Crosse, WI: DigiCOPY, 2017, Essay by David Joseph Marcou about his meeting Mr. Wiesel and being official Viterbo U.", "Photographer for Elie Wiesel Day at Viterbo U., 9-26-06, in Book by DJ Marcou on Missouri J-School Library Web-page of David Joseph Marcou's works * Elie Wiesel, Nobel Luminaries - Jewish Nobel Prize Winners, on the Beit Hatfutsot-The Museum of the Jewish People Website." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ed Wood" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Davis Wood Jr.''' (October 10, 1924 – December 10, 1978) was an American filmmaker, actor, screenwriter, and pulp novel author.In the 1950s, Wood directed several low-budget science fiction, crime and horror films that later became cult classics, notably ''Glen or Glenda'' (1953), ''Jail Bait'' (1954), ''Bride of the Monster'' (1955), ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1957) and ''Night of the Ghouls'' (1959).", "In the 1960s and 1970s, he moved towards sexploitation and pornographic films such as ''The Sinister Urge'' (1960), ''Orgy of the Dead'' (1965) and ''Necromania'' (1971), and wrote over 80 lurid pulp crime and sex novels.Notable for their campy aesthetics, technical errors, unsophisticated special effects, use of poorly-matched stock footage, eccentric casts, idiosyncratic stories and non sequitur dialogue, Wood's films remained largely obscure until he was posthumously awarded a Golden Turkey Award for Worst Director of All Time in 1980, renewing public interest in his life and work.Following the publication of Rudolph Grey's 1992 oral biography ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr.'', a biopic of his life, ''Ed Wood'' (1994), was directed by Tim Burton.", "Starring Johnny Depp as Wood and Martin Landau as Bela Lugosi, the film received critical acclaim and various awards, including two Academy Awards." ], [ "Early years", "Wood's father, Edward Sr., worked for the United States Post Office Department as a custodian, and his family relocated numerous times around the United States.", "Eventually, they settled in Poughkeepsie, New York, where Ed Wood Jr. was born in 1924.According to his second wife, Kathy O'Hara, Wood's mother Lillian would dress him in girl's clothing when he was a child because she had always wanted a daughter (Wood had one brother, several years younger than himself).", "For the rest of his life, Wood crossdressed, infatuated with the feel of angora on his skin.During his childhood, Wood was interested in the performing arts and pulp fiction.", "He collected comic books and pulp magazines, and adored movies, especially Westerns, serials, and the occult.", "Buck Jones and Bela Lugosi were two of his earliest childhood idols.", "He often skipped school in order to watch motion pictures at the local movie theater, where stills from last week's films would often be thrown into the trash by theater staff, allowing Wood to salvage the images, and to add to his extensive collection.On his 12th birthday, in 1936, Wood received as a gift his first movie camera, a Kodak \"Cine Special\".", "One of his first pieces of footage, and one that imbued him with pride, showed the airship ''Hindenburg'' passing over the Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, shortly before its disastrous crash at Lakehurst, New Jersey.", "One of Wood's first paid jobs was as a cinema usher, and he also sang and played drums in a band.", "Subsequently, he formed a quartet called \"Eddie Wood's Little Splinters\" in which he sang and played multiple stringed instruments.===Military service===In 1942, Wood enlisted at age 17 in the United States Marine Corps, just months after the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Assigned to the 2nd Defense Battalion, he reached the rank of corporal before he was discharged in 1946 at age 21.Although Wood reportedly claimed to have faced strenuous combat, including having his front teeth knocked out by a Japanese soldier, his military records reveal that to be false, apart from recovering bodies on Betio following the Battle of Tarawa, and experiencing minor Japanese bombing raids on Betio and the Ellice Islands.", "A recurring filariasis infection left him performing clerical work for the remainder of his enlistment.", "His dental extractions were carried out over several months by Navy dentists, unconnected to any combat.", "Wood had false teeth that he would slip out from his mouth when he wanted to make his wife Kathy laugh, showing her a big toothless grin.", "Wood later claimed that he feared being wounded in battle more than he feared being killed, mainly because he was afraid a combat medic would discover him wearing a pink bra and panties under his uniform during the Battle of Tarawa." ], [ "Career", "===Directing and screenwriting===In 1947, Wood moved to Hollywood, California, where he wrote scripts and directed television pilots, commercials and several forgotten micro-budget westerns, most of which failed to sell.", "Wood biographer Rudolph Grey states that Ed Wood made approximately 125 commercials for Story-Ad films and approximately 30 commercials for Play-Ad Films, in addition to a few commercials for \"Pie-Quick\".", "In 1948, Wood wrote, produced, directed, and starred in ''The Casual Company'', a play derived from his own unpublished novel which was based on his service in the United States Marine Corps.", "It opened at the Village Playhouse to negative reviews on October 25.That same year, he wrote and directed a low-budget western called ''Crossroads of Laredo'' with the aid of a young producer he met named Crawford John Thomas.", "The film was shot silent and was not completed during Wood's lifetime.In 1949, Wood and Thomas acted together in a play called ''The Blackguard Returns'' at the Gateway Theatre (Wood played the Sheriff and Thomas was the villain).", "Wood joined the Screen Actors Guild in 1951, and worked very briefly as a stuntman among other things.", "When writing, Wood used a number of different pen names, including Ann Gora (in reference to Angora, his favorite textile) and Akdov Telmig (the backwards spelling of his favorite drink, the vodka gimlet).In 1952, Wood was introduced to actor Bela Lugosi by friend and fellow writer-producer Alex Gordon (Wood's roommate at the time who was later involved in creating American International Pictures).", "Lugosi's son, Bela Lugosi Jr., has been among those who felt Wood exploited the senior Lugosi's stardom, taking advantage of the fading actor when he could not afford to refuse any work.", "However, most documents and interviews with other Wood associates in ''Nightmare of Ecstasy'' suggest that Wood and Lugosi were genuine friends and that Wood helped Lugosi through the worst days of his clinical depression and drug addiction.", "Lugosi had become dependent on morphine as a way of controlling his debilitating sciatica over the years, and was in a poor mental state caused by his recent divorce.====''Glen or Glenda''====In 1953, Wood wrote and directed the semi-documentary film ''Glen or Glenda'' (originally titled ''I Changed My Sex!'')", "with producer George Weiss.", "The film starred Wood (under the alias \"Daniel Davis\") as a transvestite, his girlfriend Dolores Fuller, Timothy Farrell, Lyle Talbot, Conrad Brooks and Bela Lugosi as the god-like narrator/scientist.", "Fuller was shocked when she learned soon afterward that Wood actually ''was'' a transvestite.In 1953, Wood wrote and directed a stage show for Lugosi called ''The Bela Lugosi Review'' (a take-off on ''Dracula'') that was put on at the Silver Slipper in Las Vegas.", "When Lugosi appeared on the TV show ''You Asked For It'' that same year, he announced that Ed Wood was producing a ''Dr.", "Acula'' TV show for him, but it never materialized.", "Wood acted as Lugosi's dialogue coach when he guest-starred on ''The Red Skelton Show'' in 1954, alongside Lon Chaney Jr. and Vampira (aka Maila Nurmi).====''Jail Bait''====Wood co-produced and directed a crime film, ''Jail Bait'' (1954, originally titled ''The Hidden Face''), along with his co-writer/roommate Alex Gordon, which starred Herbert Rawlinson (as the plastic surgeon), Lyle Talbot, Dolores Fuller, Timothy Farrell, Theodora Thurman and Steve Reeves (in one of his first acting jobs).", "Bela Lugosi was supposed to play the lead role of the plastic surgeon, but was busy with another project when filming started and had to bow out.", "His replacement, Herbert Rawlinson, died the day after he filmed his scenes.", "Distributor Ron Ormond changed the title from ''The Hidden Face'' to ''Jail Bait'' just before releasing it.====''Bride of the Monster''====Wood produced and directed the horror film ''Bride of the Monster'' (1955, originally titled ''Bride of the Atom'' or ''The Monster of the Marshes''), based on an original story idea by Alex Gordon which he had originally called ''The Atomic Monster''.", "It starred Bela Lugosi as the mad scientist, Swedish wrestler Tor Johnson as mute manservant \"Lobo\", Paul Marco, Billy Benedict (\"Whitey\" of ''The Bowery Boys''), Harvey B. Dunn and Loretta King.", "Soon after the film was completed, Bela Lugosi committed himself to the Norwalk State Hospital for three months, to be treated for drug addiction.", "The film premiered on May 11, 1955, at the Paramount theater in Hollywood while Lugosi was institutionalized, but a special screening was arranged for him upon his release, pleasing him greatly.====''The Violent Years''====In 1956, Wood wrote the screenplay (uncredited) for the film ''The Violent Years'' (originally titled ''Teenage Girl Gang''), which was directed by William M. Morgan, starring ''Playboy'' model Jean Moorhead, Timothy Farrell, and serial star I. Stanford Jolley (as a judge).Wood began filming a juvenile delinquency film called ''Rock and Roll Hell'' (a.k.a.", "''Hellborn'') in 1956, but producer George Weiss pulled the plug on the project after only ten minutes of footage had been completed.", "Wood's friend Conrad Brooks purchased the footage from Weiss, and some scenes were later incorporated as stock footage into Wood's later ''Night of the Ghouls'' (1959).", "(The entire ten minutes of footage was later released complete on VHS in 1993, as ''Hellborn''.", ")====''Plan 9 from Outer Space''====In late 1956, Wood co-produced, wrote, and directed his science fiction opus ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (his screenplay was originally titled ''Grave Robbers from Outer Space''), which featured Bela Lugosi in a small role.", "(Lugosi actually died in August 1956 before production even began but Wood inserted some footage into the film that he had previously shot of Lugosi in 1955–1956).", "The film also starred Tor Johnson, Vampira (Maila Nurmi), Tom Mason (who doubled for Lugosi in some scenes), and the Amazing Criswell as the film's narrator.", "''Plan 9'' premiered on March 15, 1957, at the Carlton Theatre in Hollywood, and later went into general release in July 1959 (retitled ''Plan Nine from Outer Space'') in Texas and a number of other Southern states.", "It was finally sold to late night television in 1961, thereby finding its audience over the years.", "It became Wood's best-known film and received a cult following in 1980 when Michael Medved declared this film \"the worst film ever made\" in his book ''The Golden Turkey Awards''.====''Final Curtain''====In 1957 Wood wrote and directed a pilot for a suspense-horror TV series to be called ''Portraits in Terror'' that ultimately failed to sell.", "The pilot, entitled ''Final Curtain'', sees an old and world-weary actor wandering in an empty theatre, imagining ghosts and a living mannequin haunting the backstage area, until a la ''The Twilight Zone'', he realizes that he himself is dead.", "The episode has no dialogue, and Dudley Manlove narrates the thoughts of Duke Moore as the actor.", "Bela Lugosi would've starred in this short film had he lived.", "Parts of the unsold pilot were later recycled for use in Wood's ''Night of the Ghouls'' (1959).", "The episode was thought to be lost until a complete print was located .", "It was remastered and given its first ever cinema showing in a theater in February 2012.Today it is widely available online and on DVD.====''Night of the Ghouls''====In 1958, Wood wrote, produced, and directed ''Night of the Ghouls'' (originally titled ''Revenge of the Dead''), starring Kenne Duncan, Tor Johnson (reprising his role as \"Lobo\" from ''Bride of the Monster''), Criswell, Duke Moore, and Valda Hansen.", "The film premiered at the Vista Theatre in Hollywood on a double bill with the Lana Turner movie \"Imitation of Life\" on March 17, 1959, and then promptly vanished from circulation.", "For many years, it was thought to be a lost film, but distribution of the film was held up for 25 years because Wood hadn't paid the lab bill.", "Video producer Wade Williams paid the bill and released the film on videocassette in 1984, copyrighting the film in his own name.In 1958, Wood also wrote the screenplay for ''The Bride and the Beast'' (1958), which was directed by Adrian Weiss.", "Wood's screenplay was based on Adrian Weiss' plot.Wood also wrote the screenplay (as \"Peter LaRoche\") for a 1959 \"nudie cutie\" film called ''Revenge of the Virgins'', which was directed by Peter Perry Jr.====''The Sinister Urge''====Wood wrote and directed the exploitation film ''The Sinister Urge'' (1960), starring Kenne Duncan, Duke Moore, Dino Fantini, Harvey B. Dunn and Carl Anthony.", "Filmed in just five days, this is the last mainstream film Wood directed, although it has grindhouse elements.", "The film contains an \"eerily prescient\" scene, in which Carl Anthony's character states, \"I look at this slush, and I try to remember, at one time, I made good movies\".", "The scenes of the teenagers at the pizzeria had been previously shot in 1956 for Wood's unfinished juvenile delinquency film, ''Rock and Roll Hell'' (a.k.a.", "''Hellborn'').Also in 1960, Wood wrote the screenplay for ''The Peeper'', which he intended as a direct sequel to his 1960 film ''The Sinister Urge'', but it was never produced.Wood also contributed to the plot of Jane Mann's 1961 screenplay ''Anatomy of a Psycho''.", "The film was directed by Mann's husband Boris Petroff.In 1963, Wood wrote the screenplay for ''Shotgun Wedding'' (an exploitation film directed by Boris Petroff about hillbillies marrying child brides in the Ozarks).", "Wood wrote the screenplay from a story idea by Jane Mann.", "Wood's friend, cameraman William C. Thompson, died around this time.====''Orgy of the Dead''====Wood's 1965 transitional film ''Orgy of the Dead'' (originally titled ''Nudie Ghoulies'') combined the horror and grindhouse skin-flick genres.", "Wood handled various production details while Stephen C. Apostolof directed under the pseudonym A. C. Stephen.", "The film begins with a recreation of the opening scene from ''Night of the Ghouls''.", "Criswell, wearing one of Lugosi's old capes, rises from his coffin to deliver an introduction taken almost word-for-word from the previous film.", "Set in a misty graveyard, the Lord of the Dead (Criswell) and his sexy consort, the Black Ghoul (a Vampira look-alike), preside over a series of macabre performances by topless dancers from beyond the grave (recruited by Wood from local strip clubs).", "The film also features a Wolf Man and a Mummy.", "Together, Wood and Apostolof went on to make a string of sexploitation films up to 1977.Wood co-wrote the screenplays with Apostolof and occasionally even acted in some of the films.In 1969, Wood appeared in ''The Photographer'' (a.k.a.", "''Love Feast'' or ''Pretty Models All in a Row''), the first of two films produced by a Marine buddy, Joseph F. Robertson, with Wood portraying a photographer using his position to engage in sexual antics with his models.Wood had a smaller role in Robertson's second film, ''Mrs.", "Stone's Thing'' (1970), as a transvestite who spends his time at a party trying on lingerie in a bedroom.In 1969, Wood adapted his own novel ''Mama's Diary'' written under the pseudonym Dick Trent into ''Operation Red Light'' for Jacques Descent Production.", "Over half the footage was destroyed in a film-processing accident and the film is considered lost.", "''Venus Flytrap'' (1970) aka ''The Revenge of Dr. X'', a US/Japanese co-production, was based on an unproduced Ed Wood screenplay from the 1950s.", "The film was produced and directed by Sci-Fi pulp writer Norman Earl Thomson.", "The film involves a mad scientist who uses lightning to transform plants into man-eating monsters.", "Wood did not participate in the actual making of the movie.====''Take It Out in Trade''====In 1970, Wood wrote and directed his own pornographic film, ''Take It Out in Trade'', starring Duke Moore and Nona Carver.", "Wood played a transvestite named Alecia in the film.In 1970, Wood produced a 45 rpm record which featured Tor Johnson on one side, reading ''The Day The Mummy Returned'', and Criswell reading ''The Final Curtain'' on the other.", "It has never been determined whether or not the record was actually released, but many of them were definitely produced.====''Necromania''====In 1971, he produced, wrote and directed ''Necromania'' (subtitled ''A Tale of Weird Love'') under the pseudonym \"Don Miller\".", "The film was an early entry to the new subgenre of hardcore pornographic films.", "Thought lost for years, it resurfaced in edited form on Mike Vraney's Something Weird imprint in the late 1980s, and was re-released later on DVD by Fleshbot Films in 2005.In the Rudolph Grey biography ''Nightmare of Ecstasy'', Maila Nurmi (\"Vampira\") said she declined Wood's offer to do a nude scene sitting in a coffin for ''Necromania'', claiming she was recovering from a stroke at the time.From 1971 to 1972, Wood directed an unknown number of short X-Rated films produced by the Swedish Erotica film company.", "These were short 12-minute loops that were silent films with subtitles.", "Wood was paid $100 for every ten loops he subtitled.Wood's friends Kenne Duncan and Tor Johnson both passed away during this period.", "(Ed Wood was named executor of Kenne Duncan's estate, and following Duncan's death, Wood held a small memorial funeral for him with his wife and some friends in his backyard around the swimming pool where they eulogized the departed Western film star.)", "Wood's friend Duke Moore died in 1976.Throughout the 1970s, Wood worked with his friend Stephen C. Apostolof, usually co-writing scripts with him, but also serving as an assistant director and an associate producer.", "(Together they had made Wood's ''Orgy of the Dead'' back in 1965.)", "Wood's last known on-screen appearance (a dual role) was in Apostolof's 1974 film ''Fugitive Girls'' (a.k.a.", "''Five Loose Women''), in which he played both a gas station attendant called \"Pops\" and a sheriff on the fugitive women's trail.", "In 1974, Wood was allegedly on the set of an ultra-low budget film called ''Meatcleaver Massacre'' (1977) and is said to have co-directed at least one scene in the film (uncredited), but his involvement is dubious.At the time of his death, Wood was working on a biographical screenplay based on the last years of actor Bela Lugosi to be called ''Lugosi Post Mortem'', which was supposed to star actor Peter Coe as Lugosi and Karl Johnson as his father Tor Johnson.", "The nearly completed script was left behind the last time Wood was evicted and is presumed to have been discarded in the trash.", "Wood was also working on a screenplay for a film called ''Venus De Milo'', a mystery that would explain the famous statue's missing arms.Technically, Wood's last acting job was in the 1978 Stephen Apostolof film ''Hot Ice''.", "Ed Wood played a janitor in the film, but his scene was cut out at the last minute due to his drunkenness on the set.", "Wood died soon after this film was made in 1978, at age 54.", "(Ironically his demise coincided with the end of the soft-core porn industry .", "Apostolof himself stopped making films as well at this time.", ")===Books and novels===Beginning in 1963 up until his death, Wood wrote at least 80 lurid crime and sex novels in addition to hundreds of short stories and non-fiction pieces for magazines and daily newspapers.His novels include ''Black Lace Drag'' (1963) (reissued in 1965 as ''Killer in Drag''), ''Orgy of the Dead'' (1965), ''Parisian Passions'' (1966), ''Watts the Difference'' (1966), ''Side-Show Siren'' (1966), ''Drag Trade'' (1967), ''Watts After'' (1967), ''Devil Girls'' (1967), ''It Takes One to Know One'' (1967), ''Death of a Transvestite'' (1967), ''Suburbia Confidential'' (1967), ''Night Time Lez'' (1968), ''The Perverts'' (1968), ''Bye Bye Broadie'' (1968), ''Raped in the Grass'' (1968), ''Sex, Shrouds and Caskets'' (1968), ''Love of the Dead'' (1968), ''The Sexecutives'' (1968), ''Young, Black and Gay'' (1968), ''Hell Chicks'' (1968), ''The Gay Underworld'' (1968), ''Carnival Piece'' (1969), ''Toni, Black Tigress'' (1969), ''Mama's Diary'' (1969), ''To Make a Homo'' (1969), ''Mary-Go-Round'' (1969), ''The Sexual Woman'' (1971), ''The Only House'' (1972), ''A Study of Fetishes and Fantasies'' (1973), ''Tales for a Sexy Night Part 1 and 2'' (1973), ''Sex Star'' (1973), ''Death of a Transvestite Hooker'' (1974).", "''Forced Entry'' (1974), and ''TV Lust'' (1977).In 1965, Wood wrote the quasi-memoir ''Hollywood Rat Race'', which was only published years later in 1998.In it, Wood advises new writers to \"just keep on writing.", "Even if your story gets worse, you'll get better\", and also recounts tales of dubious authenticity, such as how he and Bela Lugosi entered the world of nightclub cabaret.Thirty-two short stories known to be written by Wood (he sometimes wrote under pseudonyms such as \"Ann Gora\" and \"Dr. T.K.", "Peters\") are collected in an anthology ''Blood Splatters Quickly'', published by OR Books in 2014.===Unrealized projects===* '''''Dr.", "Acula''''' - Wood was supposed to write and direct this proposed 1953 TV series in which Bela Lugosi was supposed to play a mysterious investigator of the supernatural, to be produced by Ted Allan.", "(Lugosi mentioned it when he appeared that year on ''You Asked for It''.", ")* '''''Sequel to ''Mother Riley Meets the Vampire''' - Lugosi was offered the lead role in a proposed 1953 sequel to the Mother Riley comedy film he made in England in 1951, provided he travel back to England to appear in it.", "This sequel was never made however as Lugosi was too ill at the time to travel.", "In 1953, Ed Wood's friend producer Alex Gordon proposed creating an extended version of the 1951 film to be called ''King Robot'' which would incorporate newly filmed footage of Lugosi.", "The project was abandoned since by that time, Lugosi appeared too ill to match the earlier footage.", "* '''''The Six Arms of Siva''''' - This was a 1953 adventure novel written by Walter C. Brown which Wood and Lugosi were considering buying the film rights to, but the deal fell through.", "* '''''3-D Remake of ''Dracula'' (1931)''''' - Ed Wood and teenage Lugosi fan Richard Sheffield petitioned Universal Studios in 1953 to make a Color/ 3-D remake of the 1931 classic ''Dracula'', starring Lugosi in the lead.", "Although they gathered hundreds of signatures, nothing came of their efforts.", "* '''''The Vampire's Tomb''''' - This was a planned July, 1954 horror film starring Bela Lugosi as the \"Dr. Acula\" character again.", "The cast would also have included Loretta King, Bobby Jordan (of ''The Bowery Boys''), Dolores Fuller, Lyle Talbot, Duke Moore, Tom Keene and a Vampira-lookalike named \"Devila\".", "Wood's plot was very similar to that of Tod Browning's ''London After Midnight'', only with a female vampire.", "Wood shelved this project and filmed ''Bride of the Monster'' instead.", "Wood however did film some test footage of Lugosi wearing his Dracula cape in a local graveyard for this project which became part of the stock footage which was later incorporated into Wood's 1957 ''Plan 9 From Outer Space'' film.", "* '''''The Bowery Boys Meet The Monsters''''' - Lugosi was initially considered for the role of the mad scientist in this 1954 horror-comedy, but he was replaced in the cast by John Dehner at the last minute.", "* '''''Bela Lugosi Comics''''' - In March 1954, Wood tried to interest a number of comic book publishers in a monthly Bela Lugosi title, to no avail.", "Among the companies he contacted were DC Comics, Dell, Fiction House, Ziff-Davis, Quality and Toby Press.", "* '''''Doctor Voodoo''''' (a.k.a.", "''Voodoo Doctor'') - A projected 1954 horror film (similar in plot to the 1934 Universal film ''The Black Cat'') that was supposed to have starred both Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff, but Allied Artists rejected the script.", "It is said Karloff really wanted no part of the project anyway.", "* '''''The Terror''''' Radio Program - Wood wrote a list of story ideas for this proposed 1954 15-minute radio program which was supposed to star Bela Lugosi, but it never materialized.", "* '''''The Ghoul Goes West''''' (or ''The Phantom Ghoul'') - Wood worked on this script for two years, and had planned to produce it in Color/ Widescreen (and possibly 3-D).", "It was a proposed 1955 Western/Horror film that would have starred Gene Autry, Bela Lugosi, Tor Johnson, Lon Chaney Jr. and John Carradine, with Harold Daniels slated to direct.", "The plot was very similar to that of ''Bride of the Monster'', only in a Western setting.", "Gene Autry dropped out, and Wood tried to replace him with either Bob Steele or Ken Maynard, to no avail.", "Lugosi was reading the script the whole time he was confined to the Norwalk State Hospital in 1955, where he was being treated for drug addiction.", "Coincidentally, Lugosi, Chaney, Tor Johnson and Carradine all appeared together the following year in ''The Black Sleep'' (a project that did not involve Ed Wood).", "* '''''Repeat Performance''''' - This was a 1956 movie script that was written by Richard Sheffield, a Hollywood teenager who was a close personal friend of Bela Lugosi.", "He sold the script to Ed Wood for $1.00, but the film was never made since Wood was unable to interest financiers.", "The plot involved a \"poor, retired actor of horror films\" who is cast aside and rejected by the four film producers he once worked for, and he winds up murdering all four of them \"in a gruesome manner similar to the way he was killed in many of his horror films\".", "This may have been Wood's inspiration for his 1958 proposal to Sam Arkoff, which Wood claimed was stolen from him and later became AIP's ''How To Make A Monster''.", "(see below under 1958)..* '''''Rock and Rock Hell''''' (or ''Hellborn'') - Wood's version of ''Rebel Without a Cause'', it was supposed to have starred Conrad Brooks, Duke Moore, Tom Mason and Wood himself, to be produced by George Weiss.", "It began shooting in June 1956, but Weiss decided to abandon the project and sold the ten minutes of footage they shot to Conrad Brooks.", "Footage from this film was later incorporated into Wood's 1959 ''Night of the Ghouls''.", "* '''''The Dead Never Die''''' - Criswell and Paul Marco came up with the story for this 1957 project, which Wood was slated to direct.", "It would've starred Criswell, Paul Marco, Bunny Breckinridge and Vampira (''Maila Nurmi''), but it never got off the ground.", "* '''''How To Make a Monster''''' - Wood's widow Kathy claimed in a 1992 interview that her husband always felt that the idea for ''How to Make a Monster (1958 film)'' was stolen from him by AIP producer Sam Arkoff.", "She said \"Eddie condemned Arkoff, he really hated him.", "Eddie gave them a script for approval, and they changed the characters a little bit around.", "Eddie had written it for Lugosi (circa 1956).", "It was about this old horror actor who couldn't get work any more, so he took his vengeance out on the studio.", "They changed it to a ''make-up man'' who takes revenge on a studio.\"", "Arkoff always denied Wood's claim was true, stating Herman Cohen originated the entire project.", "* '''''Ghouls of the Moon''''' - Another attempt to build a horror film around a reel of unused silent footage that had been taken of Lugosi before he died in 1956, but nothing came of it since by 1958, Wood discovered the film in the can had degraded into an unusable sludge due to bad storage conditions.", "* '''''Masquerade into Eternity''''' - A 1959 Cold War political drama that Wood was supposed to write and direct, about a troupe of actors who get stranded in post-Revolution Cuba; it was to be produced by Ben Frommer, who was slated to play a Communist Colonel, but the project fell through.", "* '''''The Peeper''''' (1960) Wood wrote the screenplay for The Peeper, intending it to be a direct sequel to his 1960 film ''The Sinister Urge (film)'', but it was never produced.", "* '''''House of Horrors''''' - Kenne Duncan and Tor Johnson were supposed to star in this 1960 film, which never materialized.", "Kenne Duncan was to play a mad artist who paints pictures of kidnapped women he confines in a dungeon, while Tor played a Lobo-like henchman.", "* '''''Portraits in Terror''''' - A 1960 made-for-TV trilogy consisting of three episodes; it was to include ''The Final Curtain'', ''The Night the Banshee Cried'' and ''Into My Grave'' (all written and directed by Wood), but the project fell through.", "* '''''Attack of the Giant Salami''''' - A proposed 1964 horror film spoof that would've starred Boris Karloff, Joe E. Brown and Valda Hansen.", "Wood was inspired by the 1963 Brown/Karloff collaboration ''The Comedy of Terrors''.", "The film was never made, probably due to Karloff's disinterest.", "* '''''Tangier''''' - A 1966 proposed action-adventure TV series that was supposed to be produced by Wood's friend Stephen Apostoloff.", "Wood wrote a sample screenplay for the series which was never produced.", "* '''''69 Rue Pigalle''''' - In 1966, Stephen Apostoloff was set to produce and direct a film called ''69 Rue Pigalle'', based on Ed Wood's novel ''Parisian Passions'', but the financing never materialized.", "The plot was supposed to be about a transvestite who solves a series of murders in Paris, and Lon Chaney Jr. was supposed to have been in the cast.", "* '''''The Enchanted Isle''''' - An unfilmed 1966 Ed Wood screenplay for a film that was supposed to feature Lon Chaney Jr., Dana Andrews and John Ireland, about a Mafia princess stranded on a South Sea island and a mystery involving black pearls.", "(Wood originally wrote the screenplay back in 1954 and had tried at that time to interest producer Ron Ormond in the project, unsuccessfully.", ")* '''''Devil Girls''''' - An unrealized 1967 Crime Drama about a drug-smuggling teenage girl gang who hang out at a seedy hamburger joint.", "Tor Johnson was to have played the brutish \"Chief\", a goon who works for a retired race car driver named \"Jockey\".", "It was based on Wood's eponymous novel.", "* '''''The Life of Mickey Cohen''''' - A 1967 proposed Crime Drama Wood was working on, in which Paul Marco was supposed to play the infamous gangster (a full decade after Marco appeared in ''Plan 9 From Outer Space'').", "(At this point, Wood's career became primarily focused on the pornographic industry.", ")* '''''The Day the Mummies Danced''''' - A 1976 unproduced Ed Wood script that was supposed to be Wood's long-awaited return to directing horror films; it was set to star John Agar (a long-time drinking buddy of Wood's), Aldo Ray and Dudley Manlove (who was also supposed to produce the film).", "The filming was set to take place in Guanajuato, Mexico at the famous Mexican mummies exhibit there, but it never happened.Wood's list of unrealized film projects also included scripts called ''Piranhas'' (1957), ''Trial by Terror'' (1958), ''The Peeper'' (a proposed 1960 sequel to ''The Sinister Urge''), ''Silent Night'' (1961), ''Joaquin Murieta'' (a 1965 biopic about the infamous bandit of the Old West), ''Mice on a Cold Cellar Floor'' (1973), ''Epitaph for the Town Drunk'' (1973), ''To Kill a Saturday Night'' (1973, which was set to star John Carradine), ''The Teachers'' (1973), ''The Basketballers'' (1973), ''The Airline Hostesses'' (1973), ''I Awoke Early the Day I Died'' (1974, a rewrite of Wood's 1961 ''Silent Night''), ''Heads, No Tails'' (1974, a take-off on Sweeney Todd), and ''Shoot Seven'' (1977, Wood's proposed musical based on the St. Valentine's Day Massacre)." ], [ "Personal life", "===Relationships and marriages===Wood was in a long-term relationship with actress and songwriter Dolores Fuller, whom he met in late 1952.She was in the process of divorcing her first husband Donald Fuller, with whom she had had two sons.", "Wood and Fuller shared an apartment for three years, and Wood cast her in three of his films: ''Glen or Glenda'', ''Jail Bait'' and, in a very brief cameo, in ''Bride of the Monster''.", "Fuller later said she initially had no idea that Wood was a crossdresser and was mortified when she saw Wood dressed as a woman for the first time in ''Glen or Glenda''.", "The couple broke up in 1955 after Wood cast another actress for the lead role in ''Bride of the Monster'' (Wood originally wrote the part for Fuller but later reduced her part to a brief cameo appearance) and because of Wood's excessive drinking.", "Fuller relocated to New York City where she embarked on a successful songwriting career, writing for famous singers like Elvis Presley and Nat King Cole.", "Fuller died on May 9, 2011, at age 88.In 1956, soon after his breakup with Fuller, Wood married actress Norma McCarty.", "McCarty appeared as Edie, the airplane stewardess, in ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'', and was recently divorced with two sons, Mike and John McCarty, from her earlier marriage.", "The marriage took Wood's friends by surprise; one night Wood called everyone to the sound stage for what they thought was a cast party, but when everyone was present, Wood brought out a huge wedding cake and a preacher, and announced he was getting married.", "The marriage ended approximately one month later after McCarty discovered that Wood was a crossdresser, and while it has been reported that their marriage was annulled, according to film archivist Wade Williams, they neither annulled the marriage nor legally divorced.", "McCarty died on June 27, 2014, at age 93.Wood moved in with Paul Marco for a short while after McCarty left him.", "Later in 1956, Wood met Kathy O'Hara in a bar one night where he was drinking with Bela Lugosi.", "O'Hara fell in love with Wood immediately; they were married in Las Vegas a short while later, and Wood always considered O'Hara his legal wife despite the fact that his first marriage had not been legally annulled.", "Wood and O'Hara remained together until Wood's death in December 1978.O'Hara never got along with his mother Lillian, calling her \"a strict disciplinarian\" who damaged Wood psychologically from early childhood.", "Wood occasionally sent money to his mom in the mail without O'Hara's knowledge.===Alleged daughter===Ed Wood was shocked to learn he had fathered a child out of wedlock after World War II with a young woman he had dated while he was in the Marines.", "According to Conrad Brooks, Wood and his wife Kathy only met the young woman (also named Kathy) in 1967 when she was already 21 years old.", "Born on May 23, 1946, the girl had been living in Lancaster, California and had managed to trace her father's whereabouts.", "Wood's mother Lillian said she had been contacted by the girl back in 1963 when she sent his mother a photo and introduced herself to Lillian as her granddaughter.", "Lillian said she sent the girl a watch for her graduation in 1964, but never heard back from her.", "There is a photo of the young woman in Rudolph Grey's biography on Ed Wood.She visited the Woods and stayed over at their house for a couple of days, but apparently the two Kathys did not get along well.", "In fact, Wood's wife physically threw her out of the house on the second day when she found her sleeping on their sofa.Wood's wife Kathy never believed that the girl was Wood's daughter, saying in an interview, \"There was never any proof, only the woman's statement on a birth certificate.\"", "Wood told Kathy that the woman he had sex with in 1946 used to sleep around regularly \"with 10 or 20 other Marines at the base\", so he probably wasn't the girl's father.", "She said \"She's ''not'' your daughter, that bitch lied to you!", "The father could have been anyone.", "There's only her accusation.", "\"Actress Valda Hansen said \"I met Ed's daughter at his house in the Valley.", "She looked just like him.", "Beautiful, delicate.", "Green eyes, dark chocolate brown hair.", "She was very sweet.\"", "Art director Bob Derteno, who worked with Wood on ''Orgy of the Dead'', said that Wood later travelled to attend his daughter's wedding in New York and was later told that he had become a grandfather.===Cross-dressing===In Rudolph Grey's 1992 biography ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr.'', Wood's wife Kathy O'Hara recalls that Wood told her that his mother dressed him in girls' clothing as a child.", "O'Hara stated that Wood's transvestitism was not a sexual inclination, but rather a neomaternal comfort derived mainly from angora fabric (angora is featured in many of Wood's films).", "Even in his later years, Wood was not shy about going out in public dressed in drag as \"Shirley\", his female alter ego (a name that appeared in many of his screenplays and stories).", "In his partly autobiographical film ''Glen or Glenda'', the heterosexual Wood takes pains to emphasize that a male transvestite is not automatically also a homosexual.", "Wood directed many of his pornographic films in drag, but usually would not take the time to shave, which made for a bizarre sight, according to his friends.", "Wood always swore that he had never had a single homosexual relationship in his life, and was even considered quite a womanizer by many of his acquaintances.", "He once said that his greatest fantasy was to be reincarnated as a gorgeous blonde." ], [ "Later years", "During the last 15 years of his life, Wood depended almost entirely on writing pornography to earn a living, receiving about $1,000 per novel which he spent almost immediately on alcohol at the local liquor store.", "Friends have stated how, in his final years, he eventually stopped bathing, and that his apartment became so filthy that he eventually would not allow friends to come over and visit because he knew they would be horrified to see how unkempt it had become.", "Paul Marco said Wood was constantly moaning, \"My God, I've given everything away.", "I should be a millionaire.", "I should have a million bucks right now!\"", "Actor John Agar, an alcoholic himself, was drinking at Wood's apartment one day in the late 1960s when the afternoon news program erroneously announced Agar's obituary.", "Wood called the studio and told them that Agar was not dead.", "He told them \"He's alive... he's sitting right here with me now!\".", "The story was corrected shortly thereafter.Ed Wood and his wife were routinely evicted from their apartments for non-payment of rent.", "Each time they moved, Wood would immediately establish credit with the liquor store nearest his new address.", "Their last apartment was in a high-crime ghetto area \"at the corner of Yucca and Cahuenga\" in Hollywood inhabited by drug addicts, gamblers and prostitutes.", "Wood, who regularly pawned his typewriters for cash, was mugged regularly when he would stumble down to the liquor store.", "Eventually he had his publisher send his paychecks directly to the various liquor store owners so that he would not have to carry cash when he went there.", "The Woods' apartment was always in danger of being burglarized.", "One night, a transvestite was beaten to death in the hallway just outside Wood's apartment door and the sound of gunshots outside the building was a nightly occurrence.According to friends, Wood and his wife often became violent when they drank.", "Stories abound of the two beating each other; Wood sometimes knocked Kathy unconscious.", "Criswell commented once, \"I always had the feeling that one would kill the other.", "And if you were there, the killer would say you did it!\"", "Nonetheless, years after Wood's death, his wife always professed to love him dearly.Bela Lugosi biographer Robert Cremer interviewed Wood once in his Yucca apartment for his 1976 book ''Lugosi: The Man Behind the Cape'' two years before Wood died.", "Cremer said Wood began the interview sober, but quickly became intoxicated as the interview proceeded.", "Cremer said, \"He started getting really angry at me because he felt he was the person who should be writing (the book)...", "He went out in the kitchen, grabbed a bottle of Wild Turkey...", "He smashed the bottle on the kitchen counter and then came after me with it.", "He lunged at me but he was so drunk, I just pushed him against the wall and he collapsed.", "I just walked out the door and said \"Okay Ed, I guess that was our last interview.", "I'll see you.\"" ], [ "Death", "By 1978, Wood's depression had worsened as he and his wife Kathy O'Hara had both succumbed to alcoholism.", "They were evicted from their Hollywood apartment on Yucca Street on December 7, 1978, in total poverty by two sheriff's deputies called by their landlord for failure to pay their overdue rent and had to leave behind all of his scrapbooks and unfinished screenplays, which the landlord allegedly threw into a garbage dumpster.", "Wood's large collection of his early commercials were also thrown out following his eviction.", "The couple moved into the small North Hollywood apartment of their friend, actor Peter Coe, located at 5635 Laurel Canyon Boulevard.", "Wood spent the weekend drinking vodka and desperately calling old friends for money, but to no avail.Around noon on Sunday, December 10, Wood felt ill and went to lie down in Coe's bedroom while Coe, O'Hara and a few friends were watching a football game on TV.", "From the bedroom, he asked O'Hara to bring him a drink, which she refused to do.", "A few minutes later he yelled out, \"Kathy, I can't breathe!", "\", a plea O'Hara ignored as she later said she was tired of Wood bossing her around.", "After hearing no movement in the bedroom for twenty minutes, O'Hara sent a female friend to check on Wood, who discovered him dead on the bed from a heart attack.", "O'Hara later said, \"I still remember when I went into that room that afternoon and he was dead, his eyes and mouth were wide open.", "I'll never forget the look in his eyes.", "He clutched at the sheets.", "It looked like he'd seen Hell.", "\"Wood was cremated at the Utter-McKinley mortuary, and his ashes were scattered at sea.", "Paul Marco, Kathy O'Hara, David DeMering and Criswell attended Wood's makeshift memorial service which was held at Peter Coe's apartment following the cremation.", "Marco recalled how devastated Kathy was at the time." ], [ "Legacy and homages", "At the time of his death, Wood's name and career had become so obscure that most local Los Angeles newspapers, including the entertainment magazine ''Variety'', did not run an obituary about him.", "The 1982 film ''It Came from Hollywood'' featured a \"Tribute to Ed Wood\" segment.In 1986 in an essay paying homage to Wood in ''Incredibly Strange Films'', Jim Morton wrote: \"Eccentric and individualistic, Edward D. Wood Jr. was a man born to film.", "...", "Lesser men, if forced to make movies under the conditions Wood faced, would have thrown up their hands in defeat\".In 1994, director Tim Burton released the biopic ''Ed Wood'', starring Johnny Depp in the title role and Martin Landau, who won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Bela Lugosi.", "It also won an Academy Award for Best Makeup for Rick Baker.", "Conrad Brooks appeared in the movie in a cameo role as \"Barman\", along with Gregory Walcott in the role of a potential backer.", "The film premiered on September 30, 1994, just ten days before what would have been Wood's 70th birthday.", "Despite receiving mass critical acclaim, the movie did poorly at the box office; however, it has since developed a cult following.In 1996, Reverend Steve Galindo of Seminole, Oklahoma, created a legally recognized religion with Wood as its official savior.", "Founded as a joke, the Church of Ed Wood now boasts more than 3,500 baptized followers.", "Woodites, as Galindo's followers are called, celebrate \"Woodmas\" on October 10, which was Wood's birthday.", "Numerous parties and concerts are held worldwide to celebrate Woodmas.", "On October 4–5, 2003, horror host Mr. Lobo was canonized as the \"Patron Saint of late night movie hosts and insomniacs\" in the Church of Ed Wood.In 1997 the University of Southern California began holding an annual ''Ed Wood Film Festival'', in which student teams are challenged to write, film, and edit an Ed Wood-inspired short film based on a preassigned theme.", "Past themes have included ''Rebel Without a Bra'' (2004), ''What's That in Your Pocket?''", "(2005), and ''Slippery When Wet'' (2006).===Documentaries===* '''''The Incredibly Strange Film Show''''' (Season 2, Episode 4), presented by Jonathan Ross.", "It was first broadcast Oct. 13, 1989.Guests interviewed included actors Vampira (aka Maila Nurmi), Norma McCarty, Paul Marco, Dolores Fuller, biographer Rudolph Grey and critic Harry Medved.", "* '''''Flying Saucers Over Hollywood: The Plan 9 Companion''''', was released in 1992.This exhaustive two-hour documentary by Mark Patrick Carducci chronicles the making of ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' and features interviews with Vampira, Paul Marco, Conrad Brooks, Joe Dante, Valda Hansen, artist Drew Friedman, Forrest J. Ackerman, Gary Gerani, Sam Raimi, Kathy Wood, Carl Anthony, Harry Thomas, Gregory Walcott, Stephen Apostolof, Martha Mason, Norma McCarty, Dolores Fuller, et al.", "In 2000, Image Entertainment included the documentary on the DVD reissue of ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (in a two-disc set with ''Robot Monster'').", "* '''''The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood Jr.''''', written and directed by Brett Thompson, came out in 1995.This 90-minute documentary - about the life and films of Ed Wood - features interviews with Wood's friends and co-workers, and closely resembles Wood's own style albeit with slightly better miniatures.", "People interviewed included Vampira, Bela Lugosi Jr., Dolores Fuller, Paul Marco, Conrad Brooks, Loretta King, Lyn Lemon, Norma McCarty and her son Mike, Mona McKinnon, Lyle Talbot, Gregory Walcott, Crawford John Thomas, makeup man Harry Thomas and Ed Wood himself.", "* '''''Dad Made Dirty Movies''''' (2011) Wood biographer Rudolph Grey produced this one-hour documentary about the life and career of 1960s porn film producer Stephen Apostolof, detailing his x-rated co-productions with Wood.===Lost films===Wood's 1972 film ''The Undergraduate'' was a lost film, as was his 1970 film ''Take It Out in Trade'', but they both eventually turned up years later.", "(Both films in their entirety are now available on DVD.", ")An 80-minute print of ''Take It Out in Trade'' was discovered and publicly exhibited at Anthology Film Archives in New York City in September 2014.Silent outtakes from the film were released by Something Weird Video.", "Wood's 1971 film ''Necromania'' was also believed lost for years, until an edited version resurfaced at a yard sale in 1992, followed in 2001 by a complete, unedited print.A complete print of Wood's lost 1972 pornographic film, ''The Young Marrieds'' was discovered in 2004.It was released by Alpha Blue Archives in July 2014 as a part of the four-DVD set ''The Lost Sex Films of Ed Wood Jr.''.Wood is said to have filmed some scenes of Lon Chaney Jr. in a werewolf costume in Hollywood in 1964 that were said to have been later incorporated into Jerry Warren's film ''Face of the Screaming Werewolf'' (1965).", "Chaney biographer Don G. Smith however has stated that this story was never substantiated.===Collaborations======Actors=== ''Glen orGlenda'' ''CrossroadAvenger'' ''Jail Bait'' ''Bride ofthe Monster'' ''FinalCurtain'' ''Plan 9 fromOuter Space'' ''Night ofthe Ghouls'' ''TheSinisterUrge'' ''Take It Outin Trade'' ''Crossroads ofLaredo''TotalCriswell2Carl Anthony2Conrad Brooks6Kenne Duncan3Harvey B. Dunn4Timothy Farrell2Dolores Fuller4Tor Johnson3Tom Keene2Bela Lugosi3Dudley Manlove2Paul Marco3Tom Mason2Duke Moore6Bud Osborne4Lyle Talbot4Ed Wood6" ], [ "See also", "* List of films considered the worst* B movie* Z movie* Tanio Boccia, nicknamed the \"Italian Ed Wood\"* Jesus Franco, nicknamed the \"European Ed Wood\"* Sam Singer, nicknamed the \"Ed Wood of Animation\"* John Waters* William C. Thompson was Wood's cinematographer for all but ''Take It Out in Trade''." ], [ "References" ], [ "Other references", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * pp.", "168, 169, 176–181, 204–208, 211, 217" ], [ "External links", "* * The Hunt for Edward D. Wood Jr. Exhaustive guide to Wood's films and their commercial releases.", "* Ed Wood Jr.'s magazine work (Includes adult images)* Ed Wood: A Neighbor on the Boulevard of Broken Dreams* Ed Wood's TV pilot ''Final Curtain''* Ed Wood's lost TV pilot, \"Final Curtain\"* Book page for ''Blood Splatthharvers Quickly: The Collected Stories''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "EDIF" ], [ "Introduction", "'''EDIF''' ('''Electronic Design Interchange Format''') is a vendor-neutral format based on S-Expressions in which to store Electronic netlists and schematics.", "It was one of the first attempts to establish a neutral data exchange format for the electronic design automation (EDA) industry.", "The goal was to establish a common format from which the proprietary formats of the EDA systems could be derived.", "When customers needed to transfer data from one system to another, it was necessary to write translators from one format to other.", "As the number of formats (''N'') multiplied, the translator issue became an ''N''-squared problem.", "The expectation was that with EDIF the number of translators could be reduced to the number of involved systems.Representatives of the EDA companies Daisy Systems, Mentor Graphics, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Tektronix, Texas Instruments and the University of California, Berkeley established the ''EDIF Steering Committee'' in November 1983.Later Hilary Kahn, a computer science professor at the University of Manchester, joined the team and led the development from version EDIF 2 0 0 till the final version 4 0 0." ], [ "Syntax", "The general format of EDIF involves using parentheses to delimit data definitions, and in this way it superficially resembles Lisp.", "The basic tokens of EDIF 2.0.0 were keywords (like ''library'', ''cell'', ''instance'', etc.", "), strings (delimited with double quotes), integer numbers, symbolic constants (e.g.", "''GENERIC'', ''TIE'', ''RIPPER'' for cell types) and \"Identifiers\", which are reference labels formed from a very restricted set of characters.", "EDIF 3.0.0 and 4.0.0 dropped the symbolic constants entirely, using keywords instead.So, the syntax of EDIF has a fairly simple foundation.", "A typical EDIF file looks like this: (edif fibex (edifVersion 2 0 0) (edifLevel 0) (keywordMap (keywordLevel 0)) (status (written (timeStamp 1995 1 1 1 1 1) (program \"xxx\" (version \"v1\")))) (library xxx (edifLevel 0) (technology (numberDefinition (scale 1 (e 1 -6) (unit distance)))) (cell dff_4 (cellType generic) (view view1 (viewType netlist) (interface (port aset (direction INPUT)) (port clok (direction INPUT)) ... (cell yyy (cellType generic) (view schematic_ (viewType netlist) (interface (port CLEAR (direction INPUT)) (port CLOCK (direction INPUT)) ... ) (contents (instance I_36_1 (viewRef view1 (cellRef dff_4))) (instance (rename I_36_3 \"I$3\") (viewRef view1 (cellRef addsub_4))) ... (net CLEAR (joined (portRef CLEAR) (portRef aset (instanceRef I_36_1)) (portRef aset (instanceRef I_36_3)))) ..." ], [ "Versions", "The 1 0 0 release of EDIF was made in 1985.=== EDIF 2 0 0 ===The first \"real\" public release of EDIF was version 2 0 0, which was approved in March 1988 as the standard ANSI/EIA-548-1988.It is published in a single volume.", "This version has no formal scope statement but what it tries to capture is covered by the defined '''viewType'''s:* ''BEHAVIOR to describe the behavior of a cell''* ''DOCUMENT to describe the documentation of a cell''* ''GRAPHIC to describe a ''dumb'' graphics and text representation of displayable or printable information''* ''LOGICMODEL to describe the logic-simulation model of the cell''* ''MASKLAYOUT to describe an integrated circuit layout''* ''NETLIST to describe a netlist''* ''PCBLAYOUT to describe a printed circuit board''* ''SCHEMATIC to describe the schematic representation and connectivity of a cell''* ''STRANGER to describe an as yet unknown representation of a cell''* ''SYMBOLIC to describe a symbolic layout''The industry tested this release for several years, but finally only the NETLIST view was the one widely used and some EDA tools are still supporting it today for EDIF 2 0 0.To overcome problems with the main 2 0 0 standard several further documents got released:* Electronic Industries Association ''EDIF Monograph Series, Volume 1, Introduction to EDIF'', EIA/EDIF-1, Sept. 1988 ''EDIF Monograph Series, Volume 2, EDIF Connectivity'', EIA/EDIF-2, June 1989** ''Using EDIF 2 0 0 for schematic transfer'', EIA/EDIF/AG-1, July 1989* Documentation from Hilary J. Kahn, Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester ''EDIF 2 0 0, An Introductory Tutorial'', September 1989 ''EDIF Questions and answers, volume one'', November 1988 ''EDIF Questions and answers, volume two'', February 1989 ''EDIF Questions and answers, volume three'', July 1989 ''EDIF Questions and answers, volume four'', November 1989 ''EDIF Questions and answers, volume five'', June 1991=== EDIF 3 0 0 ===Because of some fundamental weaknesses in the 2 0 0 release a new not compatible release 3 0 0 was released in September 1993, given the designation of EIA standard EIA-618.It later achieved ANSI and ISO designations.", "It is published in 4 volumes.", "The main focus of this version were the viewTypes NETLIST and SCHEMATIC from 2 0 0.MASKLAYOUT, PCBLAYOUT and some other views were dropped from this release and shifted for later releases because the work for these views was not fully completed.EDIF 3 0 0 is available from the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 61690-1=== EDIF 4 0 0 ===EDIF 4 0 0 was released in late August 1996, mainly to add \"Printed Circuit Board\" extensions (the original PCBLAYOUT view) to EDIF 3 0 0.This more than doubled the size of EDIF 3 0 0, and is published in HTML format on CD.EDIF 4 0 0 is available from the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 61690-2" ], [ "Evolution", "=== Problems with 2 0 0 ===To understand the problems users and vendors encountered with EDIF 2 0 0, one first has to picture all the elements and dynamics of the electronics industry.", "The people who needed this standard were mainly design engineers, who worked for companies whose size ranged from a house garage to multi-billion dollar facilities with thousands of engineers.", "These engineers worked mainly from schematics and netlists in the late 1980s, and the big push was to generate the netlists from the schematics automatically.", "The first suppliers were Electronic Design Automation vendors (e.g., Daisy, Mentor, and Valid formed the earliest predominating set).", "These companies competed vigorously for their shares of this market.One of the tactics used by these companies to \"capture\" their customers was their proprietary databases.", "Each had special features that the others did not.", "Once a decision was made to use a particular vendor's software to enter a design, the customer was ever after constrained to use no other software.", "To move from vendor A's to vendor B's systems usually meant a very expensive re-entry of almost all design data by hand into the new system.", "This expense of \"migration\" was the main factor that locked design engineers into using a single vendor.But the \"customers\" had a different desire.", "They saw immediately that while vendor A might have a really nice analog simulation environment, vendor B had a much better PCB or silicon layout auto-router.", "And they wished that they could pick and choose amongst the different vendors.EDIF was mainly supported by the electronics design end-users, and their companies.", "The EDA vendors were involved also, but their motivation was more along the lines of wanting to not alienate their customers.", "Most of the EDA vendors produced EDIF 2 0 0 translators, but they were definitely more interested in generating high-quality EDIF readers, and they had absolutely no motivation at all to write any software that generated EDIF (an EDIF Writer), beyond threats from customers of mass migration to another vendor's software.The result was rather interesting.", "Hardly any software vendor wrote EDIF 2 0 0 output that did not have severe violations of syntax or semantics.", "The semantics were just loose enough that there might be several ways to describe the same data.", "This began to be known as \"flavors\" of EDIF.", "The vendor companies did not always feel it important to allocate many resources to EDIF products, even if they sold a large number of them.", "There were several stories of active products with virtually no-one to maintain them for years.", "User complaints were merely gathered and prioritized.", "The harder it became to export customer data to EDIF, the more the vendors seemed to like it.", "Those who did write EDIF translators found they spent a huge amount of time and effort on generating sufficiently powerful, forgiving, artificially intelligent readers, that could handle and piece together the poor-quality code produced by the extant EDIF 2 0 0 writers of the day.In designing EDIF 3 0 0, the committees were well aware of the faults of the language, the calumny heaped on EDIF 2 0 0 by the vendors and the frustration of the end users.", "So, to tighten the semantics of the language, and provide a more formal description of the standard, the revolutionary approach was taken to provide an information model for EDIF, in the information modeling language EXPRESS.", "This helped to better document the standard, but was done more as an afterthought, as the syntax crafting was done independently of the model, instead of being generated from the model.", "Also, even though the standard says that if the syntax and model disagree, the model is the standard, this is not the case in practice.", "The BNF description of the syntax is the foundation of the language inasmuch as the software that does the day-to-day work of producing design descriptions is based on a fixed syntax.", "The information model also suffered from the fact that it was not (and is not) ideally suited to describing EDIF.", "It does not describe such concepts as name spaces very well at all, and the differences between a definition and a reference is not clearly describable either.", "Also, the constructs in EXPRESS for describing constraints might be formal, but constraint description is a fairly complicated matter at times.", "So, most constraints ended up just being described as comments.", "Most of the others became elaborate formal descriptions which most readers will never be able to decipher, and therefore may not stand up to automated debugging/compiling, just as a program might look good in review, but a compiler might find some interesting errors, and actually running the program written might find even more interesting errors.", "(Additionally, analogous EXPRESS compilers/executors didn't exist when the standard was written, and may not still exist today!", ")=== Solutions to EDIF 2 0 0 problems ===The solution to the \"flavor\" problem of EDIF 2 0 0 was to develop a more specific semantic description in EDIF 3 0 0 (1993).", "Indeed, reported results of people generating EDIF 3 0 0 translators was that the writers were now ''much'' more difficult to get right, due to the great number of semantic restrictions, and the readers are comparatively trivial to develop.The solution to vendor \"conflict of interest\" was neutral third-party companies, who could provide EDIF products based on vendor interfaces.", "This separation of the EDIF products from direct vendor control was critical to providing the end-user community with tools that worked well.", "It formed naturally and without comment.", "Engineering DataXpress was perhaps the first such company in this realm, with Electronic Tools Company seeming to have captured the market in the mid to late 1990s.", "Another dynamic in this industry is EDIF itself.", "Since they have grown to a rather large size, generating readers and writers has become a very expensive proposition.", "Usually the third-party companies have congregated the necessary specialists and can use this expertise to more efficiently generate the software.", "They are also able to leverage code sharing and other techniques an individual vendor could not.", "By 2000, almost no major vendor produced its own EDIF tools, choosing instead to OEM third-party tools.", "Since the release of EDIF 4 0 0, the entire EDIF standards organisation has essentially dissolved.", "There have been no published meetings of any of the technical subcommittees, the EDIF Experts group, etc.", "Most of the individuals involved have moved on to other companies or efforts.", "The newsletter was abandoned, and the Users' Group no longer holds yearly meetings.", "EDIF 3 0 0 and 4 0 0 are now ANSI, IEC and European (EN) standards.", "EDIF Version 3 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-1, and EDIF Version 4 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-2.=== EDIF Descendants ===* LKSoft took major concepts from EDIF 2 0 0 to create a proprietary data format with the default extension \".cam\" for their CircuitCAM system offered originally by LPKF Laser & Electronics AG in Garbsen/Hannover, Germany and today owned by DCT Co., Ltd. in Tianjn, China.", "To efficiently work on EDIF like formats LKSoft has developed the ''EDIF Procedural Interface'', an API for the C programming language.", "* Zuken, formerly Racal-Redac Ltd., took concepts from the early EDIF 4 0 0 development to create a new proprietary format called CADIF for their '''Visula''' PCB-CAD system.", "This format is also widely used by 3rd party vendors.", "* STEP-AP210, a part of ISO 10303, practically inherited all of the EDIF 4 0 0 functionality except for schematics." ], [ "See also", "* * " ], [ "External links", " BYU EDIF Tools A Java framework for parsing/manipulating EDIF files, developed and maintained by BYU's Configurable Computing Lab* Torc Open-source C++ API for reconfigurable computing, including parsing and manipulation of EDIF 2 0 0, from ISI's Reconfigurable Computing Group* EDIF Overview from Elgris Technologies, Inc.* www.edif.org at the Internet Archive Archive of www.edif.org (now defunct) containing an introduction to the EDIF format* Computer Aids for VLSI Design - Appendix D: Electronic Design Interchange Format by Steven M. Rubin* Professor Hilary Kahn (1943-2007)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Essential tremor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Essential tremor''' ('''ET'''), also called '''benign tremor''', '''familial tremor''', and '''idiopathic tremor''', is a medical condition characterized by involuntary rhythmic contractions and relaxations (oscillations or twitching movements) of certain muscle groups in one or more body parts of unknown cause.", "It is typically symmetrical, and affects the arms, hands, or fingers; but sometimes involves the head, vocal cords, or other body parts.", "Essential tremor is either an ''action'' (intention) tremor—it intensifies when one tries to use the affected muscles during voluntary movements such as eating and writing—or it is a ''postural'' tremor, present with sustained muscle tone.", "This means that it is distinct from a resting tremor, such as that caused by Parkinson's disease, which is not correlated with movement.Essential tremor is a progressive neurological disorder, and the most common movement disorder.", "Its onset is usually after age 40, but it can occur at any age.", "The cause is unknown.", "Diagnosis is by observing the typical pattern of the tremor coupled with the exclusion of known causes of such a tremor.While essential tremor is distinct from Parkinson's disease, which causes a resting tremor, essential tremor is nevertheless sometimes misdiagnosed as Parkinson's disease.", "Some patients have been found to have both essential tremors and resting tremors.Treatments for essential tremor include medications, typically given sequentially to determine which provides the best compromise between effectiveness and troublesome side effects.", "''Clostridium botulinum'' toxin (Botox) injections and ultrasound are also sometimes used for cases refractory to medications." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "In mild cases, ET can manifest as the inability to stop the tongue or hands from shaking, the ability to sing only in vibrato, and difficulty doing small, precise tasks such as threading a needle.", "Even simple tasks such as cutting in a straight line or using a ruler can range from difficult to impossible, depending on the severity of the condition.", "In disabling cases, ET can interfere with a person's activities of daily living, including feeding, dressing, and taking care of personal hygiene.", "Essential tremor generally presents as a rhythmic tremor (4–12 Hz) that occurs only when the affected muscle is exerting effort.", "Any sort of physical or mental stress tends to make the tremor worse.The tremor may also occur in the head (neck), jaw, and voice, as well as other body regions, with the general pattern being that the tremor begins in the arms and then spreads to these other regions in some people.", "Women are more likely to develop the head tremor than are men.", "Other types of tremor may also occur, including postural tremor of the outstretched arms, intention tremor of the arms, and rest tremor in the arms.", "Some people may have unsteadiness and problems with gait and balance.ET-related tremors do not occur during sleep, but people with ET sometimes complain of an especially coarse tremor upon awakening that becomes noticeably less coarse within the first few minutes of wakefulness.", "Tremor and disease activity can intensify in response to fatigue, strong emotions, low blood sugar, cold and heat, caffeine, lithium salts, some antidepressants, stress, and other factors.Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism can also occur simultaneously with ET.", "The degree of tremor, rigidity, and functional disability did not differ from patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease.", "Hand tremor predominated (as it did in Parkinson's disease), and occurred in nearly all cases, followed by head tremor, voice tremor, neck, face, leg, tongue, and trunk tremor.", "Most other tremors occurred in association with hand tremor.", "More severe tremors, a lower sleep disorder frequency, and a similar prevalence of other non-motor symptoms also can occur.Walking difficulties in essential tremor are common.", "About half of patients have associated dystonia, including cervical dystonia, writer's cramp, spasmodic dysphonia, and cranial dystonia, and 20% of the patients had associated parkinsonism.", "Olfactory dysfunction (loss of sense of smell) is common in Parkinson's disease, and has also been reported to occur in patients with essential tremor.", "A number of patients with essential tremor also exhibit many of the same neuropsychiatric disturbances seen in idiopathic Parkinson's disease.Essential tremor with tremor onset after the age of 65 has been associated with mild cognitive impairment, as well as dementia, although the link between these conditions, if any, is still not understood.Essential tremor has two tremor components, central and peripheral.", "These two tremor components were identified by measuring the tremor of ET patients once with no weights on their hands and then with 1-pound weights on their hands.", "The addition of the weights resulted in a tremor spectrum with two peaks, one that maintained the same frequency (the central tremor) and one that decreased in frequency (the peripheral tremor).", "Only with the addition of the weights was the peripheral tremor distinguishable from the central tremor.The frequency of essential tremor is 4 to 11 Hz, depending on which body segment is affected.", "Proximal segments are affected at lower frequencies, and distal segments are affected at higher frequencies." ], [ "Cause", "===Genetic===The underlying cause of essential tremor is not clear, but many cases seem to be familial.", "About half of the cases are due to a genetic mutation and the pattern of inheritance is most consistent with autosomal dominant transmission.", "No genes have been identified yet, but genetic linkage has been established with several chromosomal regions.===Toxins===Some environmental factors, including toxins, are also under active investigation, as they may play a role in the disease's cause." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "In terms of pathophysiology, clinical, physiological and imaging studies point to an involvement of the cerebellum and/or cerebellothalamocortical circuits.", "Changes in the cerebellum could also be mediated by alcoholic beverage consumption.", "Purkinje cells are especially susceptible to ethanol excitotoxicity.", "Impairment of Purkinje synapses is a component of cerebellar degradation that could underlie essential tremor.", "Some cases have Lewy bodies in the locus ceruleus.", "ET cases that progress to Parkinson's disease are less likely to have had cerebellar problems.", "Recent neuroimaging studies have suggested that the efficiency of the overall brain functional network in ET is disrupted.In 2012, the National Toxicology Program concluded that sufficient evidence exists of an association between blood lead exposure at levels >10 μg/dl and essential tremor in adults, and limited evidence at blood lead levels >5 μg/dl." ], [ "Genetics", "Recent ''post mortem'' studies have evidenced alterations in leucine-rich repeat and Ig domain containing one (''LINGO1'') gene and GABA receptors in the cerebellum of people with essential tremor.", "''HAPT1 ''mutations have also been linked to ET, as well as to Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, and progressive supranuclear palsy." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Usually, the diagnosis is established on clinical grounds.", "Tremors can start at any age, from birth through advanced ages (senile tremor).", "Any voluntary muscle in the body may be affected, although the tremor is most commonly seen in the hands and arms and slightly less commonly in the neck (causing the person's head to shake), tongue, and legs.", "A resting tremor of the hands is sometimes present.", "Tremor occurring in the legs might be diagnosable as orthostatic tremor.ET occurs within multiple neurological disorders besides Parkinson's disease.", "This includes migraine disorders, where co-occurrences between ET and migraines have been examined." ], [ "Treatment", "===General measures===Not all individuals with ET require treatment, but many treatment options are available depending on symptom severity.", "Caffeine and stress should be avoided, and adequate good-quality sleep is recommended.===Oral medications=======First-line====When symptoms are sufficiently troublesome to warrant treatment, the first medication choices are beta blockers, such as propranolol or alternately, nadolol and timolol.", "Atenolol and pindolol are not effective for tremor.", "Sotalol has shown some potential efficacy, but this remains an off-label use.", "The anticonvulsant primidone may also be effective.", "ET is generally very responsive to alcohol, but the risks of regular drinking are greater than the potential benefit.", "Nonetheless, ET patients sometimes self-medicate with alcohol.Propranolol and primidone only have tremor-reducing effects on about half of ET patients, and the effects are moderate.====Second-line====Second-line medications are the anticonvulsants topiramate, gabapentin (as monotherapy) or levetiracetam, or benzodiazepines such as alprazolam.====Third-line====Third-line medications are clonazepam and mirtazapine.====Fourth-line====Theophylline has been used by some practitioners to treat ET, though it may also induce tremor.", "Its use is debated, though, due to conflicting data on its efficacy.", "Some evidence shows that low doses may lead to improvement.Ethanol has shown superior efficacy to those of benzodiazepines in small trials.", "It improves tremor in small doses and its effects are usually noticeable within 20 minutes for 3–5 hours, but occasionally appears in a rebound tremor augmentation later.Some systematic reviews of medications for the treatment of ET have been conducted.", "A 2017 review of topiramate found limited data and low-quality evidence to support its efficacy and the occurrence of treatment-limiting adverse effects, a 2017 review of zonisamide found insufficient information to assess efficacy and safety, and a 2016 review of pregabalin determined the effects to be uncertain due to the low quality of evidence.===Botulinum toxin injection===When medications do not control the tremor or the person does not tolerate medication, ''C.", "botulinum'' toxin, deep brain stimulation, or occupational therapy can be helpful.", "The electrodes for deep brain stimulation are usually placed in the \"tremor center\" of the brain, the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus.===Ultrasound===Frontal MRI four days after MRgFUS (MRI-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound): Left ventral intermediate nucleus (Vim) thalamotomy.", "79-year-old man with essential tremor.Additionally, MRI-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound is a nonsurgical treatment option for people with essential tremor who are medication refractory.", "MRI-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound does not achieve healing, but can improve the quality of life by reducing the tremor manifestation.", "While its long-term effects are not yet established, the improvement in tremor score from baseline was durable at 1 year and 2 years following the treatment.", "To date, reported adverse events and side effects have been mild to moderate.", "Possible adverse events include gait difficulties, balance disturbances, paresthesias, headache, skin burns with ulcerations, skin retraction, scars, and blood clots.", "This procedure is contraindicated in pregnant women, persons who have non-MRI compatible implanted metallic devices, allergy to MR contrast agents, cerebrovascular disease, abnormal bleeding, hemorrhage and/or blood clotting disorders, advanced kidney disease or on dialysis, heart conditions, severe hypertension, and ethanol or substance abuse, among others.", "The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Insightec's Exablate Neuro system to treat essential tremor in 2016.Another treatment for essential tremor is a surgical option; deep brain stimulation is used." ], [ "Prognosis", "Although essential tremor is often mild, people with severe tremor have difficulty performing many of their routine activities of daily living.", "ET is generally progressive in most cases (sometimes rapidly, sometimes very slowly), and can be disabling in severe cases." ], [ "Epidemiology", "ET is one of the most common neurological diseases, with a prevalence around 4% in persons age 40 and older and considerably higher among persons in their 60s, 70s, and 80s, with an estimated 20% of individuals in their 90s and over.", "Aside from enhanced physiological tremor, it is the most common type of tremor and one of the most commonly observed movement disorders." ], [ "Society and culture", "Actress Katharine Hepburn (1907–2003) had an essential tremor, possibly inherited from her grandfather, that caused her head—and sometimes her hands—to shake.", "The tremor was noticeable by the time of her performance in the 1979 film ''The Corn Is Green'', when critics mentioned the \"palsy that kept her head trembling\".", "Hepburn's tremor worsened in her later life.Charles M. Schulz, American cartoonist and creator of the ''Peanuts'' comic strip, was affected during the last two decades of his life.West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd also had essential tremor.In 2010, musician Daryl Dragon of The Captain and Tennille was diagnosed with essential tremor, with the condition becoming so severe that Dragon was no longer able to play the keyboards.Director-writer-producer-comedian Adam McKay was diagnosed with essential tremor.", "''Downton Abbey'' creator Julian Fellowes has the condition, as does the show's character Charlie Carson.In 2022, Matthew Caws of Nada Surf and his son made a PSA called \"Living with a Mild Essential Tremor\"." ], [ "Research", "Harmaline is a widely used model of essential tremor (ET) in rodents.", "Harmaline is thought to act primarily on neurons in the inferior olive.", "Olivocerebellar neurons exhibit rhythmic excitatory action when harmaline is applied locally.Harmane or harmaline has been implicated not only in essential tremors, but is also found in greater quantities in the brain fluid of people with Parkinson's disease and cancer.", "Higher levels of the neurotoxin are associated with greater severity of the tremors.", "Harmane is particularly abundant in meats, and certain cooking practices (e.g., long cooking times) increase its concentration, but at least one study has shown that harmane blood concentrations do not go up after meat consumption in ET patients with already elevated harmane levels, whereas the control group's harmane levels increase accordingly, suggesting that another factor, such as a metabolic defect, may be responsible for the higher harmane levels in ET patients.Caprylic acid is being researched as a possible treatment for essential tremor.", "It has currently been approved by the FDA and designated as GRAS, and is used as a food additive and has been studied as part of a ketogenic diet for treatment of epilepsy in children.", "Research on caprylic acid as a possible treatment for ET began because researchers recognized that ethanol was effective in reducing tremor, and because of this, they looked into longer-chain alcohols reducing tremor.", "They discovered that 1-octanol reduced tremor and did not have the negative side effects of ethanol.", "Pharmacokinetic research on 1-octanol lead to the discovery that 1-octanol metabolized into caprylic acid in the body and that caprylic acid actually was the tremor-reducing agent.", "Many studies of the effects of caprylic acid on essential tremor have been done, including a dose-escalation study on ET patients and a study testing the effects of caprylic acid on central and peripheral tremor.", "The dose-escalation study examined doses of 8 mg/kg to 128 mg/kg and determined that these concentrations were safe with mild side effects.", "The maximum tolerated dose was not reached in this study.", "The study testing the effects of caprylic acid on central and peripheral tremors determined that caprylic acid reduced both." ], [ "Terminology", "This type of tremor is often referred to as \"kinetic tremor\".", "Essential tremor has been known as \"benign essential tremor\", but the adjective \"benign\" has been removed in recognition of the sometimes disabling nature of the disorder." ], [ "See also", "* Intention tremor" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Book of Enos" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Book of Enos''' () is the fourth book in the Book of Mormon and is a portion of the small plates of Nephi.", "According to the text it was written by Enos, a Nephite prophet.", "According to the Book of Mormon, Enos was the son of Jacob and nephew of Nephi.", "This short book consists of a single chapter, relating Enos' conversion after praying all day and all night and his subsequent dialogue with the Lord.", "It also discusses the redemption of the Nephites and their enemies, the Lamanites and contains prophecies of future Nephite and Lamanite generations." ], [ "Narrative", "Enos hunts in the woods and remembers the gospel that his father taught him; as a result, he kneels and cries all day and during the night for the salvation of his soul.", "Then the voice of God tells Enos that he is forgiven of his sins.", "Enos believes the voice, but he wonders how the forgiveness is actually accomplished.", "In response, God explains that Enos is forgiven because he has faith in Jesus Christ, even though he has never seen or heard Christ.Enos then prays for the salvation of the Nephites, but God says they will be blessed or punished according to their obedience.", "Enos, fearing that the Nephites will refuse to obey the commandments of God, then prays for the Lamanites who oppress them; he asks God for the Lamanites' preservation.", "Additionally, he prays that God will preserve a record of the Nephites so that someday the Lamanites too might be brought to salvation.", "Only faith in Christ will save them, but God makes a covenant with Enos that he will bring the records of the Nephites to the Lamanites in due time.After this experience, Enos takes up the mantle of prophet and preaches among the Nephites, fearing their destruction.", "In the record, Enos does not say whether he is successful at converting the Nephites, but he does say the Nephites fail to convert the Lamanites.", "Before Enos dies he gives the records to his son Jarom." ], [ "Portrayal of Lamanites", "Throughout the narrative, Enos characterizes the Lamanites as possessing an unmoving hatred.", "According to Enos, the Lamanites become a wild, idolatrous, and bloodthirsty people, eating predatory animals.", "They live in tents, wander around in the wilderness, wear loincloths, shave their heads, and often eat raw meat.", "Enos explains that they are skilled with bows, cimeters, and axes and continually seek to destroy the Nephites.", "Fatimah Salleh and Margaret Olsen Hemming noticed that Enos's descriptions of the Lamanites' traditions connote corruption, though their practices did not have such connotations when the Nephites and the Lamanites were still one people.", "This is an example of \"writer's bias.\"", "They concluded that Enos's criticism of the Lamanites is more based on prejudice and what is culturally acceptable to the Nephite rather than based on a charge from God." ], [ "Book of Enos interpretation", "+SummaryVersesReceives forgiveness1-8Prays for Nephites, Lamanites, and Record9-18Prophesies of future Lamanite and Nephite generations19-24Writes final words25-27Enos begins his account in a manner that is similar to Nephi’s: he mentions parental influence, passed on through religious counsel.", "In fact, the narrative not only begins with this but also ends with it.", "Further, the familial and covenantal responsibilities that Enos feels bring a serious yet personal flavor into the narrative, according to BYU English professor Sharon J. Harris.", "Terryl L. Givens also suggests that Enos' intended literary audience leans toward the Lamanites, as the Nephites will eventually be destroyed." ], [ "See also", "Book of Mormon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Works cited", "*****" ], [ "Further reading", " * * " ], [ "External links", "* ''The Book of Enos'' from the official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Environmental skepticism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Environmental skepticism''' is the belief that statements by environmentalists, and the environmental scientists who support them, are false or exaggerated.", "The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general.", "It can additionally be defined as doubt about the authenticity or severity of environmental degradation.", "Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial.", "Environmental skepticism can also be the result of cultural and lived experiences." ], [ "About", "Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than scientists and scientific bodies say, or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence, or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives.", "One of the themes the movement focuses on is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties.The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg's 2001 book ''The Skeptical Environmentalist''.", "Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint, and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated.", "Lomborg argued, on the basis of cost–benefit analysis, that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern.", "The book came under criticism by scientists noting that Lomborg misinterpreted or misrepresented data, criticized misuse of data while committing similar mistakes himself, examined issues supporting his thesis while ignoring information contrary to it, cherry picks literature, oversimplifies, fails to discuss uncertainty or subjectivity, cites mostly media sources, and largely ignores ecology.Michael Shermer, who debated Lomborg on several topics from his book, notes that despite the scientific consensus many people are driven to environmental skepticism by the extremism inherent in both sides of the debate and not having been exposed to a sufficiently succinct and visual presentation of the available evidence.In 2010, Lomborg refined his position and stated that he believes in the need for \"tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change\" and declared global warming to be \"undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today\" and \"a challenge humanity must confront\".", "He summarized his position, saying \"Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem.", "But it is not the end of the world.", "\"A 2014 study of individuals from 32 countries found that environmental skepticism stems from insufficient education, self-assessed knowledge, religious/conservative values, lack of trust in society, mistrust of science, and other concerns trumping environmental concern.=== Climate change skepticism ===According to an annual poll conducted by the Pew Research Center, global warming has been a low public priority, ranking 29 out of 30 in the top priorities for the United States President and Congress.", "Additionally, in a list of 20 policy priorities, it ranks 19th.Climate skeptics represent about a third of Americans according to national polls.", "This number makes it challenging for decision-makers who hesitate to implement environmental policies related to global warming and climate change.", "Anthony Leiserowitz, a professor from Yale, determined that the American community’s attitude towards climate change fall on a scale from concerned or alarmed to disengaged or dismissive.", "The term climate skeptic is made up of numerous components such as dubious, doubtful, dismissive, and denial.", "It does not describe simply a non-believer.", "In a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, 61% of the public believed there was evidence of global warming.", "However, 35% of the public still believed there was no significant evidence for global temperature rise.Climate skepticism is considered to be strictly an American belief constructed of governmental fear, scientific distrust, and interests in resource extraction that support a dominant Western lifestyle.", "Academics argue that we need to understand Americans underlying ideologies before we denote someone as a skeptic.A cultural study on Maryland’s Eastern Shore helped discern some of the differing beliefs of Americans about environmental change.", "The study included three groups of residents who are dependent on the Eastern Shore of Maryland: commercial fishermen, farmers, and recent migrants.", "The research conducted was determined to gain a consensus of shared knowledge between the subgroups in regard to the changing environment.", "Along the scale from denial to concerned, it was found that a majority of respondents noticed climate change but believed that humans were not the cause of it.", "About a third of the respondents were unaware of it, while the rest of the interlocutors were either dismissive of it or somewhat concerned.One of the cultural models found in this research was that climate change was natural.", "The respondents interpreted the changes such as rising sea-levels and drought as cycles of nature.", "They explained them as natural processes in the Earth’s evolution not affected by humans.", "They expressed doubt about human induced climate change but acknowledged the changing environment around them.", "The residents of the Eastern Shore question the legitimacy of the buildup of greenhouse gases from our use of fossil fuels, which cause sea level rise or glacial melting.", "Part of this hesitation comes from the knowledge passed down through their families and the stories of weather cycles from previous relatives, all who lived in the same area for generations.", "This concept of nature going through cycles is culturally significant to the groups living in the area.The respondents also make note that climate change may have been newly identified by scientists but has been a phenomenon that has been with us from the beginning of time and not with the onset of the industrial revolution.", "This reinforces the belief that climate change is happening, just not because of humans.", "Therefore, when contemporary theories of climate change challenge respondents’ longstanding traditional cultural models, the latter tends to emerge as the more likely outcome.The respondents also believe that if climate change becomes apparent to politicians as a human-induced problem, that will lead to regulations being placed on them.", "They do not believe that climate policies will benefit them and are therefore unlikely to support such programs.", "They are concerned more with policies and regulations rather than climate change in the area.", "They see themselves as living with the climate instead of the common approach of overcoming or conquering it.", "Living with the climate is viewed as nature and society being connected and sharing a relationship where humans must change their activities to fit the changing climate.Communicating with people who are labeled as skeptics can help create policies that may not be rejected.", "These beliefs are deeply rooted in longstanding traditions and not influenced by right wing think tanks or other media platforms.", "Therefore, communicating and working with these people may help reduce the amount of time it will take for policies to be accepted and approved by them.", "For policy makers to be effective, they should consider the knowledge that these people have and work with them instead of imposing a top-down approach for climate change policy." ], [ "Criticism", "According to ''The Guardian'', such widespread skeptical doubts have not developed independently, but have been \"encouraged by lobbying and PR campaigns financed by the polluting industries\".", "Supporters of environmentalists argue that \"skepticism\" implies a form of denialism, and that, in the US particularly, \"large donations have been made to Senators and Congressmen and have sponsored neoliberal think tanks and contrarian scientific research.", "ExxonMobil, the oil major, has been accused by Friends of the Earth and others of giving millions of dollars to a long list of think-tanks and lobbyists opposed to Kyoto.", "\"A study from 2008 showed that the overwhelming majority of environmentally skeptical books published since the 1970s were either written or published by authors or institutions affiliated with right-wing think tanks.", "It concludes that \"scepticism is a tactic of an elite-driven counter-movement designed to combat environmentalism, and that the successful use of this tactic has contributed to the weakening of US commitment to environmental protection.", "\"Peter Jacques wrote, \"The skeptical environmental counter-movement is a civic problem and in dealing with the propositions from the counter-movement we are forced to reach down to the bedrock issues of epistemology, identities, articulation and other core work for politics.", "To use scientism as a hammer against the screw of skepticism will split the wood of public life into splinters or it will immobilize the hammer.", "Scientism is a modernist tool that will haplessly reshuffle the old excursions - and we all know the 'master's tools will not dismantle the master's house\"" ], [ "See also", "* Antiscience* Anti-environmentalism* Climate change denial* Global warming controversy* Media coverage of climate change* Renewable energy commercialization#Non-technical barriers to acceptance" ], [ "References" ], [ "Selected works and analyses", "===Neutral or environmentally supportive===* * * * * ===Environmentally skeptic===* * * * * * * * Reisman, George, ''The Toxicity of Environmentalism'', Laguna Hills, CA, The Jefferson School of Philosophy, Economics & Psychology, 1990 *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flute" ], [ "Introduction", "Shinobue and other flutesThe '''flute''' is a member of a family of musical instruments in the woodwind group.", "Like all woodwinds, flutes are aerophones, producing sound with a vibrating column of air.", "Unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute produces sound when the player's air flows across an opening.", "In the Hornbostel–Sachs classification system, flutes are edge-blown aerophones.", "A musician who plays the flute is called a '''flautist''' or '''flutist'''.Paleolithic flutes with hand-bored holes are the earliest known identifiable musical instruments.", "A number of flutes dating to about 53,000 to 45,000 years ago have been found in the Swabian Jura region of present-day Germany, indicating a developed musical tradition from the earliest period of modern human presence in Europe.", "While the oldest flutes currently known were found in Europe, Asia also has a long history with the instrument.", "A playable bone flute discovered in China is dated to about 9,000 years ago.", "The Americas also had an ancient flute culture, with instruments found in Caral, Peru, dating back 5,000 years and in Labrador dating back about 7,500 years.The bamboo flute has a long history, especially in China and India.", "Flutes have been discovered in historical records and artworks starting in the Zhou dynasty.", "The oldest written sources reveal the Chinese were using the kuan (a reed instrument) and hsio (or xiao, an end-blown flute, often of bamboo) in the 12th–11th centuries BC, followed by the chi (or ch'ih) in the 9th century BC and the yüeh in the 8th century BC.", "Of these, the bamboo chi is the oldest documented transverse flute.The cross flute (Sanskrit: vāṃśī) was \"the outstanding wind instrument of ancient India\", according to Curt Sachs.", "He said that religious artwork depicting \"celestial music\" instruments was linked to music with an \"aristocratic character\".", "The Indian bamboo cross flute, Bansuri, was sacred to Krishna, who is depicted with the instrument in Hindu art.", "In India, the cross flute appeared in reliefs from the 1st century AD at Sanchi and Amaravati from the 2nd–4th centuries AD.According to historian Alexander Buchner, there were flutes in Europe in prehistoric times, but they disappeared from the continent until their arrival from Asia, by way of \"North Africa, Hungary, and Bohemia\".", "The end-blown flute began to be seen in illustration in the 11th century.", "Transverse flutes entered Europe through Byzantium and were depicted in Greek art about 800 AD.", "The transverse flute had spread into Europe by way of Germany, and was known as the German flute." ], [ "Etymology and terminology", "The word ''flute'' first appeared in the English language during the Middle English period, as ''floute'', ''flowte'', or ''flo(y)te'', possibly from Old French ''flaute'' and Old Provençal ''flaüt'', or possibly from Old French ''fleüte'', ''flaüte'', ''flahute'' via Middle High German ''floite'' or Dutch ''fluit''.", "The English verb ''flout'' has the same linguistic root, and the modern Dutch verb ''fluiten'' still shares the two meanings.", "Attempts to trace the word back to the Latin ''flare'' (to blow, inflate) have been pronounced \"phonologically impossible\" or \"inadmissable\".", "The first known use of the word ''flute'' was in the 14th century.", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', this was in Geoffrey Chaucer's ''The Hous of Fame'', .A musician who plays any instrument in the flute family can be called a flutist, flautist, or flute player.", "''Flutist'' dates back to at least 1603, the earliest quotation cited by the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "''Flautist'' was used in 1860 by Nathaniel Hawthorne in ''The Marble Faun'', after being adopted during the 18th century from Italy (''flautista'', itself from ''flauto''), like many musical terms in England since the Italian Renaissance.", "Other English terms, now virtually obsolete, are ''fluter'' (15th–19th centuries) and ''flutenist'' (17th and 18th centuries)." ], [ "History", "A fragment of a juvenile cave bear's femur, with two to four holes, was found at Divje Babe in Slovenia and dated to about 43,000 years ago.", "It may be the oldest flute discovered, but this has been disputed.", "In 2008, a flute dated to at least 35,000 years ago was discovered in Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany.", "It is a five-holed flute with a V-shaped mouthpiece and was made from a vulture wing bone.", "The discovery was published in the journal ''Nature'', in August 2009.This was the oldest confirmed musical instrument ever found, until a redating of flutes found in Geißenklösterle cave revealed them to be older, at 42,000 to 43,000 years.The Hohle Fels flute is one of several found in the Hohle Fels cavern next to the Venus of Hohle Fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving.", "On announcing the discovery, scientists suggested that the \"finds demonstrate the presence of a well-established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe\".", "Scientists have also suggested that this flute's discovery may help to explain \"the probable behavioural and cognitive gulf between\" Neanderthals and early modern human.Bone flute made of a goat's tibia, 11th–13th century AD.An 18.7 cm flute with three holes, made from a mammoth tusk and dated to 30,000–37,000 years ago, was found in 2004 in the Geißenklösterle cave near Ulm, in the southern German Swabian Alb.", "Two flutes made from swan bones were excavated a decade earlier from the same cave and dated to about 36,000 years ago.A playable 9,000-year-old Chinese Gudi (literally, \"bone flute\") was excavated from a tomb in Jiahu along with 29 similar specimens.", "They were made from the wing bones of red-crowned cranes and each has five to eight holes.The earliest extant Chinese transverse flute is a ''chi'' (篪) flute discovered in the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng at the Suizhou site, Hubei province, China, dating from 433 BC, during the later Zhou Dynasty.", "It is fashioned of lacquered bamboo with closed ends and has five stops on the flute's side instead of the top.", "''Shi Jing'', traditionally said to have been compiled and edited by Confucius, mentions chi flutes.", "The earliest written reference to a flute is from a Sumerian-language cuneiform tablet dated to c. 2600–2700 BC.Flutes are mentioned in a recently translated tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem whose development spanned the period from about 2100–600 BC.", "A set of cuneiform tablets knows as the \"''musical texts''\" provide precise tuning instructions for seven scales of a stringed instrument (assumed to be a Babylonian lyre).", "One of those scales is named '''embūbum''', which is an Akkadian word for \"''flute''\".The Bible, in Genesis 4:21, cites Jubal as being the \"father of all those who play the ''ugab'' and the ''kinnor''\".", "The former Hebrew term is believed by some to refer to a wind instrument, or wind instruments in general, the latter to a stringed instrument, or stringed instruments in general.", "As such, Jubal is regarded in the Judeo-Christian tradition as the inventor of the flute (a word used in some translations of this biblical passage).", "In other sections of the Bible (1 Samuel 10:5, 1 Kings 1:40, Isaiah 5:12 and 30:29, and Jeremiah 48:36) the flute is referred to as \"''chalil''\", from the root word for \"hollow\".", "Archeological digs in the Holy Land have discovered flutes from the Bronze Age (c. 4000–1200 BC) and the Iron Age (1200–586 BC), the latter era \"witnessing the creation of the Israelite kingdom and its separation into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judea.", "\"Some early flutes were made out of tibias (shin bones).", "The flute has also always been an essential part of Indian culture, and the cross flute believed by several accounts to originate in India as Indian literature from 1500 BC has made vague references to the cross flute." ], [ "Acoustics", "A flute produces sound when a stream of air directed across a hole in the instrument creates a vibration of air at the hole.", "The airstream creates a Bernoulli or siphon.", "This excites the air contained in the usually cylindrical resonant cavity within the flute.", "The flutist changes the pitch of the sound produced by opening and closing holes in the body of the instrument, thus changing the effective length of the resonator and its corresponding resonant frequency.", "By varying the air pressure, a flutist can also change the pitch by causing the air in the flute to resonate at a harmonic rather than the fundamental frequency without opening or closing any of the holes.Head joint geometry appears particularly critical to acoustic performance and tone, but there is no clear consensus on a particular shape amongst manufacturers.", "Acoustic impedance of the embouchure hole appears the most critical parameter.", "Critical variables affecting this acoustic impedance include: chimney length (hole between lip-plate and head tube), chimney diameter, and radii or curvature of the ends of the chimney and any designed restriction in the \"throat\" of the instrument, such as that in the Japanese Nohkan Flute.A study in which professional flutists were blindfolded could find no significant differences between flutes made from a variety of metals.", "In two different sets of blind listening, no flute was correctly identified in a first listening, and in a second, only the silver flute was identified.", "The study concluded that there was \"no evidence that the wall material has any appreciable effect on the sound color or dynamic range\"." ], [ "Materials", "Flutes have been made of metal, wood, glass, plastic, bone, bamboo, reed, and nephrite." ], [ "Types", "zampoña'', a Pre-Inca instrument and type of pan flute.In its most basic form, a flute is an open tube which is blown into.", "After focused study and training, players use controlled air-direction to create an airstream in which the air is aimed downward into the tone hole of the flute's headjoint.", "There are several broad classes of flutes.", "With most flutes, the musician blows directly across the edge of the mouthpiece, with 1/4 of their bottom lip covering the embouchure hole.", "However, some flutes, such as the whistle, gemshorn, flageolet, recorder, tin whistle, tonette, fujara, and ocarina have a duct that directs the air onto the edge (an arrangement that is termed a \"fipple\").", "These are known as '''fipple flutes'''.", "The fipple gives the instrument a distinct timbre which is different from non-fipple flutes and makes the instrument easier to play, but takes a degree of control away from the musician.Another division is between side-blown (or transverse) flutes, such as the Western concert flute, piccolo, fife, dizi and bansuri; and '''end-blown flutes''', such as the ney, xiao, kaval, danso, shakuhachi, Anasazi flute and quena.", "The player of a side-blown flute uses a hole on the side of the tube to produce a tone, instead of blowing on an end of the tube.", "End-blown flutes should not be confused with fipple flutes such as the recorder, which are also played vertically but have an internal duct to direct the air flow across the edge of the tone hole.Flutes may be open at one or both ends.", "The ocarina, xun, pan pipes, police whistle, and bosun's whistle are closed-ended.", "Open-ended flutes such as the concert flute and the recorder have more harmonics, and thus more flexibility for the player, and brighter timbres.", "An organ pipe may be either open or closed, depending on the sound desired.Flutes may have any number of pipes or tubes, though one is the most common number.", "Flutes with multiple resonators may be played one resonator at a time (as is typical with pan pipes) or more than one at a time (as is typical with double flutes).Flutes can be played with several different air sources.", "Conventional flutes are blown with the mouth, although some cultures use nose flutes.", "The flue pipes of organs, which are acoustically similar to duct flutes, are blown by bellows or fans.===Western transverse===Western concert flute====Wooden one-keyed====Usually in D, wooden transverse flutes were played in European classical music mainly in the period from the early 18th century to the early 19th century.", "As such, the instrument is often indicated as baroque flute.", "Gradually marginalized by the Western concert flute in the 19th century, baroque flutes were again played from the late 20th century as part of the historically informed performance practice.====Concert====An illustration of a Western concert fluteThe Western concert flute, a descendant of the medieval German flute, is a transverse treble flute that is closed at the top.", "An ''embouchure hole'' is positioned near the top, and the flutist blows across it.", "The flute has circular tone holes larger than the finger holes of its baroque predecessors.", "The size and placement of tone holes, key mechanism, and fingering system used to produce the notes in the flute's range were evolved from 1832 to 1847 by Theobald Boehm, who helped greatly improve the instrument's dynamic range and intonation over its predecessors.", "With some refinements (and the rare exception of the Kingma system and other custom adapted fingering systems), Western concert flutes typically conform to Boehm's design, known as the Boehm system.", "Beginner's flutes are made of nickel, silver, or brass that is silver-plated, while professionals use solid silver, gold, and sometimes even platinum flutes.", "There are also modern wooden-bodied flutes usually with silver or gold keywork.", "The wood is usually African Blackwood.The standard concert flute is pitched in C and has a range of three octaves starting from middle C or one half step lower when a B foot is attached.", "This means that the concert flute is one of the highest-pitched common orchestra and concert band instruments.Grenadilla wood piccolo with a modified wave headjoint====Concert variants====Center: Piccolo.", "Right: larger fluteThe piccolo plays an octave higher than the regular treble flute.", "Lower members of the flute family include the G alto and C bass flutes that are used occasionally, and are pitched a perfect fourth and an octave below the concert flute, respectively.", "The contra-alto, contrabass, subcontrabass, double contrabass, and hyperbass flutes are other rare forms of the flute pitched up to four octaves below middle C.Other sizes of flutes and piccolos are used from time to time.", "A rarer instrument of the modern pitching system is the G treble flute.", "Instruments made according to an older pitch standard, used principally in wind-band music, include D piccolo, E soprano flute (Keyed a minor 3rd above the standard C flute), F alto flute, and B bass flute.===Indian===Carnatic eight-holed bamboo fluteAn eight-holed classical Indian bamboo flute.The bamboo flute is an important instrument in Indian classical music, and developed independently of the Western flute.", "The Hindu God Lord Krishna is traditionally considered a master of the bamboo flute.", "The Indian flutes are very simple compared to the Western counterparts; they are made of bamboo and are keyless.Two main varieties of Indian flutes are currently used.", "The first, the Bansuri (बांसुरी), has six finger holes and one embouchure hole, and is used predominantly in the Hindustani music of Northern India.", "The second, the Venu or Pullanguzhal, has eight finger holes, and is played predominantly in the Carnatic music of Southern India.", "Presently, the eight-holed flute with cross-fingering technique is common among many Carnatic flutists.", "Prior to this, the South Indian flute had only seven finger holes, with the fingering standard developed by Sharaba Shastri, of the Palladam school, at the beginning of the 20th century.Tohono O'odham culture.", "Photograph by Frances Densmore taken in 1919.The quality of the flute's sound depends somewhat on the specific bamboo used to make it, and it is generally agreed that the best bamboo grows in the Nagercoil area of South India.In 1998 Bharata Natya Shastra Sarana Chatushtai, Avinash Balkrishna Patwardhan developed a methodology to produce perfectly tuned flutes for the ten 'thatas' currently present in Indian Classical Music.In a regional dialect of Gujarati, a flute is also called Pavo.", "Some people can also play pair of flutes (Jodiyo Pavo) simultaneously.===Chinese===In China there are many varieties of dizi (笛子), or Chinese flute, with different sizes, structures (with or without a resonance membrane) and number of holes (from 6 to 11) and intonations (different keys).", "Most are made of bamboo, but can come in wood, jade, bone, and iron.", "One peculiar feature of the Chinese flute is the use of a resonance membrane mounted on one of the holes that vibrates with the air column inside the tube.", "This membrane is called a ''di mo'', which is usually a thin tissue paper.", "It gives the flute a bright sound.Commonly seen flutes in the modern Chinese orchestra are the bangdi (梆笛), qudi (曲笛), xindi (新笛), and dadi (大笛).", "The bamboo flute played vertically is called the xiao (簫), which is a different category of wind instrument in China.=== Korean ===The Korean flute, called the daegeum, 대금, is a large bamboo transverse flute used in traditional Korean music.", "It has a buzzing membrane that gives it a unique timbre.===Japanese===The Japanese flute, called the fue, , encompasses a large number of musical flutes from Japan, include the end-blown shakuhachi and hotchiku, as well as the transverse gakubue, komabue, ryūteki, nōkan, shinobue, kagurabue and minteki.===Sodina and suling===A sodina player in MadagascarThe sodina is an end-blown flute found throughout the island state of Madagascar, located in the Indian Ocean off southeastern Africa.", "One of the oldest instruments on the island, it bears close resemblance to end-blown flutes found in Southeast Asia and particularly Indonesia, where it is known as the ''suling'', suggesting the predecessor to the sodina was carried to Madagascar in outrigger canoes by the island's original settlers emigrating from Borneo.", "An image of the most celebrated contemporary sodina flutist, Rakoto Frah (d. 2001), was featured on the local currency.===Sring===The sring (also called ''blul'') is a relatively small, end-blown flute with a nasal tone quality found in the Caucasus region of Eastern Armenia.", "It is made of wood or cane, usually with seven finger holes and one thumb hole, producing a diatonic scale.", "One Armenian musicologist believes the sring to be the most characteristic of national Armenian instruments.===Ọjà===ọjàThe Ọjà is a traditional musical instrument utilized by the Igbo people, who are indigenous to Nigeria.", "The ọjà (flute) is used during cultural activities or events where Igbo music is played.", "It is skillfully carved from wood/bamboo or metal and is played by blowing air into one end while covering and uncovering holes along the body to create different notes." ], [ "Breathing techniques", "There are several means by which flautists breathe to blow air through the instrument and produce sound.", "They include diaphragmatic breathing and circular breathing.", "Diaphragmatic breathing optimizes inhalation, minimizing the number of breaths.", "Circular breathing brings air in through the nose and out through the mouth, enabling a continuous sound." ], [ "See also", "DipleFlute methodFrulaHand fluteIrish fluteJazz fluteList of flutistsNative American flutePalendagPipe and taborPipe (instrument)Recorder (musical instrument)WashintVessel fluteList of flautists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "Buchanan, Donna A.", "2001.", "\"Bulgaria §II: Traditional Music, 2: Characteristics of Pre-Socialist Musical Culture, 1800–1944, (iii): Instruments\".", "''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.", "London: Macmillan Publishers.", "Crane, Frederick.", "1972.", "''Extant Medieval Musical Instruments: A Provisional Catalogue by Types''.", "Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.", "Galway, James.", "1982.''Flute''.", "Yehudi Menuhin Music Guides.", "London: Macdonald.", "(cloth); (pbk.)", "New York: Schirmer Books.", "Reprinted 1990, London: Kahn & Averill London: Khan & Averill * Loewy, Andrea Kapell.", "1990.", "\"Frederick the Great: Flutist and composer\".", "''College Music Symposium'' 30 (1): 117–125.JSTOR 40374049.The famous Prussian king (1712–1786) was a composer and patron of music.", "Phelan, James, 2004.", "''The complete guide to the flute and piccolo: From acoustics and construction to repair and maintenance'', second edition.", "S.l.", ": Burkart-Phelan, Inc., 2004.", "Putnik, Edwin.", "1970.", "''The Art of Flute Playing''.", "Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Inc. Revised edition 1973, Princeton, New Jersey and Evanston, Illinois.", "Toff, Nancy.", "1985.", "''The Flute Book: A Complete Guide for Students and Performers''.", "New York: Charles's Scribners Sons.", "Newton Abbot: David & Charles.", "Second Edition 1996, New York: Oxford University Press.", "Wye, Trevor.", "1988.", "''Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books''.", "London: Novello.", "Maclagan, Susan J.", "\"A Dictionary for the Modern Flutist\", 2009, Lanham, Maryland, USA: Scarecrow Press." ], [ "External links", "Ardal Powell.", "\"Flute\".", "''Grove Music Online''.", "''Oxford Music Online''.", "Oxford University Press.", "(by subscription)* Essay on the Jiahu flutes from the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History at The Metropolitan Museum of ArtA selection of historic flutes from around the world at The Metropolitan Museum of Art* Walking Stick Flute and Oboe, Georg Henrich Scherer, Butzbach, c. 1750–57 Glass flute, Claude Laurent, Paris, 1813 Porcelain flute, Saxony, 1760–1790 Pair of ivory flutes by Johann Wilhelm Oberlender, mid-18th century, Nuremberg Flute by Garion, Paris, c. 1720–1740* * * Flute acoustics Resources on flute acoustics from the University of New South Wales.", "* Folk flutes (''Polish folk musical instruments'')* Bamboo Flute 16 Feet World's Longest Playble Flute New World Record by DM Office, Pilibhit, Uttar Pradesh." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flageolet (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''flageolet''' is a wind instrument similar to a recorder.", "'''Flageolet''' may also refer to:* Flageolet (organ stop), a pipe organ component* The flageolet bean, a type of common bean* A method of playing a string harmonic" ], [ "See also", "* Whistle register, the highest register of the human voice lying above the modal register and falsetto register" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Association football" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Association football''', more commonly known as '''football''' or '''soccer''', is a team sport played between two teams of 11 players each, who primarily use their feet to propel a ball around a rectangular field called a pitch.", "The objective of the game is to score more goals than the opposing team by moving the ball beyond the goal line into a rectangular-framed goal defended by the opposing team.", "Traditionally, the game has been played over two 45-minute halves, for a total match time of 90 minutes.", "With an estimated 250 million players active in over 200 countries and territories, it is the world's most popular sport.The game of association football is played in accordance with the Laws of the Game, a set of rules that has been in effect since 1863 and maintained by the IFAB since 1886.The game is played with a football that is in circumference.", "The two teams compete to get the ball into the other team's goal (between the posts, under the bar, and across the goal line), thereby scoring a goal.", "When the ball is in play, the players mainly use their feet, but may use any other part of their body, except for their hands or arms, to control, strike, or pass the ball.", "Only the goalkeepers may use their hands and arms, and only then within the penalty area.", "The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner.", "There are situations where a goal can be disallowed, such as an offside call or a foul in the build-up to the goal.", "Depending on the format of the competition, an equal number of goals scored may result in a draw being declared, or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shoot-out.Internationally, association football is governed by FIFA.", "Under FIFA, there are six continental confederations: AFC, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, OFC, and UEFA.", "Of these confederations, CONMEBOL is the oldest one, being founded in 1916.National associations (e.g.", "The FA or JFA) are responsible for managing the game in their own countries both professionally and at an amateur level, and coordinating competitions in accordance with the Laws of the Game.", "The most senior and prestigious international competitions are the FIFA World Cup and the FIFA Women's World Cup.", "The men's World Cup is the most-viewed sporting event in the world, surpassing the Olympic Games.", "The two most prestigious competitions in European club football are the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Women's Champions League, which attract an extensive television audience throughout the world.", "Since 2009, the final of the men's tournament has been the most-watched annual sporting event in the world." ], [ "Name", "Association football is one of a family of football codes that emerged from various ball games played worldwide since antiquity.", "Within the English-speaking world, the sport is now usually called \"football\" in Great Britain and most of Ulster in the north of Ireland, whereas people usually call it \"soccer\" in regions and countries where other codes of football are prevalent, such as Australia, Canada, South Africa, most of Ireland (excluding Ulster), and the United States.", "A notable exception is New Zealand, where in the first two decades of the 21st century, under the influence of international television, \"football\" has been gaining prevalence, despite the dominance of other codes of football, namely rugby union and rugby league.The term ''soccer'' comes from Oxford \"-er\" slang, which was prevalent at the University of Oxford in England from about 1875, and is thought to have been borrowed from the slang of Rugby School.", "Initially spelt ''assoccer'' (a shortening of \"association\"), it was later reduced to the modern spelling.", "This form of slang also gave rise to ''rugger'' for rugby football, ''fiver'' and ''tenner'' for five pound and ten pound notes, and the now-archaic ''footer'' that was also a name for association football.", "The word ''soccer'' arrived at its current form in 1895 and was first recorded in 1889 in the earlier form of ''socca''." ], [ "History", "Kicking ball games arose independently multiple times across multiple cultures.", "The Chinese competitive game '''' (, literally \"kick ball\"; also known as ''tsu chu'') resembles modern association football.", "This is the earliest form of the game for which there is scientific evidence, a military manual from the Han dynasty. ''''", "players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was to kick a ball through an opening into a net.", "During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), '''' games were standardised and rules were established.", "The Silk Road facilitated the transmission of ''cuju'', especially the game popular in the Tang dynasty, the period when the inflatable ball was invented and replaced the stuffed ball.", "Other East Asian games included '''' in Japan and '''' in Korea, both influenced by ''cuju''. ''''", "originated after the year 600 during the Asuka period.", "It was a ceremonial rather than a competitive game, and involved the kicking of a ''mari'', a ball made of animal skin.", "In North America, was a ball game played by the Algonquians; it was described as \"almost identical to the kind of folk football being played in Europe at the same time, in which the ball was kicked through goals\".''''", "and '''' were Greek ball games.", "An image of an '''' player depicted in low relief on a stele of in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship trophy.", "Athenaeus, writing in 228 CE, mentions the Roman ball game ''''. ''''", "and '''' were played involving hands and violence.", "They all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling, and volleyball more than what is recognisable as modern football.", "As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all modern football codes, these three games involved more handling the ball than kicking it.Association football in itself does not have a classical history.", "Notwithstanding any similarities to other ball games played around the world, FIFA has described that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe.", "The history of football in England dates back to at least the eighth century.", "The modern rules of association football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England.The \"Laws of the University Foot Ball Club\" (''Cambridge Rules'') of 1856The Cambridge rules, first drawn up at the University of Cambridge in 1848, were particularly influential in the development of subsequent codes, including association football.", "The Cambridge rules were written at Trinity College, Cambridge, at a meeting attended by representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury schools.", "They were not universally adopted.", "During the 1850s, many clubs unconnected to schools or universities were formed throughout the English-speaking world to play various forms of football.", "Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the Sheffield Football Club, formed by former public school pupils in 1857, which led to the formation of a Sheffield FA in 1867.In 1862, John Charles Thring of Uppingham School also devised an influential set of rules.An early draft of the original hand-written 'Laws of the Game' drawn up on behalf of The Football Association by Ebenezer Cobb Morley in 1863 on display at the National Football Museum, Manchester, EnglandThese ongoing efforts contributed to the formation of The Football Association (The FA) in 1863, which first met on the morning of 26 October 1863 at the Freemasons' Tavern in Great Queen Street, London.", "The only school to be represented on this occasion was Charterhouse.", "The Freemasons' Tavern was the setting for five more meetings of The FA between October and December 1863; the English FA eventually issued the first comprehensive set of rules named , forming modern football.", "The laws included bans on running with the ball in hand and hacking (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding.", "Eleven clubs, under the charge of FA secretary Ebenezer Cobb Morley, ratified the original thirteen laws of the game.", "The sticking point was hacking, which a twelfth club at the meeting, Blackheath FC, had wanted to keep, resulting in them withdrawing from the FA.", "Other English rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA, and instead in 1871, along with Blackheath, formed the Rugby Football Union.", "The FA rules included handling of the ball by \"marks\" and the lack of a crossbar, rules which made it remarkably similar to Victorian rules football being developed at that time in Australia.", "The Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s, with the FA absorbing some of its rules until there was little difference between the games.Aston Villa team in 1897, after winning both the FA Cup and the English Football LeagueThe world's oldest football competition is the FA Cup, which was founded by the footballer and cricketer Charles W. Alcock, and has been contested by English teams since 1872.The first official international football match also took place in 1872, between Scotland and England in Glasgow, again at the instigation of Alcock.", "England is also home to the world's first football league, which was founded in Birmingham in 1888 by Aston Villa director William McGregor.", "The original format contained 12 clubs from the Midlands and Northern England.Laws of the Game are determined by the International Football Association Board (IFAB).", "The board was formed in 1886 after a meeting in Manchester of the Football Association, the Scottish Football Association, the Football Association of Wales, and the Irish Football Association.", "FIFA, the international football body, was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to the Laws of the Game of the Football Association.", "The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the IFAB in 1913.The board consists of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations.For most of the 20th century, Europe and South America were the dominant regions in association football.", "The FIFA World Cup, inaugurated in 1930, became the main stage for players of both continents to show their worth and the strength of their national teams.", "In the second half of the century, the European Cup and the Copa Libertadores were created, and the champions of these two club competitions would contest the Intercontinental Cup to prove which team was the best in the world.In the 21st century, South America has continued to produce some of the best footballers in the world, but its clubs have fallen behind the still dominant European clubs, which often sign the best players from Latin America and elsewhere.", "Meanwhile, football has improved in Africa, Asia and North America, and nowadays, these regions are at least on equal grounds with South America in club football, although countries in the Caribbean and Oceania regions (except Australia) have yet to make a mark in international football.", "When it comes to national teams, however, Europeans and South Americans continue to dominate the FIFA World Cup, as no team from any other region has managed to even reach the final.Football is played at a professional level all over the world.", "Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams, while billions more watch the game on television or on the internet.", "A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level.", "According to a survey conducted by FIFA published in 2001, over 240 million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football.", "Football has the highest global television audience in sport.In many parts of the world, football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans, local communities, and even nations.", "Ryszard Kapuściński says that Europeans who are polite, modest, or humble fall easily into rage when playing or watching football games.", "The Ivory Coast national football team helped secure a truce to the nation's civil war in 2006 and it helped further reduce tensions between government and rebel forces in 2007 by playing a match in the rebel capital of Bouaké, an occasion that brought both armies together peacefully for the first time.", "By contrast, football is widely considered to have been the final proximate cause for the Football War in June 1969 between El Salvador and Honduras.", "The sport also exacerbated tensions at the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence of the 1990s, when a match between Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade degenerated into rioting in May 1990.===Women's association football===Women's association football has historically seen opposition, with national associations severely curbing its development and several outlawing it completely.", "Women may have been playing football for as long as the game has existed.", "Evidence shows that a similar ancient game (''cuju'', or ''tsu chu'') was played by women during the Han dynasty (25–220 CE), as female figures are depicted in frescoes of the period playing ''tsu chu''.", "There are also reports of annual football matches played by women in Midlothian, Scotland, during the 1790s.British Ladies', the first organised women's football team, here pictured in March 1895Association football, the modern game, has documented early involvement of women.", "In 1863, football governing bodies introduced standardised rules to prohibit violence on the pitch, making it more socially acceptable for women to play.", "The first match recorded by the Scottish Football Association took place in 1892 in Glasgow.", "In England, the first recorded game of football between women took place in 1895.Women's football has traditionally been associated with charity games and physical exercise, particularly in the United Kingdom.Association football continued to be played by women since the time of the first recorded women's games in the late 19th century.", "The best-documented early European team was founded by activist Nettie Honeyball in England in 1894.It was named the British Ladies' Football Club.", "Honeyball is quoted as, \"I founded the association late last year 1894, with the fixed resolve of proving to the world that women are not the 'ornamental and useless' creatures men have pictured.", "I must confess, my convictions on all matters where the sexes are so widely divided are all on the side of emancipation, and I look forward to the time when ladies may sit in Parliament and have a voice in the direction of affairs, especially those which concern them most.\"", "Honeyball and those like her paved the way for women's football.", "However, the women's game was frowned upon by the British football associations and continued without their support.", "It has been suggested that this was motivated by a perceived threat to the \"masculinity\" of the game.Women's football became popular on a large scale at the time of the First World War, when female employment in heavy industry spurred the growth of the game, much as it had done for men 50 years earlier.", "The most successful team of the era was Dick, Kerr Ladies F.C.", "of Preston, England.", "The team played in one of the first women's international matches against a French XI team in 1920, and also made up most of the England team against a Scottish Ladies XI in the same year, winning 22–0.Despite being more popular than some men's football events, with one match seeing a 53,000 strong crowd in 1920, women's football in England suffered a blow in 1921 when The Football Association outlawed the playing of the game on association members' pitches, stating that \"the game of football is quite unsuitable for females and should not be encouraged.\"", "Players and football writers have argued that this ban was, in fact, due to envy of the large crowds that women's matches attracted, and because the FA had no control over the money made from the women's game.", "The FA ban led to the formation of the short-lived English Ladies Football Association and play moved to rugby grounds.", "Women's football also faced bans in several other countries, notably in Brazil from 1941 to 1979, in France from 1941 to 1970, and in Germany from 1955 to 1970.Young Finnish girls football team of Kolarin Kontio in Piteå, Sweden, in 2014Restrictions began to be reduced in the 1960s and 1970s.", "The Italian women's football league was established in 1968.In December 1969, the Women's Football Association was formed in England, with the sport eventually becoming the most prominent team sport for women in the United Kingdom.", "Two unofficial women's World Cups were organised by the FIEFF in 1970 and in 1971.Also in 1971, Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) members voted to officially recognise women's football, while The Football Association rescinded the ban that prohibited women from playing on association members' pitches in England.", "Women's football still faces many struggles, but its worldwide growth has seen major competitions being launched at both the national and international levels, mirroring the men's competitions.", "The FIFA Women's World Cup was inaugurated in 1991: the first tournament was held in China, featuring 12 teams from the respective six confederations.", "The World Cup has been held every four years since; by the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France, it had expanded to 24 national teams, and 1.12 billion viewers watched the competition.", "Women's football has been an Olympic event since 1996.North America is the dominant region in women's football, with the United States winning most FIFA Women's World Cups and Olympic tournaments.", "Europe and Asia come second and third in terms of international success, and the women's game has been improving in South America." ], [ "Gameplay", "One half of a professional football match (45 minutes) between Slovenian clubs NK Nafta 1903 and NK Dob.", "The score after the half is 0–0.Association football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the .", "The game is played using a spherical ball of circumference, known as the ''football'' (or ''soccer ball'').", "Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal (between the posts and under the bar), thereby scoring a goal.", "The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals then the game is a draw.", "Each team is led by a captain who has only one official responsibility as mandated by the Laws of the Game: to represent their team in the coin toss before kick-off or penalty kicks.The primary law is that players other than goalkeepers may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play, though they must use both their hands during a throw-in restart.", "Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around, they may use any part of their body (notably, \"heading\" with the forehead) other than their hands or arms.", "Within normal play, all players are free to play the ball in any direction and move throughout the pitch, though players may not pass to teammates who are in an offside position.During gameplay, players attempt to create goal-scoring opportunities through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling, passing the ball to a teammate, and by taking shots at the goal, which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper.", "Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent in possession of the ball; however, physical contact between opponents is restricted.", "Football is generally a free-flowing game, with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play or when play is stopped by the referee for an infringement of the rules.", "After a stoppage, play recommences with a specified restart.tackle to dispossess an opponentAt a professional level, most matches produce only a few goals.", "For example, the 2022–23 season of the English Premier League produced an average of 2.85 goals per match.", "The Laws of the Game do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper, but a number of specialised roles have evolved.", "Broadly, these include three main categories: strikers, or forwards, whose main task is to score goals; defenders, who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring; and midfielders, who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball to pass it to the forwards on their team.", "Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players, to distinguish them from the goalkeeper.These positions are further subdivided according to the area of the field in which the player spends the most time.", "For example, there are central defenders and left and right midfielders.", "The ten outfield players may be arranged in any combination.", "The number of players in each position determines the style of the team's play; more forwards and fewer defenders creates a more aggressive and offensive-minded game, while the reverse creates a slower, more defensive style of play.", "While players typically spend most of the game in a specific position, there are few restrictions on player movement, and players can switch positions at any time.", "The layout of a team's players is known as a ''formation''.", "Defining the team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team's manager." ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Laws of the Game\"></span> Laws", "There are 17 laws in the official Laws of the Game, each containing a collection of stipulations and guidelines.", "The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football for both sexes, although certain modifications for groups such as juniors, seniors and people with physical disabilities are permitted.", "The laws are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game.", "The Laws of the Game are published by FIFA, but are maintained by the IFAB.", "In addition to the seventeen laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of association football.", "Within the United States, Major League Soccer used a distinct ruleset during the 1990s and the National Federation of State High School Associations and National Collegiate Athletic Association still use rulesets that are comparable to, but different from, the IFAB Laws.===Players, equipment, and officials===referee officiates in a football match\|alt=Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding substitutes), one of whom must be the goalkeeper.", "Competition rules may state a minimum number of players required to constitute a team, which is usually seven.", "Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, provided they do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal.", "Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are strategically placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the Laws.The basic equipment or ''kit'' players are required to wear includes a shirt, shorts, socks, footwear and adequate shin guards.", "An athletic supporter and protective cup is highly recommended for male players by medical experts and professionals.", "Headgear is not a required piece of basic equipment, but players today may choose to wear it to protect themselves from head injury.", "Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player, such as jewellery or watches.", "The goalkeeper must wear clothing that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials.A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game.", "The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is five in 90 minutes, with each team being allowed one more if the game should go into extra-time; the permitted number may vary in other competitions or in friendly matches.", "Common reasons for a substitution include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or timewasting at the end of a finely poised game.", "In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match.", "IFAB recommends \"that a match should not continue if there are fewer than seven players in either team\".", "Any decision regarding points awarded for abandoned games is left to the individual football associations.A game is officiated by a referee, who has \"full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed\" (Law 5), and whose decisions are final.", "The referee is assisted by two assistant referees.", "In many high-level games there is also a fourth official who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise.Goal line technology is used to measure if the whole ball has crossed the goal-line thereby determining whether a goal has been scored or not; this was brought in to prevent controversy.", "Video assistant referees (VAR) have also been increasingly introduced in high-level matches to assist officials through video replays to correct clear and obvious mistakes.", "There are four types of calls that can be reviewed: mistaken identity in awarding a red or yellow card, goals and whether there was a violation during the buildup, direct red card decisions, and penalty decisions.===Ball===The ball is spherical with a circumference of between , a weight in the range of , and a pressure between at sea level.", "In the past the ball was made up of leather panels sewn together, with a latex bladder for pressurisation, but modern balls at all levels of the game are now synthetic.===Pitch===Standard pitch measurementsAs the Laws were formulated in England, and were initially administered solely by the four British football associations within IFAB, the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in imperial units.", "The Laws now express dimensions with approximate metric equivalents (followed by traditional units in brackets), though use of imperial units remains popular in English-speaking countries with a relatively recent history of metrication (or only partial metrication), such as Britain.The length of the pitch, or field, for international adult matches is in the range of and the width is in the range of .", "Fields for non-international matches may be in length and in width, provided the pitch does not become square.", "In 2008, the IFAB initially approved a fixed size of long and wide as a standard pitch dimension for international matches; however, this decision was later put on hold and was never actually implemented.The longer boundary lines are ''touchlines'', while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are ''goal lines''.", "A rectangular goal is positioned on each goal line, midway between the two touchlines.", "The inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be apart, and the lower edge of the horizontal crossbar supported by the goal posts must be above the ground.", "Nets are usually placed behind the goal, but are not required by the Laws.In front of the goal is the penalty area.", "This area is marked by the goal line, two lines starting on the goal line from the goalposts and extending into the pitch perpendicular to the goal line, and a line joining them.", "This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penalty foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by a penalty kick.", "Other markings define the position of the ball or players at kick-offs, goal kicks, penalty kicks and corner kicks.===Duration and tie-breaking methods=======90-minute ordinary time====A standard adult football match consists of two halves of 45 minutes each.", "Each half runs continuously, meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play.", "There is usually a 15-minute half-time break between halves.", "The end of the match is known as full-time.", "The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages.", "This added time is called \"additional time\" in FIFA documents, but is most commonly referred to as ''stoppage time'' or ''injury time'', while ''lost time'' can also be used as a synonym.", "The duration of stoppage time is at the sole discretion of the referee.", "Stoppage time does not fully compensate for the time in which the ball is out of play, and a 90-minute game typically involves about an hour of \"effective playing time\".", "The referee alone signals the end of the match.", "In matches where a fourth official is appointed, towards the end of the half, the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time they intend to add.", "The fourth official then informs the players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number.", "The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee.", "Added time was introduced because of an incident which happened in 1891 during a match between Stoke and Aston Villa.", "Trailing 1–0 with two minutes remaining, Stoke were awarded a penalty kick.", "Villa's goalkeeper deliberately kicked the ball out of play; by the time it was recovered, the clock had run out and the game was over, leaving Stoke unable to attempt the penalty.", "The same law also states that the duration of either half is extended until a penalty kick to be taken or retaken is completed; thus, no game can end with an uncompleted penalty.====Tie-breaking====penalty shoot-out to decide the winner if a match ends as a drawIn league competitions, games may end in a draw.", "In knockout competitions where a winner is required, various methods may be employed to break such a deadlock; some competitions may invoke replays.", "A game tied at the end of regulation time may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods.", "If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of penalty shoot-outs (known officially in the Laws of the Game as \"kicks from the penalty mark\") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament or be the champion.", "Goals scored during extra time periods count towards the final score of the game, but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament, with goals scored in a penalty shoot-out not making up part of the final score.In competitions using two-legged matches, each team competes at home once, with an aggregate score from the two matches deciding which team progresses.", "Where aggregates are equal, the away goals rule may be used to determine the winners, in which case the winner is the team that scored the most goals in the leg they played away from home.", "If the result is still equal, extra time and potentially a penalty shoot-out are required.===Ball in and out of play===alt=Under the Laws, the two basic states of play during a game are ''ball in play'' and ''ball out of play''.", "From the beginning of each playing period with a kick-off until the end of the playing period, the ball is in play at all times, except when either the ball leaves the field of play, or play is stopped by the referee.", "When the ball becomes out of play, play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending on how it went out of play:* Kick-off: following a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play.", "* Throw-in: when the ball has crossed the touchline; awarded to the opposing team to that which last touched the ball.", "* Goal kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the attacking team; awarded to defending team.", "* Corner kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the defending team; awarded to attacking team.", "* Indirect free kick: awarded to the opposing team following \"non-penal\" fouls, certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution or dismiss an opponent without a specific foul having occurred.", "A goal may not be scored directly (without the ball first touching another player) from an indirect free kick.", "* Direct free kick: awarded to fouled team following certain listed \"penal\" fouls.", "A goal may be scored directly from a direct free kick.", "* Penalty kick: awarded to the fouled team following a foul usually punishable by a direct free kick but that has occurred within their opponent's penalty area.", "* Dropped-ball: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason, such as a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective.===Misconduct=======On-field====A foul occurs when a player commits an offence listed in the Laws of the Game while the ball is in play.", "The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12.Handling the ball deliberately, tripping an opponent, or pushing an opponent, are examples of \"penal fouls\", punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick depending on where the offence occurred.", "Other fouls are punishable by an indirect free kick.The referee may punish a player's or substitute's misconduct by a caution (yellow card) or dismissal (red card).", "A second yellow card in the same game leads to a red card, which results in a dismissal.", "A player given a yellow card is said to have been \"booked\", the referee writing the player's name in their official notebook.", "If a player has been dismissed, no substitute can be brought on in their place and the player may not participate in further play.", "Misconduct may occur at any time, and while the offences that constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad.", "In particular, the offence of \"unsporting behaviour\" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences.", "A referee can show a yellow or red card to a player, substitute, substituted player, and to non-players such as managers and support staff.Rather than stopping play, the referee may allow play to continue if doing so will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed.", "This is known as \"playing an advantage\".", "The referee may \"call back\" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within \"a few seconds\".", "Even if an offence is not penalised due to advantage being played, the offender may still be sanctioned for misconduct at the next stoppage of play.The referee's decision in all on-pitch matters is considered final.", "The score of a match cannot be altered after the game, even if later evidence shows that decisions (including awards/non-awards of goals) were incorrect.====Off-field====Along with the general administration of the sport, football associations and competition organisers also enforce good conduct in wider aspects of the game, dealing with issues such as comments to the press, clubs' financial management, doping, age fraud and match fixing.", "Most competitions enforce mandatory suspensions for players who are sent off in a game.", "Some on-field incidents, if considered very serious (such as allegations of racial abuse), may result in competitions deciding to impose heavier sanctions than those normally associated with a red card.", "Some associations allow for appeals against player suspensions incurred on-field if clubs feel a referee was incorrect or unduly harsh.Sanctions for such infractions may be levied on individuals or on clubs as a whole.", "Penalties may include fines, point deductions (in league competitions) or even expulsion from competitions.", "For example, the English Football League deduct 12 points from any team that enters financial administration.", "Among other administrative sanctions are penalties against game forfeiture.", "Teams that had forfeited a game or had been forfeited against would be awarded a technical loss or win." ], [ "Governing bodies", "Headquarters of FIFA, the world governing body of footballThe recognised international governing body of football (and associated games, such as futsal and beach soccer) is FIFA.", "The FIFA headquarters are located in Zürich, Switzerland.", "Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA; these are:* Asia: Asian Football Confederation (AFC)* Africa: Confederation of African Football (CAF)* Europe: Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)* North/Central America & Caribbean: Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF)* Oceania: Oceania Football Confederation (OFC)* South America: Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (South American Football Confederation; CONMEBOL)National associations (or national federations) oversee football within individual countries.", "These are generally synonymous with sovereign states (for example, the Cameroonian Football Federation in Cameroon), but also include a smaller number of associations responsible for sub-national entities or autonomous regions (for example, the Scottish Football Association in Scotland).", "211 national associations are affiliated both with FIFA and with their respective continental confederations.", "Other national associations may be members of continental confederations but otherwise not participate in FIFA competitions.While FIFA is responsible for arranging competitions and most rules related to international competition, the actual Laws of the Game are set by the IFAB, where each of the UK Associations has one vote, while FIFA collectively has four votes." ], [ "International competitions", "The FIFA World Cup is the largest international competition in football and the world's most viewed sporting eventInternational competitions in association football principally consist of two varieties: competitions involving representative national teams or those involving clubs based in multiple nations and national leagues.", "''International football'', without qualification, most often refers to the former.", "In the case of international club competition, it is the country of origin of the clubs involved, not the nationalities of their players, that renders the competition international in nature.The major international competition in football is the World Cup, organised by FIFA.", "This competition has taken place every four years since 1930, with the exception of the 1942 and 1946 tournaments, which were cancelled because of World War II.", "As of 2022, over 200 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals.", "The finals tournament, held every four years, involved 32 national teams (expanding to 48 teams for the 2026 tournament) competing over a four-week period.", "The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament as well as the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games; the cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 FIFA World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the final match, one-ninth of the entire population of the planet.", "The 1958 World Cup saw the emergence of Pelé as a global sporting star, a period that coincided with \"the explosive spread of television, which massively amplified his presence everywhere\".", "The current champions are Argentina, who won their third title at the 2022 tournament in Qatar.", "The FIFA Women's World Cup has been held every four years since 1991.Under the tournament's current format that was expanded in 2023, national teams vie for 31 slots in a three-year qualification phase, while the host nation's team enters automatically as the 32nd slot.", "The current champions are Spain, after winning their first title in the 2023 tournament.There has been a football tournament at every Summer Olympic Games since 1900, except at the 1932 games in Los Angeles when FIFA and the IOC had disagreed over the status of amateur players.", "Before the inception of the World Cup, the Olympics (especially during the 1920s) were the most prestigious international event.", "Originally, the tournament was for amateurs only.", "As professionalism spread around the world, the gap in quality between the World Cup and the Olympics widened.", "The countries that benefited most were the Soviet Bloc countries of Eastern Europe, where top athletes were state-sponsored while retaining their status as amateurs.", "Between 1948 and 1980, 23 out of 27 Olympic medals were won by Eastern Europe, with only Sweden (gold in 1948 and bronze in 1952), Denmark (bronze in 1948 and silver in 1960) and Japan (bronze in 1968) breaking their dominance.", "For the 1984 Los Angeles Games, the IOC allowed professional players to compete.", "Since 1992, male competitors must be under 23 years old, although since 1996, three players over the age of 23 have been allowed per squad.", "A women's tournament was added in 1996; in contrast to the men's event, full international sides without age restrictions play the women's Olympic tournament.Spanish footballers Fernando Torres, Juan Mata, and Sergio Ramos celebrating winning the UEFA European Championship in 2012After the World Cup, the most important international football competitions are the continental championships, which are organised by each continental confederation and contested between national teams.", "These are the European Championship (UEFA), the Copa América (CONMEBOL), the African Cup of Nations (CAF), the Asian Cup (AFC), the CONCACAF Gold Cup (CONCACAF) and the OFC Nations Cup (OFC).", "These competitions are not strictly limited to members of the continental confederations, with guest teams from other continents sometimes invited to compete.", "The FIFA Confederations Cup was contested by the winners of all six continental championships, the current FIFA World Cup champions, and the country which was hosting the next World Cup.", "This was generally regarded as a warm-up tournament for the upcoming FIFA World Cup and did not carry the same prestige as the World Cup itself.", "The tournament was discontinued following the 2017 edition with its calendar slot replaced by an expanded FIFA Club World Cup.", "The UEFA Nations League and the CONCACAF Nations League were introduced in the late 2010s to replace international friendlies during the two-year cycle between major tournaments.The most prestigious competitions in club football are the respective continental championships, which are generally contested between national champions, for example, the UEFA Champions League in Europe and the Copa Libertadores in South America.", "The winners of each continental competition contest the FIFA Club World Cup." ], [ "Domestic competitions", "A 2009 Spanish La Liga match between Real Madrid and Barcelona.", "The fixture, known as ''El Clásico'', is one of the most renowned in sport.The governing bodies in each country operate league systems in a domestic season, normally comprising several divisions, in which the teams gain points throughout the season depending on results.", "Teams are placed into tables, placing them in order according to points accrued.", "Most commonly, each team plays every other team in its league at home and away in each season, in a round-robin tournament.", "At the end of a season, the top team is declared the champion.", "The top few teams may be promoted to a higher division, and one or more of the teams finishing at the bottom are relegated to a lower division.The teams finishing at the top of a country's league may also be eligible to play in international club competitions in the following season.", "The main exceptions to this system occur in some Latin American leagues, which divide football championships into two sections named Apertura and Clausura (Spanish for ''Opening'' and ''Closing''), awarding a champion for each.", "Most countries supplement the league system with one or more \"cup\" competitions organised on a knock-out basis.", "These include the domestic cup, which may be open to all eligible teams in a country's league system—both professional and amateur—and is organised by the national federation.Some countries' top divisions feature highly-paid star players; in smaller countries, lower divisions, and many women's clubs, players may be part-timers with a second job, or amateurs.", "The five top European leagues – Premier League (England), Bundesliga (Germany), La Liga (Spain), Serie A (Italy), and Ligue 1 (France) – attract most of the world's best players and, during the 2006–07 season, each of these leagues had a total wage cost in excess of €600 million.", "These leagues also generated a combined €17.2 billion in revenue in the 2021–22 season from television contracts, matchday tickets, sponsorships, and other sources." ], [ "See also", "* List of association football films* List of association football video games" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) * International Football Association Board (IFAB) * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fox Film" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Fox Film Corporation''' (also known as '''Fox Studios''') was an American independent film production studio formed by William Fox (1879–1952) in 1915, by combining his earlier Greater New York Film Rental Company and Box Office Attraction Company (founded 1913).The company's first film studios were set up in Fort Lee, New Jersey, but in 1917, William Fox sent Sol M. Wurtzel to Hollywood, California to oversee the studio's new West Coast production facilities, where the climate was more hospitable for filmmaking.", "On July 23, 1926, the company bought the patents of the Movietone sound system for recording sound onto film.After the Wall Street crash of 1929, William Fox lost control of the company in 1930, during a hostile takeover.", "Under new president Sidney Kent, the new owners began conversations of a fusion with Twentieth Century Pictures, under founders Joseph M. Schenck and his friend Darryl Zanuck.", "Schenck, Zanuck, and Spyros Skouras merged the Fox Studios with Twentieth Century to form 20th Century-Fox in 1935." ], [ "History", "===Background===Founder William FoxWilliam Fox entered the film industry in 1904 when he purchased a one-third share of a Brooklyn nickelodeon for $1,667.He reinvested his profits from that initial location, expanding to fifteen similar venues in the city, and purchasing prints from the major studios of the time: Biograph, Essanay, Kalem, Lubin, Pathé, Selig, Phonoson-Coles, Tsereteli and Vitagraph.", "After experiencing further success presenting live vaudeville routines along with motion pictures, he expanded into larger venues beginning with his purchase of the disused Gaiety theater, and continuing with acquisitions throughout New York City and New Jersey, including the Academy of Music.Fox invested further in the film industry by founding the Greater New York Film Rental Company as a film distributor.", "The major film studios responded by forming the Motion Picture Patents Company in 1908 and the General Film Company in 1910, in an effort to create a monopoly on the creation and distribution of motion pictures.", "Fox refused to sell out to the monopoly, and sued under the Sherman Antitrust Act, eventually receiving a $370,000 settlement, and ending restrictions on the length of films and the prices that could be paid for screenplays.In 1914, reflecting the broader scope of his business, he renamed it the Box Office Attraction Company He entered into a contract with the Balboa Amusement Producing Company film studio, purchasing all of their films for showing in his New York area theaters and renting the prints to other exhibitors nationwide.", "He also continued to distribute material from other sources, such as Winsor McCay's early animated film ''Gertie the Dinosaur''.", "Later that year, Fox concluded that it was unwise to be so dependent on other companies, so he purchased the Éclair studio facilities in Fort Lee, New Jersey, along with property in Staten Island, and arranged for actors and crew.", "The company became a film studio, using the name Box Office Attraction Company; its first release was ''Life's Shop Window''.===Fox Film Corporation===This large stage at the Fox Studio on North Western Avenue was used as the men's dressing room when more than 2,000 people were needed for the Jerusalem street scenes in Theda Bara's ''Salomé'' (1918)Silent film ''The Heart Snatcher'' (1920) directed by Roy Del Ruth for Fox Film Corporation.Always more of an entrepreneur than a showman, Fox concentrated on acquiring and building theaters; pictures were secondary.", "The company's first film studios were set up in Fort Lee where it and many other early film studios in America's first motion picture industry were based at the beginning of the 20th century.That same year, in 1914, Fox Film began making motion pictures in California, and in 1915 decided to build its own permanent studio.", "The company leased the Los Angeles Edendale studio of the Selig Polyscope Company until its own studio, located at Western Avenue and Sunset Boulevard, was completed in 1916.In 1917, William Fox sent Sol M. Wurtzel to Hollywood to oversee the studio's West Coast production facilities where a more hospitable and cost-effective climate existed for filmmaking.", "Between 1915 and 1919, Fox Films earned millions of dollars through films featuring Theda Bara, known as \"The Vamp\" due to her unique ability to display exoticism.With the introduction of sound technology, Fox moved to acquire the rights to a sound-on-film process.", "In the years 1925–26, Fox purchased the rights to the work of Freeman Harrison Owens, the U.S. rights to the Tri-Ergon system invented by three German inventors, and the work of Theodore Case.", "This resulted in the Movietone sound system later known as \"Fox Movietone\" developed at the Movietone Studio.", "Later that year, the company began offering films with a music-and-effects track, and the following year Fox began the weekly ''Fox Movietone News'' feature, that ran until 1963.The growing company needed space, and in 1926 Fox acquired 300 acres (1.2 km2) in the open country west of Beverly Hills and built \"Movietone City\", the best-equipped studio of its time.Because William Fox opted to remain in New York, much of the Hollywood filmmaking at the Fox Film Corporation was instead managed by Fox's movie makers.", "Janet Gaynor would also become one of the company's most prominent stars by the late 1920s.===Decline===When rival Marcus Loew died in 1927, Fox offered to buy the Loew family's holdings.", "Loew's Inc. controlled more than 200 theaters, as well as the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film studio.", "The Loew family agreed to the sale, and the merger of Fox and Loew's Inc. was announced in 1929; MGM studio bosses Louis B. Mayer and Irving Thalberg were not included in the deal, and fought back.", "Using powerful political connections, Mayer called upon the Justice Department's antitrust unit to delay giving final approval to the merger.", "William Fox was badly injured in a car crash in the summer of 1929, and by the time he recovered, he had lost most of his fortune in the stock market crash of 1929, ending any chance of the Fox/Loew's merger being approved, even without the Justice Department's objections.Overextended and close to bankruptcy, Fox was stripped of his empire in 1930 and later ended up in jail on bribery and perjury charges.", "Fox Film, with more than 500 theatres, was placed in receivership.", "A bank-mandated reorganization propped the company up for a time, but it soon became apparent that despite its size, Fox could not stand on its own.", "William Fox resented the way he was forced out of his company and portrayed it as an active conspiracy against him in the 1933 book ''Upton Sinclair Presents William Fox''.===Merger===Under new president Sidney Kent, the new owners began negotiating with the upstart, but powerful independent Twentieth Century Pictures in the early spring of 1935.The two companies merged that spring and became 20th Century-Fox.", "The company was purchased by News Corporation in 1985, becoming \"20th Century Fox\" without the hyphen, and in 2020 was purchased by The Walt Disney Company and renamed 20th Century Studios.", "For many years, 20th Century-Fox claimed to have been founded in 1915; for instance, it marked 1945 as its 30th anniversary.", "However, in recent years it has claimed the 1935 merger as its founding, marking its 75th rather than 95th anniversary in 2010." ], [ "Products", "===Feature films===A 1937 fire in a Fox film storage facility destroyed over 40,000 reels of negatives and prints, including the best-quality copies of every Fox feature produced prior to 1932; although copies located elsewhere allowed many to survive in some form, over 75% of Fox's feature films from before 1930 are completely lost.===Newsreels===Title card from a 1935 ''Fox Movietone News'' newsreelIn 1919, Fox began a series of silent newsreels, competing with existing series such as ''Hearst Metrotone News'', ''International Newsreel'', and ''Pathé News''.", "''Fox News'' premiered on October 11, 1919, with subsequent issues released on the Wednesday and Sunday of each week.", "''Fox News'' gained an advantage over its more established competitors when President Woodrow Wilson endorsed the newsreel in a letter, in what may have been the first time an American president commented on a film.", "In subsequent years, ''Fox News'' remained one of the major names in the newsreel industry by providing often-exclusive coverage of major international events, including reporting on Pancho Villa, the airship ''Roma'', the Ku Klux Klan, and a 1922 eruption of Mount Vesuvius.", "The silent newsreel series continued until 1930.In 1926, a subsidiary, Fox Movietone Corporation, was created, tasked with producing newsreels using Fox's recently acquired sound-on-film technology.", "The first of these newsreels debuted on January 21, 1927.Four months later, the May 25 release of a sound recording of Charles Lindbergh's departure on his transatlantic flight was described by film historian Raymond Fielding as the \"first sound news film of consequence\".", "''Movietone News'' was launched as a regular newsreel feature December 3 of that year.", "Production of the series continued after the merger with Twentieth Century Pictures, until 1963, and continued to serve 20th Century Fox after that, as a source for film industry stock footage.Unlike Fox's early feature films, the ''Fox News'' and ''Fox Movietone News'' libraries have largely survived.", "The earlier series and some parts of its sound successor are now held by the University of South Carolina, with the remaining ''Fox Movietone News'' still held by the company.===Serials===Fox Film briefly experimented with serial films, releasing the 15-episode ''Bride 13'' and the 20-episode ''Fantômas'' in 1920.William Fox was unwilling to compromise on production quality in order to make serials profitable, however, and none were produced subsequently.===Short films===Hundreds of one- and two-reel short films of various types were also produced by Fox.", "Beginning in 1916, the Sunshine Comedy division created two-reel comedy shorts.", "Many of these, beginning with 1917's ''Roaring Lions and Wedding Bliss'', starring Lloyd Hamilton, were slapstick, intended to compete with Mack Sennett's popular offerings.", "Sunshine releases continued until the introduction of sound.", "Other short film series included ''Imperial Comedies'', ''Van Bibber Comedies'' (with Earle Foxe), ''O'Henry'', ''Married Life of Helen and Warren'', and ''Fox Varieties''.", "Fox's expansion into Spanish-language films in the early 1930s also included shorts." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "First National Pictures" ], [ "Introduction", "'''First National Pictures''' was an American motion picture production and distribution company.", "It was founded in 1917 as ''First National Exhibitors' Circuit, Inc.'', an association of independent theatre owners in the United States, and became the country's largest theater chain.", "Expanding from exhibiting movies to distributing them, the company reincorporated in 1919 as ''Associated First National Theatres, Inc.'' and ''Associated First National Pictures, Inc.''In 1924 it expanded to become a motion picture production company as ''First National Pictures, Inc.'', and became an important studio in the film industry.", "In September 1928, control of First National passed to Warner Bros., into which it was completely absorbed on November 4, 1929.A number of Warner Bros. films were thereafter branded First National Pictures until July 1936, when First National Pictures, Inc., was dissolved." ], [ "Early history", "The First National Exhibitors' Circuit was founded in 1917 by the merger of 26 of the biggest first-run cinema chains in the United States.", "It eventually controlled over 600 cinemas, more than 200 of them first-run houses (as opposed to the less lucrative second-run or neighbourhood theatres to which films moved when their initial box office receipts dwindled).First National was the brainchild of Thomas L. Tally, who was reacting to the overwhelming influence of Paramount Pictures, which dominated the market.", "In 1912, he thought that a conglomerate of theatres throughout the nation could buy or produce and distribute its own films.", "In 1917 Tally and J. D. Williams formed First National Exhibitors' Circuit.The first film released through First National was the 1916 British film ''The Mother of Dartmoor''.", "Between 1917 and 1918, the company made contracts with Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin, the first million-dollar deals in the history of film.Chaplin's contract allowed him to produce his films without a set release schedule.", "However, the production of the feature film ''The Kid'' ran so long that the company started to complain.To address their concerns, Chaplin invited the exhibitors to the studio, and they were so impressed by the project and charmed by the players, especially co-star Jackie Coogan, that they agreed to be patient.", "That patience was ultimately rewarded when ''The Kid'' became a major critical and box office success.First National's distribution of films by independent producers is credited with launching careers including that of Louis B. Mayer.First National Exhibitors' Circuit was reincorporated in 1919 as Associated First National Pictures, Inc., and its subsidiary, Associated First National Theatres, Inc., with 5,000 independent theater owners as members.Associated First National Pictures expanded from only distributing films to producing them in 1924 and changed its corporate name to First National Pictures, Inc.", "It built its studio lot in Burbank in 1926.The Motion Picture Theatre Owners of America and the Independent Producers' Association declared war in 1925 on what they termed a common enemy—the \"film trust\" of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount, and First National, which they claimed dominated the industry not only by producing and distributing motion pictures but also by entering into exhibition as well." ], [ "Acquisition by Warner Bros.", "First National Pictures advertisement in The Film Daily, 1926The financial success of ''The Jazz Singer'' and ''The Singing Fool'' enabled Warner Bros. to purchase a majority interest in First National in September 1928.Warner Bros. held 42,000 shares of common stock out of 72,000 outstanding shares while Fox Pictures held 21,000 shares; 12,000 shares were publicly held.", "Warner Bros. acquired access to First National's affiliated chain of theatres, while First National acquired access to Vitaphone sound equipment.", "Warner Bros. and First National continued to operate as separate entities.On November 4, 1929, Fox sold its interest in First National to Warner Bros. for $10 million.", "The First National studio in Burbank became the official home of Warner Bros.–First National Pictures.", "Thereafter, First National Pictures became a trade name for the distribution of a designated segment of Warner Bros. product.", "45 of the 86 Warner Bros. feature films released in 1929 were branded as First National Pictures.", "Half of the 60 feature films Warner Bros. announced for release in 1933–1934 were to be First National Pictures.Although both studios produced \"A\" and \"B\" budget pictures, generally the prestige productions, costume dramas, and musicals were made by Warner Bros., while First National specialized in modern comedies, dramas, and crime stories.", "Short subjects were made by yet another affiliated company, The Vitaphone Corporation (which took its name from the sound process).In July 1936, stockholders of First National Pictures, Inc. (primarily Warner Bros.) voted to dissolve the corporation and distribute its assets among the stockholders in line with a new tax law which provided for tax-free consolidations between corporations.", "Although the 1939 release, ''Confessions of a Nazi Spy,'' was released as a First National Picture.From 1929 to 1958, most Warner Bros. films and promotional posters bore the trademark and copyright credits \"A Warner Bros.–First National Picture\" in their opening and closing sequences." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "See also", "* ''United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Warner Bros. Archives at the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts* The Lost Films of First National Pictures — in ''Lost Film Files'' by Arne Andersen." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Ford Coppola" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Ford Coppola''' ( , ; born April 7, 1939) is an American film director, producer and screenwriter.", "He is considered one of the leading figures of the New Hollywood film movement of the 1960s and 1970s and is widely considered one of the greatest directors of all time.", "He is the recipient of five Academy Awards, six Golden Globe Awards, two Palmes d'Or and a British Academy Film Award (BAFTA).After directing ''The Rain People'' in 1969, Coppola co-wrote ''Patton'' (1970), which earned him the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay along with Edmund H. North.", "Coppola's reputation as a filmmaker was cemented with the release of ''The Godfather'' (1972), which revolutionized the gangster genre of filmmaking, receiving strong commercial and critical reception.", "''The Godfather'' won three Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Actor and Best Adapted Screenplay (shared with Mario Puzo).", "''The Godfather Part II'' (1974) became the first sequel to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.", "Highly regarded by critics, the film earned Coppola two more Academy Awards, for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Director, making him the second director (after Billy Wilder) to win these three awards for the same film.Also in 1974, he released the thriller ''The Conversation'', which received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.", "His next film, the war epic ''Apocalypse Now'' (1979), which had a notoriously lengthy and strenuous production, was widely acclaimed for vividly depicting the Vietnam War.", "It also won the Palme d'Or, making Coppola one of only ten filmmakers to have won the award twice.", "Other notable films Coppola has released since the start of the 1980s include the dramas ''The Outsiders'' and ''Rumble Fish'' (both 1983), ''The Cotton Club'' (1984), ''Peggy Sue Got Married'' (1986), ''The Godfather Part III'' (1990), ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992) and ''The Rainmaker'' (1997).", "Coppola has acted as producer on such diverse films as ''American Graffiti'' (1973), ''The Black Stallion'' (1979), ''The Escape Artist'' (1982), ''Hammett'' (1982), ''Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters'' (1985) and ''The Secret Garden'' (1993).Many of Coppola's relatives and children have become popular actors and filmmakers in their own right: his sister Talia Shire is an actress, his daughter Sofia is a director, his son Roman is a screenwriter, and his nephews Jason Schwartzman and Nicolas Cage are actors.", "Coppola resides in Napa, California, and since the 2010s has been a vintner, owning a family-branded winery of his own." ], [ "Early life and education", "Francis Ford Coppola was born in Detroit, Michigan, to father Carmine Coppola (1910–1991), a flutist with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, and mother Italia Coppola (née Pennino; 1912–2004), a family of 2nd degree Italian immigrants.", "His paternal grandparents came to the United States from Bernalda, Basilicata.", "His maternal grandfather, popular Italian composer Francesco Pennino, emigrated from Naples, Italy.", "At the time of Coppola's birth, his father—in addition to being a flutist—was an arranger and assistant orchestra director for ''The Ford Sunday Evening Hour'', an hour-long concert music radio series sponsored by the Ford Motor Company.", "Coppola was born at Henry Ford Hospital, and those two connections to Henry Ford inspired the Coppolas to choose the middle name \"Ford\" for their son.Francis is the middle of three children: his older brother was August Coppola and his younger sister is actress Talia Shire.Two years after Coppola's birth, his father was named principal flutist for the NBC Symphony Orchestra, and the family moved to New York.", "They settled in Woodside, Queens, where Coppola spent the remainder of his childhood.Having contracted polio as a boy, Coppola was bedridden for large periods of his childhood, during which he did homemade puppet theater productions.", "He developed an interest in theater after reading ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' at age 15.He created 8 mm feature films edited from home movies with titles such as ''The Rich Millionaire'' and ''The Lost Wallet''.", "Although Coppola was a mediocre student, his interest in technology and engineering earned him the childhood nickname \"Science\".", "He trained initially for a career in music and became proficient in the tuba, eventually earning a music scholarship to the New York Military Academy.", "In all, Coppola attended 23 schools before he eventually graduated from Great Neck North High School.He entered Hofstra College in 1955 as a theater arts major.", "There, he was awarded a scholarship in playwriting.", "This furthered his interest in directing theater, though his father disapproved and wanted him to study engineering.", "Coppola was profoundly impressed by Sergei Eisenstein's film ''October: Ten Days That Shook the World'', especially the quality of its editing, and decided to pursue cinema rather than theater.", "He said he was influenced to become a writer by his brother August.", "Coppola also credits the work of Elia Kazan for influencing him as a writer and director.", "Coppola's classmates at Hofstra included James Caan, Lainie Kazan, and radio artist Joe Frank.", "He later cast Lainie Kazan in ''One from the Heart'' and Caan in ''The Rain People'', ''The Godfather'', and ''Gardens of Stone''.While pursuing his bachelor's degree, Coppola was elected president of the university's drama group The Green Wig, and its musical comedy club, the Kaleidoscopians.", "He merged the two groups into The Spectrum Players, and under his leadership, the group staged a new production each week.", "Coppola also founded the cinema workshop at Hofstra and contributed prolifically to the campus literary magazine.", "He won three D. H. Lawrence Awards for theatrical production and direction and received a Beckerman Award for his outstanding contributions to the school's theater arts division.", "While a graduate student, Coppola studied under professor Dorothy Arzner, whose encouragement was later acknowledged as pivotal to Coppola's career." ], [ "Career", "===1960–1969: Early works===After earning his theater arts degree from Hofstra in 1960, Coppola enrolled in UCLA Film School.", "There, he directed a short horror film, ''The Two Christophers'', inspired by Edgar Allan Poe's \"William Wilson\" and ''Ayamonn the Terrible'', a film about a sculptor's nightmares coming to life.", "He also met undergraduate film major Jim Morrison, future frontman of The Doors.", "Coppola later used Morrison's song \"The End\" in ''Apocalypse Now''.In the early 1960s, Coppola made $10 a week.", "Looking for a way to earn some extra money, he found that many colleagues from film school made money filming erotic productions known as \"nudie-cuties\" or \"skin flicks\", which showed nudity without implying any sexual act.", "At 21, Coppola wrote the script for ''The Peeper'', a comedy short film about a voyeur who tries to spy on a sensual photo shoot in the studio next to his apartment.", "Coppola found an interested producer, who gave him $3,000 to shoot the film.", "He hired Playboy Bunny Marli Renfro to play the model and had his friend Karl Schanzer to play the voyeur.", "With ''The Peeper'' finished, Coppola found that the cartoonish aspects of the film alienated potential buyers, who did not find the 12-minute short exciting enough to screen in adult theaters.After much rejection, Coppola received an opportunity from Premier Pictures Company, a small production company that invested in an adult production called ''The Wide Open Spaces'', an erotic western written and directed by Jerry Schafer, which had been shelved for more than a year.", "Both Schafer's film and ''The Peeper'' featured Marli Renfro, so the producers paid Coppola $500 to combine the two films.", "After Coppola re-edited the picture, it was released in 1962 as the softcore comedy ''Tonight for Sure''.Another production company, Screen Rite Pictures, hired Coppola to do a similar job: re-cutting a German film titled '''' (''Sin Began with Eve''), directed by Fritz Umgelter.", "Coppola added new color footage with British model June Wilkinson and other nude starlets.", "The re-edited film was released as ''The Bellboy and the Playgirls''.Some years later, Roger Corman hired Coppola as an assistant.", "Corman first tasked Coppola with dubbing and re-editing the Soviet science fiction film ''Nebo zovyot'', which Coppola turned into the sex-and-violence monster movie ''Battle Beyond the Sun'', which was released in 1962.Impressed by Coppola's perseverance and dedication, Corman hired him as a dialogue director for ''Tower of London'' (1962), sound man for ''The Young Racers'' (1963) and associate producer and one of many uncredited directors for ''The Terror'' (1963).'''", "''Dementia 13'' (1963) '''Coppola's first feature-length film was ''Dementia 13'' (1963).", "While on location in Ireland for ''The Young Racers'' in 1963, Corman persuaded Coppola to use that film's leftover funds to make a low-budget horror movie.", "Coppola wrote a brief draft in one night, incorporating elements from Hitchcock's ''Psycho'', and the result impressed Corman enough to give the go-ahead.", "On a budget of $40,000 ($20,000 from Corman and $20,000 from another producer who wanted to buy the movie's English rights), Coppola directed ''Dementia 13'' over the course of nine days.", "The film recouped its expenses and later became a cult film among horror buffs.", "It was on the set of ''Dementia 13'' that Coppola met his future wife, Eleanor Jessie Neil.In 1965, Coppola won the annual Samuel Goldwyn Award for best screenplay (''Pilma, Pilma'') written by a UCLA student.", "The honor secured him a job as a scriptwriter with Seven Arts.", "During this time, Coppola also co-wrote the scripts for ''This Property Is Condemned'' (1966) and ''Is Paris Burning?''", "(1966).'''", "''You're a Big Boy Now'' (1966) '''Coppola bought the rights to the David Benedictus novel ''You're a Big Boy Now'' and merged it with a story idea of his own, resulting in his UCLA thesis project ''You're a Big Boy Now'' (1966), which earned Coppola his Master of Fine Arts Degree from UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television in 1967.The film also received a theatrical release via Warner Bros and earned critical acclaim.", "Geraldine Page was nominated for an Oscar and a Golden Globe Award for her performance.'''", "''Finian's Rainbow'' (1968) ''' Francis Ford Coppola in 1973 Following the success of ''You're a Big Boy Now'', Coppola was offered to work on a movie version of the Broadway musical ''Finian's Rainbow'', starring Petula Clark in her first American film and veteran Fred Astaire.", "Producer Jack L. Warner was not impressed by Coppola's shaggy-haired, bearded, \"hippie\" appearance and generally left him to his own devices.", "Coppola took the cast to the Napa Valley for much of the outdoor shooting, but those scenes were in sharp contrast to those filmed on a Hollywood soundstage, resulting in a disjointed look to the film.", "Dealing with outdated material at a time when the popularity of film musicals was already waning, Clark received a Golden Globe Best Actress nomination.", "The film introduced Coppola to George Lucas, who became his lifelong friend as well as a production assistant on his next film ''The Rain People'' in 1969.'''", "''The Rain People'' (1969) '''''The Rain People'' was written, directed, and initially produced by Coppola himself, though as the movie advanced, he exceeded his budget and the studio had to underwrite the remainder of the movie.", "The film won the Golden Shell at the 1969 San Sebastian Film Festival.In 1969, Coppola wanted to subvert the studio system, which he felt had stifled his visions, intending to produce mainstream pictures to finance off-beat projects and give first-time directors a chance.", "He decided to name his future studio \"Zoetrope\" after receiving a gift of zoetropes from Mogens Scot-Hansen, founder of a studio called Lanterna Film and owner of a famous collection of early motion picture-making equipment.", "While touring Europe, Coppola was introduced to alternative filmmaking equipment and, inspired by the bohemian spirit of Lanterna Film, decided he would build a deviant studio that would conceive and implement unconventional approaches to filmmaking.", "Upon his return home, Coppola and George Lucas searched for a mansion in Marin County to house the studio.", "However, in 1969, with equipment flowing in and no mansion found yet, the first home for Zoetrope Studio became a warehouse in San Francisco on Folsom Street.", "The studio went on to become an early adopter of digital filmmaking, including some of the earliest uses of HDTV.", "In his 1968 book ''The American Cinema'', Andrew Sarris wrote, \"Coppola is probably the first reasonably talented and sensibly adaptable directorial talent to emerge from a university curriculum in film-making ...", "He may be heard from more decisively in the future.", "\"=== 1970–1979: ''The Godfather'' and acclaim ===Coppola in 1976Coppola was at the forefront of a group of filmmakers known as \"New Hollywood\" that emerged in the early 1970s, with ideas that challenged conventional filmmaking.", "The group included George Lucas, Martin Scorsese, Brian De Palma, Steven Spielberg, Terrence Malick, Robert Altman, Woody Allen, William Friedkin, and Philip Kaufman.'''", "''Patton'' (1970)'''Coppola co-wrote the script for ''Patton'' in 1970 along with Edmund H. North.", "This earned him his first Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.", "However, it was not easy for Coppola to convince Franklin J. Schaffner that the opening scene would work.", "Coppola later revealed in an interview,When the title role was offered to George C. Scott, he remembered having read Coppola's screenplay earlier.", "He stated flatly that he would accept the part only if they used Coppola's script.", "\"Scott is the one who resurrected my version,\" said Coppola.The movie opens with Scott's rendering of Patton's famous military \"Pep Talk\" to members of the Third Army, set against a huge American flag.", "Coppola and North had to tone down Patton's actual language to avoid an R rating; in the opening monologue, the word \"fornicating\" replaced \"fucking\" when criticizing ''The Saturday Evening Post''.", "Over the years, this opening monologue has become an iconic scene and has spawned parodies in numerous films, political cartoons, and television shows.'''", "''The Godfather'' (1972)'''The release of ''The Godfather'' in 1972 was a cinematic milestone.", "The near three hour-long epic, a film treatment of Mario Puzo's New York Times-bestselling novel ''The Godfather'', chronicling the saga of the Corleone family, received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics and got Coppola the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, which he shared with Mario Puzo, as well as Golden Globe Awards for Best Director and Best Screenplay.", "However, Coppola faced several difficulties while filming.", "He was not Paramount's first choice to direct the movie; Italian director Sergio Leone was initially offered the job but declined in order to direct his own gangster opus, ''Once Upon a Time in America''.", "Robert Evans wanted the picture to be directed by an Italian American to make the film \"ethnic to the core\".", "Evans' chief assistant Peter Bart suggested Coppola, as a director of Italian ancestry who would work for a low sum and budget after the poor reception of his latest film ''The Rain People''.", "Coppola initially turned down the job because he found Puzo's novel sleazy and sensationalist, describing it as \"pretty cheap stuff\".", "At the time, Coppola's studio American Zoetrope owed over $400,000 to Warner Bros. for budget overruns in the film ''THX 1138'' and, when coupled with his poor financial standing, along with advice from friends and family, Coppola reversed his initial decision and took the job.Coppola was officially announced as director of the film on September 28, 1970.He agreed to receive $125,000 and six percent of the gross rentals.", "Coppola later found a deeper theme for the material and decided it should be not just be a film about organized crime, but also a family chronicle and a metaphor for capitalism in America.", "There was disagreement between Paramount and Coppola on casting; Coppola wanted to cast Marlon Brando as Vito Corleone, though Paramount wanted either Ernest Borgnine or Danny Thomas.", "At one point, Coppola was told by the then-president of Paramount that \"Marlon Brando will never appear in this motion picture.\"", "After pleading with the executives, Coppola was allowed to cast Brando only if he appeared in the film for much less money than his previous films, would perform a screen test, and put up a bond saying that he would not cause a delay in the production (as he had done on previous film sets).", "Coppola chose Brando over Ernest Borgnine on the basis of Brando's screen test, which also won over the Paramount leadership.", "Brando later won an Academy Award for his portrayal, which he refused to accept.", "Coppola would later recollect:After it was released, the film received widespread praise.", "It went on to win multiple awards, including the Academy Award for Best Picture and the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for Coppola.", "The film routinely features at the top in various polls for the greatest movies ever.", "It was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, and was ranked third, behind ''Citizen Kane'' and ''Casablanca,'' on the initial AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies list by the American Film Institute in 1997.It was moved up to second when the list was published again in 2007.Director Stanley Kubrick believed that ''The Godfather'' was possibly the greatest movie ever made and certainly the best-cast.'''", "''The Conversation'' (1974)'''Coppola's next film, ''The Conversation'', further cemented his position as one of the most talented auteurs of Hollywood.", "The movie was partly influenced by Michelangelo Antonioni's ''Blowup'' (1966) and generated much interest when news leaked that the film utilized the very same surveillance and wire-tapping equipment that members of the Nixon administration used to spy on political opponents prior to the Watergate scandal.", "Coppola insisted that this was purely coincidental, as the script for ''The Conversation'' was completed in the mid-1960s (before the election of Richard Nixon) and the spying equipment used in the film was developed through research and use of technical advisers and not by newspaper stories about the Watergate break-in.", "However, the audience interpreted the film as a reaction to both the Watergate scandal and its fallout.", "The movie was a critical success and got Coppola his first Palme d'Or at the 1974 Cannes Film Festival.'''", "''The Great Gatsby'' (1974) '''During the filming of ''The Conversation'', Coppola wrote the screenplay for ''The Great Gatsby''.", "However, in the commentary track to the DVD of ''The Godfather,'' Coppola states, \"I don't think that script was actually made.\"'''", "''The Godfather Part II'' (1974) '''Coppola shot ''The Godfather Part II'' in parallel to ''The Conversation''.", "It was the last major American motion picture to be filmed in Technicolor.", "George Lucas commented on the film after its five-hour-long preview, telling Coppola, \"You have two films.", "Take one away, it doesn't work,\" referring to the movie's portrayal of two parallel storylines, one of a young Vito Corleone and the other of his son Michael.", "In the director's commentary on the DVD edition of the film (released in 2002), Coppola states that this film was the first major motion picture to use \"Part II\" in its title.", "Paramount was initially opposed to his decision to name the movie ''The Godfather Part II''.", "According to Coppola, the studio's objection stemmed from the belief that audiences would be reluctant to see a film with such a title, as the audience would supposedly believe that, having already seen ''The Godfather'', there was little reason to see an addition to the original film.", "However, the success of ''The Godfather Part II'' began the Hollywood tradition of numbered sequels.", "The movie was released in 1974 and went on to receive tremendous critical acclaim, with many deeming it superior to its predecessor.", "It was nominated for 11 Academy Awards and received six Oscars, including three for Coppola: Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Director.", "''The Godfather Part II'' is ranked as the No.", "1 greatest movie of all time in ''TV Guide'' \"50 Best Movies of All Time\" and is ranked at No.", "7 on Entertainment Weekly's list of the \"100 Greatest Movies of All Time\".", "The film is also featured on movie critic Leonard Maltin's list of the \"100 Must-See Films of the 20th Century\" as well as Roger Ebert's \"Great Movies\" list.", "It was also featured on Sight & Sound's list of the ten greatest films of all time in 2002, ranking at No.", "4.Coppola was the third director to have two nominations for Best Picture in the same year.", "Victor Fleming was the first in 1939 with ''Gone with the Wind'' and ''The Wizard of Oz''; Alfred Hitchcock repeated the feat the next year with ''Foreign Correspondent'' and ''Rebecca''.", "Since Coppola, two other directors have done the same: Herbert Ross in 1977 with ''The Goodbye Girl'' and ''The Turning Point,'' and Steven Soderbergh in 2000 with ''Erin Brockovich'' and ''Traffic''.", "Coppola, however, is the only one to have produced the pictures nominated.'''", "''Apocalypse Now'' (1979) '''Following the success of ''The Godfather'', ''The Conversation'', and ''The Godfather Part II'', Coppola began filming ''Apocalypse Now'', an adaptation of Joseph Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness'' set in Cambodia during the Vietnam War.", "Coppola himself briefly cameos as a TV news director.", "The production of the film was plagued by numerous problems, including typhoons, nervous breakdowns, the firing of Harvey Keitel, Martin Sheen's heart attack, and extras from the Philippine military and half of the supplied helicopters leaving in the middle of scenes to fight rebels.", "It was delayed so often it was nicknamed ''Apocalypse When?''", "The 1991 documentary film ''Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse'', directed by Francis's wife, Eleanor Coppola, who was present through the production, Fax Bahr, and George Hickenlooper, chronicles the difficulties the crew went through making ''Apocalypse Now'' and features behind-the-scenes footage filmed by Eleanor.", "After filming ''Apocalypse Now'', Coppola famously stated, \"We were in the jungle, there were too many of us, we had access to too much money, too much equipment and little by little, we went insane.", "\"The film was overwhelmingly praised by critics when it finally released in 1979 and was selected for the 1979 Cannes Film Festival, winning the Palme d'Or along with ''The Tin Drum'', directed by Volker Schlöndorff.", "When the film screened at Cannes, Coppola quipped, \"My film is not about Vietnam, it is Vietnam.\"", "''Apocalypse Now'' reputation has grown in time and it is now regarded by many as a masterpiece of the New Hollywood era and is frequently cited as one of the greatest movies ever made.", "Roger Ebert considered it to be the finest film on the Vietnam War and included it in his list for the 2002 ''Sight & Sound'' critics' poll of the greatest movies ever made.In 2001 Coppola re-released ''Apocalypse Now'' as ''Apocalypse Now Redux'', restoring several sequences lost from the original 1979 cut of the film, thereby expanding its length to 200 minutes.", "In 2019 Coppola re-released ''Apocalypse Now'' once more as ''Apocalypse Now (Final Cut)'', claiming that version to be his favorite.=== 1980–1989: Established director ===Coppola (left) and Petro Vlahos''Apocalypse Now'' marked the end of the 'golden phase' of Coppola's career.", "His 1982 musical fantasy ''One from the Heart'', although pioneering the use of video-editing techniques that are standard practice in the film industry today, ended with a disastrous box-office gross of US$636,796 against a $26-million budget, and he was forced to sell the 23-acre Zoetrope Studio in 1983.He would spend the rest of the decade working to pay off his debts.", "Zoetrope Studios finally filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990, after which its name was changed to American Zoetrope.In 1983, he directed ''The Outsiders'', a film adaptation of the novel of the same name by S. E. Hinton.", "Coppola credited his inspiration for making the film to a suggestion from middle school students who had read the novel.", "''The Outsiders'' is notable for being the breakout film for a number of young actors who would go on to become major stars.", "These included major roles for Matt Dillon, Ralph Macchio, and C. Thomas Howell.", "Also in the cast were Patrick Swayze, Rob Lowe (in his film debut), Emilio Estevez, Diane Lane, and Tom Cruise.", "Matt Dillon and several others also starred in Coppola's related film ''Rumble Fish'', which was also based on an S. E. Hinton novel and filmed at the same time as ''The Outsiders'' on-location in Tulsa, Oklahoma.", "Carmine Coppola wrote and edited the musical score, including the title song \"Stay Gold\", which was based upon a famous Robert Frost poem and performed for the movie by Stevie Wonder.", "The film was a moderate box-office success, grossing $25 million against a $10 million budget.That same year, he directed ''Rumble Fish'', based on the novel of the same name by S. E. Hinton, who also co-wrote the screenplay.", "Shot in black-and-white as an homage to German expressionist films, ''Rumble Fish'' centers on the relationship between a revered former gang leader (Mickey Rourke) and his younger brother, Rusty James (Matt Dillon).", "The film bombed at the box office, earning a meager $2.5 million against a $10 million budget and once again aggravating Coppola's financial troubles.", "In 1984, Coppola directed the Robert Evans-produced ''The Cotton Club''.", "The film was nominated for several awards, including the Golden Globes for Best Director and Best Picture (Drama) and Oscars for Best Film Editing and Best Art-Direction.", "However, the film failed miserably at the box-office, earning only $25.9 million of the $47.9 million privately invested by brothers Fred and Ed Doumani.The same year, he directed an episode of Shelley Duvall's ''Faerie Tale Theatre'' entitled \"Rip Van Winkle\" (based on the short story), where Harry Dean Stanton played the lead role.", "In 1986, Coppola directed ''Captain EO'', a 17-minute space fantasy for Disney theme parks executive produced by George Lucas, starring singer Michael Jackson.Coppola, formerly a member of Writers Guild of America West, left and maintained financial core status in 1986.Also in 1986, Coppola released the comedy ''Peggy Sue Got Married'' starring Kathleen Turner, Coppola's nephew Nicolas Cage, and Jim Carrey.", "Much like ''The Outsiders'' and ''Rumble Fish'', ''Peggy Sue Got Married'' centered around teenage youth.", "The film earned Coppola positive feedback and provided Kathleen Turner her first and only Oscar nomination.", "It was Coppola's first box-office success since ''The Outsiders'' and the film ranked number 17 on ''Entertainment Weekly''s list of \"50 Best High School Movies\".The following year, Coppola re-teamed with James Caan for ''Gardens of Stone'', but the film was overshadowed by the death of Coppola's eldest son Gian-Carlo during the film's production.", "The movie was not a critical success and underperformed commercially, earning only $5.6 million against a $13 million budget.", "Coppola directed ''Tucker: The Man and His Dream'' the year after that.", "Being a biopic based on the life of Preston Tucker and his attempt to produce and market the Tucker '48, Coppola had originally conceived the project as a musical with Marlon Brando leading after the release of ''The Godfather Part II''.", "Ultimately, it was Jeff Bridges who played the role of Preston Tucker.", "Budgeted at $24 million, the film received positive reviews and earned three nominations at the 62nd Academy Awards, but grossed a disappointing $19.65 million at the box office.", "It garnered two awards: Martin Landau won the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor and Dean Tavoularis took BAFTA's honors for Best Production Design.In 1989, Coppola teamed up with fellow Oscar-winning directors Martin Scorsese and Woody Allen for an anthology film called ''New York Stories''.", "Coppola directed the \"Life Without Zoë\" segment, starring his sister Talia Shire, and also co-wrote the film with his daughter Sofia.", "\"Life Without Zoë\" was mostly panned by critics and was generally considered to be the segment that brought the film's overall quality down.", "Hal Hinson of ''The Washington Post'' wrote a particularly scathing review, stating that \"It's impossible to know what Francis Coppola's ''Life Without Zoë'' is.", "Co-written with his daughter Sofia, the film is a mystifying embarrassment; it's by far the director's worst work yet.", "\"=== 1990–1999: Continued work ===''' ''The Godfather Part III'' (1990) '''Coppola at the 1996 Cannes Film FestivalIn 1990, he released the third and final chapter of ''The Godfather'' series: ''The Godfather Part III''.", "Coppola felt that the first two films had told the complete Corleone saga.", "Coppola intended ''Part III'' to be an epilogue to the first two films.", "In his audio commentary for ''Part II'', he stated that only a dire financial situation caused by the failure of ''One from the Heart'' (1982) compelled him to take up Paramount's long-standing offer to make a third installment.", "Coppola and Puzo preferred the title ''The Death of Michael Corleone'', but Paramount Pictures found that unacceptable.", "While not as critically acclaimed as the first two films, it was still commercially successful, earning $136 million against a $54 million budget.", "Some reviewers criticized the casting of Coppola's daughter Sofia, who stepped into the leading role of Mary Corleone, which was abandoned by Winona Ryder just as filming began.", "Despite this, ''The Godfather Part III'' went on to gather 7 Academy Award nominations, including Best Director and Best Picture.", "The film failed to win any of these awards, which made it the only film in the trilogy to do so.In September 2020, for the film's 30th anniversary, it was announced that a new cut of the film titled ''Mario Puzo's The Godfather, Coda: The Death of Michael Corleone'' would have a limited theatrical release in December 2020 followed by digital and Blu-ray.", "Coppola said the film is the version he and Puzo had originally envisioned, and it \"vindicates\" its status among the trilogy and his daughter Sofia's performance.'''", "''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992) '''In 1992 Coppola directed and produced ''Bram Stoker's Dracula''.", "Adapted from Bram Stoker's novel, it was intended to follow the book more closely than previous film adaptations.", "Coppola cast Gary Oldman as the titular role, with Keanu Reeves, Winona Ryder, and Anthony Hopkins in supporting roles.", "The movie became a box-office hit, grossing $82,522,790 domestically, making it the 15th highest-grossing film of the year.", "It fared even better out of the country, grossing $133,339,902 for a total worldwide gross of $215,862,692 against a budget of $40 million, making it the 9th highest-grossing film of the year worldwide.", "The film won Academy Awards for Costume Design, Makeup and Sound Editing.'''", "''Jack'' (1996) '''Coppola's next project was ''Jack'', which was released on August 9, 1996.It starred Robin Williams as Jack Powell, a ten-year-old boy whose cells are growing at four times the normal rate due to Werner syndrome, which makes him look like a 40-year-old man at the age of ten.", "With Diane Lane, Brian Kerwin, and Bill Cosby, ''Jack'' also featured Jennifer Lopez, Fran Drescher and Michael McKean in supporting roles.", "Although a moderate box-office success, grossing $58 million domestically on an estimated $45 million budget, it was panned by critics, many of whom disliked the film's abrupt contrast between actual comedy and tragic melodrama.", "It was also unfavorably compared with the 1988 film ''Big'', in which Tom Hanks also played a child in a grown man's body.", "Most critics felt that the screenplay was poorly written, not funny, and had unconvincing and unbelievable drama.", "Other critics felt that Coppola was too talented to be making this type of film.", "Although ridiculed for making the film, Coppola has defended it, saying he is not ashamed of the final cut of the movie.", "He had been friends with Robin Williams for many years and had always wanted to work with him as an actor.", "When Williams was offered the screenplay for ''Jack'', he said he would only agree to do it if Coppola agreed to sign on as director.'''", "''The Rainmaker'' (1997) '''The last film Coppola directed in the 1990s, ''The Rainmaker'', was based on the 1995 novel of the same name by John Grisham.", "An ensemble courtroom drama, the film was well received by critics.", "Roger Ebert gave ''The Rainmaker'' three stars out of four, remarking, \"I have enjoyed several of the movies based on Grisham novels ... but I've usually seen the storyteller's craft rather than the novelist's art being reflected.", "By keeping all of the little people in focus, Coppola shows the variety of a young lawyer's life, where every client is necessary and most of them need a lot more than a lawyer.\"", "James Berardinelli also gave the film three stars out of four, saying that \"the intelligence and subtlety of ''The Rainmaker'' took me by surprise\" and that the film \"stands above any other filmed Grisham adaptation.\"", "Grisham said of the film, \"To me it's the best adaptation of any of my books ...", "I love the movie.", "It's so well done.\"", "The film grossed about $45 million domestically, more than the estimated production budget of $40 million, but a disappointment compared to previous films adapted from Grisham novels.'''", "''Pinocchio'' dispute with Warner Bros. '''In the late 1980s, Coppola started considering concepts for a motion picture based upon the 19th-century Carlo Collodi novel ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'', and in 1991, Coppola and Warner Bros. began discussing the project as well as two others, one involving the life of J. Edgar Hoover and the other based on the children's novel ''The Secret Garden''.", "These discussions led to negotiations for Coppola to both produce and direct the ''Pinocchio'' project for Warner Bros. as well as ''The Secret Garden'' (which was made in 1993 and produced by American Zoetrope, but directed by Agnieszka Holland) and ''Hoover'', which never came to fruition.", "A film was eventually made by Clint Eastwood in 2011 titled ''J.", "Edgar'', which was distributed by Warner Bros.However, in mid-1991, Coppola and Warner Bros. came to a disagreement over the compensation to Coppola for his directing services on ''Pinocchio''.", "In 1994, Coppola later approached another studio, Columbia Pictures, to produce the film.", "Warner Brothers then wrote to Columbia, stating it had held the rights to Coppola's project, which led to Columbia later dropping the project.", "Coppola filed a lawsuit against Warner Bros, alleging they had wrongfully prevented Columbia Pictures from making the film.The parties deferred this issue and a settlement was finally reached on July 3, 1998, when the jurors in the resultant court case awarded Coppola $20 million as compensation for losing the ''Pinocchio'' film project.", "On that same day, Warner Bros. stated it would appeal the decision.", "A week later, Coppola was awarded a further $60 million in punitive damages on top, stemming from his charges that Warner Bros. sabotaged his intended version.", "However, in October 1998, then-Superior Court Judge Madeleine Flier reversed the jury's $60 million award to Coppola.", "Warner Bros. and Coppola then appealed each other's ruling, in which Coppola sought to have his $60 million award restored.", "In March 2001, the California Court of Appeals decided against Coppola on both counts.", "In July 2001, the California Supreme Court refused to hear the appellate decision, bringing the litigation battle to a conclusive end.'''", "''Contact'' dispute with Carl Sagan/Warner Bros. '''During the filming of ''Contact'' on December 28, 1996, Coppola filed a lawsuit against Carl Sagan and Warner Bros. Sagan had died a week earlier, and Coppola claimed that Sagan's novel ''Contact'' was based on a story the pair had developed for a television special back in 1975 titled ''First Contact''.", "Under their development agreement, Coppola and Sagan were to split proceeds from the project as well as any novel Sagan would write with American Zoetrope and Children's Television Workshop Productions.", "The television program was never produced, but in 1985, Simon & Schuster published Sagan's ''Contact'' and Warner Bros. moved forward with development of a film adaptation.", "Coppola sought at least $250,000 in compensatory damages and an injunction against production or distribution of the film.", "Even though Sagan was shown to have violated some of the terms of the agreement, the case was dismissed in February 1998 because Coppola had waited too long to file suit.'''", "''Supernova'' re-edit '''In August 1999, Coppola was brought in by MGM to supervise another re-editing of the film ''Supernova'', costing $1 million at his American Zoetrope facility in Northern California.", "This work included digitally placing Angela Bassett's and James Spader's faces on the bodies of (a computer-tinted) Robin Tunney and Peter Facinelli so that their characters could have a love scene.", "However, Coppola's re-edited version had negative test screening and didn't get the PG-13 rating by the MPAA that the studio wanted.", "Creature designer Patrick Tatopoulos, whose special effects were mostly cut out from the film, said that Walter Hill wanted the film to be much more grotesque, strange, and disturbing, while MGM wanted to make it more of a hip, sexy film in space, and not with full-blown makeup effects.", "\"I hope that my experience in the film industry has helped improve the picture and rectified some of the problems that losing a director caused\", said Coppola.", "By October 1999, MGM decided to sell the film.", "The film was eventually released on January 17, 2000, almost two years later than planned.=== 2000–2018: Career fluctuations ===Coppola at the uprightCoppola was the jury president at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival and he also took part as a special guest at the 17th Midnight Sun Film Festival in Sodankylä, Finland, and the 46th International Thessaloniki Film Festival in Thessaloniki, Greece.In the late '90s, Coppola began revisiting his films and creating new director's cuts for release on home video.", "The first movie to receive this treatment was ''Apocalypse Now''.", "The new version, titled ''Apocalypse Now Redux'', restored 49 minutes that had been cut from the film before its original release in 1979.A number of actors came in to rerecord their lines for the deleted scenes, which were of inconsistent audio quality, and new music was composed.", "This version was released in cinemas in 2001 and later released on DVD.", "In 2006, it was collected with the theatrical cut on a deluxe DVD; subsequent home video releases have included both versions.In 2005, Coppola created a new cut of ''The Outsiders'' for home video.", "This version, titled ''The Outsiders: The Complete Novel'', added more than 20 minutes of footage and removed three scenes, bringing the film's runtime from 91 minutes to 114 minutes.", "It also added new music by Michael Seifert and Dave Pruitt and several period songs to Carmine Coppola's score.", "Coppola included both the theatrical cut and \"The Complete Novel\" on all subsequent home video releases.After a 10-year hiatus, Coppola returned to directing with ''Youth Without Youth'' in 2007, based on the novella of the same name by Romanian author Mircea Eliade.", "The film received generally negative reviews from critics.", "It was made for about $19 million and had a limited release, only managing $2,624,759 at the box-office.", "As a result, Coppola announced his plans to produce his own films in order to avoid the marketing input that goes into most films, which are intended to appeal to too wide an audience.In 2009, Coppola released ''Tetro''.", "It was set in Argentina, with the reunion of two brothers.", "The story follows the rivalries born out of creative differences passed down through generations of an artistic Italian immigrant family.", "The film received generally positive reviews from critics.", "The film received positive reviews.", "The Rotten Tomatoes site's consensus was: \"A complex meditation on family dynamics, ''Tetro'' arresting visuals and emotional core compensate for its uneven narrative.\"", "Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' gave the film 3 stars, praising it for being \"boldly operatic, involving family drama, secrets, generations at war, melodrama, romance and violence\", Ebert also praised Vincent Gallo's performance and claimed that Alden Ehrenreich is \"the new Leonardo DiCaprio\".", "Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' gave the film a B+, judging that \"when Coppola finds creative nirvana, he frequently has trouble delivering the full goods\".", "Richard Corliss of ''Time'' gave the film a mixed review, praising Ehrenreich's performance, but claiming Coppola \"has made a movie in which plenty happens, but nothing rings true\".", "The film made $2,636,774 worldwide, against a budget of $5,000,000.", "''Twixt'', starring Val Kilmer, Elle Fanning, Joanne Whalley, and Bruce Dern, and narrated by Tom Waits, was released to film festivals in late 2011 and was released theatrically in early 2012.It received critical acclaim in France, but mostly negative reviews elsewhere.In 2015, Coppola stated''Distant Vision'' is a semi-autobiographical unfinished live broadcast project created in real-time.", "Proof of concepts were tested before limited audiences at Oklahoma City Community College in June 2015 and UCLA School of Theater in July 2016.'''", "Further Director's Cuts '''In 2015, Coppola found an old Betamax tape with his original cut of ''The Cotton Club'' and decided to restore it.", "He had cut about a half hour out of the film before its original release at the insistence of the film's European financial backers.", "Due to a combination of music rights, the loss of the original negative, audio issues, and MGM's disinterest in the project, Coppola wound up spending 500,000 dollars of his own money restoring the film.", "It was finally finished in 2017 and premiered at the Telluride Film Festival in 2019 as ''The Cotton Club Encore''.After finishing work on ''The Cotton Club'', Coppola began work on a director's cut of his first movie, ''Dementia 13''.", "For this film, Coppola removed several minutes of footage that had been added by the film's producer, Roger Corman.", "In 2019, he followed it up with another director's cut of ''Apocalypse Now'', this time called \"The Final Cut\".", "It removed 20 minutes of footage that had been included in ''Apocalypse Now Redux'' and restored the film from the original negative for the first time.In December 2020, a re-edit of ''Godfather III'', ''The Godfather Coda: The Death of Michael Corleone'' had a limited theatrical release, followed by digital and Blu-ray release in 2021.Coppola stated that ''The Godfather: Part IV'' was never made because Mario Puzo died before they had a chance to write the film.", "Andy García has since claimed the film's script was nearly produced.Coppola's most recent director's cut to date was ''B'Twixt Now and Sunrise'', a shortened version of his film ''Twixt''.", "It was given a select rerelease in 2022.At the 94th Academy Awards, they celebrated the 50th anniversary of ''The Godfather''.", "Coppola attended alongside Robert De Niro, and Al Pacino who were greeted with a standing ovation.=== 2019–present ===''' ''Megalopolis'' (TBA)'''In April 2019, Coppola announced that he planned to direct ''Megalopolis'', which he had been developing for many years prior.", "Speaking to ''Deadline'', he said: \"I plan this year to begin my longstanding ambition to make a major work utilizing all I have learned during my long career, beginning at age 16 doing theater, and that will be an epic on a grand scale, which I've titled ''Megalopolis''.\"", "He had planned to direct the movie, a story about the aftermath and reconstruction of New York City after a mega-disaster, many years earlier, but after the real-life disaster of the September 11 attacks, the project was seen as being too sensitive.In August 2021, it was announced that Coppola had begun discussions with actors for the project and that he was aiming to begin principal photography in the fall of 2022.In April 2022, it was reported that filming was to take place from September 6, 2022, to February 2, 2023.In May 2022, the star cast was revealed: Adam Driver, Forest Whitaker, Nathalie Emmanuel, Jon Voight, and Laurence Fishburne.", "In July, it was reported that filming would instead begin in November 2022 at Trilith Studios in Fayetteville, Georgia.", "In August, it was revealed that Aubrey Plaza, Talia Shire, Shia LaBeouf, Jason Schwartzman, Kathryn Hunter, James Remar, and Grace VanderWaal joined the cast.", "In early October, it was announced that Chloe Fineman, Dustin Hoffman, Bailey Ives, Isabelle Kusman, and D.B.", "Sweeney would also be joining the cast." ], [ "Favorite films", "In 2012, Coppola participated in the ''Sight & Sound'' film polls of that year.", "It is held every ten years to select the greatest films of all time, by asking contemporary directors to select ten films of their choice.Coppola’s selections were:* ''The Apartment'' (United States, 1960)* ''Ashes and Diamonds'' (Poland, 1958)* ''The Bad Sleep Well'' (Japan, 1960)* ''The Best Years of Our Lives'' (United States, 1946)* ''I Vitelloni'' (Italy, 1953)* ''The King of Comedy'' (United States, 1983)* ''Raging Bull'' (United States, 1980)* ''Singin' in the Rain'' (United States, 1952)* ''Sunrise'' (United States, 1927)* ''Yojimbo'' (Japan, 1961)" ], [ "Filmography", "+Directed features Year Title Distributor 1963 ''Dementia 13'' American International Pictures 1966 ''You're a Big Boy Now'' Warner Bros.-Seven Arts 1968 ''Finian's Rainbow'' 1969 '''' 1972 ''''Paramount Pictures 1974 '''' '''' 1979 ''Apocalypse Now'' United Artists 1982 ''One from the Heart'' Columbia Pictures 1983 '''' Warner Bros. ''Rumble Fish'' Universal Pictures 1984 '''' Orion Pictures 1986 ''Peggy Sue Got Married'' TriStar Pictures 1987 ''Gardens of Stone'' 1988 ''Tucker: The Man and His Dream'' Paramount Pictures 1990 '''' 1992 ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' Columbia Pictures 1996 ''Jack'' Buena Vista Pictures 1997 '''' Paramount Pictures 2007 ''Youth Without Youth'' Sony Pictures Classics 2009 ''Tetro'' Alta Films / American Zoetrope 2011 ''Twixt'' 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment 2024 ''Megalopolis''" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Title Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations Wins1966 ''You're a Big Boy Now''113 1968 ''Finian's Rainbow''251972''The Godfather''10351761974''The Conversation''3524''The Godfather Part II''1164161979''Apocalypse Now''8292431982''One from the Heart''11983''Rumble Fish''11984''The Cotton Club''22121986''Peggy Sue Got Married''321988 ''Tucker: The Man and His Dream''311111990''The Godfather Part III''771992 ''Bram Stoker's Dracula''4341997''The Rainmaker''1'''Total'''55143184210" ], [ "Personal life", "=== Family ===In 1963, Coppola married writer and documentary filmmaker Eleanor Jessie Neil.", "She went on to co-direct ''Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse''.", "Together they had three children, Gian-Carlo Coppola, Roman Coppola, and Sofia Coppola, all of whom became filmmakers.", "Gian-Carlo died at the age of 22 due to a speedboating accident in 1986.He had one child, Gia Coppola, also a filmmaker.", "Nicolas Cage and Jason Schwartzman are Coppola's nephews.=== Politics ===During the 1980 United States presidential election, Coppola filmed a mass televised rally for California Governor and Democratic Party presidential candidate Jerry Brown at the Wisconsin State Capitol in Madison.", "The rally failed in its goal to draw attention away from the other Democratic primary candidates Jimmy Carter and Ted Kennedy, forcing Brown to drop out of the race.", "Over the years, Coppola has worked with several Democratic political candidates, including Mike Thompson and Nancy Pelosi for the U.S. House of Representatives and Barbara Boxer and Alan Cranston for the U.S. Senate." ], [ "Commercial ventures", "===American Zoetrope===In 1971, Coppola produced George Lucas' first feature film, ''THX 1138''.", "Shortly after completion of production they brought the finished film to Warner Bros., along with several other scripts for potential projects at their newly founded company, American Zoetrope.", "However, studio executives strongly disliked all of the scripts, including ''THX'', and demanded that Coppola repay the $300,000 they had loaned him for the Zoetrope studio, as well as insisting on cutting five minutes from the film.", "The debt nearly closed Zoetrope and forced Coppola to reluctantly focus on ''The Godfather''.American Zoetrope produced the film ''Clownhouse'', the director of which, Victor Salva, was convicted of child sexual abuse and child pornography offences occurring during the making of that film.", "In 2006, Coppola said, \"You have to remember, while this was a tragedy, that the difference in age between Victor and the boy was very small -- Victor was practically a child himself.\"", "Salva was 29 at the time while the boy was 12.====Zoetrope Virtual Studio====American Zoetrope also administers the Zoetrope Virtual Studio, a complete motion picture production studio for members only.", "Launched in June 2000 as the culmination of more than four years of work, it brings together departments for screenwriters, directors, producers and other filmmaker artists, as well as new departments for other creative endeavors such as the short story vending machine project.===Inglenook Winery===Coppola, with his family, expanded his business ventures to include winemaking in California's Napa Valley, when in 1975, he purchased the former home and adjoining vineyard of Gustave Niebaum in Rutherford, California using proceeds from ''The Godfather''.", "His winery produced its first vintage in 1977 with the help of his father, wife, and children stomping the grapes barefoot.", "Every year, the family has a harvest party to continue the tradition.After purchasing the property, he produced wine under the Niebaum-Coppola label.", "He purchased the former Inglenook Winery chateau in 1995, and renamed it to Rubicon Estate Winery in 2006.On April 11, 2011, Coppola acquired the Inglenook trademark paying more, he said, for the trademark than he did for the entire estate and announced that the estate would once again be known by its historic original name, Inglenook.", "Its grapes are entirely organically grown.===Uptown Theater===George Altamura, a real estate developer, announced in 2003 that he had partnered with several people, including Coppola, in a project to restore the Uptown Theater in downtown Napa, California, in order to create a live entertainment venue.===Francis Ford Coppola Presents===Coppola is the owner of '''Francis Ford Coppola Presents''', a lifestyle brand under which he markets goods from companies he owns or controls.", "It includes films and videos, resorts, cafes, a literary magazine, a line of pastas and pasta sauces called Mammarella Foods, and a winery.====Winery====The Francis Ford Coppola Winery near Geyserville, California, located on the former Chateau Souverain Winery, where he has opened a family-friendly facility, is influenced by the idea of the Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen, with swimming pools, bocce courts, and a restaurant.", "The winery displays several of Coppola's Oscars along with memorabilia from his movies, including Vito Corleone's desk from ''The Godfather'' and a restored 1948 Tucker Sedan as used in ''Tucker: The Man and His Dream''.In October 2018, Coppola and family purchased the Vista Hills winery in Dayton, Oregon, and in 2019 renamed it to Domaine de Broglie.In August 2021, Coppola sold Francis Ford Coppola Winery and Virginia Dare Winery to Delicato Family Wines.====Resorts====''Palazzo Margherita'' in Bernalda, owned by CoppolaIncluded in the Francis Ford Coppola Presents lifestyle brand are several hotels and resorts around the world.", "The Blancaneaux Lodge in Belize, which from the early 1980s was a family retreat until it was opened to the public in 1993 as a 20-room luxury resort and The Turtle Inn, in Placencia, Belize, (both of which have won several prestigious awards including \"Travel + Leisure's World's Best: Best Resort in Central & South America\"); La Lancha in Lago Petén Itzá, Guatemala; Jardín Escondido in Buenos Aires, Argentina and Palazzo Margherita in Bernalda, Italy.====Cafe and restaurant====In San Francisco, Coppola owns a restaurant named Cafe Zoetrope, located in the Sentinel Building where American Zoetrope is based.", "It serves traditional Italian cuisine and wine from his personal estate vineyard.", "For 14 years from 1994, Coppola co-owned the Rubicon restaurant in San Francisco along with Robin Williams and Robert De Niro.", "Rubicon closed in August 2008.====Literary publications====Coppola bought into the San Francisco-based magazine ''City of San Francisco'' in 1973, with the intent of publishing a \"service magazine\" that informed readers about sights and activities in selected cities.", "The magazine was unsuccessful, and he lost $1.5 million on this venture.In 1997, Coppola founded ''Zoetrope: All-Story'', a literary magazine devoted to short stories and design.", "The magazine publishes fiction by emerging writers alongside more recognizable names, such as Woody Allen, Margaret Atwood, Haruki Murakami, Alice Munro, Don DeLillo, Mary Gaitskill, and Edward Albee; as well as essays, including ones from Mario Vargas Llosa, David Mamet, Steven Spielberg, and Salman Rushdie.", "Each issue is designed, in its entirety, by a prominent artist, one usually working outside his / her expected field.", "Previous guest designers include Gus Van Sant, Tom Waits, Laurie Anderson, Marjane Satrapi, Guillermo del Toro, David Bowie, David Byrne, and Dennis Hopper.", "Coppola serves as founding editor and publisher of ''All-Story''.=== Cannabis brand ===In 2018, Coppola launched Sana Company LLC and released a cannabis brand known as The Grower's Series.", "The collection was created in partnership with the Humboldt Brothers, a Humboldt County cannabis farm.", "Coppola debuted the brand in San Francisco, California in October 2018 at the private cannabis dining club series known as Thursday Infused, organized by The Herb Somm, Jamie Evans.", "Coppola packaged The Grower's Series in a mock black tin wine bottle resembling his wine brand.", "The Grower's Series showcases three cannabis strains: a sativa, indica and hybrid.=== Advertisements ===Coppola appeared in a commercial for Suntory Reserve in 1980 alongside Akira Kurosawa; the commercial was filmed while Kurosawa was making ''Kagemusha'', which Coppola produced." ], [ "See also", "* Francis Ford Coppola's unrealized projects* Coppola family tree* List of wine personalities* List of celebrities who own wineries and vineyards" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * Francis Ford Coppola: Texas Monthly Talks, YouTube video posted on November 24, 2008* 2007 Francis Ford Coppola Video Interview with InterviewingHollywood.com * Bibliography at the University of California Berkeley Library* \"Perfecting the Rubicon: An interview with Francis Ford Coppola\"* \"Back to Bernalda\" by Coppola, ''T'', December 8, 2012." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Finland''' ( ; ), officially the '''Republic of Finland''' (; ; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe.", "It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, opposite Estonia.", "Finland covers an area of and has a population of 5.6 million.", "Helsinki is the capital and largest city.", "The vast majority of the population are ethnic Finns.", "Finnish and Swedish are the official languages, with Swedish being the native language of 5.2% of the population.", "Finland's climate varies from humid continental in the south to boreal in the north.", "The land cover is predominantly boreal forest biome, with more than 180,000 recorded lakes.Finland was first settled around 9000 BC after the last Ice Age.", "During the Stone Age, various cultures emerged, distinguished by different styles of ceramics.", "The Bronze Age and Iron Ages were marked by contacts with other cultures in Fennoscandia and the Baltic region.", "From the late 13th century, Finland became part of the Swedish Empire as a result of the Northern Crusades.", "In 1809, as a result of the Finnish War, Finland was captured from Sweden and became a Grand Duchy of Finland, an autonomous state ruled by the Russian Empire.", "During this period, Finnish art flourished and the idea of full independence began to take hold.", "In 1906, Finland became the first European state to grant universal suffrage, and the first in the world to give all adult citizens the right to run for public office.", "Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Finland declared its full independence.", "In 1918 the young nation was divided by the Finnish Civil War.", "During World War II, Finland fought against the Soviet Union in the Winter War and the Continuation War, and later against Nazi Germany in the Lapland War.", "As a result, it lost parts of its territory but retained its independence.", "Finland remained a largely agricultural country until the 1950s.", "After World War II, it industrialised quickly and established an advanced economy, with a welfare state built on the Nordic model.", "This allowed the country to experience overall prosperity and high per capita income.", "During the Cold War, Finland officially embraced a policy of neutrality.", "Since then, it has become a member of the European Union in 1995, the Eurozone in 1999, and NATO in 2023.Finland is a member of various international organisations, such as the United Nations, the Nordic Council, the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).", "The nation performs exceedingly well in national performance metrics, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, and human development." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===The area that is now Finland was settled in, at the latest, around 8,500 BC during the Stone Age towards the end of the last glacial period.", "The artefacts the first settlers left behind present characteristics that are shared with those found in Estonia, Russia, and Norway.", "The earliest people were hunter-gatherers, using stone tools.The first pottery appeared in 5200 BC, when the Comb Ceramic culture was introduced.", "The arrival of the Corded Ware culture in Southern coastal Finland between 3000 and 2500 BC may have coincided with the start of agriculture.", "Even with the introduction of agriculture, hunting and fishing continued to be important parts of the subsistence economy.Stone Age bear head gavel found in Paltamo, KainuuIn the Bronze Age permanent all-year-round cultivation and animal husbandry spread, but the cold climate phase slowed the change.", "The Seima-Turbino phenomenon brought the first bronze artefacts to the region and possibly also the Finno-Ugric languages.", "Commercial contacts that had so far mostly been to Estonia started to extend to Scandinavia.", "Domestic manufacture of bronze artefacts started 1300 BC.In the Iron Age population grew.", "Finland Proper was the most densely populated area.", "Commercial contacts in the Baltic Sea region grew and extended during the eighth and ninth centuries.", "Main exports from Finland were furs, slaves, castoreum, and falcons to European courts.", "Imports included silk and other fabrics, jewelry, Ulfberht swords, and, in lesser extent, glass.", "Production of iron started approximately in 500 BC.", "At the end of the ninth century, indigenous artefact culture, especially weapons and women's jewelry, had more common local features than ever before.", "This has been interpreted to be expressing common Finnish identity.An early form of Finnic languages spread to the Baltic Sea region approximately 1900 BC.", "Common Finnic language was spoken around Gulf of Finland 2000 years ago.", "The dialects from which the modern-day Finnish language was developed came into existence during the Iron Age.", "Although distantly related, the Sami people retained the hunter-gatherer lifestyle longer than the Finns.", "The Sami cultural identity and the Sami language have survived in Lapland, the northernmost province.The name has uncertain origins, but a common etymology with (the Sami) has been suggested.", "In the earliest historical sources, from the 12th and 13th centuries, the term Finland refers to the coastal region around Turku.", "This region later became known as Finland Proper in distinction from the country name Finland.", "===Swedish era===The 12th and 13th centuries were a violent time in the northern Baltic Sea.", "The Livonian Crusade was ongoing and the Finnish tribes such as the Tavastians and Karelians were in frequent conflicts with Novgorod and with each other.", "Also, during the 12th and 13th centuries several crusades from the Catholic realms of the Baltic Sea area were made against the Finnish tribes.", "Danes waged at least three crusades to Finland, in 1187 or slightly earlier, in 1191 and in 1202, and Swedes, possibly the so-called second crusade to Finland, in 1249 against Tavastians and the third crusade to Finland in 1293 against the Karelians.", "The so-called first crusade to Finland, possibly in 1155, is most likely an unreal event.As a result of the crusades (mostly with the second crusade led by Birger Jarl) and the colonization of some Finnish coastal areas with Christian Swedish population during the Middle Ages, Finland gradually became part of the kingdom of Sweden and the sphere of influence of the Catholic Church.", "Under Sweden, Finland was annexed as part of the cultural order of Western Europe.Now lying within Helsinki, Suomenlinna is a UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th-century sea fortress built on six islands.", "It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.Swedish was the dominant language of the nobility, administration, and education; Finnish was chiefly a language for the peasantry, clergy, and local courts in predominantly Finnish-speaking areas.", "During the Protestant Reformation, the Finns gradually converted to Lutheranism.In the 16th century, a bishop and Lutheran Reformer Mikael Agricola published the first written works in Finnish; and Finland's current capital city, Helsinki, was founded by King Gustav Vasa in 1555.The first university in Finland, the Royal Academy of Turku, was established by Queen Christina of Sweden at the proposal of Count Per Brahe in 1640.The Finns reaped a reputation in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) as a well-trained cavalrymen called \"Hakkapeliitta\".", "Finland suffered a severe famine in 1695–1697, during which about one third of the Finnish population died, and a devastating plague a few years later.In the 18th century, wars between Sweden and Russia twice led to the occupation of Finland by Russian forces, times known to the Finns as the Greater Wrath (1714–1721) and the Lesser Wrath (1742–1743).", "It is estimated that almost an entire generation of young men was lost during the Great Wrath, due mainly to the destruction of homes and farms, and the burning of Helsinki.===Grand Duchy of Finland===The Swedish era ended in the Finnish War in 1809.On 29 March 1809, having been taken over by the armies of Alexander I of Russia, Finland became an autonomous Grand Duchy ruled by the Russian Empire with the recognition given at the Diet held in Porvoo.", "This situation lasted until the end of 1917.In 1812, Alexander I incorporated the Russian Vyborg province into the Grand Duchy of Finland.", "In 1854, Finland became involved in Russia's involvement in the Crimean War, when the British and French navies bombed the Finnish coast and Åland during the so-called Åland War.Edvard Isto, ''The Attack'', 1899.The Russian eagle is attacking the Finnish Maiden, trying to steal her book of laws.Though the Swedish language was still widely spoken, during this period the Finnish language began to gain more recognition.", "From the 1860s onwards, a strong Finnish nationalist movement known as the Fennoman movement grew.", "One of its most prominent leading figures of the movement was the philosopher and politician J. V. Snellman, who pushed for the stabilization of the status of the Finnish language and its own currency, the Finnish markka, in the Grand Duchy of Finland.", "Milestones included the publication of what would become Finland's national epic – the ''Kalevala'' – in 1835, and the Finnish language's achieving equal legal status with Swedish in 1892.In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson (1791–1858) – \"we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore, be Finns\" – a Finnish national identity was established.", "Still there was no genuine independence movement in Finland until the early 20th century.The Finnish famine of 1866–1868 occurred after freezing temperatures in early September ravaged crops, and it killed approximately 15% of the population, making it one of the worst famines in European history.", "The famine led the Russian Empire to ease financial regulations, and investment rose in the following decades.", "Economic development was rapid.", "The gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was still half of that of the United States and a third of that of Britain.From 1869 until 1917, the Russian Empire pursued a policy known as the \"Russification of Finland\".", "This policy was interrupted between 1905 and 1908.In 1906, universal suffrage was adopted in the Grand Duchy of Finland.", "However, the relationship between the Grand Duchy of Finland and the Russian Empire soured when the Russian government begun to make moves to restrict special status and autonomy of Finland.", "For example, universal suffrage was, in practice, virtually meaningless, since the tsar did not have to approve any of the laws adopted by the Finnish parliament.", "The desire for independence gained ground, first among radical liberals and socialists, driven in part by a declaration called the ''February Manifesto'' by the last tsar of the Russian Empire, Nicholas II, on 15 February 1899.===Civil war and early independence===After the 1917 February Revolution, the position of Finland as a Grand Duchy under the rule of the Russian Empire was questioned, mainly by Social Democrats.", "The Finnish Parliament, controlled by social democrats, passed the so-called Power Act to give the highest authority to the Parliament.", "This was rejected by the Russian Provisional Government which decided to dissolve the Parliament.", "New elections were conducted, in which right-wing parties won with a slim majority.", "Some social democrats refused to accept the result and still claimed that the dissolution of the parliament (and thus the ensuing elections) were extralegal.", "The two nearly equally powerful political blocs, the right-wing parties, and the social-democratic party were highly antagonized.Finnish military leader and statesman C. G. E. Mannerheim as general officer leading the White Victory Parade at the end of the Finnish Civil War in Helsinki, 1918The October Revolution in Russia changed the geopolitical situation once more.", "Suddenly, the right-wing parties in Finland started to reconsider their decision to block the transfer of the highest executive power from the Russian government to Finland, as the Bolsheviks took power in Russia.", "The right-wing government, led by Prime Minister P. E. Svinhufvud, presented the Declaration of Independence on 4 December 1917, which was officially approved on 6 December, by the Finnish Parliament.", "The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), led by Vladimir Lenin, recognized full independence on 4 January 1918.On 27 January 1918 the government began to disarm the Russian forces in Pohjanmaa.", "The socialists gained control of southern Finland and Helsinki, but the White government continued in exile from Vaasa.", "This sparked the brief but bitter civil war.", "The Whites, who were supported by Imperial Germany, prevailed over the Reds, and their self-proclaimed Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic.", "After the war, tens of thousands of Reds were interned in camps, where thousands were executed or died from malnutrition and disease.", "Deep social and political enmity was sown between the Reds and Whites and would last until the Winter War and even beyond.", "The civil war and the 1918–1920 activist expeditions called \"Kinship Wars\" into Soviet Russia strained Eastern relations.Helsinki Olympic Stadium in 1938After brief experimentation with monarchy, when an attempt to make Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse King of Finland was unsuccessful, Finland became a presidential republic, with K. J. Ståhlberg elected as its first president in 1919.As a liberal nationalist with a legal background, Ståhlberg anchored the state in liberal democracy, supported the rule of law, and embarked on internal reforms.", "Finland was also one of the first European countries to strongly aim for equality for women, with Miina Sillanpää serving in Väinö Tanner's cabinet as the first female minister in Finnish history in 1926–1927.The Finnish–Russian border was defined in 1920 by the Treaty of Tartu, largely following the historic border but granting Pechenga () and its Barents Sea harbour to Finland.", "Finnish democracy did not experience any Soviet coup attempts and likewise survived the anti-communist Lapua Movement.In 1917, the population was three million.", "Credit-based land reform was enacted after the civil war, increasing the proportion of the capital-owning population.", "About 70% of workers were occupied in agriculture and 10% in industry.===World War II===raise a flag on the three-country cairn in April 1945 at the close of the World War II in Finland.The Soviet Union launched the Winter War on 30 November 1939 in an effort to annex Finland.", "The Finnish Democratic Republic was established by Joseph Stalin at the beginning of the war to govern Finland after Soviet conquest.", "The Red Army was defeated in numerous battles, notably at the Battle of Suomussalmi.", "After two months of negligible progress on the battlefield, as well as severe losses of men and materiel, the Soviets put an end to the Finnish Democratic Republic in late January 1940 and recognized the legal Finnish government as the legitimate government of Finland.", "Soviet forces began to make progress in February and reached Vyborg in March.", "The fighting came to an end on 13 March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty.", "Finland had successfully defended its independence, but ceded 9% of its territory to the Soviet Union.Areas ceded by Finland to the Soviet Union during World War II.", "The Porkkala land lease was returned to Finland in 1956.Hostilities resumed in June 1941 with the Continuation War, when Finland aligned with Germany following the latter's invasion of the Soviet Union; the primary aim was to recapture the territory lost to the Soviets scarcely one year before.", "Finnish forces occupied East Karelia from 1941 to 1944.Finnish resistance to the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive in the summer of 1944 led to a standstill, and the two sides reached an armistice.", "This was followed by the Lapland War of 1944–1945, when Finland fought retreating German forces in northern Finland.", "Famous war heroes of the aforementioned wars include Simo Häyhä, Aarne Juutilainen, and Lauri Törni.The Armistice and treaty signed with the Soviet Union in 1944 and 1948 included Finnish obligations, restraints, and reparations, as well as further Finnish territorial concessions in addition to those in the Moscow Peace Treaty.", "As a result of the two wars, Finland ceded Petsamo, along with parts of Finnish Karelia and Salla; this amounted to 12% of Finland's land area, 20% of its industrial capacity, its second-largest city, Vyborg (Viipuri), and the ice-free port of Liinakhamari (Liinahamari).", "Almost the whole Finnish population, some 400,000 people, fled these areas.", "Finland lost 97,000 soldiers and was forced to pay war reparations of $300 million ($ in ); nevertheless, it avoided occupation by Soviet forces and managed to retain its independence.For a few decades after 1944, the Communists were a strong political party.", "The Soviet Union persuaded Finland to reject Marshall Plan aid.", "However, in the hope of preserving Finland's independence, the United States provided secret development aid and helped the Social Democratic Party.===After the war===Urho Kekkonen was Finland's longest-serving president in 1956–1982.Establishing trade with the Western powers, such as the United Kingdom, and paying reparations to the Soviet Union produced a transformation of Finland from a primarily agrarian economy to an industrialized one.", "Valmet (originally a shipyard, then several metal workshops) was founded to create materials for war reparations.", "After the reparations had been paid off, Finland continued to trade with the Soviet Union in the framework of bilateral trade.In 1950, 46% of Finnish workers worked in agriculture and a third lived in urban areas.", "The new jobs in manufacturing, services, and trade quickly attracted people to the towns.", "The average number of births per woman declined from a baby boom peak of 3.5 in 1947 to 1.5 in 1973.When baby boomers entered the workforce, the economy did not generate jobs quickly enough, and hundreds of thousands emigrated to the more industrialized Sweden, with emigration peaking in 1969 and 1970.Finland took part in trade liberalization in the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.The Finlandia Hall, designed by Alvar Aalto, where the president Urho Kekkonen hosted the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975.Officially claiming to be neutral, Finland lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet bloc during the Cold War.", "The military YYA Treaty (Finno-Soviet Pact of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance) gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics.", "This was extensively exploited by president Urho Kekkonen against his opponents.", "He maintained an effective monopoly on Soviet relations from 1956 on, which was crucial for his continued popularity.", "In politics, there was a tendency to avoid any policies and statements that could be interpreted as anti-Soviet.", "This phenomenon was given the name \"Finlandization\" by the West German press.Finland maintained a market economy.", "Various industries benefited from trade privileges with the Soviets.", "Economic growth was rapid in the postwar era, and by 1975 Finland's GDP per capita was the 15th-highest in the world.", "In the 1970s and 1980s, Finland built one of the most extensive welfare states in the world.", "Finland negotiated with the European Economic Community (EEC, a predecessor of the European Union) a treaty that mostly abolished customs duties towards the EEC starting from 1977.In 1981, President Urho Kekkonen's failing health forced him to retire after holding office for 25 years.Miscalculated macroeconomic decisions, a banking crisis, the collapse of its largest trading partner (the Soviet Union), and a global economic downturn caused a deep early 1990s recession in Finland.", "The depression bottomed out in 1993, and Finland saw steady economic growth for more than ten years.", "After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Finland began increasing integration with the West.", "Finland joined the European Union in 1995, and the Eurozone in 1999.Much of the late 1990s economic growth was fueled by the success of the mobile phone manufacturer Nokia.===21st century===Prime Minister Sanna Marin and President Sauli Niinistö at the press conference announcing Finland's intent to apply to NATO on 15 May 2022The Finnish population elected Tarja Halonen in the 2000 Presidential election, making her the first female President of Finland.", "Financial crises paralysed Finland's exports in 2008, resulting in weaker economic growth throughout the decade.", "Sauli Niinistö has subsequently been elected the President of Finland since 2012.Finland's support for NATO rose enormously after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "Prior to February 2022, polling showed a narrow but definitive majority in opposition to NATO membership; by April, a supermajority were in favor of membership.", "On 11 May 2022, Finland entered into a mutual security pact with the United Kingdom.", "On 12 May, Finland's president and prime minister called for NATO membership \"without delay\".", "Subsequently, on 17 May, the Parliament of Finland decided by a vote of 188–8 that it supported Finland's accession to NATO.", "Finland became a member of NATO on 4 April 2023." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic map of FinlandNorthern lights are most common in Lapland in winter time.Lying approximately between latitudes 60° and 70° N, and longitudes 20° and 32° E, Finland is one of the world's northernmost countries.", "Of world capitals, only Reykjavík lies more to the north than Helsinki.", "The distance from the southernmost point – Hanko in Uusimaa – to the northernmost – Nuorgam in Lapland – is .Enontekiö which includes part of the Scandinavian MountainsFinland has about 168,000 lakes (of area larger than ) and 179,000 islands.", "Its largest lake, Saimaa, is the fourth largest in Europe.", "The Finnish Lakeland is the area with the most lakes in the country; many of the major cities in the area, most notably Tampere, Jyväskylä and Kuopio, are located near the large lakes.", "The greatest concentration of islands is found in the southwest, in the Archipelago Sea between continental Finland and the main island of Åland.Much of the geography of Finland is a result of the Ice Age.", "The glaciers were thicker and lasted longer in Fennoscandia compared with the rest of Europe.", "The eroding effects have contributed to a mostly flat landscape in Finland, characterized by hills.", "However, in the northern regions, including areas bordering the Scandinavian Mountains, the terrain features mountainous elevations.", "At 1,324 metres (4,344 ft), Halti is the highest point in Finland.", "It is found in the north of Lapland at the border between Finland and Norway.", "The highest mountain whose peak is entirely in Finland is Ridnitšohkka at , directly adjacent to Halti.lakes in Finland larger than 500 square metres and 75,818 islands of over 0,5 km2 area, leading to the denomination \"the land of a thousand lakes\".", "Picture of Lake Pielinen in North Karelia.The retreating glaciers have left the land with morainic deposits in formations of eskers.", "These are ridges of stratified gravel and sand, running northwest to southeast, where the ancient edge of the glacier once lay.", "Among the biggest of these are the three Salpausselkä ridges that run across southern Finland.Having been compressed under the enormous weight of the glaciers, terrain in Finland is rising due to the post-glacial rebound.", "The effect is strongest around the Gulf of Bothnia, where land steadily rises about a year.", "As a result, the old sea bottom turns little by little into dry land: the surface area of the country is expanding by about annually.", "Relatively speaking, Finland is rising from the sea.The landscape is covered mostly by coniferous taiga forests and fens, with little cultivated land.", "Of the total area, 10% is lakes, rivers, and ponds, and 78% is forest.", "The forest consists of pine, spruce, birch, and other species.", "Finland is the largest producer of wood in Europe and among the largest in the world.", "The most common type of rock is granite.", "It is a ubiquitous part of the scenery, visible wherever there is no soil cover.", "Moraine or till is the most common type of soil, covered by a thin layer of humus of biological origin.", "Podzol profile development is seen in most forest soils except where drainage is poor.", "Gleysols and peat bogs occupy poorly drained areas.===Biodiversity===Lapland area and on the fells.In recent decades, wolverine populations have grown in Finland.The brown bear is Finland's national animal.", "It is also the largest carnivore in Finland.Phytogeographically, Finland is shared between the Arctic, central European, and northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom.", "According to the WWF, the territory of Finland can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Scandinavian and Russian taiga, Sarmatic mixed forests, and Scandinavian Montane Birch forest and grasslands.", "Taiga covers most of Finland from northern regions of southern provinces to the north of Lapland.", "On the southwestern coast, south of the Helsinki-Rauma line, forests are characterized by mixed forests, that are more typical in the Baltic region.", "In the extreme north of Finland, near the tree line and Arctic Ocean, Montane Birch forests are common.", "Finland had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.08/10, ranking it 109th globally out of 172 countries.Similarly, Finland has a diverse and extensive range of fauna.", "There are at least sixty native mammalian species, 248 breeding bird species, over 70 fish species, and 11 reptile and frog species present today, many migrating from neighbouring countries thousands of years ago.Large and widely recognized wildlife mammals found in Finland are the brown bear, grey wolf, wolverine, and elk.", "Three of the more striking birds are the whooper swan, a large European swan and the national bird of Finland; the Western capercaillie, a large, black-plumaged member of the grouse family; and the Eurasian eagle-owl.", "The latter is considered an indicator of old-growth forest connectivity, and has been declining because of landscape fragmentation.", "Around 24,000 species of insects are prevalent in Finland some of the most common being hornets with tribes of beetles such as the Onciderini also being common.", "The most common breeding birds are the willow warbler, common chaffinch, and redwing.", "Of some seventy species of freshwater fish, the northern pike, perch, and others are plentiful.", "Atlantic salmon remains the favourite of fly rod enthusiasts.The endangered Saimaa ringed seal, one of only three lake seal species in the world, exists only in the Saimaa lake system of southeastern Finland, down to only 390 seals today.", "The species has become the emblem of the Finnish Association for Nature Conservation.A third of Finland's land area originally consisted of moorland, about half of this area has been drained for cultivation over the past centuries.===Climate===Köppen climate classification types of FinlandThe main factor influencing Finland's climate is the country's geographical position between the 60th and 70th northern parallels in the Eurasian continent's coastal zone.", "In the Köppen climate classification, the whole of Finland lies in the boreal zone, characterized by warm summers and freezing winters.", "Within the country, the temperateness varies considerably between the southern coastal regions and the extreme north, showing characteristics of both a maritime and a continental climate.", "Finland is near enough to the Atlantic Ocean to be continuously warmed by the Gulf Stream.", "The Gulf Stream combines with the moderating effects of the Baltic Sea and numerous inland lakes to explain the unusually warm climate compared with other regions that share the same latitude, such as Alaska, Siberia, and southern Greenland.Share of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021).", "Finland has the tenth highest percentage of forest cover in the world.Winters in southern Finland (when mean daily temperature remains below ) are usually about 100 days long, and in the inland the snow typically covers the land from about late November to April, and on the coastal areas such as Helsinki, snow often covers the land from late December to late March.", "Even in the south, the harshest winter nights can see the temperatures fall to although on coastal areas like Helsinki, temperatures below are rare.", "Climatic summers (when mean daily temperature remains above ) in southern Finland last from about late May to mid-September, and in the inland, the warmest days of July can reach over .", "Although most of Finland lies on the taiga belt, the southernmost coastal regions are sometimes classified as hemiboreal.In northern Finland, particularly in Lapland, the winters are long and cold, while the summers are relatively warm but short.", "On the most severe winter days in Lapland can see the temperature fall to .", "The winter of the north lasts for about 200 days with permanent snow cover from about mid-October to early May.", "Summers in the north are quite short, only two to three months, but can still see maximum daily temperatures above during heat waves.", "No part of Finland has Arctic tundra, but Alpine tundra can be found at the fells Lapland.The Finnish climate is suitable for cereal farming only in the southernmost regions, while the northern regions are suitable for animal husbandry.A quarter of Finland's territory lies within the Arctic Circle and the midnight sun can be experienced for more days the farther north one travels.", "At Finland's northernmost point, the sun does not set for 73 consecutive days during summer and does not rise at all for 51 days during winter.===Regions===Finland consists of 19 regions ().", "The counties are governed by regional councils which serve as forums of cooperation for the municipalities of a county.", "The main tasks of the counties are regional planning and development of enterprise and education.", "In addition, the public health services are usually organized based on counties.", "Regional councils are elected by municipal councils, each municipality sending representatives in proportion to its population.", "In addition to inter-municipal cooperation, which is the responsibility of regional councils, each county has a state Employment and Economic Development Centre which is responsible for the local administration of labour, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and entrepreneurial affairs.", "Historically, counties are divisions of historical provinces of Finland, areas that represent local dialects and culture more accurately.Six Regional State Administrative Agencies are responsible for one of the counties called in Finnish; in addition, Åland was designated a seventh county.", "Regional map English name Finnish name Swedish name Capital Regional state administrative agency Lapland Rovaniemi Lapland North Ostrobothnia Oulu Northern Finland Kainuu Kajaani Northern Finland North Karelia Joensuu Eastern Finland North Savo Kuopio Eastern Finland South Savo Mikkeli Eastern Finland South Ostrobothnia Seinäjoki Western and Central Finland Central Ostrobothnia Kokkola Western and Central Finland Ostrobothnia Vaasa Western and Central Finland Pirkanmaa Tampere Western and Central Finland Central Finland Jyväskylä Western and Central Finland Satakunta Pori South-Western Finland Southwest Finland Turku South-Western Finland South Karelia Lappeenranta Southern Finland Päijät-Häme Lahti Southern Finland Kanta-Häme Hämeenlinna Southern Finland Uusimaa Helsinki Southern Finland Kymenlaakso Kotka and Kouvola Southern Finland Åland Mariehamn ÅlandThe county of Eastern Uusimaa (Itä-Uusimaa) was consolidated with Uusimaa on 1 January 2011.====Administrative divisions====Municipalities (thin borders) and regions (thick borders) of Finland (2021)The fundamental administrative divisions of the country are the municipalities, which may also call themselves towns or cities.", "They account for half of the public spending.", "Spending is financed by municipal income tax, state subsidies, and other revenue.", ", there are 309 municipalities, and most have fewer than 6,000 residents.In addition to municipalities, two intermediate levels are defined.", "Municipalities co-operate in seventy sub-regions and nineteen counties.", "These are governed by the member municipalities and have only limited powers.", "The autonomous province of Åland has a permanent democratically elected regional council.", "Sami people have a semi-autonomous Sami native region in Lapland for issues on language and culture.Health, social and emergency services are organised by the Wellbeing services counties.", "Finland has 21 Wellbeing services counties and the county structure is mainly based on the region structure.", "The County council, which is responsible for the operation, administration and finances of the area, is the highest decision-making body in the Wellbeing services county.", "The delegates and deputy commissioners of the county council are elected in the county elections for a term of office of four years.", "Wellbeing services counties are self-governing.", "However, they do not have the right to levy taxes and their funding is based on central government funding.The capital region – comprising Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo and Kauniainen – forms a continuous conurbation of over 1.1 million people.", "However, common administration is limited to voluntary cooperation of all municipalities, e.g.", "in Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council." ], [ "Government and politics", "Finland is a member of:===Constitution===The Constitution of Finland defines the political system; Finland is a parliamentary republic within the framework of a representative democracy.", "The Prime Minister is the country's most powerful person.", "Citizens can run and vote in parliamentary, municipal, presidential, and European Union elections.===President===Finland's head of state is the President of the Republic.", "Finland has had for most of its independence a semi-presidential system of government, but in the last few decades the powers of the President have become more circumscribed, and consequently the country is now considered a parliamentary republic.", "A new constitution enacted in 2000, have made the presidency a primarily ceremonial office that appoints the Prime Minister as elected by Parliament, appoints and dismisses the other ministers of the Finnish Government on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, opens parliamentary sessions, and confers state honors.", "Nevertheless, the President remains responsible for Finland's foreign relations, including the making of war and peace, but excluding matters related to the European Union.", "Moreover, the President exercises supreme command over the Finnish Defence Forces as commander-in-chief.", "In the exercise of his or her foreign and defense powers, the President is required to consult the Finnish Government, but the Government's advice is not binding.", "In addition, the President has several domestic reserve powers, including the authority to veto legislation, to grant pardons, and to appoint several public officials.", "The President is also required by the Constitution to dismiss individual ministers or the entire Government upon a parliamentary vote of no confidence.The President is directly elected via runoff voting and may serve for a maximum of two consecutive 6-year terms.", "The current president is Sauli Niinistö, who took office on 1 March 2012.His predecessors were Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg (1919–1925), Lauri Kristian Relander (1925–1931), Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1931–1937), Kyösti Kallio (1937–1940), Risto Ryti (1940–1944), Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1944–1946), Juho Kusti Paasikivi (1946–1956), Urho Kekkonen (1956–1982), Mauno Koivisto (1982–1994), Martti Ahtisaari (1994–2000), and Tarja Halonen (2000–2012).===Parliament===The 200-member unicameral Parliament of Finland () exercises supreme legislative authority in the country.", "It may alter the constitution and ordinary laws, dismiss the cabinet, and override presidential vetoes.", "Its acts are not subject to judicial review; the constitutionality of new laws is assessed by the parliament's constitutional law committee.", "The parliament is elected for a term of four years using the proportional D'Hondt method within several multi-seat constituencies through the most open list multi-member districts.", "Various parliament committees listen to experts and prepare legislation.Significant parliamentary parties are Centre Party, Christian Democrats, Finns Party, Green League, Left Alliance, National Coalition Party, Social Democrats and Swedish People's Party.===Cabinet===After parliamentary elections, the parties negotiate among themselves on forming a new cabinet (the Finnish Government), which then has to be approved by a simple majority vote in the parliament.", "The cabinet can be dismissed by a parliamentary vote of no confidence, although this rarely happens, as the parties represented in the cabinet usually make up a majority in the parliament.The cabinet exercises most executive powers and originates most of the bills that the parliament then debates and votes on.", "It is headed by the Prime Minister of Finland, and consists of him or her, other ministers, and the Chancellor of Justice.", "Each minister heads his or her ministry, or, in some cases, has responsibility for a subset of a ministry's policy.", "After the prime minister, the most powerful minister is often the minister of finance.As no one party ever dominates the parliament, Finnish cabinets are multi-party coalitions.", "As a rule, the post of prime minister goes to the leader of the biggest party and that of the minister of finance to the leader of the second biggest.The Orpo Cabinet is the incumbent 77th government of Finland.", "It took office on 20 June 2023.The cabinet is headed by Petteri Orpo and is a coalition between the National Coalition Party, Finns Party, the Swedish People's Party, and the Christian Democrats.===Law===Supreme CourtThe judicial system of Finland is a civil law system divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with jurisdiction over litigation between individuals and the public administration.", "Finnish law is codified and based on Swedish law and in a wider sense, civil law or Roman law.", "The court system for civil and criminal jurisdiction consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and the Supreme Court.", "The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts and the Supreme Administrative Court.", "In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration.", "There is also a High Court of Impeachment for criminal charges against certain high-ranking officeholders.Around 92% of residents have confidence in Finland's security institutions.", "The overall crime rate of Finland is not high in the EU context.", "Some crime types are above average, notably the high homicide rate for Western Europe.", "A day fine system is in effect and also applied to offenses such as speeding.", "Finland has a very low number of corruption charges; Transparency International ranks Finland as one of the least corrupt countries in Europe.===Foreign relations===Martti Ahtisaari receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 2008According to the 2012 constitution, the president (currently Sauli Niinistö) leads foreign policy in cooperation with the government, except that the president has no role in EU affairs.", "In 2008, president Martti Ahtisaari was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.Finlands relationship with Russia deteriorated following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, with a number of Russians diplomats expelled for spying, Russians restricted from visiting Finland and the general opinion immediately changing for Finland to join NATO, while it has also had a significant impact on the increasing strengthold of relations between the United States and Finland.===Military===The Finnish Defence Forces consist of a cadre of professional soldiers (mainly officers and technical personnel), currently serving conscripts, and a large reserve.", "The standard readiness strength is 34,700 people in uniform, of which 25% are professional soldiers.", "A universal male conscription is in place, under which all male Finnish nationals above 18 years of age serve for 6 to 12 months of armed service or 12 months of civilian (non-armed) service.Voluntary post-conscription overseas peacekeeping service is popular, and troops serve around the world in UN, NATO, and EU missions.", "Women are allowed to serve in all combat arms.", "In 2022, 1211 women entered voluntary military service.", "The army consists of a highly mobile field army backed up by local defence units.", "With a high capability of military personnel, arsenal and homeland defence willingness, Finland is one of Europe's militarily strongest countries.Sisu Nasu NA-110 tracked transport vehicle of the Finnish Army.", "Most conscripts receive training for warfare in winter, and transport vehicles such as this give mobility in heavy snow.Finnish defence expenditure per capita is one of the highest in the European Union.", "The branches of the military are the army, the navy, and the air force.", "The border guard is under the Ministry of the Interior but can be incorporated into the Defence Forces when required for defence readiness.Finland became a member of NATO on 4 April 2023, though it participated in the NATO Response Force before becoming a member.", "Before NATO membership, Finland has been part of the Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF) since 2017.Finland also contributes to the EU Battlegroup.", "Finland sent personnel to the Kosovo Force and the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan.", "On 18 December 2023, Finland signed the DCA agreement with the United States, which regulates the presence of the US armed forces and their dependents on the territory of Finland, as well as the presence and activities of US suppliers.===Social security===Finland has one of the world's most extensive welfare systems, one that guarantees decent living conditions for all residents.", "The welfare system was created almost entirely during the first three decades after World War II.", "Finland's history has been harsher than the histories of the other Nordic countries, but not harsh enough to bar the country from following its path of social development.===Human rights===Senate Square, Helsinki, right before the 2011 Helsinki Pride parade startedSection 6 of the Finnish Constitution states: \"No one shall be placed in a different position on situation of sex, age, origin, language, religion, belief, opinion, state of health, disability or any other personal reason without an acceptable reason\".Finland has been ranked above average among the world's countries in democracy, press freedom, and human development.", "Amnesty International has expressed concern regarding some issues in Finland, such as the imprisonment of conscientious objectors, and societal discrimination against Romani people and members of other ethnic and linguistic minorities.In the report of the European umbrella organization ILGA-Europe published in May 2023, Finland ranked sixth in a European comparison of LGBTQ+ rights." ], [ "Economy", ", Finland ranks 16th globally in nominal GDP per capita according to the IMF.", "Additionally, Finland boasts a well-developed welfare system that encompasses free education and universal healthcare, contributing to its reputation as one of the wealthiest nations.The service sector constitutes the largest segment of the economy, amounting to 66% of the GDP, while manufacturing and refining make up 31%.", "Primary production accounts for 2.9% of the economy.", "Manufacturing is the primary economic sector concerning foreign trade.", "The predominant industrial sectors in 2007 were electronics (22%), machinery, vehicles, and other engineered metal products (21.1%), forest industry (13%), and chemicals (11%).", "The gross domestic product reached its peak in 2021.Finland has been ranked sixth in the Global Innovation Index of 2023, making it the sixth most innovative country.Kittilä Gold Mine in Kittilä, Finnish Lapland is the largest primary gold producer in Europe.Finland has considerable timber, mineral (including iron, chromium, copper, nickel and gold) and freshwater resources.", "For the rural population, forestry, paper mills and agriculture are important.", "The Greater Helsinki area accounts for roughly one-third of Finland's GDP.", "Private services represent the largest employer in Finland.Finland's soil and climate pose particular challenges for crop production, with harsh winters and relatively short growing seasons, often interrupted by frost.", "However, the prevalence of the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Drift Current in Finland's temperate climate allows for half of the world's arable land north of the 60° north latitude.", "Although annual precipitation is generally adequate, it mostly transpires during winter, which poses a continuous risk of summer droughts.", "Farmers have adapted to the climate by relying on quick-ripening and frost-resistant crop varieties.", "They cultivate south-facing slopes and rich bottomlands to ensure year-round production, even during summer frosts.", "Drainage systems are often utilized to remove excess water.", "Finland's agricultural sector has demonstrated remarkable efficiency and productivity, particularly in comparison to its European counterparts.Forests are crucial to the nation's economy, making it one of the world's foremost wood producers and offering raw materials at competitive prices to the wood processing industries.", "The government has played an important role in forestry for a considerable period similar to that in agriculture.", "It has regulated tree cutting, sponsored technical improvements, and established long-term plans to guarantee the sustainability of the country's forests in supplying the wood-processing industries., the average level of income, adjusted for purchasing power, was comparable to that of Italy, Sweden, Germany and France.", "In 2006, 62% of the labour force was employed by firms with fewer than 250 workers, which generated 49% of total business revenue.", "The employment rate of women is high.", "Gender segregation between male-dominated professions and female-dominated professions is higher than in the US.", "The proportion of part-time workers was one of the lowest in OECD in 1999., the 10 largest private sector employers in Finland were Itella, Nokia, OP-Pohjola, ISS, VR, Kesko, UPM-Kymmene, YIT, Metso, and Nordea.", ", the unemployment rate was 6.8%., 46% of households consist of a single person, 32% two persons and 22% three or more persons.", "The average residential space is per person.", "In 2021, Finland's GDP reached €251 billion.", "In 2022, altogether 74 per cent of employed persons worked in services and administration, 21 per cent in industry and construction, and four per cent in agriculture and forestry.Finland has the highest concentration of cooperatives relative to its population.", "The largest retailer, which is also the largest private employer, S-Group, and the largest bank, OP-Group, in the country are both cooperatives.===Energy===The Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant.", "Finland has five commercial nuclear reactors.The free and largely privately owned financial and physical Nordic energy markets traded in NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe and Nord Pool Spot exchanges, have provided competitive prices compared with other EU countries.", ", Finland has the lowest non-household electricity prices in the EU.In 2021, the energy market was around 87 terawatt hours and the peak demand around 14 gigawatts in winter.", "Industry and construction consumed 43.5% of total consumption, a relatively high figure reflecting Finland's industries.", "Finland's hydrocarbon resources are limited to peat and wood.", "About 18% of the electricity is produced by hydropower In 2021, renewable energy (mainly hydropower and various forms of wood energy) was high at 43% compared with the EU average of 22% in final energy consumption.", "About 20% of electricity is imported, especially from Sweden due to its lower cost there.", ", Finland's strategic petroleum reserves held 200 days worth of net oil imports in the case of emergencies.Supply of electricity in FinlandFinland has five privately owned nuclear reactors producing 40% of the country's energy.", "The Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository is currently under construction at the Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant in the municipality of Eurajoki, on the west coast of Finland, by the company Posiva.===Transport===Finland's road system is utilized by most internal cargo and passenger traffic.", "The annual state operated road network expenditure of around €1 billion is paid for with vehicle and fuel taxes which amount to around €1.5 billion and €1 billion, respectively.", "Among the Finnish highways, the most significant and busiest main roads include the Turku Highway (E18), the Tampere Highway (E12), the Lahti Highway (E75), and the ring roads (Ring I and Ring III) of the Helsinki metropolitan area and the Tampere Ring Road of the Tampere urban area.The main international passenger gateway is Helsinki Airport, which handled about 21 million passengers in 2019 (5 million in 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic).", "Oulu Airport is the second largest with 1 million passengers in 2019 (300,000 in 2020), whilst another 25 airports have scheduled passenger services.", "The Helsinki Airport-based Finnair, Blue1, and Nordic Regional Airlines, Norwegian Air Shuttle sell air services both domestically and internationally.The Government annually spends around €350 million to maintain the network of railway tracks.", "Rail transport is handled by the state-owned VR Group.", "Finland's first railway was opened in 1862, and today it forms part of the Finnish Main Line, which is more than 800 kilometers long.", "Helsinki opened the world's northernmost metro system in 1982.The majority of international cargo shipments are handled at ports.", "Vuosaari Harbour in Helsinki is the largest container port in Finland; others include Kotka, Hamina, Hanko, Pori, Rauma, and Oulu.", "There is passenger traffic from Helsinki and Turku, which have ferry connections to Tallinn, Mariehamn, Stockholm and Travemünde.", "The Helsinki-Tallinn route is one of the busiest passenger sea routes in the world.===Industry===The Oasis of the Seas was built at the Perno shipyard in Turku.Finland rapidly industrialized after World War II, achieving GDP per capita levels comparable to that of Japan or the UK at the beginning of the 1970s.", "Initially, most of the economic development was based on two broad groups of export-led industries, the \"metal industry\" (''metalliteollisuus'') and \"forest industry\" (''metsäteollisuus'').", "The \"metal industry\" includes shipbuilding, metalworking, the automotive industry, engineered products such as motors and electronics, and production of metals and alloys including steel, copper and chromium.", "Many of the world's biggest cruise ships, including MS Freedom of the Seas and the Oasis of the Seas have been built in Finnish shipyards.", "The \"forest industry\" includes forestry, timber, pulp and paper, and is often considered a logical development based on Finland's extensive forest resources, as 73% of the area is covered by forest.", "In the pulp and paper industry, many major companies are based in Finland; Ahlstrom-Munksjö, Metsä Board, and UPM are all Finnish forest-based companies with revenues exceeding €1 billion.", "However, in recent decades, the Finnish economy has diversified, with companies expanding into fields such as electronics (Nokia), metrology (Vaisala), petroleum (Neste), and video games (Rovio Entertainment), and is no longer dominated by the two sectors of metal and forest industry.", "Likewise, the structure has changed, with the service sector growing.", "Despite this, production for export is still more prominent than in Western Europe, thus making Finland possibly more vulnerable to global economic trends.In 2017, the Finnish economy was estimated to consist of approximately 2.7% agriculture, 28.2% manufacturing, and 69.1% services.", "In 2019, the per-capita income of Finland was estimated to be $48,869.In 2020, Finland was ranked 20th on the ease of doing business index, among 190 jurisdictions.===Public policy===Flags of the Nordic countries and Åland from left to right: Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and ÅlandFinnish politicians have often emulated the Nordic model.", "Nordics have been free-trading for over a century.", "The level of protection in commodity trade has been low, except for agricultural products.", "Finland is ranked 16th in the 2008 global Index of Economic Freedom and ninth in Europe.", "According to the OECD, only four EU-15 countries have less regulated product markets and only one has less regulated financial markets.", "The 2007 IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook ranked Finland 17th most competitive.", "The World Economic Forum 2008 index ranked Finland the sixth most competitive.The legal system is clear and business bureaucracy less than most countries.", "Property rights are well protected and contractual agreements are strictly honoured.", "Finland is rated the least corrupt country in the world in the Corruption Perceptions Index and 13th in the Ease of doing business index.In Finland, collective labour agreements are universally valid.", "These are drafted every few years for each profession and seniority level, with only a few jobs outside the system.", "The agreement becomes universally enforceable provided that more than 50% of the employees support it, in practice by being a member of a relevant trade union.", "The unionization rate is high (70%), especially in the middle class (AKAVA, mostly for university-educated professionals: 80%).===Tourism===The historical Tavastia Castle (or Häme Castle) in Hämeenlinna, Tavastia Proper, is located close to the Lake Vanajavesi.Old Rauma, the wooden centre of the town of RaumaIn 2017, tourism in Finland grossed approximately €15.0 billion.", "Of this, €4.6 billion (30%) came from foreign tourism.", "In 2017, there were 15.2 million overnight stays of domestic tourists and 6.7 million overnight stays of foreign tourists.", "Tourism contributes roughly 2.7% to Finland's GDP.Lapland has the highest tourism consumption of any Finnish region.", "Above the Arctic Circle, in midwinter, there is a polar night, a period when the sun does not rise for days or weeks, or even months, and correspondingly, midnight sun in the summer, with no sunset even at midnight (for up to 73 consecutive days, at the northernmost point).", "Lapland is so far north that the aurora borealis, fluorescence in the high atmosphere due to solar wind, is seen regularly in the fall, winter, and spring.", "Finnish Lapland is also locally regarded as the home of Santa Claus, with several theme parks, such as Santa Claus Village and Santa Park in Rovaniemi.", "Other significant tourist destinations in Lapland also include ski resorts (such as Levi, Ruka and Ylläs) and sleigh rides led by either reindeer or huskies.Tourist attractions in Finland include the natural landscape found throughout the country as well as urban attractions.", "Finland contains 40 national parks (such as Koli National Park in North Karelia), from the Southern shores of the Gulf of Finland to the high fells of Lapland.", "Outdoor activities range from Nordic skiing, golf, fishing, yachting, lake cruises, hiking, and kayaking, among many others.", "Bird-watching is popular for those fond of avifauna, however, hunting is also popular.The most famous tourist attractions in Helsinki include the Helsinki Cathedral and the Suomenlinna sea fortress.", "The most well-known Finnish amusement parks include Linnanmäki in Helsinki and Särkänniemi in Tampere.", "St. Olaf's Castle (''Olavinlinna'') in Savonlinna hosts the annual Savonlinna Opera Festival, and the medieval milieus of the cities of Turku, Rauma and Porvoo also attract spectators.", "Commercial cruises between major coastal and port cities in the Baltic region play a significant role in the local tourism industry." ], [ "Demographics", "The population of Finland is currently about 5.6 million.", "The current birth rate is 7.8 per 1,000 residents, for a fertility rate of 1.26 children born per woman, one of the lowest in the world, significantly below the replacement rate of 2.1.In 1887 Finland recorded its highest rate, 5.17 children born per woman.", "Finland has one of the oldest populations in the world, with a median age of 42.6 years.", "Approximately half of voters are estimated to be over 50 years old.", "Finland has an average population density of 18 inhabitants per square kilometre.", "This is the third-lowest population density of any European country, behind those of Norway and Iceland, and the lowest population density of any European Union member country.", "Finland's population has always been concentrated in the southern parts of the country, a phenomenon that became even more pronounced during 20th-century urbanization.", "Two of the three largest cities in Finland are situated in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area—Helsinki and Espoo.", "In the largest cities of Finland, Tampere holds the third place after Helsinki and Espoo while also Helsinki-neighbouring Vantaa is the fourth.", "Other cities with population over 100,000 are Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Kuopio, and Lahti.Finland's immigrant population is growing.", ", there were 508,173 people with a foreign background living in Finland (9.1% of the population), most of whom are from the former Soviet Union, Estonia, Somalia, Iraq and former Yugoslavia.", "The children of foreigners are not automatically given Finnish citizenship, as Finnish nationality law practices and maintain ''jus sanguinis'' policy where only children born to at least one Finnish parent are granted citizenship.", "If they are born in Finland and cannot get citizenship of any other country, they become citizens.", "Additionally, certain persons of Finnish descent who reside in countries that were once part of Soviet Union, retain the right of return, a right to establish permanent residency in the country, which would eventually entitle them to qualify for citizenship.", "476,857 people in Finland in 2022 were born in another country, representing 8,6 % of the population.", "The 10 largest foreign born groups are (in order) from Russia, Estonia, Sweden, Iraq, China, Somalia, Thailand, India, Vietnam and Turkey.Finland's national minorities include the Sami, Romani people, the Jews and the Tatars.", "Romani people of the Finnish Kale group settled in the country at the end of the sixteenth century.=== Language ===Municipalities of Finland: Finnish and Swedish are the official languages of Finland.", "Finnish predominates nationwide while Swedish is spoken in some coastal areas in the west and south (with towns such as Ekenäs, Pargas, Närpes, Kristinestad, Jakobstad and Nykarleby.)", "and in the autonomous region of Åland, which is the only monolingual Swedish-speaking region in Finland.", "In December 2022 the native language of 85.9% of the population was Finnish, which is part of the Finnic subgroup of the Uralic language.", "The language is one of only four official EU languages not of Indo-European origin, and has no relation through descent to the other national languages of the Nordics.", "Conversely, Finnish is closely related to Estonian and Karelian, and more distantly to Hungarian and the Sami languages.Swedish is the native language of 5.2% of the population (Swedish-speaking Finns).", "Swedish is a compulsory school subject and general knowledge of the language is good among many non-native speakers.", "Likewise, a majority of Swedish-speaking non-Ålanders can speak Finnish.", "The Finnish side of the land border with Sweden is unilingually Finnish-speaking.", "The Swedish across the border is distinct from the Swedish spoken in Finland.", "There is a sizeable pronunciation difference between the varieties of Swedish spoken in the two countries, although their mutual intelligibility is nearly universal.Finnish Romani is spoken by some 5,000–6,000 people; there are 13,000-14,000 Romani people in Finland Romani and Finnish Sign Language are also recognized in the constitution.", "There are two sign languages: Finnish Sign Language, spoken natively by 4,000–5,000 people, and Finland-Swedish Sign Language, spoken natively by about 150 people.", "Tatar is spoken by a Finnish Tatar minority of about 800 people whose ancestors moved to Finland mainly between the 1870s and 1920s.The Sámi languages have an official status in parts of Lapland, where the Sámi, numbering over 10,000are recognized as an indigenous people.", "About a quarter of them speak a Sami language as their mother tongue.", "The Sami languages that are spoken in Finland are Northern Sami, Inari Sami, and Skolt Sami.", "The rights of minority groups (in particular Sami, Swedish speakers, and Romani people) are protected by the constitution.", "The Nordic languages and Karelian are also specially recognized in parts of Finland.The largest immigrant languages are Russian (1.6%), Estonian (0.9%), Arabic (0.7%), English (0.5%) and Somali (0.4%).", "At least 169 languages are spoken in Finland, 8,628 people speak not listed languages, and the language of 1,220 people are unknown.English is studied by most pupils as a compulsory subject from the first grade (at seven years of age), formerly from the third or fifth grade, in the comprehensive school (in some schools other languages can be chosen instead).", "German, French, Spanish and Russian can be studied as second foreign languages from the fourth grade (at 10 years of age; some schools may offer other options).=== Largest cities ====== Religion ===With 3.9 million members, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland is Finland's largest religious body; at the end of 2019, 68.7% of Finns were members of the church.", "The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland has seen its share of the country's population declining by roughly one percent annually in recent years.", "The decline has been due to both church membership resignations and falling baptism rates.", "The second largest group, accounting for 26.3% of the population in 2017, has no religious affiliation.", "A small minority belongs to the Finnish Orthodox Church (1.1%).", "Other Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church are significantly smaller, as are the Jewish and other non-Christian communities (totalling 1.6%).", "The Pew Research Center estimated the Muslim population at 2.7% in 2016.Finland's state church was the Church of Sweden until 1809.As an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia from 1809 to 1917, Finland retained the Lutheran State Church system, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland was established.", "After Finland had gained independence in 1917, religious freedom was declared in the constitution of 1919, and a separate law on religious freedom in 1922.Through this arrangement, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland gained a constitutional status as a national church alongside the Finnish Orthodox Church, whose position however is not codified in the constitution.", "The main Lutheran and Orthodox churches have special roles such as in state ceremonies and schools.The Evangelical Lutheran Temppeliaukio Church in HelsinkiIn 2016, 69.3% of Finnish children were baptized and 82.3% were confirmed in 2012 at the age of 15, and over 90% of the funerals are Christian.", "However, the majority of Lutherans attend church only for special occasions like Christmas ceremonies, weddings, and funerals.", "The Lutheran Church estimates that approximately 1.8% of its members attend church services weekly.", "The average number of church visits per year by church members is approximately two.According to a 2010 Eurobarometer poll, 33% of Finnish citizens responded that they \"believe there is a God\"; 42% answered that they \"believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\"; and 22% that they \"do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force\".", "According to ISSP survey data (2008), 8% consider themselves \"highly religious\", and 31% \"moderately religious\".", "In the same survey, 28% reported themselves as \"agnostic\" and 29% as \"non-religious\".=== Health ===A man donating blood at Finnish Red Cross Life expectancy was 79 years for men and 84 years for women in 2017.The under-five mortality rate was 2.3 per 1,000 live births in 2017, ranking Finland's rate among the lowest in the world.", "The fertility rate in 2014 stood at 1.71 children born/per woman and has been below the replacement rate of 2.1 since 1969.With a low birth rate women also become mothers at a later age, the mean age at first live birth being 28.6 in 2014.A 2011 study published in ''The Lancet'' medical journal found that Finland had the lowest stillbirth rate out of 193 countries.There has been a slight increase or no change in welfare and health inequalities between population groups in the 21st century.", "Lifestyle-related diseases are on the rise.", "More than half a million Finns suffer from diabetes, type 1 diabetes being globally the most common in Finland.", "Many children are diagnosed with type 2 diabetes.", "The number of musculoskeletal diseases and cancers are increasing, although the cancer prognosis has improved.", "Allergies and dementia are also growing health problems in Finland.", "One of the most common reasons for work disability are due to mental disorders, in particular depression.", "Without age standardization, the suicide rates were 13 per 100 000 in 2015, close to the North European average.", "Age-standardized suicide rates are still among the highest among developed countries in the OECD.There are 307 residents for each doctor.", "About 19% of health care is funded directly by households and 77% by taxation.In April 2012, Finland was ranked second in Gross National Happiness in a report published by The Earth Institute.", "Since 2012, Finland has every time ranked at least in the top 5 of world's happiest countries in the annual World Happiness Report by the United Nations, as well as ranking as the happiest country in 2018.=== Education and science ===Helsinki Central Library Oodi was chosen as the best new public library in the world in 2019.Most pre-tertiary education is arranged at the municipal level.", "Around 3 percent of students are enrolled in private schools (mostly specialist language and international schools).", "Formal education is usually started at the age of 7.Primary school takes normally six years and lower secondary school three years.The curriculum is set by the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Education Board.", "Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 18.After lower secondary school, graduates may apply to trade schools or gymnasiums (upper secondary schools).", "Trade schools offer a vocational education: approximately 40% of an age group choose this path after the lower secondary school.", "Academically oriented gymnasiums have higher entrance requirements and specifically prepare for Abitur and tertiary education.", "Graduation from either formally qualifies for tertiary education.In tertiary education, two mostly separate and non-interoperating sectors are found: the profession-oriented polytechnics and the research-oriented universities.", "Education is free and living expenses are to a large extent financed by the government through student benefits.", "There are 15 universities and 24 Universities of Applied Sciences (UAS) in the country.", "The University of Helsinki is ranked 75th in the Top University Ranking of 2010.Other reputable universities of Finland include Aalto University in Espoo, both University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University in Turku, University of Jyväskylä, University of Oulu, LUT University in Lappeenranta and Lahti, University of Eastern Finland in Kuopio and Joensuu, and Tampere University.Linus Torvalds, the Finnish software engineer best known for creating the popular open-source kernel LinuxThe World Economic Forum ranks Finland's tertiary education No.", "1 in the world.", "Around 33% of residents have a tertiary degree, similar to Nordics and more than in most other OECD countries except Canada (44%), United States (38%) and Japan (37%).", "In addition, 38% of Finland's population has a university or college degree, which is among the highest percentages in the world.", "Adult education appears in several forms, such as secondary evening schools, civic and workers' institutes, study centres, vocational course centres, and folk high schools.More than 30% of tertiary graduates are in science-related fields.", "Forest improvement, materials research, environmental sciences, neural networks, low-temperature physics, brain research, biotechnology, genetic technology, and communications showcase fields of study where Finnish researchers have had a significant impact.", "Finland is highly productive in scientific research.", "In 2005, Finland had the fourth most scientific publications per capita of the OECD countries.", "In 2007, 1,801 patents were filed in Finland." ], [ "Culture", "=== Literature ===Writer and artist Tove JanssonWritten Finnish could be said to have existed since Mikael Agricola translated the New Testament into Finnish during the Protestant Reformation, but few notable works of literature were written until the 19th century and the beginning of a Finnish national Romantic Movement.", "This prompted Elias Lönnrot to collect Finnish and Karelian folk poetry and arrange and publish them as the ''Kalevala'', the Finnish national epic.", "The era saw a rise of poets and novelists who wrote in Finnish, notably the national writer of Finland, Aleksis Kivi (''The Seven Brothers''), and Minna Canth, Eino Leino, and Juhani Aho.", "Many writers of the national awakening wrote in Swedish, such as the national poet J. L. Runeberg (''The Tales of Ensign Stål'') and Zachris Topelius.After Finland became independent, there was a rise of modernist writers, most famously the Swedish-speaking poet Edith Södergran.", "Finnish-speaking authors explored national and historical themes.", "Most famous of them were Frans Eemil Sillanpää, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1939, historical novelist Mika Waltari, and Väinö Linna with his ''The Unknown Soldier'' and ''Under the North'' Star trilogy.", "Beginning with Paavo Haavikko, Finnish poetry adopted modernism.", "Besides Lönnrot's ''Kalevala'' and Waltari, the Swedish-speaking Tove Jansson, best known as the creator of ''The Moomins'', is the most translated Finnish writer; her books have been translated into more than 40 languages.=== Visual arts, design, and architecture ===Akseli Gallen-Kallela, ''The Defense of the Sampo'', 1896, Turku Art MuseumThe visual arts in Finland started to form their characteristics in the 19th century when Romantic nationalism was rising in autonomic Finland.", "The best known Finnish painters, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, started painting in a naturalist style but moved to national romanticism.", "Other notable painters of the era include Pekka Halonen, Eero Järnefelt, Helene Schjerfbeck and Hugo Simberg.", "In the late 20th century, the homoerotic art of Touko Laaksonen, pseudonym Tom of Finland, found a worldwide audience.Finland's best-known sculptor of the 20th century was Wäinö Aaltonen, remembered for his monumental busts and sculptures.", "The works of Eila Hiltunen and Laila Pullinen exemplifies the modernism in sculpture.Finns have made major contributions to handicrafts and industrial design: among the internationally renowned figures are Timo Sarpaneva, Tapio Wirkkala and Ilmari Tapiovaara.", "Finnish architecture is famous around the world, and has contributed significantly to several styles internationally, such as Jugendstil (or Art Nouveau), Nordic Classicism and functionalism.", "Among the top 20th-century Finnish architects to gain international recognition are Eliel Saarinen and his son Eero Saarinen.", "Architect Alvar Aalto is regarded as among the most important 20th-century designers in the world; he helped bring functionalist architecture to Finland, but soon was a pioneer in its development towards an organic style.", "Aalto is also famous for his work in furniture, lamps, textiles, and glassware, which were usually incorporated into his buildings.=== Music ===The kantele is Finland's national and traditional instrument.", ";FolkFinnish folk music can be divided into Nordic dance music and the older tradition of poem singing, poems from which the national epic, the ''Kalevala'', was created.Much of Finland's classical music is influenced by traditional Finnish and Karelian melodies and lyrics, as comprised in the ''Kalevala''.", "In the historical region of Finnish Karelia, as well as other parts of Eastern Finland, the old poem singing traditions were preserved better than in the western parts of the country, thus Karelian culture is perceived as less influenced by Germanic influence than the Nordic folk dance music that largely replaced the kalevaic tradition.", "Finnish folk music has undergone a roots revival and has become a part of popular music.", "The people of northern Finland, Sweden, and Norway, the Sami, are known primarily for highly spiritual songs called joik.", ";ClassicalThe Finnish composer Jean Sibelius (1865–1957) was a significant figure in the history of classical music.The first Finnish opera was written by the German-born composer Fredrik Pacius in 1852.Pacius also wrote the music to the poem ''Maamme/Vårt land'' (Our Country), Finland's national anthem.", "In the 1890s Finnish nationalism based on the ''Kalevala'' spread, and Jean Sibelius became famous for his vocal symphony ''Kullervo''.", "In 1899 he composed ''Finlandia'', which played an important role in Finland gaining independence.", "He remains one of Finland's most popular national figures.Alongside Sibelius, the distinct Finnish style of music was created by Oskar Merikanto, Toivo Kuula, Erkki Melartin, Leevi Madetoja and Uuno Klami.", "Important modernist composers include Einojuhani Rautavaara, Aulis Sallinen and Magnus Lindberg, among others.", "Kaija Saariaho was ranked the world's greatest living composer in a 2019 composers' poll.", "Many Finnish musicians have achieved international success.", "Among them are the conductor Esa-Pekka Salonen, the opera singer Karita Mattila and the violinist Pekka Kuusisto.", ";Popular musicPerttu Kivilaakso of Apocalyptica''Iskelmä'' (coined directly from the German word ''Schlager'', meaning \"hit\") is a traditional Finnish word for a light popular song.", "Finnish popular music also includes various kinds of dance music; tango, a style of Argentine music, is also popular.", "The light music in Swedish-speaking areas has more influences from Sweden.", "At least a couple of Finnish polkas are known worldwide, such as ''Säkkijärven polkka'' and \"\".During the 1970s, progressive rock group Wigwam and rock and roll group Hurriganes gained respect abroad.", "The Finnish punk scene produced some internationally acknowledged names including Terveet Kädet in the 1980s.", "Hanoi Rocks was a pioneering glam rock act.", "Many Finnish metal bands have gained international recognition; Finland has been often called the \"Promised Land of Heavy Metal\" because there are more than 50 metal Bands for every 100,000 inhabitants – more than any other nation in the world.", "Modern Finnish popular music includes a number of prominent pop musicians, jazz musicians, hip hop performers, and dance music acts.Finland has won the Eurovision Song Contest once in 2006 when Lordi won the contest with the song .", "The Finnish pop artist Käärijä also got second place in the contest in 2023 with his worldwide hit song .=== Cinema and television ===Film director Aki KaurismäkiIn the film industry, notable modern directors include brothers Mika and Aki Kaurismäki, Dome Karukoski, Antti Jokinen, Jalmari Helander, and Renny Harlin.", "Some Finnish drama series are internationally known, such as ''Bordertown''.One of the most internationally successful Finnish films are ''The White Reindeer'', directed by Erik Blomberg in 1952, which won the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Film in 1956; ''The Man Without a Past'', directed by Aki Kaurismäki in 2002, which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 2002 and won the Grand Prix at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival; and ''The Fencer'', directed by Klaus Härö in 2015, which was nominated for the 73rd Golden Globe Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category as a Finnish/German/Estonian co-production.In Finland, the most significant films include ''The Unknown Soldier'', directed by Edvin Laine in 1955.", "''Here, Beneath the North Star'' from 1968, is also one of the most significant works in Finnish history.", "A 1960 crime comedy film ''Inspector Palmu's Mistake'', directed by Matti Kassila, was voted in 2012 the best Finnish film of all time by Finnish film critics and journalists, but the 1984 comedy film ''Uuno Turhapuro in the Army'', the ninth film in ''Uuno Turhapuro'' film series, remains Finland's most seen domestic film made since 1968 by Finnish audience.=== Media and communications ===Sanomatalo houses several offices of newspapers and radio stations.Today, there are around 200 newspapers, 320 popular magazines, 2,100 professional magazines, and 67 commercial radio stations.", "The largest newspaper is , its circulation being 339,437 .", "Yle, the Finnish Broadcasting Company, operates five television channels and thirteen radio channels.", "Each year, around 12,000 book titles are published.Thanks to its emphasis on transparency and equal rights, Finland's press has been rated the freest in the world.", "Worldwide, Finns, along with other Nordic peoples and the Japanese, spend the most time reading newspapers.", "In regards to telecommunication infrastructure, Finland is the highest ranked country in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies.=== Sauna ===A smoke sauna in Ruka, KuusamoThe Finns' love for saunas is generally associated with Finnish cultural tradition in the world.", "Sauna is a type of dry steam bath practiced widely in Finland, which is especially evident in the strong tradition around Midsummer and Christmas.", "The word sauna is of Proto-Finnish origin (found in Finnic and Sami languages) dating back 7,000 years.", "Steam baths have been part of European tradition elsewhere as well, but the sauna has survived best in Finland, in addition to Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Norway, and parts of the United States and Canada.", "Moreover, nearly all Finnish houses have either their own sauna or in multi-story apartment houses, a timeshare sauna.", "Municipal swimming halls and hotels have often their own saunas.", "The Finnish sauna culture is inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.=== Cuisine ===Karelian pasty (''karjalanpiirakka'') is a traditional Finnish dish made from a thin rye crust with a filling of rice.Finnish cuisine generally combines traditional country fare and contemporary style cooking.", "Potato, meat and fish play a prominent role in traditional Finnish dishes.", "Finnish foods often use wholemeal products (rye, barley, oats) and berries (such as bilberries, lingonberries, cloudberries, and sea buckthorn).", "Milk and its derivatives like buttermilk are commonly used as food and drink.", "The most popular fish food in Finland is salmon.Finland has the world's second highest per capita consumption of coffee.", "Milk consumption is also high, at an average of about , per person, per year, even though 17% of the Finns are lactose intolerant.=== Public holidays ===There are several holidays in Finland, of which perhaps the most characteristic of Finnish culture include Christmas (''joulu''), Midsummer (''juhannus''), May Day (''vappu'') and Independence Day (''itsenäisyyspäivä'').", "Of these, Christmas and Midsummer are special in Finland because the actual festivities take place on eves, such as Christmas Eve and Midsummer's Eve, while Christmas Day and Midsummer's Day are more consecrated to rest.", "Other public holidays in Finland are New Year's Day, Epiphany, Good Friday, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday, Ascension Day, All Saints' Day and Saint Stephen's Day.", "All official holidays in Finland are established by Acts of Parliament.=== Sports ===Paavo Nurmi lights the 1952 Summer Olympics flame.Various sporting events are popular in Finland.", "Pesäpallo, the Finnish equivalent of American baseball, is the national sport of Finland, although the most popular sport in terms of spectators is ice hockey.", "Other popular sports include athletics, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, football, volleyball, and basketball.", "Association football is the most played team sport in terms of the number of players in the country.", "Finland's national basketball team has received widespread public attention.men's national ice hockey team is ranked as one of the best in the world.", "The team has won four world championships (1995, 2011, 2019 and 2022) and one Olympic gold medal (2022).In terms of medals and gold medals won per capita, Finland is the best-performing country in Olympic history.", "Finland first participated as a nation in its own right at the Olympic Games in 1908.At the 1912 Summer Olympics, three gold medals were won by the original \"Flying Finn\" Hannes Kolehmainen.", "In the 1920s and '30s, Finnish long-distance runners dominated the Olympics, with Paavo Nurmi winning a total of nine Olympic gold medals and setting 22 official world records between 1921 and 1931.Nurmi is often considered the greatest Finnish sportsman and one of the greatest athletes of all time.", "The 1952 Summer Olympics were held in Helsinki.The javelin throw event has brought Finland nine Olympic gold medals, five world championships, five European championships, and 24 world records.", "Finland also has a notable history in figure skating.", "Finnish skaters have won 8 world championships and 13 junior world cups in synchronized skating.Finnish competitors have achieved significant success in motorsport.", "In the World Rally Championship, Finland has produced eight world champions, more than any other country.", "In Formula One, Finland has won the most world championships per capita, with Keke Rosberg, Mika Häkkinen and Kimi Räikkönen all having won the title.Some of the most popular recreational sports and activities include Nordic walking, running, cycling and skiing.", "Floorball is the most popular youth and workplace sport." ], [ "See also", "* List of Finland-related topics* Outline of Finland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Insight Guide: Finland'' ().", "* Jutikkala, Eino; Pirinen, Kauko.", "''A History of Finland'' ().", "* Klinge, Matti.", "''Let Us Be Finns: Essays on History'' ().", "* Lavery, Jason.", "''The History of Finland'', Greenwood Press, 2006 (.", "* Lewis, Richard D. ''Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf'' ().", "* ''Lonely Planet: Finland'' ().", "* Partanen, Anu: ''The Nordic Theory of Everything'', 2017 ().", "* Singleton, Fred.", "''A Short History of Finland'' ().", "* Swallow, Deborah.", "''Culture Shock!", "Finland: A Guide to Customs and Etiquette'' ()." ], [ "External links", "* Finland at the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Finland.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Finland profile from the BBC News* Key Development Forecasts for Finland from International Futures* ===Government===* This is Finland, the official English-language online portal (administered by the Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs)* Statistics Finland===Maps===* * ===Travel===* Official travel site of Finland" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flagellate" ], [ "Introduction", "\"Flagellata\" from Ernst Haeckel's ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904 Parasitic Excavata (''Giardia lamblia'')Green algae (''Chlamydomonas'')A '''flagellate''' is a cell or organism with one or more whip-like appendages called flagella.", "The word ''flagellate'' also describes a particular construction (or level of organization) characteristic of many prokaryotes and eukaryotes and their means of motion.", "The term presently does not imply any specific relationship or classification of the organisms that possess flagella.", "However, the term \"flagellate\" is included in other terms (such as \"dinoflagellate\" and \"choanoflagellata\") which are more formally characterized." ], [ "Form and behavior", "Flagella in eukaryotes are supported by microtubules in a characteristic arrangement, with nine fused pairs surrounding two central singlets.", "These arise from a basal body.", "In some flagellates, flagella direct food into a cytostome or mouth, where food is ingested.", "Flagella often support hairs, called mastigonemes, or contain rods.", "Their ultrastructure plays an important role in classifying eukaryotes.Among protoctists and microscopic animals, a flagellate is an organism with one or more flagella.", "Some cells in other animals may be flagellate, for instance the spermatozoa of most animal phyla.", "Flowering plants do not produce flagellate cells, but ferns, mosses, green algae, and some gymnosperms and closely related plants do so.", "Likewise, most fungi do not produce cells with flagellae, but the primitive fungal chytrids do.", "Many protists take the form of single-celled flagellates.Flagella are generally used for propulsion.", "They may also be used to create a current that brings in food.", "In most such organisms, one or more flagella are located at or near the anterior of the cell, e.g., ''Euglena''.", "Often there is one directed forwards and one trailing behind.", "Among animals, fungi, which are part of a group called the opisthokonts, there is a single posterior flagellum.", "They are from the phylum Mastigophora.", "They can cause diseases and are typically heterotrophic.", "They reproduce by binary fission.", "They spend most of their existence moving or feeding.", "Many parasites that affect human health or economy are flagellates.", "Flagellates are the major consumers of primary and secondary production in aquatic ecosystems - consuming bacteria and other protists.", "\"Flagellata\" from Encyclopædia Britannica" ], [ "Flagellates as specialized cells or life cycle stages", "An overview of the occurrence of flagellated cells in eukaryote groups, as specialized cells of multicellular organisms or as life cycle stages, is given below (see also the article flagellum):* Archaeplastida: most green algae (zoospores and male gametes, except in Zygnematophyceae), bryophytes (male gametes), pteridophytes (male gametes), some gymnosperms (cycads and ''Ginkgo'', as male gametes)* Stramenopiles: centric diatoms (male gametes), brown algae (zoospores and gametes), oomycetes (assexual zoospores and gametes), hyphochytrids (zoospores), labyrinthulomycetes (zoospores), some chrysophytes, some xanthophytes, eustigmatophytes* Alveolata: some apicomplexans (gametes)* Rhizaria: some radiolarians (probably gametes), foraminiferans (as gametes)** Cercozoa: plasmodiophoromycetes (zoospores and gametes), chlorarachniophytes (zoospores)* Amoebozoa: myxogastrids* Opisthokonta: most metazoans (male gametes, epithelia and choanocytes), chytrid fungi (zoospores and gametes)* Excavata: some acrasids (''Pocheina'', as zoospores)" ], [ "Flagellates as organisms: the Flagellata", "In older classifications, flagellated protozoa were grouped in '''Flagellata''' (= '''Mastigophora'''), sometimes divided into Phytoflagellata (= Phytomastigina, mostly autotrophic) and Zooflagellata (= Zoomastigina, heterotrophic).", "They were sometimes grouped with Sarcodina (ameboids) in the group Sarcomastigophora.The autotrophic flagellates were grouped similarly to the botanical schemes used for the corresponding algae groups.", "The colourless flagellates were customarily grouped in three groups, highly artificial:* Protomastigineae, in which absorption of food-particles in holozoic nutrition occurs at a localised point of the cell surface, often at a cytostome, although many groups were merely saprophytes; it included the majority of colourless flagellates, and even many \"apochlorotic\" algae;* Pantostomatineae (or Rhizomastigineae), in which the absorption takes place at any point on the cell surface; roughly corresponds to \"amoeboflagellates\";* Distomatineae, a group of binucleate \"double individuals\" with symmetrically distributed flagella and, in many species, two symmetrical mouths; roughly corresponds to current Diplomonadida.Presently, these groups are known to be highly polyphyletic.", "In modern classifications of the protists, the principal flagellated taxa are placed in the following eukaryote groups, which include also non-flagellated forms (A: autotrophic; F: free-living heterotrophic; P: parasitic; S: symbiotic):* Archaeplastida: volvocids (A/F), prasinophytes (A), glaucophytes (A)* Stramenopiles: bicosoecids (F), proteromonads (F), opalines (F), most chrysophytes (A/F), part of xanthophytes (A), raphidophytes/chloromonads (A), silicoflagellates (A), ciliophryids (F), pedinellids (A/F)* Alveolata: dinoflagellates (A/F), ''Colpodella'' (F)* Rhizaria** Cercozoa: cercomonads (F), spongomonads (F), thaumatomonads (F), glissomonads (F), cryomonads (F), heliomonads/dimorphids (F), ebriids (F)* Amoebozoa: ''Multicilia'' (F), phalansteriids (F), some archamoebae (F/S)* Opisthokonta: choanoflagellates (F)* Excavata Discoba: jakobids (F), kinetoplastids (bodonids, F/P, trypanosomatids, P), euglenids (F/A), some heteroloboseans (P/F/S) Metamonada: diplomonads (P/F), retortamonads (S), Preaxostyla/anaeromonads (oxymonads, S, ''Trimastix'', F), parabasalids (trichomonads, P/S, hypermastigids, S)* Eukaryota incertae sedis : haptophytes (F/A), cryptophytes (F/A), kathablepharids (F), Apusozoa (apusomondas, F, ancyromonads, F, spironemids/hemimastigids, F), collodictyonids/diphylleids (F), ''Phyllomonas'' (F), and about a hundred generaAlthough the taxonomic group Flagellata was abandoned, the term \"flagellate\" is still used as the description of a level of organization and also as an ecological functional group.", "Another term used is \"monadoid\", from monad.", "as in ''Monas'', and ''Cryptomonas'' and in the groups as listed above.The amoeboflagellates (e.g., the rhizarian genus ''Cercomonas'', some amoebozoan Archamoebae, some excavate Heterolobosea) have a peculiar type of flagellate/amoeboid organization, in which cells may present flagella and pseudopods, simultaneously or sequentially, while the helioflagellates (e.g., the cercozoan heliomonads/dimorphids, the stramenopile pedinellids and ciliophryids) have a flagellate/heliozoan organization." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Leadbeater, B.S.C.", "& Green, J.C., eds.", "(2000).", "''The Flagellates.", "Unity, diversity and evolution''.", "Taylor and Francis, London.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Function" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Function''' or '''functionality''' may refer to:" ], [ "Computing", "* Function key, a type of key on computer keyboards* Function model, a structured representation of processes in a system* Function object or functor or functionoid, a concept of object-oriented programming* Function (computer programming), or subroutine, a sequence of instructions within a larger computer program" ], [ "Music", "* Function (music), a relationship of a chord to a tonal centre* Function (musician) (born 1973), David Charles Sumner, American techno DJ and producer* \"Function\" (song), a 2012 song by American rapper E-40 featuring YG, Iamsu!", "& Problem* \"Function\", song by Dana Kletter from ''Boneyard Beach'' 1995" ], [ "Other uses", "* Function (biology), the effect of an activity or process* Function (engineering), a specific action that a system can perform* Function (language), a way of achieving an aim using language* Function (mathematics), a relation that associates an input to a single output* Function (sociology), an activity's role in society* Functionality (chemistry), the presence of functional groups in a molecule* Party or function, a social event* Function Drinks, an American beverage company" ], [ "See also", "* Function field (disambiguation)* Function hall* Functional (disambiguation)* Functional group (disambiguation)* Functionalism (disambiguation)* Functor (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flavoring" ], [ "Introduction", "A flavoringA '''flavoring''' (or '''flavouring'''), also known as '''flavor''' (or '''flavour''') or '''flavorant''', is a food additive used to improve the taste or smell of food.", "It changes the perceptual impression of food as determined primarily by the chemoreceptors of the gustatory and olfactory systems.", "Along with additives, other components like sugars determine the taste of food.", "A flavoring is defined as a substance that gives another substance taste, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc.", "Although the term, in common language, denotes the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same term is used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell.Owing to the high cost, or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorings are \"nature-identical\", which means that they are the chemical equivalent of natural flavors, but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from source materials.", "Identification of components of natural foods, for example a raspberry, may be done using technology such as headspace techniques, so the flavorist can imitate the flavor by using a few of the same chemicals present.", "In the EU legislation, the term \"natural-identical flavoring\" does not exist.", "The legislation is specified on what is a \"flavoring\" and a \"natural flavoring\"." ], [ "Definition", "A flavoring is a volatile additive that improves the taste or smell of food.", "They work primarily via the sense of smell.", "In legislation, substances that exclusively have a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings.", "These usually include flavor enhancers, sweeteners, acidulants and salt substitutes.", "There are different ways to divide flavorings.", "First by the way they are produced.", "A vanilla flavoring can for example be obtained naturally by extraction from vanilla seeds, or one can start with cheap chemicals and try to make a similar substance artificially (in this example vanillin).", "A nature-identical flavoring is chemically an exact copy of the original substance and can be either natural or artificial.", "Vanillin is not obtained from the vanilla plant nor an exact copy of vanilla, but a synthesized nature-identical component of the vanilla aroma.", "Vanillin is not vanilla, but gives a food a vanilla aroma.The second division is by the effect they have on smell (aroma) or taste of the food.", "The effect can be the aroma of a specific fruit, almond, butter, smoke from wood, or some fantasy flavor.", "The aroma of the flavoring may resemble that of the source, or imitate a particular unrelated food.", "It may for example be the extract from vanilla seeds and smell like vanilla, or it may be the extract of a potato and smell like a banana.", "Irrespective of the effect, the flavoring may be natural or artificial.", "It may for example be the natural tissue of an animal with the aroma of a citrus, or just a chemical that smells like a citrus." ], [ "Division by production method", "Flavorings can be divided into three principal types: \"natural flavorings\", \"nature-identical flavorings\", and \"artificial flavorings\".", "In the United States, they are traditionally divided into natural and artificial flavorings, where the latter includes nature-identical flavorings.", "In contrast, European legislation does not distinguish natural and nature-identical flavorings, while only the term \"natural\" is subject to some regulation.=== Natural flavorings ===Natural flavorings are edible aroma compounds that are found in nature, not made by man.In nature, they always occur with other natural substances that also may be flavorings.", "By means of non-chemical technology, natural flavorings can be isolated on industrial scale, to be used as an additive.Techniques to obtain natural flavorings include the use of enzymes and/or micro organisms.", "European legislators have accepted flavorings produced by manmade genetically modified organisms (GMO's) – not found in nature – as natural flavorings.=== Nature-identical flavorings ===Nature-identical flavorings are human-made aroma compounds that are chemically identical to some substance that can be found in nature.", "They are synthesized from chemicals or isolated by means of chemical processes.Because nature-identical flavorings can be produced at low costs, the food industry will argue that nature-identical and natural flavorings are exactly the same.", "They have the advantage to be chemically pure, without allergens that may be coupled with natural flavorings.", "On the other hand, they are missing the synergy of other substances present in their natural origin, so they may lack subtlety.=== Artificial flavorings ===Artificial flavorings are synthesized from chemical substances by man and are not found in nature.", "Their sensory characteristics mostly resemble that of natural or nature-identical flavorings." ], [ "Perception of flavorings", "Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor.", "Aromas are the volatile components of the food.", "The aroma is determined by the aroma compounds it contains and the personal ability to detect them.", "While a flavoring primarily acts through the olfactory system, it also affects the taste at the same time.", "Along with additives, other components like sugars determine the taste of food.", "The trigeminal nerves, which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall perception of food." ], [ "Mechanism", "Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it.Unlike smelling, which occurs upon inhalation, the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in the exhalation phase of breathing and is perceived differently by an individual.", "In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before or after it has entered one's mouth." ], [ "Taste", "The taste of a food product is not only determined by the aromas present in the original material and added flavorings, but also by accompanying substances like flavor enhancers, sweeteners, acidulants and salt substitutes.", "Polyols like sorbitol and maltitol, are carriers in flavorings, but they themselves also have a sweet taste.Even the color of food can affect one's experience of the taste significantly.In one study, adding more red color to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration.", "Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; for example, different colors of the US products Froot Loops cereal and most brands of Gummy Bears often use the same flavorings.=== Flavor enhancers ===Flavor enhancers or taste enhancers, which are umami or \"savory\" compounds, are themselves not flavorings, but they intensify the taste of the food.", "They are largely based on amino acids and nucleotides.", "These are typically used as sodium or calcium salts.", "Umami flavorings recognized and approved by the European Union include:Acid saltsDescriptionGlutamic acid saltsThis amino acid's sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG), is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing.", "Mono- and diglutamate salts are also commonly used.Glycine saltsSimple amino acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancersGuanylic acid (GMP) saltsNucleotide salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancersInosinic acid (IMP) saltsNucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP.", "Due to high costs of production, typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers5'-ribonucleotide saltsA blend of GMP and IMP salts (\"I+G\"), generally in the disodium ribonucleotides form; typically combined with amino acids flavor enhancers" ], [ "Regulations", "=== In Europe ===Under the EU legislation, substances which have exclusively a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings (Article 2, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008.Also flavor enhancers are not considered flavorings under the EU legislation but additives (Point 14 of Annex I of Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008).EU legislation defines several types of flavorings:flavoring substances (including \"natural flavoring substances\"): flavoring preparations (by definition always natural): thermal process flavoringssmoke flavoringsflavor precursorsother flavoringsIn the EU, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 on flavorings and certain food ingredients with flavoring properties for use in/on foods, i.e.", "the EU Flavouring Regulation, was adopted on 16 December 2008 and entered into force on 20 January 2009.It applies from 20 January 2011.Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 lays down general requirements for safe use of flavorings and provides definitions for different types of flavorings.", "The Regulation sets out substances for which an evaluation and approval is required.", "The Union list of flavoring substances, approved for use in and on foods, was adopted on 1 October 2012 and was introduced in Annex I of this Regulation==== In the UK ====The UK follows the above EU legislation which remains in force until 31 December 2020.The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 provides that from 1 January 2021, this directly applicable EU legislation will be converted into UK law with minor corrections to enable it to operate effectively as UK law.", "These corrections have been made by Statutory Instrument 2019 No.", "860.The UK Food industry, in collaboration with the flavoring industry, has developed guidance on what to consider when declaring a pictorial representation of a food ingredient on the label of a pre-packed product.=== In the United States ===In the United States, flavorings are regulated in ''Title 21'' of the Code of Federal Regulations.", "They are divided into artificial and natural flavorings.=== In Australia and New Zealand ===In Australia and New Zealand regulation of flavorings is covered by the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code of November 2000, entered into force in December 2002.Natural flavorings are obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological, or enzymatic processes.", "They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances.Nature-identical flavorings are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically and organoleptically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption.", "They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances.Artificial flavorings are \"flavouring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed.", "\"===Regulations on natural flavoring===American ice cream shop using natural flavorsIn the EU, in order to be labeled as natural flavoring substance, many conditions have to be fulfilled: \"Natural flavouring substance\" shall mean a flavoring substance obtained by appropriate physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable, animal or microbiological origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by one or more of the traditional food preparation processes listed in Annex II.", "Natural flavoring substances correspond to substances that are naturally present and have been identified in nature (Article 3).More detailed information on the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations can be found on the European Flavour Association (EFFA) Guidance Document.UK Food Law defines a natural flavor as:The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a \"natural flavoring\" as:" ], [ "Dietary restrictions", "Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant to inform consumers about the source and identity of flavor ingredients and whether they have been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal byproducts.", "Some flavor ingredients, such as gelatin, are produced from animal products.", "Some, such as glycerin, can be derived from either animal or vegetable sources.", "And some extracts, such as vanilla, may contain alcohol.", "Many groups such as Jews, Jains, Hindus, and Muslims, as well as vegans follow dietary restrictions which disallow the use of animal byproducts and/or alcohol in certain contexts.", "In many Western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewish kosher pareve certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish).", "The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies worldwide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings).Similarly, persons with known sensitivities or allergies to food products are advised to avoid foods that contain generic \"natural flavors\" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food.", "Such flavors may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves common allergens, such as dairy, soy, sesame, eggs, and nuts.In the EU, nevertheless, this information is available in the labeling.", "Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, states in article 9 that any ingredient or processing aid listed in Annex II (of the aforementioned Regulation) or derived from a substance or product listed in Annex II causing allergies or intolerances used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and still present in the finished product, even if in an altered form must be included in the labeling." ], [ "Flavor creation", "Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor.", "These mixtures are formulated by flavorists to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes.", "The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and flavor chemists (flavorists) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors.", "Many flavorings consist of esters, which are often described as being sweet or fruity.The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally.", "It has been suggested that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.", "Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources, while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.Food and beverage companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products), or changes in formula or processing for existing products.", "In 2011, about US$10.6 billion were generated with the sale of flavors; the majority of the flavors used are consumed in ultra-processed food and convenience food.The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar.", "This is exemplified in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances.Most flavors represent a mixture of aroma compounds, the raw material that is produced by flavor companies.", "In rare cases, a single synthetic compound is used in pure form.", "Artificial vanilla flavors vanillin and ethylvanillin are a notable exception, as well as the artificial strawberry flavor (ethyl methylphenylglycidate).", "The ubiquitous \"green apple\" aroma is based on hexyl acetate.=== Table of some fruity flavorings ===ChemicalOdorManzanateAppleDiacetyl, acetylpropionyl, acetoinButteryIsoamyl acetateBananaBenzaldehydeBitter almond, cherryCinnamaldehydeCinnamonEthyl propionateFruityMethyl anthranilateGrapeLimoneneOrangeEthyl decadienoatePearAllyl hexanoatePineappleEthyl maltolSugar, cotton candy2,4-DithiapentaneTruffleEthylvanillinVanillaMethyl salicylateWintergreen" ], [ "Determination", "Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors.", "In chemical analysis of flavors, solid phase extraction, solid phase microextraction, and headspace gas chromatography are applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample.", "The determination is typically done by various mass spectrometric techniques.", "A flavor lexicon can aid the development of objective language for food." ], [ "See also", "* Aroma compound* Artificial butter flavoring* Ester (for list of some artificial flavor chemical compounds)* ''Flavour and Fragrance Journal''* Food additive* Fragrance oil* Katsuobushi* Off-flavor* Palatability* Seasoning* Taste bud" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "J. Demyttenaere, \"Natural or Synthetic?", "The Legal Framework in the EU for the Production of Natural Flavouring Ingredients\".", "In: ''Biotechnology of Natural Products'' (Schwab, W., Lange, B.M.", "and Wüst, M., Eds.", "), Springer, 2018.J.C.R.", "Demyttenaere, \"The new European Union Flavouring Regulation and its impact on essential oils: production of natural flavouring ingredients and maximum levels of restricted substances\", ''Flavour and Fragrance Journal'', 27, 3–12 (2012).J.C.R.", "Demyttenaere.", "\"The EU Regulation on Flavourings – an Update after 10 Years into Force: Focus on B2B Labelling of Natural Flavourings and Dealing with Restricted Substances\", ''Foods & Food Ingredients Journal of Japan'', 224(2), 178, 2019." ], [ "External links", " \"How do artificial flavors work?\".", "HowStuffWorks* Monell Chemical Senses Center* EFFA website* EFFA Guidance Documents* EFFA Video \"What is a Flavouring?", "\"* H. W. Schultz (editor): ''Symposium On Foods: The Chemistry and Physiology of Flavors.", "The Fourth in a Series of Symposia On Foods Held in Oregon State University'', AVI Pub, Co., Westpoint Conn. 1967, LCCN 66024813.LCCN-permanent link" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frisian languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Frisian languages''' ( or ) are a closely related group of West Germanic languages, spoken by about 500,000 Frisian people, who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany.", "The Frisian languages are the closest living language group to the Anglic languages; the two groups make up the Anglo-Frisian languages group and together with the Low German dialects these form the North Sea Germanic languages.", "However, modern English and Frisian are not mutually intelligible, nor are Frisian languages intelligible among themselves, owing to independent linguistic innovations and foreign influences.There are three different Frisian branches, which are usually called the Frisian languages, despite the fact that their so-called dialects are often not mutually intelligible even within these branches.", "These branches are: West Frisian, which is by far the most spoken of the three and is an official language in the Dutch province of Friesland, where it is spoken on the mainland and on two of the West Frisian Islands: Terschelling and Schiermonnikoog.", "It is also spoken in four villages in the Westerkwartier of the neighbouring province of Groningen.", "North Frisian, the second branch, is spoken in the northernmost German district of Nordfriesland in the state of Schleswig-Holstein: on the North Frisian mainland, and on the North Frisian Islands of Sylt, Föhr, Amrum, and the Halligs.", "It is also spoken on the islands of Heligoland (''deät Lun'') and Düne (''de Halem''), in the North Sea.", "The third Frisian branch, East Frisian, has only one remaining variant, Sater Frisian, spoken in the municipality of Saterland in the Lower Saxon district of Cloppenburg.", "Surrounded by bogs, the four Saterlandic villages lie just outside the borders of East Frisia, in the Oldenburg Münsterland region.", "In East Frisia proper, East Frisian Low Saxon is spoken today, which is not a Frisian language, but a variant of Low German/Low Saxon.Depending upon their location, the six Frisian languages have been heavily influenced by and bear similarities to Dutch and Low German/Low Saxon, and in addition North Frisian has a Danish substrate.", "However, Frisian is still unintelligible to Dutch; a cloze test in 2005 revealed that Dutch respondents understood 31.9% of a West Frisian newspaper, 66.4% of an Afrikaans newspaper and 97.1% of a Dutch newspaper.", "Additional shared linguistic characteristics between Friesland and the Great Yarmouth area in England are likely to have resulted from the close trading relationship these areas maintained during the centuries-long Hanseatic League of the Late Middle Ages." ], [ "Division", "There are three main groups of Frisian varieties: West Frisian, Saterland Frisian, and North Frisian.", "Some linguists consider these three varieties, despite their mutual unintelligibility, to be dialects of one single Frisian language, whereas others consider them to be a number of separate languages equal to or greater than the number of main branches discussed here.", "Indeed, the insular varieties of West Frisian are not intelligible to the mainland, and by that standard are additional languages, and North Frisian is also divided into several strongly diverse dialects, which are not all mutually intelligible among themselves.", "West Frisian is strongly influenced by Dutch.", "The other Frisian languages, meanwhile, have been influenced by Low German and German.", "Stadsfries and West Frisian Dutch are not Frisian, but Dutch dialects influenced by West Frisian.", "Frisian is called ''Frysk'' in West Frisian, ''Fräisk'' in Saterland Frisian, and ''Friisk'', ''fresk'', ''freesk'', ''frasch'', ''fräisch'', and ''freesch'' in the varieties of North Frisian.The situation in the Dutch province of Groningen and the German region of East Frisia is similar: The local Low German/Low Saxon dialects of Gronings and East Frisian Low Saxon still bear some Frisian elements due to East Frisian substrate.", "Frisian was spoken there at one time, only to have been gradually replaced by Low Saxon since the Middle Ages.", "This local language is now, like Frisian, under threat by standard Dutch and German.File:Europe location FRS.png\|Frisia highlighted on a map of EuropeFile:Frisia map.svg\|FrisiaFile:Frisians.png\|West and East Frisia were once connected.", "North Frisia was colonized by Frisians via the North Sea and they first settled on Sylt, Amrum and Föhr.File:Sprachsituationnordniederlande.png\|The languages in the northern Netherlands (in German)File:LinguisticSituationSchleswigSlesvig.png\|Language situation in northern Schleswig-Holstein as it developed since the 19th centuryFile:NordfriesischeDialekte.png\|The North Frisian dialects (in German)File:Nordfriisk Koord.png\|North Frisian map of the North Frisian dialects (1-Sylt, 2a-Föhr, 2b-Amrum)File:Seelterlound.png\|Map of Saterland (in Saterland Frisian)File:OosterlauwersFries in hedendaagse gebieden.PNG\|The former East Frisian-speaking areaFile:Ostfriesland Verkehr-de.svg\|East Frisia (in German)File:Karteostfriesischedialekte.GIF\|The former East Frisian dialects in Lower Saxony (in German)File:OstfriesischesPlatt.png\|The East Frisian Low Saxon area (colloquially called ''East Frisian'' and formed on an East Frisian substratum)===Speakers===Most Frisian speakers live in the Netherlands, primarily in the province of Friesland, which since 1997 officially uses its West Frisian name of Fryslân, where the number of native speakers is about 400,000, which is about 75% of the inhabitants of Friesland.", "An increasing number of native Dutch speakers in the province are learning Frisian as a second language.In Germany, there are about 2,000 speakers of Saterland Frisian in the marshy Saterland region of Lower Saxony.", "Saterland Frisian has resisted encroachment from Low German and Standard German, but Saterland Frisian still remains seriously endangered because of the small size of the speech community and of the lack of institutional support to help preserve and spread the language.In the North Frisia (''Nordfriesland'') region of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, there were 10,000 North Frisian speakers.", "Although many of these live on the mainland, most are found on the islands, notably Sylt, Föhr, Amrum, and Heligoland.", "The local corresponding North Frisian dialects are still in use.West Frisian-Dutch bilinguals are split into two categories: Speakers who had Dutch as their first language tended to maintain the Dutch system of homophony between plural and linking suffixes when speaking West Frisian, by using the West Frisian plural as a linking morpheme.", "Speakers who had West Frisian as their first language often maintained the West Frisian system of no homophony when speaking West Frisian.===Status===Saterland and North Frisian are officially recognised and protected as minority languages in Germany, and West Frisian is one of the two official languages in the Netherlands, the other being Dutch.ISO 639-1 code fy and ISO 639-2 code fry were assigned to \"Frisian\", but that was changed in November 2005 to \"Western Frisian\".", "According to the ISO 639 Registration Authority the \"previous usage of this code has been for Western Frisian, although the language name was 'Frisian.The new ISO 639 code stq is used for the Saterland Frisian language, a variety of Eastern Frisian (not to be confused with East Frisian Low Saxon, a West Low German dialect).", "The new ISO 639 code frr is used for the North Frisian language variants spoken in parts of Schleswig-Holstein.The Ried fan de Fryske Beweging is an organization which works for the preservation of the West Frisian language and culture in the Dutch province of Friesland.", "The Fryske Academy also plays a large role, since its foundation in 1938, to conduct research on Frisian language, history, and society, including attempts at forming a larger dictionary.", "Recent attempts have allowed Frisian be used somewhat more in some of the domains of education, media and public administration.", "Nevertheless, Saterland Frisian and most dialects of North Frisian are seriously endangered and West Frisian is considered as vulnerable to being endangered.", "Moreover, for all advances in integrating Frisian in daily life, there is still a lack of education and media awareness of the Frisian language, perhaps reflecting its rural origins and its lack of prestige Therefore, in a sociological sense it is considered more a dialect than a standard language, even though linguistically it is a separate language.For L2 speakers, both the quality and amount of time Frisian is taught in the classroom is low, concluding that Frisian lessons do not contribute meaningfully to the linguistic and cultural development of the students.", "Moreover, Frisian runs the risk of dissolving into Dutch, especially in Friesland, where both languages are used." ], [ "History", "Old Frisian text from 1345===Old Frisian===In the Early Middle Ages the Frisian lands stretched from the area around Bruges, in what is now Belgium, to the river Weser, in northern Germany.", "At that time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast.", "Today this region is sometimes referred to as Great Frisia or Frisia Magna, and many of the areas within it still treasure their Frisian heritage, even though in most places the Frisian languages have been lost.Frisian is the language most closely related to English and Scots, but after at least five hundred years of being subject to the influence of Dutch, modern Frisian in some aspects bears a greater similarity to Dutch than to English; one must also take into account the centuries-long drift of English away from Frisian.", "Thus the two languages have become less mutually intelligible over time, partly due to the influence which Dutch and Low German have had on Frisian, and partly due to the vast influence some languages (in particular Norman French) have had on English throughout the centuries.Old Frisian, however, was very similar to Old English.", "Historically, both English and Frisian are marked by the loss of the Germanic nasal in words like ''us'' (''ús''; ''uns'' in German), ''soft'' (''sêft''; ''sanft'') or ''goose'' (''goes''; ''Gans''): see Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law.", "Also, when followed by some vowels, the Germanic ''k'' softened to a ''ch'' sound; for example, the Frisian for ''cheese'' and ''church'' is ''tsiis'' and ''tsjerke'', whereas in Dutch it is ''kaas'' and ''kerk'', and in High German the respective words are ''Käse'' and ''Kirche''.", "Contrarily, this did not happen for ''chin'' and ''choose'', which are ''kin'' and ''kieze''.One rhyme demonstrates the palpable similarity between Frisian and English: \"Butter, bread and green cheese is good English and good Frisian,\" which is pronounced more or less the same in both languages (West Frisian: \"Bûter, brea en griene tsiis is goed Ingelsk en goed Frysk.", "\")One major difference between Old Frisian and modern Frisian is that in the Old Frisian period () grammatical cases still existed.", "Some of the texts that are preserved from this period are from the 12th or 13th, but most are from the 14th and 15th centuries.", "Generally, all these texts are restricted to legalistic writings.", "Although the earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century, there are a few examples of runic inscriptions from the region which are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.", "These runic writings however usually do not amount to more than single- or few-word inscriptions, and cannot be said to constitute literature as such.", "The transition from the Old Frisian to the Middle Frisian period (c.1550-c.1820) in the 16th century is based on the fairly abrupt halt in the use of Frisian as a written language.===Middle West Frisian===Up until the 15th century, Frisian was a language widely spoken and written, but from 1500 onwards it became an almost exclusively oral language, mainly used in rural areas.", "This was in part due to the occupation of its stronghold, the Dutch province of Friesland (Fryslân), in 1498, by Albert III, Duke of Saxony, who replaced West Frisian as the language of government with Dutch.Afterwards this practice was continued under the Habsburg rulers of the Netherlands (the German Emperor Charles V and his son, the Spanish King Philip II), and even when the Netherlands became independent, in 1585, West Frisian did not regain its former status.", "The reason for this was the rise of Holland as the dominant part of the Netherlands, and its language, Dutch, as the dominant language in judicial, administrative and religious affairs.In this period the great Frisian poet Gysbert Japiks (1603–66), a schoolteacher and cantor from the city of Bolsward, who largely fathered modern West Frisian literature and orthography, was really an exception to the rule.His example was not followed until the 19th century, when entire generations of West Frisian authors and poets appeared.", "This coincided with the introduction of the so-called newer breaking system, a prominent grammatical feature in almost all West Frisian dialects, with the notable exception of Southwest Frisian.", "Therefore, the Modern West Frisian period is considered to have begun at this point in time, around 1820.=== Modern West Frisian ===A modern West Frisian speaker, recorded in the NetherlandsThe revival of the West Frisian Language was led by the poet Gysbert Japiks, who had begun to write in the language as a way to show that it was possible, and created a collective West Frisian identity and West Frisian standard of writing through his poetry.", "Later on, Johannes Hilarides would build off Gysbert Japiks' work by building on West Frisian orthography, particularly on its pronunciation; he also, unlike Japiks, set a standard of the West Frisian language that focused more heavily on how the common people used it as an everyday language.Perhaps the most important figure in the spreading of the West Frisian language was J. H. Halbertsma (1789–1869), who translated many works into the West Frisian language, such as the New Testament He had however, like Hilarides, focused mostly on the vernacular of the West Frisian language, where he focused on translating texts, plays and songs for the lower and middle classes in order to teach and expand the West Frisian language.", "This had begun the effort to continuously preserve the West Frisian language, which continues unto this day.", "It was however not until the first half of the 20th century that the West Frisian revival movement began to gain strength, not only through its language, but also through its culture and history, supporting singing and acting in West Frisian in order to facilitate West Frisian speaking.It was not until 1960 that Dutch began to dominate West Frisian in Friesland; with many non-Frisian immigrants into Friesland, the language gradually began to diminish, and survives now only due to the constant effort of scholars and organisations.", "In recent years, it has been the province of Friesland, rather than the language itself, that has become a more important part of the West Frisian identity; as such, the language has become less important for cultural preservation purposes.", "It is especially written West Frisian that seems to have trouble surviving, with only 30% of the West Frisian population competent in it; it went out of use in the 16th century and continues to be barely taught today." ], [ "Family tree", "Frisian languages belong to the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages, the most widespread language family in Europe and the world.", "Its closest living genealogical relatives are the Anglic languages, i.e.", "English and Scots (Anglo-Frisian languages); together with the also closely related Low Saxon dialects the two groups make up the group of North Sea Germanic languages.", "* Frisian West Frisian, spoken in the Netherlands* Hindeloopen Frisian* Schiermonnikoogs* Westlauwers–Terschelling Frisian** Terschellings (Oosterend and West-Terschelling dialects) Western Frisian proper* Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk, incl.", "Westereendersk)* Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)* South Frisian (Súdhoeks) East Frisian, spoken in Lower Saxony, Germany* Ems Frisian dialects Saterland Frisian Several extinct dialects* Weser Frisian dialects** Wangerooge Frisian (extinct) Wursten Frisian (extinct) Several extinct dialects North Frisian, spoken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany* Mainland dialects Bökingharde Frisian Northern Goesharde Frisian Middle Goesharde Frisian Southern Goesharde Frisian (extinct) Wiedingharde Frisian Halligen Frisian Karrharde FrisianThis is a small portion of the Frisian family tree.", "* Island dialects** Söl'ring Fering-Öömrang Heligolandic (Halunder)* Extinct dialects ** Strand Frisian** Eiderstedt Frisian" ], [ "Text samples", "===The Lord's Prayer=== The Lord's Prayer in Standard West Frisian (''Frysk'') from the Third Edition of the Frisian Bible * The English translation in the 1662 Anglican Book of Common Prayer ** The Standard Dutch translation from the Dutch Bible SocietyUs Heit, dy't yn de himelen isjins namme wurde hillige.Jins keninkryk komme.Jins wollen barre,allyk yn 'e himelsa ek op ierde.Jou ús hjoed ús deistich brea.En ferjou ús ús skulden,allyk ek wy ferjouwe ús skuldners.En lied ús net yn fersiking,mar ferlos ús fan 'e kweade.Want Jowes is it keninkryk en de krêften de hearlikheid oant yn ivichheid.", "\"Amen\"Our Father, which art in HeavenHallowed be thy Name.Thy Kingdom come.Thy will be done,in earth as it is in Heaven.Give us this day our daily bread.And forgive us our trespasses,As we forgive them that trespass against us.And lead us not into temptation;But deliver us from evil.For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory,For ever and ever.", "''Amen.", "''Onze Vader die in de hemelen zijt,Uw naam worde geheiligd;Uw Koninkrijk kome;Uw wil geschiede,gelijk in de hemel alzo ook op de aarde.Geef ons heden ons dagelijks brood;en vergeef ons onze schulden,gelijk ook wij vergeven onze schuldenaren;en leid ons niet in verzoeking,maar verlos ons van de boze.Want van U is het Koninkrijk\"en de kracht en de heerlijkheidin der eeuwigheid.", "Amen.NB: * See also West Frisian language#Sample text.", " ''Which'' was changed to \"who\", ''in earth'' to \"on earth,\" and ''them that'' to \"those who\" in the 1928 version of the Church of England prayer book and used in other later Anglican prayer books too.", "However, the words given here are those of the original 1662 book as stated.===Comparative Germanic sentences===Saterland Frisian: * North Frisian (Mooring dialect): * Nordfriesisch (Söl'ring): ''Di Dreeng strekt dit faamen om't Ken en taatjet / kleepet höör üp di Sjaken''* West Frisian: * Gronings: ''t Jong fleerde t wicht om kinne tou en smokte heur op wange.", "''* East Frisian Low Saxon: * * * Afrikaans: * * Norwegian (Bokmål): * Norwegian (Nynorsk): NB: These are not always literal translations of each other." ], [ "See also", "East Frisian Low SaxonFrisiaFrisian IslandsFrisiansImperativus Pro Infinitivo" ], [ "References", "===Notes======General references=== Omniglot links to various Frisian resources* Tresoar – Historical and Literary Centre of Friesland Province of the Netherlands" ], [ "External links", "* Ferring Stiftung, a foundation from North Frisia* West-Frisian-English dictionary* PDFHewett, Waterman Thomas, The Frisian language and literature* 'Hover & Hear' West Frisian pronunciations, and compare with equivalents in English and other Germanic languages.", "* * Radio in West Frisian* Radio news in North Frisian* Online (German-Frisian) Dictionary for multiple North Frisian dialects" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "French language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French''' (French: ''français'' or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family.", "It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages.", "French evolved from Gallo-Romance, the Latin spoken in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul.", "Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French (Francien) largely supplanted.", "French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders.", "Today, owing to the French colonial empire, there are numerous French-based creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole.", "A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as '''Francophone''' in both English and French.French is an official language in 28 countries and is spoken across all continents.", "French is also the second most geographically widespread language in the world after English, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language.", "It is also one of the six official languages of United Nations.", "Most of these countries are members of the (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share the official use or teaching of French.", "French is also one of six official languages used in the United Nations.", "It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium (Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco; the Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere.In 2015, approximately 40% of the francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania.", "French is the second-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.", "Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as a second language.", "French is the second-most taught foreign language in the EU.", "All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German; in certain institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g.", "at the Court of Justice of the European Union).", "French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, fifth most spoken language by total number of speakers and is on the top five of the most studied languages worldwide (with about 120 million learners as of 2017).", "As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa and Asia.", "Most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, particularly Gabon, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast.French is estimated to have about 76 million native speakers; about 235 million daily, fluent speakers; and another 77–110 million secondary speakers who speak it as a second language to varying degrees of proficiency, mainly in Africa.", "According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are \"able to speak the language\", without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses.", "According to a demographic projection led by the and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, the total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050.OIF estimates 700 million by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa.French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including the United Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the World Trade Organization, the International Olympic Committee, the General Conference on Weights and Measures, and the International Committee of the Red Cross.", "In 2011, ''Bloomberg Businessweek'' ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese." ], [ "History", "French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France.", "The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French.=== Vulgar Latin in Gaul ===Due to Roman rule, Latin was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul, and as the language was learned by the common people it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which being attested on graffiti.", "This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan.The evolution of Latin in Gaul was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language, which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.", "The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools.", "At the time of the collapse of the Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek.", "The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of the urban intellectual elite.The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization.", "Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including ''oui'', the word for \"yes\"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order.", "Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by the gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish.The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the ''Petit Robert'', which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240.Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life (''chêne'', ''bille'', etc.", "), animals (''mouton'', ''cheval'', etc.", "), nature (''boue'', etc.", "), domestic activities (ex.", "''berceau''), farming and rural units of measure (''arpent'', ''lieue'', ''borne'', ''boisseau''), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield.", "This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being the last to hold onto Gaulish.=== Old French ===The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country.", "These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there.", "A language divide began to grow across the country.", "The population in the north spoke while the population in the south spoke .", "Langue d'oïl grew into what is known as Old French.", "The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries.", "Old French shared many characteristics with Latin.", "For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects.", "The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from the Germanic Frankish language, which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order, a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary) including the impersonal singular pronoun ''on'' (a calque of Germanic ''man''), and the name of the language itself.Up until its later stages, Old French, alongside Old Occitan, maintained a relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case.", "The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as ''-eau'' which would later be leveled to monophthongs.The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in the Oaths of Strasbourg and the ''Sequence of Saint Eulalia'', while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the ''Vie de Saint Alexis''), or wars and royal courts, notably including the ''Chanson de Roland'', epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court, as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange.=== Middle French ===Within Old French many dialects emerged but the Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries).", "Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect.", "Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules.", "Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar.", "Politically, the first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France.=== Modern French ===During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations (lingua franca).", "It retained this role until approximately the middle of the 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War.", "Stanley Meisler of the ''Los Angeles Times'' said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the \"first diplomatic blow\" against the language.During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV, enjoyed a period of prosperity and prominence among European nations.", "Richelieu established the to protect the French language.", "By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France.Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages (''patois'') spoken in France.", "This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire's \"Report on the necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language\".", "When public education was made compulsory, only French was taught and the use of any other (''patois'') language was punished.", "The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany.", "Instructions given by a French official to teachers in the department of Finistère, in western Brittany, included the following: \"And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language\".", "The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: \"Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French...\" Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "=== Europe ===Knowledge of French in the European Union and candidate countriesSpoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English.Under the Constitution of France, French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539.France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words.In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German.", "At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons, which are German-speaking) and one of the two official languages—along with Dutch—of the Brussels-Capital Region, where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx.", "80%), often as their primary language.French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh, and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy, of which Geneva is the largest city.", "The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais, Fribourg and Berne.", "French is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population.Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg, where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations.", "It is also the official language of Monaco.At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in the Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands.", "It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa.", "The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland, with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French.Distribution of native French speakers in 6 countries in 2023=== Africa ===Countries of Africa by percentage of French speakers in 2023The majority of the world's French-speaking population lives in Africa.", "According to a 2023 estimate from the , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language.", "This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language.", "Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050.French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages).French is mostly a second language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville, Gabon.", "There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages.Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth.", "It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years.", "Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of the language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world.=== Americas ======= Canada ====French is the second-most common language in Canada, after English, and both are official languages at the federal level.", "It is the first language of 9.5 million people or 29% and the second language for 2.07 million or 6% of the entire population of Canada.", "French is the sole official language in the province of Quebec, being the mother tongue for some 7 million people, or almost 80% (2006 Census) of the province.", "About 95% of the people of Quebec speak French as either their first or second language, and for some as their third language.", "Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal, which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers.", "New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone.", "French is also an official language of all of the territories (Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon).", "Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population.", "Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario, the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are to be available in the language.", "The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario.", "Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken.", "Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces.", "The Ontarian city of Ottawa, the Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is across a river from Quebec, opposite the major city of Gatineau with which it forms a single metropolitan area.==== United States ====French language spread in the United States.", "Counties marked in lighter pink are those where 6–12% of the population speaks French at home; medium pink, 12–18%; darker pink, over 18%.", "French-based creole languages are not included.According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined.", "French is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire.", "In Louisiana, it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included.", "French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire.", "Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French.", "New England French, essentially a variant of Canadian French, is spoken in parts of New England.", "Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana), but is nearly extinct today.", "French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana, such as Mon Louis Island, Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in the 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct.==== Caribbean ====French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole.", "It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians.", "It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses.", "The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language; the rest largely speak French as a first language.", "As a French Creole language, Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages.", "It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles.French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in the Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies, namely Guadeloupe, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, and Martinique.==== Other territories ====French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America.=== Asia ======= Southeast Asia ====French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina, comprising modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.", "It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades.", "In colonial Vietnam, the elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as \"Tây Bồi\" (now extinct).", "After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade.", "However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam.", "Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as the other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language.All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF).==== India ====French was the official language of French India, consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry.", "It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965.A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of the language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English.==== Western Asia ========= Lebanon =====Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of Rechmaya in LebanonA former French mandate, Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used.", "Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that \"Arabic is the official national language.", "A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used\".", "The French language in Lebanon is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people, and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English.", "French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates, and on official buildings (alongside Arabic).Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon, with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone.", "The use of English is growing in the business and media environment.", "Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French.", "Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status.", "One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions.", "English is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value.===== United Arab Emirates and Qatar =====The UAE has the status in the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie as an observer state, and Qatar has the status in the organization as an associate state.", "However, in both countries, French is not spoken by almost any of the general population or migrant workers, but spoken by a small minority of those who invest in Francophone countries or have other financial or family ties.", "Their entrance as observer and associate states respectively into the organization was aided a good deal by their investments into the Organisation and France itself.", "A country's status as an observer state in the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie gives the country the right to send representatives to organization meetings and make formal requests to the organization but they do not have voting rights within the OIF.", "A country's status as an associate state also does not give a country voting abilities but associate states can discuss and review organization matters.=== Oceania and Australasia ===A 500-CFP franc (€4.20; US$5.00) banknote, used in French Polynesia, New Caledonia and Wallis and FutunaFrench is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu, where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023.In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia, 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna, it is 84%.In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home.", "In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census.", "In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census.=== Future ===The future of the French language is often discussed in the news.", "For example, in 2014, ''The New York Times'' documented an increase in the teaching of French in New York, especially in K-12 dual-language programs where Spanish and Mandarin are the only second-language options more popular than French.", "In a study published in March 2014 by ''Forbes'', the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050.It noted that French is spreading in areas where the population is rapidly increasing, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.In the European Union, French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s.", "After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries.", "French currently remains one of the three working languages, or \"procedural languages\", of the EU, along with English and German.", "It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains the preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union, where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture.", "Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union." ], [ "Varieties", "* African French** Maghreb French (North African French)* Aostan French* Belgian French* Cambodian French* Canadian French Acadian French Newfoundland French New England French Ontario French** Quebec French* French French Guianese French Meridional French* Haitian French* Indian French* Jersey Legal French* Lao French* Louisiana French** Cajun French* Missouri French* South East Asian French* Swiss French* Vietnamese French* West Indian FrenchVarieties of the French language in the world" ], [ "Current status and importance", "A leading world language, French is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence, education, and diplomacy.In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat's only two working languages), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union, an official language of NATO, the International Olympic Committee, the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest, one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency, World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries.", "It is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English).", "Given the demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French \"could be the language of the future\".Significant as a judicial language, French is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights, the Caribbean Court of Justice, the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body.", "It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union, and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights's two working languages.In 1997, George Weber published, in ''Language Today'', a comprehensive academic study entitled \"The World's 10 most influential languages\".", "In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most ''influential'' language of the world, ahead of Spanish.", "His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations, the economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige).", "In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since \"the situation among the top ten remains unchanged.", "\"Knowledge of French is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%).", "MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in the workplace.In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages.", "In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish.", "In some areas of the country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught." ], [ "Phonology", "Spoken French (Africa)+Consonant phonemes in FrenchLabialDental/AlveolarPalatal/PostalveolarVelar/Uvular Nasal () Stop Fricative Approximant '''Vowel phonemes in French'''+ Oral Front Central Back Close Close-mid () Open-mid /() Open ()+Nasal Front Back Open-mid () Open Although there are many French regional accents, foreign learners normally use only one variety of the language.", "* There are a maximum of 17 vowels in French, not all of which are used in every dialect: plus the nasalized vowels and .", "In France, the vowels , and are tending to be replaced by , and in many people's speech, but the distinction of and is present in Meridional French.", "In Quebec and Belgian French, the vowels , , and are present.", "* Voiced stops (i.e., ) are typically produced fully voiced throughout.", "* Voiceless stops (i.e., ) are unaspirated.", "* The velar nasal can occur in final position in borrowed (usually English) words: ''parking, camping, swing''.", "The palatal nasal can occur in word initial position (e.g., ''gnon''), but it is most frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or word-finally (e.g., ''montagne'').", "* French has three pairs of homorganic fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e., labiodental , dental , and palato-alveolar .", "are dental, like the plosives and the nasal .", "* French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts.", "In general, it is described as a voiced uvular fricative, as in '''', \"wheel\".", "Vowels are often lengthened before this segment.", "It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in final position (e.g., ''fort''), or reduced to zero in some word-final positions.", "For other speakers, a uvular trill is also common, and an apical trill occurs in some dialects.", "* Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant is unvelarised in both onset (''lire'') and coda position (''il'').", "In the onset, the central approximants , , and each correspond to a high vowel, , , and respectively.", "There are a few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there are also many cases where they are in free variation.", "Contrasts between and occur in final position as in '''', \"pay\", vs. '''', \"country\".French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology.", "The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:* Final single consonants, in particular ''s'', ''x'', ''z'', ''t'', ''d'', ''n'', ''p'' and ''g'', are normally silent.", "(A consonant is considered \"final\" when no vowel follows it even if one or more consonants follow it.)", "The final letters ''f'', ''k'', ''q'', and ''l'', however, are normally pronounced.", "The final '''c''' is sometimes pronounced like in '''bac''', '''sac''', '''roc''' but can also be silent like in '''blanc''' or '''estomac'''.", "The final ''r'' is usually silent when it follows an ''e'' in a word of two or more syllables, but it is pronounced in some words (''hiver'', ''super'', ''cancer'' etc.).", " When the following word begins with a vowel, however, a silent consonant ''may'' once again be pronounced, to provide a ''liaison'' or \"link\" between the two words.", "Some liaisons are ''mandatory'', for example the ''s'' in ''les amants'' or ''vous avez''; some are ''optional'', depending on dialect and register, for example, the first ''s'' in ''deux cents euros'' or ''euros irlandais''; and some are ''forbidden'', for example, the ''s'' in ''beaucoup d'hommes aiment''.", "The ''t'' of ''et'' is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases like ''pied-à-terre''.", " Doubling a final ''n'' and adding a silent ''e'' at the end of a word (e.g., ''chien'' → ''chienne'') makes it clearly pronounced.", "Doubling a final ''l'' and adding a silent ''e'' (e.g., ''gentil'' → ''gentille'') adds a j sound if the ''l'' is preceded by the letter ''i''.", "* Some monosyllabic function words ending in ''a'' or ''e'', such as ''je'' and ''que'', drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a hiatus).", "The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe.", "(e.g., ''je ai'' is instead pronounced and spelled → ''j'ai'').", "This gives, for example, the same pronunciation for ''l'homme qu'il a vu'' (\"the man whom he saw\") and ''l'homme qui l'a vu'' (\"the man who saw him\").", "However, for Belgian French the sentences are pronounced differently; in the first sentence the syllable break is as \"qu'il-a\", while the second breaks as \"qui-l'a\".", "It can also be noted that, in Quebec French, the second example (''l'homme qui l'a vu'') is more emphasized on ''l'a vu''." ], [ "Writing system", "=== Alphabet ===French is written with the 26 letters of the basic Latin script, with four diacritics appearing on vowels (circumflex accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in \"ç\".There are two ligatures, \"œ\" and \"æ\", but they are often replaced in contemporary French with \"oe\" and \"ae\", because the ligatures do not appear on the AZERTY keyboard layout used in French-speaking countries.", "However this is nonstandard in formal and literary texts.=== Orthography ===French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules.", "This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling.", "Moreover, some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography (as with some English words such as \"debt\"): Old French ''doit'' > French ''doigt'' \"finger\" (Latin ''digitus'')* Old French ''pie'' > French ''pied'' \"foot\" Latin ''pes'' (stem: ''ped-'')French orthography is morphophonemic.", "While it contains 130 graphemes that denote only 36 phonemes, many of its spelling rules are likely due to a consistency in morphemic patterns such as adding suffixes and prefixes.", "Many given spellings of common morphemes usually lead to a predictable sound.", "In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic generally leads to one phoneme.", "However, there is not a one-to-one relation of a phoneme and a single related grapheme, which can be seen in how ''tomber'' and ''tombé'' both end with the /e/ phoneme.", "Additionally, there are many variations in the pronunciation of consonants at the end of words, demonstrated by how the ''x'' in ''paix'' is not pronounced though at the end of ''Aix'' it is''.", "''As a result, it can be difficult to predict the spelling of a word based on the sound.", "Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel (see Liaison (French)).", "For example, the following words end in a vowel sound: ''pied'', ''aller'', ''les'', '''', ''beaux''.", "The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: ''beaux-arts'', ''les amis'', ''pied-à-terre''.French writing, as with any language, is affected by the spoken language.", "In Old French, the plural for ''animal'' was ''animals''.", "The sequence was unstable and was turned into a diphthong .", "This change was then reflected in the orthography: ''animaus''.", "The ''us'' ending, very common in Latin, was then abbreviated by copyists (monks) by the letter ''x'', resulting in a written form ''animax''.", "As the French language further evolved, the pronunciation of ''au'' turned into so that the ''u'' was reestablished in orthography for consistency, resulting in modern French ''animaux'' (pronounced first before the final was dropped in contemporary French).", "The same is true for ''cheval'' pluralized as ''chevaux'' and many others.", "In addition, ''castel'' pl.", "''castels'' became ''château'' pl.", "''châteaux''.", "* Nasal: ''n'' and ''m''.", "When ''n'' or ''m'' follows a vowel or diphthong, the ''n'' or ''m'' becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e., pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils).", "Exceptions are when the ''n'' or ''m'' is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel.", "The prefixes ''en-'' and ''em-'' are always nasalized.", "The rules are more complex than this but may vary between dialects.", "* Digraphs: French uses not only diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and diphthongs, but also specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.", "* Gemination: Within words, double consonants are generally not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but geminates can be heard in the cinema or TV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very refined elocution they may still occur).", "For example, ''illusion'' is pronounced and not .", "However, gemination does occur between words; for example, ''une info'' (\"a news item\" or \"a piece of information\") is pronounced , whereas ''une nympho'' (\"a nymphomaniac\") is pronounced .", "* Accents are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes based on etymology alone.", " Accents that affect pronunciation* The acute accent (''l'accent aigu'') ''é'' (e.g., '''''é'''cole''—school) means that the vowel is pronounced instead of the default .", "* The grave accent (''l'accent grave'') ''è'' (e.g., ''él'''è'''ve''—pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced instead of the default .", "* The circumflex (''l'accent circonflexe'') ''ê'' (e.g.", "''for'''ê'''t''—forest) shows that an ''e'' is pronounced and that an ''ô'' is pronounced .", "In standard French, it also signifies a pronunciation of for the letter ''â'', but this differentiation is disappearing.", "In the mid-18th century, the circumflex was used in place of ''s'' after a vowel, where that letter ''s'' was not pronounced.", "Thus, ''forest'' became ''forêt'', ''hospital'' became ''hôpital'', and ''hostel'' became ''hôtel''.", "* Diaeresis or ''tréma'' (''ë'', ''ï'', ''ü'', ''ÿ''): over ''e'', ''i'', ''u'' or ''y'', indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: ''naïve'', ''Noël''.", " The combination of ''e'' with diaeresis following ''o'' (''N'''oë'''l'' ) is nasalized in the regular way if followed by ''n'' (''Sam'''oë'''ns'' ) The combination of ''e'' with diaeresis following ''a'' is either pronounced (''Raph'''aë'''l'', ''Isr'''aë'''l'' ) or not pronounced, leaving only the ''a'' (''St'''aë'''l'' ) and the ''a'' is nasalized in the regular way if ''aë'' is followed by ''n'' (''Saint-S'''aë'''ns'' ) A diaeresis on ''y'' only occurs in some proper names and in modern editions of old French texts.", "Some proper names in which ''ÿ'' appears include ''Aÿ'' (a commune in Marne, formerly ''Aÿ-Champagne''), ''Rue des Cloÿs'' (an alley in Paris), ''Croÿ'' (family name and hotel on the Boulevard Raspail, Paris), '''' (near Pontoise), ''Ghÿs'' (name of Flemish origin spelt ''Ghĳs'' where ''ĳ'' in handwriting looked like ''ÿ'' to French clerks), ''L'Haÿ-les-Roses'' (commune near Paris), Pierre Louÿs (author), Moÿ-de-l'Aisne (commune in Aisne and a family name), and ''Le Blanc de Nicolaÿ'' (an insurance company in eastern France).", " The diaeresis on ''u'' appears in the Biblical proper names ''Archélaüs'', ''Capharnaüm'', ''Emmaüs'', ''Ésaü'', and ''Saül'', as well as French names such as Haüy.", "Nevertheless, since the 1990 orthographic changes, the diaeresis in words containing ''guë'' (such as ''aiguë'' or ''ciguë'') may be moved onto the ''u'': ''aigüe'', ''cigüe'', and by analogy may be used in verbs such as ''j'argüe''.", " In addition, words coming from German retain their umlaut (''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'') if applicable but use often French pronunciation, such as ''Kärcher'' (trademark of a pressure washer).", "* The cedilla (''la cédille'') ''ç'' (e.g., ''gar'''ç'''on''—boy) means that the letter ''ç'' is pronounced in front of the back vowels ''a'', ''o'' and ''u'' (''c'' is otherwise before a back vowel).", "''C'' is always pronounced in front of the front vowels ''e'', ''i'', and ''y'', thus ''ç'' is never found in front of front vowels.", " Accents with no pronunciation effect* The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters ''i'' or ''u'', nor, in most dialects, ''a''.", "It usually indicates that an ''s'' came after it long ago, as in ''île'' (from former ''isle'', compare with English word \"isle\").", "The explanation is that some words share the same orthography, so the circumflex is put here to mark the difference between the two words.", "For example, ''dites'' (you say) / ''dîtes'' (you said), or even ''du'' (of the) / ''dû'' (past participle for the verb ''devoir'' = must, have to, owe; in this case, the circumflex disappears in the plural and the feminine).", "*** All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs ''là'' and ''où'' (\"there\", \"where\") from the article ''la'' (\"the\" feminine singular) and the conjunction ''ou'' (\"or\"), respectively.Some proposals exist to simplify the existing writing system, but they still fail to gather interest.In 1990, a reform accepted some changes to French orthography.", "At the time the proposed changes were considered to be suggestions.", "In 2016, schoolbooks in France began to use the newer recommended spellings, with instruction to teachers that both old and new spellings be deemed correct." ], [ "Grammar", "French is a moderately inflected language.", "Nouns and most pronouns are inflected for number (singular or plural, though in most nouns the plural is pronounced the same as the singular even if spelled differently); adjectives, for number and gender (masculine or feminine) of their nouns; personal pronouns and a few other pronouns, for person, number, gender, and case; and verbs, for tense, aspect, mood, and the person and number of their subjects.", "Case is primarily marked using word order and prepositions, while certain verb features are marked using auxiliary verbs.", "According to the French lexicogrammatical system, French has a rank-scale hierarchy with clause as the top rank, which is followed by group rank, word rank, and morpheme rank.", "A French clause is made up of groups, groups are made up of words, and lastly, words are made up of morphemes.French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including* the loss of Latin declensions* the loss of the neuter gender* the development of grammatical articles from Latin demonstratives* the loss of certain Latin tenses and the creation of new tenses from auxiliaries.=== Nouns ===Every French noun is either masculine or feminine.", "Because French nouns are not inflected for gender, a noun's form cannot specify its gender.", "For nouns regarding the living, their grammatical genders often correspond to that which they refer to.", "For example, a male teacher is an \"enseignant\" while a female teacher is an \"enseignante\".", "However, plural nouns that refer to a group that includes both masculine and feminine entities are always masculine.", "So a group of two male teachers would be \"enseignants\".", "A group of two male teachers and two female teachers would still be \"enseignants\".", "In many situations, and in the case of \"enseignant\", both the singular and plural form of a noun are pronounced identically.", "The article used for singular nouns is different from that used for plural nouns and the article provides a distinguishing factor between the two in speech.", "For example, the singular \"le professeur\" or \"la professeur(e)\" (the male or female teacher, professor) can be distinguished from the plural \"les professeurs\" because \"le\", \"la\", and \"les\" are all pronounced differently.", "There are some situations where both the feminine and masculine form of a noun are the same and the article provides the only difference.", "For example, \"le dentiste\" refers to a male dentist while \"la dentiste\" refers to a female dentist.=== Verbs ======= Moods and tense-aspect forms ====The French language consists of both finite and non-finite moods.", "The finite moods include the indicative mood (indicatif), the subjunctive mood (subjonctif), the imperative mood (impératif), and the conditional mood (conditionnel).", "The non-finite moods include the infinitive mood (infinitif), the present participle (participe présent), and the past participle (participe passé).===== Finite moods =========== Indicative (indicatif) ======The indicative mood makes use of eight tense-aspect forms.", "These include the present (), the simple past ( and ), the past imperfective (), the pluperfect (), the simple future (), the future perfect (), and the past perfect ().", "Some forms are less commonly used today.", "In today's spoken French, the is used while the is reserved for formal situations or for literary purposes.", "Similarly, the is used for speaking rather than the older seen in literary works.Within the indicative mood, the , , , and all use auxiliary verbs in their forms.+ Indicatif Présent Imparfait Passé composé Passé simple Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st person j'aime nous aimons j'aimais nous aimions j'ai aimé nous avons aimé j'aimai nous aimâmes 2nd person tu aimes vous aimez tu aimais vous aimiez tu as aimé vous avez aimé tu aimas vous aimâtes 3rd person il/elle aime ils/elles aiment il/elle aimait ils/elles aimaient il/elle a aimé ils/elles ont aimé il/elle aima ils/elles aimèrent Futur simple Futur antérieur Plus-que-parfait Passé antérieur Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st person j'aimerai nous aimerons j'aurai aimé nous aurons aimé j'avais aimé nous avions aimé j'eus aimé nous eûmes aimé 2nd person tu aimeras vous aimerez tu auras aimé vous aurez aimé tu avais aimé vous aviez aimé tu eus aimé vous eûtes aimé 3rd person il/elle aimera ils/elles aimeront il/elle aura aimé ils/elles auront aimé il/elle avait aimé ils/elles avaient aimé il/elle eut aimé ils/elles eurent aimé====== Subjunctive (subjonctif) ======The subjunctive mood only includes four of the tense-aspect forms found in the indicative: present (présent), simple past (passé composé), past imperfective (imparfait), and pluperfect (plus-que-parfait).Within the subjunctive mood, the passé composé and plus-que-parfait use auxiliary verbs in their forms.+ Subjonctif Présent Imparfait Passé composé Plus-que-parfait Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st person j'aime nous aimions j'aimasse nous aimassions j'aie aimé nous ayons aimé j'eusse aimé nous eussions aimé 2nd person tu aimes vous aimiez tu aimasses vous aimassiez tu aies aimé vous ayez aimé tu eusses aimé vous eussiez aimé 3rd person il/elle aime ils/elles aiment il/elle aimât ils/elles aimassent il/elle ait aimé ils/elles aient aimé il/elle eût aimé ils/elles eussent aimé====== Imperative (imperatif) ======The imperative is used in the present tense (with the exception of a few instances where it is used in the perfect tense).", "The imperative is used to give commands to you (tu), we/us (nous), and plural you (vous).+ Imperatif Présent Singular Plural 1st person aimons 2nd person aime aimez====== Conditional (conditionnel) ======The conditional makes use of the present (présent) and the past (passé).The passé uses auxiliary verbs in its forms.+ Conditionnel Présent Passé Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st person j'aimerais nous aimerions j'aurais aimé nous aurions aimé 2nd person tu aimerais vous aimeriez tu aurais aimé vous auriez aimé 3rd person il/elle aimerait ils/elles aimeraient il/elle aurait aimé ils/elles auraient aimé==== Voice ====French uses both the active voice and the passive voice.", "The active voice is unmarked while the passive voice is formed by using a form of verb ''être'' (\"to be\") and the past participle.Example of the active voice:* \"Elle aime le chien.\"", "''She loves the dog.", "''* \"Marc a conduit la voiture.\"", "''Marc drove the car.", "''Example of the passive voice:* \"Le chien est aimé par elle.\"", "''The dog is loved by her.", "''* \"La voiture a été conduite par Marc.\"", "''The car was driven by Marc.", "''==== Syntax ========= Word order =====French declarative word order is subject–verb–object although a pronoun object precedes the verb.", "Some types of sentences allow for or require different word orders, in particular inversion of the subject and verb, as in \"Parlez-vous français ?\"", "when asking a question rather than \"Vous parlez français ?\"", "Both formulations are used, and carry a rising inflection on the last word.", "The literal English translations are \"Do you speak French?\"", "and \"You speak French?", "\", respectively.", "To avoid inversion while asking a question, \"Est-ce que\" (literally \"is it that\") may be placed at the beginning of the sentence.", "\"Parlez-vous français ?\"", "may become \"Est-ce que vous parlez français ?\"", "French also uses verb–object–subject (VOS) and object–subject–verb (OSV) word order.", "OSV word order is not used often and VOS is reserved for formal writings." ], [ "Vocabulary", "The majority of French words derive from Vulgar Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots.", "In many cases, a single etymological root appears in French in a \"popular\" or native form, inherited from Vulgar Latin, and a learned form, borrowed later from Classical Latin.", "The following pairs consist of a native noun and a learned adjective:* brother: ''frère'' / ''fraternel'' from Latin ''frater / fraternalis''* finger: ''doigt'' / ''digital'' from Latin ''digitus / digitalis''* faith: ''foi'' / ''fidèle'' from Latin ''fides / fidelis''* eye: ''œil'' / ''oculaire'' from Latin ''oculus / ocularis''However, a historical tendency to Gallicise Latin roots can be identified, whereas English conversely leans towards a more direct incorporation of the Latin:* ''rayonnement'' / ''radiation'' from Latin ''radiatio''* ''éteindre'' / ''extinguish'' from Latin ''exstinguere''* ''noyau'' / ''nucleus'' from Latin ''nucleus''* ''ensoleillement'' / ''insolation'' from Latin ''insolatio''There are also noun-noun and adjective-adjective pairs:* thing/cause: ''chose'' / ''cause'' from Latin ''causa''* cold: ''froid'' / ''frigide'' from Latin ''frigidum''It can be difficult to identify the Latin source of native French words because in the evolution from Vulgar Latin, unstressed syllables were severely reduced and the remaining vowels and consonants underwent significant modifications.More recently (1994) the linguistic policy (Toubon Law) of the French language academies of France and Quebec has been to provide French equivalents to (mainly English) imported words, either by using existing vocabulary, extending its meaning or deriving a new word according to French morphological rules.", "The result is often two (or more) co-existing terms for describing the same phenomenon.", "* ''mercatique ''/ ''marketing''* ''finance'' ''fantôme'' / ''shadow'' ''banking''* ''bloc-notes'' / ''notepad''* ''ailière'' / ''wingsuit''* ''tiers-lieu ''/'' coworking''It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words found in a typical dictionary such as the ''Petit Larousse'' or ''Micro-Robert Plus'' (35,000 words) are of foreign origin (where Greek and Latin learned words are not seen as foreign).", "About 25% (1,054) of these foreign words come from English and are fairly recent borrowings.", "The others are some 707 words from Italian, 550 from ancient Germanic languages, 481 from other Gallo-Romance languages, 215 from Arabic, 164 from German, 160 from Celtic languages, 159 from Spanish, 153 from Dutch, 112 from Persian and Sanskrit, 101 from Native American languages, 89 from other Asian languages, 56 from other Afro-Asiatic languages, 55 from Balto-Slavic languages, 10 from Basque and 144 (about 3%) from other languages.One study analyzing the degree of differentiation of Romance languages in comparison to Latin estimated that among the languages analyzed French has the greatest distance from Latin.", "Lexical similarity is 89% with Italian, 80% with Sardinian, 78% with Rhaeto-Romance, and 75% with Romanian, Spanish and Portuguese.=== Numerals ===The numeral system used in the majority of Francophone countries employs both decimal and vigesimal counting.", "After the use of unique names for the numbers 1–16, those from 17 to 69 are counted by tens, while twenty ('''') is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 70 to 99.The French word for 80 is '''', literally \"four twenties\", and the word for ''75'' is '''', literally \"sixty-fifteen\".", "The vigesimal method of counting is analogous to the archaic English use of ''score'', as in \"fourscore and seven\" (87), or \"threescore and ten\" (70).Belgian, Swiss, and Aostan French as well as that used in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, use different names for 70 and 90, namely '''' and ''''.", "In Switzerland, depending on the local dialect, 80 can be '''' (Geneva, Neuchâtel, Jura) or '''' (Vaud, Valais, Fribourg).", "The Aosta Valley similarly uses '''' for 80.Conversely, Belgium and in its former African colonies use ''quatre-vingts'' for 80.In Old French (during the Middle Ages), all numbers from 30 to 99 could be said in either base 10 or base 20, e.g.", "''vint et doze'' (twenty and twelve) for 32, ''dous vinz et diz'' (two twenties and ten) for 50, ''uitante'' for 80, or ''nonante'' for 90.The term ''octante'' was historically used in Switzerland for 80, but is now considered archaic.French, like most European languages, uses a space to separate thousands.", "The comma () is used in French numbers as a decimal point, i.e.", "\"2,5\" instead of \"2.5\".", "In the case of currencies, the currency markers are substituted for decimal point, i.e.", "\"5$7\" for \"5 dollars and 7 cents\"." ], [ "Example text", "Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in French::''Tous les êtres humains naissent libres et égaux en dignité et en droits.", "Ils sont doués de raison et de conscience et doivent agir les uns envers les autres dans un esprit de fraternité.", "''Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English::''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''" ], [ "See also", "* Alliance Française* AZERTY* Français fondamental* Francization* Francophile* Francophobia* Francophonie* French language in the United States* French language in Canada* French poetry* Glossary of French expressions in English* Influence of French on English* Language education* List of countries where French is an official language* List of English words of French origin* List of French loanwords in Persian* List of French words and phrases used by English speakers* List of German words of French origin* Official bilingualism in Canada* Varieties of French" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===" ], [ "Further reading", " * Nadeau, Jean-Benoît, and Julie Barlow (2006).", "''The Story of French''.", "(First U.S.", "ed.)", "New York: St. Martin's Press.", ".", "* Ursula Reutner (2017).", "''Manuel des francophonies''.", "Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter." ], [ "External links", "=== Organisations ===* Fondation Alliance française: an international organisation for the promotion of French language and culture * Agence de promotion du FLE: Agency for promoting French as a foreign language=== Courses and tutorials ===* Français interactif: interactive French program, University of Texas at Austin* Tex's French Grammar, University of Texas at Austin* Lingopolo French* French lessons in London, The Language machine=== Online dictionaries ===* Oxford Dictionaries French Dictionary* Collins Online English↔French Dictionary* Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales: monolingual dictionaries (including the Trésor de la langue française), language corpora, etc.=== Grammar ======= Verbs ====* French verb conjugation at Verbix=== Vocabulary ===* Swadesh list in English and French==== Numbers ====* ==== Books ====* La langue française dans le monde 2010 (Full book freely accessible)==== Articles ====* \" The status of French in the world\".", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Formula fiction" ], [ "Introduction", "In popular culture, '''formula fiction''' is literature in which the storylines and plots have been reused to the extent that the narratives are predictable.", "It is similar to genre fiction, which identifies a number of specific settings that are frequently reused.", "The label of ''formula fiction'' is used in literary criticism as a mild pejorative to imply lack of originality." ], [ "Varieties", "The ''formula'' is defined specifically by predictable narrative structure.", "Formulaic tales incorporate plots that have been reused so often as to be easily recognizable.", "Perhaps the most clearly formulaic plots characterize the romantic comedy genre; in a book or film labeled as such, viewers already know its most basic central plot, including to some extent the ending.", "This does not always prove to be detrimental to a given work's reception however, as the popularity of the aforementioned genre demonstrates.Formula fiction is often stereotypically associated with early pulp magazine markets, though some works published in that medium, such as \"The Cold Equations\", subvert the supposed expectations of the common narrative formula of that time." ], [ "Distinct from genre conventions", "The ''formula'' is limited to structure of the plot itself.", "It does not include conventional, stereotypical elements of the genre used for the story background.Genres like high fantasy, westerns, and space opera (an adventure story in a science fiction setting) often have specific settings, such as a pseudo-Medieval European setting, the Old West, or outer space.For any given genre, certain assumed background information covers the nature and purpose of predictable elements of the story, such as the appearance of dragons and wizards in high fantasy, warp drives and rayguns in science fiction, or shootouts at high noon in Westerns.", "These are taken as conventional in the genre and do not need to be explained anew to the reader, they may be included implicitly as part of the genre's formula, but they do not constitute the plot structure that makes a story formulaic.Note however that stereotypical elements can also easily be treated subversively, to contradict some of the expectations inherent in the genre's formula." ], [ "Distinct from ''pastiche'' fiction", "''Formula fiction'' should not be confused with ''pastiche'': Fiction mimicking another work or author's style.Comedy as a whole – including parody, satire, and subgenres such as romantic comedy – often relies on either formulaic elements, or mocking contradiction of such elements.Though pastiche may naturally include formulaic elements, the same holds true of parody and satire.", "All may well include formulaic elements such as common stereotypes or caricatures, or which may use formulaic elements in order to mock them or point out their supposedly cliché or unrealistic natures." ], [ "See also", "* Film genre* Literary fiction" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Field (mathematics)" ], [ "Introduction", "regular heptagon cannot be constructed using only a straightedge and compass construction; this can be proven using the field of constructible numbers.In mathematics, a '''field''' is a set on which addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are defined and behave as the corresponding operations on rational and real numbers.", "A field is thus a fundamental algebraic structure which is widely used in algebra, number theory, and many other areas of mathematics.The best known fields are the field of rational numbers, the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers.", "Many other fields, such as fields of rational functions, algebraic function fields, algebraic number fields, and ''p''-adic fields are commonly used and studied in mathematics, particularly in number theory and algebraic geometry.", "Most cryptographic protocols rely on finite fields, i.e., fields with finitely many elements.The theory of fields proves that angle trisection and squaring the circle cannot be done with a compass and straightedge.", "Galois theory, devoted to understanding the symmetries of field extensions, provides an elegant proof of the Abel-Ruffini theorem that general quintic equations cannot be solved in radicals.Fields serve as foundational notions in several mathematical domains.", "This includes different branches of mathematical analysis, which are based on fields with additional structure.", "Basic theorems in analysis hinge on the structural properties of the field of real numbers.", "Most importantly for algebraic purposes, any field may be used as the scalars for a vector space, which is the standard general context for linear algebra.", "Number fields, the siblings of the field of rational numbers, are studied in depth in number theory.", "Function fields can help describe properties of geometric objects." ], [ "Definition", "Informally, a field is a set, along with two operations defined on that set: an addition operation written as , and a multiplication operation written as , both of which behave similarly as they behave for rational numbers and real numbers, including the existence of an additive inverse for all elements , and of a multiplicative inverse for every nonzero element .", "This allows one to also consider the so-called ''inverse'' operations of subtraction, , and division, , by defining:: ,: .=== Classic definition ===Formally, a field is a set together with two binary operations on called ''addition'' and ''multiplication''.", "A binary operation on is a mapping , that is, a correspondence that associates with each ordered pair of elements of a uniquely determined element of .", "The result of the addition of and is called the sum of and , and is denoted .", "Similarly, the result of the multiplication of and is called the product of and , and is denoted or .", "These operations are required to satisfy the following properties, referred to as ''field axioms'' (in these axioms, , , and are arbitrary elements of the field ):* Associativity of addition and multiplication: , and .", "* Commutativity of addition and multiplication: , and .", "* Additive and multiplicative identity: there exist two distinct elements and in such that and .", "* Additive inverses: for every in , there exists an element in , denoted , called the ''additive inverse'' of , such that .", "* Multiplicative inverses: for every in , there exists an element in , denoted by or , called the ''multiplicative inverse'' of , such that .", "* Distributivity of multiplication over addition: .An equivalent, and more succinct, definition is: a field has two commutative operations, called addition and multiplication; it is a group under addition with as the additive identity; the nonzero elements are a group under multiplication with as the multiplicative identity; and multiplication distributes over addition.Even more succinctly: a field is a commutative ring where and all nonzero elements are invertible under multiplication.=== Alternative definition ===Fields can also be defined in different, but equivalent ways.", "One can alternatively define a field by four binary operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and their required properties.", "Division by zero is, by definition, excluded.", "In order to avoid existential quantifiers, fields can be defined by two binary operations (addition and multiplication), two unary operations (yielding the additive and multiplicative inverses respectively), and two nullary operations (the constants and ).", "These operations are then subject to the conditions above.", "Avoiding existential quantifiers is important in constructive mathematics and computing.", "One may equivalently define a field by the same two binary operations, one unary operation (the multiplicative inverse), and two (not necessarily distinct) constants and , since and ." ], [ "Examples", "=== Rational numbers ===Rational numbers have been widely used a long time before the elaboration of the concept of field.They are numbers that can be written as fractions, where and are integers, and .", "The additive inverse of such a fraction is , and the multiplicative inverse (provided that ) is , which can be seen as follows:: The abstractly required field axioms reduce to standard properties of rational numbers.", "For example, the law of distributivity can be proven as follows:: === Real and complex numbers ===The multiplication of complex numbers can be visualized geometrically by rotations and scalings.The real numbers , with the usual operations of addition and multiplication, also form a field.", "The complex numbers consist of expressions: with real,where is the imaginary unit, i.e., a (non-real) number satisfying .Addition and multiplication of real numbers are defined in such a way that expressions of this type satisfy all field axioms and thus hold for .", "For example, the distributive law enforces: It is immediate that this is again an expression of the above type, and so the complex numbers form a field.", "Complex numbers can be geometrically represented as points in the plane, with Cartesian coordinates given by the real numbers of their describing expression, or as the arrows from the origin to these points, specified by their length and an angle enclosed with some distinct direction.", "Addition then corresponds to combining the arrows to the intuitive parallelogram (adding the Cartesian coordinates), and the multiplication is – less intuitively – combining rotating and scaling of the arrows (adding the angles and multiplying the lengths).", "The fields of real and complex numbers are used throughout mathematics, physics, engineering, statistics, and many other scientific disciplines.=== Constructible numbers ===The geometric mean theorem asserts that .", "Choosing allows construction of the square root of a given constructible number .In antiquity, several geometric problems concerned the (in)feasibility of constructing certain numbers with compass and straightedge.", "For example, it was unknown to the Greeks that it is, in general, impossible to trisect a given angle in this way.", "These problems can be settled using the field of constructible numbers.", "Real constructible numbers are, by definition, lengths of line segments that can be constructed from the points 0 and 1 in finitely many steps using only compass and straightedge.", "These numbers, endowed with the field operations of real numbers, restricted to the constructible numbers, form a field, which properly includes the field of rational numbers.", "The illustration shows the construction of square roots of constructible numbers, not necessarily contained within .", "Using the labeling in the illustration, construct the segments , , and a semicircle over (center at the midpoint ), which intersects the perpendicular line through in a point , at a distance of exactly from when has length one.Not all real numbers are constructible.", "It can be shown that is not a constructible number, which implies that it is impossible to construct with compass and straightedge the length of the side of a cube with volume 2, another problem posed by the ancient Greeks.=== A field with four elements ===+ Addition Multiplication + ⋅ In addition to familiar number systems such as the rationals, there are other, less immediate examples of fields.", "The following example is a field consisting of four elements called , , , and .", "The notation is chosen such that plays the role of the additive identity element (denoted 0 in the axioms above), and is the multiplicative identity (denoted in the axioms above).", "The field axioms can be verified by using some more field theory, or by direct computation.", "For example,: , which equals , as required by the distributivity.This field is called a finite field or '''Galois field''' with four elements, and is denoted or .", "The subset consisting of and (highlighted in red in the tables at the right) is also a field, known as the ''binary field'' or .", "In the context of computer science and Boolean algebra, and are often denoted respectively by ''false'' and ''true'', and the addition is then denoted XOR (exclusive or).", "In other words, the structure of the binary field is the basic structure that allows computing with bits." ], [ "Elementary notions", "In this section, denotes an arbitrary field and and are arbitrary elements of .=== Consequences of the definition ===One has and .", "In particular, one may deduce the additive inverse of every element as soon as one knows .If then or must be , since, if , then.", "This means that every field is an integral domain.In addition, the following properties are true for any elements and :: : : : : if === Additive and multiplicative groups of a field ===The axioms of a field imply that it is an abelian group under addition.", "This group is called the additive group of the field, and is sometimes denoted by when denoting it simply as could be confusing.Similarly, the ''nonzero'' elements of form an abelian group under multiplication, called the multiplicative group, and denoted by or just , or .A field may thus be defined as set equipped with two operations denoted as an addition and a multiplication such that is an abelian group under addition, is an abelian group under multiplication (where 0 is the identity element of the addition), and multiplication is distributive over addition.", "Some elementary statements about fields can therefore be obtained by applying general facts of groups.", "For example, the additive and multiplicative inverses and are uniquely determined by .The requirement is imposed by convention to exclude the trivial ring, which consists of a single element; this guides any choice of the axioms that define fields.Every finite subgroup of the multiplicative group of a field is cyclic (see '''').=== Characteristic ===In addition to the multiplication of two elements of , it is possible to define the product of an arbitrary element of by a positive integer to be the -fold sum: (which is an element of .", ")If there is no positive integer such that: ,then is said to have characteristic .", "For example, the field of rational numbers has characteristic 0 since no positive integer is zero.", "Otherwise, if there ''is'' a positive integer satisfying this equation, the smallest such positive integer can be shown to be a prime number.", "It is usually denoted by and the field is said to have characteristic then.For example, the field has characteristic since (in the notation of the above addition table) .If has characteristic , then for all in .", "This implies that: ,since all other binomial coefficients appearing in the binomial formula are divisible by .", "Here, ( factors) is the th power, i.e., the -fold product of the element .", "Therefore, the Frobenius map: is compatible with the addition in (and also with the multiplication), and is therefore a field homomorphism.", "The existence of this homomorphism makes fields in characteristic quite different from fields of characteristic .=== Subfields and prime fields ===A ''subfield'' of a field is a subset of that is a field with respect to the field operations of .", "Equivalently is a subset of that contains , and is closed under addition, multiplication, additive inverse and multiplicative inverse of a nonzero element.", "This means that , that for all both and are in , and that for all in , both and are in .Field homomorphisms are maps between two fields such that , , and , where and are arbitrary elements of .", "All field homomorphisms are injective.", "If is also surjective, it is called an isomorphism (or the fields and are called isomorphic).A field is called a prime field if it has no proper (i.e., strictly smaller) subfields.", "Any field contains a prime field.", "If the characteristic of is (a prime number), the prime field is isomorphic to the finite field introduced below.", "Otherwise the prime field is isomorphic to ." ], [ "Finite fields", "''Finite fields'' (also called ''Galois fields'') are fields with finitely many elements, whose number is also referred to as the order of the field.", "The above introductory example is a field with four elements.", "Its subfield is the smallest field, because by definition a field has at least two distinct elements, and .In modular arithmetic modulo 12, since in , which divided by leaves remainder .", "However, is not a field because is not a prime number.The simplest finite fields, with prime order, are most directly accessible using modular arithmetic.", "For a fixed positive integer , arithmetic \"modulo \" means to work with the numbers: The addition and multiplication on this set are done by performing the operation in question in the set of integers, dividing by and taking the remainder as result.", "This construction yields a field precisely if is a prime number.", "For example, taking the prime results in the above-mentioned field .", "For and more generally, for any composite number (i.e., any number which can be expressed as a product of two strictly smaller natural numbers), is not a field: the product of two non-zero elements is zero since in , which, as was explained above, prevents from being a field.", "The field with elements ( being prime) constructed in this way is usually denoted by .Every finite field has elements, where is prime and .", "This statement holds since may be viewed as a vector space over its prime field.", "The dimension of this vector space is necessarily finite, say , which implies the asserted statement.A field with elements can be constructed as the splitting field of the polynomial: .Such a splitting field is an extension of in which the polynomial has zeros.", "This means has as many zeros as possible since the degree of is .", "For , it can be checked case by case using the above multiplication table that all four elements of satisfy the equation , so they are zeros of .", "By contrast, in , has only two zeros (namely and ), so does not split into linear factors in this smaller field.", "Elaborating further on basic field-theoretic notions, it can be shown that two finite fields with the same order are isomorphic.", "It is thus customary to speak of ''the'' finite field with elements, denoted by or ." ], [ "History", "Historically, three algebraic disciplines led to the concept of a field: the question of solving polynomial equations, algebraic number theory, and algebraic geometry.", "A first step towards the notion of a field was made in 1770 by Joseph-Louis Lagrange, who observed that permuting the zeros of a cubic polynomial in the expression: (with being a third root of unity) only yields two values.", "This way, Lagrange conceptually explained the classical solution method of Scipione del Ferro and François Viète, which proceeds by reducing a cubic equation for an unknown to a quadratic equation for .", "Together with a similar observation for equations of degree 4, Lagrange thus linked what eventually became the concept of fields and the concept of groups.", "Vandermonde, also in 1770, and to a fuller extent, Carl Friedrich Gauss, in his ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' (1801), studied the equation: for a prime and, again using modern language, the resulting cyclic Galois group.", "Gauss deduced that a regular -gon can be constructed if .", "Building on Lagrange's work, Paolo Ruffini claimed (1799) that quintic equations (polynomial equations of degree ) cannot be solved algebraically; however, his arguments were flawed.", "These gaps were filled by Niels Henrik Abel in 1824.Évariste Galois, in 1832, devised necessary and sufficient criteria for a polynomial equation to be algebraically solvable, thus establishing in effect what is known as Galois theory today.", "Both Abel and Galois worked with what is today called an algebraic number field, but conceived neither an explicit notion of a field, nor of a group.In 1871 Richard Dedekind introduced, for a set of real or complex numbers that is closed under the four arithmetic operations, the German word ''Körper'', which means \"body\" or \"corpus\" (to suggest an organically closed entity).", "The English term \"field\" was introduced by .In 1881 Leopold Kronecker defined what he called a ''domain of rationality'', which is a field of rational fractions in modern terms.", "Kronecker's notion did not cover the field of all algebraic numbers (which is a field in Dedekind's sense), but on the other hand was more abstract than Dedekind's in that it made no specific assumption on the nature of the elements of a field.", "Kronecker interpreted a field such as abstractly as the rational function field .", "Prior to this, examples of transcendental numbers were known since Joseph Liouville's work in 1844, until Charles Hermite (1873) and Ferdinand von Lindemann (1882) proved the transcendence of and , respectively.The first clear definition of an abstract field is due to .", "In particular, Heinrich Martin Weber's notion included the field .", "Giuseppe Veronese (1891) studied the field of formal power series, which led to introduce the field of -adic numbers.", "synthesized the knowledge of abstract field theory accumulated so far.", "He axiomatically studied the properties of fields and defined many important field-theoretic concepts.", "The majority of the theorems mentioned in the sections Galois theory, Constructing fields and Elementary notions can be found in Steinitz's work.", "linked the notion of orderings in a field, and thus the area of analysis, to purely algebraic properties.", "Emil Artin redeveloped Galois theory from 1928 through 1942, eliminating the dependency on the primitive element theorem." ], [ "Constructing fields", "=== Constructing fields from rings ===A commutative ring is a set that is equipped with an addition and multiplication operation and satisfes all the axioms of a field, except for the existence of multiplicative inverses .", "For example, the integers form a commutative ring, but not a field: the reciprocal of an integer is not itself an integer, unless .In the hierarchy of algebraic structures fields can be characterized as the commutative rings in which every nonzero element is a unit (which means every element is invertible).", "Similarly, fields are the commutative rings with precisely two distinct ideals, and .", "Fields are also precisely the commutative rings in which is the only prime ideal.Given a commutative ring , there are two ways to construct a field related to , i.e., two ways of modifying such that all nonzero elements become invertible: forming the field of fractions, and forming residue fields.", "The field of fractions of is , the rationals, while the residue fields of are the finite fields .==== Field of fractions ====Given an integral domain , its field of fractions is built with the fractions of two elements of exactly as '''Q''' is constructed from the integers.", "More precisely, the elements of are the fractions where and are in , and .", "Two fractions and are equal if and only if .", "The operation on the fractions work exactly as for rational numbers.", "For example,: It is straightforward to show that, if the ring is an integral domain, the set of the fractions form a field.The field of the rational fractions over a field (or an integral domain) is the field of fractions of the polynomial ring .", "The field of Laurent series: over a field is the field of fractions of the ring of formal power series (in which ).", "Since any Laurent series is a fraction of a power series divided by a power of (as opposed to an arbitrary power series), the representation of fractions is less important in this situation, though.==== Residue fields ====In addition to the field of fractions, which embeds injectively into a field, a field can be obtained from a commutative ring by means of a surjective map onto a field .", "Any field obtained in this way is a quotient , where is a maximal ideal of .", "If has only one maximal ideal , this field is called the residue field of .The ideal generated by a single polynomial in the polynomial ring (over a field ) is maximal if and only if is irreducible in , i.e., if cannot be expressed as the product of two polynomials in of smaller degree.", "This yields a field: This field contains an element (namely the residue class of ) which satisfies the equation: .For example, is obtained from by adjoining the imaginary unit symbol , which satisfies , where .", "Moreover, is irreducible over , which implies that the map that sends a polynomial to yields an isomorphism: === Constructing fields within a bigger field ===Fields can be constructed inside a given bigger container field.", "Suppose given a field , and a field containing as a subfield.", "For any element of , there is a smallest subfield of containing and , called the subfield of ''F'' generated by and denoted .", "The passage from to is referred to by ''adjoining an element'' to .", "More generally, for a subset , there is a minimal subfield of containing and , denoted by .The compositum of two subfields and of some field is the smallest subfield of containing both and .", "The compositum can be used to construct the biggest subfield of satisfying a certain property, for example the biggest subfield of , which is, in the language introduced below, algebraic over .=== Field extensions ===The notion of a subfield can also be regarded from the opposite point of view, by referring to being a ''field extension'' (or just extension) of , denoted by: ,and read \" over \".A basic datum of a field extension is its degree , i.e., the dimension of as an -vector space.", "It satisfies the formula: .Extensions whose degree is finite are referred to as finite extensions.", "The extensions and are of degree , whereas is an infinite extension.==== Algebraic extensions ====A pivotal notion in the study of field extensions are algebraic elements.", "An element is ''algebraic'' over if it is a root of a polynomial with coefficients in , that is, if it satisfies a polynomial equation: ,with in , and .For example, the imaginary unit in is algebraic over , and even over , since it satisfies the equation: .A field extension in which every element of is algebraic over is called an algebraic extension.", "Any finite extension is necessarily algebraic, as can be deduced from the above multiplicativity formula.The subfield generated by an element , as above, is an algebraic extension of if and only if is an algebraic element.", "That is to say, if is algebraic, all other elements of are necessarily algebraic as well.", "Moreover, the degree of the extension , i.e., the dimension of as an -vector space, equals the minimal degree such that there is a polynomial equation involving , as above.", "If this degree is , then the elements of have the form: For example, the field of Gaussian rationals is the subfield of consisting of all numbers of the form where both and are rational numbers: summands of the form (and similarly for higher exponents) do not have to be considered here, since can be simplified to .==== Transcendence bases ====The above-mentioned field of rational fractions , where is an indeterminate, is not an algebraic extension of since there is no polynomial equation with coefficients in whose zero is .", "Elements, such as , which are not algebraic are called transcendental.", "Informally speaking, the indeterminate and its powers do not interact with elements of .", "A similar construction can be carried out with a set of indeterminates, instead of just one.Once again, the field extension discussed above is a key example: if is not algebraic (i.e., is not a root of a polynomial with coefficients in ), then is isomorphic to .", "This isomorphism is obtained by substituting to in rational fractions.A subset of a field is a transcendence basis if it is algebraically independent (do not satisfy any polynomial relations) over and if is an algebraic extension of .", "Any field extension has a transcendence basis.", "Thus, field extensions can be split into ones of the form (purely transcendental extensions) and algebraic extensions.=== Closure operations ===A field is algebraically closed if it does not have any strictly bigger algebraic extensions or, equivalently, if any polynomial equation: , with coefficients ,has a solution .", "By the fundamental theorem of algebra, is algebraically closed, i.e., ''any'' polynomial equation with complex coefficients has a complex solution.", "The rational and the real numbers are ''not'' algebraically closed since the equation: does not have any rational or real solution.", "A field containing is called an ''algebraic closure'' of if it is algebraic over (roughly speaking, not too big compared to ) and is algebraically closed (big enough to contain solutions of all polynomial equations).By the above, is an algebraic closure of .", "The situation that the algebraic closure is a finite extension of the field is quite special: by the Artin–Schreier theorem, the degree of this extension is necessarily , and is elementarily equivalent to .", "Such fields are also known as real closed fields.Any field has an algebraic closure, which is moreover unique up to (non-unique) isomorphism.", "It is commonly referred to as ''the'' algebraic closure and denoted .", "For example, the algebraic closure of is called the field of algebraic numbers.", "The field is usually rather implicit since its construction requires the ultrafilter lemma, a set-theoretic axiom that is weaker than the axiom of choice.", "In this regard, the algebraic closure of , is exceptionally simple.", "It is the union of the finite fields containing (the ones of order ).", "For any algebraically closed field of characteristic , the algebraic closure of the field of Laurent series is the field of Puiseux series, obtained by adjoining roots of ." ], [ "Fields with additional structure", "Since fields are ubiquitous in mathematics and beyond, several refinements of the concept have been adapted to the needs of particular mathematical areas.=== Ordered fields ===A field ''F'' is called an ''ordered field'' if any two elements can be compared, so that and whenever and .", "For example, the real numbers form an ordered field, with the usual ordering .", "The Artin–Schreier theorem states that a field can be ordered if and only if it is a formally real field, which means that any quadratic equation: only has the solution .", "The set of all possible orders on a fixed field is isomorphic to the set of ring homomorphisms from the Witt ring of quadratic forms over , to .An Archimedean field is an ordered field such that for each element there exists a finite expression: whose value is greater than that element, that is, there are no infinite elements.", "Equivalently, the field contains no infinitesimals (elements smaller than all rational numbers); or, yet equivalent, the field is isomorphic to a subfield of .Each bounded real set has a least upper bound.An ordered field is Dedekind-complete if all upper bounds, lower bounds (see ''Dedekind cut'') and limits, which should exist, do exist.", "More formally, each bounded subset of is required to have a least upper bound.", "Any complete field is necessarily Archimedean, since in any non-Archimedean field there is neither a greatest infinitesimal nor a least positive rational, whence the sequence , every element of which is greater than every infinitesimal, has no limit.Since every proper subfield of the reals also contains such gaps, is the unique complete ordered field, up to isomorphism.", "Several foundational results in calculus follow directly from this characterization of the reals.The hyperreals form an ordered field that is not Archimedean.", "It is an extension of the reals obtained by including infinite and infinitesimal numbers.", "These are larger, respectively smaller than any real number.", "The hyperreals form the foundational basis of non-standard analysis.=== Topological fields ===Another refinement of the notion of a field is a topological field, in which the set is a topological space, such that all operations of the field (addition, multiplication, the maps and ) are continuous maps with respect to the topology of the space.The topology of all the fields discussed below is induced from a metric, i.e., a function: that measures a ''distance'' between any two elements of .The completion of is another field in which, informally speaking, the \"gaps\" in the original field are filled, if there are any.", "For example, any irrational number , such as , is a \"gap\" in the rationals in the sense that it is a real number that can be approximated arbitrarily closely by rational numbers , in the sense that distance of and given by the absolute value is as small as desired.The following table lists some examples of this construction.", "The fourth column shows an example of a zero sequence, i.e., a sequence whose limit (for ) is zero.", "Field Metric Completion zero sequence (usual absolute value) '''R''' obtained using the ''p''-adic valuation, for a prime number (-adic numbers) ( any field) obtained using the -adic valuation The field is used in number theory and -adic analysis.", "The algebraic closure carries a unique norm extending the one on , but is not complete.", "The completion of this algebraic closure, however, is algebraically closed.", "Because of its rough analogy to the complex numbers, it is sometimes called the field of complex ''p''-adic numbers and is denoted by .==== Local fields ====The following topological fields are called ''local fields'':* finite extensions of (local fields of characteristic zero)* finite extensions of , the field of Laurent series over (local fields of characteristic ).These two types of local fields share some fundamental similarities.", "In this relation, the elements and (referred to as uniformizer) correspond to each other.", "The first manifestation of this is at an elementary level: the elements of both fields can be expressed as power series in the uniformizer, with coefficients in .", "(However, since the addition in is done using carrying, which is not the case in , these fields are not isomorphic.)", "The following facts show that this superficial similarity goes much deeper:* Any first-order statement that is true for almost all is also true for almost all .", "An application of this is the Ax–Kochen theorem describing zeros of homogeneous polynomials in .", "* Tamely ramified extensions of both fields are in bijection to one another.", "* Adjoining arbitrary -power roots of (in ), respectively of (in ), yields (infinite) extensions of these fields known as perfectoid fields.", "Strikingly, the Galois groups of these two fields are isomorphic, which is the first glimpse of a remarkable parallel between these two fields: === Differential fields ===Differential fields are fields equipped with a derivation, i.e., allow to take derivatives of elements in the field.", "For example, the field , together with the standard derivative of polynomials forms a differential field.", "These fields are central to differential Galois theory, a variant of Galois theory dealing with linear differential equations." ], [ "Galois theory", "Galois theory studies algebraic extensions of a field by studying the symmetry in the arithmetic operations of addition and multiplication.", "An important notion in this area is that of finite Galois extensions , which are, by definition, those that are separable and normal.", "The primitive element theorem shows that finite separable extensions are necessarily simple, i.e., of the form: ,where is an irreducible polynomial (as above).", "For such an extension, being normal and separable means that all zeros of are contained in and that has only simple zeros.", "The latter condition is always satisfied if has characteristic .For a finite Galois extension, the Galois group is the group of field automorphisms of that are trivial on (i.e., the bijections that preserve addition and multiplication and that send elements of to themselves).", "The importance of this group stems from the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, which constructs an explicit one-to-one correspondence between the set of subgroups of and the set of intermediate extensions of the extension .", "By means of this correspondence, group-theoretic properties translate into facts about fields.", "For example, if the Galois group of a Galois extension as above is not solvable (cannot be built from abelian groups), then the zeros of ''cannot'' be expressed in terms of addition, multiplication, and radicals, i.e., expressions involving .", "For example, the symmetric groups is not solvable for .", "Consequently, as can be shown, the zeros of the following polynomials are not expressible by sums, products, and radicals.", "For the latter polynomial, this fact is known as the Abel–Ruffini theorem:: (and ),: (where is regarded as a polynomial in , for some indeterminates , is any field, and ).The tensor product of fields is not usually a field.", "For example, a finite extension of degree is a Galois extension if and only if there is an isomorphism of -algebras: .This fact is the beginning of Grothendieck's Galois theory, a far-reaching extension of Galois theory applicable to algebro-geometric objects." ], [ "Invariants of fields", "Basic invariants of a field include the characteristic and the transcendence degree of over its prime field.", "The latter is defined as the maximal number of elements in that are algebraically independent over the prime field.", "Two algebraically closed fields and are isomorphic precisely if these two data agree.", "This implies that any two uncountable algebraically closed fields of the same cardinality and the same characteristic are isomorphic.", "For example, and are isomorphic (but ''not'' isomorphic as topological fields).=== Model theory of fields ===In model theory, a branch of mathematical logic, two fields and are called elementarily equivalent if every mathematical statement that is true for is also true for and conversely.", "The mathematical statements in question are required to be first-order sentences (involving , , the addition and multiplication).", "A typical example, for , an integer, is: = \"any polynomial of degree in has a zero in \"The set of such formulas for all expresses that is algebraically closed.The Lefschetz principle states that is elementarily equivalent to any algebraically closed field of characteristic zero.", "Moreover, any fixed statement holds in if and only if it holds in any algebraically closed field of sufficiently high characteristic.If is an ultrafilter on a set , and is a field for every in , the ultraproduct of the with respect to is a field.", "It is denoted by: ,since it behaves in several ways as a limit of the fields : Łoś's theorem states that any first order statement that holds for all but finitely many , also holds for the ultraproduct.", "Applied to the above sentence , this shows that there is an isomorphism: The Ax–Kochen theorem mentioned above also follows from this and an isomorphism of the ultraproducts (in both cases over all primes ): .In addition, model theory also studies the logical properties of various other types of fields, such as real closed fields or exponential fields (which are equipped with an exponential function ).=== Absolute Galois group ===For fields that are not algebraically closed (or not separably closed), the absolute Galois group is fundamentally important: extending the case of finite Galois extensions outlined above, this group governs ''all'' finite separable extensions of .", "By elementary means, the group can be shown to be the Prüfer group, the profinite completion of .", "This statement subsumes the fact that the only algebraic extensions of are the fields for , and that the Galois groups of these finite extensions are given by: .A description in terms of generators and relations is also known for the Galois groups of -adic number fields (finite extensions of ).Representations of Galois groups and of related groups such as the Weil group are fundamental in many branches of arithmetic, such as the Langlands program.", "The cohomological study of such representations is done using Galois cohomology.", "For example, the Brauer group, which is classically defined as the group of central simple -algebras, can be reinterpreted as a Galois cohomology group, namely: .=== K-theory ===Milnor K-theory is defined as: The norm residue isomorphism theorem, proved around 2000 by Vladimir Voevodsky, relates this to Galois cohomology by means of an isomorphism: Algebraic K-theory is related to the group of invertible matrices with coefficients the given field.", "For example, the process of taking the determinant of an invertible matrix leads to an isomorphism .", "Matsumoto's theorem shows that agrees with .", "In higher degrees, K-theory diverges from Milnor K-theory and remains hard to compute in general." ], [ "Applications", "=== Linear algebra and commutative algebra ===If , then the equation: has a unique solution in a field , namely This immediate consequence of the definition of a field is fundamental in linear algebra.", "For example, it is an essential ingredient of Gaussian elimination and of the proof that any vector space has a basis.The theory of modules (the analogue of vector spaces over rings instead of fields) is much more complicated, because the above equation may have several or no solutions.", "In particular systems of linear equations over a ring are much more difficult to solve than in the case of fields, even in the specially simple case of the ring of the integers.=== Finite fields: cryptography and coding theory ===The sum of three points , , and on an elliptic curve (red) is zero if there is a line (blue) passing through these points.A widely applied cryptographic routine uses the fact that discrete exponentiation, i.e., computing: ( factors, for an integer )in a (large) finite field can be performed much more efficiently than the discrete logarithm, which is the inverse operation, i.e., determining the solution to an equation: .In elliptic curve cryptography, the multiplication in a finite field is replaced by the operation of adding points on an elliptic curve, i.e., the solutions of an equation of the form: .Finite fields are also used in coding theory and combinatorics.=== Geometry: field of functions ===genus two (two handles).", "The genus can be read off the field of meromorphic functions on the surface.Functions on a suitable topological space into a field can be added and multiplied pointwise, e.g., the product of two functions is defined by the product of their values within the domain:: .This makes these functions a -commutative algebra.For having a ''field'' of functions, one must consider algebras of functions that are integral domains.", "In this case the ratios of two functions, i.e., expressions of the form: form a field, called field of functions.This occurs in two main cases.", "When is a complex manifold .", "In this case, one considers the algebra of holomorphic functions, i.e., complex differentiable functions.", "Their ratios form the field of meromorphic functions on .The function field of an algebraic variety (a geometric object defined as the common zeros of polynomial equations) consists of ratios of regular functions, i.e., ratios of polynomial functions on the variety.", "The function field of the -dimensional space over a field is , i.e., the field consisting of ratios of polynomials in indeterminates.", "The function field of is the same as the one of any open dense subvariety.", "In other words, the function field is insensitive to replacing by a (slightly) smaller subvariety.The function field is invariant under isomorphism and birational equivalence of varieties.", "It is therefore an important tool for the study of abstract algebraic varieties and for the classification of algebraic varieties.", "For example, the dimension, which equals the transcendence degree of , is invariant under birational equivalence.", "For curves (i.e., the dimension is one), the function field is very close to : if is smooth and proper (the analogue of being compact), can be reconstructed, up to isomorphism, from its field of functions.", "In higher dimension the function field remembers less, but still decisive information about .", "The study of function fields and their geometric meaning in higher dimensions is referred to as birational geometry.", "The minimal model program attempts to identify the simplest (in a certain precise sense) algebraic varieties with a prescribed function field.=== Number theory: global fields ===Global fields are in the limelight in algebraic number theory and arithmetic geometry.They are, by definition, number fields (finite extensions of ) or function fields over (finite extensions of ).", "As for local fields, these two types of fields share several similar features, even though they are of characteristic and positive characteristic, respectively.", "This function field analogy can help to shape mathematical expectations, often first by understanding questions about function fields, and later treating the number field case.", "The latter is often more difficult.", "For example, the Riemann hypothesis concerning the zeros of the Riemann zeta function (open as of 2017) can be regarded as being parallel to the Weil conjectures (proven in 1974 by Pierre Deligne).The fifth roots of unity form a regular pentagon.Cyclotomic fields are among the most intensely studied number fields.", "They are of the form , where is a primitive th root of unity, i.e., a complex number that satisfies and for all .", "For being a regular prime, Kummer used cyclotomic fields to prove Fermat's Last Theorem, which asserts the non-existence of rational nonzero solutions to the equation: .Local fields are completions of global fields.", "Ostrowski's theorem asserts that the only completions of , a global field, are the local fields and .", "Studying arithmetic questions in global fields may sometimes be done by looking at the corresponding questions locally.", "This technique is called the local–global principle.", "For example, the Hasse–Minkowski theorem reduces the problem of finding rational solutions of quadratic equations to solving these equations in and , whose solutions can easily be described.Unlike for local fields, the Galois groups of global fields are not known.", "Inverse Galois theory studies the (unsolved) problem whether any finite group is the Galois group for some number field .", "Class field theory describes the abelian extensions, i.e., ones with abelian Galois group, or equivalently the abelianized Galois groups of global fields.", "A classical statement, the Kronecker–Weber theorem, describes the maximal abelian extension of : it is the field: obtained by adjoining all primitive th roots of unity.", "Kronecker's Jugendtraum asks for a similarly explicit description of of general number fields .", "For imaginary quadratic fields, , , the theory of complex multiplication describes using elliptic curves.", "For general number fields, no such explicit description is known." ], [ "Related notions", "In addition to the additional structure that fields may enjoy, fields admit various other related notions.", "Since in any field , any field has at least two elements.", "Nonetheless, there is a concept of field with one element, which is suggested to be a limit of the finite fields , as tends to .", "In addition to division rings, there are various other weaker algebraic structures related to fields such as quasifields, near-fields and semifields.There are also proper classes with field structure, which are sometimes called '''Field'''s, with a capital 'F'.", "The surreal numbers form a Field containing the reals, and would be a field except for the fact that they are a proper class, not a set.", "The nimbers, a concept from game theory, form such a Field as well.=== Division rings ===continuous tangent vector field on the sphere , which is everywhere non-zero.Dropping one or several axioms in the definition of a field leads to other algebraic structures.", "As was mentioned above, commutative rings satisfy all field axioms except for the existence of multiplicative inverses.", "Dropping instead commutativity of multiplication leads to the concept of a ''division ring'' or ''skew field''; sometimes associativity is weakened as well.", "The only division rings that are finite-dimensional -vector spaces are itself, (which is a field), and the quaternions (in which multiplication is non-commutative).", "This result is known as the Frobenius theorem.", "The octonions , for which multiplication is neither commutative nor associative, is a normed alternative division algebra, but is not a division ring.", "This fact was proved using methods of algebraic topology in 1958 by Michel Kervaire, Raoul Bott, and John Milnor.", "The non-existence of an odd-dimensional division algebra is more classical.", "It can be deduced from the hairy ball theorem illustrated at the right." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * , especially Chapter 13* * * * * * .", "See especially Book 3 () and Book 6 ().", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Factorial" ], [ "Introduction", "+ Selected factorials; values in scientific notation are rounded 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 6 4 24 5 120 6 720 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 25 50 70 100 450 10In mathematics, the '''factorial''' of a non-negative denoted is the product of all positive integers less than or equal The factorial also equals the product of with the next smaller factorial:For example,The value of 0!", "is 1, according to the convention for an empty product.Factorials have been discovered in several ancient cultures, notably in Indian mathematics in the canonical works of Jain literature, and by Jewish mystics in the Talmudic book ''Sefer Yetzirah''.", "The factorial operation is encountered in many areas of mathematics, notably in combinatorics, where its most basic use counts the possible distinct sequences – the permutations – of distinct objects: there In mathematical analysis, factorials are used in power series for the exponential function and other functions, and they also have applications in algebra, number theory, probability theory, and computer science.Much of the mathematics of the factorial function was developed beginning in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Stirling's approximation provides an accurate approximation to the factorial of large numbers, showing that it grows more quickly than exponential growth.", "Legendre's formula describes the exponents of the prime numbers in a prime factorization of the factorials, and can be used to count the trailing zeros of the factorials.", "Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler interpolated the factorial function to a continuous function of complex numbers, except at the negative integers, the (offset) gamma function.Many other notable functions and number sequences are closely related to the factorials, including the binomial coefficients, double factorials, falling factorials, primorials, and subfactorials.", "Implementations of the factorial function are commonly used as an example of different computer programming styles, and are included in scientific calculators and scientific computing software libraries.", "Although directly computing large factorials using the product formula or recurrence is not efficient, faster algorithms are known, matching to within a constant factor the time for fast multiplication algorithms for numbers with the same number of digits." ], [ "History", "The concept of factorials has arisen independently in many cultures:In Indian mathematics, one of the earliest known descriptions of factorials comes from the Anuyogadvāra-sūtra, one of the canonical works of Jain literature, which has been assigned dates varying from 300 BCE to 400 CE.", "It separates out the sorted and reversed order of a set of items from the other (\"mixed\") orders, evaluating the number of mixed orders by subtracting two from the usual product formula for the factorial.", "The product rule for permutations was also described by 6th-century CE Jain monk Jinabhadra.", "Hindu scholars have been using factorial formulas since at least 1150, when Bhāskara II mentioned factorials in his work Līlāvatī, in connection with a problem of how many ways Vishnu could hold his four characteristic objects (a conch shell, discus, mace, and lotus flower) in his four hands, and a similar problem for a ten-handed god.", "In the mathematics of the Middle East, the Hebrew mystic book of creation ''Sefer Yetzirah'', from the Talmudic period (200 to 500 CE), lists factorials up to 7!", "as part of an investigation into the number of words that can be formed from the Hebrew alphabet.", "Factorials were also studied for similar reasons by 8th-century Arab grammarian Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi.", "Arab mathematician Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhazen, c. 965 – c. 1040) was the first to formulate Wilson's theorem connecting the factorials with the prime numbers.", "In Europe, although Greek mathematics included some combinatorics, and Plato famously used 5,040 (a factorial) as the population of an ideal community, in part because of its divisibility properties, there is no direct evidence of ancient Greek study of factorials.", "Instead, the first work on factorials in Europe was by Jewish scholars such as Shabbethai Donnolo, explicating the Sefer Yetzirah passage.", "In 1677, British author Fabian Stedman described the application of factorials to change ringing, a musical art involving the ringing of several tuned bells.From the late 15th century onward, factorials became the subject of study by Western mathematicians.", "In a 1494 treatise, Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli calculated factorials up to 11!, in connection with a problem of dining table arrangements.", "Christopher Clavius discussed factorials in a 1603 commentary on the work of Johannes de Sacrobosco, and in the 1640s, French polymath Marin Mersenne published large (but not entirely correct) tables of factorials, up to 64!, based on the work of Clavius.", "The power series for the exponential function, with the reciprocals of factorials for its coefficients, was first formulated in 1676 by Isaac Newton in a letter to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.", "Other important works of early European mathematics on factorials include extensive coverage in a 1685 treatise by John Wallis, a study of their approximate values for large values of by Abraham de Moivre in 1721, a 1729 letter from James Stirling to de Moivre stating what became known as Stirling's approximation, and work at the same time by Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler formulating the continuous extension of the factorial function to the gamma function.", "Adrien-Marie Legendre included Legendre's formula, describing the exponents in the factorization of factorials into prime powers, in an 1808 text on number theory.The notation for factorials was introduced by the French mathematician Christian Kramp in 1808.Many other notations have also been used.", "Another later notation , in which the argument of the factorial was half-enclosed by the left and bottom sides of a box, was popular for some time in Britain and America but fell out of use, perhaps because it is difficult to typeset.", "The word \"factorial\" (originally French: ''factorielle'') was first used in 1800 by Louis François Antoine Arbogast, in the first work on Faà di Bruno's formula, but referring to a more general concept of products of arithmetic progressions.", "The \"factors\" that this name refers to are the terms of the product formula for the factorial." ], [ "Definition", "The factorial function of a positive integer is defined by the product of all positive integers not greater than This may be written more concisely in product notation asIf this product formula is changed to keep all but the last term, it would define a product of the same form, for a smaller factorial.", "This leads to a recurrence relation, according to which each value of the factorial function can be obtained by multiplying the previous value For example, ===Factorial of zero===The factorial or in symbols, There are several motivations for this definition: For the definition of as a product involves the product of no numbers at all, and so is an example of the broader convention that the empty product, a product of no factors, is equal to the multiplicative identity.", "* There is exactly one permutation of zero objects: with nothing to permute, the only rearrangement is to do nothing.", "* This convention makes many identities in combinatorics valid for all valid choices of their parameters.", "For instance, the number of ways to choose all elements from a set of is a binomial coefficient identity that would only be valid * With the recurrence relation for the factorial remains valid Therefore, with this convention, a recursive computation of the factorial needs to have only the value for zero as a base case, simplifying the computation and avoiding the need for additional special cases.", "* Setting allows for the compact expression of many formulae, such as the exponential function, as a power series: * This choice matches the gamma function and the gamma function must have this value to be a continuous function." ], [ "Applications", "The earliest uses of the factorial function involve counting permutations: there are different ways of arranging distinct objects into a sequence.", "Factorials appear more broadly in many formulas in combinatorics, to account for different orderings of objects.", "For instance the binomial coefficients count the combinations (subsets of from a set with and can be computed from factorials using the formula The Stirling numbers of the first kind sum to the factorials, and count the permutations grouped into subsets with the same numbers of cycles.", "Another combinatorial application is in counting derangements, permutations that do not leave any element in its original position; the number of derangements of items is the nearest integer In algebra, the factorials arise through the binomial theorem, which uses binomial coefficients to expand powers of sums.", "They also occur in the coefficients used to relate certain families of polynomials to each other, for instance in Newton's identities for symmetric polynomials.", "Their use in counting permutations can also be restated algebraically: the factorials are the orders of finite symmetric groups.", "In calculus, factorials occur in Faà di Bruno's formula for chaining higher derivatives.", "In mathematical analysis, factorials frequently appear in the denominators of power series, most notably in the series for the exponential function, and in the coefficients of other Taylor series (in particular those of the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions), where they cancel factors of coming from the This usage of factorials in power series connects back to analytic combinatorics through the exponential generating function, which for a combinatorial class with elements of is defined as the power series In number theory, the most salient property of factorials is the divisibility of by all positive integers up described more precisely for prime factors by Legendre's formula.", "It follows that arbitrarily large prime numbers can be found as the prime factors of the numbers, leading to a proof of Euclid's theorem that the number of primes is infinite.", "When is itself prime it is called a factorial prime; relatedly, Brocard's problem, also posed by Srinivasa Ramanujan, concerns the existence of square numbers of the form In contrast, the numbers must all be composite, proving the existence of arbitrarily large prime gaps.", "An elementary proof of Bertrand's postulate on the existence of a prime in any interval of the one of the first results of Paul Erdős, was based on the divisibility properties of factorials.", "The factorial number system is a mixed radix notation for numbers in which the place values of each digit are factorials.Factorials are used extensively in probability theory, for instance in the Poisson distribution and in the probabilities of random permutations.", "In computer science, beyond appearing in the analysis of brute-force searches over permutations, factorials arise in the lower bound of on the number of comparisons needed to comparison sort a set of items, and in the analysis of chained hash tables, where the distribution of keys per cell can be accurately approximated by a Poisson distribution.", "Moreover, factorials naturally appear in formulae from quantum and statistical physics, where one often considers all the possible permutations of a set of particles.", "In statistical mechanics, calculations of entropy such as Boltzmann's entropy formula or the Sackur–Tetrode equation must correct the count of microstates by dividing by the factorials of the numbers of each type of indistinguishable particle to avoid the Gibbs paradox.", "Quantum physics provides the underlying reason for why these corrections are necessary." ], [ "Properties", "===Growth and approximation===Comparison of the factorial, Stirling's approximation, and the simpler approximation on a doubly logarithmic scaleRelative error in a truncated Stirling series vs. number of termsAs a function the factorial has faster than exponential growth, but grows more slowly than a double exponential function.", "Its growth rate is similar but slower by an exponential factor.", "One way of approaching this result is by taking the natural logarithm of the factorial, which turns its product formula into a sum, and then estimating the sum by an integral:Exponentiating the result (and ignoring the negligible term) approximates as More carefully bounding the sum both above and below by an integral, using the trapezoid rule, shows that this estimate needs a correction factor proportional The constant of proportionality for this correction can be found from the Wallis product, which expresses as a limiting ratio of factorials and powers of two.", "The result of these corrections is Stirling's approximation:Here, the symbol means that, as goes to infinity, the ratio between the left and right sides approaches one in the limit.Stirling's formula provides the first term in an asymptotic series that becomes even more accurate when taken to greater numbers of terms:An alternative version uses only odd exponents in the correction terms:Many other variations of these formulas have also been developed, by Srinivasa Ramanujan, Bill Gosper, and others.The binary logarithm of the factorial, used to analyze comparison sorting, can be very accurately estimated using Stirling's approximation.", "In the formula below, the term invokes big O notation.===Divisibility and digits===The product formula for the factorial implies that is divisible by all prime numbers that are at and by no larger prime numbers.", "More precise information about its divisibility is given by Legendre's formula, which gives the exponent of each prime in the prime factorization of asHere denotes the sum of the digits and the exponent given by this formula can also be interpreted in advanced mathematics as the -adic valuation of the factorial.", "Applying Legendre's formula to the product formula for binomial coefficients produces Kummer's theorem, a similar result on the exponent of each prime in the factorization of a binomial coefficient.", "Grouping the prime factors of the factorial into prime powers in different ways produces the multiplicative partitions of factorials.The special case of Legendre's formula for gives the number of trailing zeros in the decimal representation of the factorials.", "According to this formula, the number of zeros can be obtained by subtracting the base-5 digits of from , and dividing the result by four.", "Legendre's formula implies that the exponent of the prime is always larger than the exponent for so each factor of five can be paired with a factor of two to produce one of these trailing zeros.", "The leading digits of the factorials are distributed according to Benford's law.", "Every sequence of digits, in any base, is the sequence of initial digits of some factorial number in that base.Another result on divisibility of factorials, Wilson's theorem, states that is divisible by if and only if is a prime number.", "For any given the Kempner function of is given by the smallest for which divides For almost all numbers (all but a subset of exceptions with asymptotic density zero), it coincides with the largest prime factor The product of two factorials, always evenly divides There are infinitely many factorials that equal the product of other factorials: if is itself any product of factorials, then equals that same product multiplied by one more factorial, The only known examples of factorials that are products of other factorials but are not of this \"trivial\" form are and It would follow from the conjecture that there are only finitely many nontrivial examples.The greatest common divisor of the values of a primitive polynomial of degree over the integers evenly divides ===Continuous interpolation and non-integer generalization===The gamma function (shifted one unit left to match the factorials) continuously interpolates the factorial to non-integer valuesAbsolute values of the complex gamma function, showing poles at non-positive integersThere are infinitely many ways to extend the factorials to a continuous function.", "The most widely used of these uses the gamma function, which can be defined for positive real numbers as the integralThe resulting function is related to the factorial of a non-negative integer by the equationwhich can be used as a definition of the factorial for non-integer arguments.At all values for which both and are defined, the gamma function obeys the functional equationgeneralizing the recurrence relation for the factorials.The same integral converges more generally for any complex number whose real part is positive.", "It can be extended to the non-integer points in the rest of the complex plane by solving for Euler's reflection formulaHowever, this formula cannot be used at integers because, for them, the term would produce a division by zero.", "The result of this extension process is an analytic function, the analytic continuation of the integral formula for the gamma function.", "It has a nonzero value at all complex numbers, except for the non-positive integers where it has simple poles.", "Correspondingly, this provides a definition for the factorial at all complex numbers other than the negative integers.One property of the gamma function, distinguishing it from other continuous interpolations of the factorials, is given by the Bohr–Mollerup theorem, which states that the gamma function (offset by one) is the only log-convex function on the positive real numbers that interpolates the factorials and obeys the same functional equation.", "A related uniqueness theorem of Helmut Wielandt states that the complex gamma function and its scalar multiples are the only holomorphic functions on the positive complex half-plane that obey the functional equation and remain bounded for complex numbers with real part between 1 and 2.Other complex functions that interpolate the factorial values include Hadamard's gamma function, which is an entire function over all the complex numbers, including the non-positive integers.", "In the -adic numbers, it is not possible to continuously interpolate the factorial function directly, because the factorials of large integers (a dense subset of the -adics) converge to zero according to Legendre's formula, forcing any continuous function that is close to their values to be zero everywhere.", "Instead, the -adic gamma function provides a continuous interpolation of a modified form of the factorial, omitting the factors in the factorial that are divisible by .The digamma function is the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function.", "Just as the gamma function provides a continuous interpolation of the factorials, offset by one, the digamma function provides a continuous interpolation of the harmonic numbers, offset by the Euler–Mascheroni constant.===Computation===TI SR-50A, a 1975 calculator with a factorial key (third row, center right)The factorial function is a common feature in scientific calculators.", "It is also included in scientific programming libraries such as the Python mathematical functions module and the Boost C++ library.", "If efficiency is not a concern, computing factorials is trivial: just successively multiply a variable initialized by the integers up The simplicity of this computation makes it a common example in the use of different computer programming styles and methods.The computation of can be expressed in pseudocode using iteration as define factorial(''n''): ''f'' := 1 for ''i'' := 1, 2, 3, ..., ''n'': ''f'' := ''f'' * ''i'' return ''f''or using recursion based on its recurrence relation as define factorial(''n''): if (''n'' = 0) return 1 return ''n'' * factorial(''n'' − 1)Other methods suitable for its computation include memoization, dynamic programming, and functional programming.", "The computational complexity of these algorithms may be analyzed using the unit-cost random-access machine model of computation, in which each arithmetic operation takes constant time and each number uses a constant amount of storage space.", "In this model, these methods can compute in time and the iterative version uses space Unless optimized for tail recursion, the recursive version takes linear space to store its call stack.", "However, this model of computation is only suitable when is small enough to allow to fit into a machine word.", "The values 12!", "and 20!", "are the largest factorials that can be stored in, respectively, the 32-bit and 64-bit integers.", "Floating point can represent larger factorials, but approximately rather than exactly, and will still overflow for factorials larger than The exact computation of larger factorials involves arbitrary-precision arithmetic, because of fast growth and integer overflow.", "Time of computation can be analyzed as a function of the number of digits or bits in the result.", "By Stirling's formula, has bits.", "The Schönhage–Strassen algorithm can produce a product in time and faster multiplication algorithms taking time are known.", "However, computing the factorial involves repeated products, rather than a single multiplication, so these time bounds do not apply directly.", "In this setting, computing by multiplying the numbers from 1 in sequence is inefficient, because it involves multiplications, a constant fraction of which take time each, giving total time A better approach is to perform the multiplications as a divide-and-conquer algorithm that multiplies a sequence of numbers by splitting it into two subsequences of numbers, multiplies each subsequence, and combines the results with one last multiplication.", "This approach to the factorial takes total time one logarithm comes from the number of bits in the factorial, a second comes from the multiplication algorithm, and a third comes from the divide and conquer.Even better efficiency is obtained by computing from its prime factorization, based on the principle that exponentiation by squaring is faster than expanding an exponent into a product.", "An algorithm for this by Arnold Schönhage begins by finding the list of the primes up for instance using the sieve of Eratosthenes, and uses Legendre's formula to compute the exponent for each prime.", "Then it computes the product of the prime powers with these exponents, using a recursive algorithm, as follows:* Use divide and conquer to compute the product of the primes whose exponents are odd* Divide all of the exponents by two (rounding down to an integer), recursively compute the product of the prime powers with these smaller exponents, and square the result* Multiply together the results of the two previous stepsThe product of all primes up to is an -bit number, by the prime number theorem, so the time for the first step is , with one logarithm coming from the divide and conquer and another coming from the multiplication algorithm.", "In the recursive calls to the algorithm, the prime number theorem can again be invoked to prove that the numbers of bits in the corresponding products decrease by a constant factor at each level of recursion, so the total time for these steps at all levels of recursion adds in a geometric series The time for the squaring in the second step and the multiplication in the third step are again because each is a single multiplication of a number with bits.", "Again, at each level of recursion the numbers involved have a constant fraction as many bits (because otherwise repeatedly squaring them would produce too large a final result) so again the amounts of time for these steps in the recursive calls add in a geometric series Consequentially, the whole algorithm takes proportional to a single multiplication with the same number of bits in its result." ], [ "Related sequences and functions", "Several other integer sequences are similar to or related to the factorials:;Alternating factorial:The alternating factorial is the absolute value of the alternating sum of the first factorials, These have mainly been studied in connection with their primality; only finitely many of them can be prime, but a complete list of primes of this form is not known.", ";Bhargava factorial:The Bhargava factorials are a family of integer sequences defined by Manjul Bhargava with similar number-theoretic properties to the factorials, including the factorials themselves as a special case.", ";Double factorial:The product of all the odd integers up to some odd positive is called the double factorial and denoted by That is, For example, .", "Double factorials are used in trigonometric integrals, in expressions for the gamma function at half-integers and the volumes of hyperspheres, and in counting binary trees and perfect matchings.", ";Exponential factorial:Just as triangular numbers sum the numbers from and factorials take their product, the exponential factorial exponentiates.", "The exponential factorial is defined recursively For example, the exponential factorial of 4 is These numbers grow much more quickly than regular factorials.", ";Falling factorial:The notations or are sometimes used to represent the product of the integers counting up to and equal to This is also known as a falling factorial or backward factorial, and the notation is a Pochhammer symbol.", "Falling factorials count the number of different sequences of distinct items that can be drawn from a universe of items.", "They occur as coefficients in the higher derivatives of polynomials, and in the factorial moments of random variables.", ";Hyperfactorials:The hyperfactorial of is the product .", "These numbers form the discriminants of Hermite polynomials.", "They can be continuously interpolated by the K-function, and obey analogues to Stirling's formula and Wilson's theorem.", ";Jordan–Pólya numbers:The Jordan–Pólya numbers are the products of factorials, allowing repetitions.", "Every tree has a symmetry group whose number of symmetries is a Jordan–Pólya number, and every Jordan–Pólya number counts the symmetries of some tree.", ";Primorial:The primorial is the product of prime numbers less than or equal this construction gives them some similar divisibility properties to factorials, but unlike factorials they are squarefree.", "As with the factorial primes researchers have studied primorial primes ;Subfactorial:The subfactorial yields the number of derangements of a set of objects.", "It is sometimes denoted , and equals the closest integer ;Superfactorial:The superfactorial of is the product of the first factorials.", "The superfactorials are continuously interpolated by the Barnes G-function." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema of Germany" ], [ "Introduction", "The film industry in Germany can be traced back to the late 19th century.", "'''German cinema''' made major technical and artistic contributions to early film, broadcasting and television technology.", "Babelsberg became a household synonym for the early 20th century film industry in Europe, similar to Hollywood later.", "Early German and German-speaking filmmakers and actors heavily contributed to early Hollywood.German movies and German artists earned 230 Oscar nominations and 54 Oscar wins.Germany witnessed major changes to its identity during the 20th and 21st century.", "Those changes determined the periodisation of national cinema into a succession of distinct eras and movements." ], [ "History", "===1895–1918 German Empire===The Berlin Wintergarten theatre, here in 1940, was the site of the first cinema screening ever, with 8 short films presented by the Skladanowsky brothers on 1 November 1895.The history of cinema in Germany can be traced back to the years shortly after the medium's birth.", "On 1 November 1895, Max Skladanowsky and his brother Emil demonstrated their self-invented film projector, the Bioscop, at the Wintergarten music hall in Berlin.", "A 15-minute series of eight short films were shown – the first screening of films to a paying audience.", "This performance pre-dated the first paying public display of the Lumière brothers' Cinematographe in Paris on 28 December of the same year, a performance that Max Skladanowsky attended and at which he was able to ascertain that the Cinematographe was technically superior to his Bioscop.", "Other German film pioneers included the Berliners Oskar Messter and Max Gliewe, two of several individuals who independently in 1896 first used a Geneva drive (which allows the film to be advanced intermittently one frame at a time) in a projector, and the cinematographer Guido Seeber.In its earliest days, the cinematograph was perceived as an attraction for upper class audiences, but the novelty of moving pictures did not last long.", "Soon, trivial short films were being shown as fairground attractions aimed at the working class and lower-middle class.", "The booths in which these films were shown were known in Germany somewhat disparagingly as ''Kintopps''.", "Film-makers with an artistic bent attempted to counter this view of cinema with longer films based on literary models, and the first German \"artistic\" films began to be produced from around 1910, an example being the Edgar Allan Poe adaptation ''The Student of Prague'' (1913) which was co-directed by Paul Wegener and Stellan Rye, photographed by Guido Seeber and starring actors from Max Reinhardt's company.The Babelsberg Studio near Berlin was the first large-scale film studio in the world (founded 1912) and the forerunner to Hollywood.", "It still produces global blockbusters every year.Early film theorists in Germany began to write about the significance of ''Schaulust'', or \"visual pleasure\", for the audience, including the Dada movement writer Walter Serner: \"If one looks to where cinema receives its ultimate power, into these strangely flickering eyes that point far back into human history, suddenly it stands there in all its massiveness: visual pleasure.\"", "Visually striking sets and makeup were key to the style of the expressionist films that were produced shortly after the First World War.Cinemas themselves began to be established landmarks in the years immediately before World War I.", "Before this, German filmmakers would tour with their works, travelling from fairground to fairground.", "The earliest ongoing cinemas were set up in cafes and pubs by owners who saw a way of attracting more customers.", "The storefront cinema was called a ''Kientopp'', and this is where films were viewed for the most part before the First World War broke out.", "The first standalone, dedicated cinema in Germany was opened in Mannheim in 1906, and by 1910, there were over 1000 cinemas operating in Germany.", "Henny Porten and Asta Nielsen (the latter originally from Denmark) were the first major film stars in Germany.Prior to 1914, however, many foreign films were imported.", "In the era of the silent film there were no language boundaries and Danish and Italian films were particularly popular in Germany.", "The public's desire to see more films with particular actors led to the development in Germany, as elsewhere, of the phenomenon of the film star; the actress Henny Porten was one of the earliest German stars.", "Public desire to see popular film stories being continued encouraged the production of film serials, especially in the genre of mystery films, which is where the director Fritz Lang began his illustrious career.The outbreak of World War I and the subsequent boycott of, for example, French films left a noticeable gap in the market.", "By 1916, there already existed some 2000 fixed venues for movie performances and initially film screenings were supplemented or even replaced by variety turns.", "In 1917 a process of concentration and partial nationalisation of the German film industry began with the founding of Universum Film AG (UFA), which was partly a reaction to the very effective use that the Allied Powers had found for the new medium for the purpose of propaganda.", "Under the aegis of the military, so-called ''Vaterland'' films were produced, which equalled the Allies' films in the matter of propaganda and disparagement of the enemy.", "Audiences however did not care to swallow the patriotic medicine without the accompanying sugar of the light-entertainment films which, consequently, Ufa also promoted.", "The German film industry soon became the largest in Europe.===1918–1933 Weimar Republic===UFA Studios in Berlin-Tempelhof, 1920The German film industry, which was protected during the war by the ban on foreign films import, became exposed at the end of the war to the international film industry while having to face an embargo, this time on its own films.", "Many countries banned the import of German films and audiences themselves were resisting anything that was \"German\".", "But the ban imposed on German films involved commercial considerations as well – as an American president of one of the film companies was quoted, \"an influx of such films in the United States would throw thousands of our own... out of work, because it would be absolutely impossible for the American producers to compete with the German producers\".", "At home, the German film industry confronted an unstable economic situation and the devaluation of the currency made it difficult for the smaller production companies to function.", "Film industry financing was a fragile business and expensive productions occasionally led to bankruptcy.", "In 1925 UFA itself was forced to go into a disadvantageous partnership called Parufamet with the American studios Paramount and MGM, before being taken over by the nationalist industrialist and newspaper owner Alfred Hugenberg in 1927.", "''Metropolis'' (1927), directed by Fritz Lang, first film to be inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World RegisterNevertheless, the German film industry enjoyed an unprecedented development – during the 14 years which comprise the Weimar period, an average of 250 film were being produced each year, a total of 3,500 full-feature films.", "Apart from UFA, about 230 film companies were active in Berlin alone.", "This industry was attracting producers and directors from all over Europe.", "The fact that the films were silent and language was not a factor, enabled even foreign actors, like the Danish film star Asta Nielsen or the American Louise Brooks, to be hired even for leading roles.", "This period can also be noted for new technological developments in film making and experimentation in set design and lighting, led by UFA.", "Babelsberg Studio, which was incorporated into UFA, expanded massively and gave the German film industry a highly developed infrastructure.", "Babelsberg remained the centre of German filmmaking for many years, became the largest film studio in Europe and produced most of the films in this \"golden era\" of German cinema.", "In essence it was \"the German equivalent to Hollywood\".Films about an exaggerated version of Japanese culture that included \"geishas, samurai, and Shinto shrines\" were popular in Germany during this era.Due to the unstable economic condition and in an attempt to deal with modest production budgets, filmmakers were trying to reach the largest audience possible and in that, to maximize their revenues.", "This led to films being made in a vast array of genres and styles.", "''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'' (1920), directed by Robert Wiene, a major influence on film noirOne of the main film genres associated with the Weimar Republic cinema is German Expressionism which was inspired by the expressionist movement in art.", "Expressionist movies relied heavily on symbolism and artistic imagery rather than stark realism to tell their stories.", "Given the grim mood in post-World War I, it was not surprising that these films focused heavily on crime and horror.", "The film usually credited with sparking the popularity of expressionism is Robert Wiene's ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'' (1920), produced by Erich Pommer.", "The film tells the story of a demented hypnotist who is using a sleepwalker to perform a series of murders.", "The film featured a dark and twisted visual style – the set was unrealistic with geometric images painted on the floor and shapes in light and shadow cast on walls, the acting was exaggerated and the costumes bizarre.", "These stylistic elements became trademarks of this cinematic movement.", "Other notable works of Expressionism are Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau's ''Nosferatu'' (1922), a classic period-piece horror film that remains the first feature-length film adaptation of ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'', Carl Boese and Paul Wegener's ''The Golem: How He Came Into the World'' (1920), a Gothic retelling of the Jewish folktale, and ''Metropolis'' (1927), a legendary science-fiction epic directed by Fritz Lang.", "The Expressionist movement began to wane during the mid-1920s, but perhaps the fact that its main creators moved to Hollywood, California, allowed this style to remain influential in world cinema for years to come, particularly in American horror films and film noir and in the works of European directors such as Jean Cocteau and Ingmar Bergman.Despite its significance, expressionist cinema was not the dominant genre of this era.", "Many other genres such as period dramas, melodramas, romantic comedies, and films of social and political nature, were much more prevalent and definitely more popular.The \"master\" of period-dramas was undoubtedly Ernst Lubitsch.", "His most notable films of this genre were ''Madame DuBarry'' (1919) which portrayed the French Revolution through the eyes of the King of France's mistress, and the film ''Anna Boleyn'' (1920) on the tragic end of King Henry VIII's second wife.", "In these films, Lubitsch presented prominent historic personalities who are caught up by their weaknesses and petty urges and thus, ironically, become responsible for huge historical events.", "Despite modest budgets, his films included extravagant scenes which were meant to appeal to a wide audience and insure a wide international distribution.As the genre of expressionism began to diminish, the genre of the New Objectivity (die neue Sachlichkeit) began to take its place.", "It was influenced by new issues which occupied the public in those years, as the rampant inflation caused deterioration in the economic status of the middle class.", "These films, often called \"street films\" or \"asphalt films\", tried to reflect reality in all its complexity and ugliness.", "They focused on objects surrounding the characters and cynically symbolized the despair felt by the German people, whose lives were shattered after the war.", "The most prominent film maker who is associated with this genre is Georg Wilhelm Pabst in his films such as: ''Joyless Street'' (1925), ''Pandora's Box'' (1929), and ''The Loves of Jeanne Ney'' (1927).", "Pabst is also credited with innovations in film editing, such as reversing the angle of the camera or cutting between two camera angles, which enhanced film continuity and later became standards of the industry.Pabst is also identified with another genre which branched from the New Objectivity – that of social and political films.", "These filmmakers dared to confront sensitive and controversial social issues which engaged the public in those days; such as anti-Semitism, prostitution and homosexuality.", "To a large extent, Weimar cinema was playing a vibrant and important role by leading public debate on those issues.", "Pabst, in his film ''Diary of a Lost Girl'' (1929), tells the story of a young woman who has a child out of wedlock, is thrown out into the street by her family and has to resort to prostitution to survive.", "As early as 1919, Richard Oswald's film ''Different from the Others'' portrayed a man torn between his homosexual tendencies and the moral and social conventions.", "It is considered to be the first German film to deal with homosexuality and some researchers even believe it to be the first in the world to examine this issue explicitly.", "That same year, the film ''Ritual Murder'' (1919) by Jewish film producer Max Nivelli came to the screen.", "This film was the first to make the German public aware of the consequences of anti-Semitism and xenophobia.", "It portrayed a \"pogrom\" which is carried out against the Jewish inhabitants of a village in Tsarist Russia.", "In the background, a love story also evolves between a young Russian student and the daughter of the leader of the Jewish community, something that was considered a taboo at the time.", "Later on, in an attempt to reflect the rapidly growing anti-Semitic atmosphere, Oswald confronted the same issue with his film ''Dreyfus'' (1930), which portrayed the 1894 political scandal of the \"Dreyfus affair\", which until today remains one of the most striking examples of miscarriage of justice and blatant anti-Semitism.The polarised politics of the Weimar period were also reflected in some of its films.", "A series of patriotic films about Prussian history, starring Otto Gebühr as Frederick the Great were produced throughout the 1920s and were popular with the nationalist right-wing, who strongly criticised the \"asphalt\" films' decadence.", "Another dark chapter of the Weimar period was reflected in Joseph Delmont's film ''Humanity Unleashed'' (1920).", "The film was an adaptation of a novel by the same name, written by Max Glass and published in 1919.The novel described a dark world consumed by disease and war.", "The filmmakers decided to take the story to a more contemporary context by reflecting the growing fear among the German public of political radicalization.", "They produced what was to become the first fictional account of the events of January 1919 in Berlin, the so-called \"Spartacist Uprising\".", "This film is also considered one of the anti-Bolshevik films of that era.Another important film genre of the Weimar years was the Kammerspiel or \"chamber drama\", which was borrowed from the theater and developed by stage director, who would later become a film producer and director himself, Max Reinhardt.", "This style was in many ways a reaction against the spectacle of expressionism and thus tended to revolve around ordinary people from the lower-middle-class.", "Films of this genre were often called \"instinct\" films because they emphasized the impulses and intimate psychology of the characters.", "The sets were kept to a minimum and there was abundant use of camera movements to add complexity to the rather intimate and simple spaces.", "Associated with this particular style is also screenwriter Carl Mayer and films such as Murnau's ''Last Laugh (1924).", "''''The Adventures of Prince Achmed'' (1926), directed by Charlotte Reiniger, the oldest surviving animated feature film and first use of a multiplane camera Nature films, a genre referred to as ''Bergfilm,'' also became popular.", "Most known in this category are the films by director Arnold Fanck, in which individuals were shown battling against nature in the mountains.", "Animators and directors of experimental films such as; Lotte Reiniger, Oskar Fischinger and Walter Ruttmann, were also very active in Germany in the 1920s.", "Ruttman's experimental documentary ''Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis'' (1927) epitomised the energy of 1920s Berlin.M'' from 1931, an indispensable influence on modern crime and thriller fictionThe arrival of sound at the very end of the 1920s, produced a final artistic flourish of German film before the collapse of the Weimar Republic in 1933.As early as 1918, three inventors came up with the Tri-Ergon sound-on-film system and tried to introduce it to the industry between 1922 and 1926.UFA showed an interest, but possibly due to financial difficulties, never made a sound film.", "But in the late 1920s, sound production and distribution were starting to be adopted by the German film industry and by 1932 Germany had 3,800 cinemas equipped to play sound films.", "The first filmmakers who experimented with the new technology often shot the film in several versions, using several soundtracks in different languages.", "The film ''The Blue Angel'' (1930), directed by the Austrian Josef von Sternberg and produced by Erich Pommer, was also shot in two versions – German and English, with a different supporting cast in each version.", "It is considered to be Germany's first \"talkie\" and will always be remembered as the film that made an international superstar of its lead actress Marlene Dietrich.", "Other notable early sound films, all from 1931, include Jutzi's adaptation to Alfred Döblin's novel ''Berlin Alexanderplatz'', Pabst's Bertolt Brecht adaptation ''The Threepenny Opera'' and Lang's ''M,'' as well as Hochbaum's ''Raid in St. Pauli'' (1932).", "Brecht was also one of the creators of the explicitly communist film ''Kuhle Wampe'' (1932), which was banned soon after its release.In addition to developments in the industry itself, the Weimar period saw the birth of film criticism as a serious discipline whose practitioners included Rudolf Arnheim in ''Die Weltbühne'' and in ''Film als Kunst'' (1932), Béla Balázs in ''Der Sichtbare Mensch'' (1924), Siegfried Kracauer in the Frankfurter Zeitung, and Lotte H. Eisner in the ''Filmkurier''.===1933–1945 Nazi Germany===The uncertain economic and political situation in Weimar Germany had already led to a number of film-makers and performers leaving the country, primarily for the United States; Ernst Lubitsch moved to Hollywood as early as 1923, the Hungarian-born Michael Curtiz in 1926.Some 1,500 directors, producers, actors and other film professionals emigrated in the years after the Nazis came to power.", "Among them were such key figures as the producer Erich Pommer, the studio head of Ufa, stars Marlene Dietrich and Peter Lorre, and director Fritz Lang.", "Lang's exodus to America is legendary; it is said that ''Metropolis'' so greatly impressed Joseph Goebbels that he asked Lang to become the head of his propaganda film unit.", "Lang fled to America instead, where he had a long and prosperous career.", "Many up-and-coming German directors also fled to the U.S., having a major influence on American film as a result.", "A number of the Universal Horror films of the 1930s were directed by German emigrees, including Karl Freund, Joe May and Robert Siodmak.", "Directors Edgar Ulmer and Douglas Sirk and the Austrian-born screenwriter (and later director) Billy Wilder also emigrated from Nazi Germany to Hollywood success.", "Not all those in the film industry threatened by the Nazi regime were able to escape; the actor and director Kurt Gerron, for example, perished in a concentration camp.The ''Titania-Palast'' in Berlin-Steglitz, an Art Deco style movie theater opened in 1928Within weeks of the ''Machtergreifung'', Alfred Hugenberg had effectively turned over Ufa to the ends of the Nazis, excluding Jews from employment in the company in March 1933, several months before the foundation in June of the ''Reichsfilmkammer'' (Reich Chamber of Film), the body of the Nazi state charged with control of the film industry, which marked the official exclusion of Jews and foreigners from employment in the German film industry.", "As part of the process of ''Gleichschaltung'' all film production in Germany was subordinate to the ''Reichsfilmkammer'', which was directly responsible to Goebbel's Propaganda ministry, and all those employed in the industry had to be members of the ''Reichsfachschaft Film''.", "\"Non-Aryan\" film professionals and those whose politics or personal life were unacceptable to the Nazis were excluded from the ''Reichsfachschaft'' and thus denied employment in the industry.", "Some 3,000 individuals were affected by this employment ban.", "In addition, as journalists were also organised as a division of the Propaganda Ministry, Goebbels was able to abolish film criticism in 1936 and replace it with ''Filmbeobachtung'' (film observation); journalists could only report on the content of a film, not offer judgement on its artistic or other worth.Leni Riefenstahl was a major director in Nazi Germany.", "Her film ''Olympia'' from 1938 about the 1936 Summer Olympics had a major impact on modern sports coverageWith the German film industry now effectively an arm of the totalitarian state, no films could be made that were not ostensibly in accord with the views of the ruling regime.", "However, despite the existence of anti-semitic propaganda works such as ''The Eternal Jew'' (1940)—which was a box-office flop—and the more sophisticated but equally anti-semitic ''Jud Süß'' (1940), which achieved commercial success at home and elsewhere in Europe, the majority of German films from the National Socialist period were intended principally as works of entertainment.", "The import of foreign films was legally restricted after 1936 and the German industry, which was effectively nationalised in 1937, had to make up for the missing foreign films (above all American productions).", "Entertainment also became increasingly important in the later years of World War II when the cinema provided a distraction from Allied bombing and a string of German defeats.", "In both 1943 and 1944 cinema admissions in Germany exceeded a billion, and the biggest box office hits of the war years were ''Die große Liebe'' (1942) and ''Wunschkonzert'' (1941), which both combine elements of the musical, wartime romance and patriotic propaganda, ''Frauen sind doch bessere Diplomaten'' (1941), a comic musical which was one of the earliest German films in colour, and ''Vienna Blood'' (1942), the adaptation of a Johann Strauß comic operetta.", "''Titanic'' (1943) was another big-budget epic that arguably inspired other films about the ill-fated ocean liner.", "The importance of the cinema as a tool of the state, both for its propaganda value and its ability to keep the populace entertained, can be seen in the filming history of Veit Harlan's ''Kolberg'' (1945), the most expensive film of the Nazi era, for the shooting of which tens of thousands of soldiers were diverted from their military positions to appear as extras.Despite the emigration of many film-makers and the political restrictions, the period was not without technical and aesthetic innovations, the introduction of Agfacolor film production being a notable example.", "Technical and aesthetic achievement could also be turned to the specific ends of the Nazi state, most spectacularly in the work of Leni Riefenstahl.", "Riefenstahl's ''Triumph of the Will'' (1935), documenting the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, and ''Olympia'' (1938), documenting the 1936 Summer Olympics, pioneered techniques of camera movement and editing that have influenced many later films.", "Both films, particularly ''Triumph of the Will'', remain highly controversial, as their aesthetic merit is inseparable from their propagandising of Nazi ideals.=== 1945–1989 East Germany ===East German cinema initially profited from the fact that much of the country's film infrastructure, notably the former UFA studios, lay in the Soviet occupation zone which enabled film production to get off the ground more quickly than in the Western sectors.", "The authorities in the Soviet Zone were keen to re-establish the film industry in their sector and an order was issued to re-open cinemas in Berlin in May 1945 within three weeks of German capitulation.", "The film production company DEFA was founded on 17 May 1946, and took control of the film production facilities in the Soviet Zone which had been confiscated by order of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany in October 1945.A joint-stock company on paper, the majority interest in DEFA was actually held by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) which became the ruling party of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) after 1949, formally placing DEFA as the state-owned monopoly for film production in East Germany.", "A sister \"company\", Progress Film, had also been established as a similar monopoly for domestic film distribution, its principal \"competition\" being Sovexportfilm, which handled distribution of Soviet films.Frank Beyer, director of 1975´s ''Jacob the Liar'', the only East German film ever nominated for an Academy AwardIn total, DEFA produced some 900 feature films during its existence as well as around 800 animated films and over 3000 documentaries and short films.", "In 1946 DEFA produced ''The Murderers are Among Us'', which was the first German film released after World War II and created the groundwork for the so-called Trümmerfilme, or rubble films, which were filmed amidst the rubble of structures bombed during World War II.", "Early on, production of East German film was limited due to strict controls imposed by the authorities which restricted the subject-matter of films to topics that directly contributed to the Communist project of the state.", "Excluding newsreels and educational films, only 50 films were produced between 1948 and 1953.However, in later years numerous films were produced on a variety of themes.", "DEFA had particular strengths in children's films, notably fairy tale adaptations such as ''Drei Haselnüsse für Aschenbrödel (Three Hazelnuts for Cinderella)'' (1973), but it also attempted other genre works: science-fiction, for example ''Der schweigende Stern (The Silent Star)'' (1960), an adaptation of a Stanisław Lem novel, or \"red westerns\" such as ''The Sons of the Great Mother Bear'' (1966) in which, in contrast to the typical American western, the heroes tended to be Native Americans.", "Many of these genre films were co-productions with other Warsaw Pact countries.Notable non-genre films produced by DEFA include Wolfgang Staudte's adaptation of Heinrich Mann's ''Der Untertan'' (1951); Konrad Wolf's ''Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven)'' (1964), an adaptation of Christa Wolf's novel; Frank Beyer's adaptation of Jurek Becker's ''Jacob the Liar'' (1975), the only East German film to be nominated for an Oscar; ''The Legend of Paul and Paula'' (1973), directed by Heiner Carow from Ulrich Plenzdorf's novel; and ''Solo Sunny'' (1980), again the work of Konrad Wolf.However, film-making in the GDR was always constrained and oriented by the political situation in the country at any given time.", "Ernst Thälmann, the communist leader in the Weimar period, was the subject of several hagiographical films in the 1950s (''Ernst Thälmann'', 1954), and although East German filmmaking moved away from this overtly Stalinist approach in the 1960s, filmmakers were still subject to the changing political positions, and indeed the whims, of the SED leadership.", "For example, DEFA's full slate of contemporary films from 1966 were denied distribution, among them Frank Beyer's ''Traces of Stones'' (1966) which was pulled from distribution after three days, not because it was antipathetic to communist principles, but because it showed that such principles, which it fostered, were not put into practice at all times in East Germany.", "The huge box-office hit ''The Legend of Paul and Paula'' was initially threatened with a distribution ban because of its satirical elements and supposedly only allowed a release on the say-so of Party General Secretary Erich Honecker.In the late 1970s, numerous film-makers left the GDR for the West as a result of restrictions on their work, among them director Egon Günther and actors Angelica Domröse, Eva-Maria Hagen, Katharina Thalbach, Hilmar Thate, Manfred Krug and Armin Mueller-Stahl.", "Many had been signatories of a 1976 petition opposing the expatriation of socially critical singer-songwriter Wolf Biermann and had had their ability to work restricted as a result.In the final years of the GDR, the availability of television and the programming and films on television broadcasts reaching into the GDR via the uncontrollable airwaves, reduced the influence of DEFA productions, although its continuing role in producing shows for East German television channel remained.", "Following the Wende, DEFA had ceased production altogether, and its studios and equipment was sold off by the Treuhand in 1992, but its intellectual property rights were handed to the charitable ''DEFA-Stiftung'' (DEFA Foundation) which exploits these rights in conjunction with a series of private companies, especially the quickly privatized Progress Film GmbH, which has issued several East German films with English subtitles since the mid-1990s.===1945–1989 West Germany=======1945–1960 Reconstruction====The occupation and reconstruction of Germany by the Four Powers in the period immediately after the end of World War II brought a major and long-lasting change to the economic conditions under which the industry in Germany had previously operated.", "The holdings of Ufa were confiscated by the Allies and, as part of the process of decartelisation, licences to produce films were shared between a range of much smaller companies.", "In addition, the Occupation Statute of 1949, which granted partial independence to the newly created Federal Republic of Germany, specifically forbade the imposition of import quotas to protect German film production from foreign competition, the result of lobbying by the American industry as represented by the MPAA.Amidst the devastation of the ''Stunde Null'' year of 1945 cinema attendance was unsurprisingly down to a fraction of its wartime heights, but already by the end of the decade it had reached levels that exceeded the pre-war period.", "For the first time in many years, German audiences had free access to cinema from around the world and in this period the films of Charlie Chaplin remained popular, as were melodramas from the United States.", "Nonetheless, the share of the film market for German films in this period and into the 1950s remained relatively large, taking up some 40 percent of the total market.", "American films took up around 30 percent of the market despite having around twice as many films in distribution as the German industry in the same time frame.Many of the German films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as belonging to the genre of the ''Trümmerfilm'' (literally \"rubble film\").", "These films show strong affinities with the work of Italian neorealists, not least Roberto Rossellini's neorealist trilogy which included ''Germany Year Zero'' (1948), and are concerned primarily with day-to-day life in the devastated Germany and an initial reaction to the events of the Nazi period (the full horror of which was first experienced by many in documentary footage from liberated concentration camps).", "Such films include Wolfgang Staudte's ''Die Mörder sind unter uns (The Murderers are among us)'' (1946), the first film made in post-war Germany (produced in the soviet sector), and Wolfgang Liebeneiner's ''Liebe 47 (Love 47)'' (1949), an adaptation of Wolfgang Borchert's play ''Draußen vor der Tür''.Romy Schneider, an early star of the HeimatfilmDespite the advent of a regular television service in the Federal Republic in 1952, cinema attendances continued to grow through much of the 1950s, reaching a peak of 817.5 million visits in 1956.The majority of the films of this period set out to do no more than entertain the audience and had few pretensions to artistry or active engagement with social issues.", "The defining genre of the period was arguably the (\"homeland film\"), in which morally simplistic tales of love and family were played out in a rural setting, often in the mountains of Bavaria, Austria or Switzerland.", "In their day were of little interest to more scholarly film critics, but in recent years they have been the subject of study in relation to what they say about the culture of West Germany in the years of the ''Wirtschaftswunder''.", "Other film genres typical of this period were adaptations of operettas, hospital melodramas, comedies and musicals.", "Many films were remakes of earlier Ufa productions.Rearmament and the founding of the ''Bundeswehr'' in 1955 brought with it a wave of war films which tended to depict the ordinary German soldiers of World War II as brave and apolitical.", "The Israeli historian Omer Bartov wrote that German films of the 1950s showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable, and patriotic while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for.", "The ''08/15'' film trilogy of 1954–55 concerns a sensitive young German soldier who would rather play the piano than fight, and who fights on the Eastern Front without understanding why; however, no mention is made of the genocidal aspects of Germany's war in East.", "The last of the ''08/15'' films ends with Germany occupied by a gang of American soldiers portrayed as bubble-gum chewing, slack-jawed morons and uncultured louts, totally inferior in every respect to the heroic German soldiers shown in the ''08/15'' films.", "The only exception is the Jewish American officer, who is shown as both hyper-intelligent and very unscrupulous, which Bartov noted seems to imply that the real tragedy of World War II was the Nazis did not get a chance to exterminate all of the Jews, who have now returned with Germany's defeat to once more exploit the German people.In ''The Doctor of Stalingrad'' (1958) dealing with German POWs in the Soviet Union, Germans are portrayed as more civilized, humane and intelligent than the Soviets, who are shown for the most part as Mongol savages who brutalized the German POWs.", "One of the German POWs successfully seduces the beautiful and tough Red Army Captain Alexandra Kasalniskaya (Eva Bartok) who prefers him to the sadistic camp commandant, which as Bartov comments also is meant to show that even in defeat, German men were more sexually virile and potent than their Russian counterparts.", "In ''Hunde, wollt ihr ewig leben?''", "(''Dogs, do you want to live forever?'')", "of 1959, which deals with the Battle of Stalingrad, the focus is on celebrating the heroism of the German soldier in that battle, who are shown as valiantly holding out against overwhelming odds with no mention at all of what those soldiers were fighting for, namely National Socialist ideology or the Holocaust.", "This period also saw a number of films that depicted the military resistance to Hitler.", "In ''Des Teufels General'' (''The Devil's General'') of 1954, a Luftwaffe general named Harras loosely modeled after Ernst Udet, appears at first to be cynical fool, but turns out to an anti-Nazi who is secretly sabotaging the German war effort by designing faulty planes.", "Bartov commented that in this film, the German officer corps is shown as a group of fundamentally noble and civilized men who happened to be serving an evil regime made up of a small gang of gangsterish misfits totally unrepresentative of German society, which served to exculpate both the officer corps and by extension Germany society.", "Bartov wrote that no German film of the 1950s showed the deep commitment felt by many German soldiers to National Socialism, the utter ruthless way the German Army fought the war and the mindless nihilist brutality of the later Wehrmacht.", "Bartov wrote that German film-makers liked to show the heroic last stand of the 6th Army at Stalingrad, but none has so far showed the 6th Army's massive co-operation with the ''Einsatzgruppen'' in murdering Soviet Jews in 1941.Even though there are countless film adaptations of Edgar Wallace novels worldwide, the crime films produced by the German company Rialto Film between 1959 and 1972 are the best-known of those, to the extent that they form their own subgenre known as '''Krimis''' (abbreviation for the German term \"Kriminalfilm\" (or \"Kriminalroman\").", "Other Edgar Wallace adaptations in a similar style were made by the Germans Artur Brauner and Kurt Ulrich, and the British producer Harry Alan Towers.The international significance of the West German film industry of the 1950s could no longer measure up to that of France, Italy, or Japan.", "German films were only rarely distributed internationally as they were perceived as provincial.", "International co-productions of the kind which were becoming common in France and Italy tended to be rejected by German producers (Schneider 1990:43).", "However a few German films and film-makers did achieve international recognition at this time, among them Bernhard Wicki's Oscar-nominated ''Die Brücke (The Bridge)'' (1959), and the actresses Hildegard Knef and Romy Schneider.==== 1960–1970 cinema in crisis ====Klaus KinskiIn the late 1950s, the growth in cinema attendance of the preceding decade first stagnated and then went into freefall throughout the 1960s.", "By 1969 West German cinema attendance at 172.2 million visits per year was less than a quarter of its 1956 post-war peak.", "As a consequence of this, numerous German production and distribution companies went out of business in the 1950s and 1960s and cinemas across the Federal Republic closed their doors; the number of screens in West Germany almost halved between the beginning and the end of the decade.Initially, the crisis was perceived as a problem of overproduction.", "Consequently, the German film industry cut back on production.", "123 German movies were produced in 1955, only 65 in 1965.However, many German film companies followed the 1960s trends of international co-productions with Italy and Spain in such genres as spaghetti westerns and Eurospy films with films shot in those nations or in Yugoslavia that featured German actors in the casts.The roots of the problem lay deeper in changing economic and social circumstances.", "Average incomes in the Federal Republic rose sharply and this opened up alternative leisure activities to compete with cinema-going.", "At this time too, television was developing into a mass medium that could compete with the cinema.", "In 1953 there were only 1,000,000 sets in West Germany; by 1962 there were 7 million (Connor 1990:49) (Hoffman 1990:69).The majority of films produced in the Federal Republic in the 1960s were genre works: westerns, especially the series of movies adapted from Karl May's popular genre novels which starred Pierre Brice as the Apache Winnetou and Lex Barker as his white blood brother Old Shatterhand; thrillers and crime films, notably a series of Edgar Wallace movies from Rialto Film in which Klaus Kinski, Heinz Drache, Karin Dor and Joachim Fuchsberger were among the regular players.", "The traditional Krimi films expanded into series based on German pulp fiction heroes such as ''Jerry Cotton'' played by George Nader and ''Kommissar X'' played by Tony Kendall and Brad Harris.", "West Germany also made several horror films including ones starring Christopher Lee.", "The two genres were combined in the return of ''Doctor Mabuse'' in a series of several films of the early 1960s.At the end of the 1960s softcore sex films, both the relatively serious ''Aufklärungsfilme'' (sex education films) of Oswalt Kolle and such exploitation films as ''Schulmädchen-Report (Schoolgirl Report)'' (1970) and its successors were produced into the 1970s.", "Such movies were commercially successful and often enjoyed international distribution, but won little acclaim from critics.====1960–1980 New German Cinema====In the 1960s more than three-quarters of the regular cinema audience were lost as consequence of the rising popularity of TV sets at home.", "As a reaction to the artistic and economic stagnation of German cinema, a group of young film-makers issued the Oberhausen Manifesto on 28 February 1962.This call to arms, which included Alexander Kluge, Edgar Reitz, Peter Schamoni and Franz-Josef Spieker among its signatories, provocatively declared ''\"Der alte Film ist tot.", "Wir glauben an den neuen\"'' (\"The old cinema is dead.", "We believe in the new cinema\").", "Other up-and-coming filmmakers allied themselves to this Oberhausen group, among them Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Jean-Marie Straub, Wim Wenders, Werner Schroeter and Hans-Jürgen Syberberg in their rejection of the existing German film industry and their determination to build a new cinema founded on artistic and social measures rather than commercial success.", "Most of these directors organized themselves in, or partially co-operated with, the film production and distribution company ''Filmverlag der Autoren'' established in 1971, which throughout the 1970s brought forth a number of critically acclaimed films.", "Rosa von Praunheim, who formed the German lesbian and gay movement with his film ''It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives'' (1971), also plays an important role.Rainer Werner Fassbinder, one of the major figures and catalysts of the New German Cinema movementDespite the foundation of the ''Kuratorium Junger Deutscher Film'' (Young German Film Committee) in 1965, set up under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of the Interior to support new German films financially, the directors of this New German Cinema were consequently often dependent on money from television.", "Young filmmakers had the opportunity to test their mettle in such programmes as the stand-alone drama and documentary series ''Das kleine Fernsehspiel'' (The Little TV Play) or the television films of the crime series ''Tatort''.", "However, the broadcasters sought TV premieres for the films which they had supported financially, with theatrical showings only occurring later.", "As a consequence, such films tended to be unsuccessful at the box office.This situation changed after 1974 when the ''Film-Fernseh-Abkommen'' (Film and Television Accord) was agreed between the Federal Republic's main broadcasters, ARD and ZDF, and the German Federal Film Board (a government body created in 1968 to support film-making in Germany).", "This accord, which has been repeatedly extended up to the present day, provides for the television companies to make available an annual sum to support the production of films which are suitable for both theatrical distribution and television presentation.", "(The amount of money provided by the public broadcasters has varied between 4.5 and 12.94 million euros per year.", "Under the terms of the accord, films produced using these funds can only be screened on television 24 months after their theatrical release.", "They may appear on video or DVD no sooner than six months after cinema release.", "Nevertheless, the New German Cinema found it difficult to attract a large domestic or international audience.The socially critical films of the New German Cinema strove to delineate themselves from what had gone before and the works of auteur film-makers such as Kluge and Fassbinder are examples of this, although Fassbinder in his use of stars from German cinema history also sought a reconciliation between the new cinema and the old.", "In addition, a distinction is sometimes drawn between the avantgarde \"Young German Cinema\" of the 1960s and the more accessible \"New German Cinema\" of the 1970s.", "For their influences the new generation of film-makers looked to Italian neorealism, the French ''Nouvelle Vague'' and the British New Wave but combined this eclectically with references to the well-established genres of Hollywood cinema.", "The New German Cinema dealt with contemporary German social problems in a direct way; the Nazi past, the plight of the ''Gastarbeiter'' (\"guest workers\"), and modern social developments, were all subjects prominent in New German Cinema films.Films such as Kluge's ''Abschied von Gestern'' (1966), Herzog's ''Aguirre, the Wrath of God'' (1972), Fassbinder's ''Fear Eats the Soul'' (1974) and ''The Marriage of Maria Braun'' (1979), and Wenders' ''Paris, Texas'' (1984) found critical approval.", "Often the work of these auteurs was first recognised abroad rather than in Germany itself.", "The work of post-war Germany's leading novelists Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass provided source material for the adaptations ''The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum'' (1975) (by Schlöndorff and Margarethe von Trotta) and ''The Tin Drum'' (1979) (by Schlöndorff alone) respectively, the latter becoming the first German film to win the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.", "The New German Cinema also allowed for female directors to come to the fore and for the development of a feminist cinema which encompassed the works of directors such as Margarethe von Trotta, Helma Sanders-Brahms, Jutta Brückner, Helke Sander and Cristina Perincioli.German production companies have been quite commonly involved in expensive French and Italian productions from Spaghetti Westerns to French comic book adaptations.==== 1980–1989 popular productions ====Bernd Eichinger \"star\" at the Boulevard of Stars in BerlinHaving achieved some of its goals, among them the establishment of state funding for the film industry and renewed international recognition for German films, the New German Cinema had begun to show signs of fatigue by the 1980s, even though many of its proponents continued to enjoy individual success.Among the commercial successes for German films of the 1980s were the ''Otto'' film series beginning in 1985 starring comedian Otto Waalkes, Wolfgang Petersen's adaptation of ''The NeverEnding Story'' (1984), and the internationally successful ''Das Boot'' (1981), which still holds the record for most Academy Award nominations for a German film (six).", "Other notable film-makers who came to prominence in the 1980s include producer Bernd Eichinger and directors Doris Dörrie, Uli Edel, and Loriot.Away from the mainstream, the splatter film director Jörg Buttgereit came to prominence in the 1980s.", "The development of arthouse cinemas (''Programmkinos'') from the 1970s onwards provided a venue for the works of less mainstream film-makers like Herbert Achternbusch, Hark Bohm, Dominik Graf, Oliver Herbrich, Rosa von Praunheim or Christoph Schlingensief.From the mid-1980s the spread of videocassette recorders and the arrival of private TV channels such as RTL Television provided new competition for theatrical film distribution.", "Cinema attendance, having rallied slightly in the late 1970s after an all-time low of 115.1 million visits in 1976, dropped sharply again from the mid-1980s to end at just 101.6 million visits in 1989.However, the availability of a back catalogue of films on video also allowed for a different relationship between the viewer and an individual film, while private TV channels brought new money into the film industry and provided a launch pad from which new talent could later move into film.===1990–Modern Germany===John Rabe'' (2009), directed by Florian Gallenberger, filming on location in Shanghai harbourToday's biggest German production studios include Babelsberg Studio, Bavaria Film, Constantin Film and UFA.", "Film releases such as ''Run Lola Run'' by Tom Tykwer, ''Good Bye Lenin!''", "by Wolfgang Becker, ''Head-On'' by Fatih Akin, ''Perfume'' by Tom Tykwer and ''The Lives of Others'' by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, have arguably managed to recapture a provocative and innovative nature.", "Movies like ''The Baader Meinhof Complex'' produced by Bernd Eichinger achieved some popular success.Notable directors working in German currently include Sönke Wortmann, Caroline Link (winner of an Academy Award), Romuald Karmakar, Dani Levy, Hans-Christian Schmid, Andreas Dresen, Dennis Gansel and Uli Edel as well as comedy directors Michael Herbig and Til Schweiger.Internationally, German filmmakers such as Roland Emmerich or Wolfgang Petersen or Uwe Boll built successful careers as directors and producers.", "Hans Zimmer, a film composer, has become one of the world's most acclaimed producers of movie scores.", "Michael Ballhaus became a renowned cinematographer.Germany has a long tradition of cooperation with the European-based film industry, which started as early as during the 1960s.", "Since 1990 the number of international projects financed and co-produced by German filmmakers has expanded.The new millennium since 2000 has seen a general resurgence of the German film industry, with a higher output and improved returns at the German box office.The collapse of the GDR had a large effect on the German cinema industry.", "The viewer count increased with the new population's access to western movies.", "The movies produced in the United States were the most popular, due to the fact that the market was dominated by them and the production was more advanced than Germany's.", "Some other genres that were popular consisted of Romantic Comedies, and Social Commentaries.", "Wolfgang Petersen and Roland Emmerich both established international success.Internationally, German productions are benefitting from streaming.", "Their global market share is rising.", "Domestically, the German movies improved their market share of about 16% in 1996 to around 30% in 2021., so the movie culture is partly recognized to be underfunded, problem laden and rather inward looking." ], [ "Film funding", "The main production incentive provided by governmental authorities is the Deutscher Filmförderfonds (DFFF) (German Federal Film Fund).", "The DFFF is a grant given by the Staatsministerin für Kultur und Medien (Federal Government Commissioner for Culture and the Media).", "To receive the grant a producer has to fulfill different requirements including a cultural eligibility test.", "The fund offers 50 million euros a year to film producers and or co-producers and grants can amount to up to 20% of the approved German production costs.", "At least 25% the production costs must be spent in Germany, or only 20%, if the production costs are higher than 20 million euros.", "The DFFF has been established in 2007 and supported projects in all categories and genres.In 2015, the Deutsche Filmförderungsfond was reduced from 60 million euros to 50 million euros.", "To compensate, Finance minister Gabriel announced that the difference will be made up from the budget of the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz (Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action).", "For the first time in Germany high-profile tv series and digital filmmaking will be funded at a federal level in the same manner as feature films.", "Funding is also increasingly flowing to international co-productions.In 1979, the German states also began to establish funding institutions, often with the intention of supporting their own production locations.", "Today, film funding by the federal states makes up the largest share of film funding in Germany.", "A total of more than 200 million euros in grants are distributed annually, with an upward trend.The history of film funding began in Germany with the founding of the UFA GmbH (1917), which was to produce pro-German propaganda films - equipped with funds from industry and banks.", "During the period of National Socialism (1933-1945), the state indirectly promoted the financing of film projects by establishing the Filmkreditbank GmbH (FKB) (Film Credit Bank).After the end of World War II, many feature films were initially supported by federal guarantees.", "However, film funding in its current form did not develop until the 1950s, when television began to supplant motion pictures.", "In 1967, a film funding law was passed for the first time.", "The Berlin-based Filmförderungsanstalt (FFA) (Film Funding Agency) was the first major funding institution to be founded in 1968.Critics accuse film funding in Germany of being institutionally fragmented, making it virtually impossible to coordinate all measures, which would ultimately benefit the quality of productions.", "They also say that a blanket distribution of grants stifles the incentive to produce films that recoup their production costs.=== Film funding institutions ===Film funding in Germany is provided, among others, by the following institutions:==== Federal ====* Deutscher Filmförderfonds (DFFF) (German Federal Film Fund) of the Beauftragten der Bundesregierung für Kultur und Medien (Federal Government Commissioner for Culture and the Media)* Filmförderungsanstalt (FFA) (Film Funding Agency), since 1968* Kuratorium junger deutscher Film (Board of Trustees for Young German Film)==== Regional ====* MFG Medien- und Filmgesellschaft Baden-Württemberg, since 1995* FilmFernsehFonds Bayern, seit 1996* Medienboard Berlin-Brandenburg, since 1994* Filmbüro Bremen* MOIN Filmförderung Hamburg Schleswig-Holstein* Filmbüro Hessen* Hessische Filmförderung* Film- und Medienbüro Niedersachsen* Nordmedia – Film- und Mediengesellschaft Niedersachsen/Bremen mbH* Film- und Medienstiftung NRW* Filmbüro Nordrhein-Westfalen* Mitteldeutsche Medienförderung, since 1998* MV Filmförderung, since 2020* Filmbüro Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, until 2020* Stiftung Rheinland-Pfalz für Kultur* Saarländisches Filmbüro, until 1998* Gesellschaft zur Förderung des Medienstandortes Saarland* Filmverband Sachsen* Kulturelle Filmförderung des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt through the Kunststiftung des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt* Filmbüro Schleswig-Holstein* Kulturelle Filmförderung Schleswig-Holstein* Kulturelle Filmförderung Thüringen'''Lokal:'''* Filmbüro Franken (City of Nürnberg)* Förderverein Filmkultur Bonn" ], [ "Festival", "The Berlin International Film Festival, also known as BerlinaleThe Berlin International Film Festival, also called ''Berlinale'', is one of the world's leading film festivals and most reputable media events.", "It is held in Berlin, Germany.", "Founded in West Berlin in 1951, the festival has been celebrated annually in February since 1978.With 274,000 tickets sold and 487,000 admissions it is considered the largest publicly attended film festival worldwide.", "Up to 400 films are shown in several sections, representing a comprehensive array of the cinematic world.", "Around twenty films compete for the awards called the Golden and Silver Bears.", "Since 2001 the director of the festival has been Dieter Kosslick.The festival, the EFM and other satellite events are attended by around 20,000 professionals from over 130 countries.", "More than 4200 journalists are responsible for the media exposure in over 110 countries.", "At high-profile feature film premieres, movie stars and celebrities are present at the red carpet." ], [ "German Film Academy", "The Deutsche Filmakademie was founded in 2003 in Berlin and aims to provide native filmmakers a forum for discussion and a way to promote the reputation of German cinema through publications, presentations, discussions and regular promotion of the subject in the schools.===Awards===Since 2005, the winners of the Deutscher Filmpreis, also known as the ''Lolas'' are elected by the members of the Deutsche Filmakademie.", "With a cash prize of three million euros it is the most highly endowed German cultural award.", "'''Year''''''English title''''''Original title''''''Director(s)'''2005''Go for Zucker''''Alles auf Zucker!''", "2006''The Lives of Others''''Das Leben der Anderen'' 2007''Four Minutes''''Vier Minuten'' 2008''The Edge of Heaven''''Auf der anderen Seite'' 2009''John Rabe'' ''John Rabe'' 2010''The White Ribbon''''Das weiße Band'' 2011''Vincent Wants to Sea''''Vincent will Meer'' Ralf Huettner2012''Stopped on Track''''Halt auf freier Strecke'' 2013''A Coffee in Berlin''''Oh Boy'' 2014''Home from Home''''Die andere Heimat'' 2015''Victoria''''Victoria'' 2016''The People vs. Fritz Bauer''''Der Staat gegen Fritz Bauer''" ], [ "Film schools", "University of Television and Film MunichSeveral institutions, both government run and private, provide formal education in various aspects of filmmaking.", "Deutsche Film- und Fernsehakademie Berlin (dffb) BerlinHochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg (HfbK) HamburgFilm Academy Baden-Württemberg, LudwigsburgInternational Film School Cologne, CologneUniversity of Television and Film Munich, Munich Filmuniversität Babelsberg, Potsdam" ], [ "Personalities", "File:Emil Jannings - no watermark.jpg\|Emil JanningsFile:Ernst Lubitsch smoking a cigar.tiff\|Ernst LubitschFile:Marlene Dietrich in No Highway (1951) (Cropped).png\|Marlene DietrichFile:Luise Rainer - 1941.jpg\|Luise RainerFile:F. W. Murnau circa 1920-1930.jpg\|F.", "W. MurnauFile:Karl-Freund-1932.jpg\|Karl FreundFile:Boulevard der Stars 2012 Sir Kenneth Adam (cropped) (cropped).jpg\|Ken AdamFile:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F034157-0020, Bonn, Bundeskanzler Brandt empfängt Schauspieler cropped.jpg\|Curd JürgensFile:Armin mueller-stahl.jpg\|Armin Mueller-StahlFile:Michael Ballhaus.4676.jpg\|Michael BallhausFile:Michael Verhoeven IMGP4051.jpg\|Michael VerhoevenFile:Volker Schloendorff Lodz Poland November29 2009 Fot Mariusz Kubik 05.jpg\|Volker SchloendorffFile:Wolfgang Petersen.jpg\|Wolfgang PetersenFile:Werner Herzog Venice Film Festival 2009.jpg\|Werner HerzogFile:MJK30764 Wim Wenders (Berlinale 2017).jpg\| Wim WendersFile:Roland Emmerich Deauville 2013.jpg\|Roland EmmerichFile:Hans-Zimmer-profile (cropped).jpg\|Hans ZimmerFile:Christoph Waltz Viennale 2017 f (cropped).jpg\|Christoph WaltzFile:MJK35777 Oliver Hirschbiegel (Der Gleiche Himmel, Berlinale 2017).jpg\|Oliver HirschbiegelFile:Sandra Bullock in July 2013.jpg\|Sandra BullockFile:Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck.jpg\|Florian Henckel von DonnersmarckFile:Michael Fassbender by Gage Skidmore 2015.jpg\|Michael FassbenderFile:Diane Kruger Peabody 2014 (cropped).jpg\|Diane KrugerFile:Kirsten Dunst Cannes 2016.jpg\|Kirsten Dunst" ], [ "See also", "* Lists of German films* List of German Academy Award winners and nominees* List of highest-grossing films in Germany* European Film Academy* Kammerspielfilm* German underground horror* List of films set in Berlin* Media of Germany* Cinema of the world* History of cinema* World cinema" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bergfelder, Tim, et al.", "eds.", "''The German Cinema Book'' (2008)* Blaney, Martin.", "''Symbiosis or Confrontation?''", "(Bonn, 1992)* Brockman, Stephen.", "''A Critical History of German Film'' (2011)Feinstein, Joshua.", "''Triumph of the Ordinary: Depictions of Daily Life in the East German Cinema, 1949–1989'' (chapel Hill, 2002) Garncarz, Joseph, and Annemone Ligensa, eds.", "''The Cinema of Germany'' (Wallflower Press, distributed by Columbia University Press; 2012) 264 pages; analyses of 24 works from silent movies to such contemporary films as \"Good Bye, Lenin!", "\"* Hake, Sabine.", "''German National Cinema'' (2002; 2nd ed.", "2008)* Heiduschke, Sebastian.", "''East German Cinema: DEFA and Film History'' (2013)* Hoffman, Kay 1990 ''Am Ende Video – Video am Ende?''", "Berlin* Kapczynski, Jennifer M. and Michael D. Richardson, eds.", "(2012) ''A New History of German Cinema'' (Rochester Camden House, 2012) 673 pp.", "online reviewKracauer, Siegfried.", "(2004) ''From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of the German Film''.", "Princeton: Univ.", "of Princeton Press.", "Schneider, Irmela 1990 ''Film, Fernsehen & Co.'' Heidelberg.", "Stielke, Sebastian.", "''100 Facts about Babelsberg – Cradle of Film and modern Media City'' (German/English).", "Bebra-Verlag (publishing house), Berlin 2021, 240 pages, Fay, Jennifer.", "2008.", "''Theaters of Occupation: Hollywood and the Reeducation of Postwar Germany''.", "Minneapolis: Univ.", "of Minnesota Press." ], [ "External links", "* German Film History* Biographies and autographs of the early German film era* Articles and news on German filmmakers, movies, festivals, Web portal on German film of the Goethe-Institut" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frivolous litigation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frivolous litigation''' is the use of legal processes with apparent disregard for the merit of one's own arguments.", "It includes presenting an argument with reason to know that it would certainly fail, or acting without a basic level of diligence in researching the relevant law and facts.", "That an argument was lost does not imply the argument was frivolous; a party may present an argument with a low chance of success, so long as it proceeds from applicable law.Frivolous litigation may be based on absurd legal theories, may involve a superabundance or repetition of motions or additional suits, may be uncivil or harassing to the court, or may claim extreme remedies.", "A claim or defense may be frivolous because it had no underlying justification in fact, or because it was not presented with an argument for a reasonable extension or reinterpretation of the law.", "A claim may be deemed frivolous because existing laws unequivocally prohibit such a claim, such as a so-called Good Samaritan law.In the United States, Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and similar state rules require that an attorney perform a due diligence investigation concerning the factual basis for any claim or defense.", "Jurisdictions differ on whether a claim or defense can be frivolous if the attorney acted in good faith.", "Because such a defense or claim wastes the court's and the other parties' time, resources and legal fees, sanctions may be imposed by a court upon the party or the lawyer who presents the frivolous defense or claim.", "The law firm may also be sanctioned, or even held in contempt." ], [ "US Federal statutes and rules of court penalizing frivolous litigation", "In the United States Tax Court, frivolous arguments may result in a penalty of up to $25,000 under .", "Similarly, section 7482 of the Internal Revenue Code provides that the U.S. Supreme Court and the U.S. Courts of Appeals may impose penalties in which the taxpayer's appeal of a U.S. Tax Court decision was \"maintained primarily for delay\" or where \"the taxpayer's position in the appeal is frivolous or groundless.\"", "A common example, as shown below, is an argument based on tax protestor claims.In a noncriminal case in a U.S. District Court, a litigant (or a litigant's attorney) who presents any pleading, written motion or other paper to the court is required, under Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, to certify that, to the best of the presenter's knowledge and belief, the legal contentions \"are warranted by existing law or by a nonfrivolous argument for the extension, modification, or reversal of existing law or the establishment of new law\".", "Monetary civil penalties for violation of this rule may in some cases be imposed on the litigant or the attorney under Rule 11.In one case, the Seventh Circuit Court issued an order giving such an attorney \"14 days to show cause why he should not be fined $10,000 for his frivolous arguments\".", "A similar rule penalizing frivolous litigation applies in U.S. Bankruptcy Court under Rule 9011.The U.S. Congress has enacted section 1912 of Title 28 of the U.S.C.", "providing that in the U.S. Supreme Court and in the U.S. Courts of Appeals where litigation by the losing party has caused damage to the prevailing party, the court may impose a requirement that the losing party pay the prevailing party for those damages.Litigants who represent themselves (''in forma pauperis'' and ''pro se'') sometimes make frivolous arguments due to their limited knowledge of the law and procedure.", "The particular tendency of prisoners to bring baseless lawsuits led to passage of the Prison Litigation Reform Act of 1995, which limits the ability of prisoners to bring actions without payment." ], [ "Court treatment of frivolous arguments", "An example of a Court's treatment of frivolous arguments is found in the case of ''Crain v. Commissioner'', 737 F.2d 1417 (1984), from the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit:" ], [ "Impact upon filing attorney", "Filing a claim that is ultimately deemed frivolous can be highly damaging to the attorney so filing.", "Most frivolous lawsuits that are successful are filed without an attorney.", "Attorney Daniel Evans writes:" ], [ "Examples", "===''Washington v. Alaimo''===In ''Washington v. Alaimo'' the court listed more than seventy-five frivolous \"motions\" (a request for a court to issue an order), all of which required the attention of the Court, including the following:* \"Motion to Behoove an Inquisition\"* \"Motion for Judex Delegatus\"* \"Motion for Restoration of Sanity\"* \"Motion for Deinstitutionalization\"* \"Motion for Publicity\"* \"Motion to Vacate Jurisdiction\"* \"Motion for Cesset processus\"* \"Motion for Nunc pro tunc\"* \"Motion for Psychoanalysis\"* \"Motion to Impeach Judge Alaimo\"* \"Motion to Renounce Citizenship\"* \"Motion to Exhume Body of Alex Hodgson\"* \"Motion to Invoke and Execute Rule 15—Retroactive Note: The Court's School Days are Over\"* \"Motion for Skin Change Operation\"* \"Motion for Catered Food Services\"* \"Motion to Kiss My Ass\"Washington, an inmate from Georgia, was eventually prohibited from filing any future lawsuits or motions in any district court unless he first posted a contempt bond of $1,500.To be deemed frivolous, a litigant's arguments must strike beyond the pale.===''Pearson v. Chung''===In 2005, in ''Pearson v. Chung'', Roy Pearson, a Washington, D.C. judge, sued a dry cleaning business for $67 million for allegedly losing a pair of his pants.", "This case has been cited as an example of frivolous litigation.", "According to Pearson, the dry cleaners lost his pants (which he brought in for a $10.50 alteration) and refused his demands for a large refund.", "Pearson believed that a sign saying \"Satisfaction Guaranteed\" in the window of the shop legally entitled him to a refund for the cost of the pants, estimated at $1,000.The $54 million total also included $2.0 million in \"mental distress\" and $15,000 which he estimated to be the cost of renting a car every weekend to go to another dry cleaners.", "The court ultimately ruled against Pearson, whose judgeship was subsequently not renewed due to this case and several other actions he filed during his divorce, which were found to demonstrate a lack of \"judicial temperament\".===Jonathan Lee Riches===In 2010, federal prosecutors asked a judge to help them stop Jonathan Lee Riches from filing any more lawsuits, arguing that his frequent filings were frivolous.===Gloria Dawn Ironbox===In July 2013, the Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario dismissed a complaint laid by a man posing as Gloria Dawn Ironbox, a fictional feminist attorney on television series ''Family Guy''.", "The claimant alleged that a marketing scheme by A&W Restaurants was \"heteronormative\", \"phallocentric\" and promoted \"cross-sectional hegemony\".", "Citing feelings of distress and alienation over the lack of \"LGBT\" representation in A&W naming conventions, he demanded $50,000 in damages for injury to dignity and self-respect as well as an order requiring A&W to adopt naming conventions which include non-traditional families.", "One such product the claimant demanded was the \"Pillow Biter\", described by the claimant as \"a large, dark slab of meat stuffed firmly between two, white, clenched buns\".===Sirgiorgio Sanford Clardy===In January 2014, Sirgiorgio Sanford Clardy, who is serving a 100-year prison sentence for a beating of a prostitute and her customer, filed a $100 million lawsuit against Nike, in which he claimed that Nike was partially responsible for the assault he committed.", "Clardy said that Nike should have placed a label in his Jordan shoes warning consumers that they could be used as a dangerous weapon.", "He was wearing a pair when he repeatedly stomped the face of a client who was trying to leave a Portland hotel without paying Clardy's prostitute in June 2012.This lawsuit gained \"considerable attention across the nation and the world\".===''Romine v. Stanton''===In March 2016, James Romine, one-half of the independent video games developer Digital Homicide Studios, sued video game critic James Stephanie Sterling for criticizing the games published under his studios' name, seeking $10 million in damages for \"assault, libel, and slander\" to Romine's business.", "He claimed that Sterling's coverage of his studio's game ''The Slaughtering Grounds'' as \"Worst Game of 2014 Contender\" was not protected under fair use law because he did not believe it was \"fair\" criticism.", "An additional lawsuit for $18 million was filed against 100 users on the Steam gaming platform for criticizing their games and business practices, which he had interpreted as \"harassment\".", "The judge issued a subpoena against Valve to disclose the identities of those 100 users.", "This resulted in Valve removing all published games from Digital Homicide Studios.", "In addition, Romine filed the lawsuit as an individual and not as a corporation, so such criticism was protected under the right to freedom of speech.", "The case was dismissed with prejudice in February 2017.This case is also an example of abuse of DMCA takedown requests on YouTube.===''Erik Estavillo vs Twitch, Inc''===In June 2020, Erik Estavillo filed a lawsuit against Twitch, claiming that the streaming platform was responsible for his sex addiction, with damages of $25 million, which was to be split between him, Twitch Prime subscribers, and COVID-19 charities.", "He claimed that Twitch's \"twisted programming and net code\" made it \"nearly impossible to use Twitch without being exposed to sexual content\".", "Other claims included him \"chaffing his penis every day with a fleshlight\" and causing a fire by ejaculating on his computer monitor.", "The filing contained pictures of the female Twitch streamers (such as Amouranth and Pokimane), who he wanted banned from the platform.", "Estavillo had previously sued Blizzard, Microsoft, Sony, and Nintendo.", "All of these lawsuits were dismissed with prejudice.", "This case was dismissed as frivolous in January of 2021." ], [ "See also", "Abuse of process''Anders v. California''BarratryFranchise fraudFrivolous or vexatiousJudith Richardson HaimesMalicious prosecutionMichigan Lawsuit Abuse Watch* PseudolawStella AwardsSLAPPSpamigationSummary judgmentTax protester argumentsTax protesterTort reformVexatious litigation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Lawsuit.no: Frivolous lawsuit archive" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fiddle" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''fiddle''' is a bowed string musical instrument, most often a violin.", "It is a colloquial term for the violin, used by players in all genres, including classical music.", "Although in many cases violins and fiddles are essentially synonymous, the style of the music played may determine specific construction differences between fiddles and classical violins.", "For example, fiddles may optionally be set up with a bridge with a flatter arch to reduce the range of bow-arm motion needed for techniques such as the double shuffle, a form of bariolage involving rapid alternation between pairs of adjacent strings.", "To produce a \"brighter\" tone than the deep tones of gut or synthetic core strings, fiddlers often use steel strings.", "The fiddle is part of many traditional (folk) styles, which are typically aural traditions—taught \"by ear\" rather than via written music.", "'''Fiddling''' is the act of playing the fiddle, and '''fiddlers''' are musicians that play it.", "Among musical styles, fiddling tends to produce rhythms that focus on dancing, with associated quick note changes, whereas classical music tends to contain more vibrato and sustained notes.", "Fiddling is also open to improvisation and embellishment with ornamentation at the player's discretion, in contrast to orchestral performances, which adhere to the composer's notes to reproduce a work faithfully.", "It is less common for a classically trained violinist to play folk music, but today, many fiddlers (e.g., Alasdair Fraser, Brittany Haas, and Alison Krauss) have classical training." ], [ "History", "The medieval fiddle emerged in 10th-century Europe, deriving from the Byzantine lira (, , ), a bowed string instrument of the Byzantine Empire and ancestor of most European bowed instruments.The first recorded reference to the bowed lira was in the 9th century by the Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911); in his lexicographical discussion of instruments he cited the lira (lūrā) as a typical instrument of the Byzantines and equivalent to the rabāb played in the Islamic Empires.Lira spread widely westward to Europe; in the 11th and 12th centuries European writers use the terms ''fiddle'' and ''lira'' interchangeably when referring to bowed instruments.West African fiddlers have accompanied singing and dancing with one-string gourd fiddles since the twelfth century , and many black musicians in America learned on similar homemade fiddles before switching over to the European violin.", "As early as the mid-1600s, black fiddlers (\"exquisite performers on three-stringed fiddles\") were playing for both black and white dancers at street celebrations in the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam (New York City), and by 1690 slave fiddlers were routinely providing the music at plantation balls in Virginia." ], [ "Etymology", "The etymology of ''fiddle'' is uncertain: it probably derives from the Latin ''fidula'', which is the early word for ''violin'', or it may be natively Germanic.The name appears to be related to Icelandic Fiðla and also Old English ''fiðele''.", "A native Germanic ancestor of ''fiddle'' might even be the ancestor of the early Romance form of ''violin''.In medieval times, ''fiddle'' also referred to a predecessor of today's violin.", "Like the violin, it tended to have four strings, but came in a variety of shapes and sizes.", "Another family of instruments that contributed to the development of the modern fiddle are the viols, which are held between the legs and played vertically, and have fretted fingerboards." ], [ "Ensembles", "Fiddlers participating in a session at a pub in IrelandIn performance, a solo fiddler, or one or two with a group of other instrumentalists, is the norm, though twin fiddling is represented in some North American, Scandinavian, Scottish and Irish styles.", "Following the folk revivals of the second half of the 20th century, it became common for less formal situations to find large groups of fiddlers playing together—see for example the Calgary Fiddlers, Swedish Spelmanslag folk-musician clubs, and the worldwide phenomenon of Irish sessions.Orchestral violins, on the other hand, are commonly grouped in sections, or \"chairs\".", "These contrasting traditions may be vestiges of historical performance settings: large concert halls where violins were played required more instruments, before electronic amplification, than did more intimate dance halls and houses that fiddlers played in.The difference was likely compounded by the different sounds expected of violin music and fiddle music.", "Historically, the majority of fiddle music was dance music, while violin music had either grown out of dance music or was something else entirely.", "Violin music came to value a smoothness that fiddling, with its dance-driven clear beat, did not always follow.", "In situations that required greater volume, a fiddler (as long as they kept the beat) could push their instrument harder than could a violinist.", "Various fiddle traditions have differing values.===Scottish, with cello===In the very late 20th century, a few artists have successfully attempted a reconstruction of the Scottish tradition of violin and \"big fiddle\", or cello.", "Notable recorded examples include Iain Fraser and Christine Hanson, Amelia Kaminski and Christine Hanson's Bonnie Lasses, Alasdair Fraser and Natalie Haas' Fire and Grace, and Tim Macdonald and Jeremy Ward's ''The Wilds''.===Balkan, with ''kontra''===Hungarian, Slovenian, and Romanian fiddle players are often accompanied by a three-stringed variant of the viola—known as the ''kontra''—and by double bass, with cimbalom and clarinet being less standard yet still common additions to a band.", "In Hungary, a three-stringed viola variant with a flat bridge, called the ''kontra'' or ''háromhúros brácsa'' makes up part of a traditional rhythm section in Hungarian folk music.", "The flat bridge lets the musician play three-string chords.", "A three-stringed double bass variant is also used." ], [ "Styles", "To a greater extent than classical violin playing, fiddle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or folk music traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound.===Europe=======Great Britain====* English folk music fiddling, includingNorthumbrian fiddle style, which features \"seconding\", an improvised harmony part played by a second fiddler.", "Lakeland or Cumbrian fiddling has a repertoire largely based upon hornpipes but also incorporates reels and jigs.", "* Scottish fiddling, including:Shetland fiddling, which includes trowie tunes said to come from peerie folk.", "The style is characterised by \"ringing strings\" and syncopated rhythms.", "A North East (particularly Aberdeenshire and Moray) tradition strongly influenced by baroque violin technique with staccato and Scotch snap bowing techniques and double stops.", "A Scottish Borders tradition with a repertoire heavy in hornpipes and with heavy use of double stops.", "A Highland tradition, highly influenced by the ornamentation and mixolydian scale of the Great Highland Bagpipe, as well as smoother bowing than other Scottish fiddle styles and a swinging of the 6/8 jig rhythm.", "A West Highland and Hebridean Tradition, very closely related to the Highland tradition with major influence from the Gaelic song tradition.", "An Orkney tradition with simpler bowing and ornamentation but with tunes featuring accidentals.", "* Welsh fiddling (Welsh ''Ffidil''; see Ar Log), a recently revived tradition.====Ireland====* Irish folk music fiddling including:Donegal fiddling from the northwest in Ulster, which features mazurkas and a Scottish-influenced repertoire including Strathspey and Highland Fling dances.", "Fiddlers tend to play fast and make heavy use of staccato bowing and may from time to time \"play the bass\", meaning a second fiddler may play a melody an octave below where a first fiddler is playing it.", "Sligo fiddling from northern Connacht, which like Donegal fiddling tends to be fast, but with a bouncier feel to the bowing.", "Galway fiddling southern Connacht, which is slower than Sligo or Donegal traditions, with a heavier emphasis on ornamentation.", "Tunes are occasionally played in Eb or Bb to match the tonality of flat pipes.", "Clare fiddling from northern Munster, which tends to be played near the slower Galway tempo yet with a greater emphasis on the melody itself rather than ornamentation.", "*Sliabh Luachra fiddling from the southwest in Munster, characterized by a unique repertoire of polkas and slides, the use of double stops and drones, as well as playing the melody in two octaves as in Donegal.====Nordic countries====The folk music band JPP at the 2015 Kaustinen Folk Music Festival in Kaustinen, Finland Norwegian fiddling (including Hardanger fiddling; see also Bygdedans and Gammaldans), including traditions from:Røros and Nord-Noreg styles, both using the standard fiddle.", "Finnskogen, using the standard fiddle, but featuring some flatted notes influenced by Finnish folk music.", "Voss and Telemark styles, both using the Hardanger fiddle.", "Setesdal, which uses both standard and Hardanger fiddles.", "* Swedish fiddling (including Låtfiol playing; see also Spelmanslag and Gammaldans), including traditions from:JämtlandDalarna* Finnish fiddling, including the regional styles of:KaustinenOstrobothnia, heavily influenced by Swedish fiddling.====Continental Europe====Klezmer fiddlers at a wedding, Ukraine, ca.", "1925* Austrian fiddling* French fiddling, including an old tradition from Corrèze and a revived one from Brittany* Hungarian folk music traditions* Italian fiddling* Klezmer fiddling* Polish fiddling* Mainland Portuguese and Azorean fiddling* Romanian fiddling===Americas=======United States====Peter Stampfel from The Holy Modal RoundersAmerican fiddling, a broad category including traditional and modern styles=====Traditional=====Blues fiddlingCajun and Zydeco fiddlingNative American fiddling, including:CherokeeCreekTohono O'odham waila music, a style heavily influenced by Mexican fiddling and featuring irregular counts and harmonies in thirds, fourths, and sixths.", "Old time fiddling, including:Fiddling from Appalachia, the most well-known style today, featuring heavy use of droning and double-stops as well as syncopated bowing patterns.", "Athabaskan fiddling of the Interior Alaska.", "Midwestern fiddling, highly influenced by Scandinavian music.", "Ozarks fiddling, faster and crisper bowing than Appalachia.", "Texas fiddling, with influences from Mexican fiddling and an emphasis on competitive playing.Kenny BakerNew England fiddling, with strong influences from Québécois/French Canadian and British repertoires.", "*Northwest fiddling, with influences from both Ozark and Midwestern fiddle styles, though with a strong emphasis on competitive playing like Texas fiddling.=====Modern=====Bluegrass fiddlingCountry fiddlingWestern swing style fiddling====Canada====Fiddling remains popular in Canada, and the various homegrown styles of Canadian fiddling are seen as an important part of the country's cultural identity, as celebrated during the opening ceremony of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics.", "Cape Breton fiddling, with a distinct Scottish influenceFrench Canadian fiddling including \"crooked tunes\", that is, tunes with irregular beat patterns.", "Métis fiddling, of central and western Canada featuring strong French Canadian influence, but with even more \"crooked\" tunes.", "Newfoundland fiddlingMaritimes, Acadian or Downeast style of fiddling, which has many similarities to Cape Breton fiddlingEnglish Canadian fiddling or Anglo-Canadian fiddling====Mexico====Silvestre Vargas (1901-1985), fiddler of the Mariachi Vargas from 1921 to 1975, director from 1931 to 1955Mexican fiddling includesDanza indígenaMariachiSon arribeñoSon calentanoSon huastecoSon planecoViolín-tamboraViolín tuxtlecoViolín mixteco====South America==== Forró, a type of music from Brazil, including the ''rabeca'' fiddle tradition* Peruvian violin===Africa, Asia and Australia===African fiddleAustralian folk music traditionsHuqin Chinese fiddlesMorna fiddling from Cape VerdeIndian fiddleIndian classical music" ], [ "Related instruments", "===Variants===Chasi, a Warm Springs Apache musician, playing the Apache fiddle, 1886Hardanger fiddleStroh violin or phonofiddle, known in Romanian as ''Vioara cu goarnă''.===Near relations===CelloDouble bassKontra ''Låtfiol''Rebec''Rabeca''Viola===Distant relations===A nyckelharpa being playedApache fiddleByzantine lyra, the medieval bowed instrument of the Byzantine EmpireCretan LyraCrwthGadulkaGudokGusleHurdy-gurdy also known as the wheel fiddleKamanchehLijericaNyckelharpaRebab" ], [ "See also", " Fleadh Cheoil* List of All-Ireland Champions* List of fiddlers* Jazz violin" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* ''The Fiddle Book'', by Marion Thede, (1970), Oak Publications.", ".", "* ''The Fiddler's Fakebook'', by David Brody, (1983), Oak Publications.", "US ; UK .", "* ''Oldtime Fiddling Across America'', by David Reiner and Peter Anick (1989), Mel Bay Publications.", ".", "Has transcriptions (standard notation) and analysis of tunes from multiple regional and ethnic styles.", "* ''The Portland Collection'', by Susan Songer, (1997), (Vol.", "2 )''North American Fiddle Music: a research and information guide'' by Drew Beisswenger (2011) Routledge." ], [ "External links", " Faroese fiddling* The Fiddler's Companion, an encyclopedia of historical notes on tunes from British, Celtic, and American traditions* Differences between fiddle and violin* Polish Fiddles - mazanki, złóbcoki* Złóbcoki (fiddles) - “Instruments with Soul” documentary* Violoneux.fr, background information on fiddlers of different French regions in the nineteenth and early twentieth century.", "In French." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of female tennis players" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''list of female tennis players''' who meet one or more of the following criteria:* Singles:Officially ranked among the top 25 by the Women's Tennis Association (since 1975)Ranked among the top 10 by an expert (e.g.", "A. Wallis Myers) before 1975Reached the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam tournamentReached the finals of or won the year-end championships*Won a medal at the Olympic GamesDoubles:Won a Grand Slam tournament or year-end championshipOfficially ranked No.", "1 by the WTA (since 1984)*Won a medal at the Olympic Games" ], [ "List", "NameNationalityBirthDeathGrand Slam singles titlesNotes Egypt 1960 French Championships quarterfinalist United States 1946 1965 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1957 Ranked world No.", "21 in 1983 Spain 1905 1998 Ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 1927 and 1928 • 1926/1927/1928 Wimbledon runner-up France 1963 Singles: 1984 Australian Open quarterfinalist ◌ Doubles: 1980 Australian Open quarterfinalist France 1914 1990 1954 French Championships quarterfinalist Canada 2000 1 Singles: ranked world No.", "4 in 2019 • '''2019 US Open champion''' Belgium 1972 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles and world No.", "21 in doubles in 1997 ◌ Singles: 1997 Australian Open quarterfinalist Argentina Peru 1967 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles in 1990 and world No.", "27 in doubles in 1988 1935 Doubles: '''1959 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1956/1959 U.S. champion''' Japan 1976 Ranked world No.", "21 in singles in 2005 and world No.", "13 in doubles in 2006 1873 1944 3 1895/1897/1898 U.S. Championships champion 1875 1957 Doubles: 1897/1898 U.S. Championships champion Germany 1909 1963 2 Ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 1930 and 1931 ◌ Singles: '''1931 French champion''' • '''1931 Wimbledon champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1930 French champion''' 1962 2 Ranked world No.", "1 in 1980 ◌ Singles: '''1979/1981 US Open champion''' • '''1980 WTA Finals champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1980 Wimbledon champion''' 1898 1969 1920 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles Belarus 1989 2 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles in 2012 and world No.", "7 in doubles in 2008 ◌ Singles: '''2012/2013 Australian Open champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''2007 US Open champion''' • '''2008 French Open champion''' Hungary 1993 Ranked world No.", "25 in singles in 2016 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2018 Switzerland 1989 Ranked world No.9 in singles in 2016.Australia 1956 Ranked world No.", "4 in 1979 ◌ Doubles: '''1977 Australian Open champion''' Austria 1980 Ranked world No.", "19 in 2007 1870 1954 1 '''1908 U.S. Championships champion''' United Kingdom 1956 1 Ranked world No.", "3 • '''1976 French Open champion''' Spain 1931 2011 1961 French Championships quarterfinalist Germany 1990 Ranked world No.", "23 in singles in 2013 and world No.", "63 in doubles in 2015 1949 Ranked world No.", "8 at the end of the year in 1969 1984 1 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles in 2012 and world No.", "15 in doubles in 2004 ◌ Singles: '''2013 Wimbledon champion''' Australia 1996 3 Singles: ranked '''world No.", "1''' in 2019/2020/2021 • '''2019 French Open champion''' • '''2021 Wimbledon champion''' • '''2022 Australian Open champion''' • '''2019 WTA Finals champion''' ◌ Doubles: ranked world No.", "5 in doubles in 2018 • '''2018 US Open champion''' 1967 Ranked world No.", "8 in 1985 Indonesia 1970 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles in 1997 and world No.", "9 in doubles in 1998 Australia 1912 2000 3 Ranked world No.", "8 at the end of the year in 1934 ◌ Singles: '''1933/1934/1936 Australian champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1934 Australian champion''' Argentina 1942 1964 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1965 French quarterfinalist • 1965/1966 U.S. quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1885 1972 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 1923 • 1919/1922/1923 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1921 Wimbledon women's doubles runner-up • 1920 Olympic silver medalist in women's doubles United Kingdom Singles: 1926 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Czech Republic 1983 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles and world No.", "34 in doubles in 2002 Romania 1990 Ranked world No.", "22 in singles and world No.", "30 in doubles in 2016 Switzerland 1997 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles and world No.", "59 in doubles in 2016 ◌ Singles: '''2020 Olympic gold medalist''' • 2019 US Open semifinalist Czechoslovakia 1951 Singles: 1978 French Open quarterfinalist 1983 Ranked world No.", "25 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "17 in doubles in 2011 1991 Ranked world No.", "8 in singles in 2019 ◌ Singles: 2016 French open semifinalist and 2018 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1919 2011 5 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1946 • '''1946 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1942/1943/1944/1946 U.S. Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1946 French Championships champion''' Australia 1902 1998 Doubles: '''1927/1929/1931 Australian Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1935 Australian Championships champion''' United Kingdom 1863 1946 6 '''1886/1890/1894/1897/1899/1900 Wimbledon champion''' Zimbabwe 1979 Ranked world No.", "31 in singles in 1999 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2005 ◌ Doubles: '''2007 Australian Open champion''' • '''2004/2005/2007 Wimbledon champion''' • '''2008 US Open champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''2010 Australian Open champion''' • '''2003 French Open champion''' • '''2004/2010 Wimbledon champion''' • '''2008 US Open champion''' Australia 1936 1963 French Championships quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1918 2004 1949 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Netherlands 1964 Ranked world No.", "29 in singles in 1990 and world No.", "4 in doubles in 1990 ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1997 Australian Open champion''' • '''1989 French Open champion''' • '''1991/1997 US Open champion''' Australia 1916 2001 6 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 1947 and 1948 • '''1937/1940/1946/1947/1948/1951 Australian Championships champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1936/1937/1938/1939/1940/1947/1948/1949/1951/1952 Australian Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1940/1946/1947/1948 Australian Championships champion''' Ukraine 1984 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles in 2008 and world No.", "11 in doubles in 2008 ◌ Doubles: '''2008 Australian Open champion''' Ukraine 1986 Ranked world No.", "29 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "9 in doubles in 2008 ◌ Doubles: '''2008 Australian Open champion''' 1965 Ranked world No.", "9 in 1984 Uruguay 1951 Doubles:'''1976 French Open champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1975 French Open champion''' Netherlands 1973 Ranked world No.", "29 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "16 in doubles in 1997 ◌ Doubles: 2000 Olympic silver medalist ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1994 French Open champion''' United Kingdom 1881 1970 1 Singles: '''1909 Wimbledon champion''' • 1908 Olympic silver medalist South Africa 1956 1974 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1977 French Open quarterfinalist Italy 1915 2015 Singles: 1949 French semifinalist United Kingdom 1922 1965 Ranked world No.", "6 at the end of 1948 ◌ Singles: 1946 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1994 Ranked world No.", "5 in singles in 2014 ◌ Singles: 2014 Wimbledon finalist Netherlands 1903 1998 1 Ranked world No.", "8 at the end of the year in 1928 • '''1927 French champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1929 French champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: 1924 Olympic bronze medalist Russia 1983 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles in 2005 and world No.", "14 in doubles in 2003 Australia 1969 Ranked world No.", "24 in singles in 1993 and world No.", "11 in doubles in 1992 • 1992 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles United Kingdom1934 1 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of the year in 1957 • '''1957 French Championships champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1957 French Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1958 French Championships champion''' Bermuda 1931 2006 1955/1958 French Championships semifinalist 1893 1983 2 '''1913/1914 French Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1911/1924 French Championships champion''' ◌ '''1912 Olympic gold medalist in singles''' and bronze medalist in mixed doubles 192320146 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1955 • '''1947 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1950 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1948/1949/1950/1955 Wimbledon champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1950 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1946/1947/1949 French Championships champion''' • '''1946/1948/1949/1950/1954 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1942/1943/1944/1945/1946/1947/1948/1949/1950/1955/1956/1957 U.S. Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1946/1947/1948/1950 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1942/1947/1948/1949 U.S. Championships champion''' 1891 1971 3 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of the year in 1921 • '''1912/1913/1914 U.S. Championships champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1912/1913/1914/1921/1925 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1926 Wimbledon champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1912/1913/1914/1921 U.S. Championships champion''' 1921 2021 Ranked world No.", "10 at the end of the year 1954 • 1954 French Championships runner-up Czech Republic 1960 Ranked world No.", "24 in 1983 West Germany 19362014 1959 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1956 French Championships quarterfinalist West Germany 1939 2023 1956 French Championships quarterfinalist Brazil 1939 7 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1959 and 1960 • '''1959/1960/1964 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1959/1963/1964/1966 U.S. Championships champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1958/1960/1963/1965/1966 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1960/1962/1966/1968 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1960 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1960 French Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1960 French Championships champion''' West Germany 1963 Ranked world No.", "7 in 1983 Australia 1900 1985 2 '''1931/1932 Australian Championships champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1932 Australian Championships champion''' United Kingdom 1934 2020 Ranked world No.", "6 at the end of the year in 1956 ◌ Doubles: '''1956 French Championships champion''' • '''1956 Wimbledon champion''' Romania 1988 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2018 and world No.", "28 in doubles in 2018 United Kingdom 1863 1905 2 1891/1892 U.S. Championships champion Belgium 1970 2000 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles 1976 3 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles for a total of 17 weeks in 2001 & 2002 ◌ Singles: '''2001/2002 Australian Open champion''' • '''2001 French Open champion''' • '''1992 Olympic gold medalist''' 1957 Ranked world No.", "33 in singles in 1980 ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1977 French Open champion''' 1963 Ranked world No.", "14 in 1984 1948 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of 1970 ◌ Doubles: '''1967/1968/1969/1970/1971/1973 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1967/1971/1974/1982 US Open champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1970/1972 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1975 US Open champion''' 1967 Ranked world No.", "18 in 1984 Australia 1946 Doubles: '''1972/1976/1977 (January)/1977 (December) Australian Open champion''' • '''1977 Wimbledon champion''' Singles: 1951 French quarterfinalist Italy 1965 Ranked world No.", "15 in 1988 Russia 1987 Ranked world No.", "5 in singles and world No.", "53 in doubles in 2007 ◌ Singles: 2007 US Open semifinalist Chinese Taipei 1989 Ranked world No.", "1 in doubles in 2017 191620141 Ranked world No.", "6 at the end of the year in 1946 • '''1938 Australian champion''' Soviet Union 1958 2015 1975 Australian Open semifinalist Slovakia 1989 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 2017 • Australian Open Runner-up 2014 Romania 1990 Ranked world No.", "21 in singles in 2013 and world No.", "35 in doubles in 2009 Belgium 1983 4 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles and doubles in 2003 ◌ Singles: '''2005/2009/2010 US Open champion''' • '''2011 Australian Open champion''' • '''2002/2003/2010 WTA Finals champion''' ◌ Doubles: 2003 French Open champion • 2003 Wimbledon champion South Africa 1971 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 1997 and world No.", "15 in doubles in 1993 Australia 1937 Mixed doubles: '''1958 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion''' United Kingdom 1924 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Australia 1953 1972 Australian Open quarterfinalist Australia 1930 20211 Ranked world No.", "8 at the end of the year in 1955 • '''1955 Australian Championships champion''' United Kingdom 1902 1930 1924 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles 1934 1969 9 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year from 1952 through 1954 • '''1953 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1953/1954 French Championships champion''' • '''1952/1953/1954 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1951/1952/1953 U.S. Championships champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1953 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1954 French Championships champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1954 French Championships champion''' Greece 1903 1963 1926 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1912 1996 2 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 1934 • '''1941/1945 U.S. Championships champion''' ◌ Doubles: '''1930/1932/1934/1935/1937/1938/1939/1940/1941 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1938/1939 Wimbledon champion''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''1932/1935/1937/1941 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1939 French Championships champion''' United Kingdom 1870 1966 5 '''1895/1896/1898/1901/1908 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1900 Olympic gold medalist in singles and mixed doubles''' New Zealand 1965 Ranked world No.", "17 in 1989 1990 Ranked world No.", "11 in singles in 2009 Australia 1942 24 • Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year from 1962 through 1965 and in 1969, 1970, and 1973 • One of three players to have won every possible title (singles, doubles, mixed doubles) at all four Grand Slam events.", "• '''Australian Open champion 1960/1961/1962/1963/1964/1965/1966/1969/1970/1971/1973''' • '''French Open champion 1962/1964/1969/1970/1973''' • '''Wimbledon champion 1963/1965/1970''' • '''US Open champion 1962/1965/1969/1970/1973''' ◌ Doubles: '''Australian Open champion 1961/1962/1963/1965/1969/1970/1971/1973''' • '''French Open champion 1964/1965/1966/1973''' • '''Wimbledon champion 1964/1969''' • '''US Open champion 1963/1968/1970/1973/1975''' ◌ Mixed doubles: '''Australian Championships champion 1963/1964/1965/1969''' • '''French Open champion 1963/1964/1965/1969''' • '''Wimbledon champion 1963/1965/1966/1968/1975''' • '''US Open champion 1961/1962/1963/1964/1965/1969/1970/1972''' 1959 French Championships quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1895 1982 1923 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1924 Olympic silver medalist in women's doubles Australia 1918 2015 2 Ranked world No.", "7 at year-end in 1952 • '''1952/1954 Australian Championships champion''' • 1936/1937/1938/1939/1940/1947/1948/1949/1951/1952/1956/1958 Australian Championships women's doubles champion Australia 1903 1933 5 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of the year in 1928 • '''1925/1926/1928/1929/1930 Australian Championships champion''' • 1924/1925/1928/1929/1931 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1924/1925/1928/1929 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion Australia 1903 1983 Doubles: 1932 Australian champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 1931/1932/1933 Australian champion United Kingdom 1966 Ranked world No.", "24 in singles in 1985 Germany 1968 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 1989 and world No.", "77 in doubles in 1987 United Kingdom 1918 2020 Ranked world No.", "9 at the end of 1949 • 1949/1952 French Championships quarterfinalist Greece 1982 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles in 2003 and world No.", "21 in doubles in 2007 Mexico 1939 1957 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1958 French Championships quarterfinalist Japan 1970 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 1995 and world No.", "33 in doubles in 1992 1976 3 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles at the end of the year in 1998/2001/2004 & 2005 and world No.", "2 in doubles at the end of the year in 1997 • Ranked world No.", "1 in singles for a total of 98 weeks from 1998 through 2002 and from 2004 through 2006 ◌ Singles: '''1998 US Open champion''' • '''1999 Wimbledon champion''' • '''2000 Australian Open champion''' • 1996 Olympic gold medalist • 1999 WTA Finals champion • 1998 French Open semifinalist ◌ Doubles: 1996 French Open champion • 1997 US Open champion • 1999 Wimbledon champion • 1996/1997/1998 WTA Finals champion 1926 2023 Ranked world No.", "5 at the end of the year in 1950 • 1950 French Championships semifinalist 1979 Ranked world No.", "11 in singles in 2006 and world No.", "8 in doubles in 2007 Australia 1985 Ranked world No.", "26 in singles in 2014 and world No.", "5 in doubles in 2015 • 2011 French Open mixed doubles champion • Russia 1981 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "5 in doubles in 2003 ◌ Singles: '''2008 Olympic gold medalist''' • 2004 French Open finalist • 2004 US Open finalist • 2009 Australian Open semifinalist • 2008/2009 Wimbledon semifinalist ◌ Doubles: 2002 WTA Finals champion United Kingdom 1871 1960 5 '''1887/1888/1891/1892/1893 Wimbledon champion''' Australia Yugoslavia Serbia andMontenegro 1983 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles and world No.", "10 in doubles in 2002 ◌ Singles: 2000 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2009 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2002 French Open quarterfinalist Romania 1972 Ranked world No.", "15 in singles and world No.", "21 in doubles in 1997 Argentina 1985 Ranked world No.", "26 in singles in 2005 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2010 ◌ Doubles: 2011 Australian Open champion • 2010 WTA Finals champion South Africa 1943 Ranked world No.", "6 at the end of the year in 1965 and 1966 • 1966 French Championships mixed doubles champion 191820126Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year from 1947 through 1950 • '''1946/1949 French Championships champion''' • '''1948/1949/1950 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1947 Wimbledon champion''' • 1946/1947/1949 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1946/1948/1949/1950/1954 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1941/1942/1943/1944/1945/1946/1947/1948/1949/1950/1955/1956/1957 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1962 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 1943/1944/1945/1946/1950/1956/1958/1959/1960 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion United Kingdom 1960 Ranked world No.", "5 in 1984 ◌ Singles: 1983 French Open semifinalist • 1983 US Open semifinalist • 1983 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1984 Wimbledon quarterfinalist ◌ Mixed doubles: 1991 Australian champion • 1987 Wimbledon champion 1942 1 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of 1967 ◌ Singles: '''1967 French champion''' ◌ Doubles: 1967 French champion • 1968/1969/1970/1971 French Open champion • 1969/1972 US Open champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 1968/1971/1973 French Open champion • 1976 Wimbledon champion Australia 1944 Ranked world No.", "9 at the end of the year in 1964 • 1963 French Championships quarterfinalist • 1962/1963 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1963 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1963 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion (shared – final abandoned because of rain) West Germany 1948 1972/1973/1974 French Open quarterfinalist 1946 1967 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Italy 1972 Ranked world No.", "11 in singles in 2002 and world No.", "24 in doubles in 1999 Italy 1987 Ranked world No.", "6 in singles in 2012 and No.", "1 in doubles in 2012 • 2012 French Open women's doubles champion • 2012 US Open women's doubles champion • 2013 Australian Open women's doubles champion • ITF World Champion in doubles, 2012 (with Roberta Vinci) 1954 18 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1975, 1976, 1977, 1980, and 1981 • Ranked world No.", "1 for a total of 262 weeks from 1975 through 1982 and in 1985 • '''1974/1975/1979/1980/1983/1985/1986 French Open champion''' • '''1974/1976/1981 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1975/1976/1977/1978/1980/1982 US Open champion''' • '''1982/1984 Australian Open champion''' • 1974/1975 French Open women's doubles champion • 1976 Wimbledon women's doubles champion South Africa 1960 Ranked world No.", "15 in singles in 1990 and world No.", "12 in doubles in 1986 • 1981/1983 French Open women's doubles champion 1940 1963 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1962 French Championships quarterfinalist 1965 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles and world No.", "4 in doubles in 1989 • 1991 Australian Open women's doubles champion Puerto Rico 1964 Ranked world No.", "17 in singles and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1991 • 1988/1990/1992/1995/1996 US Open women's doubles champion • 1991/1992/1993/1994/1995/1997 French Open women's doubles champion • 1992/1993/1994/1997 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1993/1994 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1992/1996 Olympic gold medalist in women's doubles 1971 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 1990 and world No.", "4 in doubles in 1991 ◌ Singles: 1990/1992 Australian Open finalist • 1993 French Open finalist • 1991 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1990/1992 US Open semifinalist • 1992 Olympic bronze medalist ◌ Doubles: 1991 Australian Open champion • 1996 French Open champion • 1992/1996 Olympic gold medalist • 1996 WTA Finals champion Australia 1922 2012 1946 Australian Championships women's doubles champion 1930 2014 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of the year in 1954, 1955, and 1958 • 1955 French Championships women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1931 2022 Ranked world No.", "8 at the end of the year in 1954 • 1954 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Belgium 1986 Ranked world No.", "13 in 2013 • 2013 Wimbledon semifinalist 1972 Ranked world No.", "13 in singles in 1995 and world No.", "24 in doubles in 1993 1927 20214 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1956 • '''1957 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1951 French Championships champion''' • '''1956 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1956 U.S. Championships champion''' • 1957 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1950/1951/1952/1953 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1951/1952/1953 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1951/1952/1953/1954 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1956 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Argentina 1968 Ranked world No.", "23 in singles in 1988 and world No.", "62 in doubles in 1991 1963 Ranked world No.", "8 in 1984 1954 1975 French Open quarterfinalist Italy 1977 Ranked world No.", "22 in singles in 2007 and world No.", "25 in doubles in 2001 1993 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 2018 and world No.", "2 in doubles in 2016 • 2016 French Open women's doubles champion 1963 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 1989 and world No.", "5 in doubles in 1988 • 1987 Australian Open mixed doubles champion • 1988/1990 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion 2004 1 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 2023 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2022 • '''2023 US Open champion''' Australia Russia 1994 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2017 and world No.", "45 in doubles in 2017 1955 1979 French Open quarterfinalist 1927 2003 5 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1957 and 1958 • '''1956 French Championships champion''' • '''1957/1958 Wimbledon Championships champion''' • '''1957/1958 U.S. Championships champion''' Italy 1991 2018 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Argentina 1949 1974 French Open semifinalist United Kingdom 1896 1992 2 Ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 1923, 1924, and 1926 • '''1924/1926 Wimbledon Championships champion''' • 1924 Olympic silver medalist in women's doubles and bronze medalist in singles • 1920 Olympic gold medalist in women's doubles, silver medalist in mixed doubles, and bronze medalist in singles United Kingdom 1904 1975 Ranked world No.", "10 at the end of the year in 1929 and 1931 • 1929 Wimbledon semifinalist 1988 Ranked world No.", "12 in singles in 2008 and world No.", "91 in doubles in 2007 Switzerland 1992 2020 Olympic silver medalist in women's doubles 1963 Ranked world No.", "18 in 1987 Australia 1951 7 Ranked world No.", "1 in 1976 • '''1974/1975/1976/1977(December) Australian Open Champion''' • '''1971 French Open champion''' • '''1971/1980 Wimbledon champion''' • 1971/1974/1975/1976/1977(December) Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1974 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1972 French Open mixed doubles champion Germany 1988 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 2018 and world No.", "12 in doubles in 2016 • 2018 Wimbledon semifinalist Argentina 1973 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles in 1994 and world No.", "9 in doubles in 1995 1895 1982 Ranked world No.", "6 at the end of the year in 1923, 1924, and 1925 • 1918 U.S. Championships runner-up • 1918/1919/1920/1926 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion 1943 2008 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 1964 • 1965 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1966 Australian Championships women's doubles champion Germany 1969 22 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996 • '''1988/1989/1990/1994 Australian Open champion''' • '''1987/1988/1993/1995/1996/1999 French Open champion''' • '''1988/1989/1991/1992/1993/1995/1996 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1988/1989/1993/1995/1996 US Open champion''' • 1988 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1992 Olympic silver medalist in singles • 1988 Olympic gold medalist in singles and bronze medalist in doubles.", "Ranked world No.", "1 for 377 weeks.", "Italy 1975 Ranked world No.", "24 in singles and world No.", "26 in doubles in 2001 Netherlands 1944 1966 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Germany 1985 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles and world No.", "7 in doubles in 2006 • 2009 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 2014 French Open mixed doubles champion Australia Slovakia 1987 Singles: ranked world No.", "25 in 2011 ◌ Doubles: ranked world No.", "51 in 2007 ◌ Mixed doubles: 2013 Australian Open champion 1986 Singles: ranked world No.", "123 in 2009 ◌ Doubles: ranked world No.", "52 in doubles in 2006 ◌ Mixed doubles: 2009 US Open champion Belgium 1952 Singles: 1979 Australian Open quarterfinalist 1969 Singles: ranked world No.", "17 in 1987 Slovakia 1973 Singles: ranked world No.", "10 in 1997 Germany 1969 Ranked world No.", "13 in singles in 1995 and world No.", "94 in doubles in 1994 1970 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2000 ◌ Singles: 1993/2000 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1994 French Open quarterfinalist ◌ Doubles: 2000 US Open champion Romania 1991 2 Singles: ranked '''world No.", "1''' in 2017 • 2018 '''French Open champion''' • 2019 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 2018 Australian Open finalist • 2015 US Open semifinalist 1990 Singles: ranked world No.", "24 in 2013 West Germany 1959 Ranked world No.", "5 in 1983 1869 1937 1 '''1887 U.S. Championships champion''' Slovakia 1983 Ranked world No.", "5 in singles in 2003 and in doubles in 2002 ◌ Mixed doubles: 2001 Wimbledon champion • 2002 Australian Open champion • 2005 French Open champion • 2005 US Open champion 1936 20213 Ranked world No.", "2 at year-end in 1957, 1960, and 1961 • '''1960 French Championships champion''' • '''1960/1961 U.S. Championships champion''' • 1957/1959/1960/1963 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1955/1957/1960 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1958/1959/1960/1961/1962 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1957/1959/1960 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 1955/1961 French Championships mixed doubles champion United Kingdom 1913 2001 Ranked world No.", "8 at year-end in 1939 • 1939 Wimbledon quarterfinalist South Africa 1958 1981 French Open women's doubles champion 1902 1999 1931 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • Top-ranked player in the United States in 1930 Australia 1949 1972 Australian Open women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1920 2017 1950 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1925 2015 6 Ranked world No.", "1 at year-end in 1951 • '''1949 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1950/1952 French Championships champion''' • '''1951 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1954/1955 U.S. Championships champion''' • 1950 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1948/1950/1951/1952/1953 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1947/1951/1952/1953 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1951/1952/1953/1954 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1949/1950 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion • 1951/1952/1953 French Championships mixed doubles champion • 1951/1952/1953/1954/1955 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 1951/1952/1953/1954/1955 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion 1946 1967 Wimbledon semifinalist 1971 Ranked world No.", "23 in singles and world No.", "17 in doubles in 1996 Australia 1950 1972 Australian Open quarterfinalist Australia 1924 1981 Doubles: 1946/1954/1955/1956/1958 Australian Championships champion United Kingdom 1923 Wimbledon quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1911 2002 Ranked world No.", "6 at year-end in 1932 • 1932 Wimbledon semifinalist South Africa 1909 2016 Ranked world No.", "5 at year-end in 1929 • 1929 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1927 French Championships women's doubles champion 1945 Ranked world No.", "5 at year-end in 1969 1874 1960 1 '''1894 U.S. Championships champion in singles and doubles''' Belgium 1982 7 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles at the end of the year in 2003/2006/2007 and world No.", "23 in doubles in 2002 ◌ Singles: '''2003/2005/2006/2007 French Open champion''' • '''2003/2007 US Open champion''' • '''2004 Australian Open champion''' • 2004 Olympic gold medalist • 2006/2007 WTA Finals champion • 2001/2006 Wimbledon finalist ◌ Ranked world No.", "1 for 125 weeks United Kingdom 1920 2017 Ranked world No.", "6 at year-end in 1949 ◌ Singles: 1949 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1946 French quarterfinalist Switzerland 1980 5 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles at the end of the year in 1997/1999/2000 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1998 ◌ Singles: '''1997/1998/1999 Australian Open champion''' • '''1997 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1997 US Open champion''' • 1998/2000 WTA Finals champion • 1997/1999 French Open finalist ◌ Doubles: 1996/1998/2015 Wimbledon champion • 1997/1998/1999/2002/2016 Australian Open champion • 1998/2000 French Open champion • 1998/2015/2017 US Open champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 2006/2015 Australian Open champion • 2016 French Open champion • 2015/2017 Wimbledon champion • 2015/2017 US Open champion ◌ Ranked world No.", "1 for 209 weeks Japan 1971 Ranked world No.", "72 in singles and world No.", "26 in doubles in 1997 • 1997 French Open mixed doubles champion Czech Republic 1986 Ranked world No.", "58 in singles and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2012 ◌ Doubles: 2011 French Open champion • 2013 US Open champion • 2017 WTA Finals champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 2013 US Open champion Australia 1934 1954 Australian Championships runner-up 1949 1972 Wimbledon quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1883 1912/1913 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1920 Olympic silver medalist in singles and women's doubles Czechoslovakia 1949 1976 French Open quarterfinalist 1877 1949 1 '''1906 U.S. Championships champion''' Australia 1910 1980 1 '''1939 Australian Championships champion in singles''' • 1930/1933/1934 Australian Championships champion in doubles Australia 1909 1968 1939/1947 Australian Championships runner-up • 1930/1936/1937/1939 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion • 1954 French Championships women's doubles champion Germany 1912 1991 Ranked world No.", "8 at year-end in 1932 and 1937 • 1936 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1965 Ranked world No.", "10 in singles in 1984 and world No.", "45 in doubles in 1988 ◌ Singles: 1983/1984 French Open quarterfinalist 1943 Singles: 1965 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Czech Republic 1985 Ranked world No.", "41 in singles and world No.", "4 in doubles in 2012 ◌ Doubles: 2011 French Open champion • 2013 US Open champion Chinese Taipei 1986 Ranked world No.", "23 in singles in 2013 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2014 ◌ Doubles: 2013 Wimbledon Champion • 2014 French Open champion • 2013 WTA Finals champion Germany 1974 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "30 in doubles in 2000 ◌ Singles: 1996 Australian Open finalist • 1993 French Open semifinalist • 1999/2000 US Open quarterfinalist South Africa 1976 Ranked world No.", "131 in singles in 1999 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2007 • 2005/2007 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 2007 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 2008 US Open women's doubles champion • 2009 French Open mixed doubles champion • 2010 US Open mixed doubles champion Australia 1950 Ranked world No.", "9 at year-end in 1974 Australia 1994 Ranked world No.", "1 in doubles in 2023 • 2022 US Open mixed doubles champion Slovakia 1974 Ranked world No.", "3 in doubles in 2003 • 2002 WTA Finals champion in doubles Serbia 1987 1 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles in 2008 and world No.", "50 in doubles in 2006 ◌ Singles: '''2008 French Open champion''' • 2008 Australian Open finalist • 2007 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2012 US Open quarterfinalist Tunisia 1994 Ranked world No.", "2 in 2022 • 2022 Wimbledon Finalist • 2022 US Open Finalist • 2020 Australian Open Quarterfinalist 1908 1997 5 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1936 • '''1932/1933/1934/1935 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1936 Wimbledon champion''' • 1932/1934/1935 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1934 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion 1965 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of the year in 1982 and 1983 • 1981 French Open mixed doubles champion United Kingdom 1911 1988 Doubles: 1935/1936 Wimbledon champion • 1933 U.S. Championships champion Serbia 1985 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles at the end of the year in 2008 and world No.", "43 in doubles in 2006 ◌ Singles: 2008 US Open finalist • 2007/2008/2010 French Open semifinalist • 2008 Australian Open semifinalist ◌ Mixed doubles: 2007 Wimbledon champion Yugoslavia 1956 1 Ranked world No.", "8 at year-end in 1976 • '''1977 French Open champion''' • 1978 French Open women's doubles champion Poland 1912 1980 Ranked world No.", "3 at year-end in 1937 • 1939 French Championships women's doubles champion 1897 1979 Ranked world No.", "8 at year-end in 1922 • 1919/1920 U.S. Championships runner-up • 1918/1919/1920/1921 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1919 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion • 1924 Olympic silver medalist in mixed doubles United Kingdom 1938 3 Ranked world No.", "2 at year-end in 1967 and 1969 • '''1961/1966 French Championships champion''' • '''1969 Wimbledon champion''' • 1963/1968/1969 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1969 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion • 1969 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion 1879 1965 2 '''1899/1902 U.S. Championships champion''' • 1902 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1901 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion • 1900 Olympic bronze medalist in singles and mixed doubles 1957 1 Ranked world No.", "78 in 1983 • '''1979 Australian Open champion''' • 1983 French Open mixed doubles champion 1959 Ranked world No.", "5 in singles and world No.", "6 in doubles in 1984 • 1980 French Open women's doubles champion • 1980/1985 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1981 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1981 US Open women's doubles champion • 1986 French Open mixed doubles champion • 1986 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Japan 1971 Ranked world No.", "24 in singles in 1995 and world No.", "65 in doubles in 1994 Estonia 1985 Ranked world No.", "15 in 2012 Sweden 1963 1984 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Russia 1997 Ranked world No.", "10 in singles in 2018 and world No.", "43 in doubles in 2016 1969 Ranked world No.", "13 in singles in 1989 and world No.", "26 in doubles in 1991 United States 1998 1 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 2020 • '''2020 Australian Open champion''' Germany 1988 3 Singles: ranked '''world No.", "1''' in 2016 • '''2016 Australian Open champion''' • '''2016 US Open champion''' • '''2018 Wimbledon champion''' • 2012/2018 French Open quarterfinalist • 2021 Olympic silver medalist 1995 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 2016 ◌ Singles: 2017 US Open finalist • 2015 Australian Open semifinalist, 2018 quarterfinalist • 2015 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1943 12 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1966, 1967, 1968, 1971, 1972, and 1974 • '''1966/1967/1968/1972/1973/1975 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1967/1971/1972/1974 US Open champion''' • '''1968 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1972 French Open champion''' • 1961/1962/1965/1967/1968/1970/1971/1972/1973/1979 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1972 French Open women's doubles champion • 1964/1967/1974/1978/1980 US Open women's doubles champion • 1968 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion • 1967/1970 French Open mixed doubles champion • 1967/1971/1973/1974 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 1967/1971/1973/1976 US Open mixed doubles champion 1989 Ranked world No.", "50 in singles in 2006 and world No.", "4 in doubles in 2010 • 2010 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 2010 US Open women's doubles champion Russia 1987 Ranked world No.", "10 in singles in 2008 and world No.", "9 in doubles in 2011 Russia 1989 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "10 in doubles in 2010 South Africa 1956 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles in 1979 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1976 1925 2015 Ranked world No.", "5 at year-end in 1955 and 1957 • 1955/1957 French Championships runner-up West Germany 1963 Ranked world No.", "4 in 1985 • 1985 US Open women's doubles champion • 1987 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1988 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles Germany 1880 1945 1912 Olympic silver medalist in singles and gold medalist in mixed doubles Hungary 1924 2006 1 Ranked world No.", "2 at year-end in 1958 • '''1958 French Championships champion''' Croatia 1997 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2017 Australia United Kingdom 1991 Ranked career high world No.4 in singles in 2016 • 2016 Australian open Semifinalist Estonia 1995 Ranked world No.", "2 in singles in 2022 • 2020 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2021 WTA Finals runner-up Czech Republic 1982 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2013 and world No.", "31 in doubles in 2014 Russia 1981 Ranked world No.", "8 in singles in 2000 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1999 • 1999/2002 Australian Open women's doubles champion Australia 1946 1977 Ranked world No.", "9 at year-end in 1970 • 1970 French Open semifinalist • 1970/1977 Australian Open semifinalist • 1968 Australian Championships women's doubles champion Russia 1984 Ranked world No.", "25 in singles and world No.", "22 in doubles in 2004 Czech Republic 1995 1 Singles: ranked world No.", "33 in 2021 • '''2021 French Open champion''' ◌ Doubles: ranked world No.", "1 in 2018 • 2018/2021 French Open champion • 2018 Wimbledon champion Luxembourg 1975 Ranked world No.", "18 in singles in 2002 South Africa 1973 Ranked world No.", "21 in singles in 1998 and world No.", "91 in doubles in 2002 South Africa 1958 1978 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Russia 1997 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles and world No.", "2 in doubles in 2022 • 2022 WTA Finals champion in doubles 1956 1976 French Open quarterfinalist Russia 1985 2 Singles: ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 2007 • '''2004 US Open champion''' • '''2009 French Open champion''' ◌ Doubles: 2005/2012 Australian Open champion Czech Republic 1990 2 Ranked world No.", "2 in singles in 2011 • '''2011/2014 Wimbledon champion''' • 2019 Australian Open finalist • 2012/2020 French Open semifinalist • 2015/2017 US Open quarterfinalist 1914 2010 1945 French Championships runner-up United Kingdom 1906 1985 Ranked world No.", "7 at year-end in 1926 • 1925 Wimbledon runner-up United Kingdom 1878 1960 7 '''1903/1904/1906/1910/1911/1913/1914 Wimbledon champion'''• 1908 Olympic gold medalist in singles Australia 1895 1982 1 Ranked world No.", "10 in 1924 • '''1924 Australian Championships champion''' • 1923/1924/1925 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1923 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion 191620101 Ranked world No.", "7 at year-end in 1946 • '''1948 French Championships champion''' United Kingdom 1879 1965 1 '''1912 Wimbledon champion''' • 1914 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Italy 1933 1954 French Championships semifinalist 1964 Ranked world No.", "19 in 1983 Australia 1941 Ranked world No.", "7 at year-end in 1963 • 1960/1961/1962/1963 Australian Championships runner-up • 1960/1961 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion 1899 1938 12 Ranked world No.", "1 at year-end from 1921 through 1926 • '''1919/1920/1921/1922/1923/1925 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1920/1921/1922/1923/1925/1926 French Championships champion''' Uzbekistan 1986 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles 2012 and world No.", "40 in doubles in 2013 1954 French Championships quarterfinalist Li Na China 1982 2 Ranked world No.", "2 in singles in 2014 and world No.", "54 in doubles in 2006 • 2011/2013 Australian Open runner-up • '''2011 French Open champion''' • '''2014 Australian Open champion''' Li Ting China 1980 Ranked world No.", "136 in singles in 2005 and world No.", "19 in doubles in 2004 • Gold medalist in women's doubles at the 2004 Olympics Russia 1975 Ranked world No.", "15 in singles in 1999 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2004 • 2002 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 2007 Australian Open mixed doubles champion Sweden 1963 Ranked world No.", "10 in 1985 Germany 1989 Ranked world No.", "12 and world No.", "35 in doubles in 2012 • 2009 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2011 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2012 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2013 Wimbledon finalist • 2014 Wimbledon quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1908 1982 3 Ranked world No.", "1 at year-end in 1934 • '''1934/1937 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1935 Australian Championships champion''' • 1934/1935/1936 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Chile 1915 1994 1 Ranked world No.", "1 at year-end in 1937 • '''1937 U.S. Championships champion''' Spain 1980 2009 WTA Finals champion in doubles 1960 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles in 1985 and world No.", "31 in doubles in 1992 1945 1968/1971 French Open quarterfinalist 1982 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2017 and world No.", "19 in doubles in 1998 • 1998 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1999 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2017 Australian Open semifinalist Argentina 1961 1980 French Open quarterfinalist • 1980/1983 US Open quarterfinalist 1964 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 1985 and world No.", "18 in doubles in 1990 1977 1 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "24 in doubles in 1995 • '''1997 French Open champion''' Russia 1988 Ranked world No.", "8 in singles and world No.", "1 in doubles • 2013 French Open women's doubles champion • 2014 US Open women's doubles champion • 2012 US Open mixed doubles champion • 2016 Olympics women's doubles gold medalist Bulgaria 1969 Ranked world No.", "6 in singles in 1990 and world No.", "24 in doubles in 1994 Bulgaria 1975 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "13 in doubles in 2004 Bulgaria 1967 Ranked world No.", "3 in 1985 • 1984 US Open mixed doubles champion Norway 1884 1959 8 Ranked world No.", "2 at year-end in 1921 and 1922 • '''1915/1916/1917/1918/1920/1921/1922/1926 U.S. Championships champion''' • 1916/1917 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1917/1922/1923 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion Czechoslovakia Australia 1962 4 Ranked world No.", "3 in 1984 • '''1980/1987 Australian Open champion''' • '''1981 French Open champion''' • '''1985 US Open champion''' • 1989 US Open women's doubles champion Italy 1947 French Championships quarterfinalist Soviet Union Russia 1968 Ranked world No.", "68 in singles in 1992 and world No.", "18 in doubles in 1994 • 1993 French Open mixed doubles champion 1913 1990 5 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1939 • '''1936/1938/1939/1940 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1939 Wimbledon champion''' • 1937/1938/1939/1940 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1938/1939 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1936/1938/1939/1940 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion • 1937/1938/1939 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Australia 1936 1958 Australian Championship semifinalist Czechoslovakia 1958 1977/1978 French Open semifinalist 1947 1970 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Spain 1972 1 Ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 1995 • '''1994 Wimbledon champion''' • 1992/2004 Olympic silver medalist in women's doubles • 1996 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles Spain 1982 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles and world No.", "4 in doubles in 2010 West Germany 1941 Ranked world No.", "6 at year-end in 1970 • 1970 French Open runner-up • 1976 French Open women's doubles runner-up 1908 1980 2 Ranked world No.", "3 at year-end in 1932 • '''1938/1939 French Championships champion''' • 1933/1934/1937 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1933/1934/1936/1937/1938/1939 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1937/1938 French Championships mixed doubles champion Australia 1951 1978 Australian Open semifinalist 1985 Ranked world No.", "30 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2017 • 2012 Australian Open mixed doubles champion 1979 2 Ranked world No.", "1 in 2004 and 2006 • '''2006 Australian Open champion''' • '''2006 Wimbledon champion''' 1956 1977/1978 French Open quarterfinalist • 1978 US Open quarterfinalist • Ranked 10th in singles in 1977 1878 1952 1 '''1900 U.S. Championships champion''' 1971 Ranked world No.", "18 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "5 in doubles in 1994 • 1995 US Open mixed doubles champion 1992 Ranked world No.", "24 in singles in 2012 and world No.", "35 in doubles in 2017 Netherlands 1901 1929 Wimbledon quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1877 1954 1913 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1920 Olympic gold medalist in women's doubles 1963 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 1988 and world No.", "4 in doubles in 1987 • 1987 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1988 French Open mixed doubles champion Australia 1971 1992 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles Spain 1982 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2008 • 2008/2009 French Open women's doubles champion Soviet Union Ukraine 1971 Ranked world No.", "23 in singles in 2003 and world No.", "21 in doubles in 1994 Belgium 1931 1957 French quarterfinalist Belgium 1995 Ranked world No.", "12 in singles in 2018 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2021 ◌ Singles: 2018 Australian Open semifinalist • 2019/2020 US Open quarterfinalist ◌ Doubles: 2019 US Open doubles champion • 2021 Australian Open doubles champion Soviet Union Georgia 1968 Ranked world No.", "12 in singles in 1991 and world No.", "21 in doubles in 1995 1949 1974/1975 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1974 Wimbledon women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1905 1941 Doubles: 1928/1929 Wimbledon champion 1929 U.S. Championships champion Romania 1955 Singles: 1977 French Open runner-up Australia 1963 Ranked world No.", "23 in singles in 1988 and world No.", "68 in doubles in 1990 India 1986 Ranked world No.", "27 in singles and world No.", "1 in doubles.", "Three Grand Slam titles in mixed doubles.", "By far the most successful female player from India.", "1993 Ranked world No.", "10 in singles in 2017 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2019 ◌ Singles: 2015 US Open quarterfinalist • 2017 French Open quarterfinalist ◌ Doubles: 2016/2019/2020/2022 French Open champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 2013 Wimbledon champion • 2014/2022 Australian Open champion United Kingdom 1949 1972 French Open quarterfinalist Australia 1894 1985 2 Ranked world No.", "10 at year-end in 1922 and 1923 • '''1922/1923 Australian Championships champion''' • 1930/1933/1934 Australian Championships women's doubles champion Australia 1981 Ranked world No.", "8 in singles and world No.", "6 in doubles in 2005 ◌ Singles: 2005 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2004 Olympic bronze medalist ◌ Doubles: 2005 Australian Open champion • 2007 French Open champion Belgium 1973 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 1998 and world No.", "21 in doubles in 2000 ◌ Singles: 1997/1999 Australian Open quarterfinalist Spain 1975 Ranked world No.", "22 in singles in 2002 1905 1998 19 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1935, and 1938 • '''1923/1924/1925/1927/1928/1929/1931 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1927/1928/1929/1930/1932/1933/1935/1938 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1928/1929/1930/1932 French Championships champion''' • 1922/1924/1925/1928 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1924/1927/1930 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1930/1932 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1924/1928 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion • 1929 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 1924 Olympic gold medalist in singles and in doubles 1876 1959 4 1896/1901/1903/1905 U.S. Championships champion 1940 Ranked world No.", "9 at year-end in 1959 • 1959 Wimbledon semifinalist 1978 Ranked world No.", "29 in singles in 1998 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2000 • 1999 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 2001 Australian Open mixed doubles champion Soviet Union 1949 Ranked world No.", "7 at year-end in 1975 • 1974 French Open women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1932 3 Ranked world No.", "1 at year-end in 1961 • '''1955 French Championships champion''' • '''1958 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1961 Wimbledon champion''' • 1955 Wimbledon women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1928 1952 French Championships quarterfinalist 1961 Ranked world No.", "18 in singles in 1984 and world No.", "28 in doubles in 1987 United Kingdom 1905 2006 Ranked world No.", "7 at year-end in 1930 • 1930 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1931 Wimbledon women's doubles champion Spain 1993 2 Singles: ranked '''world No.", "1''' in singles in 2017, ranked world No.", "10 in doubles in 2015 ◌ Singles: '''2016 French open champion''' • '''2017 Wimbledon champion''' • 2020 Australian Open finalist Russia 1981 1 Ranked world No.", "2 in singles in 2004 and world No.", "15 in doubles in 2005 • '''2004 French Open champion''' Japan 1974 Ranked world No.", "28 in singles and world No.", "31 in doubles in 1995 1956 Ranked world No.", "25 in singles in 1986 and world No.", "11 in doubles in 1988 • 1978/1980 Australian Open women's doubles champion Slovakia 1978 Ranked world No.", "21 in singles in 2001 and world No.", "37 in doubles in 2002 Czechoslovakia 1956 18 Ranked world No.", "1 at year-end in 1978, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986 • '''1978/1979/1982/1983/1984/1985/1986/1987/1990 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1981/1983/1985 Australian Open champion''' • '''1982/1984 French Open champion''' • '''1983/1984/1986/1987 US Open champion''' • 1980/1982/1983/1984/1985/1987/1988/1989 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1975/1982/1984/1985/1986/1987/1988 French Open women's doubles champion • 1976/1979/1981/1982/1983/1984/1986 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1977/1978/1980/1983/1984/1986/1987/1989/1990 US Open women's doubles champion • 2003 Australian Open mixed doubles champion • 1974/1985 French Open mixed doubles champion • 1985/1993/1995/2003 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 1985/1987/2006 US Open mixed doubles champion • Ranked world No.", "1 for 331 weeks 1876 1938 Doubles: 1903/1905/1907 U.S. Championships champion Latvia 1966 Ranked world No.", "13 in singles in 1988 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1992 • 1989 French Open women's doubles champion • 1991 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1992 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion • 1994/1996 Australian Open mixed-doubles champion • 1995 French Open mixed-doubles champion 1953 1975/1977 French Open semifinalist Czechoslovakia 1968 20171 Ranked world No.", "2 in singles at the end of the year in 1997 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1990 • '''1998 Wimbledon champion''' • 1989/1990/1995/1998 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1990/1995 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1990/1991/1998 French Open women's doubles champion • 1994/1997/1998 US Open women's doubles champion • 1988/1989 Australian Open mixed doubles champion • 1988 US Open mixed doubles champion • 1989 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Mexico 1935 Ranked world No.", "6 at year-end in 1961 • 1958 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1959 French Championships mixed doubles champion Australia 1958 Doubles: 1926/1927 Australian Championships champion Australia 1956 1 '''1978 Australian Open champion''' Japan 1997 4 Singles: ranked '''world No.", "1''' in 2019 • '''2018/2020 US Open champion''' • '''2019/2021 Australian Open champion''' Latvia 1997 1 Singles: ranked world No.", "5 in 2018 • '''2017 French Open champion''' • 2018 Wimbledon semifinalist ◌ Doubles: ranked No.", "32 in 2017 Netherlands 1972 Ranked world No.", "25 in singles in 1993 and world No.", "19 in doubles in 1997 ◌ Doubles: 2000 Olympic silver medalist 1991 Ranked world No.", "31 in singles in 2010 and world No.", "125 in doubles in 2011 • 2011 US Open mixed doubles champion Russia 1976 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2002 and world No.", "75 in doubles in 2003 1966 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles and world No.", "38 in doubles in 1988 1930 1999 1953 French Championships quarterfinalist Austria 1970 Ranked world No.", "10 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "83 in doubles in 1989 Russia 1991 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "70 in doubles in 2009 Switzerland 1910 1988 Ranked world No.", "4 at year-end in 1932 • 1932/1934/1935 French Championships quarterfinalist • 1931/1933/1934 Wimbledon Championships quarterfinalist • 1935 French Championships mixed doubles champion South Africa 18921978 Ranked world No.", "6 at year-end in 1922 • 1927 French Championships runner-up • 1927 French Championships women's doubles champion Israel 1987 Ranked world No.", "11 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "14 in doubles in 2008 1994 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 2022 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2023 Peng Shuai China 1986 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2014 Italy 1982 1 Ranked world No.", "6 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2011 ◌ Singles: '''2015 US Open champion''' • 2014 Australian Open quarterfinalist ◌ Doubles: 2011 Australian Open champion • 2010 WTA Finals champions 1975 Ranked world No.", "26 in singles in 2005 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2011 • 2011 Wimbledon doubles champion Germany 1987 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "68 in doubles in 2009 Russia 1982 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 2006 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2005 West Germany 1961 Ranked world No.", "17 in singles in 1983 and world No.", "16 in doubles in 1988 1966 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 1986 and world No.", "37 in doubles in 1989 1975 2 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 1995 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2000 • '''1995 Australian Open champion''' • '''2000 French Open champion''' • 2000 French Open women's doubles champion • 2005 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Brazil 1994 2020 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles Czechoslovakia Hungary 1946 1974 French Open quarterfinalist Austria 1977 Ranked world No.", "27 in singles in 1999 and world No.", "78 in doubles in 2001 • 1999 French Open quarterfinals Czech Republic 1992 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles in 2017 • 2016 US Open finalist 1971 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles in 1997 and world No.", "6 in doubles in 2001 • 2000 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Germany 1968 Ranked world No.", "29 in singles in 1990 and world No.", "24 in doubles in 1994 • 1990 Australian Open quarterfinals 1961 Ranked world No.", "10 in singles in 1983, and world No.", "15 in doubles in 1988 1925 2016 Ranked world No.", "7 at year-end in 1954 • 1954 Wimbledon semifinalist 1916 1975 1948 French Championships quarterfinalist 1878 1942 1900 Olympic silver medalist South Africa 1934 Ranked world No.", "3 at year-end in 1960 • 1959 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1959/1961/1962 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1959 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion Puerto Rico 1993 Singles: '''2016 Olympic gold medalist''' United Kingdom 1925 2019 Ranked world No.", "9 at year-end in 1952 • 1948/1952 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1953 French Championships quarterfinalist United Kingdom 2002 1 Singles: ranked world No.", "23 in 2021 • '''2021 US Open champion''' Poland 1989 Ranked world No.", "2 in singles in 2012 and world No.", "25 in doubles in 2011 1973 Ranked world No.", "15 in singles in 1997 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2000 • 2000 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 2001 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 2001/2005 US Open women's doubles champion • 2006 French Open women's doubles champion • 1996/2002 US Open mixed doubles champion • 1999 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 2003 French Open mixed doubles champion 1983 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "82 in doubles in 2001 South Africa 1926 1996 1952 French Championships semifinalist Italy 1965 Ranked world No.", "13 in singles in 1988 and world No.", "25 in doubles in 1991 1969 Ranked world No.", "10 in singles in 1989 and world No.", "10 in doubles in 1992 Australia 1947 1 Ranked world No.", "5 at year-end in 1971 • '''1977 (January) Australian Open champion''' • 1968/1977 Australian Championships/Open women's doubles champion • 1978 Wimbledon women's doubles champion South Africa 1968 Ranked world No.", "26 in singles in 1989 and world No.", "10 in doubles in 1990 • 1994 US Open mixed doubles champion South Africa 1962 1983 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Australia 1934 2 '''1956/1959 Australian Championships champion''' • 1961 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1960/1961 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion 1987 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles in 2010 United Kingdom 1866 1907 1 '''1890 Wimbledon champion''' 1942 2 Ranked world No.", "3 at the end of the year in 1968 • '''1967 Australian Championships champion''' • '''1968 French Open champion''' • 1966 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1965/1966 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion 1884 1958 Doubles: 1913/1914/1921 U.S. Championships champion United Kingdom 1903 1983 1929 Wimbledon semifinalist 1916 1998 1949 Wimbledon semifinalist 1967 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles in 1986 and world No.", "13 in doubles in 1993 Germany 1973 Ranked world No.", "24 in singles in 1993 and world No.", "23 in doubles in 2002 United Kingdom 1878 1907 1 '''1902 Wimbledon champion''' Australia 1899 1966 1 Ranked world No.", "10 at year-end in 1928 • '''1927 Australian Championships champion''' • 1922/1923/1926/1928 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1922/1926/1927 Australian Championships mixed doubles champion Netherlands 1903 1994 1938 French Championships semifinalist 1868 1954 1 '''1890 U.S. Championships champion in singles and doubles''' United Kingdom 1923 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Bohemia 1864 1939 1900 Olympic bronze medalist 1874 1969 Doubles: 1909/1910 U.S. Championships champion 1948 1973 French Open quarterfinalist Spain 1973 Ranked world No.", "28 in singles in 1999 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2003 • 2001/2002/2004/2005/2008 French Open women's doubles champion • 2002/2003/2004 US Open women's doubles champion • 2004 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 2000 French Open mixed doubles champion 1976 Ranked world No.", "6 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "9 in doubles in 1996 • 1996 Australian Open semifinalist • 1995/2000/2003 French Open quarterfinalist • 1996 Australian Open women's doubles champion Romania 1918 1995 Ranked world No.", "9 at year-end in 1948 • 1947 French Championships quarterfinalist 1954 Ranked world No.", "22 in singles in 1983 and world No.", "32 in doubles in 1987 Romania 1955 1 Ranked world No.", "8 in 1979 • '''1978 French Open champion''' • 1978 French Open women's doubles champion 1892 1979 Ranked world No.", "3 at year-end in 1927 • 1914/1922/1930/1932/1933/1934 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1914/1919/1920/1921/1922/1923/1925/1926/1927/1930/1933/1934 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1926 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1913/1914 French Championships mixed doubles champion • 1919/1921/1923/1927/1928/1930/1932 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion • 1926/1933 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion Kazakhstan19991'''2022 Wimbledon Champion''' • Ranked No.", "12 in 2022 • 2021 French Open quarterfinalist Slovakia 1988 Ranked world No.", "17 in 2018 • 2017 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2014 Wimbledon doubles semifinalist Belarus 1998 1 Ranked world No.", "1 in 2023 • '''2023 Australian Open champion''' Argentina 1970 1 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 1989 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 1988 • '''1990 US Open champion''' • 1988 Wimbledon women's doubles champion.", "1988 Olympic silver medalist in singles.", "1987 Ranked world No.", "5 in singles in 2015 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2017 Russia 1986 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "8 in doubles in 2008 • 2007 US Open women's doubles champion 1971 4 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles in 1995 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1992 • '''1989/1994/1998 French Open champion''' • '''1994 US Open champion''' • 1992/1995/1996 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1993/1994 US Open women's doubles champion • 1995 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1990/1992 French Open mixed doubles champion • 1993 Australian Open mixed doubles champion • 2000 US Open mixed doubles champion Sweden 1948 1970 Australian Open quarterfinals Italy 1981 Ranked world No.", "27 in singles and world No.", "5 in doubles in 2007 • 2007 French Open women's doubles champion United Kingdom 18861962 Ranked world No.", "8 at year-end in 1924 • 1924 Wimbledon semifinalist 1951 1975 French Open quarterfinalist • 1975 Wimbledon women's doubles champion 1973 Ranked world No.", "14 in singles and world No.", "98 in doubles in 1995 Mary Sawyer Australia 1957 1979 Australian Open semifinalist Netherlands 1944 1971 French Open semifinalist Austria 1976 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles in 1999 and world No.", "8 in doubles in 2001 ◌ Singles: 1999 US Open quarterfinalist • 1999 WTA Finals quarterfinalist Italy 1980 1 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "8 in doubles in 2007 ◌ Singles: '''2010 French Open champion''', 2003/2010 US Open quarterfinalist, 2009 Wimbledon quarterfinalist, 2011 Australian Open quarterfinalist Switzerland 1978 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles and world No.", "15 in doubles in 2005 ◌ Singles: 2004 Australian Open semifinalist • 1998/2008 French Open quarterfinalist • 1998/2008 US Open quarterfinalist Netherlands 1970 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "7 in doubles in 1995 West Germany 1940 2015 Ranked world No.", "5 at year-end in 1964 • 1964 French Championships semifinalist South Africa 1939 2001 Ranked world No.", "8 at year-end in 1963 • 1959 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1959/1961/1962/1963 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1962 French Championships mixed doubles champion Austria 1979 Ranked world No.", "40 in singles in 1999 • 1999 French Open quarter-finals United Kingdom 1912 2001 2 Ranked world No.", "5 at year-end in 1933 and 1934 • '''1933/1934 French champion''' • 1935 French women's doubles champion • 1935 French mixed doubles champion 1881 1968 Doubles: 1911/1915/1916/1917 U.S. Championships champion 1875 1966 1 '''1907 U.S. Championships champion''' 1911 2012 1949/1954 French Championships quarter-finalist Yugoslavia 1973 9 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles at the end of 1991/1992/1995 and ranked world No.", "16 in doubles in 1991 • '''1991/1992/1993/1996 Australian Open champion''' • '''1990/1991/1992 French Open champion''' • '''1991/1992 US Open champion''' • 1990/1991/1992 WTA Finals champion • 1992 Wimbledon finalist • 2000 Olympic bronze medalist 1979 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles and world No.", "25 in doubles in 2004 Latvia 1990 Ranked world No.", "11 in singles in 2018 • 2018 US Open semifinalist Russia 1987 5 Ranked world No.", "1 in 2005 ◌ Singles: '''2004 Wimbledon champion''' • '''2006 US Open champion''' • '''2008 Australian Open champion''' • '''2012/2014 French Open champion''' • 2004 WTA Finals champion • 2012 Olympic silver medalist 1979 Ranked world No.", "11 in singles in 2001 and world No.", "4 in doubles in 2005 United Kingdom 1947 1992 1970 Wimbledon quarterfinalist United Kingdom 1897 1953 1921/1924 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1924 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles • 1931 Wimbledon women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1911 1983 1 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 1929 • '''1930 U.S. Championships champion''' • 1930/1931/1933 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1931 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1929/1931 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion • 1931/1932 French Championships mixed doubles champion 1962 Ranked world No.", "3 in 1984 • 1984/1985/1987/1988 French Open women's doubles champion • 1981/1982/1983/1984/1986 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1983/1984/1986/1987/1991 US Open women's doubles champion • 1982/1983/1984/1985/1987/1988/1989 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1987 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion Russia Kazakhstan 1987 Ranked world No.", "25 in singles in 2012 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2016 • 2010 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 2010 US Open women's doubles champion 1979 Ranked world No.", "24 in singles in 2000 and world No.", "15 in doubles in 2001 Germany 1988 Ranked world No.", "27 in singles in 2016 and world No.", "5 in doubles in 2023 • 2020 US Open women's doubles champion • Mixed doubles: 2016 US Open champion • 2023 WTA Finals champion in doubles 1956 1978 French Open semifinalist Czech Republic 1996 Ranked world No.", "1 in doubles in 2018 • 2020 Olympic gold medalist in women's doubles 1970 Ranked world No.", "19 in 1989 Israel 1976 Ranked world No.", "15 in 2003 1959 Ranked world No.", "12 in 1982 • 1981 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1980/1982 French Open women's doubles champion • 1980 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1981 US Open women's doubles champion • 1980/1984 French Open mixed-doubles champion • 1982 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion • 1981/1982 US Open mixed-doubles champion Australia 1963 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 1987 and world No.", "5 in doubles in 1988 • 1985 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1991 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion • 1983/1990 US Open mixed-doubles champion 1981 2017 Australian Open mixed doubles champion Denmark 1908 1981 3 Ranked world No.", "2 at year-end in 1936 • '''1935/1936/1937 French Championships champion''' • 1933 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion Romania 1974 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles in 1997 and world No.", "16 in doubles in 1995 1984 Ranked world No.", "17 in 2004 Slovenia 1981 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 2006 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2011 • 1999/2006/2010 French Open mixed doubles champion • 2003 US Open mixed doubles champion • 2011 Australian Open mixed doubles champion United Kingdom 1914 2005 Ranked world No.", "2 at year-end in 1939 • 1935 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1935/1936 Wimbledon women's doubles champion 1912 1987 Ranked world No.", "10 at year-end in 1934 and 1936 • 1936 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion Brazil 1997 Ranked world No.", "9 in doubles in 2021 ◌ Doubles: 2020 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles • 2021 and 2023 US Open doubles semifinalist • '''2023 Australian Open mixed doubles champion''' 1993 1 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 2018 ◌ Singles: '''2017 US Open champion''' • 2018 French Open finalist • 2013 Australian Open semifinalist • 2013 Wimbledon quarterfinalist South Africa 1957 Ranked world No.", "10 at year-end in 1980 • 1980 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1980 Ranked world No.", "18 in singles in 2002 and world No.", "67 in doubles in 2003 Australia 1984 1 Ranked world No.", "4 in singles in 2011 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2006 ◌ Singles: '''2011 US Open Champion''' • 2010 French Open finalist • 2010/2011 WTA Finals semifinalist ◌ Doubles: 2006 French Open champion • 2005 US Open champion • 2005/2006 WTA Finals champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 2005 Australian Open champion • 2008/2014 Wimbledon champion Netherlands 1945 Ranked world No.", "5 in 1977 • 1972/1979 French Open women's doubles champion • 1972 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1972/1977/1979 US Open women's doubles champion • 1978/1981 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion • 1977/1978 US Open mixed-doubles champion Czech Republic 1986 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles in 2017 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2019 • 2016 Olympic bronze medalist in women's doubles Australia 1971 Ranked world No.", "64 in 1996 • 2000 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 2001/2004 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 2001 US Open women's doubles champion • 2000 Australian Open mixed-doubles champion • 2001 US Open mixed-doubles champion Argentina 1976 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 2004 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2002 ◌ Doubles: 2001/2002/2004/2005 French Open champion • 2002/2003/2004 US Open champion • 2004 Australian Open champion 1988 Ranked world No.", "6 in singles in 2016 and world No.", "11 in doubles in 2015 ◌ Singles: 2008/2014 French Open quarterfinalist • 2009/2016/2018 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2013 US Open quarterfinalist Mexico 1947 1968 French Open quarterfinalist 1975 Ranked world No.", "8 in singles in 2004 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2000 ◌ Doubles: 2000 US Open champion • 2003 French Open champion • 2003 Wimbledon champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 1999 US Open champion Czech Republic 1965 Ranked world No.", "4 in 1985 • 1990/1992 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1990 French Open women's doubles champion • 1987/1989/1990/1996 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1985/1993 US Open women's doubles champion • 1991 French Open mixed-doubles champion • 1994/1996/1997 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion • 1993 US Open mixed-doubles champion Czechoslovakia 1931 1982 Ranked world No.", "5 at the end of the year in 1962 • 1962 Wimbledon finalist • 1957/1963 French semifinalist • 1962 US quarterfinalist ◌ Mixed doubles: 1957 French champion South Africa 19192005 Ranked world No.", "6 at the end of the year in 1947 • 1947/1949 French Championships mixed-doubles champion • 1949 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion Sun Tiantian China 1981 Ranked world No.", "77 in singles and world No.", "16 in doubles in 2007 ◌ Doubles: 2004 Olympics gold medalist ◌ Mixed doubles: 2008 Australian Open champion 1942 1 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 1962 • '''1962 Wimbledon champion''' • 1961/1962 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1964 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion 1886 1975 3 '''1904 U.S. Championships champion''' • '''1905/1907 Wimbledon champion''' • 1904 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion Netherlands 1947 1968 Australian Open quarterfinalist Ukraine 1994 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 2017 and world No.", "108 in doubles in 2015 ◌ Singles: 2019 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2019 US Open semifinalist • '''2018 WTA Finals champion''' South Africa 1971 Ranked world No.", "28 in singles in 1996 and world No.", "11 in doubles in 1998 • 1999 Australian Open mixed doubles champion • 2000 French Open mixed doubles champion Poland 2001 4 Singles: ranked world No.", "1 in 2022 • '''2020, 2022 and 2023 French Open champion, 2022 US Open champion''' ◌ Doubles: 2021 French Open finalist Hungary 1945 1975 French Open quarter-finalist Hungary 1988 Ranked world No.", "13 in singles in 2008 and world No.", "22 in doubles in 2007 1978 Ranked world No.", "18 in singles in 2000 and world No.", "54 in doubles in 2004 Thailand 1977 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles in 2002 and world No.", "15 in doubles in 2004 1965 Ranked world No.", "20 in singles in 1984 and world No.", "16 in doubles in 1986 South Africa 1903 1970 1927 French, 1929 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Argentina 1968 Ranked world No.", "29 in singles and world No.", "12 in doubles in 1888 • 1996 French Open mixed doubles champion 1967 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 2000 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2002 ◌ Singles: 1998 Wimbledon finalist • 1991 French Open quarterfinalist • 2000 US Open quarterfinalist 1951 1977 French Open quarterfinalist Australia 1937 Ranked world No.", "7 at the end of the year in 1968 • 1968 Wimbledon runner-up • 1964/1967/1969/1970 Australian Championships/Open women's doubles champion • 1966 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1966 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1970/1971 US Open women's doubles champion Hungary 1966 Ranked world No.", "7 in 1984 • 1986 French Open women's doubles champion 1 '''1893 U.S. Championships champion in singles and doubles''' 1972 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles and world No.", "8 in doubles in 2000 ◌ Singles: 1997 US Open quarterfinalist • 1998 Australian Open quarterfinalist 1922 2015 1 Ranked world No.", "4 at the end of the year in 1950 • '''1947 French Championships champion''' • 1948 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1947 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1948 French Championships mixed doubles champion Czechoslovakia 1954 Ranked world no.", "22 ◌ Singles: 1976 Australian Open finalist • 1976 French Open finalist ◌ Doubles: 1978 Australian Open champion ◌ Mixed doubles: 1978 French Open champion 1869 1909 2 1888/1889 U.S. Championships champion United Kingdom 1941 1 Ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 1959 ◌ Singles: '''1959 French champion''' ◌ Doubles: 1960 Australian champion United Kingdom c.1921 2016 Ranked world No.", "10 at year-end in 1951 • 1951 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1950 1971 French Open quarter-finalist Uzbekistan 1982 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles and world No.", "28 in doubles in 2002 Australia 1952 Ranked world No.", "3 in singles in 1985 • 1977 US Open runner-up • 1979 French Open runner-up • 1980 Australian Open runner-up • 1978 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1979 French Open women's doubles champion • 1979/1982 US Open women's doubles champion • 1979/1982 French Open mixed-doubles champion • 1980 US Open mixed-doubles champion • 1983/1984 Australian Open mixed-doubles champion Australia 1942 2 Ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 1963 • '''1963/1965 French Championships champion''' • 1964/1965/1967 Australian Championships women's doubles champion • 1964/1965 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1964 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1961 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1961/1964 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion United Kingdom 1926 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Czech Republic 1978 Ranked world No.", "18 in doubles in 2007 1989 Ranked world No.", "7 in singles in 2007 ◌ Singles: 2006 French Open semifinalist • 2007 Australian Open semifinalist • 2007/2008 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Italy 1905 1996 1933 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1965 1985 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1991 Ranked world No.", "9 in singles in 2017 and world No.", "18 in doubles in 2016 ◌ Singles: 2017 Australian Open semifinalist • 2017 US Open semifinalist • 2015/2017 Wimbledon quarterfinalist South Africa 1956 Ranked world No.", "20 in 1983 Russia 1986 Ranked world No.", "13 in singles in 2017 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2018 • 2013 French Open women's doubles champion • 2014 US Open women's doubles champion • 2016 Australian Open mixed doubles champion • 2016 Olympics women's doubles gold medalist Italy 1983 Ranked world No.", "12 in singles in 2013 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2012 • Year-end world No.", "1 in doubles in 2012 • 2012 French Open women's doubles champion • 2012 US Open women's doubles champion • 2013 Australian Open women's doubles champion • ITF World Champion in doubles, 2012 (with Sara Errani) 1903 1985 1924 Olympic silver medalist Germany 1925 2021 1953 Wimbledon quarterfinalist Czech Repuplic 1999 1 '''2023 Wimbledon champion''' • 2020 Olympic silver medalist Czechoslovakia 1944 1968 and 1970 French Open quarter-finalist South Africa 1938 1960 US Open quarter-finals United Kingdom 1945 3 Ranked world No.", "2 at the end of the year in 1968 • '''1968 US Open champion''' • '''1977 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1972 Australian Open champion''' • 1973 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1973 French Open women's doubles champion • 1973 and 1975 US Open women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1924 2010 Ranked world No.", "5 at the end of the year in 1951 • 1951 French Championships semifinalist China 1992 Ranked world No.", "22 in singles in 2018 United Kingdom 19291985 Ranked world No.", "8 at the end of the year in 1956 United Kingdom 1992 2016 Wimbledon mixed doubles champion United Kingdom 1864 1946 2 '''1884/1885 Wimbledon champion''' United Kingdom 18981980 Ranked world No.", "2 at year-end in 1929 • 1929 U.S. Championships runner-up • 1928/1929 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1929 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1928 French Championships women's doubles champion Argentina 1918 1984 1948/1952 French quarterfinalist Luxembourg 1946 French quarterfinalist 1939 1958 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1929 2002 Ranked world No.", "4 at year-end in 1951 • 1951 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1961 Ranked world No.", "19 in singles in 1986 and world No.", "18 in doubles in 1988 1963 Ranked world No.", "15 in singles in 1987 and world No.", "8 in doubles in 1990 • 1988 US Open women's doubles champion • 1989 US Open mixed-doubles champion United Kingdom 1907 1979 Ranked world No.", "3 at year-end in 1931 • 1928 French Championships runner-up • 1931 U.S. Championships runner-up • 1928/1931 French Championships women's doubles champion • 1931 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1928/1929 French Championships mixed-doubles champion • 1927 U.S. Championships mixed-doubles champion Belgium 1989 Ranked world No.", "12 in singles and world No.", "72 in doubles in 2010 ◌ Singles: 2009 US Open semifinalist Austria 1966 Ranked world No.", "12 in singles in 1997 and world No.", "29 in doubles in 1989 • 1996 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1996 US Open quarterfinalist 1886 1974 4 '''1909/1910/1911/1919 U.S. Championships champion''' • 1909/1910/1911/1915/1924/1928 U.S. Championships women's doubles champion • 1924 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1909/1910/1911/1915/1918/1920 U.S. Championships mixed doubles champion • 1924 Olympic gold medalist in women's doubles and mixed doubles 1981 23 Ranked world No.", "1 at the end of the year in 2002, 2009, 2013, 2014 and 2015, and ranked world No.", "1 in doubles in 2010 • ITF World Champion: singles, 2002, 2009, 2012; doubles, 2009 (with Venus Williams) • '''2003/2005/2007/2009/2010/2015/2017 Australian Open champion''' • '''2002/2013/2015 French Open champion''' • '''2002/2003/2009/2010/2012/2015/2016 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1999/2002/2008/2012/2013/2014 US Open champion''' • 2012 Olympic Singles Gold Medalist • 2000/2008/2012 Olympic Doubles Gold Medalist • 2001/2003/2009/2010 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1999/2010 French Open women's doubles champion • 2000/2002/2008/2009/2012/2016 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1999/2009 US Open women's doubles champion • 1998 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion • 1998 US Open mixed-doubles champion • Ranked world No.", "1 for a total of 300 weeks''See also:'' Williams sisters 1980 7 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles in 2002 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 2010 • ITF World Champion in doubles, 2009 (with Serena Williams) • '''2000/2001/2005/2007/2008 Wimbledon champion''' • '''2000/2001 US Open champion''' • 2000 Olympic Singles Gold Medalist • 2000/2008/2012 Olympic Doubles Gold Medalist • 2001/2003/2009/2010 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1999/2010 French Open women's doubles champion • 2000/2002/2008/2009/2012/2016 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1999/2009 US Open women's doubles champion • 1998 Australian Open mixed-doubles champion • 1998 French Open mixed-doubles champion • Ranked world No.", "1 for a total of 11 weeks''See also:'' Williams sisters United Kingdom 1870 1952 1908 Olympic bronze medalist South Africa 1923 1952 French quarterfinalist 1967 Ranked world No.", "21 in singles in 1995 and world No.", "45 in doubles in 1992 Denmark 1990 1 Ranked world No.", "1 in singles at the end of the year in 2010 and world No.", "52 in doubles in 2014 ◌ Singles: '''2018 Australian Open champion''' • 2009/2014 US Open finalist • 2010/2017 French Open quarterfinalist • 2017 WTA Finals champion 1987 Ranked world No.", "21 in 2009 Yan Zi China 1984 Ranked world No.", "40 in singles in 2008 and world No.", "4 in doubles in 2006 • 2006 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 2006 Wimbledon women's doubles champion United Kingdom 1910 2000 Doubles: 1936/1937/1938 French Championships champion 1937 Wimbledon champion Zhang Shuai China 1989 Ranked world No.", "23 in singles in 2016 Zheng Jie China 1983 Ranked world No.", "15 in singles in 2009 and world No.", "3 in doubles in 2006 • 2006 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 2006 Wimbledon women's doubles champion Czech Republic 1970 Ranked world No.", "22 in singles in 1991 and world No.", "38 in doubles in 1993 Colombia 1979 Ranked world No.", "16 in singles in 2005 Belarus 1971 Ranked world No.", "5 in singles in 1989 and world No.", "1 in doubles in 1991 • 1989/1992/1993/1994/1995/1997 French Open women's doubles champion • 1991/1992/1995/1996 US Open women's doubles champion • 1991/1992/1993/1994/1997 Wimbledon women's doubles champion • 1993/1994/1997 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 1990 & 1995 Australian Open mixed-doubles champion Russia 1984 Ranked world No.", "2 in singles in 2010 and world No.", "9 in doubles in 2005 • 2006 US Open women's doubles champion • 2012 Australian Open women's doubles champion • 2004 US Open mixed-doubles champion • 2006 Wimbledon mixed-doubles champion" ], [ "See also", "List of male tennis playersList of sportspeopleList of WTA number 1 ranked singles tennis playersList of WTA number 1 ranked doubles tennis playersTop ten ranked female tennis playersTop ten ranked female tennis players (1921–1974)List of Grand Slam women's singles champions" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flugelhorn" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''flugelhorn''' (), also spelled '''fluegelhorn''', '''flugel horn''', or '''flügelhorn''', is a brass instrument that resembles the trumpet and cornet but has a wider, more conical bore.", "Like trumpets and cornets, most flugelhorns are pitched in B, though some are in C. It is a type of valved bugle, developed in Germany in the early 19th century from a traditional English valveless bugle.", "The first version of a valved bugle was sold by Heinrich Stölzel in Berlin in 1828.The valved bugle provided Adolphe Sax (creator of the saxophone) with the inspiration for his B soprano (contralto) saxhorns, on which the modern-day flugelhorn is modeled." ], [ "Etymology", "The German word ''Flügel'' means ''wing'' or ''flank'' in English.", "In early 18th century Germany, a ducal hunt leader known as a ''Flügelmeister'' blew the ''Flügelhorn'', a large semicircular brass or silver valveless horn, to direct the wings of the hunt.", "Military use dates from the Seven Years' War, where this instrument was employed as a predecessor of the bugle." ], [ "Structure and variants", "A rotary valve flugelhornThe flugelhorn is generally pitched in B, like most trumpets and cornets.", "It usually has three piston valves and employs the same fingering system as other brass instruments, although four-valve versions and rotary-valve versions also exist.", "It can therefore be played by trumpet and cornet players, although it has different playing characteristics.", "The flugelhorn's mouthpiece is more deeply conical than either trumpet or cornet mouthpieces, but not as conical as a French horn mouthpiece.", "The shank of the flugelhorn mouthpiece is similar in size to a cornet mouthpiece shank.Some modern flugelhorns feature a fourth valve that lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth (similar to the fourth valve on some euphoniums, tubas, and piccolo trumpets, or the trigger on trombones).", "This adds a useful low range that, coupled with the flugelhorn's dark sound, extends the instrument's abilities.", "Players can also use the fourth valve in place of the first and third valve combination (which is somewhat sharp).A compact version of the rotary valve flugelhorn is the oval shaped kuhlohorn in B.", "It was developed for the German protestant trombone choirs.A pair of bass flugelhorns in C, called fiscorns, are played in the Catalan cobla bands which provide music for sardana dancers." ], [ "Timbre", "The tone is fatter and usually regarded as more mellow and dark than the trumpet or cornet.", "The sound of the flugelhorn has been described as halfway between a trumpet and a French horn, whereas the cornet's sound is halfway between a trumpet and a flugelhorn.", "The flugelhorn is as agile as the cornet but more difficult to control in the high register (from approximately written G5), where in general it locks onto notes less easily." ], [ "Use and performances", "Flugelhorn excerptB trumpet playing the same excerpt as aboveThe flugelhorn is a standard member of the British-style brass band, and it is also used frequently in jazz.", "It also appears occasionally in orchestral and concert band music.", "Famous orchestral works with flugelhorn include Igor Stravinsky's ''Threni'', Ralph Vaughan Williams's Ninth Symphony, and Michael Tippett's third symphony.", "The flugelhorn is sometimes substituted for the post horn in Mahler's Third Symphony, and for the soprano Roman buccine in Ottorino Respighi's ''Pines of Rome''.", "In HK Gruber's trumpet concerto ''Busking'' (2007) the soloist is directed to play a flugelhorn in the slow middle movement.", "The flugelhorn figured prominently in many of Burt Bacharach's 1960s pop song arrangements.", "It is featured in a solo role in Bert Kaempfert's 1962 recording of \"That Happy Feeling\".", "Flugelhorns have occasionally been used as the alto or low soprano voice in a drum and bugle corps.Another use of the flugelhorn is found in the Dutch and Belgian \"''Fanfareorkesten''\" or fanfare orchestras.", "In these orchestras the flugelhorns, often between 10 and 20 in number, have a significant role, forming the base of the orchestra.", "They are pitched in B, with sporadically an E soloist.", "Due to poor intonation, these E flugelhorns are mostly replaced by the E trumpet or cornet.The 1996 film ''Brassed Off'' features a flugelhorn performance of Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez, Adagio, as a key moment.", "The solo is played by Paul Hughes." ], [ "Notable players", "Joe Bishop, as a member of the Woody Herman band in 1936, was one of the earliest jazz musicians to use the flugelhorn.", "Shorty Rogers and Kenny Baker began playing it in the early fifties, and Clark Terry used it in Duke Ellington's orchestra in the mid-1950s.", "Chet Baker recorded several albums on the instrument in the 1950s and 1960s.", "Miles Davis further popularized the instrument in jazz on the albums ''Miles Ahead'' and ''Sketches of Spain'', (both arranged by Gil Evans) though he did not use it much on later projects.", "Other prominent flugelhorn players include Donald Byrd, Freddy Buzon, Freddie Hubbard, Tom Browne, Lee Morgan, Bill Dixon, Wilbur Harden, Art Farmer, Roy Hargrove, Randy Brecker, Hugh Masekela, Feya Faku, Tony Guerrero, Gary Lord, Jimmy Owens, Maynard Ferguson, Terumasa Hino, Woody Shaw, Bobby Shew, Guido Basso, Kenny Wheeler, Tom Harrell, Bill Coleman, Thad Jones, Arturo Sandoval, Lee Loughnane of the rock band Chicago, Roddy Lorimer of The Kick Horns, Mike Metheny, Harry Beckett, Till Brönner and Ack van Rooyen.", "Most jazz flugelhorn players use the instrument as an auxiliary to the trumpet, but in the 1970s Chuck Mangione gave up playing the trumpet and concentrated on the flugelhorn alone, notably on his jazz-pop hit song \"Feels So Good\".", "Mangione, in an interview on ABC during the 1980 Winter Olympics, for which he wrote the theme \"Give It All You Got\", referred to the flugelhorn as \"the right baseball glove\".Pop flugelhorn players include Probyn Gregory (Brian Wilson Band), Ronnie Wilson of the Gap Band, Rick Braun, Mic Gillette, Jeff Oster, Zach Condon of the band Beirut, Scott Spillane of the band Neutral Milk Hotel, Terry Kirkman of the band The Association, and Rashawn Ross of the band Dave Matthews Band.", "Marvin Stamm played the flugelhorn solo on \"Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey\" by Paul and Linda McCartney.Classical flugelhorn players include Sergei Nakariakov and Kirill Soldatov." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * " ], [ "External links", " An overview and brief history of the flugelhorn, including a short sound clip* How to play a flugelhorn at TheTrumpetBlog.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Folk music" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Folk music''' is a music genre that includes traditional folk music and the contemporary genre that evolved from the former during the 20th-century folk revival.", "Some types of folk music may be called world music.", "Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, music that is played on traditional instruments, music about cultural or national identity, music that changes between generations (folk process), music associated with a people's folklore, or music performed by custom over a long period of time.", "It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles.", "The term originated in the 19th century, but folk music extends beyond that.Starting in the mid-20th century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music.", "This process and period is called the (second) folk revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s.", "This form of music is sometimes called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms.", "Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times, but the term folk music has typically not been applied to the new music created during those revivals.", "This type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, and others.", "While contemporary folk music is a genre generally distinct from traditional folk music, in U.S. English it shares the same name, and it often shares the same performers and venues as traditional folk music." ], [ "Traditional folk music", "=== Definition ===The terms ''folk music'', ''folk song'', and ''folk dance'' are comparatively recent expressions.", "They are extensions of the term ''folklore'', which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe \"the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes\".", "The term further derives from the German expression ''volk'', in the sense of \"the people as a whole\" as applied to popular and national music by Johann Gottfried Herder and the German Romantics over half a century earlier.", "Though it is understood that folk music is the music of the people, observers find a more precise definition to be elusive.", "Some do not even agree that the term folk music should be used.", "Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms.", "One meaning often given is that of \"old songs, with no known composers,\" another is that of music that has been submitted to an evolutionary \"process of oral transmission... the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character.", "\"Such definitions depend upon \"(cultural) processes rather than abstract musical types...\", upon \"''continuity'' and ''oral transmission''...seen as characterizing one side of a cultural dichotomy, the other side of which is found not only in the lower layers of feudal, capitalist and some oriental societies but also in 'primitive' societies and in parts of 'popular cultures'\".", "One widely used definition is simply \"Folk music is what the people sing.", "\"For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, there was a sense of the music of the country as distinct from that of the town.", "Folk music was already, \"...seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear (or in some cases, to be preserved or somehow revived),\" particularly in \"a community uninfluenced by art music\" and by commercial and printed song.", "Lloyd rejected this in favor of a simple distinction of economic class yet for him, true folk music was, in Charles Seeger's words, \"associated with a lower class\" in culturally and socially stratified societies.", "In these terms, folk music may be seen as part of a \"schema comprising four musical types: 'primitive' or 'tribal'; 'elite' or 'art'; 'folk'; and 'popular'.", "\"Music in this genre is also often called ''traditional music.''", "Although the term is usually only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre.", "For example, the Grammy Award previously used the terms \"traditional music\" and \"traditional folk\" for folk music that is not contemporary folk music.", "Folk music may include most indigenous music.==== Characteristics ====Viljandi Folk Music Festival held annually within the castle ruins in Viljandi, Estonia.From a historical perspective, traditional folk music had these characteristics:* It was transmitted through an oral tradition.", "Before the 20th century, ordinary people were usually illiterate; they acquired songs by memorizing them.", "Primarily, this was not mediated by books or recorded or transmitted media.", "Singers may extend their repertoire using broadsheets or song books, but these secondary enhancements are of the same character as the primary songs experienced in the flesh.", "* The music was often related to national culture.", "It was culturally particular; from a particular region or culture.", "In the context of an immigrant group, folk music acquires an extra dimension for social cohesion.", "It is particularly conspicuous in immigrant societies, where Greek Australians, Somali Americans, Punjabi Canadians, and others strive to emphasize their differences from the mainstream.", "They learn songs and dances that originate in the countries their grandparents came from.", "* They commemorate historical and personal events.", "On certain days of the year, including such holidays as Christmas, Easter, and May Day, particular songs celebrate the yearly cycle.", "Birthdays, weddings, and funerals may also be noted with songs, dances and special costumes.", "Religious festivals often have a folk music component.", "Choral music at these events brings children and non-professional singers to participate in a public arena, giving an emotional bonding that is unrelated to the aesthetic qualities of the music.", "* The songs have been performed, by custom, over a long period of time, usually several generations.As a side-effect, the following characteristics are sometimes present:* There is no copyright on the songs.", "Hundreds of folk songs from the 19th century have known authors but have continued in oral tradition to the point where they are considered traditional for purposes of music publishing.", "This has become much less frequent since the 1940s.", "Today, almost every folk song that is recorded is credited with an arranger.", "* Fusion of cultures: Because cultures interact and change over time, traditional songs evolving over time may incorporate and reflect influences from disparate cultures.", "The relevant factors may include instrumentation, tunings, voicings, phrasing, subject matter, and even production methods.=== Tune ===In folk music, a ''tune'' is a short instrumental piece, a melody, often with repeating sections, and usually played a number of times.", "A collection of tunes with structural similarities is known as a tune-family.", "''America's Musical Landscape'' says \"the most common form for tunes in folk music is AABB, also known as binary form.", "\"In some traditions, tunes may be strung together in medleys or \"sets.", "\"=== Origins ===Indians always distinguished between classical and folk music, though in the past even classical Indian music used to rely on the unwritten transmission of repertoire.Indian Nepali folk musician Navneet Aditya WaibaThroughout most of human prehistory and history, listening to recorded music was not possible.", "Music was made by common people during both their work and leisure, as well as during religious activities.", "The work of economic production was often manual and communal.", "Manual labor often included singing by the workers, which served several practical purposes.", "It reduced the boredom of repetitive tasks, it kept the rhythm during synchronized pushes and pulls, and it set the pace of many activities such as planting, weeding, reaping, threshing, weaving, and milling.", "In leisure time, singing and playing musical instruments were common forms of entertainment and history-telling—even more common than today when electrically enabled technologies and widespread literacy make other forms of entertainment and information-sharing competitive.Some believe that folk music originated as art music that was changed and probably debased by oral transmission while reflecting the character of the society that produced it.", "In many societies, especially preliterate ones, the cultural transmission of folk music requires learning by ear, although notation has evolved in some cultures.", "Different cultures may have different notions concerning a division between \"folk\" music on the one hand and of \"art\" and \"court\" music on the other.", "In the proliferation of popular music genres, some traditional folk music became also referred to as \"World music\" or \"Roots music\".The English term \"folklore\", to describe traditional folk music and dance, entered the vocabulary of many continental European nations, each of which had its folk-song collectors and revivalists.", "The distinction between \"authentic\" folk and national and popular song in general has always been loose, particularly in America and Germany – for example, popular songwriters such as Stephen Foster could be termed \"folk\" in America.", "The International Folk Music Council definition allows that the term can also apply to music that, \"...has originated with an individual composer and has subsequently been absorbed into the unwritten, living tradition of a community.", "But the term does not cover a song, dance, or tune that has been taken over ready-made and remains unchanged.", "\"The post–World War II folk revival in America and in Britain started a new genre, Contemporary Folk Music, and brought an additional meaning to the term \"folk music\": newly composed songs, fixed in form and by known authors, which imitated some form of traditional music.", "The popularity of \"contemporary folk\" recordings caused the appearance of the category \"Folk\" in the Grammy Awards of 1959; in 1970 the term was dropped in favor of \"Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording (including Traditional Blues)\", while 1987 brought a distinction between \"Best Traditional Folk Recording\" and \"Best Contemporary Folk Recording\".", "After that, they had a \"Traditional music\" category that subsequently evolved into others.", "The term \"folk\", by the start of the 21st century, could cover singer-songwriters, such as Donovan from Scotland and American Bob Dylan, who emerged in the 1960s and much more.", "This completed a process to where \"folk music\" no longer meant only traditional folk music.=== Subject matter ===Armenian traditional musiciansAssyrians playing a ''zurna'' and a ''davul'', instruments typically used for Assyrian folk music and dance.Traditional folk music often includes sung words, although folk instrumental music occurs commonly in dance music traditions.", "Narrative verse looms large in the traditional folk music of many cultures.", "This encompasses such forms as traditional epic poetry, much of which was meant originally for oral performance, sometimes accompanied by instruments.", "Many epic poems of various cultures were pieced together from shorter pieces of traditional narrative verse, which explains their episodic structure, repetitive elements, and their frequent ''in medias res'' plot developments.", "Other forms of traditional narrative verse relate the outcomes of battles or lament tragedies or natural disasters.Sometimes, as in the triumphant ''Song of Deborah'' found in the Biblical ''Book of Judges'', these songs celebrate victory.", "Laments for lost battles and wars, and the lives lost in them, are equally prominent in many traditions; these laments keep alive the cause for which the battle was fought.", "The narratives of traditional songs often also remember folk heroes such as John Henry or Robin Hood.", "Some traditional song narratives recall supernatural events or mysterious deaths.Hymns and other forms of religious music are often of traditional and unknown origin.", "Western musical notation was originally created to preserve the lines of Gregorian chant, which before its invention was taught as an oral tradition in monastic communities.", "Traditional songs such as ''Green grow the rushes, O'' present religious lore in a mnemonic form, as do Western Christmas carols and similar traditional songs.Work songs frequently feature call and response structures and are designed to enable the laborers who sing them to coordinate their efforts in accordance with the rhythms of the songs.", "They are frequently, but not invariably, composed.", "In the American armed forces, a lively oral tradition preserves jody calls (\"Duckworth chants\") which are sung while soldiers are on the march.", "Professional sailors made similar use of a large body of sea shanties.", "Love poetry, often of a tragic or regretful nature, prominently figures in many folk traditions.", "Nursery rhymes, children’s songs and nonsense verse used to amuse or quiet children also are frequent subjects of traditional songs.=== Folk song transformations and variations ===Korean traditional musiciansMusic transmitted by word of mouth through a community, in time, develops many variants, since this transmission cannot produce word-for-word and note-for-note accuracy.", "In addition, folk singers may choose to modify the songs they hear.For example, the words of \"I'm a Man You Don't Meet Every Day\" (Roud 975) were written down in a broadside in the 18th century, and seem to have an Irish origin.", "In 1958 the song was recorded in Canada (My Name is Pat and I'm Proud of That).", "Scottish traveler Jeannie Robertson from Aberdeen, made the next recorded version in 1961.She has changed it to make reference to \"Jock Stewart\", one of her relatives, and there are no Irish references.", "In 1976 Scottish artist Archie Fisher deliberately altered the song to remove the reference to a dog being shot.", "In 1985 The Pogues took it full circle by restoring the Irish references.Because variants proliferate naturally, there is generally no \"authoritative\" version of song.", "Researchers in traditional songs have encountered countless versions of the Barbara Allen ballad throughout the English-speaking world, and these versions often differ greatly from each other.", "The original is not known; many versions can lay an equal claim to authenticity.Influential folklorist Cecil Sharp felt that these competing variants of a traditional song would undergo a process of improvement akin to biological natural selection: only those new variants that were the most appealing to ordinary singers would be picked up by others and transmitted onward in time.", "Thus, over time we would expect each traditional song to become more aesthetically appealing, due to incremental community improvement.Literary interest in the popular ballad form dates back at least to Thomas Percy and William Wordsworth.", "English Elizabethan and Stuart composers had often evolved their music from folk themes, the classical suite was based upon stylised folk-dances, and Joseph Haydn's use of folk melodies is noted.", "But the emergence of the term \"folk\" coincided with an \"outburst of national feeling all over Europe\" that was particularly strong at the edges of Europe, where national identity was most asserted.", "Nationalist composers emerged in Central Europe, Russia, Scandinavia, Spain and Britain: the music of Dvořák, Smetana, Grieg, Rimsky-Korsakov, Brahms, Liszt, de Falla, Wagner, Sibelius, Vaughan Williams, Bartók, and many others drew upon folk melodies.=== Regional forms ===Naxi traditional musiciansThe Steinegger brothers, traditional fifers of Grundlsee, Styria, 1880While the loss of traditional folk music in the face of the rise of popular music is a worldwide phenomenon, it is not one occurring at a uniform rate throughout the world.", "The process is most advanced \"where industrialization and commercialisation of culture are most advanced\" but also occurs more gradually even in settings of lower technological advancement.", "However, the loss of traditional music is slowed in nations or regions where traditional folk music is a badge of cultural or national identity.=== Early folk music, fieldwork and scholarship ===Much of what is known about folk music prior to the development of audio recording technology in the 19th century comes from fieldwork and writings of scholars, collectors and proponents.==== 19th-century Europe ====Starting in the 19th century, academics and amateur scholars, taking note of the musical traditions being lost, initiated various efforts to preserve the music of the people.", "One such effort was the collection by Francis James Child in the late 19th century of the texts of over three hundred ballads in the English and Scots traditions (called the Child Ballads), some of which predated the 16th century.Contemporaneously with Child, the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould and later Cecil Sharp worked to preserve a great body of English rural traditional song, music and dance, under the aegis of what became and remains the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS).", "Sharp campaigned with some success to have English traditional songs (in his own heavily edited and expurgated versions) to be taught to school children in hopes of reviving and prolonging the popularity of those songs.", "Throughout the 1960s and early to mid-1970s, American scholar Bertrand Harris Bronson published an exhaustive four-volume collection of the then-known variations of both the texts and tunes associated with what came to be known as the Child Canon.", "He also advanced some significant theories concerning the workings of oral-aural tradition.Similar activity was also under way in other countries.", "One of the most extensive was perhaps the work done in Riga by Krisjanis Barons, who between the years 1894 and 1915 published six volumes that included the texts of 217,996 Latvian folk songs, the ''Latvju dainas''.", "In Norway the work of collectors such as Ludvig Mathias Lindeman was extensively used by Edvard Grieg in his ''Lyric Pieces'' for piano and in other works, which became immensely popular.Around this time, composers of classical music developed a strong interest in collecting traditional songs, and a number of composers carried out their own field work on traditional music.", "These included Percy Grainger and Ralph Vaughan Williams in England and Béla Bartók in Hungary.", "These composers, like many of their predecessors, both made arrangements of folk songs and incorporated traditional material into original classical compositions.==== North America ====Locations in Southern and Central Appalachia visited by the British folklorist Cecil Sharp in 1916 (blue), 1917 (green), and 1918 (red).", "Sharp sought \"old world\" English and Scottish ballads passed down to the region's inhabitants from their British ancestors.", "He collected hundreds of such ballads, the most productive areas being the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina and the Cumberland Mountains of Kentucky.The advent of audio recording technology provided folklorists with a revolutionary tool to preserve vanishing musical forms.", "The earliest American folk music scholars were with the American Folklore Society (AFS), which emerged in the late 1800s.", "Their studies expanded to include Native American music, but still treated folk music as a historical item preserved in isolated societies as well.", "In North America, during the 1930s and 1940s, the Library of Congress worked through the offices of traditional music collectors Robert Winslow Gordon, Alan Lomax and others to capture as much North American field material as possible.", "John Lomax (the father of Alan Lomax) was the first prominent scholar to study distinctly American folk music such as that of cowboys and southern blacks.", "His first major published work was in 1911, ''Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads''.", "and was arguably the most prominent US folk music scholar of his time, notably during the beginnings of the folk music revival in the 1930s and early 1940s.", "Cecil Sharp also worked in America, recording the traditional songs of the Appalachian Mountains in 1916–1918 in collaboration with Maud Karpeles and Olive Dame Campbell and is considered the first major scholar covering American folk music.", "Campbell and Sharp are represented under other names by actors in the modern movie ''Songcatcher''.One strong theme amongst folk scholars in the early decades of the 20th century was regionalism, the analysis of the diversity of folk music (and related cultures) based on regions of the US rather than based on a given song's historical roots.", "Later, a dynamic of class and circumstances was added to this.", "The most prominent regionalists were literary figures with a particular interest in folklore.", "Carl Sandburg often traveled the U.S. as a writer and a poet.", "He also collected songs in his travels and, in 1927, published them in the book ''The American Songbag''.", "Rachel Donaldson, a historian who worked for Vanderbilt, later stated this about The American Songbird in her analysis of the folk music revival.", "\"In his collections of folk songs, Sandburg added a class dynamic to popular understandings of American folk music.", "This was the final element of the foundation upon which the early folk music revivalists constructed their own view of Americanism.", "Sandburg's working-class Americans joined with the ethnically, racially, and regionally diverse citizens that other scholars, public intellectuals, and folklorists celebrated their own definitions of the American folk, definitions that the folk revivalists used in constructing their own understanding of American folk music, and an overarching American identity\".Prior to the 1930s, the study of folk music was primarily the province of scholars and collectors.", "The 1930s saw the beginnings of larger scale themes, commonalities, and linkages in folk music developing in the populace and practitioners as well, often related to the Great Depression.", "Regionalism and cultural pluralism grew as influences and themes.", "During this time folk music began to become enmeshed with political and social activism themes and movements.", "Two related developments were the U.S. Communist Party's interest in folk music as a way to reach and influence Americans, and politically active prominent folk musicians and scholars seeing communism as a possible better system, through the lens of the Great Depression.", "Woody Guthrie exemplifies songwriters and artists with such an outlook.Folk music festivals proliferated during the 1930s.", "President Franklin Roosevelt was a fan of folk music, hosted folk concerts at the White House, and often patronized folk festivals.", "One prominent festival was Sarah Gertrude Knott's National Folk Festival, established in St. Louis, Missouri in 1934.Under the sponsorship of the Washington Post, the festival was held in Washington, DC at Constitution Hall from 1937 to 1942.The folk music movement, festivals, and the wartime effort were seen as forces for social goods such as democracy, cultural pluralism, and the removal of culture and race-based barriers.The American folk music revivalists of the 1930s approached folk music in different ways.", "Three primary schools of thought emerged: \"Traditionalists\" (e.g.", "Sarah Gertrude Knott and John Lomax) emphasized the preservation of songs as artifacts of deceased cultures.", "\"Functional\" folklorists (e.g.", "Botkin and Alan Lomax) maintained that songs only retain relevance when used by those cultures which retain the traditions which birthed those songs.", "\"Left-wing\" folk revivalists (e.g.", "Charles Seeger and Lawrence Gellert) emphasized music's role \"in 'people's' struggles for social and political rights\".", "By the end of the 1930s these and others had turned American folk music into a social movement.Sometimes folk musicians became scholars and advocates themselves.", "For example, Jean Ritchie (1922–2015) was the youngest child of a large family from Viper, Kentucky that had preserved many of the old Appalachian traditional songs.", "Ritchie, living in a time when the Appalachians had opened up to outside influence, was university educated and ultimately moved to New York City, where she made a number of classic recordings of the family repertoire and published an important compilation of these songs.In January 2012, the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, with the Association for Cultural Equity, announced that they would release Lomax's vast archive of 1946 and later recording in digital form.", "Lomax spent the last 20 years of his life working on an Interactive Multimedia educational computer project he called the Global Jukebox, which included 5,000 hours of sound recordings, 400,000 feet of film, 3,000 videotapes, and 5,000 photographs.", "As of March 2012, this has been accomplished.", "Approximately 17,400 of Lomax's recordings from 1946 and later have been made available free online.", "This material from Alan Lomax's independent archive, begun in 1946, which has been digitized and offered by the Association for Cultural Equity, is \"distinct from the thousands of earlier recordings on acetate and aluminum discs he made from 1933 to 1942 under the auspices of the Library of Congress.", "This earlier collection—which includes the famous Jelly Roll Morton, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, and Muddy Waters sessions, as well as Lomax's prodigious collections made in Haiti and Eastern Kentucky (1937) — is the provenance of the American Folklife Center\" at the library of Congress.=== National and regional forms ======= Africa ====The African lamellophone, thumb piano or mbiraAfrica is a vast continent and its regions and nations have distinct musical traditions.", "The music of North Africa for the most part has a different history from Sub-Saharan African music traditions.The music and dance forms of the African diaspora, including African American music and many Caribbean genres like soca, calypso and Zouk; and Latin American music genres like the samba, Cuban rumba, salsa; and other clave (rhythm)-based genres, were founded to varying degrees on the music of enslaved Africans, which has in turn influenced African popular music.==== Asia ====Paban Das Baul, baul singer at Nine Lives concert, 2009Many Asian civilizations distinguish between art/court/classical styles and \"folk\" music.", "For example, the late Alam Lohar is an example of a South Asian singer who was classified as a folk singer.Khunung Eshei/Khuland Eshei is an ancient folk song from India, a country of Asia, of Meiteis of Manipur, that is an example of Asian folk music, and how they put it into its own genre.===== Folk music of China =====Archaeological discoveries date Chinese folk music back 7000 years; it is largely based on the pentatonic scale.Han traditional weddings and funerals usually include a form of oboe called a suona, and apercussive ensembles called a chuigushou.", "Ensembles consisting of mouth organs (sheng), shawms (suona), flutes (dizi) and percussion instruments (especially yunluo gongs) are popular in northern villages; their music is descended from the imperial temple music of Beijing, Xi'an, Wutai shan and Tianjin.", "Xi'an drum music, consisting of wind and percussive instruments, is popular around Xi'an, and has received some commercial popularity outside of China.", "Another important instrument is the sheng, a type of Chinese pipe, an ancient instrument that is ancestor of all Western free reed instruments, such as the accordion.", "Parades led by Western-type brass bands are common, often competing in volume with a shawm/chuigushou band.In southern Fujian and Taiwan, Nanyin or Nanguan is a genre of traditional ballads.", "They are sung by a woman accompanied by a xiao and a pipa, as well as other traditional instruments.", "The music is generally sorrowful and typically deals with love-stricken people.", "Further south, in Shantou, Hakka and Chaozhou, zheng ensembles are popular.", "Sizhu ensembles use flutes and bowed or plucked string instruments to make harmonious and melodious music that has become popular in the West among some listeners.", "These are popular in Nanjing and Hangzhou, as well as elsewhere along the southern Yangtze area.", "Jiangnan Sizhu (silk and bamboo music from Jiangnan) is a style of instrumental music, often played by amateur musicians in tea houses in Shanghai.", "Guangdong Music or Cantonese Music is instrumental music from Guangzhou and surrounding areas.", "The music from this region influenced Yueju (Cantonese Opera) music, which would later grow popular during the self-described \"Golden Age\" of China under the PRC.Folk songs have been recorded since ancient times in China.", "The term Yuefu was used for a broad range of songs such as ballads, laments, folk songs, love songs, and songs performed at court.", "China is a vast country, with a multiplicity of linguistic and geographic regions.", "Folk songs are categorized by geographic region, language type, ethnicity, social function (e.g.", "work song, ritual song, courting song) and musical type.", "Modern anthologies collected by Chinese folklorists distinguish between traditional songs, revolutionary songs, and newly-invented songs.", "The songs of northwest China are known as \"flower songs\" (''hua'er''), a reference to beautiful women, while in the past they were notorious for their erotic content.", "The village \"mountain songs\" (''shan'ge'') of Jiangsu province were also well-known for their amorous themes.", "Other regional song traditions include the \"strummed lyrics\" (''tanci'') of the Lower Yangtze Delta, the Cantonese Wooden Fish tradition (''muyu'' or ''muk-yu'') and the Drum Songs (''guci'') of north China.In the twenty-first century many cherished Chinese folk songs have been inscribed in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.", "In the process, songs once seen as vulgar are now being reconstructed as romantic courtship songs.", "Regional song competitions, popular in many communities, have promoted professional folk singing as a career, with some individual folk singers having gained national prominence.===== Traditional folk music of Sri Lanka =====The art, music and dance of Sri Lanka derive from the elements of nature, and have been enjoyed and developed in the Buddhist environment.", "The music is of several types and uses only a few types of instruments.", "The folk songs and poems were used in social gatherings to work together.", "The Indian influenced classical music has grown to be unique.", "The traditional drama, music and songs of Sinhala Light Music are typically Sri Lankan.The temple paintings and carvings feature birds, elephants, wild animals, flowers, and trees, and the Traditional 18 Dances display the dancing of birds and animals.", "For example:* Mayura Wannama – The dance of the peacock* Hanuma Wannama – The dance of the monkey* Gajaga Wannama – The dance of the elephantMusical types include:* Local drama music includes Kolam and Nadagam types.", "Kolam music is based on low country tunes primarily to accompany mask dance in exorcism rituals.", "It is considered less developed/evolved, true to the folk tradition and a preserving of a more ancient artform.", "It is limited to approximately 3–4 notes and is used by the ordinary people for pleasure and entertainment.", "* Nadagam music is a more developed form of drama influenced from South Indian street drama which was introduced by some south Indian artists.", "Phillippu Singho from Negombo in 1824 performed \"Harishchandra Nadagama\" in Hnguranketha which was originally written in the Telingu language.", "Later \"Maname\", \"Sanda kinduru\" and others were introduced.", "Don Bastian of Dehiwala introduced Noorthy firstly by looking at Indian dramas and then John de Silva developed it as did Ramayanaya in 1886.", "* Sinhala light music is currently the most popular type of music in Sri Lanka and enriched with the influence of folk music, kolam music, nadagam music, noorthy music, film music, classical music, Western music, and others.", "Some artists visited India to learn music and later started introducing light music.", "Ananda Samarakone was the pioneer of this and also composed the national anthem.The classical Sinhalese orchestra consists of five categories of instruments, but among the percussion instruments, the drum is essential for dance.The vibrant beat of the rhythm of the drums form the basic of the dance.", "The dancers' feet bounce off the floor and they leap and swirl in patterns that reflect the complex rhythms of the drum beat.", "This drum beat may seem simple on the first hearing but it takes a long time to master the intricate rhythms and variations, which the drummer sometimes can bring to a crescendo of intensity.", "There are six common types of drums falling within 3 styles (one-faced, two-faced, and flat-faced):* The typical Sinhala Dance is identified as the Kandyan dance and the Gatabera drum is indispensable to this dance.", "* Yak-bera is the demon drum or the drum used in low country dance in which the dancers wear masks and perform devil dancing, which has become a highly developed form of art.", "* The Daula is a barrel-shaped drum, and it was used as a companion drum with a Thammattama in the past, to keep strict time with the beat.", "* The Thammattama is a flat, two-faced drum.", "The drummer strikes the drum on the two surfaces on top with sticks, unlike the others where you drum on the sides.", "This is a companion drum to the aforementioned Dawula.", "* A small double-headed hand drum is used to accompany songs.", "It is primarily heard in the poetry dances like vannam.", "* The Rabana is a flat-faced circular drum and comes in several sizes.", "The large Rabana - called the Banku Rabana - has to be placed on the floor like a circular short-legged table and several people (traditionally women) can sit around it and beat on it with both hands.", "This is used in festivals such as the Sinhalese New Year and ceremonies such as weddings.", "The resounding beat of the Rabana symbolizes the joyous moods of the occasion.", "The small Rabana is a form of mobile drum beat since the player carries it wherever the person goes.Other instruments include:* The Thalampata – 2 small cymbals joined by a string.", "* The wind section, is dominated by an instrument akin to the clarinet.", "This is not normally used for dances.", "This is important to note because the Sinhalese dance is not set to music as the western world knows it; rhythm is king.", "* The flutes of metal such as silver & brass produce shrill music to accompany Kandyan Dances, while the plaintive strains of music of the reed flute may pierce the air in devil-dancing.", "The conch-shell (Hakgediya) is another form of a natural instrument, and the player blows it to announce the opening of ceremonies of grandeur.", "* The Ravanahatha (ravanhatta, rawanhattha, ravanastron or ravana hasta veena) is a bowed fiddle that was once popular in Western India.", "It is believed to have originated among the Hela civilisation of Sri Lanka in the time of King Ravana.", "The bowl is made of cut coconut shell, the mouth of which is covered with goat hide.", "A dandi, made of bamboo, is attached to this shell.", "The principal strings are two: one of steel and the other of a set of horsehair.", "The long bow has jingle bells==== Australia ====Folk song traditions were taken to Australia by early settlers from England, Scotland and Ireland and gained particular foothold in the rural outback.", "The rhyming songs, poems and tales written in the form of bush ballads often relate to the itinerant and rebellious spirit of Australia in The Bush, and the authors and performers are often referred to as bush bards.", "The 19th century was the golden age of bush ballads.", "Several collectors have catalogued the songs including John Meredith whose recording in the 1950s became the basis of the collection in the National Library of Australia.The songs tell personal stories of life in the wide open country of Australia.", "Typical subjects include mining, raising and droving cattle, sheep shearing, wanderings, war stories, the 1891 Australian shearers' strike, class conflicts between the landless working class and the squatters (landowners), and outlaws such as Ned Kelly, as well as love interests and more modern fare such as trucking.", "The most famous bush ballad is \"Waltzing Matilda\", which has been called \"the unofficial national anthem of Australia\".Indigenous Australian music includes the music of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, who are collectively called Indigenous Australians; it incorporates a variety of distinctive traditional music styles practiced by Indigenous Australian peoples, as well as a range of contemporary musical styles of and fusion with European traditions as interpreted and performed by indigenous Australian artists.", "Music has formed an integral part of the social, cultural and ceremonial observances of these peoples, down through the millennia of their individual and collective histories to the present day.", "The traditional forms include many aspects of performance and musical instruments unique to particular regions or Indigenous Australian groups.", "Equal elements of musical tradition are common through much of the Australian continent, and even beyond.", "The culture of the Torres Strait Islanders is related to that of adjacent parts of New Guinea and so their music is also related.", "Music is a vital part of Indigenous Australians' cultural maintenance.==== Europe ====Battlefield Band performing in Freiburg in 2012===== Celtic traditional music =====Celtic music is a term used by artists, record companies, music stores and music magazines to describe a broad grouping of musical genres that evolved out of the folk musical traditions of the Celtic peoples.", "These traditions include Irish, Scottish, Manx, Cornish, Welsh, and Breton traditions.", "Asturian and Galician music is often included, though there is no significant research showing that this has any close musical relationship.", "Brittany's Folk revival began in the 1950s with the \"bagadoù\" and the \"kan-ha-diskan\" before growing to world fame through Alan Stivell's work since the mid-1960s.In Ireland, The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem (although its members were all Irish-born, the group became famous while based in New York's Greenwich Village), The Dubliners, Clannad, Planxty, The Chieftains, The Pogues, The Corrs, The Irish Rovers, and a variety of other folk bands have done much over the past few decades to revitalise and re-popularise Irish traditional music.", "These bands were rooted, to a greater or lesser extent, in a tradition of Irish music and benefited from the efforts of artists such as Seamus Ennis and Peter Kennedy.In Scotland, The Corries, Silly Wizard, Capercaillie, Runrig, Jackie Leven, Julie Fowlis, Karine Polwart, Alasdair Roberts, Dick Gaughan, Wolfstone, Boys of the Lough, and The Silencers have kept Scottish folk vibrant and fresh by mixing traditional Scottish and Gaelic folk songs with more contemporary genres.", "These artists have also been commercially successful in continental Europe and North America.", "There is an emerging wealth of talent in the Scottish traditional music scene, with bands such as Mànran, Skipinnish, Barluath and Breabach and solo artists such as Patsy Reid, Robyn Stapleton and Mischa MacPherson gaining a lot of success in recent years.===== Central and Eastern Europe =====During the Eastern Bloc era, national folk dancing was actively promoted by the state.", "Dance troupes from Russia and Poland toured non-communist Europe from about 1937 to 1990.The Red Army Choir recorded many albums, becoming the most popular military band.", "Eastern Europe is also the origin of the Jewish Klezmer tradition.Ľubomír Párička playing bagpipes, SlovakiaThe polka is a central European dance and also a genre of dance music familiar throughout Europe and the Americas.", "It originated in the middle of the 19th century in Bohemia.", "Polka is still a popular genre of folk music in many European countries and is performed by folk artists in Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Netherlands, Croatia, Slovenia, Germany, Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia and Slovakia.", "Local varieties of this dance are also found in the Nordic countries, United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Latin America (especially Mexico), and in the United States.German Volkslieder perpetuated by Liederhandschriften manuscripts like ''Carmina Burana'' date back to medieval Minnesang and Meistersinger traditions.", "Those folk songs revived in the late 18th century period of German Romanticism, first promoted by Johann Gottfried Herder and other advocates of the Enlightenment, later compiled by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano (''Des Knaben Wunderhorn'') as well as by Ludwig Uhland.The Volksmusik and folk dances genre, especially in the Alpine regions of Bavaria, Austria, Switzerland (''Kuhreihen'') and South Tyrol, up to today has lingered in rustic communities against the backdrop of industrialisation—Low German shanties or the Wienerlied (''Schrammelmusik'') being notable exceptions.", "Slovene folk music in Upper Carniola and Styria also originated from the Alpine traditions, like the prolific Lojze Slak Ensemble.", "Traditional ''Volksmusik'' is not to be confused with commercial ''Volkstümliche Musik'', which is a derivation of that.The Hungarian group Muzsikás played numerous American tours and participated in the Hollywood movie ''The English Patient'' while the singer Márta Sebestyén worked with the band Deep Forest.", "The Hungarian ''táncház'' movement, started in the 1970s, involves strong cooperation between musicology experts and enthusiastic amateurs.", "However, traditional Hungarian folk music and folk culture barely survived in some rural areas of Hungary, and it has also begun to disappear among the ethnic Hungarians in Transylvania.", "The táncház movement revived broader folk traditions of music, dance, and costume together and created a new kind of music club.", "The movement spread to ethnic Hungarian communities elsewhere in the world.===== Balkan music =====The Mystery of the Bulgarian VoicesBalkan folk music was influenced by the mingling of Balkan ethnic groups in the period of the Ottoman Empire.", "It comprises the music of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, North Macedonia, Albania, some of the historical states of Yugoslavia or Serbia and Montenegro and geographical regions such as Thrace.", "Some music is characterised by complex rhythm.A notable act is the Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices, which won the Grammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Recording at the 32nd annual ceremony.An important part of the whole Balkan folk music is the music of the local Romani ethnic minority, which is called tallava and brass band music.===== Nordic folk music =====Baltic crafts and warfare Apuolė 854 in Apuolė, August 2009Nordic folk music includes a number of traditions in Northern European, especially Scandinavian, countries.", "The Nordic countries are generally taken to include Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Greenland.", "Sometimes it is taken to include the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.Faces Festival in Raseborg, FinlandThe many regions of the Nordic countries share certain traditions, many of which have diverged significantly, like Psalmodicon of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.", "It is possible to group together the Baltic states (or, sometimes, only Estonia) and parts of northwest Russia as sharing cultural similarities, although the relationship has gone cold in recent years.", "Contrast with Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the Atlantic islands of Iceland and the Faroe Islands, which share virtually no similarities of that kind.", "Greenland's Inuit culture has its own unique musical traditions.", "Finland shares many cultural similarities with both the Baltic nations and the Scandinavian nations.", "The Sami of Sweden, Norway, Finland and Russia have their own unique culture, with ties to the neighboring cultures.Swedish folk music is a genre of music based largely on folkloric collection work that began in the early 19th century in Sweden.", "The primary instrument of Swedish folk music is the fiddle.", "Another common instrument, unique to Swedish traditions, is the nyckelharpa.", "Most Swedish instrumental folk music is dance music; the signature music and dance form within Swedish folk music is the polska.", "Vocal and instrumental traditions in Sweden have tended to share tunes historically, though they have been performed separately.", "Beginning with the folk music revival of the 1970s, vocalists and instrumentalists have also begun to perform together in folk music ensembles.==== Latin America ====The folk music of the Americas consists of the encounter and union of three main musical types: European traditional music, traditional music of the American natives, and tribal African music that arrived with slaves from that continent.The particular case of Latin and South American music points to Andean music among other native musical styles (such as Caribbean and pampean), Iberian music of Spain and Portugal, and generally speaking African tribal music, the three of which fused together evolving in differentiated musical forms in Central and South America.Andean music comes from the region of the Quechuas, Aymaras, and other peoples that inhabit the general area of the Inca Empire prior to European contact.", "It includes folklore music of parts of Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela.", "Andean music is popular to different degrees across Latin America, having its core public in rural areas and among indigenous populations.", "The movement of the 1970s revived the genre across Latin America and brought it to places where it was unknown or forgotten.", "(Spanish for 'new song') is a movement and genre within Latin American and Iberian folk music, folk-inspired music, and socially committed music.", "In some respects its development and role is similar to the second folk music revival in North America.", "This includes evolution of this new genre from traditional folk music, essentially contemporary folk music except that that English genre term is not commonly applied to it.", "Nueva cancion is recognized as having played a powerful role in the social upheavals in Portugal, Spain and Latin America during the 1970s and 1980s.Nueva cancion first surfaced during the 1960s as \"The Chilean New Song\" in Chile.", "The musical style emerged shortly afterwards in Spain and areas of Latin America where it came to be known under similar names.", "renewed traditional Latin American folk music, and with its political lyrics it was soon associated with revolutionary movements, the Latin American New Left, Liberation Theology, hippie and human rights movements.", "It would gain great popularity throughout Latin America, and it is regarded as a precursor to Rock en español.Cueca is a family of musical styles and associated dances from Chile, Bolivia and Peru.Trova and Son are styles of traditional Cuban music originating in the province of Oriente that includes influences from Spanish song and dance, such as Bolero and contradanza as well as Afro-Cuban rhythm and percussion elements.Moda de viola is the name designated to Brazilian folk music.", "It is often performed with a 6-string nylon acoustic guitar, but the most traditional instrument is the viola caipira.", "The songs basically detailed the difficulties of life of those who work in the country.", "The themes are usually associated with the land, animals, folklore, impossible love and separation.", "Although there are some upbeat songs, most of them are nostalgic and melancholic.==== North America ========= Canada =====French-Canadian lumberjacks playing the fiddle, with sticks for percussion, in a lumber camp in 1943.Canada's traditional folk music is particularly diverse.", "Even prior to liberalizing its immigration laws in the 1960s, Canada was ethnically diverse with dozens of different Indigenous and European groups present.", "In terms of music, academics do not speak of a Canadian tradition, but rather ethnic traditions (Acadian music, Irish-Canadian music, Blackfoot music, Innu music, Inuit music, Métis fiddle, etc.)", "and later in Eastern Canada regional traditions (Newfoundland music, Cape Breton fiddling, Quebecois music, etc.", ")\"Knowledge of the history of Canada\", wrote Isabelle Mills in 1974, \"is essential in understanding the mosaic of Canadian folk song.", "Part of this mosaic is supplied by the folk songs of Canada brought by European and Anglo-Saxon settlers to the new land.\"", "She describes how the French colony at Québec brought French immigrants, followed before long by waves of immigrants from Great Britain, Germany, and other European countries, all bringing music from their homelands, some of which survives into the present day.", "Ethnographer and folklorist Marius Barbeau estimated that well over ten thousand French folk songs and their variants had been collected in Canada.", "Many of the older ones had by then died out in France.Music as professionalized paid entertainment grew relatively slowly in Canada, especially remote rural areas, through the 19th and early 20th centuries.", "While in urban music clubs of the dance hall/vaudeville variety became popular, followed by jazz, rural Canada remained mostly a land of traditional music.", "Yet when American radio networks began broadcasting into Canada in the 1920s and 1930s, the audience for Canadian traditional music progressively declined in favour of American Nashville-style country music and urban styles like jazz.", "The Americanization of Canadian music led the Canadian Radio League to lobby for a national public broadcaster in the 1930s, eventually leading to the creation of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) in 1936.The CBC promoted Canadian music, including traditional music, on its radio and later television services, but the mid-century craze for all things \"modern\" led to the decline of folk music relative to rock and pop.", "Canada was however influenced by the folk music revival of the 1960s, when local venues such as the Montreal Folk Workshop, and other folk clubs and coffee houses across the country, became crucibles for emerging songwriters and performers as well as for interchange with artists visiting from abroad.===== United States =====American traditional music is also called roots music.", "Roots music is a broad category of music including bluegrass, country music, gospel, old time music, jug bands, Appalachian folk, blues, Cajun and Native American music.", "The music is considered American either because it is native to the United States or because it developed there, out of foreign origins, to such a degree that it struck musicologists as something distinctly new.", "It is considered \"roots music\" because it served as the basis of music later developed in the United States, including rock and roll, contemporary folk music, rhythm and blues, and jazz.", "Some of these genres are considered to be traditional folk music.", "* Cajun music, an emblematic music of Louisiana, is rooted in the ballads of the French-speaking Acadians of Canada.", "Cajun music is often mentioned in tandem with the Creole-based, Cajun-influenced zydeco form, both of Acadiana origin.", "These French Louisiana sounds have influenced American popular music for many decades, especially country music, and have influenced pop culture through mass media, such as television commercials.", "* Appalachian music is the traditional music of the region of Appalachia in the Eastern United States.", "It derives from various European and African influences, including English ballads, Irish and Scottish traditional music (especially fiddle music), hymns, and African-American blues.", "First recorded in the 1920s, Appalachian musicians were a key influence on the early development of Old-time music, country music, and bluegrass, and were an important part of the American folk music revival.", "Instruments typically used to perform Appalachian music include the banjo, American fiddle, fretted dulcimer, and guitar.", "Early recorded Appalachian musicians include Fiddlin' John Carson, Henry Whitter, Bascom Lamar Lunsford, the Carter Family, Clarence Ashley, Frank Proffitt, and Dock Boggs, all of whom were initially recorded in the 1920s and 1930s.", "Several Appalachian musicians obtained renown during the folk revival of the 1950s and 1960s, including Jean Ritchie, Roscoe Holcomb, Ola Belle Reed, Lily May Ledford, and Doc Watson.", "Country and bluegrass artists such as Loretta Lynn, Roy Acuff, Dolly Parton, Earl Scruggs, Chet Atkins, and Don Reno were heavily influenced by traditional Appalachian music.", "Artists such as Bob Dylan, Dave Van Ronk, Jerry Garcia, and Bruce Springsteen have performed Appalachian songs or rewritten versions of Appalachian songs.", "* The Carter Family was a traditional American folk music group that recorded between 1927 and 1956.Their music had a profound impact on bluegrass, country, Southern gospel, pop and rock musicians.", "They were the first vocal group to become country music stars; a beginning of the divergence of country music from traditional folk music.", "Their recordings of such songs as \"Wabash Cannonball\" (1932), \"Will the Circle Be Unbroken\" (1935), \"Wildwood Flower\" (1928), and \"Keep On the Sunny Side\" (1928) made them country standards.", "* Oklahoma and southern US plains: Before recorded history American Indians in this area used songs and instrumentation; music and dance remain the core of ceremonial and social activities.", "\"Stomp dance\" remains at its core, a call and response form; instrumentation is provided by rattles or shackles worn on the legs of women.", "\"Other southeastern nations have their own complexes of sacred and social songs, including those for animal dances and friendship dances, and songs that accompany stickball games.", "Central to the music of the southern Plains Indians is the drum, which has been called the heartbeat of Plains Indian music.", "Most of that genre can be traced back to activities of hunting and warfare, upon which plains culture was based.\"", "The drum is central to the music of the southern plains Indians.", "During the reservation period, they used music to relieve boredom.", "Neighbors gathered, exchanged and created songs and dances; this is a part of the roots of the modern intertribal powwow.", "Another common instrument is the courting flute.", "* African-American folk music in the area has roots in slavery and emancipation.", "Sacred music—a capella and instrumentally-accompanied—is at the heart of the tradition.", "Early spirituals framed Christian beliefs within native practices and were heavily influenced by the music and rhythms of Africa.\"", "Spirituals are prominent, and often use a call and response pattern.", "\"Gospel developed after the Civil War (1861–1865).", "It relied on biblical text for much of its direction, and the use of metaphors and imagery was common.", "Gospel is a \"joyful noise\", sometimes accompanied by instrumentation and almost always punctuated by hand clapping, toe tapping, and body movement.\"", "\"Shape-note or Sacred Harp singing developed in the early 19th century as a way for itinerant singing instructors to teach church songs in rural communities.", "They taught using song books in which musical notations of tones were represented by geometric shapes that were designed to associate a shape with its pitch.", "Sacred harp singing became popular in many Oklahoma rural communities, regardless of ethnicity.\"", "Later the blues tradition developed, with roots in and parallels to sacred music.", "Then jazz developed, born from a \"blend of ragtime, gospel, and blues\"* Anglo-Scots-Irish music traditions gained a place in Oklahoma after the Land Run of 1889.Because of its size and portability, the fiddle was the core of early Oklahoma Anglo music, but other instruments such as the guitar, mandolin, banjo, and steel guitar were added later.", "Various Oklahoma music traditions trace their roots to the British Isles, including cowboy ballads, western swing, and contemporary country and western.\"", "Mexican immigrants began to reach Oklahoma in the 1870s, bringing beautiful canciones and corridos love songs, waltzes, and ballads along with them.", "Like American Indian communities, each rite of passage in Hispanic communities is accompanied by traditional music.", "The acoustic guitar, string bass, and violin provide the basic instrumentation for Mexican music, with maracas, flute, horns, or sometimes accordion filling out the sound.", "Other Europeans (such as Bohemians and Germans) settled in the late 19th century.", "Their social activities centered on community halls, \"where local musicians played polkas and waltzes on the accordion, piano, and brass instruments\".", "Later, Asians contributed to the musical mix.", "\"Ancient music and dance traditions from the temples and courts of China, India, and Indonesia are preserved in Asian communities throughout the state, and popular song genres are continually layered on to these classical music forms\"" ], [ "Folk music revivals", "\"Folk music revival\" refers to either a period of renewed interest in traditional folk music, or to an event or period which transforms it; the latter usually includes a social activism component.", "A prominent example of the former is the British folk revival of approximately 1890–1920.The most prominent and influential example of the latter (to the extent that it is usually called \"''the'' folk music revival\") is the folk revival of the mid 20th century, centered in the English-speaking world which gave birth to contemporary folk music.", "See the \"Contemporary folk music\" article for a description of this revival.One earlier revival influenced western classical music.", "Such composers as Percy Grainger, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Béla Bartók, made field recordings or transcriptions of folk singers and musicians.In Spain, Isaac Albéniz (1860–1909) produced piano works reflect his Spanish heritage, including the ''Suite Iberia'' (1906–1909).", "Enrique Granados (1867–1918) composed ''zarzuela'', Spanish light opera, and ''Danzas Españolas'' – Spanish Dances.", "Manuel de Falla (1876–1946) became interested in the cante jondo of Andalusian flamenco, the influence of which can be strongly felt in many of his works, which include ''Nights in the Gardens of Spain'' and ''Siete canciones populares españolas'' (\"Seven Spanish Folksongs\", for voice and piano).", "Composers such as Fernando Sor and Francisco Tarrega established the guitar as Spain's national instrument.", "Modern Spanish folk artists abound (Mil i Maria, Russian Red, et al.)", "modernizing while respecting the traditions of their forebears.Flamenco grew in popularity through the 20th century, as did northern styles such as the Celtic music of Galicia.", "French classical composers, from Bizet to Ravel, also drew upon Spanish themes, and distinctive Spanish genres became universally recognized.Folk music revivals or roots revivals also encompass a range of phenomena around the world where there is a renewed interest in traditional music.", "This is often by the young, often in the traditional music of their own country, and often included new incorporation of social awareness, causes, and evolutions of new music in the same style.", ", a similar evolution of a new form of socially committed music occurred in several Spanish-speaking countries." ], [ "Contemporary folk music" ], [ "Festivals", "===United States===It is sometimes claimed that the earliest United States folk music festival was the Mountain Dance and Folk Festival, 1928, in Asheville, North Carolina, founded by Bascom Lamar Lunsford.", "The National Folk Festival (USA) is an itinerant folk festival in the United States.", "Since 1934, it has been run by the National Council for the Traditional Arts (NCTA) and has been presented in 26 communities around the nation.", "After leaving some of these communities, the National Folk Festival has spun off several locally run folk festivals in its wake including the Lowell Folk Festival, the Richmond Folk Festival, the American Folk Festival and, most recently, the Montana Folk Festival.The Newport Folk Festival is an annual folk festival held near Newport, Rhode Island.", "It ran most years from 1959 to 1970 and from 1985 to the present, with an attendance of approximately 10,000 people each year.The four-day Philadelphia Folk Festival began in 1962.It is sponsored by the non-profit Philadelphia Folksong Society.", "The event hosts contemporary and traditional artists in genres including World/Fusion, Celtic, Singer-Songwriter, Folk Rock, Country, Klezmer, and Dance.", "It is held annually on the third weekend in August.", "The event now hosts approximately 12,000 visitors, presenting bands on 6 stages.The Feast of the Hunters' Moon in Indiana draws approximately 60,000 visitors per year.===United Kingdom===Sidmouth Festival began in 1954, and Cambridge Folk Festival began in 1965.The Cambridge Folk Festival in Cambridge, England is noted for having a very wide definition of who can be invited as folk musicians.", "The \"club tents\" allow attendees to discover large numbers of unknown artists, who, for ten or 15 minutes each, present their work to the festival audience.===Australia===The National Folk Festival is Australia's premier folk festival event and is attended by over 50,000 people.", "The Woodford Folk Festival and Port Fairy Folk Festival are similarly amongst Australia's largest major annual events, attracting top international folk performers as well as many local artists.===Canada===Stan Rogers is a lasting fixture of the Canadian folk festival Summerfolk, held annually in Owen Sound, Ontario, where the main stage and amphitheater are dedicated as the \"Stan Rogers Memorial Canopy\".", "The festival is firmly fixed in tradition, with Rogers' song \"The Mary Ellen Carter\" being sung by all involved, including the audience and a medley of acts at the festival.", "The Canmore Folk Music Festival is Alberta's longest running folk music festival.===Other===Urkult Näsåker, Ångermanland held August each year is purportedly Sweden's largest world-music festival." ], [ "See also", "* Contemporary folk music* Anthology of American Folk Music* Canadian Folk Music Awards* Country music* Folk process* List of classical and art music traditions* List of folk festivals* Roud Folk Song Index* ''The Voice of the People'' anthology of UK folk songs" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===: ''These sources are cited above with multiple abbreviated cites with varying locations.", "''* Donaldson, Rachel Clare, 2011 ''Music for the People: the Folk Music Revival And American Identity, 1930–1970'', PhD Dissertation, Vanderbilt University, May 2011, Nashville, TN" ], [ "Further reading", "(does not include those used as references) Reprinted in McAllester, David Park (ed.)", "(1971) ''Readings in ethnomusicology'' New York: Johnson Reprint.", "* * Bevil, Jack Marshall (1984).", "''Centonization and Concordance in the American Southern Uplands Folksong Melody: A Study of the Musical Generative and Transmittive Processes of an Oral Tradition''.", "PhD Thesis, North Texas University, Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International.", "* * Bevil, Jack Marshall (1987).", "\"A Paradigm of Folktune Preservation and Change Within the Oral Tradition of a Southern Appalachian Community, 1916–1986.\"", "Unpublished.", "Read at the 1987 National Convention of the American Musicological Society, New Orleans.", "* Bronson, Bertrand Harris.", "''The Ballad As Song'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).", "* Bronson, Bertrand Harris.", "''The Singing Tradition of Child's Popular Ballads'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976).", "* Bronson, Bertrand Harris.", "''The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, with Their Texts, According to the Extant Records of Great Britain and North America'', 4 volumes (Princeton and Berkeley: Princeton University and University of California Presses, 1959, ff.).", "* Cartwright, Garth (2005).", "''Princes Amongst Men: Journeys with Gypsy Musicians''.", "London: Serpent's Tail.", "* Carson, Ciaran (1997).", "''Last Night's Fun: In and Out of Time with Irish Music''.", "North Point Press.", "* Cole, Ross.", "''The Folk: Music, Modernism, and the Political Imagination''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 2021.275..* Cooley, Timothy J.", "''Making Music in the Polish Tatras: Tourists, Ethnographers, and Mountain Musicians''.", "Indiana University Press, 2005 (Hardcover with CD).", "* Cowdery, James R. (1990).", "''The Melodic Tradition of Ireland''.", "Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.", "* Czekanowska, Anna.", "''Polish Folk Music: Slavonic Heritage – Polish Tradition – Contemporary Trends''.", "Cambridge Studies in Ethnomusicology, Reissue 2006 (Paperback).", "* Farsani, Mohsen (2003) ''Lamentations chez les nomades bakhtiari d'Iran''.", "Paris: Université Sorbonne Nouvelle.", "* Harker, David (1985).", "''Fakesong: The Manufacture of British 'Folksong', 1700 to the Present Day''.", "Milton Keynes Buckinghamshire; Philadelphia: Open University Press.", "* Jackson, George Pullen (1933).", "''White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands: The Story of the Fasola Folk, Their Songs, Singings, and \"Buckwheat Notes\"''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.", "Reprinted by Kessinger Publishing (2008) * * Karpeles, Maud.", "''An Introduction to English Folk Song''.", "1973.Oxford.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Nelson, David Taylor (2012) \"Béla Bartók: The Father of Ethnomusicology\", ''Musical Offerings'': vol.", "3: no.", "2, article 2.Béla Bartók: The Father of Ethnomusicology* Pegg, Carole (2001).", "\"Folk Music\".", "''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.", "London: Macmillan.", "* * * Rooksby, Rikky, Dr Vic Gammon et al.", "''The Folk Handbook''.", "(2007).", "Backbeat* Sorce Keller, Marcello (2014) \"What Can Be Old and What Can Be New in 'Folk Music'\", in Thomas Nussbaumer (Ed.", "), ''Das Neue in der Volksmusik in der Alpen''.", "Innsbruck: Universitätsverlag Wagner, 2014.", "* Sorce Keller, Marcello (1984).", "\"The Problem of Classification in Folksong Research: A Short History\".", "''Folklore''.", "95 (1): 100–04.. JSTOR 1259763* Sharp, Cecil.", "''Folk Song: Some Conclusions''.", "1907.Charles River Books* Sharp, Cecil ''English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians''.", "Collected by Cecil J.", "Sharp.", "Ed.", "Maud Karpeles.", "1932.London.", "Oxford University Press.", "* * van der Merwe, Peter (1989).", "''Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Folk Alliance International Prominent folk music organization* Performing Arts Encyclopedia: Traditional Music and Spoken Word Catalog, Library of Congress* The Traditional Ballad Index: : An Annotated Bibliography of the Folk Songs of the English-Speaking World, California State University, Fresno* Ben Gray Lumpkin Digital Folk Music Collection Howard B. Waltz Music Library, University of Colorado Boulder* * * The Traditional Music in England project, World and Traditional Music section at the British Library Sound Archive* The Folk File: A Folkie's Dictionary by Bill Markwick (1945–2017) – musical definitions and short biographies for American and U.K.", "Folk musicians and groups.", "Retrieved September 21, 2017." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frank" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frank''' or '''Franks''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Frank (given name)* Frank (surname)* Franks (surname)* Franks, a Germanic people in late Roman times* Frank, a term in the Muslim world for all western Europeans, particularly during the Crusades - see Farang" ], [ "Currency", "* Liechtenstein franc or frank, the currency of Liechtenstein since 1920* Swiss franc or frank, the currency of Switzerland since 1850* Westphalian frank, currency of the Kingdom of Westphalia between 1808 and 1813* The currencies of the German-speaking cantons of Switzerland (1803–1814): Appenzell frank Aargau frank Basel frank Berne frank Fribourg frank Glarus frank Graubünden frank Luzern frank Schaffhausen frank Schwyz frank Solothurn frank St. Gallen frank Thurgau frank Unterwalden frank Uri frank Zürich frank" ], [ "Places", "* Frank, Alberta, Canada, an urban community, formerly a village* Franks, Illinois, United States, an unincorporated community* Franks, Missouri, United States, an unincorporated community* Frank, North Carolina, United States, an unincorporated community* Frank, West Virginia, United States, a census-designated place" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Fictional characters===* One of the title characters of ''Frank and Ernest'' (comic strip)* Frank, from the 1993 American comedy-drama film ''Mrs.", "Doubtfire''* Frank, a character in the 2001 American made-for-television drama movie ''A Girl Thing''* Frank, a monstrous rabbit character in ''Donnie Darko''* Frank, Kevin's uncle in the ''Home Alone'' movies* Frank Angelino, on the American television sitcom ''Three's Company''* Frank Armitage, in the 1988 American science-fiction action thriller movie ''They Live''* Frank Barone, from the American sitcom ''Everybody Loves Raymond''* Frank Bean, a main antagonist of ''Fantastic Mr. Fox''* Frank Bennett, in the 1991 American comedy-drama movie ''Fried Green Tomatoes''* Frank Burns (''MASH''), in the film and TV series ''MASH''* Frank Castle, a Marvel Comics vigilante also called the Punisher* Frank Costanza, from the American sitcom ''Seinfeld''* Frank Craft, in the 1996 American action thriller disaster movie ''Daylight''* Frank Dawson, in the 1959–1960 syndicated TV series ''This Man Dawson''* Frank Dawson, a character in the 1981 American made-for-television movie ''Fallen Angel''* Frank Dawson, in the 2013 American black comedy crime film ''Life of Crime''* Frank Drebin, main character of the action comedy film series ''The Naked Gun''* Frank/Franky, Chad's uncle in ''Double Impact''* Frank, Hank’s twin brother and one of the two beavers in the Jim Henson show ''Pajanimals''* Frank Gallagher (''Shameless''), from the series ''Shameless''* Frank Grimes (''The Simpsons''), in the animated sitcom ''The Simpsons''* Frank Heffley, in the book series ''Diary of a Wimpy Kid''* Frank Honey, a character in the video game ''Lego City Undercover''* Frank Horrigan, the main antagonist of the video game ''Fallout 2''* Frank Lambert, a character in the TV sitcom ''Step by Step''* Frank Mercer, the main antagonist from ''Need for Speed Heat''* Frank Milo, in the 1993 American crime comedy-drama movie ''Mad Dog and Glory'', played by Bill Murray* Frank Mitchell, father of the title character in ''Moesha''* Frank Murphy, in the 1983 film ''Blue Thunder''* Frank N. Furter, the main antagonist in the 1975 film ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show''* Frank the Pug, from the ''Men in Black'' franchise* Frank Reynolds (''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia''), from the FX TV series ''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia'', portrayed by Danny DeVito* Frank Rock, DC comics character also known as Sgt.", "Rock* Frank Rossitano, a character from the NBC satire sitcom ''30 Rock''* Frank Rowan, in the 1951 novel ''Camilla Dickinson''* Frank Ryan, a character in the 1934 film ''The Man Who Changed His Name''* Frank Spencer (Michael Crawford), the main character of the BBC sitcom ''Some Mothers Do Ave Em''* Frank, a taxi driver from ''28 Days Later''* Frank West (''Dead Rising''), in the ''Dead Rising'' video game series* Frank White, lead character in the 1990 film ''King of New York''* Frank Woods, in the video game ''Call of Duty: Black Ops''* Frank Zhang, one of the seven from Rick Riordan's ''Heroes of Olympus''* TV's Frank, from the TV series ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'', named for Frank Lanham=== Music ===* ''Frank'' (Amy Winehouse album), 2003* ''Frank'' (Yerin Baek EP), 2015* ''Frank'' (Squeeze album), 1989* ''Frank'' (Fly Anakin album), 2022* Frank (band), a four-piece girl band created for a Channel 4 comedy drama series=== Other arts and entertainment ===* ''Frank'' (film), a 2014 comedy* Frank (social network), an American social networking service* ''Frank'' (comics), a series of experimental comic books by Jim Woodring" ], [ "Other uses", "* FRANK (drugs), a UK government drugs awareness campaign* Frank, a device or marking on mail - see Franking* Nakajima Ki-84, Allied reporting name: Frank, a Japanese World War II fighter aircraft* USS ''Franks'' (DD-554), a United States Navy warship* Tropical Storm Frank, a name borne by several tropical cyclones worldwide* Storm Frank, a windstorm in Britain and Ireland in December 2015* Frank (food), an alternate name for a hot dog or sausage* Frank's Red Hot, a cayenne pepper hot sauce* Frank's Nursery & Crafts, a defunct U.S. retailer* ''Frank'' (magazine), a Canadian scandal sheet* ''Frank: Academics for the Real World'', a review published by the Clinton School of Public Service* Frank (company), a student financial aid assistance company founded by Charlie Javice" ], [ "See also", "* Francia, also known as the Kingdom of the Franks* Franc* Franck (disambiguation)* Frankie (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fullerene" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=alt=Model of a carbon nanotube.alt=A '''fullerene''' is an allotrope of carbon whose molecules consist of carbon atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven atoms.", "The molecules may be hollow spheres, ellipsoids, tubes, or other shapes.Fullerenes with a closed mesh topology are informally denoted by their empirical formula C''n'', often written C''n'', where ''n'' is the number of carbon atoms.", "However, for some values of ''n'' there may be more than one isomer.The family is named after buckminsterfullerene (C60), the most famous member, which in turn is named after Buckminster Fuller.", "The closed fullerenes, especially C60, are also informally called '''buckyballs''' for their resemblance to the standard ball of association football (\"soccer\").", "Nested closed fullerenes have been named '''bucky onions'''.", "Cylindrical fullerenes are also called carbon nanotubes or '''buckytubes'''.", "The bulk solid form of pure or mixed fullerenes is called '''fullerite'''.Fullerenes had been predicted for some time, but only after their accidental synthesis in 1985 were they detected in nature and outer space.", "The discovery of fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known allotropes of carbon, which had previously been limited to graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon such as soot and charcoal.", "They have been the subject of intense research, both for their chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology." ], [ "Definition", "IUPAC defines fullerenes as \"polyhedral closed cages made up entirely of n three-coordinate carbon atoms and having 12 pentagonal and (n/2-10) hexagonal faces, where n ≥ 20.\"" ], [ "History", "icosahedral fullerene , another member of the family of fullerenes===Predictions and limited observations===The icosahedral cage was mentioned in 1965 as a possible topological structure.", "Eiji Osawa predicted the existence of in 1970.He noticed that the structure of a corannulene molecule was a subset of the shape of a football, and hypothesised that a full ball shape could also exist.", "Japanese scientific journals reported his idea, but neither it nor any translations of it reached Europe or the Americas.Also in 1970, R.W.Henson (then of the UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment) proposed the structure and made a model of it.", "Unfortunately, the evidence for that new form of carbon was very weak at the time, so the proposal was met with skepticism, and was never published.", "It was acknowledged only in 1999.In 1973, independently from Henson, D. A. Bochvar and E. G. Galpern made a quantum-chemical analysis of the stability of and calculated its electronic structure.", "The paper was published in 1973, but the scientific community did not give much importance to this theoretical prediction.Around 1980, Sumio Iijima identified the molecule of from an electron microscope image of carbon black, where it formed the core of a particle with the structure of a \"bucky onion\".Also in the 1980s at MIT, Mildred Dresselhaus and Morinobu Endo, collaborating with T. Venkatesan, directed studies blasting graphite with lasers, producing carbon clusters of atoms, which would be later identified as \"fullerenes.", "\"===Discovery of ===In 1985, Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex, working with James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley from Rice University, discovered fullerenes in the sooty residue created by vaporising carbon in a helium atmosphere.", "In the mass spectrum of the product, discrete peaks appeared corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms, namely and .", "The team identified their structure as the now familiar \"buckyballs\".The name \"buckminsterfullerene\" was eventually chosen for by the discoverers as an homage to American architect Buckminster Fuller for the vague similarity of the structure to the geodesic domes which he popularized; which, if they were extended to a full sphere, would also have the icosahedral symmetry group.", "The \"ene\" ending was chosen to indicate that the carbons are unsaturated, being connected to only three other atoms instead of the normal four.", "The shortened name \"fullerene\" eventually came to be applied to the whole family.Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of molecules.===Further developments===Kroto and the Rice team already discovered other fullerenes besides C60, and the list was much expanded in the following years.", "Carbon nanotubes were first discovered and synthesized in 1991.After their discovery, minute quantities of fullerenes were found to be produced in sooty flames, and by lightning discharges in the atmosphere.", "In 1992, fullerenes were found in a family of mineraloids known as shungites in Karelia, Russia.The production techniques were improved by many scientists, including Donald Huffman, Wolfgang Krätschmer, Lowell D. Lamb, and Konstantinos Fostiropoulos.", "Thanks to their efforts, by 1990 it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder.", "Fullerene purification remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices.In 2010, the spectral signatures of C60 and C70 were observed by NASA's Spitzer infrared telescope in a cloud of cosmic dust surrounding a star 6500 light years away.", "Kroto commented: \"This most exciting breakthrough provides convincing evidence that the buckyball has, as I long suspected, existed since time immemorial in the dark recesses of our galaxy.\"", "According to astronomer Letizia Stanghellini, \"It’s possible that buckyballs from outer space provided seeds for life on Earth.\"", "In 2019, ionized C60 molecules were detected with the Hubble Space Telescope in the space between those stars." ], [ "Types", "There are two major families of fullerenes, with fairly distinct properties and applications: the closed buckyballs and the open-ended cylindrical carbon nanotubes.", "However, hybrid structures exist between those two classes, such as carbon nanobuds — nanotubes capped by hemispherical meshes or larger \"buckybuds\".===Buckyballs===DFTRotating view of , one kind of fullerene====Buckminsterfullerene====Buckminsterfullerene is the smallest fullerene molecule containing pentagonal and hexagonal rings in which no two pentagons share an edge (which can be destabilizing, as in pentalene).", "It is also most common in terms of natural occurrence, as it can often be found in soot.The empirical formula of buckminsterfullerene is and its structure is a truncated icosahedron, which resembles an association football ball of the type made of twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge.The van der Waals diameter of a buckminsterfullerene molecule is about 1.1 nanometers (nm).", "The nucleus to nucleus diameter of a buckminsterfullerene molecule is about 0.71 nm.The buckminsterfullerene molecule has two bond lengths.", "The 6:6 ring bonds (between two hexagons) can be considered \"double bonds\" and are shorter than the 6:5 bonds (between a hexagon and a pentagon).", "Its average bond length is 1.4 Å.====Other fullerenes====Another fairly common fullerene has empirical formula , but fullerenes with 72, 76, 84 and even up to 100 carbon atoms are commonly obtained.The smallest possible fullerene is the dodecahedral .", "There are no fullerenes with 22 vertices.", "The number of different fullerenes C2n grows with increasing ''n'' = 12, 13, 14, ..., roughly in proportion to ''n''9 .", "For instance, there are 1812 non-isomorphic fullerenes .", "Note that only one form of , buckminsterfullerene, has no pair of adjacent pentagons (the smallest such fullerene).", "To further illustrate the growth, there are 214,127,713 non-isomorphic fullerenes , 15,655,672 of which have no adjacent pentagons.", "Optimized structures of many fullerene isomers are published and listed on the web.Heterofullerenes have heteroatoms substituting carbons in cage or tube-shaped structures.", "They were discovered in 1993 and greatly expand the overall fullerene class of compounds and can have dangling bonds on their surfaces.", "Notable examples include boron, nitrogen (azafullerene), oxygen, and phosphorus derivatives.===Carbon nanotubes===This rotating model of a carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure.Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes.", "These tubes of carbon are usually only a few nanometres wide, but they can range from less than a micrometer to several millimeters in length.", "They often have closed ends, but can be open-ended as well.", "There are also cases in which the tube reduces in diameter before closing off.", "Their unique molecular structure results in extraordinary macroscopic properties, including high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity, high ductility, high heat conductivity, and relative chemical inactivity (as it is cylindrical and \"planar\" — that is, it has no \"exposed\" atoms that can be easily displaced).", "One proposed use of carbon nanotubes is in paper batteries, developed in 2007 by researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.", "Another highly speculative proposed use in the field of space technologies is to produce high-tensile carbon cables required by a space elevator." ], [ "Derivatives", "Buckyballs and carbon nanotubes have been used as building blocks for a great variety of derivatives and larger structures, such asNested buckyballs (\"carbon nano-onions\" or \"buckyonions\") proposed for lubricants;Nested carbon nanotubes (\"carbon megatubes\")Linked \"ball-and-chain\" dimers (two buckyballs linked by a carbon chain)Rings of buckyballs linked together." ], [ "Heterofullerenes and non-carbon fullerenes", "After the discovery of C60, many fullerenes have been synthesized (or studied theoretically by molecular modeling methods) in which some or all the carbon atoms are replaced by other elements.", "Non-carbon nanotubes, in particular, have attracted much attention.===Boron===A type of buckyball which uses boron atoms, instead of the usual carbon, was predicted and described in 2007.The structure, with each atom forming 5 or 6 bonds, was predicted to be more stable than the buckyball.", "However, subsequent analysis found that the predicted Ih symmetric structure was vibrationally unstable and the resulting cage would undergo a spontaneous symmetry break, yielding a puckered cage with rare Th symmetry (symmetry of a volleyball).", "The number of six-member rings in this molecule is 20 and number of five-member rings is 12.There is an additional atom in the center of each six-member ring, bonded to each atom surrounding it.", "By employing a systematic global search algorithm, it was later found that the previously proposed fullerene is not a global maximum for 80-atom boron clusters and hence can not be found in nature; the most stable configurations have complex.", "The same paper concluded that boron's energy landscape, unlike others, has many disordered low-energy structures, hence pure boron fullerenes are unlikely to exist in nature.However, an irregular complex dubbed borospherene was prepared in 2014.This complex has two hexagonal faces and four heptagonal faces with in D2d symmetry interleaved with a network of 48 triangles.===Other elements===Inorganic (carbon-free) fullerene-type structures have been built with the molybdenum(IV) sulfide (MoS2), long used as a graphite-like lubricant, tungsten (WS2), titanium (TiS2) and niobium (NbS2).", "These materials were found to be stable up to at least 350 tons/cm2 (34.3 GPa).Icosahedral or distorted-icosahedral fullerene-like complexes have also been prepared for germanium, tin, and lead; some of these complexes are spacious enough to hold most transition metal atoms." ], [ "Main fullerenes", "Below is a table of main closed carbon fullerenes synthesized and characterized so far, with their CAS number when known.", "Fullerenes with fewer than 60 carbon atoms have been called \"lower fullerenes\", and those with more than 70 atoms \"higher fullerenes\".Formula Num.Isom.Mol.Symm.", "Cryst.Symm.", "Space group No Pearson symbol''a'' (nm)''b'' (nm)''c'' (nm)β°''Z'' ρ(g/cm3)1 Ih 1 Ih 1 D5h 1 D6h 1 D3h 2 D2* Monoclinic P21 4 mP2 1.102 1.1081.768108.102 1.48 Cubic Fmm 225 cF4 1.5475 1.5475 1.5475904 1.645 D2v 7 9 , C2v, C3v Monoclinic P21 4 mP2 1.141 1.1355 1.8355108.072 24 D2, D2d Cubic Fmm 1.5817 1.5817 1.581790 19 35 46 In the table, \"Num.Isom.\"", "is the number of possible isomers within the \"isolated pentagon rule\", which states that two pentagons in a fullerene should not share edges.", "\"Mol.Symm.\"", "is the symmetry of the molecule, whereas \"Cryst.Symm.\"", "is that of the crystalline framework in the solid state.", "Both are specified for the most experimentally abundant form(s).", "The asterisk marks symmetries with more than one chiral form.When or crystals are grown from toluene solution they have a monoclinic symmetry.", "The crystal structure contains toluene molecules packed between the spheres of the fullerene.", "However, evaporation of the solvent from transforms it into a face-centered cubic form.", "Both monoclinic and face-centered cubic (fcc) phases are known for better-characterized and fullerenes." ], [ "Properties", "===Topology===Schlegel diagrams are often used to clarify the 3D structure of closed-shell fullerenes, as 2D projections are often not ideal in this sense.In mathematical terms, the combinatorial topology (that is, the carbon atoms and the bonds between them, ignoring their positions and distances) of a closed-shell fullerene with a simple sphere-like mean surface (orientable, genus zero) can be represented as a convex polyhedron; more precisely, its one-dimensional skeleton, consisting of its vertices and edges.", "The Schlegel diagram is a projection of that skeleton onto one of the faces of the polyhedron, through a point just outside that face; so that all other vertices project inside that face.Graph of 20-fullerene w-nodes.svg\|C20(dodecahedron)Graph of 26-fullerene 5-base w-nodes.svg\|C26Graph of 60-fullerene w-nodes.svg\|C60(truncated icosahedron)Graph of 70-fullerene w-nodes.svg\|C70The Schlegel diagram of a closed fullerene is a graph that is planar and 3-regular (or \"cubic\"; meaning that all vertices have degree 3).A closed fullerene with sphere-like shell must have at least some cycles that are pentagons or heptagons.", "More precisely, if all the faces have 5 or 6 sides, it follows from Euler's polyhedron formula, ''V''−''E''+''F''=2 (where ''V'', ''E'', ''F'' are the numbers of vertices, edges, and faces), that ''V'' must be even, and that there must be exactly 12 pentagons and ''V''/2−10 hexagons.", "Similar constraints exist if the fullerene has heptagonal (seven-atom) cycles.===Bonding===Since each carbon atom is connected to only three neighbors, instead of the usual four, it is customary to describe those bonds as being a mixture of single and double covalent bonds.", "The hybridization of carbon in C60 has been reported to be sp2.01.The bonding state can be analyzed by Raman spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.===Encapsulation===Additional atoms, ions, clusters, or small molecules can be trapped inside fullerenes to form inclusion compounds known as endohedral fullerenes.", "An unusual example is the egg-shaped fullerene Tb3N@, which violates the isolated pentagon rule.", "Evidence for a meteor impact at the end of the Permian period was found by analyzing noble gases preserved by being trapped in fullerenes.===Research===In the field of nanotechnology, heat resistance and superconductivity are some of the more heavily studied properties.There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio quantum methods applied to fullerenes.", "By DFT and TD-DFT methods one can obtain IR, Raman and UV spectra.", "Results of such calculations can be compared with experimental results.Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many organic reactions such as the Bingel reaction discovered in 1993.===Aromaticity===Researchers have been able to increase the reactivity of fullerenes by attaching active groups to their surfaces.", "Buckminsterfullerene does not exhibit \"superaromaticity\": that is, the electrons in the hexagonal rings do not delocalize over the whole molecule.A spherical fullerene of ''n'' carbon atoms has ''n'' pi-bonding electrons, free to delocalize.", "These should try to delocalize over the whole molecule.", "The quantum mechanics of such an arrangement should be like only one shell of the well-known quantum mechanical structure of a single atom, with a stable filled shell for ''n'' = 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98, 128, etc.", "(i.e., twice a perfect square number), but this series does not include 60.This 2(''N'' + 1)2 rule (with ''N'' integer) for spherical aromaticity is the three-dimensional analogue of Hückel's rule.", "The 10+ cation would satisfy this rule, and should be aromatic.", "This has been shown to be the case using quantum chemical modelling, which showed the existence of strong diamagnetic sphere currents in the cation.As a result, in water tends to pick up two more electrons and become an anion.", "The ''n'' described below may be the result of trying to form a loose metallic bond." ], [ "Reactions", "===Polymerization===Under high pressure and temperature, buckyballs collapse to form various one-, two-, or three-dimensional carbon frameworks.", "Single-strand polymers are formed using the Atom Transfer Radical Addition Polymerization (ATRAP) route.", "\"Ultrahard fullerite\" is a coined term frequently used to describe material produced by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processing of fullerite.", "Such treatment converts fullerite into a nanocrystalline form of diamond which has been reported to exhibit remarkable mechanical properties.Fullerite (scanning electron microscope image)===Chemistry===Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive.", "The sp2-hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar graphite, must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces angle strain.", "The characteristic reaction of fullerenes is electrophilic addition at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp2-hybridized carbons into sp3-hybridized ones.", "The change in hybridized orbitals causes the bond angles to decrease from about 120° in the sp2 orbitals to about 109.5° in the sp3 orbitals.", "This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable.===Solubility=== in solution in extra virgin olive oil, showing the characteristic purple color of pristine solutionsFullerenes are soluble in many organic solvents, such as toluene, chlorobenzene, and 1,2,3-trichloropropane.", "Solubilities are generally rather low, such as 8 g/L for C60 in carbon disulfide.", "Still, fullerenes are the only known allotrope of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvents at room temperature.", "Among the best solvents is 1-chloronaphthalene, which will dissolve 51 g/L of C60.Solutions of pure buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color.", "Solutions of are a reddish brown.", "The higher fullerenes to have a variety of colors.Millimeter-sized crystals of and , both pure and solvated, can be grown from benzene solution.", "Crystallization of from benzene solution below 30 °C (when solubility is maximum) yields a triclinic solid solvate ·4.Above 30 °C one obtains solvate-free fcc .===Quantum mechanics===In 1999, researchers from the University of Vienna demonstrated that wave-particle duality applied to molecules such as fullerene.===Superconductivity===Fullerenes are normally electrical insulators, but when crystallized with alkali metals, the resultant compound can be conducting or even superconducting.===Chirality===Some fullerenes (e.g.", ", , , and ) are inherently chiral because they are D2-symmetric, and have been successfully resolved.", "Research efforts are ongoing to develop specific sensors for their enantiomers.===Stability===Two theories have been proposed to describe the molecular mechanisms that make fullerenes.", "The older, “bottom-up” theory proposes that they are built atom-by-atom.", "The alternative “top-down” approach claims that fullerenes form when much larger structures break into constituent parts.In 2013 researchers discovered that asymmetrical fullerenes formed from larger structures settle into stable fullerenes.", "The synthesized substance was a particular metallofullerene consisting of 84 carbon atoms with two additional carbon atoms and two yttrium atoms inside the cage.", "The process produced approximately 100 micrograms.However, they found that the asymmetrical molecule could theoretically collapse to form nearly every known fullerene and metallofullerene.", "Minor perturbations involving the breaking of a few molecular bonds cause the cage to become highly symmetrical and stable.", "This insight supports the theory that fullerenes can be formed from graphene when the appropriate molecular bonds are severed." ], [ "Systematic naming", "According to the IUPAC, to name a fullerene, one must cite the number of member atoms for the rings which comprise the fullerene, its symmetry point group in the Schoenflies notation, and the total number of atoms.", "For example, buckminsterfullerene C60 is systematically named (-''I''h)5,6fullerene.", "The name of the point group should be retained in any derivative of said fullerene, even if that symmetry is lost by the derivation.To indicate the position of substituted or attached elements, the fullerene atoms are usually numbered in a spiral path, usually starting with the ring on one of the main axes.", "If the structure of the fullerene does not allow such numbering, another starting atom was chosen to still achieve a spiral path sequence.The latter is the case for C70, which is (-''D''5h(6))5,6fullerene in IUPAC notation.", "The symmetry ''D''5h(6) means that this is the isomer where the ''C''5 axis goes through a pentagon surrounded by hexagons rather than pentagons.Buckminsterfullerene-2D-skeletal numbered.svg\|(-''I''h)5,6fullereneCarbon numbering.", "C70fullerene-2D-skeletal numbered.svg\|(-''D''5h(6))5,6fullereneCarbon numbering.C70fullerene-2D-skeletal numbered isobonds.svg\|(-''D''5h(6))5,6fullereneNon-equivalent bonds shown by different colours.Cyclopropa12 C70fullerene-2D-skeletal renumbered.svg\|3'''H''-Cyclopropa1,2(-''D''5h(6))5,6fullerene.Cyclopropa212 C70fullerene-2D-skeletal renumbered.svg\|3'''H''-Cyclopropa2,12(-''D''5h(6))5,6fullerene.PC71BM.svgIn IUPAC's nomenclature, fully saturated analogues of fullerenes are called ''fulleranes''.", "If the mesh has other element(s) substituted for one or more carbons, the compound is named a ''heterofullerene''.", "If a double bond is replaced by a methylene bridge , the resulting structure is a ''homofullerene''.", "If an atom is fully deleted and missing valences saturated with hydrogen atoms, it is a ''norfullerene''.", "When bonds are removed (both sigma and pi), the compound becomes ''secofullerene''; if some new bonds are added in an unconventional order, it is a ''cyclofullerene''." ], [ "Production", "Fullerene production generally starts by producing fullerene-rich soot.", "The original (and still current) method was to send a large electric current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere.", "The resulting electric arc vaporizes the carbon into a plasma that then cools into sooty residue.", "Alternatively, soot is produced by laser ablation of graphite or pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons.", "Combustion of benzene is the most efficient process, developed at MIT.These processes yield a mixture of various fullerenes and other forms of carbon.", "The fullerenes are then extracted from the soot using appropriate organic solvents and separated by chromatography.", "One can obtain milligram quantities of fullerenes with 80 atoms or more.", "C76, C78 and C84 are available commercially." ], [ "Applications", "Fullerenes have been extensively used for several biomedical applications including the design of high-performance MRI contrast agents, X-ray imaging contrast agents, photodynamic therapy and drug and gene delivery, summarized in several comprehensive reviews.Tumor researchWhile past cancer research has involved radiation therapy, photodynamic therapy is important to study because breakthroughs in treatments for tumor cells will give more options to patients with different conditions.", "Recent experiments using HeLa cells in cancer research involves the development of new photosensitizers with increased ability to be absorbed by cancer cells and still trigger cell death.", "It is also important that a new photosensitizer does not stay in the body for a long time to prevent unwanted cell damage.Fullerenes can be made to be absorbed by HeLa cells.", "The C60 derivatives can be delivered to the cells by using the functional groups L-phenylalanine, folic acid, and L-arginine among others.80Functionalizing the fullerenes aims to increase the solubility of the molecule by the cancer cells.", "Cancer cells take up these molecules at an increased rate because of an upregulation of transporters in the cancer cell, in this case amino acid transporters will bring in the L-arginine and L-phenylalanine functional groups of the fullerenes.81Once absorbed by the cells, the C60 derivatives would react to light radiation by turning molecular oxygen into reactive oxygen which triggers apoptosis in the HeLa cells and other cancer cells that can absorb the fullerene molecule.", "This research shows that a reactive substance can target cancer cells and then be triggered by light radiation, minimizing damage to surrounding tissues while undergoing treatment.82When absorbed by cancer cells and exposed to light radiation, the reaction that creates reactive oxygen damages the DNA, proteins, and lipids that make up the cancer cell.", "This cellular damage forces the cancerous cell to go through apoptosis, which can lead to the reduction in size of a tumor.", "Once the light radiation treatment is finished the fullerene will reabsorb the free radicals to prevent damage of other tissues.83 Since this treatment focuses on cancer cells, it is a good option for patients whose cancer cells are within reach of light radiation.", "As this research continues, the treatment may penetrate deeper into the body and be absorbed by cancer cells more effectively.79" ], [ "Safety and toxicity", "In 2013, a comprehensive review on the toxicity of fullerene was published reviewing work beginning in the early 1990s to present and concluded that very little evidence gathered since the discovery of fullerenes indicate that is toxic.", "The toxicity of these carbon nanoparticles is not only dose- and time-dependent, but also depends on a number of other factors such as: type (e.g.", ": , , M@, M@)* functional groups used to water-solubilize these nanoparticles (e.g.", ": OH, COOH)* method of administration (e.g.", ": intravenous, intraperitoneal)It was recommended to assess the pharmacology of every new fullerene- or metallofullerene-based complex individually as a different compound." ], [ "Popular culture", "Examples of fullerenes appear frequently in popular culture.", "Fullerenes appeared in fiction well before scientists took serious interest in them.", "In a humorously speculative 1966 column for ''New Scientist'', David Jones suggested the possibility of making giant hollow carbon molecules by distorting a plane hexagonal net with the addition of impurity atoms." ], [ "See also", "BuckypaperCarbocatalysisDodecahedraneFullerene ligandGoldberg–Coxeter constructionLonsdaleiteTriumpheneTruncated rhombic triacontahedron" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Nanocarbon: From Graphene to Buckyballs Interactive 3D models of cyclohexane, benzene, graphene, graphite, chiral & non-chiral nanotubes, and C60 Buckyballs – WeCanFigureThisOut.org.", "* Introduction to fullerites* Giant Fullerenes, a short video looking at Giant Fullerenes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francis II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis II''' may refer to:* Francis II, Duke of Brittany (1433–1488)* Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua (1466–1519), ruler of the Italian city of Mantua* Francis II of France (1544–1560), king of France* Francis II, Duke of Lorraine (1572–1632), son of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine, and Claude of Valois* Francesco II d'Este, Duke of Modena (1660–1694)* Francis II Rákóczi (1676–1735), Prince of Transylvania* Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (1768–1835), last Holy Roman Emperor* Francis II of the Two Sicilies (1836–1894), last king of the Two Sicilies* Franz, Duke of Bavaria (born 1933), called \"Francis II\" by supporters of the Jacobite claim to the thrones of England, Scotland, Ireland, and France* Francis II, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (1547–1619), third son of Francis I of Saxe-Lauenburg and Sybille of Saxe-Freiberg" ], [ "See also", "Francesco II (disambiguation)Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fallacies of definition" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fallacies of definition''' are the various ways in which definitions can fail to explain terms.", "The phrase is used to suggest an analogy with an informal fallacy.", "Definitions may fail to have merit, because they: are overly broad, use obscure or ambiguous language, or contain circular reasoning; those are called fallacies of definition.", "Three major fallacies are: overly broad, overly narrow, and mutually exclusive definitions, a fourth is: incomprehensible definitions, and one of the most common is circular definitions." ], [ "Circularity", "Circular definition of inflammable liquidIf one concept is defined by another, and the other is defined by the first, this is known as a circular definition, akin to circular reasoning: neither offers enlightenment about what one wanted to know.", "\"It is a fallacy because by using a synonym in the ''definiens'' the reader is told nothing significantly new.", "\"A straightforward example would be to define ''Jew'' as \"a person believing in Judaism\", and ''Judaism'' as \"the religion of the Jewish people\", which would make ''Judaism'' \"the religion of the people believing in Judaism\"." ], [ "Incongruity: overly broad or narrow", "A definition intended to describe a given set of individuals fails if its description of matching individuals is incongruous: too broad (excessively loose with parameters) or too narrow (excessively strict with parameters).", "For example, \"a shape with four sides of equal length\" is not a sufficient definition for ''square'', because squares are not the only shapes that can have four sides of equal length; rhombi do as well.", "Likewise, defining ''rectangle'' as \"a shape with four perpendicular sides of equal length\" is inappropriate because it is too narrow, as it describes only squares while excluding all other kinds of rectangles, thus being a plainly incorrect definition.If a cow were defined as an animal with horns, this would be overly broad (including goats, for example), while if a cow were defined as a black-and-white quadruped, this would be both overly narrow (excluding: all-black, all-white, all-brown and white-brown cows, for example) and overly broad (including Dalmatians, for example)." ], [ "Obscurity", "Definitions can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.", "This can lead to circular definitions.", "Definitions should be defined in the most prosaic form of language to be understood, as failure to elucidate provides fallacious definitions.", "Figurative language can also be misinterpreted.", "For example, ''golden eyes'' in a biography may lead the reader to think that the person was fictional.An example of obscurity is Samuel Johnson's definition for oats: \"A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people.\"", "The thing defined (oats) should be pointed out rather than remain obscure." ], [ "Mutual exclusivity", "The definition completely excludes what is being defined.", "For example, a cow might be defined as a flying animal with no legs.", "In reality a cow has legs and cannot fly, but this example claims to define a cow using a definition that is opposite to what a cow actually is.", "\"Cow\" and \"flying animal with no legs\" are mutually exclusive to each other: they cannot refer to the same thing." ], [ "Self-contradictory requirements", "Definitions may fail by imposing conflicting requirements, making it impossible for them to apply to anything at all.", "For example, a cow being defined as a legless quadruped, or the term ''dynamic equilibrium'' – equilibrium state cannot be dynamic.", "These requirements may also be ''mutually exclusive''." ], [ "Definist fallacy", "The definist fallacy is a logical fallacy, coined by William Frankena in 1939, that involves the definition of one property in terms of another." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fredericton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fredericton''' (; ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of New Brunswick.", "The city is situated in the west-central portion of the province along the Saint John River, also known by its Indigenous name of Wolastoq, which flows west to east as it bisects the city.", "The river is the dominant natural feature of the area.", "One of the main urban centres in New Brunswick, the city had a population of 63,116 and a metropolitan population of 108,610 in the 2021 Canadian Census.", "It is the third-largest city in the province after Moncton and Saint John.On 1 January 2023, Fredericton annexed parts of five local service districts; revised census figures have not been released.An important cultural, artistic, and educational centre for the province, Fredericton is home to two universities, The University of New Brunswick and St. Thomas University, the New Brunswick College of Craft and Design, New Brunswick Community College and cultural institutions such as the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, the Fredericton Region Museum, and The Playhouse, a performing arts venue.", "The city hosts the annual Harvest Jazz & Blues Festival, attracting regional and international jazz, blues, rock, and world artists.", "The city also hosts the Garrison Night Market through the summer months which showcases many local vendors and artists and musicians.", "Fredericton is also an important and vibrant centre point for the region's top visual artists; many of New Brunswick's notable artists live and work there today.", "Fredericton has also been home to some great historical Canadian painters as well, including Goodridge Roberts, and Molly and Bruno Bobak.As a provincial capital, its economy is tied to the public sector; however, the city also contains a growing IT and commercial sector.", "The city has the highest percentage of residents with post-secondary education in the province and the highest per capita income of any city in New Brunswick." ], [ "History", "There is archaeological evidence of a camp in the area 12,000 years ago, and Maliseets farmed several kilometres upriver.• Colonists from the Kingdom of France in the late 1600s built Fort Nashwaak on the north side of the Saint John River, as the capital of Acadia.", "It withstood a British attack in 1696, but the capital was later moved to Port Royal (Annapolis Royal).", "In 1713, Acadians escaping the British takeover of Nova Scotia settled the site, naming it Pointe Ste-Anne.", "It was destroyed in 1758 when the population of about 83 were exiled during the expulsion of the Acadians.It was in 1783, when United Empire Loyalists arrived from New England, that the history of modern Fredericton began.", "The following year, New Brunswick was partitioned from Nova Scotia and became its own colony.", "Pointe-Ste-Anne was renamed \"Fredericstown\", after Frederick, second son of King George III.", "It became the capital of the new colony, being considered to have a better defensive position than larger Saint John.The streets were laid out in the typical grid pattern of the time, with the names reflecting loyalist tendencies: Charlotte, Brunswick, George, King, and Queen.In 1785, it became the shire town of York County.", "In 1790 the New Brunswick Legislative Building was constructed.", "As a centre of government, it attracted educational institutions, with King's College (now the University of New Brunswick) being the first English-language university in Canada, and religious institutions, with Christ Church Cathedral being built as the seat of the Anglican Diocese of Fredericton in 1853.It was a British garrison town from 1784 to 1869, and the military compound is preserved as a National Historic Site of Canada.With the New Brunswick Equal Opportunity program in the 1960s, county councils were abolished, and government services were centralized provincially in Fredericton, increasing jobs and population." ], [ "Geography", "The Saint John River runs through Fredericton, with most of the city's post-war suburban development occurring on the gently sloping hills on either side of the river (although the downtown core is flat and lies low to the river).At an altitude of about above sea level, Fredericton is nestled in the Pennsylvanian Basin.", "It differs markedly from the geologically older parts of the province.", "There are prominently two distinct areas in the region that are divided around the area of Wilsey Road, in the east end of the city.", "In the west side, the bedrock underneath the earth is topographically dominant, whereas the other is controlled by Pleistocene and recent deposits leading to the rivers (resulting in the area being shallow and wide).", "Fredericton and its surroundings are rich in water resources, which, coupled with highly arable soil, make the Fredericton region ideal for agriculture.", "The Saint John River and one of its major tributaries, the Nashwaak River, come together in Fredericton.", "The uninhabited parts of the city are heavily forested.=== Climate ===Fredericton has a warm-summer humid continental climate (''Dfb'' under the Köppen climate classification system), with short, warm summers and long, cold winters.", "The city has high humidity and precipitation year-round; on average, Fredericton receives approximately of precipitation per year." ], [ "Demographics", "In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Fredericton had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of .", "With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the Fredericton CMA had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of .", "With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.The 2021 census reported that immigrants (individuals born outside Canada) comprise 7,790 persons or 12.6% of the total population of Fredericton.", "Of the total immigrant population, the top countries of origin were United Kingdom (765 persons or 9.8%), China (645 persons or 8.3%), United States of America (570 persons or 7.3%), Syria (505 persons or 6.5%), Philippines (500 persons or 6.4%), India (460 persons or 5.9%), Egypt (300 persons or 3.9%), Iran (245 persons or 3.1%), Lebanon (205 persons or 2.6%), and Democratic Republic of the Congo (180 persons or 2.3%).=== Ethnicity ===In 2021, Fredericton was 82.5% white/European, 3.5% Indigenous and 14.0% visible minorities.", "The largest visible minority groups were Black (2.9%), South Asian (2.9%), Arab (2.5%), Chinese (1.8%) and Filipino (1.0%).Fredericton accepted the highest number of refugees from the Syrian Civil War per capita of any Canadian city.Ethnic and Cultural origins (2021)PopulationPercentIrish16,48026.6%English15,49525.1%Scottish15,34024.8%Canadian9,43515.3%French n.o.s7,95012.9%German3,5905.8%Acadian3,5205.7%Caucasian (White) n.o.s+European n.o.s3,3505.4%British Isles n.o.s2,3003.7%Welsh1,8453.0%Dutch1,7952.9%First Nations (North American Indian) n.o.s.+North American Indigenous, n.o.s.1,4252.3%New Brunswicker1,3102.1%Chinese1,2202.0%Note: a person may report more than one ethnic origin.+ Panethnic groups in the City of Fredericton (2001−2021)Panethnic group20212016201120062001 European 50,995 49,320 49,810 45,885 44,230 Indigenous 2,180 1,830 1,450 725 700 Middle Eastern 1,995 1,185 385 365 370 African 1,780 985 655 860 470 South Asian 1,775 920 875 635 425 East Asian 1,410 1,645 1,375 1,045 545 Southeast Asian 915 505 150 175 160 Latin American 520 310 350 170 40 Other/multiracial 270 290 80 115 60 Total responses 61,835 56,990 55,145 49,980 47,000 Total population 63,116 58,721 56,224 50,535 47,580 === Language ===English is spoken as a mother tongue by 80.2% of residents.", "Other mother tongues spoken are French (6.1%), Arabic (2.1%), Chinese languages (1.4%), Spanish (0.7%), Russian (0.6%), and Persian languages (0.5%).", "1.4% of the population listed both English and French as mother tongues.=== Religion ===According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Fredericton included:Christianity (32,295 persons or 52.2%)Irreligion (25,150 persons or 40.7%)Islam (2,305 persons or 3.7%)Hinduism (820 persons or 1.3%)Buddhism (225 persons or 0.4%)Sikhism (190 persons or 0.3%)Judaism (160 persons or 0.3%)Indigenous Spirituality (15 persons or <0.1%)Other (670 persons or 1.1%)Those who declare a religion are predominantly Protestant.", "Fredericton has a synagogue, a mosque, a Hindu temple, a Unitarian fellowship, and a Shambhala Buddhist meditation centre.Religion2011 (%)2011 (Total)No religion26.2%14,460Catholic24.9%13,740Baptist11.4%6,290United Church10.9%5,995Anglican9.4%5,160Pentecostal2.5%1,390" ], [ "Economy", "The Government of New Brunswick and the universities are the primary employers.", "The policies of centralizing provincial government functions during the 1960s led to an expansion of the population.The 1960s also saw an expansion of the University of New Brunswick due to increased post-war university enrolment, as well as the construction of Saint Thomas University.", "The Law School, now the University of New Brunswick Faculty of Law moved from Saint John to the Fredericton area.The city has been investing actively in IT infrastructure.", "The City of Fredericton won the \"Judges Innovation Award\" at the 2004 Canadian Information Productivity Awards due to their \"Fred-eZone\" free municipality wide Wi-Fi initiative.", "This and other innovations by the city's utelco, e-Novations, led Intel to do a case study on their successes.", "Fred-eZone spans much of the city's downtown and parts of surrounding residential areas, as well as peripheral commercial areas such as Fredericton's Regent Mall.", "In 2008 and 2009 the Intelligent Community Forum selected Fredericton as a Top 7 Intelligent Community, based partly on the city's work in the IT sector." ], [ "Arts and culture", "The Playhouse is the main venue for Theatre New Brunswick, the province's largest professional theatre company.Festivals include the Harvest Jazz & Blues Festival, the New Brunswick Summer Music Festival, the Silver Wave Film Festival, the Flourish Arts & Music Festival, and Symphony New Brunswick.Fredericton has a long literary tradition, having been home to Jonathan Odell, Charles G. D. Roberts, Bliss Carman, and Francis Sherman.", "Writers living in Fredericton include Raymond Fraser, Herb Curtis, David Adams Richards, Mark Anthony Jarman, and Gerard Beirne.Fredericton's City Hall where \"Freddy the Nude Dude\" resides.Fredericton's beloved fountain \"Freddy the Nude Dude\", officially known as \"Putto with Fish\" sits outside City Hall at 397 Queen St. \"Freddy the Nude Dude\" was donated to the city by Mayor George Edward Fentey, in 1885.The statue depicts a nude Cherub and is a beloved fixture of downtown Fredericton.", "The famed statue has had some trouble since its historic arrival in 1885.In January 2013, \"Freddy the Nude Dude\" was taken south to Alabama for a replication of the original statue after 128 winters worth of damage.", "The original Freddy is kept safely inside City Hall where it is protected from further weather damage.===Architecture===Styles range from Victorian to modern.", "There are 12 National Historic Sites in the city, beyond the dozen National Historic People and two National Historic Events honored there.===Museums and historic buildings=== Beaverbrook Art Gallery* New Brunswick Legislative Building* Old Government House* Fredericton Region Museum* Christ Church Cathedral* New Brunswick Sports Hall of Fame* Science East* Sir Howard Douglas Hall (Old Arts Building)* William Brydone Jack Observatory* St. Anne's Chapel* Fort Nashwaak* Fredericton City Hall* Marysville Cotton Mill* Centennial Building" ], [ "Sports", "There are no professional sports teams in Fredericton, although both universities have extensive athletic programs.", "The UNB Reds play in the Atlantic University Sport conference of U Sports and St. Thomas Tommies play in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association conference of the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association for most sports, although their women's hockey team, cross-country teams, and track & field teams play in the Atlantic University Sports conference of U Sports.Fredericton's high schools compete in a variety of sports in the New Brunswick Interscholastic Athletic Association.UNB's men's hockey team are 8 time National Champions, and the highest attended sporting events in the city.The Junior A hockey team is the Fredericton Red Wings.", "The former Fredericton Express and Fredericton Canadiens were American Hockey League teams.Each summer the Fredericton Loyalists host the New Brunswick Timber team which competes in the Rugby Canada Super League." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "* Carleton Park, part of the Northside Riverfront Trail, includes a boat launching area.", "The park, which was once the site of Alexander \"Boss\" Gibson's rail yard.", "* The Green, along the north and south banks of the Saint John River, a walking and biking trail.", "* Killarney Lake Park, a lakeside park with a beach and picnic spots as well as an extensive network of nature trails.", "* Odell Park, features preserved forested areas, trails, spaces for picnics and gatherings, and the Fredericton Botanic Garden .st* Officers' Square is a venue for outdoor concerts and has an outdoor skating rink in the winter.", "* Queen Square Park, in the heart of Downtown Fredericton.", "* Reading Park ( ) is a passive use park incorporating an open meadow, and a walking trail through an old-growth forest.", "The park's old-growth forest is one of the city's last remaining habitats for the pileated woodpecker.", "* Wilmot Park - a recreational park downtown.===Trail system===Fredericton has a network of 25 trails totalling more than on both sides of the Saint John and Nashwaak Rivers.", "Many of the city trails are rail trails that follow old railway lines.", "These include the Fredericton Railway Bridge that spans across the Saint John River.", "The rail trail system in Fredericton is part of the Sentier NB Trail system and some of these trails are also part of the larger Trans-Canada Trail network." ], [ "Government", "Fredericton City Hall is the seat of municipal government.Fredericton has a non-partisan and Mayor–council government.", "The mayor and council serve four-year terms with elections in May.", "The city is divided into 12 wards, (six on each side of the river, one councillor per ward.The city includes the provincial ridings of Fredericton North, Fredericton-Grand Lake, Fredericton West-Hanwell, Oromocto-Lincoln-Fredericton, New Maryland-Sunbury and Fredericton South, which in 2014 elected the first-ever MLA for the Green Party of New Brunswick, party leader David Coon.Federally, the city forms most of the riding of Fredericton." ], [ "Education and research", "The Anglophone West School District and the District Scolaire Francophone Sud (District 1) run schools including Fredericton High School, École des Bâtisseurs, and the École Sainte-Anne.", "Leo Hayes High School is a public–private partnershipThere are two universities, the UNB, and St. Thomas, the province's only Catholic university.Colleges include the New Brunswick College of Craft and Design, the New Brunswick Community College, and the Maritime College of Forest Technology.For-profit universities include University of Fredericton and Yorkville University.The Hugh John Flemming Forestry Centre researches in forestry management.", "Fredericton's Provincial Research Organization specializes in aquaculture, mining, manufacturing, energy and the environment." ], [ "Transportation", "Air service is provided out of the Fredericton International Airport.Fredericton Transit provides bus service, though not on Sundays.Fredericton started installing bicycle lanes in July 2008.Passenger rail service ended in the 1960s, and freight in 1996.All railway tracks have been abandoned and removed.Fredericton is served by the Maritime Bus fleet which provides connections to points throughout Eastern Canada.The Trans-Canada Highway passes along the southern municipal boundary.", "Routes 7 and 8 (the latter being a former alignment of the Trans-Canada) also pass through the city.", "Two highway bridges, the Westmorland Street Bridge and the Princess Margaret Bridge, cross the Saint John River.", "Those bridges feed into controlled-access roads (Routes 8 and 105 serving the city's north side)." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Princess Margaret Bridge At Sunrise.jpg\|Princess Margaret BridgeFile:Nashwaak River trail.JPG\|The Nashwaak River TrailFile:Fredericton - Galerie d'art Beaverbrook 2.JPG\|The Beaverbrook Art Gallery, prior to the addition of the Harrison McCain Pavillion in 2022File:Tintamarre Fredericton.JPG\|Celebration of Acadian culture in FrederictonFile:Fredericton - Queen's Square 3.JPG\|Queen Square ParkFile:New Brunswick Legislative Building (6838973457).jpg\|The New Brunswick Legislative BuildingFile:MarysvillePlaceMarysvilleNB2014.jpg\|Marysville Place houses a number of offices for the provincial government.", "File:Downtown Fredericton.jpg\|Downtown FrederictonFile:Fredericton Transit New Brunswick Canada Bus 4936.JPG\|Fredericton Transit bus with bike rack" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dallison, Robert L. \"A Tour of Boss Gibson's Marysville: A Nineteenth Century Mill Town.\"", "Fredericton Heritage Trust, 1991.", "* Hachey, Philip Osmond \"The geology and ground water of the Fredericton district.\"", "UNB Thesis, 1955.", "* McIntyre, Glen, Bruce Oliver and Bob Watson, \"A Valuable and Important Place - Fredericton's Loyalist Origins 1783.\"", "A Fredericton Historical Research Project, 1983." ], [ "See also", "* People from Fredericton* Gangnam-gu, South Korea: partner city* Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire (IODE), the first chapter of which was formed in Fredericton on 15 January 1900* List of cities in Canada* Royal eponyms in Canada* Fredericton Public Library* Nashwaaksis* Media in Fredericton* The Playhouse* Dr. Everett Chalmers Regional Hospital* Douglas* Hanwell* Marysville* Nashwaaksis" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Free software" ], [ "Introduction", "GNU Guix.", "An example of a GNU FSDG complying free-software operating system running some representative applications.", "Shown are the GNOME desktop environment, the GNU Emacs text editor, the GIMP image editor, and the VLC media player.", "'''Free software''', '''libre software''', or '''libreware''' is computer software distributed under terms that allow users to run the software for any purpose as well as to study, change, and distribute it and any adapted versions.", "Free software is a matter of liberty, not price; all users are legally free to do what they want with their copies of a free software (including profiting from them) regardless of how much is paid to obtain the program.", "Computer programs are deemed \"free\" if they give end-users (not just the developer) ultimate control over the software and, subsequently, over their devices.The right to study and modify a computer program entails that the source code—the preferred format for making changes—be made available to users of that program.", "While this is often called \"access to source code\" or \"public availability\", the Free Software Foundation (FSF) recommends against thinking in those terms, because it might give the impression that users have an obligation (as opposed to a right) to give non-users a copy of the program.Although the term \"free software\" had already been used loosely in the past and other permissive software like the Berkeley Software Distribution released in 1978 existed, Richard Stallman is credited with tying it to the sense under discussion and starting the free software movement in 1983, when he launched the GNU Project: a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system, and to revive the spirit of cooperation once prevalent among hackers during the early days of computing." ], [ "Context", "Free software differs from:* proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Windows, Adobe Photoshop, Facebook or FaceTime.", "Users cannot study, change, and share their source code.", "* freeware or gratis software, which is a category of proprietary software that does not require payment for basic use.For software under the purview of copyright to be free, it must carry a software license whereby the author grants users the aforementioned rights.", "Software that is not covered by copyright law, such as software in the public domain, is free as long as the source code is also in the public domain, or otherwise available without restrictions.Proprietary software uses restrictive software licences or EULAs and usually does not provide users with the source code.", "Users are thus legally or technically prevented from changing the software, and this results in reliance on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support.", "(''See also vendor lock-in and abandonware'').", "Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software.", "Beyond copyright law, contracts and a lack of source code, there can exist additional obstacles keeping users from exercising freedom over a piece of software, such as software patents and digital rights management (more specifically, tivoization).Free software can be a for-profit, commercial activity or not.", "Some free software is developed by volunteer computer programmers while other is developed by corporations; or even by both.=== Naming and differences with open source ===Although both definitions refer to almost equivalent corpora of programs, the Free Software Foundation recommends using the term \"free software\" rather than \"open-source software\" (an alternative, yet similar, concept coined in 1998), because the goals and messaging are quite dissimilar.", "According to the Free Software Foundation, \"Open source\" and its associated campaign mostly focus on the technicalities of the public development model and marketing free software to businesses, while taking the ethical issue of user rights very lightly or even antagonistically.", "Stallman has also stated that considering the practical advantages of free software is like considering the practical advantages of not being handcuffed, in that it is not necessary for an individual to consider practical reasons in order to realize that being handcuffed is undesirable in itself.The FSF also notes that \"Open Source\" has exactly one specific meaning in common English, namely that \"you can look at the source code.\"", "It states that while the term \"Free Software\" can lead to two different interpretations, at least one of them is consistent with the intended meaning unlike the term \"Open Source\".", "The loan adjective \"libre\" is often used to avoid the ambiguity of the word \"free\" in the English language, and the ambiguity with the older usage of \"free software\" as public-domain software.", "(''See Gratis versus libre.'')" ], [ "{{anchor\|Definition}}Definition and the Four Essential Freedoms of Free Software", "gratis softwareThe first formal definition of free software was published by FSF in February 1986.That definition, written by Richard Stallman, is still maintained today and states that software is free software if people who receive a copy of the software have the following four freedoms.", "The numbering begins with zero, not only as a spoof on the common usage of zero-based numbering in programming languages, but also because \"Freedom 0\" was not initially included in the list, but later added first in the list as it was considered very important.", "* Freedom 0: The freedom to use the program for any purpose.", "* Freedom 1: The freedom to study how the program works, and change it to make it do what you wish.", "* Freedom 2: The freedom to redistribute and make copies so you can help your neighbor.", "* Freedom 3: The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements (and modified versions in general) to the public, so that the whole community benefits.Freedoms 1 and 3 require source code to be available because studying and modifying software without its source code can range from highly impractical to nearly impossible.Thus, free software means that computer users have the freedom to cooperate with whom they choose, and to control the software they use.", "To summarize this into a remark distinguishing ''libre'' (freedom) software from ''gratis'' (zero price) software, the Free Software Foundation says: \"Free software is a matter of liberty, not price.", "To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech', not as in 'free beer.", "(''See Gratis versus libre.", "'')In the late 1990s, other groups published their own definitions that describe an almost identical set of software.", "The most notable are ''Debian Free Software Guidelines'' published in 1997, and ''The Open Source Definition'', published in 1998.The BSD-based operating systems, such as FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD, do not have their own formal definitions of free software.", "Users of these systems generally find the same set of software to be acceptable, but sometimes see copyleft as restrictive.", "They generally advocate permissive free software licenses, which allow others to use the software as they wish, without being legally ''forced'' to provide the source code.", "Their view is that this permissive approach is more free.", "The Kerberos, X11, and Apache software licenses are substantially similar in intent and implementation." ], [ "Examples", "There are thousands of free applications and many operating systems available on the Internet.", "Users can easily download and install those applications via a package manager that comes included with most Linux distributions.The Free Software Directory maintains a large database of free-software packages.", "Some of the best-known examples include Linux-libre, Linux-based operating systems, the GNU Compiler Collection and C library; the MySQL relational database; the Apache web server; and the Sendmail mail transport agent.", "Other influential examples include the Emacs text editor; the GIMP raster drawing and image editor; the X Window System graphical-display system; the LibreOffice office suite; and the TeX and LaTeX typesetting systems." ], [ "History", "From the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the ''software freedoms'' associated with free software, which was typically public-domain software.", "Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by hardware manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful.", "Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to facilitate exchange of software.", "As software was often written in an interpreted language such as BASIC, the source code was distributed to use these programs.", "Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code (Type-in program) in computer magazines (like ''Creative Computing'', ''SoftSide'', ''Compute!", "'', ''Byte'', etc.)", "and books, like the bestseller ''BASIC Computer Games''.", "By the early 1970s, the picture changed: software costs were dramatically increasing, a growing software industry was competing with the hardware manufacturer's bundled software products (free in that the cost was included in the hardware cost), leased machines required software support while providing no revenue for software, and some customers able to better meet their own needs did not want the costs of \"free\" software bundled with hardware product costs.", "In ''United States vs. IBM'', filed January 17, 1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive.", "While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be a growing amount of software produced primarily for sale.", "In the 1970s and early 1980s, the software industry began using technical measures (such as only distributing binary copies of computer programs) to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software applications as they saw fit.", "In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs.In 1983, Richard Stallman, one of the original authors of the popular Emacs program and a longtime member of the hacker community at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, announced the GNU Project, the purpose of which was to produce a completely non-proprietary Unix-compatible operating system, saying that he had become frustrated with the shift in climate surrounding the computer world and its users.", "In his initial declaration of the project and its purpose, he specifically cited as a motivation his opposition to being asked to agree to non-disclosure agreements and restrictive licenses which prohibited the free sharing of potentially profitable in-development software, a prohibition directly contrary to the traditional hacker ethic.", "Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation (FSF) was founded in October 1985.He developed a free software definition and the concept of \"copyleft\", designed to ensure ''software freedom'' for all.Some non-software industries are beginning to use techniques similar to those used in free software development for their research and development process; scientists, for example, are looking towards more open development processes, and hardware such as microchips are beginning to be developed with specifications released under copyleft licenses (''see the OpenCores project, for instance'').", "Creative Commons and the free-culture movement have also been largely influenced by the free software movement.===1980s: Foundation of the GNU Project===In 1983, Richard Stallman, longtime member of the hacker community at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, announced the GNU Project, saying that he had become frustrated with the effects of the change in culture of the computer industry and its users.", "Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation (FSF) was founded in October 1985.An article outlining the project and its goals was published in March 1985 titled the ''GNU Manifesto''.", "The manifesto included significant explanation of the GNU philosophy, ''Free Software Definition'' and \"copyleft\" ideas.===1990s: Release of the Linux kernel===The Linux kernel, started by Linus Torvalds, was released as freely modifiable source code in 1991.The first licence was a proprietary software licence.", "However, with version 0.12 in February 1992, he relicensed the project under the GNU General Public License.", "Much like Unix, Torvalds' kernel attracted the attention of volunteer programmers.FreeBSD and NetBSD (both derived from 386BSD) were released as free software when the ''USL v. BSDi'' lawsuit was settled out of court in 1993.OpenBSD forked from NetBSD in 1995.Also in 1995, The Apache HTTP Server, commonly referred to as Apache, was released under the Apache License 1.0." ], [ "Licensing", "Copyleft, a novel use of copyright law to ensure that works remain unrestricted, originates in the world of free software.All free-software licenses must grant users all the freedoms discussed above.", "However, unless the applications' licenses are compatible, combining programs by mixing source code or directly linking binaries is problematic, because of license technicalities.", "Programs indirectly connected together may avoid this problem.The majority of free software falls under a small set of licenses.", "The most popular of these licenses are:* The MIT License* The GNU General Public License v2 (GPLv2)* The Apache License* The GNU General Public License v3 (GPLv3)* The BSD License* The GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL)* The Mozilla Public License (MPL)* The Eclipse Public LicenseThe Free Software Foundation and the Open Source Initiative both publish lists of licenses that they find to comply with their own definitions of free software and open-source software respectively:* List of FSF approved software licenses* List of OSI approved software licensesThe FSF list is not prescriptive: free-software licenses can exist that the FSF has not heard about, or considered important enough to write about.", "So it is possible for a license to be free and not in the FSF list.", "The OSI list only lists licenses that have been submitted, considered and approved.", "All open-source licenses must meet the Open Source Definition in order to be officially recognized as open source software.", "Free software, on the other hand, is a more informal classification that does not rely on official recognition.", "Nevertheless, software licensed under licenses that do not meet the Free Software Definition cannot rightly be considered free software.Apart from these two organizations, the Debian project is seen by some to provide useful advice on whether particular licenses comply with their Debian Free Software Guidelines.", "Debian does not publish a list of licenses, so its judgments have to be tracked by checking what software they have allowed into their software archives.", "That is summarized at the Debian web site.It is rare that a license announced as being in-compliance with the FSF guidelines does not also meet the Open Source Definition, although the reverse is not necessarily true (for example, the NASA Open Source Agreement is an OSI-approved license, but non-free according to FSF).There are different categories of free software.", "* Public-domain software: the copyright has expired, the work was not copyrighted (released without copyright notice before 1988), or the author has released the software onto the public domain with a waiver statement (in countries where this is possible).", "Since public-domain software lacks copyright protection, it may be freely incorporated into any work, whether proprietary or free.", "The FSF recommends the CC0 public domain dedication for this purpose.", "* Permissive licenses, also called BSD-style because they are applied to much of the software distributed with the BSD operating systems: many of these licenses are also known as copyfree as they have no restrictions on distribution.", "The author retains copyright solely to disclaim warranty and require proper attribution of modified works, and permits redistribution and modification, even closed-source ones.", "In this sense, a permissive license provides an incentive to create non-free software, by reducing the cost of developing restricted software.", "Since this is incompatible with the spirit of software freedom, many people consider permissive licenses to be less free than copyleft licenses.", "* Copyleft licenses, with the GNU General Public License being the most prominent: the author retains copyright and permits redistribution under the restriction that all such redistribution is licensed under the same license.", "Additions and modifications by others must also be licensed under the same \"copyleft\" license whenever they are distributed with part of the original licensed product.", "This is also known as a ''viral'', ''protective'', or ''reciprocal'' license.", "Due to the restriction on distribution not everyone considers this type of license to be free." ], [ "Security and reliability", "Although nearly all computer viruses only affect Microsoft Windows, antivirus software such as ClamTk (shown here) is still provided for Linux and other Unix-based systems, so that users can detect malware that might infect Windows hosts.There is debate over the security of free software in comparison to proprietary software, with a major issue being security through obscurity.", "A popular quantitative test in computer security is to use relative counting of known unpatched security flaws.", "Generally, users of this method advise avoiding products that lack fixes for known security flaws, at least until a fix is available.Free software advocates strongly believe that this methodology is biased by counting more vulnerabilities for the free software systems, since their source code is accessible and their community is more forthcoming about what problems exist, (This is called \"Security Through Disclosure\") and proprietary software systems can have undisclosed societal drawbacks, such as disenfranchising less fortunate would-be users of free programs.", "As users can analyse and trace the source code, many more people with no commercial constraints can inspect the code and find bugs and loopholes than a corporation would find practicable.", "According to Richard Stallman, user access to the source code makes deploying free software with undesirable hidden spyware functionality far more difficult than for proprietary software.Some quantitative studies have been done on the subject.===Binary blobs and other proprietary software===In 2006, OpenBSD started the first campaign against the use of binary blobs in kernels.", "Blobs are usually freely distributable device drivers for hardware from vendors that do not reveal driver source code to users or developers.", "This restricts the users' freedom effectively to modify the software and distribute modified versions.", "Also, since the blobs are undocumented and may have bugs, they pose a security risk to any operating system whose kernel includes them.", "The proclaimed aim of the campaign against blobs is to collect hardware documentation that allows developers to write free software drivers for that hardware, ultimately enabling all free operating systems to become or remain blob-free.The issue of binary blobs in the Linux kernel and other device drivers motivated some developers in Ireland to launch gNewSense, a Linux-based distribution with all the binary blobs removed.", "The project received support from the Free Software Foundation and stimulated the creation, headed by the Free Software Foundation Latin America, of the Linux-libre kernel.", ", Trisquel is the most popular FSF endorsed Linux distribution ranked by Distrowatch (over 12 months).", "While Debian is not endorsed by the FSF and does not use Linux-libre, it is also a popular distribution available without kernel blobs by default since 2011.The Linux community uses the term \"blob\" to refer to all nonfree firmware in a kernel whereas OpenBSD uses the term to refer to device drivers.", "The FSF does not consider OpenBSD to be blob free under the Linux community's definition of blob." ], [ "Business model", "Selling software under any free-software licence is permissible, as is commercial use.", "This is true for licenses with or without copyleft.Since free software may be freely redistributed, it is generally available at little or no fee.", "Free software business models are usually based on adding value such as customization, accompanying hardware, support, training, integration, or certification.", "Exceptions exist however, where the user is charged to obtain a copy of the free application itself.Fees are usually charged for distribution on compact discs and bootable USB drives, or for services of installing or maintaining the operation of free software.", "Development of large, commercially used free software is often funded by a combination of user donations, crowdfunding, corporate contributions, and tax money.", "The SELinux project at the United States National Security Agency is an example of a federally funded free-software project.Proprietary software, on the other hand, tends to use a different business model, where a customer of the proprietary application pays a fee for a license to legally access and use it.", "This license may grant the customer the ability to configure some or no parts of the software themselves.", "Often some level of support is included in the purchase of proprietary software, but additional support services (especially for enterprise applications) are usually available for an additional fee.", "Some proprietary software vendors will also customize software for a fee.The Free Software Foundation encourages selling free software.", "As the Foundation has written, \"distributing free software is an opportunity to raise funds for development.", "Don't waste it!\".", "For example, the FSF's own recommended license (the GNU GPL) states that \"you may charge any price or no price for each copy that you convey, and you may offer support or warranty protection for a fee.", "\"Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer stated in 2001 that \"open source is not available to commercial companies.", "The way the license is written, if you use any open-source software, you have to make the rest of your software open source.\"", "This misunderstanding is based on a requirement of copyleft licenses (like the GPL) that if one distributes modified versions of software, they must release the source and use the same license.", "This requirement does not extend to other software from the same developer.", "The claim of incompatibility between commercial companies and free software is also a misunderstanding.", "There are several large companies, e.g.", "Red Hat and IBM (IBM acquired RedHat in 2019), which do substantial commercial business in the development of free software." ], [ "{{anchor\|Adoption}} Economic aspects and adoption", "Free software played a significant part in the development of the Internet, the World Wide Web and the infrastructure of dot-com companies.", "Free software allows users to cooperate in enhancing and refining the programs they use; free software is a pure public good rather than a private good.", "Companies that contribute to free software increase commercial innovation.The economic viability of free software has been recognized by large corporations such as IBM, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems.", "Many companies whose core business is not in the IT sector choose free software for their Internet information and sales sites, due to the lower initial capital investment and ability to freely customize the application packages.", "Most companies in the software business include free software in their commercial products if the licenses allow that.Free software is generally available at no cost and can result in permanently lower TCO (total cost of ownership) compared to proprietary software.", "With free software, businesses can fit software to their specific needs by changing the software themselves or by hiring programmers to modify it for them.", "Free software often has no warranty, and more importantly, generally does not assign legal liability to anyone.", "However, warranties are permitted between any two parties upon the condition of the software and its usage.", "Such an agreement is made separately from the free software license.A report by Standish Group estimates that adoption of free software has caused a drop in revenue to the proprietary software industry by about $60 billion per year.", "Eric S. Raymond argued that the term ''free software'' is too ambiguous and intimidating for the business community.", "Raymond promoted the term ''open-source software'' as a friendlier alternative for the business and corporate world." ], [ "See also", "* Definition of Free Cultural Works* Digital rights* Free content* Libre knowledge* List of formerly proprietary software* List of free software project directories* List of free software for Web 2.0 Services* Open format* Open standard* Open-source hardware* Outline of free software* :Category:Free software lists and comparisons* Appropriate Technology* Sustainable Development" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Puckette, Miller.", "\"Who Owns our Software?", ": A first-person case study.\"", "eContact (September 2009).", "Montréal: CEC* Hancock, Terry.", "\"The Jargon of Freedom: 60 Words and Phrases with Context\".", "Free Software Magazine.", "2010-20-24 *" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Free" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Free''' may refer to:" ], [ "Concept", "* Freedom, having the power to do something, without having to obey anyone/anything* Freethought, a position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism* Free-culture movement, a social movement that promotes the freedom to distribute and modify the creative works of others* Free love, a social movement that accepts all forms of love* Emancipate, to procure political rights, as for a disenfranchised group* Free will, control exercised by rational agents over their actions and decisions* Free of charge, also known as gratis.", "See Gratis vs libre." ], [ "Computing", "* Free (programming), a function that releases dynamically allocated memory for reuse* Free format, a file format which can be used without restrictions* Free software, software usable and distributable with few restrictions and no payment* Freeware, a broader class of software available at no cost" ], [ "Mathematics", "* Free object Free abelian group Free algebra Free group Free module** Free semigroup* Free variable" ], [ "People", "* Free (surname)* Free (rapper) (born 1968), or Free Marie, American rapper and media personality* Free, a pseudonym for the activist and writer Abbie Hoffman* Free (active 2003–), American musician in the band FreeSol" ], [ "Arts and media", "===Film and television===* ''Free'' (film), a 2001 American dramedy* ''Free!", "'', a Japanese anime series starting in 2013* \"Free\" (''Desperate Housewives''), a television episode=== Music =======Bands and groups====* Free (band), an English rock band 1968–1973* Free, a Spanish mákina band 1994–2004* The Free, a German eurodance band 1994–1999* Have Heart, re-formed as Free since 2009, an American straight edge band====Albums====* ''Free'' (Airto album) or the title song, 1972* ''Free'' (Benny Golson album), 1963* ''Free'' (Bonfire album) or the title song, 2003* ''Free'' (Brad Johner album) or the title song, 2003* ''Free'' (Chico DeBarge album) or the title song, 2003* ''Free'' (Cody Simpson album) or the title song, 2015* ''Free'' (Concrete Blonde album), 1989* ''Free'' (Dana International album) or the title song, 1999* ''Free'' (David Garrett album), 2007* ''Free'' (Gavin DeGraw album) or the title song, 2009* ''Free'' (For Real album) or the title song, 1996* ''Free'' (Free album), 1969* ''Free'' (Iggy Pop album) or the title song, 2019* ''Free'' (Kate Ryan album) or the title song, 2008* ''Free'' (Jann Arden album) or the title song, 2009* ''Free'' (Kierra Sheard album) or the title song, 2011* ''Free'' (Lisa Shaw album) or the title song, 2009* ''Free'' (Mao Abe album) or the title song (see below), 2009* ''Free'' (Marcus Miller album), 2007* ''Free'' (Negativland album), 1993* ''Free'' (OSI album) or the title song, 2006* ''Free'' (The Party album) or the title song, 1992* ''Free'' (Prince Markie Dee album) or the title song, 1992* ''Free'' (Rick Astley album), 1991* ''Free'' (Rivermaya album), 2000* ''Free'' (Twin Atlantic album) or the title song, 2011* ''Free'' (Virtue album) or the title song, 2003* ''Free...'' (EP), by Acid King, or the title song, 2001* ''Free (Based Freestyles Mixtape)'', by Lil B and Chance the Rapper, 2015* ''Free'', by Hundredth, 2015* ''free'', by Jim's Big Ego, 2008 ''Free'', by Libera, 2004* ''Free'', by Planetshakers, 2008* ''Free'', by Stone, 1992====Songs====* \"Free\" (Broods song), 2016* \"Free\" (Chicago song), 1971* \"Free\" (Dara Maclean song), 2011* \"Free\" (Deniece Williams song), 1976* \"Free\" (Erika song), 2007* \"Free\" (Estelle song), 2004* \"Free\" (Florence and the Machine song), 2022* \"Free\" (Haley Reinhart song), 2012* \"Free\" (Mao Abe song), 2008* \"Free\" (Mýa song), 2001* \"Free\" (Natalia Kills song), 2011* \"Free\" (Pete Murray song), 2011* \"Free\" (Phish song), 1996* \"Free\" (Rudimental song), 2013* \"Free\" (Sarah Brightman song), 2003* \"Free\" (Train song), 1998* \"Free\" (Ultra Naté song), 1997* \"Free\" (Zac Brown Band song), 2010* \"Free\", by Alesha Dixon from ''Fired Up'', 2006* \"Free\", by Bacon Popper, 1998* \"Free\", by Blue October UK from ''One Day Silver, One Day Gold'', 2005* \"Free\", by the Cars from ''Move Like This'', 2011* \"Free\", by Cat Power from ''You Are Free'', 2003* \"Free\", by Charlie Puth, 2020* \"Free\", by Chris Madlin and by Crush 40 from the video game ''Sonic Free Riders'', 2010* \"Free\", by Dani Harmer, the theme from ''Dani's House'', 2008* \"Free\", by Depeche Mode, B-side of \"Precious\", 2005* \"Free\", by Destiny's Child from ''Destiny Fulfilled'', 2004* \"Free\", by DJ Quicksilver, 1997* \"Free\", by Donna De Lory from ''Bliss'', 2000* \"Free\", by Enrique Iglesias from ''7'', 2003* \"Free\", by Ginny Owens from ''Without Condition'', 1999* \"Free\", by Graffiti6 from ''Colours'', 2010* \"Free\", by H.E.R.", "from ''H.E.R.", "'', 2017* \"Free\", by Jaguar Wright from ''Divorcing Neo 2 Marry Soul'', 2005* \"Free\", by Jeremy Camp from ''Reckless'', 2013* \"Free\", by Jon Secada, 2006* \"Free\", by Little Big Town from ''The Breaker'', 2017* \"Free\", by Louis the Child from ''Here for Now'', 2020* \"Free\", by the Martinis from ''Empire Records: The Soundtrack'', 1995* \"Free\", by Michelle Williams from ''Journey to Freedom'', 2014* \"Free\", by Mikolas Josef, 2016* \"Free\", by Nakatomi, 1995* \"Free\", by Parcels, 2021* \"Free\", by Pink from ''Try This'', 2003* \"Free\", by Plumb from ''Beautiful Lumps of Coal'', 2003* \"Free\", by Powerman 5000 from ''Transform'', 2003* \"Free\", by Primal Scream from ''Give Out But Don't Give Up'', 1994* \"Free\", by Prince from ''1999'', 1982* \"Free\", by Quiet Riot from ''Rehab'', 2006* \"Free\", by Stephanie Mills from ''Born for This!", "'', 2004* \"Free\", by Stevie Wonder from ''Characters'', 1987* \"Free\", by Stryper from ''To Hell with the Devil'', 1986* \"Free\", by VAST from ''Music for People'', 2000* \"Free\", by Why Don't We, 2016* \"Free\", by Will Downing, 1988* \"Free\", by Yu Yamada, the ending theme for the anime ''Basquash!", "'', 2009* \"Free\", written by Irving Berlin===Other media===* ''Free'' (Anderson book), a 2009 economics book by Chris Anderson* ''Free'' (Ypi book), a 2021 memoir by Lea Ypi* Free (''Soul Eater''), a character from the manga and anime ''Soul Eater''" ], [ "Organizations", "* Fight Repression of Erotic Expression, a University of Minnesota student group, now the Queer Student Cultural Center* Foundation for Rational Economics and Education, a libertarian think tank founded by Ron Paul* Foundation for Research on Economics and the Environment, a think tank that promotes free-market environmentalism* Free (ISP), a French internet service provider* Free Airlines, a Kinshasa Congolese air operator" ], [ "Other", "* Free (cigarette), from Brazil* Free, Indiana, US; an unincorporated community* Free content, material without significant legal usability restrictions* Free festival, a combination of music, arts and cultural activities, for which often no admission is charged, but involvement is preferred* Free Money Day, an annual global event held since 2011 as a social experiment and to promote sharing and alternative economic ideas* Free party, a party \"free\" from the restrictions of the legal club scene, similar to the free festival movement* Free public transport, public transport whereby passengers don't have to pay any fees* Voyah Free, a hybrid/electric car produced since 2021 onwards by Dongfeng Motor Corporation" ], [ "See also", "* * Freestyle (disambiguation)* Freedom (disambiguation)* Freed (disambiguation)* Freeman (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Free software movement" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''free software movement''' is a social movement with the goal of obtaining and guaranteeing certain freedoms for software users, namely the freedoms to run, study, modify, and share copies of software.", "Software which meets these requirements, The Four Essential Freedoms of Free Software, is termed free software.Although drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture and academia, Richard Stallman formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project.", "Stallman later established the Free Software Foundation in 1985 to support the movement." ], [ "Philosophy", "The philosophy of the Free Software Movement is based on promoting collaboration between programmers and computer users.", "This process necessitates the rejection ofproprietary software and the promotion of free software.", "Stallman notes that this action would not hinder the progression of technology, as he states, \"Wasteful duplication of system programming effort will be avoided.", "This effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art.", "\"Members of the Free Software Movement believe that all software users should have the freedoms listed in The Free Software Definition.", "Members hold the belief that it is immoral to prohibit or prevent people from exercising these freedoms, and that they are required in creating a community where software users can help each other and have control over their technology.", "Regarding proprietary software, some believe that it is not strictly immoral, citing increased profitability in the business models available for proprietary software, along with technical features and convenience.The Free Software Foundation espouses the principle that all software needs free documentation, as programmers should have the ability to update manuals to reflect modifications made to the software.", "Within the movement, the FLOSS Manuals foundation specializes in providing such documentation." ], [ "Actions", "GNU and Tux mascots around free software supporters at FISL 16=== Writing and spreading free software ===The core work of the free software movement is focused on software development.", "The free software movement also rejects proprietary software, refusing to install software that does not give them the freedoms of free software.", "According to Stallman, \"The only thing in the software field that is worse than an unauthorised copy of a proprietary program, is an authorised copy of the proprietary program because this does the same harm to its whole community of users, and in addition, usually the developer, the perpetrator of this evil, profits from it.", "\"=== Building awareness ===Some supporters of the free software movement take up public speaking, or host a stall at software-related conferences to raise awareness of software freedom.", "This is seen as important since people who receive free software, but who are not aware that it is free software, will later accept a non-free replacement or will add software that is not free software." ], [ "Organisations", "=== Asia ===* Free Software Movement* International Centre for Free and Open Source Software (ICFOSS)=== Africa ===* Free Software and Open Source Foundation for Africa === North America ===* Free Software Foundation* Software Freedom Law Center=== South America ===* Free Software Foundation Latin America* Software Livre Brasil=== Europe ===* Free Software Foundation Europe* Framasoft* Irish Free Software Organisation=== Australia ===* Free Software Australia" ], [ "Legislation and government", "A lot of lobbying work has been done against software patents and expansions of copyright law.", "Other lobbying focuses directly on the use of free software by government agencies and government-funded projects.=== Asia ======= China ====In June 1997, the Society for Study, Application, and Development of Free Software was established under the China Software Industry Association in Beijing.", "Through this organization, the website freesoft.cei.gov.cn was developed, though the website is currently inaccessible on IP addresses located in the United States.", "The use of open-source software Linux in China has moved beyond government and educational institutions and has extended to other organizations such as financial institutions, telecommunications, and public security.", "Several Chinese researchers and scholars have claimed that the existence of FOSS in China has been important in challenging the presence of Microsoft, which Guangnan Ni, a member of the Chinese Academy of Engineering stated, \"The monopoly of (Microsoft Windows) is even more powerful in China than other places in the world\".", "Yi Zhou, a professor of mathematics at Fudan University, has also alleged that, \"Government procurement of FLOSS for a number of years in China has compelled Microsoft to cut its prices of Office software substantially\" ==== India ====Government of India had issued Policy on Adoption of Open Source Software for Government of India in 2015 to drive uptake within the government.", "With the vision to transform India as a Software Product Nation, National Policy on Software Products-2019 was approved by the Government.====Pakistan====Free and Open Source Software (Foss) is crucial for countries such as Pakistan which is set up by Union of Information Technology.", "For the case of Pakistan, Pakistan Software Export Board (PSEB) aids in the creation and advocate of FOSS usage in various government departments in addition to curbing illegality of copying that is software piracy.Promotion of adoption of FOSS is essential however it comes with problems of proprietary anti competition software practices including indulging in bribing and corruption by government departments.Pakistan works on the introduction of usage of open type basis of source Solutions in the curricula in schools and colleges.", "This is because of FOSS uniqueness in terms of political, democratic and social varieties of aspect regarding information communication and technology.", "=== North America ======= United States ====In the United States, there have been efforts to pass legislation at the state level encouraging the use of free software by state government agencies.On January 11, 2022, two bills were shown on the New Hampshire legislating floor.", "The first bill called \"HB 1273\" was introduced by Democratic New Hampshire representative Eric Gallager, the bill prioritized \"replacing proprietary software used by state agencies with free software.\"", "Gallager stated that to an extent, the proposed legislation will help distinguish \"free software\" and \"open-source software\", this will also put these two into state regulation.", "The second bill called \"HB 1581\" was proposed by Grafton Republican representative Lex Berezhny.", "The bill would've restored a requisite forcing \"state agencies to use proprietary software\" and as Lex put it, \"when it is the most effective solution.\"", "He also said that requisite was happening between 2012 and 2018.According to the Concord Monitor, the state of New Hampshire had an already \"thriving open source software community\" with a view of \"live free or die\" but they had difficulty getting that notion with the state.=== South America ======= Peru ====Congressmen Edgar David Villanueva and Jacques Rodrich Ackerman have been instrumental in introducing free software in Peru, with bill 1609 on \"Free Software in Public Administration\".", "The incident invited the attention of Microsoft, Peru, whose general manager wrote a letter to Villanueva.", "His response received worldwide attention and is seen as a classic piece of argumentation favouring use of free software in governments.==== Uruguay ====Uruguay has a sanctioned law requiring that the state give priority to free software.", "It also requires that information be exchanged in open formats.==== Venezuela ====The Government of Venezuela implemented a free software law in January 2006.Decree No.", "3,390 mandated all government agencies to migrate to free software over a two-year period.=== Europe ===Publiccode.eu is a campaign launched demanding a legislation requiring that publicly financed software developed for the public sector be made publicly available under a Free and Open Source Software licence.", "If it is public money, it should be public code as well.==== France ====The French Gendarmerie and the French National Assembly utilize the open source operating system Linux.==== United Kingdom ====Gov.uk keeps a list of \"key components, tools and services that have gone into the construction of GOV.UK\"." ], [ "Events", "Free Software events happening all around the world connects people to increase visibility for Free software projects and foster collaborations." ], [ "Economics", "The free software movement has been extensively analyzed using economic methodologies, including perspectives from heterodox economics.", "Of particular interest to economists is the willingness of programmers in the free software movement to work, .In his 1998 article \"The High-Tech Gift Economy\", Richard Barbrook suggested that the then-nascent free software movement represented a return to the gift economy building on hobbyism and the absence of economic scarcity on the internet.Gabriella Coleman has emphasized the importance of accreditation, respect, and honour within the free software community as a form of compensation for contributions to projects, over and against financial motivations.The Swedish Marxian economist Johan Söderberg has argued that the free software movement represents a complete alternative to capitalism that may be expanded to create a post-work society.", "He argues that the combination of a manipulation of intellectual property law and private property to make goods available to the public and a thorough blend between labor and fun make the free software movement a communist economy." ], [ "Subgroups and schisms", "Since its inception, there is an ongoing contention between the many FLOSS organizations (FSF, OSI, Debian, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Foundation, etc.)", "within the free software movement, with the main conflicts centered around the organization's needs for compromise and pragmatism rather than adhering to founding values and philosophies.=== Open source ===The Open Source Initiative (OSI) was founded in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens to promote the term \"open-source software\" as an alternative term for free software.", "The OSI aimed to address the perceived shortcomings and ambiguity of the term \"free software\", as well as shifting the focus of free software from a social and ethical issue to instead emphasize open source as a superior model for software development.", "The latter became the view of Eric Raymond and Linus Torvalds, while Bruce Perens argued that open source was meant to popularize free software under a new brand and called for a return to basic ethical principles.Some free software advocates use the terms \"Free and Open-Source Software\" (FOSS) or \"Free/Libre and Open-Source Software\" (FLOSS) as a form of inclusive compromise, which brings free and open-source software advocates together to work on projects cohesively.", "Some users believe this is an ideal solution in order to promote both the user's freedom with the software and the pragmatic efficiency of an open-source development model.", "This view is reinforced by fact that majority of OSI-approved licenses and self-avowed open-source programs are also compatible with the free software formalisms and vice versa.While free and open source software are often linked together, they offer two separate ideas and values.", "Richard Stallman has referred to open source as \"''a non-movement''\", as it \"''does not campaign for anything''\".", "\"Open source\" addresses software being open as a practical question rather than an ethical dilemma – non-free software is not the best solution but nonetheless a solution.", "The free software movement views free software as a moral imperative: that proprietary software should be rejected, and that only free software should be developed and taught in order to make computing technology beneficial to the general public.Although the movements have differing values and goals, collaborations between the Free Software Movement and Open Source Initiative have taken place when it comes to practical projects.", "By 2005, Richard Glass considered the differences to be a \"serious fracture\" but \"vitally important to those on both sides of the fracture\" and \"of little importance to anyone else studying the movement from a software engineering perspective\" since they have had \"little effect on the field\"." ], [ "Criticism and controversy", "=== Principle compromises ===Eric Raymond criticises the speed at which the free software movement is progressing, suggesting that temporary compromises should be made for long-term gains.", "Raymond argues that this could raise awareness of the software and thus increase the free software movement's influence on relevant standards and legislation.Richard Stallman, on the other hand, sees the current level of compromise as a greater cause for worry.=== Programmer income ===Stallman said that this is where people get the misconception of \"free\": there is no wrong in programmers' requesting payment for a proposed project, or charging for copies of free software.", "Restricting and controlling the user's decisions on use is the actual violation of freedom.", "Stallman defends that in some cases, monetary incentive is not necessary for motivation since the pleasure in expressing creativity is a reward in itself.", "Conversely, Stallman admits that it is not easy to raise money for free software projects.=== \"Viral\" copyleft licensing ===The free software movement champions copyleft licensing schema (often pejoratively called \"viral licenses\").", "In its strongest form, copyleft mandates that any works ''derived'' from copyleft-licensed software must also carry a copyleft license, so the license spreads from work to work like a computer virus might spread from machine to machine.", "Stallman has previously stated his opposition to describing the GNU GPL as \"viral\".", "These licensing terms can only be enforced through asserting copyrights.Critics of copyleft licensing challenge the idea that restricting modifications is in line with the free software movement's emphasis on various \"freedoms\", especially when alternatives like MIT, BSD, and Apache licenses are more permissive.", "Proponents enjoy the assurance that copylefted work cannot usually be incorporated into non-free software projects.", "They emphasize that copyleft licenses may not attach for all uses and that in any case, developers can simply choose not to use copyleft-licensed software.=== License proliferation and compatibility ===FLOSS license proliferation is a serious concern in the FLOSS domain due to increased complexity of license compatibility considerations which limits and complicates source code reuse between FLOSS projects.", "The OSI and the FSF maintain their own lists of dozens of existing and acceptable FLOSS licenses.", "There is an agreement among most that the creation of new licenses should be minimized and those created should be made compatible with the major existing FLOSS licenses.", "Therefore, there was a strong controversy around the update of the GNU GPLv2 to the GNU GPLv3 in 2007, as the updated license is not compatible with the previous version.", "Several projects (mostly of the open source faction like the Linux kernel) decided to not adopt the GPLv3 while almost all of the GNU project's packages adopted it." ], [ "See also", "* GNU Manifesto* History of free software* Linux adoption* Open-source movement* Free-culture movement* Free Software Foundation* Open Source Initiative* Software Freedom Conservancy* Free Software Movement of India* Free Software Foundation of India* Free Software Foundation Europe* Free Software Movement Karnataka* Free Software Foundation Tamil Nadu* Swecha* Gift economy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * David M. Berry, ''Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source'', Pluto Press, 2008, * Johan Söderberg, ''Hacking Capitalism: The Free and Open Source Software Movement'', Routledge, 2007," ], [ "External links", "* The Free Software Movement and the Future of Freedom, a 2006 lecture by Richard Stallman* Free Software Movement intro by FSF* The GNU Project Philosophy Directory, containing many defining documents of the free software movement* An interview with Stallman, \"Free Software as a social movement\"* Christian Imhorst, ''Anarchy and Source Code - What does the Free Software Movement have to do with Anarchism?", "'', 2005" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Food" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=Table set with red meat, bread, pasta, vegetables, fruit, fish, and beans'''Food''' is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support.", "Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals.", "The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.", "Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill a specific ecological niche within specific geographical contexts.Omnivorous humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems.", "Humans generally use cooking to prepare food for consumption.", "The majority of the food energy required is supplied by the industrial food industry, which produces food through intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems.", "This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels, which means that the food and agricultural systems are one of the major contributors to climate change, accounting for as much as 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions.The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including sustainability, biological diversity, economics, population growth, water supply, and food security.", "Food safety and security are monitored by international agencies like the International Association for Food Protection, the World Resources Institute, the World Food Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Food Information Council." ], [ "Definition and classification", "A typical aquatic food webFood is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support and energy to an organism.", "It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure.", "Food is mainly composed of water, lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.", "Minerals (e.g., salts) and organic substances (e.g., vitamins) can also be found in food.", "Plants, algae, and some microorganisms use photosynthesis to make some of their own nutrients.", "Water is found in many foods and has been defined as a food by itself.", "Water and fiber have low energy densities, or calories, while fat is the most energy-dense component.", "Some inorganic (non-food) elements are also essential for plant and animal functioning.Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed.", "The number and composition of food groups can vary.", "Most systems include four basic groups that describe their origin and relative nutritional function: Vegetables and Fruit, Cereals and Bread, Dairy, and Meat.", "Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains/cereals, refined grains/cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages.", "The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization use a system with nineteen food classifications: cereals, roots, pulses and nuts, milk, eggs, fish and shellfish, meat, insects, vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, sweets and sugars, spices and condiments, beverages, foods for nutritional uses, food additives, composite dishes and savoury snacks." ], [ "Food sources", "Haber-Bosch reactors like this produce most of the planet's fixed nitrogen, a requirement for life.", "In a given ecosystem, food forms a web of interlocking chains with primary producers at the bottom and apex predators at the top.", "Other aspects of the web include detrovores (that eat detritis) and decomposers (that break down dead organisms).", "Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight.", "Primary consumers are the herbivores that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are the carnivores that consume those herbivores.", "Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diet consists of both animals and plants, and they are considered omnivores.", "The chain ends with the apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem.", "Humans are considered apex predators.Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed.", "Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.", "Corn (maize), wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.", "Just over half of the world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent for biofuels.", "Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation of fermented foods like bread, wine, cheese and yogurt.===Bacteria===Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritious ammonia.", "Ammonia is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins.", "Since the advent of industrial process for nitrogen fixation, the Haber-Bosch Process, the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made.===Plants===Foods from plant sourcesPhotosynthesis is the source of most energy and food for nearly all life on earth.", "Photosynthesis is one main source of biomass, the food for plants, algae and certain bacteria and, indirectly, organisms higher in the food chain.", "Energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose.", "The oxygen is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve.Plants also absorb important nutrients and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil.", "Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from the air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival.", "The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel.Plants as a food source are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts.", "Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables.", "Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the reproductive tissue, so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit.", "From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed.", "Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to the Poaceae (grass) family and pulses coming from the Fabaceae (legume) family.", "Whole grains are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and endosperm).", "Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as stone fruits (cherries and peaches), pome fruits (apples, pears), berries (blackberry, strawberry), citrus (oranges, lemon), melons (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), tropical fruits (banana, pineapple).", "Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself.", "These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce) and stem vegetables (celery and asparagus).The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable.", "Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars.", "Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with exceptions of vitamin D and vitamin B12.Minerals can also be plentiful or not.", "Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of simple sugars that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high vitamin C content.", "Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch, potassium, dietary fiber, folate and vitamins and low in fat and calories.", "Grains are more starch based and nuts have a high protein, fibre, vitamin E and B content.", "Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fibre and healthful fats, such as omega-3 fats.", "Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients.", "Phytates can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores, with those that mostly just eat fruits known as frugivores, leaves, while shoot eaters are folivores (pandas) and wood eaters termed xylophages (termites).", "Frugivores include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds.", "About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit.", "Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of angiosperms, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten.", "Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted.", "Oilseeds are pressed to produce rich oils⁣sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil) and sesame.Many plants and animals have coevolved in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition to the animal who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal.", "Even seed predation can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process.", "Insects are major eaters of seeds, with ants being the only real seed dispersers.", "Birds, although being major dispersers, only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat.", "Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.===Animals===Various raw meatsAnimals are used as food either directly or indirectly.", "This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese.", "They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs.", "One steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein.", "One large egg has 7 grams of protein.", "A serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein.", "And 1 cup of milk has about 8 grams of protein.", "Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.).", "Eggs laid by birds and other animals are eaten and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures.", "Some cultures consume blood, such as in blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare." ], [ "Taste", "Animals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.", "The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain harmful toxins.", "As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable, although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable.", "Water, while important for survival, has no taste.Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose.", "Sourness is caused by acids, such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages.", "Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons and limes.", "Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria.", "Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium.", "It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor.", "Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant characterised by having a sharp, pungent taste.", "Unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter.", "Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats.", "Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.Catfish have millions of taste buds covering their entire body.While most animals taste buds are located in their mouth, some insects taste receptors are located on their legs and some fish have taste buds along their entire body.", "Dogs, cats and birds have relatively few taste buds (chickens have about 30), adult humans have between 2000 and 4000, while catfish can have more than a million.", "Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous.", "Not all mammals share the same tastes: some rodents can taste starch, cats cannot taste sweetness, and several carnivores (including hyenas, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans." ], [ "Digestion", "Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive process.", "Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (chewing, peristalsis) and chemical processes (digestive enzymes and microorganisms).", "The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest.", "Carnivores mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores.", "Herbivores however have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants." ], [ "Food safety", "According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick and 420,000 die each year from eating contaminated food.", "Diarrhea is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year.", "Children under 5 years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes.", "According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.From 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year.", "In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.In Vietnam, from 2011 to 2016, there were 7 foodborne diseases reported with 4,012,038 cases of illness, including 123 deaths." ], [ "See also", "* Food pairing" ], [ "References", "===Further reading===* Collingham, E.M. (2011).", "''The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food''* Katz, Solomon (2003).", "''The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture'', Scribner* Mobbs, Michael (2012).", "''Sustainable Food'' Sydney: NewSouth Publishing, * Nestle, Marion (2007).", "''Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health'', University Presses of California, revised and expanded edition, * The Future of Food (2015).", "A panel discussion at the 2015 ''Digital Life Design (DLD)'' Annual Conference.", "\"How can we grow and enjoy food, closer to home, further into the future?", "''MIT Media Lab's'' Kevin Slavin hosts a conversation with food artist, educator, and entrepreneur Emilie Baltz, professor Caleb Harper from ''MIT Media Lab's'' CityFarm project, the Barbarian Group's Benjamin Palmer, and Andras Forgacs, the co-founder and CEO of ''Modern Meadow'', who is growing 'victimless' meat in a lab.", "The discussion addresses issues of sustainable urban farming, ecosystems, technology, food supply chains and their broad environmental and humanitarian implications, and how these changes in food production may change what people may find delicious ... and the other way around.\"", "Posted on the official YouTube Channel of ''DLD''" ], [ "External links", "* *** * of Food Timeline* Food, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Rebecca Spang, Ivan Day and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto (''In Our Time'', 27 December 2001)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Floating Point" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Floating Point''''' is an album by John McLaughlin, released in 2008 through the record label Abstract Logix.", "The album reached number fourteen on ''Billboard'''s Top Jazz Albums chart.Regarding the recording, McLaughlin commented: \"while this CD features predominantly Indian musicians, we are in quite another form compared to the group Shakti...", "The music is for the most part 'Jazz-Fusion' if a label has to be put on it.", "But with the musicians involved in this project, it has also a 'world' kind of atmosphere.\"", "Concerning the album title, McLaughlin remarked: \"Every now and then a group of musicians will gel together in such an incredible way, and at that point it's like you lose normal gravity... you've got your own gravity happening and you're kind of like floating with the other guys.\"" ], [ "Reception", "Michael G. Nastos of AllMusic called the album \"a surprisingly fine effort, ebbing and flowing from track to track, with McLaughlin's high-level musicianship shining through, same as it ever was.", "\"In a 5-star review for DownBeat, Ken Micallef commented: \"this brilliant collective plays as asingle unit, not a band of hired studio guns...", "This is a case of Indian musicians using their extraordinary skills to explore U.S. fusion, giving the now 70-year-old guitarist an amazing platform for compositional/improvisational development.", "This is a landmark recording, marked by detail, subtlety and extraordinarily moving performances.", "\"John Kelman in All About Jazz wrote \"One of the most fluent, evocative and powerful albums in a career filled with high points,\" and concluded: \"McLaughlin's Indian friends may not have jazz in their blood the way it is in the guitarist's, but by approaching unmistakably western-informed music with an eastern mindset, they make ''Floating Point'' an album that, in McLaughlin's lengthy discography, is one of his most successful fusion records\".Writing for The Guardian, John Fordham awarded the album 5 stars, and stated: \"this boiling new set sounds as if it's driven at least as much by cutting-edge Indian crossover musicians as by McLaughlin himself... this is 99% an absolute cracker, and not just for guitar nuts either.\"" ], [ "Track listing" ], [ "Personnel", "* John McLaughlin – guitar synthesizer, guitar (2, 4, 6, 8)* Hadrien Feraud – bass guitar* Louis Banks – keyboards* Ranjit Barot – drums* Sivamani – percussion, konokol (6)* George Brooks – soprano saxophone (1)* Debashish Bhattacharya – Hindustani slide guitar (2)* Shashank Subramanyam – bamboo flute (4)* Shankar Mahadevan – voice (5)* U. Rajesh – electric mandolin (6)* Naveen Kumar – bamboo flute (7)* Niladri Kumar – sitar (8)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fantasy sport" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''fantasy sport''' (also known less commonly as '''rotisserie''' or '''roto''') is a game, often played using the Internet, where participants assemble imaginary or virtual teams composed of proxies of real players of a professional sport.", "These teams compete based on the statistical performance of those players in actual games.", "This performance is converted into points that are compiled and totaled according to a roster selected by each fantasy team's manager.", "These point systems can be simple enough to be manually calculated by a \"league commissioner\" who coordinates and manages the overall league, or points can be compiled and calculated using computers tracking actual results of the professional sport.", "In fantasy sports, as in real sports team owners draft, trade, and cut (drop) players." ], [ "History", "===Early simulations===The history of fantasy games can be traced to the 19th century.", "The tabletop game ''Sebring Parlor Base Ball'', introduced in 1866, allowed participants to simulate games by propelling a coin into slots on a wooden board.", "Later games featured outcomes determined by dice rolls or spinners.", "In 1930, Clifford Van Beek designed the board game ''National Pastime'', which contained customized baseball cards of Major League Baseball (MLB) players.", "After rolling a pair of dice, participants would consult the card of the MLB player \"at bat\" to determine an outcome, which could range from a single, double, triple, or home run to a strikeout, putout, walk, or error.", "Players with better statistics in the previous season were more likely to receive favorable outcomes; this allowed ''National Pastime'' to become one of the first games to try to simulate the performances of real-life MLB players.An example of such games was APBA, which was first released in 1951 and also contained cards of MLB players with in-game outcomes correlated to their stats from past seasons.", "Participants could compose fantasy teams from the cards and play against each other or recreate previous seasons using the statistics on the cards.", "Individual player cards and dice roll simulations were also emulated in the Strat-O-Matic game, which was first released in 1961.Daniel Okrent, who would later be credited with developing modern fantasy baseball, was an avid Strat-O-Matic player, telling ''Sports Illustrated'' in 2011 that \"if there hadn't been Strat-O-Matic, I still think I would have come up with rotisserie, but unquestionably it helped.", "\"In 1961, another early form of fantasy baseball was coded for the IBM 1620 computer by John Burgeson, then working for IBM.", "A user would select a team from a limited roster of retired players to play against a team randomly chosen by the computer.", "The computer would then use random number generation and player statistics to simulate a game's outcome and print a play-by-play description of it.While some of these fantasy games produced outcomes based on the performances of real athletes, they were not designed to be played out over the course of a season, nor did they take current statistics into account, relying instead on those from previous years.===The first leagues===In the 1950s, Oakland, California businessman and future limited partner in the Oakland Raiders Wilfred \"Bill\" Winkenbach developed a fantasy golf game in which participants would select a roster of professional golfers and compare their scores at the end of a given tournament, with the lowest combined total of strokes winning.", "He also created a baseball game in which players drafted hitters and pitchers, comparing their real-life statistics against each other.", "These early experiments, however, failed to spread to the general public.In 1960, sociologist William A. Gamson developed the Baseball Seminar league, in which participants would draft rosters of active MLB players and compare results at the end of the season based on the players' final batting averages, earned run averages, runs batted in, and win totals.", "Gamson would go on to play the game as a professor at the University of Michigan, where another competitor was Bob Sklar.", "One of Sklar's students was Daniel Okrent.", "According to Alan Schwarz's ''The Numbers Game: Baseball’s Lifelong Fascination with Statistics'', Sklar told Okrent about the Baseball Seminar league.Two years later, in a New York City hotel room during a 1962 Raiders cross-country trip, Winkenbach, along with Raiders public relations employee Bill Tunnel and ''Oakland Tribune'' reporter Scotty Stirling, developed the rules that would eventually be the basis of modern fantasy football.", "The inaugural league was called the Greater Oakland Professional Pigskin Prognosticators League (GOPPPL), and the first draft took place at Winkenbach's home in Oakland in August 1963.One of the league's original members, Andy Mousalimas, owned a sports bar in Oakland called the King's X, where the first public fantasy football league was founded in 1969.The idea spread by word of mouth when the patrons of other Bay Area bars visited the King's X for trivia contests.===Rotisserie League Baseball===Modern fantasy baseball was developed and popularized in the 1980s by a group of journalists who created Rotisserie League Baseball in 1980.The league was named after the New York City restaurant La Rotisserie Française, where its founders met for lunch and first played the game.", "Magazine writer-editor Daniel Okrent is credited with introducing the rotisserie league concept to the group and inventing the scoring system.", "Players in the Rotisserie League drafted teams of active MLB players and tracked their statistics during the season to compile their scores.", "Like the Baseball Seminar league, rather than using statistics for seasons whose outcomes were already known to simulate in-game outcomes, team owners would have to make predictions about the statistics that MLB players would accumulate during the upcoming season.Rotisserie baseball, nicknamed ''roto'', proved to be popular despite the difficulties of compiling statistics by hand, which was an early drawback to participation.", "Okrent credits the idea's rapid spread to the fact that the initial league was created by sports journalists, telling ''Vanity Fair'' in 2008 that \"most of us in the league were in the media, and we got a lot of press coverage that first season.", "The second season, there were rotisserie leagues in every Major League press box.\"", "According to Okrent, rotisserie baseball afforded sportswriters the opportunity to write about baseball-related material during the 1981 Major League Baseball strike, saying \"the writers who were covering baseball had nothing to write about, so they began writing about the teams they had assembled in their own leagues.", "And that was what popularized it and spread it around very, very widely.", "\"===Growth and early participants===Before the advent of the Internet, fantasy sports grew through print publications, such as magazines and newspapers.", "In 1987, ''Fantasy Football Index'', the first national magazine dedicated to fantasy football, was launched by Ian Allan and Bruce Taylor.", "''Fantasy Sports Magazine'' debuted in 1989 as the first regular publication covering more than one fantasy sport.In 1990, a pair of nationwide fantasy games, Dugout Derby and Pigskin Playoff, were launched in a variety of newspapers across the United States, including the ''Arizona Republic'', the ''Hartford Courant'', the ''Los Angeles Times'', and the ''Miami Herald''.", "Players chose their teams by calling a toll-free phone number and entering four-digit codes for each of their player selections.", "The games served as an early version of today's daily fantasy sports by rewarding each week's highest-scoring participants with prizes.In 1993, the magazine ''Fantasy Football Weekly'' was launched.", "Also that year, ''USA Today'' added a weekly fantasy baseball columnist, John Hunt.", "Hunt started a league among sports personalities called the League of Alternate Baseball Reality, which first included Peter Gammons, Keith Olbermann and Bill James, among others.===Internet expansion===The growth of the Internet during the 1990s brought a \"broad demographic shift in fantasy sports participation\" because it enabled fantasy sports participants to instantaneously download tabulated statistics, rather than having to search for box scores of individual games in newspapers and keep track of cumulative statistics on paper.In 1995, ESPN launched its first entirely Internet-based fantasy baseball game, with other major sports and entertainment companies following suit in the ensuing years.", "In October of that year, a fantasy hockey website was released by Molson Breweries as part of the company's \"I am Online\" marketing strategy centered around its I am Canadian advertising campaign.", "The site focused on music, entertainment and hockey in general in addition to fantasy competitions.", "It allowed users to register accounts and participate in fantasy leagues of nine teams.", "The site included updates of National Hockey League (NHL) statistics and provided content from the Hockey Hall of Fame.CBS Sports began offering fantasy football leagues in 1997, the same year that the fantasy news website now known as RotoWire was launched.", "In July 1999, Yahoo began offering its fantasy football product for free, a decision that gave the site an advantage over its competitors.", "The creators of ''Fantasy Football Weekly'' launched Fanball.com later that year.", "While some sites abandoned a paid model in the wake of Yahoo's decision, some smaller sites, such as RotoWire, began offering paid products as they started losing business to larger competitors.", "CBS, which had transitioned to a free model for its league commissioner services, switched back to a paid model before the 2002 MLB season.A trade group for the industry, the Fantasy Sports Trade Association, was formed in 1998.Now known as the Fantasy Sports & Gaming Association (FSGA), the organization estimates that in 2003, there were 15.2 million fantasy sports players in the United States and Canada.During the first decade of the 2000s, fantasy sports started to become a mainstream hobby.", "In 2002, the National Football League (NFL) found that while the average male surveyed on its website spent 6.6 hours a week watching the league on television, fantasy players surveyed said they watched 8.4 hours of NFL football per week.", "\"This is the first time we've been able to demonstrate specifically that fantasy play drives TV viewing,\" said Chris Russo, the NFL's senior vice president at the time.", "As a result of the survey's findings, the league made fantasy offerings more prominent on its website and produced television ads for fantasy football featuring active players.", "Prior to these developments, fantasy sports were largely viewed negatively by major sports leagues, with Russo later recalling that \"there were concerns about whether it would be right for the fans or could it be construed as gambling.\"", "However, leagues began to embrace fantasy sports as their value towards increasing fans' consumption of sports became more evident.====Daily fantasy sports====Daily fantasy sports are accelerated versions of the traditional fantasy format in which contests are conducted over shorter periods than a full season, often lasting one week or even a single day.", "Daily fantasy games are typically subject to an entry fee, a portion of which funds a prize pool that is distributed among the game's winner or winners.In June 2007, Fantasy Sports Live, one of the first daily fantasy sites, was launched.", "In November 2008, NBC launched a daily fantasy site called SnapDraft, and FanDuel was founded in 2009 as a spin-off of a Scottish prediction market company.", "DraftKings was founded in 2012.Following venture capital investments from various firms, including from professional sports leagues such as MLB and the National Basketball Association (NBA), DraftKings and FanDuel launched an aggressive marketing campaign prior to the 2015 NFL season.", "At its peak, the two companies collectively ran an ad on national television in the United States once every 90 seconds.", "In addition to receiving direct investments from sports leagues, the two companies have reached sponsorship deals with several leagues and teams.", "In November 2014, DraftKings entered into a multi-year sponsorship deal with the NHL.", "In April 2015, after the NFL began to allow daily fantasy providers to sign multi-year team sponsorship deals, FanDuel reached deals with sixteen teams for placements on team-oriented digital properties, radio broadcasts, and within their stadiums.", "DraftKings has also received investments from Jerry Jones and Robert Kraft, who own the Dallas Cowboys and New England Patriots, respectively.The legality of daily fantasy sports has been questioned, with critics arguing that they more closely resemble proposition wagering on athlete performance than a traditional fantasy sports game.", "However, following the 2018 United States Supreme Court decision in ''Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association'', which allowed states to legalize sports betting, questions surrounding the legality of daily fantasy sports, as well as fantasy sports in general, within the United States have largely been settled.As of May 2023, while 33 US states have operational legalized sports betting, 45 states have legalized daily fantasy sports.", "As of May 2023, DraftKings and FanDuel operate daily fantasy contests in 44 states each.", "Only one state, Montana, has officially banned online fantasy sports." ], [ "Industry overview", "===Size of the industry===In May 2015, Australian market research firm IBISWorld reported that fantasy sports comprised a $2 billion industry in the United States, experiencing 10.7% annual growth and employing 4,386 people in 292 businesses.According to the Fantasy Sports Trade Association, in 2016, the size of the fantasy sports industry reached $7.22 billion, per research by Ipsos.", "The study estimated that there were 59.3 million fantasy sports players in the United States and Canada as of 2016.===Industry growth===The Fantasy Sports & Gaming Association estimates that the number of fantasy sports players in the US and Canada grew from 500,000 in 1988 to 15.2 million in 2003, declining slightly over the next few years before growing to 29.9 million in 2008 and 59.3 million in 2017.In 2015, ''Forbes'' estimated that the number of yearly non-betting fantasy sports users had grown 25% since 2011.This growth encouraged hundreds of millions of dollars in investments into emerging daily fantasy sports leagues, such as FanDuel and DraftKings.Outside of North America, the fantasy industry has also experienced a recent period of growth.", "The development of daily fantasy sports has encouraged growth in European markets.", "ESPN Super Selector launched in 2001 for fantasy cricket and had 500,000 users during the 2003 Cricket World Cup.", "By 2017, there were 40 million fantasy sports players in India.", "In 2019, the number had grown to 90 million, and in 2020, an estimated 100 million Indians participated in fantasy sports.", "The market leader in fantasy sports in India, Dream11, signed a four year sponsorship deal for the IPL in 2019.Fantasy Sports User Growth===Trade associations===The Fantasy Sports Trade Association was formed in 1998 to represent the growing industry in the United States and Canada.", "Now known as the Fantasy Sports & Gaming Association, the organization aims to support fantasy sports, sports gambling in general, and its associated businesses and participants.The Fantasy Sports Writers Association was formed in 2004 to represent the growing numbers of journalists covering fantasy sports exclusively.", "The Fantasy Sports Association was formed in 2006 as a rival trade group.", "However, the organization folded in 2010.===Demographics===According to the Fantasy Sports & Gaming Association (FSGA), of the 59.3 million people who played fantasy sports in the US and Canada in 2017, 43.2 million were American adults.", "In 2019, 45.9 million American adults participated.", "The FSGA estimated that 19% of American adults played fantasy sports in 2019, compared to 13% in 2014.A 2019 FSGA survey found that 81% of fantasy sports players were male, 50% were between the ages of 18 and 34 (with an average age of 37.7), 67% were employed full-time, and 47% made more than $75,000 per year.", "A 2015 analysis found that 89.8% were white and 51.5% were unmarried.According to the FSGA, the most popular fantasy sport in the US and Canada is gridiron football, which is played by approximately 78% of fantasy participants.", "The next most popular sports are baseball (39%), basketball (19%), ice hockey (18%), and association football (14%).Research has shown that fantasy players are also generally stronger consumers alcoholic beverages, fast food, airline travel, video games, sports periodicals, athletic shoes, and cell phones relative to the general population.", "The FSGA reported in 2019 that fantasy players were also far more likely to use Instagram or Snapchat, visit a sports bar, and get food delivered than the general population.===Fantasy sports television programming===Due to the popularity of fantasy sports, major sports networks such as ESPN, NFL Network, and Fox Sports have created dedicated weekly fantasy programming to analyze player performance and predict outcomes in relation to particular scoring systems.", "ESPN's on-demand streaming platform ESPN+ offers a fantasy program called ''The Fantasy Show'' hosted by long time staff writer Matthew Berry.", "''The Fantasy Show'' utilizes puppets and comedy to present statistical information about NFL players.", "ESPN also aires a show on Sunday mornings during the NFL season called Fantasy Football Now.", "\"Fantasy Football Now\" airs live on Sunday mornings during the NFL season, a time when fans are making last-minute roster moves and need the latest news from around the league.", "Providing the latest info are analysts Matthew Berry, Field Yates and licensed physical therapist Stephania Bell, who gives injury updates.", "NFL Network aires ''NFL Fantasy Live'' as an hour long program containing a consistent weekly segment list that viewers can count on to help them manage their team.", "''NFL Fantasy Live'' is hosted by Cole Wright and features Michael Fabiano, Adam Rank, Marcas Grant, Akbar Gbaja-Biamila, Graham Barfield and statistics analytics expert Cynthia Frelund.", "Fox Sports Net aires Fantasy Football Hour on a weekly basis during the NFL season hosted by Katy Winge and features industry experts Brad Evans and Nate Lundy." ], [ "Legal issues in the United States", "Fantasy sports are generally considered to be a form of gambling, though they are far less strictly regulated than other forms of sports betting.", "Unlike traditional sports betting, fantasy sports are generally viewed as \"games of skill,\" rather than \"games of chance,\" thus exempting them from gambling bans and regulations in many jurisdictions.===Federal law related to fantasy gaming===The Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 (UIGEA), was enacted as part of the \"American Values Agenda\" of 2006 and was added as an amendment to the unrelated SAFE Port Act.", "The UIGEA generally prohibits funds transfers to businesses engaged in unlawful internet wagering.", "However the UIGEA does not itself define unlawful internet wagering, and expressly refrains from altering the legality of any underlying conduct other than funds transfers.While the act does not alter the legality of any particular activity permitted or prohibited under other laws, it does contain some express exemptions to its funds transfer prohibitions.", "One of these exemptions from the UIGEA prohibitions is for fantasy sports that meet certain criteria.", "Specifically, fantasy sports that are based on teams of real multiple athletes from multiple real world teams, that have prizes established before the event starts, that use the skill of participants to determine the outcome, are exempted from the definition of a bet or wager that is the basis for requiring banks to identify and block funds transfers.", "According to Congressman Jim Leach, an author of the UIGEA, exemptions, particularly one for fantasy sports, were included to relieve the burden of enforcement on banks and the UIGEA does not make fantasy sports legal.Because the UIGEA exempted fantasy sports from its definition of a bet or wager, there is a misconception that fantasy sports were made legal by the UIGEA.", "However the UIGEA is not a criminal gambling statute, and it specifically does not alter any criminal gambling laws and thus does not make fantasy sports legal.", "Federal criminal gambling statutes are found in Title 18 of U.S. Code, such as the Federal Wire Act 18 U.S. Code § 1084 (which prohibits interstate sports wagering) and the Illegal Gambling Business Act 18 U.S. Code § 1955 (which prohibits the interstate conduct of wagering activity prohibited under state law).", "By contrast, the UIGEA is found in Title 31 with other anti-money laundering and financial crimes statutes.===State laws related to fantasy gaming===Whether state laws can regulate fantasy sports conducted across state lines depends on whether fantasy sports are a form of sports wagering under federal law.", "This is because the Federal Wire Act prohibits the conduct of sports wagering in interstate or foreign commerce.", "With regard to intrastate sports wagering, in 2018 the United States Supreme Court in ''Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association'' struck down the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act, which had prohibited states from authorizing any wagering, lottery, betting, sweepstakes or other wagering scheme that is based directly or indirectly on games in which professional or amateur athletes participate or on the performance of any athletes in such games.Where states have not expressly authorized fantasy sports contests, usually general gambling laws prohibit lotteries or wagering if three elements are present: an entry fee (known as \"consideration\"), a prize (a \"reward,\" in legal terms) and chance.", "Whether fantasy sports are legal under these laws hinges on the definition of \"chance\" that the state applies.", "For some states, if skill dominates the outcome of the event, then the contest is legal, and passes what is called the \"dominant factor test.\"", "Other states with a stricter definition of chance, called \"any chance test,\" have made fantasy football illegal.Several states have clarified that paid fantasy sports contests are games of skill and exempt from gambling laws, beginning with Maryland in 2012.One exception is the state of Nevada, which has an exemption in PASPA to allow for sports betting.", "The Nevada attorney general issued an opinion that found Daily Fantasy Sports to be a form of sports wagering, similar to the current wagering offered by Nevada Sports Books.", "The opinions states that Daily Fantasy Sports are not illegal in Nevada; however, a sports pool license is required to conduct the activity in Nevada.Several Attorneys General have also issued opinions that Daily Fantasy Sports are a form of sports wagering.", "A Florida state attorney general's opinion in 1991 called into doubt the legality of fantasy football contests, but companies have operated in the state without any legal action.", "Since then nine other AGs have issued options, statements or formal opinions that equate DFS with gambling.However, several other Attorneys General have issued opinions that DFS are legal games of skill.", "In August 2015 in Kansas, due to uncertainty with the state's Racing and Gaming Commission position, the state's attorney general issued an opinion that daily fantasy sports was a skill game and thus permitted under state law.", "Kansas Gov.", "Sam Brownback signed legislation a month later authorizing fantasy gaming.", "The Attorneys General of West Virginia and Rhode Island have also issued opinions that clarified the legality of DFS and paid fantasy sports.As of January 2022, online fantasy sports are legal in 49 of the 50 US states.", "The only state with a ban on online fantasy sports that is codified in statute is Montana.", "As of January 2022, daily fantasy sports are legal in 45 US states, with 23 of those states explicitly passing legislation legalizing the practice.===Legal cases related to use of player statistics===There have been other legal cases involving fantasy sports and the use of professional athletes' statistics for purposes of scoring.====STATS, Inc. vs. NBA====In 1996, STATS, Inc., a major statistical provider to fantasy sports companies, won a court case, along with Motorola, on appeal against the NBA in which the NBA was trying to stop STATS from distributing in game score information via a special wireless device created by Motorola.", "The victory played a large part in defending other cases where sports leagues have tried to suppress live in-game information from their events being distributed by other outlets.", "The victory also accelerated the demand for real-time statistics amid the growth of the fantasy sports industry.====CDM vs. MLBAM====The development of fantasy sports produced tension between fantasy sports companies and professional leagues and players associations over the rights to player profiles and statistics.", "The players associations of the major sports leagues believed that fantasy games using player names were subject to licensing due to the right of publicity of the players involved.", "Since the player names were being used as a group, the players had assigned their publicity rights to the players association who then signed licensing deals.", "During the 1980s and 1990s many companies signed licensing deals with the player associations, but some companies did not.", "The issue came to a head with the lawsuit of Major League Baseball Advanced Media (MLBAM), MLB's Internet company, vs. St. Louis-based CBC Distribution and Marketing Inc., the parent company of CDM Sports.", "When CBC was denied a new licensing agreement with MLBAM (they had acquired the rights from the baseball players' association) for its fantasy baseball game, CBC filed suit.CBC argued that intellectual property laws and so-called \"right of publicity\" laws don't apply to the statistics used in fantasy sports.", "The FSTA filed an amicus curiae in support of CBC, also arguing that if MLBAM won the lawsuit it would have a dramatic impact on the industry, which was largely ignored by the major sports leagues for years while a number of smaller entrepreneurs grew it into a multibillion-dollar industry, and a ruling could allow the MLBAM to have a monopoly over the industry.", "\"This will be a defining moment in the fantasy sports industry,\" said Charlie Wiegert, executive vice president of CBC.", "\"The other leagues are all watching this case.", "If MLB prevailed, it just would have been a matter of time before they followed up.", "Their player unions are just waiting for the opportunity.", "\"CBC won the lawsuit as US District Court Judge Mary Ann Medler ruled that statistics are part of the public domain and can be used at no cost by fantasy companies.", "\"The names and playing records of major-league baseball players as used in CBC's fantasy games are not copyrightable,\" Medler wrote.", "\"Therefore, federal copyright law does not pre-empt the players' claimed right of publicity.", "\"The 8th Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the decision in October 2007.", "\"It would be strange law that a person would not have a First Amendment right to use information that is available to everyone,\" a three-judge panel said in its ruling.", "The Supreme Court upheld the circuit court's decision by declining to hear the case in June 2008.In 2009, CBS Interactive won a lawsuit against the NFL Players’ Association over whether CBS had a First Amendment right to use players’ names and playing records in its fantasy sports offerings without paying licensing fees." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * LineStar DFS Fantasy Sports" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Forward pass" ], [ "Introduction", "A quarterback has just released the ball for a forward passIn several forms of football, a '''forward pass''' is the throwing of the ball in the direction in which the offensive team is trying to move, towards the defensive team's goal line.", "The legal and widespread use of the forward pass distinguishes gridiron football (American football and Canadian football) from rugby football (union and league) from which the gridiron code evolved, in which the play is illegal.Illegal and experimental forward passes had been attempted as early as 1876, but the first legal forward pass in American football took place in 1906, after a change in the rules.", "Another rule change on January 18, 1951, established that no center or guard could receive a forward pass, and a tackle may only do so if he announces his intent to the referee beforehand that he will be an eligible receiver, called a tackle-eligible play.", "The only linemen who can receive a forward pass are the ends (tight ends and wide receivers).", "The rules regulate who may throw and who may receive a forward pass, and under what circumstances, as well as how the defensive team may try to prevent a pass from being completed.", "The primary passer is the quarterback, and statistical analysis is used to determine a quarterback's success rate at passing in various situations, as well as a team's overall success at the passing game." ], [ "Gridiron football", "Quarterback Roger Staubach of the Navy Midshipmen throwing a pass against Maryland just as the pocket collapses, 1964In gridiron football, a forward pass is usually referred to simply as a pass, and consists of a player throwing the football towards the opponent's goal line.", "This is permitted only once during a scrimmage down by the offensive team before team possession has changed, provided the pass is thrown from behind the line of scrimmage; a pass is legal as long as some part of the passer's body is behind the line of scrimmage.", "The person passing the ball must be a member of the offensive team, and the recipient of the forward pass must be an eligible receiver and must touch the passed ball before any ineligible player.", "An illegal forward pass can incur a yardage penalty and the loss of a down, although it may be legally intercepted by the opponents and advanced.If an eligible receiver on the passing team legally catches the ball, the pass is completed and the receiver may attempt to advance the ball.", "If an opposing player legally catches the ball – all defensive players are eligible receivers – it is an interception.", "That player's team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his opponent's goal.", "If no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an incomplete pass and the ball becomes dead the moment it touches the ground.", "It will then be returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down.", "If any player interferes with an eligible receiver's ability to catch the ball it is pass interference which draws a penalty of varying degrees, depending upon the particular league's rules.Matt Hasselbeck of Seattle Seahawks dropping back to pass against Green Bay Packers in 2009The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game.", "The pass begins the moment the passer's arm begins to move forward.", "If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a fumble and therefore a loose ball.", "In this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground.", "If the passer drops the ball while his arm is moving forward it is a forward pass, regardless of where the ball lands or is first touched.", "At some levels of play, a video replay may be required for the game's officials to conclusively determine if a play is a fumble or a forward pass.Tom Brady throwing a pass against the Miami Dolphins during 2009 gameThe quarterback generally either starts a few paces behind the line of scrimmage or drops back a few steps after the ball is snapped.", "This places him in an area called the \"pocket\", which is a specific protective region formed by the offensive blockers up front and between the tackles on each side.", "A quarterback who runs out of this pocket is said to be scrambling.", "Under NFL and NCAA rules, once the quarterback moves out of the pocket the ball may be legally thrown away to prevent a sack.", "NFHS (high school) rules do not allow for a passer to intentionally throw an incomplete forward pass to save loss of yardage or conserve time, except for a spike to conserve time after a hand-to-hand snap.", "If he throws the ball away while still in the pocket then a foul called \"intentional grounding\" is assessed.", "In Canadian football the passer must simply throw the ball across the line of scrimmage – whether he is inside or outside of the \"pocket\"—to avoid the foul of \"intentionally grounding\".If a forward pass is caught near a sideline or endline it is a complete pass (or an interception) only if a receiver catches the ball \"in bounds\".", "For a pass to be ruled complete in-bounds, either one or two feet must touch the ground within the field boundaries after the ball is first grasped, depending on the league rules.", "In the NFL the receiver must touch the ground with both feet, but in most other codes – CFL, NCAA and high school – one foot in bounds is sufficient.Common to all gridiron codes is the notion of control: a receiver must demonstrate control of the ball in order to be ruled in \"possession\" of it, while still in bounds.", "If the receiver handles the ball but the official determines that he was still \"bobbling\" it prior to the end of the play, then the pass will be ruled incomplete.", "Similarly, if the receiver fails to continue to control the ball after falling to the ground, the pass may be ruled incomplete.===Early illegal and experimental passes===The forward pass had been attempted at least 30 years before the play was actually made legal.", "Passes \"had been carried out successfully but illegally several times, including the 1876 Yale–Princeton game in which Yale's Walter Camp threw forward to teammate Oliver Thompson as he was being tackled.", "Princeton's protest, one account said, went for naught when the referee 'tossed a coin to make his decision and allowed the touchdown to stand' \".The University of North Carolina used the forward pass in an 1895 game against the University of Georgia.", "However, the play was still illegal at the time.", "Bob Quincy stakes Carolina's claim in his 1973 book ''They Made the Bell Tower Chime'':Georgia Tech v Auburn gameIn a 1905 experimental game at Wichita, Kansas, Washburn University and Fairmount College (what would become Wichita State) used the pass before new rules allowing the play were approved in early 1906.Credit for the first pass goes to Fairmount's Bill Davis, who completed a pass to Art Solter.1905 had been a bloody year on the gridiron; the ''Chicago Tribune'' reported 19 players had been killed and 159 seriously injured that season.", "There were moves to outlaw the game, but United States President Theodore Roosevelt personally intervened and demanded that the rules of the game be reformed.", "In a meeting of more than 60 schools in late 1905, the commitment was made to make the game safer.", "This meeting was the first step toward the establishment of what would become the NCAA and was followed by several sessions to work out \"the new rules.", "\"The final meeting of the Rules Committee tasked with reshaping the game was held on April 6, 1906, at which time the forward pass officially became a legal play.", "''The New York Times'' reported in September 1906 on the rationale for the changes: \"The main efforts of the football reformers have been to 'open up the game'—that is to provide for the natural elimination of the so-called mass plays and bring about a game in which speed and real skill shall supersede so far as possible mere brute strength and force of weight.\"", "However, the ''Times'' also reflected widespread skepticism as to whether the forward pass could be effectively integrated into the game: \"There has been no team that has proved that the forward pass is anything but a doubtful, dangerous play to be used only in the last extremity.\"", "John Heisman was instrumental in the rules' acceptance.In Canadian football, the first exhibition game using a forward pass was held on November 5, 1921, at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, between the McGill Redmen football team and visiting American college football team the Syracuse Orangemen from Syracuse University.", "The game was organized by Frank Shaughnessy, the head coach of McGill.", "McGill player Robert \"Boo\" Anderson is credited with the first forward pass attempt in Canadian football history.The forward pass was not officially allowed in Canadian football until 1929.===First legal pass===Eddie Cochems, \"Father of the Forward Pass\", 1907Most sources credit Saint Louis University's Bradbury Robinson from Bellevue, Ohio with throwing the first legal forward pass.", "On September 5, 1906, in a game against Carroll College, Robinson's first attempt at a forward pass fell incomplete and resulted in a turnover under the 1906 rules.", "In the same game, Robinson later completed a 20-yard touchdown pass to Jack Schneider.", "The 1906 Saint Louis University team, coached by Eddie Cochems, was undefeated at 11–0 and featured the most potent offense in the country, outscoring their opponents 407–11.Football authority and College Football Hall of Fame coach David M. Nelson wrote that \"E. B. Cochems is to forward passing what the Wright brothers are to aviation and Thomas Edison is to the electric light.", "\"While Saint Louis University completed the first legal forward pass in the first half of September, this accomplishment was in part because most schools did not begin their football schedule until early October.In 1952, football coach Amos Alonzo Stagg discounted accounts crediting any particular coach with being the innovator of the forward pass.", "Stagg noted that he had Walter Eckersall working on pass plays and saw Pomeroy Sinnock of Illinois throw many passes in 1906.Stagg summed up his view as follows: \"I have seen statements giving credit to certain people originating the forward pass.", "The fact is that all coaches were working on it.", "The first season, 1906, I personally had sixty-four different forward pass patterns.\"", "In 1954, Stagg disputed Cochems' claim to have invented the forward pass:Stagg asserted that, as far back as 1894, before the rules committee even considered the forward pass, one of his players used to throw the ball \"like a baseball pitcher.", "\"On the other hand, Hall of Fame coach Gus Dorais told the United Press that \"Eddie Cochems of the Saint Louis University team of 1906–07–08 deserves the full credit.\"", "Writing in ''Collier's'' more than 20 years earlier, Dorais' Notre Dame teammate Knute Rockne acknowledged Cochems as the early leader in the use of the pass, observing, \"One would have thought that so effective a play would have been instantly copied and become the vogue.", "The East, however, had not learned much or cared much about Midwest and Western football.", "Indeed, the East scarcely realized that football existed beyond the Alleghanies ...\"Bradbury Robinson, who threw the first legal forward pass in 1906Once the 1906 season got underway, many programs began experimenting with the forward pass.", "On September 26, 1906, Villanova's game against the Carlisle Indians was billed as \"the first real game of football under the new rules.\"", "In the first play from scrimmage after the opening kicks, Villanova completed a pass that \"succeeded in gaining ten yards.\"", "Following the Villanova-Carlisle game, ''The New York Times'' described the new passing game this way:Another coach sometimes credited with popularizing the overhead spiral pass in 1906 is former Princeton All-American \"Bosey\" Reiter.", "Reiter claimed to have invented the overhead spiral pass while playing professional football as a player-coach for Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics of the original National Football League (1902).", "While playing for the Athletics, Reiter was a teammate of Hawley Pierce, a former star for the Carlisle Indian School.", "Pierce, a Native American, taught Reiter to throw an underhand spiral pass, but Reiter had short arms and was unable to throw for distance from an underhand delivery.", "Accordingly, Reiter began working on an overhand spiral pass.", "Reiter recalled trying to imitate the motion of a baseball catcher throwing to second base.", "After practice and experimentation, Reiter \"discovered he could get greater distance and accuracy throwing that way.\"", "In 1906, Reiter was the head coach at Wesleyan University.", "In the opening game of the 1906 season against Yale, Reiter's quarterback Sammy Moore completed a forward pass to Irvin van Tassell for a thirty-yard gain.", "''The New York Times'' called it \"the prettiest play of the day\", as Wesleyan's quarterback \"deftly passed the ball past the whole Yale team to his mate Van Tassel.\"", "Van Tassel later described the historic play to the United Press:The football season opened for most schools during the first week of October, and the impact of the forward pass was immediate:* On October 3, 1906, the ''Des Moines Daily News'' reported \"probably the first use\" of the \"long forward pass\" in the University of Missouri's 23–4 win over Kirksville Normal School.", "* On October 4, 1906, Princeton opened its season with a 22–0 win over Stevens.", "Press accounts indicate that Princeton put the forward pass to good use, as \"old-time football gave way to the new game.", "\"* On October 4, 1906, the Carlisle Indians beat Susquehanna University 40–0, as \"the forward pass was used for a number of good gains.", "\"* On October 4, 1906, Harvard defeated Bowdoin 10–0 \"in a hard-fought contest that was featured by a newfangled and daring forward pass that Crimson worked in the closing minutes of play.", "\"* On October 4, 1906, Williams College defeated the Massachusetts Agricultural College, scoring the game's only touchdown on a forward pass by Waters.Some publications credit Yale All-American Paul Veeder with the \"first forward pass in a major game.\"", "Veeder threw a 20- to 30-yard completion in leading Yale past Harvard 6–0 before 32,000 fans in New Haven on November 24, 1906.However, that Yale/Harvard game was played three weeks after St. Louis completed 45- and 48-yard passes against Kansas before a crowd of 7,000 at Sportsman's Park.===New style of play===Hackett's analysis of St. Louis' passing game against Iowa, ''St.", "Louis Globe-Democrat'', written by Ed Wray, November 30, 1906The forward pass was a central feature of Cochems' offensive scheme in 1906 as his St. Louis University team compiled an undefeated 11–0 season in which they outscored opponents by a combined score 407 to 11.The highlight of the campaign was St. Louis' 39–0 win over Iowa.", "Cochems' team reportedly completed eight passes in ten attempts for four touchdowns.", "\"The average flight distance of the passes was twenty yards.\"", "Nelson continues, \"the last play demonstrated the dramatic effect that the forward pass was having on football.", "St. Louis was on Iowa's thirty-five-yard line with a few seconds to play.", "Timekeeper Walter McCormack walked onto the field to end the game when the ball was thrown twenty-five yards and caught on the dead run for a touchdown.", "\"The 1906 Iowa game was refereed by one of the top football officials in the country, West Point's Lt. Horatio B.", "\"Stuffy\" Hackett.", "He had officiated games involving the top Eastern powers that year.", "Hackett, who would become a member of the football rules committee in December 1907 and officiated games into the 1930s, was quoted the next day in Ed Wray's ''Globe-Democrat'' article: \"It was the most perfect exhibition ... of the new rules ... that I have seen all season and much better than that of Yale and Harvard.", "St. Louis' style of pass differs entirely from that in use in the east.", "...", "The St. Louis university players shoot the ball hard and accurately to the man who is to receive it ...", "The fast throw by St. Louis enables the receiving player to dodge the opposing players, and it struck me as being all but perfect.", "\"Hackett is the only known expert witness to the passing offenses of both Cochems' 1906 squads and that of Stagg, who dismissed any special role for the St. Louis coach in the development of the pass.", "Hackett was an official in games involving both teams.", "As Wray recalled almost 40 years later: \"Hackett told this writer that in no other game that he handled had he seen the forward pass as used by St. Louis U. nor such bewildering variations of it.", "\"\"Cochems said that the poor Iowa showing resulted from its use of the old style play and its failure to effectively use the forward pass\", Nelson writes.", "\"Iowa did attempt two basketball-style forward passes.", "\"\"During the 1906 season Robinson threw a sixty-seven yard pass ... and ... Schneider tossed a sixty-five yarder.", "Considering the size, shape and weight of the ball, these were extraordinary passes.", "\"In 1907, after the first season of the forward pass, one football writer noted that, \"with the single exception of Cochems, football teachers were groping in the dark.", "\"Because St. Louis was geographically isolated from both the dominant teams and the major sports media (newspapers) of the era, all centered in and focused on the East, Cochems' groundbreaking offensive strategy was not picked up by the major teams.", "Pass-oriented offenses would not be adopted by the Eastern football powers until the next decade.But that does not mean that other teams in the Midwest did not pick it up.", "Arthur Schabinger, quarterback for the College of Emporia in Kansas, was reported to have regularly used the forward pass in 1910.Coach H. W. \"Bill\" Hargiss' \"Presbies\" are said to have featured the play in a 17–0 victory over Washburn University and in a 107–0 destruction of Pittsburg State University.", "Coach Pop Warner at Carlisle had quarterback Frank Mount Pleasant, one of the first regular spiral pass quarterbacks in football.===Knute Rockne===Knute Rockne of Notre Dame running away from Army after a forward pass from Gus Dorais, 1913Knute Rockne and Gus Dorais worked on the pass while lifeguarding on a Lake Erie beach at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, during the summer of 1913.That year, Jesse Harper, Notre Dame head coach, also showed how the pass could be used by a smaller team to beat a bigger one, first utilizing it to defeat rival Army.", "After it was used against a major school on a national stage in this game, the forward pass rapidly gained popularity.The 1919 and 1920 Notre Dame teams had George Gipp, an ideal handler of the forward pass, who threw for 1,789 yards.John Mohardt led the 1921 Notre Dame team to a 10–1 record with 781 rushing yards, 995 passing yards, 12 rushing touchdowns, and nine passing touchdowns.", "Grantland Rice wrote that \"Mohardt could throw the ball to within a foot or two of any given space\" and noted that the 1921 team was the first at Notre Dame \"to build its attack around a forward passing game, rather than use a forward passing game as a mere aid to the running game.\"", "Mohardt had both Eddie Anderson and Roger Kiley at end to receive his passes.===Increase in popularity===Cal's Brick Muller vs. W & J College, 1922From 1915 to 1916, Pudge Wyman and end Bert Baston of Minnesota were \"one of the greatest forward-passing combinations in the history of the gridiron.", "\"In the 1921 Rose Bowl, California's Brick Muller completed a touchdown against Washington & Jefferson which went 53 yards in the air, a feat previously thought impossible.In a 1925, 62–13 victory over Cornell, Dartmouth's Andy Oberlander had 477 yards in total offense, including six touchdown passes, a Dartmouth record which still stands.The 1925 Michigan team was coach Fielding H. Yost's favorite and featured the passing tandem of Benny Friedman and Bennie Oosterbaan.Yost disciple Dan McGugin coached Vanderbilt and was one of the first emphasize the forward pass.", "His 1907 team beat Sewanee on a double pass play Grantland Rice cited as his biggest thrill in his years of watching sports.", "McGugin's 1927 team was piloted by Bill Spears, who threw for over a thousand yards.", "According to one writer, Vanderbilt produced \"almost certainly the legit top Heisman candidate in Spears, if there had been a Heisman Trophy to award in 1927.\"", "McGugin disciple and former quarterback Ray Morrison brought the pass to the southwest when he coached Gerald Mann at Southern Methodist.===First pass in a professional game===The first forward pass in a professional football game may have been thrown in an Ohio League game played on October 25, 1906.The Ohio League, which traced its history to the 1890s, was a direct predecessor of the NFL.", "According to Robert W. Peterson in his book ''Pigskin The Early Years of Pro Football'', the \"passer was George W. (Peggy) Parratt, probably the best quarterback of the era\", who played for the Massillon, Ohio Tigers, one of pro football's first franchises.", "Citing the Professional Football Researchers Association as his source, Peterson writes that \"Parratt completed a short pass to end Dan Riley (real name, Dan Policowski)\" in a game played at Massillon against a team from West Virginia.", "Since the Tigers \"ran up a 61 to 0 score on the hapless Mountain Staters, the pass played no important part in the result.", "\"According to National Football League history, it legalized the forward pass from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage on February 25, 1933.Before that rule change, a forward pass had to be made from 5 or more yards behind the line of scrimmage.Forward passes were first permitted in Canadian football in 1929, but the tactic remained a minor part of the game for several years.", "Jack Jacobs of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers is recognized, not for inventing the forward pass, but for popularizing it in the Western Interprovincial Football Union (one of the forerunner leagues to the modern Canadian Football League) in the early 1950s, thus changing the Canadian game from a more run-dominated game to a more passing-dominant game.===Change in ball shape===Specification of the size of the ball for the American game came in 1912, but it was still essentially a rugby ball.", "Increased use of the forward pass encouraged adoption of a narrower ball, starting with changes in the 1920s which enhanced rifled throwing and also spiral punting.", "This had the consequence of all but eliminating the drop kick from the American game." ], [ "Rugby football", "In the two codes of rugby (union and league), a forward pass is against the rules.", "Normally this results in a scrum to the opposing team, but on rare occasions a penalty may be awarded if the referee is of the belief that the ball was deliberately thrown forward.In both codes of rugby the direction of the pass is relative to the player making the pass and not to the actual path relative to the ground.", "A forward pass occurs when the player passes the ball forward in relation to himself.", "(This applies only to the movement of the player, not to the direction in which the passer is facing, i.e.", "if the player is facing backwards and passes toward their team's goal area, it is not forward; and conversely, if the player passes toward the opponent's goal area, it is forward.)", "In rugby league, the video referee may not make judgements on whether a pass is forward.The garryowen, as well as the cross-field kick, while not as reliable as the forward pass and more difficult to execute successfully, can provide some of the function that a forward pass does in American and Canadian football." ], [ "Other football codes", "In some other football codes, such as association football (soccer), Australian rules football and Gaelic football, the kicked forward pass is used so ubiquitously that it is not thought of as a distinct kind of play at all.", "In association football and its variants, the concept of offside is used to regulate who can be in front of the play or be nearest to the goal.", "Historically some earlier incarnations of football allowed unlimited forward passing, and present-day Australian rules football and Gaelic football do not have an offside rule." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of American football* History of American football* Lateral pass* Rugby league gameplay* Rugby union gameplay* Hail Mary pass* Snap" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* Boyles, Bob and Guido, Paul (2007) ''50 Years of College Football: A Modern History of America's Most Colorful Sport''.", "New York: Skyhorse Publishing." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Fiji" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Fiji''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations: state-owned commercial company, Fiji Broadcasting Corporation, operates 6 radio stations - 2 public broadcasters and 4 commercial broadcasters with multiple repeaters; 5 radio stations with repeaters operated by Communications Fiji, Ltd; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2009); 13 AM, 40 FM, and no shortwave stations (1998).", "* Radios: 500,000 (1997).", "* Television stations: Fiji TV, a publicly traded company on the South Pacific Stock Exchange, operates a free to air channel ever since its inception in 1994.", " 2 terrestrial stations (1998).", "* Television sets: 21,000 (1997).Radio is a key source of information, particularly on the outer islands.", "There are publicly and privately owned stations.", "State-owned Fiji Broadcasting Corporation operates Fijian-language Radio Fiji One, Hindi-language Radio Fiji Two, music-based Bula FM, Hindi station Mirchi FM, and music-based 2day FM.Communications Fiji Limited, a public listed company on the South Pacific Stock Exchange was established in 1996 and is located in 231 Waimanu Road, Suva.", "It broadcasts English speaking stations FM96 and LegendFM on 96.2FM and 98.6FM respectively, Fijian language station, VitiFM, Navtarang and Radio Sargam - Hindi speaking stations.", "The BBC World Service broadcasts on 88.2 FM in the capital, Suva.===Media control===Under the military government's Media Decree, the directors and 90 percent of the shareholders of locally based media must be citizens of, and permanently reside in Fiji.", "The Media Industry Development Authority of Fiji is responsible for enforcing these provisions.", "The authority has the power to investigate journalists and media outlets for alleged violations of the decree, including powers of search and seizure of equipment.A code of ethics contained in the Media Decree requires that all stories run by the media be balanced, with comment obtained from both sides where there is any disagreement on the facts.", "This requirement enables government departments and private businesses to prevent stories from being published by not responding to media questions, thus making it impossible for the media to fulfill the decree's requirement for comment from both sides.", "However, media sources report that if the story is positive toward the government, the balance requirement could be ignored without consequence." ], [ "Telephones", "A public payphone in Fiji, * Calling code: +679* International call prefix: 00 or 052* Main lines: 88,400 lines in use, 147th in the world (2012); 112,500 lines in use (2005).", "* Mobile cellular: 858,800 lines, 159th in the world (2012); 315,000 lines (2007).", "* Telephone system: modern local, interisland, and international (wire/radio integrated) public and special-purpose telephone, telegraph, and teleprinter facilities; regional radio communications center; telephone or radio telephone links to almost all inhabited islands; most towns and large villages have automatic telephone exchanges and direct dialing; combined fixed and mobile-cellular teledensity roughly 100 per 100 persons (2011).", "* Communications cables: Southern Cross Cable, links to the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia; Vanuatu-Fiji Interchange Cable (2014); Tonga-Fiji cable.", "* Satellite earth station: 2 Inmarsat (Pacific Ocean) (2011)." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .fj* Internet users: 300,326 users, 140th in the world; 33.7% of the population, 126th in the world (2012); 114,200 users, 157th in the world (2009).", "* Fixed broadband: 13,734 subscriptions, 142nd in the world; 1.5% of the population, 133rd in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: 96,277 subscriptions, 118th in the world; 10.8% of the population, 89th in the world (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 21,739 hosts, 115th in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 134,656 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 151.3 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet Service Providers: 7 ISPs (2011)The Internet is widely available and used in and around urban centers, but its availability and use are minimal or nonexistent outside these areas.=== Labasa-Savusavu Fiber Project ===Launched in 2023, Telecom Fiji's $4.1 million Fiber Project is designed to expand the underground fiber optic network from Labasa to Savusavu, with the aim of improving internet services in Fiji's Northern regions.The project's significance lies in its potential to address the limitations of the existing microwave link-based connectivity in Vanua Levu, which is vulnerable to disruptions, particularly during natural disasters.", "By reinforcing the communications network with fiber optic technology, the initiative is expected to contribute to the resilience and economic development of the Northern Division.", "This development is also anticipated to support the advancement of digital education infrastructure and broader economic activities in the region.===Internet censorship and surveillance===The government in a parliament sitting on March 15, 2018 passed a bill known as the Online Safety Bill to the Standing Committee on Justice, Law and Human Rights that was tabled in the Parliament of Fiji to enforce tougher restrictions on those that may share explicit photos of individuals on social media or spread anti- government remarks as well.Currently, there are no government restrictions on general public access to the Internet, but evidence suggests that the government monitors private e-mails of citizens as well as Internet traffic in an attempt to control antigovernment reports by anonymous bloggers.The country has operated under a military-led government since 2006 and has had no constitution or functioning parliament since 2009.A series of decrees have been issued, including the Public Order Amendment Decree (POAD), the Media Decree, and the Crime Decree.By decree all telephone and Internet service users must register their personal details with telephone and Internet providers, including their name, birth date, home address, left thumbprint, and photographic identification.", "The decree imposes fines of up to F$100,000 ($56,721) on providers who continue to provide services to unregistered users and up to F$10,000 ($5,672) on users who do not update their registration information as required.", "Vodafone, one of two mobile telephone providers, also requires users to register their nationality, postal address, employment details, and both thumbprints.The POAD gives the government the power to detain persons on suspicion of \"endangering public safety or the preservation of the peace\"; defines terrorism as any act designed to advance a political, religious, or ideological cause that could \"reasonably be regarded\" as intended to compel a government to do or refrain from doing any act or to intimidate the public or a section thereof; and makes religious vilification and attempts to sabotage or undermine the economy offenses punishable by a maximum F$10,000 ($5,672) fine or five years’ imprisonment.", "The Media Decree prohibits \"irresponsible reporting\" and provides for government censorship of the media.", "The Crimes Decree includes criticism of the government in its definition of the crime of sedition, including statements made in other countries by any person, who can be prosecuted on return to Fiji.", "The government uses the threat of prosecution under these provisions to intimidate government critics and limit public criticism of the government.", "Journalists and media organizations practice varying degrees of self-censorship, with many reportedly fearing retribution if they criticize the government.In May 2007 it was reported that the military in Fiji had blocked access to blogs critical of the regime.In 2012 police investigated former University of the South Pacific (USP) professor Wadan Narsey, a prominent Fijian economist and long-time critic of the military government, for alleged sedition in writings published on his personal blog.The POAD permits military personnel to search persons and premises without a warrant from a court and to take photographs, fingerprints, and measurements of any person.", "Police and military officers may enter private premises to break up any meeting considered unlawful." ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " .fj Domain Name Registry, at The University of the South Pacific." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Fiji" ], [ "Introduction", "Modes of transport in Fiji include rail, road, water, and air.", "The rail network is mainly used for movement of sugar cane.", "Suva and Lautoka are the largest seaports.", "There are 122 km of navigable inland waterways.", "There are two international airports, one other paved airport, and over 20 with unpaved runways.", "With 333 tropical islands that make up this country, one can expect to use various modes of transport to get to their destination." ], [ "Buses", "Buses are the main mode of transport in Fiji's main islands." ], [ "Railways", "Total: 597 km; 597 km 0.610-m gauge (1995)Narrow gauge: Note: belongs to the government-owned Fiji Sugar Corporation The railway is not for passenger or public use." ], [ "Waterways", "203 km; 122 km navigable by motorized craft and 200-metric-ton barges" ], [ "Ports and harbors", "Labasa, Lautoka, Levuka, Savusavu, Suva" ], [ "Merchant marine", "Total: 6 ships (1,000 GT or over) totaling 11,870 GT/Ships by type: chemical tanker 2, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)" ], [ "Airports", "In Nadi International AirportFiji has two airports that cater to international air traffic, the main one being Nadi International Airport and a secondary one, Nausori Airport, which receives a small number of international flights.", "There are 13 other smaller domestic airports spread throughout the country's outer islands and these mainly cater for small prop aircraft.", "Airports Fiji Limited (AFL), a state-owned enterprise owns and operates Nadi International Airport and manages the other 14 airports for the Government.Major airports include:Nadi International AirportNausori International AirportTotal 25 (1999 est.", ")=== Airports with paved runways ===Total: 3Over 3,047 m: 11,524 to 2,437 m: 1914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.", ")=== Airports with unpaved runways ===Total: 22914 to 1,523 m: 5Under 914 m: 17 (1999 est.)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''CIA World Factbook'' (c2002)* ''Cane Train: The Sugar-cane Railways of Fiji'' by Peter Dyer & Peter Hodge (1988, New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society Inc, Wellington) a revision of:* ''Balloon Stacks and Sugar Cane'' by Peter Dyer & Peter Hodge (1961, New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society Inc, Wellington)" ], [ "See also", "Public transport in Fiji" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Republic of Fiji Military Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Republic of Fiji Military Forces''' ('''RFMF''', formerly the '''Royal Fiji Military Forces''') is the military force of the Pacific island nation of Fiji.", "With a total manpower of about 6,500 active soldiers and approximately 6,200 reservists, it is one of the smallest militaries in the world and the third largest in the South Pacific region.", "The Ground Force is organised into six infantry and one engineer battalions.The first two regular battalions of the Fiji Infantry Regiment are traditionally stationed overseas on peacekeeping duties; the 1st Battalion has been posted to Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, and East Timor under the command of the UN, while the 2nd Battalion is stationed in Sinai with the MFO.", "Peacekeepers income represents an important source of income for Fiji.", "The 3rd Battalion is stationed in the capital, Suva, and the remaining three are spread throughout the islands." ], [ "Organisation", "* '''Commander-in-Chief''' – The President of the Republic is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Military Forces.", "* '''Commander RFMF''' – The Commander RFMF is of two-star rank.", "He is assisted by the Deputy Commander and the Chief of Staff, who are responsible for Strategic Command and Land Force Command.", "The current Commander is Major General Jone Kalouniwai who was preceded by Rear Admiral Viliame Naupoto who was appointed following the resignation of Brigadier Mosese Tikoitoga on 2 August 2015.Tikoitoga succeeded the previous Commander and former Head of Government Commodore Voreqe (Frank) Bainimarama after fifteen years of service as Commander and a total of thirty-nine years of active military service.", " '''Strategic Command''' – Strategic Command is responsible for all of the long term and strategic concerns of the RFMF, including welfare, legal issues, sustainability issues etc.", " '''Land Force Command''' – Land Force Command is the operational organisation of the RFMF, and is responsible for all of the main units:* HQ Land Force Commander Lieutenant Colonel Jone Kalouniwai* Naval Unit* Fiji Infantry Regiment Regular Force* 1st Battalion* 2nd Battalion* 3rd Battalion Territorial Force* 4th Battalion* 5th Battalion* 7th/8th Battalion* Fiji Engineer Regiment* Logistic Support Unit* Force Training Group* Presidential Palace Guards * Fiji Military Forces Band=== Equipment ===* M45A1* Uzi* AK-101* RPK-201* M4 carbine standard issue* PKM* RPG-7W* RPO-A* M16A2 rifle* Daewoo K2 rifle* CAR-15 carbine* Pindad SPR-2* 6 x 105 mm KH178 howitzer* 12 x mortar F2 (L16) 81 mm* Daewoo K3 light machine gun* M60 Machine Gun* Bush Master LAH – * Mobile Mechanical Workshop – on Ural-4320 chassis* 24 x refurbished Bushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicle" ], [ "Fiji Infantry Regiment", "The Fiji Infantry Regiment is the main combat element of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces.", "The regiment was formed with the foundation of the Fijian armed forces in 1920.The regiment, as it is today, goes back to 1978 following Fiji's independence." ], [ "Fijian Navy", "Fijian naval ensignThe Republic of Fiji Navy was formed in 1975, following the government's ratification of the United Nations Law of the Sea convention.", "The Navy is responsible for maritime needs in border control, such as watching over Fiji's exclusive economic zone and organising task and rescue missions.", "It currently operates 9 patrol boats.", "Military aid is received from Australia, the People's Republic of China, and the United Kingdom (although the latter has suspended aid as a result of the 2006 military coup against the civilian government).Speaking at 30th anniversary celebrations on 26 July 2006, Commander Bradley Bower said that the greatest challenge facing the navy of a maritime country like Fiji was to maintain sovereignty and the maritime environment, to acquire, restore, and replace equipment, and to train officers to keep pace with changing situations.In January 2019 five of Fiji's naval vessels were operational.", "In 2020 Australia will provide two new s to replace the three vessels it provided over thirty years ago In December 2019 Fiji took delivery of , boosting the number of operational vessels to six.", "The Guardian-class patrol boat was officially handed over to Fijian officials, in Henderson, Australia, on 6 March 2020.Northern Air operates search and rescue flights for the Navy.", "===Equipment===Dabur-class patrol boat (Israeli boat ''No.", "881'')Pacific-class patrol boat (Solomon Island police boat RSIPV ''Lata'')3 x (Australia, displacement 162 t, length , width draught , power 2 x , maximal speed , crew 17-man, armament machine guns 1 x 12.7 mm).", "These boats replaced discharged s FNS ''Kula'', ''Kikau'' and ''Kiro'', gained 1975 – 1976 from the United States Navy.", "* (May 1994)* (May 1995)* (October 1995)2 patrol boat (US, displacement 97 t, crew 11-man, armament machine guns 1 x 12.7 mm)* (1987)* (1987)4 (Israel, displacement 39 t, crew 9-man, armament 2 x cannon 20 mm, 2 x machine guns 7.62 mm)* (1991)* (1991)* (1991)* (1991)2 Oceanic survey vessels* " ], [ "Rank insignia", "Rank designation based on the British tradition.===Commissioned officers===The rank insignia for commissioned officers for the army and navy respectively.", "They are based on the rank structure of Royal Navy and British Army.===Enlisted===The rank insignia for enlisted personnel for the army and navy respectively.", "They are based on the ranks of the Royal Navy and British Army." ], [ "History", "=== Political intervention ===Fiji's military has a history of political intervention.", "In 1987, soldiers were responsible for two military coups, and in 2000, the military organised a countercoup to quash George Speight's civilian coup.", "Since 2000, the military has had a sometimes tense relationship with the Qarase government, and has strongly opposed its plans to establish a Commission with the power to compensate victims and pardon perpetrators of the coup.", "Among other objections, the military claims that its integrity and discipline would be undermined if soldiers who mutinied in the 2000 upheaval were to be pardoned.On 4 August 2005, Opposition Leader Mahendra Chaudhry called for more Indo-Fijians, who presently comprise less than one percent of the military personnel, to be recruited.", "(Specifically, as of October 2007, Fiji's military had 3527 full-time members, of whom only 15 were Indo-Fijians.)", "This would help guarantee political stability, he considered.", "He also spoke against government plans to downsize the military.", "Military spokesman Lieutenant Colonel Orisi Rabukawaqa responded the next day by saying that the military was not an ethnic Fijian body, that it stood to serve the entire nation, and that there was no colour bar in its recruitment or promotion.", "He said that many Indo-Fijians had been reluctant to commit themselves to a military career because of the slow progress of promotion, often preferring to be discharged and to use their record as a stepping stone to a successful career in some other field.", "Nevertheless, he appreciated the Indo-Fijian contribution to the military, and noted the success of Lieutenant Colonel Mohammed Aziz, the head of the military's legal unit who was a pivotal figure in the court martial of soldiers who mutinied in 2000.Ironically the rate of promotion of indigenous Fijian officers had been very rapid after the 1987 coup, and subsequent expansion of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces.On 26 August 2005, the government announced plans to study ways to reduce the size of the military.", "Military engineers would be transferred to the Regional Development Ministry, said Home Affair Minister Josefa Vosanibola, and the reduction of the military forces would coincide with an increase in the numbers of the police force.On 26 September 2005, Rabukawaqa revealed that the military had decided to curtail certain operations to stay within its budget.", "The cuts would affect maritime patrols, search and rescue operations, training and exercises, School Cadet training, and the deployment of military engineers to rural areas.", "These cuts would be made to ensure that activities accorded a higher priority, such as peacekeeping operations in the Sinai Peninsula and Iraq, officer cadet training with the New Zealand Defence Forces, and the prosecution of soldiers charged with mutiny, would not be affected, Rabukawaqa said.The next day, Lesi Korovavala, chief executive officer of the Ministry of Home Affairs, told the Fiji Village news service that the military had undertaken the reductions on its own initiative, in consultation with the department, an explanation corroborated by Lieutenant Colonel Rabukawaqa.On 5 December 2006, the Fijian army staged a third coup d'état.", "On 7 February 2008, the head of the RFMF and post-coup interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama stated: \"Qarase ... does not understand the role of the Military and as such is misinforming the nation.", "...", "If there are practices and policies which have potential to undermine the national security and territorial integrity of Fiji, the RFMF has every right under the Constitution to intervene.\"", "In August 2009, with Bainimarama still controlling the government as prime minister and the constitution abrogated, Epeli Nailatikau, a former military commander, was appointed acting president on the retirement of Iloilo.===Operations===Fiji committed troops to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq.", "Australia agreed to transport those troops.Fiji sent 54 individuals to Australia, to help fight wildfires there.=== Fiji Air Wing ===The Air Wing of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces, founded in 1987, had a base at the airport in Nausori, but was abolished in 1997.Yehonatan Shimʻon Frenḳel writes that the \"Air Wing was formed after the 1987 coup, when the French provided two helicopters as part of its military aid package.\"", "Frenkel goes on to say that the air wing was disbanded after both helicopters crashed and after subsequent revelations of huge debts incurred as a result of the aircraft.==== Aircraft ====The two helicopters were:Aircraft typeVariantsOriginRoleService periodNotesEurocopter AS 365N2 Dauphin 2 AS 365N2 Dauphin Transport and liaison helicopter 1989–1994 One helicopter.", "Matriculation marker DQ-FGD.", "Aerospatiale AS 355F-2 Twin Squirrel AS 355F-2 Twin Squirrel Transport and liaison helicopter 1991–1997 One helicopter.", "Matriculation marker DQ-FGH.Helicopter AS-365 N2 Dauphin crashed off the coast of the main island in July 1994; a smaller AS-355F-2 continued in service until mid-1997 and in 1999 was sold to France.The Air Wing did not have its own roundel or ensign and its only marking was the national flag used as a fin flash." ], [ "Facilities", " Queen Elizabeth Barracks, Suva* Walu Bay Naval Base – Located at Narain Jetty in Suva Bay and to be relocated outside of Suva" ], [ "See also", "* Military–church relations in Fiji" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * New artillery guns to replace old weapons – Fiji Times Online (purchase of 105 mm howitzers replacing the pounders)" ], [ "External links", "* Official RFMF website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Fiji" ], [ "Introduction", "Fiji has experienced many coups recently, in 1987, 2000, and 2006.Fiji has been suspended various times from the Commonwealth of Nations, a grouping of mostly former British colonies.", "It was readmitted to the Commonwealth in December 2001, following the parliamentary election held to restore democracy in September that year, and has been suspended again because of the 2006 coup, but has been readmitted a second time after the 2014 election.", "Other Pacific Island governments have generally been sympathetic to Fiji's internal political problems and have declined to take public positions.Fiji became the 127th member of the United Nations on 13 October 1970, and participates actively in the organization.", "Fiji's contributions to UN peacekeeping are unique for a nation of its size.", "A nation with a population of less than one million, it maintains nearly 1,000 soldiers overseas in UN peacekeeping missions, mainly in the Middle East.Since Fiji's independence, the country has been a leader in the South Pacific region, and has played a leading role in the formation of the South Pacific Forum.", "Fiji has championed causes of common interest to Pacific Island countries.Since 2005, Fiji has become embroiled in a number of disagreements with other countries, including Australia, China, New Zealand, South Korea, the United States, and Vanuatu.The country's foreign relations and diplomatic missions are maintained by its Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation." ], [ "Diplomatic relations list", "List of countries which Fiji maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738394041424344—454647484950Before 198251Before 19825253545556575859606162636465666768—69707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106Between 1993 and November 2010107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137—138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180—" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes10 October 1970See Australia–Fiji relationsOn 13 April 2005, Fiji's prime minister, Laisenia Qarase, rejected criticism from Australia and some other countries over the prosecution and imprisonment of two foreigners charged with committing homosexual acts, which were illegal in Fiji at the time, and said that other countries needed to respect Fiji's independence.", "Qarase said that as member of the United Nations, Fiji was as entitled as any other country to make its own laws as it saw fit.The Australian Government took a more measured position than its New Zealand counterpart over the controversial Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill being debated in the Fijian Parliament.", "Susan Boyd, a former Australian High Commissioner to Fiji, strongly criticized the legislation, but Foreign Minister Alexander Downer said that it is an \"internal matter\" and that Australia does not want to get involved.", "He did, however, condemn recent threats from the military commander, Commodore Frank Bainimarama, to declare martial law and arrest members of the present government if the bill is passed.", "The Australian High Commission in Suva told Bainimarama that his threats are not \"the proper role for the military in a democracy.", "\"Australian Foreign Minister Alexander Downer visited Fiji for two days of talks, from 28 to 30 September 2005.Downer met government ministers and officials, Opposition Leader Mahendra Chaudhry, and military commander Commodore Frank Bainimarama.", "The talks covered the controversial Unity Bill, as well as the future of Fiji's preferential trade access to the Australian market, which the Fijian Government regards as a priority.", "Downer said that he intended to elaborate further on Australian Prime Minister John Howard's promise of a seven-year extension of the SPARTECA–TCF scheme, which assists Fiji's textile, clothing, and footwear industry.Foreign Minister Tavola expressed grave concern on 7 February 2006, about a proposed regional trade agreement (RTA) between Australia and China, saying that Fiji's exports to Australia would be unable to compete with Chinese products.", "For that reason, Fiji was persisting in its efforts to persuade Australia to renew the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation – Textile Clothing Footwear (SPARTECA–TCF) scheme, to improve the competitiveness of Fijian exports, the Fiji Live news service reported.The ''Fiji Times'' reported on 14 September 2006, that Prime Ministers Qarase and Howard had discussed possible Australian assistance for the reform of Fiji's sugar industry, with Howard reported receptive to giving aid.", "Qarase said that he had asked Australia to provide two or three experts to help with the establishment of the proposed Fiji Research Sugar Institute.Regarding the coup, Australia's foreign minister at the time, Alexander Downer, said that the military were \"slowly trying to take control\" and pressured the PM to resign.", "It was reported that in 2006 Fiji's Prime Minister Qarase asked Australia's Prime Minister John Howard for military assistance should a coup take place, but Howard declined.=== 2009 events; coup and diplomatic rift ===On 3 November 2009 Fiji ordered the diplomatic envoys of Australia to leave Fiji within 24 hours.", "The expulsion of the diplomats followed accusations by leader of Fiji, Frank Bainimarama, that Australia and New Zealand were interfering in Fiji's internal affairs and \"wage a negative campaign against the government and people of Fiji\".", "In particular Bainimarama says that the two countries were exerting pressure on Sri Lankan judges, brought in by Bainimarama to replace the uncooperative local judiciary, not to travel to the country and refusing to grant them transit visas.", "The Australian government denied this and stated that it only advised the judges that once they took up office in Fiji they would be subject to an existing travel ban in place against Fijian officials.", "Australia's senior diplomat in Fiji was also expelled in the 2006 coup.", "Fiji announced its withdrawal of their high commissioner from Australia.Australia and New Zealand responded on 4 November 2009, expelling Fiji's diplomats from both those countries.", "Stephen Smith, Australian Foreign Minister, rejected any accusations of meddling in Fiji's affairs and said that he was \"deeply disappointed\" by Fiji's actions.", "The then Prime Minister Kevin Rudd said that he would maintain his tough stance against Fiji in order to prevent a \"coup culture\" spreading around the Pacific.", "* Australia has a High Commission in Suva.", "* Fiji has a High Commission in Canberra and a consulate-general in Sydney.16 February 2006Fiji Live reported on 23 February 2006 that Fiji's United Nations ambassador Isikia Savua and his Brazilian counterpart Ronaldo Mota Sardenberg had recently signed a communiqué to establish diplomatic relations.", "Savua expressed the hope that Fiji's bio-fuels industry could benefit from Brazilian technology.", "* Brazil is accredited to Fiji from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "* Fiji does not have an accreditation to Brazil.10 October 1972* Chile is accredited to Fiji from its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand and maintains an honorary consulate in Suva.", "* Fiji is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasilia, Brazil.5 November 1975See China–Fiji relationsA diplomatic row with China erupted on 5 May 2005, when President Chen Shui-bian of Taiwan arrived for a private visit and was welcomed at a private function at Suva's Sheraton Resort by Vice-President Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi, Ratu Ovini Bokini (Chairman of the Great Council of Chiefs), Senate President Taito Waqavakatoga and several other Senators and MPs, and several judges including Chief Justice Daniel Fatiaki.", "Foreign Minister Kaliopate Tavola asserted that those who attended the welcoming ceremony did so \"of their own accord,\" not as government representatives, and that Prime Minister Qarase's presence in the same hotel where President Chen was staying was purely \"coincidental.\"", "Chinese ambassador Cai Jin Biao rejected this explanation, and said that the visit was a violation of the One China Policy, to which Fiji had agreed when diplomatic relations were established in 1975, which would \"sabotage relations between China and Fiji.\"", "He charged that Prime Minister Qarase and Foreign Minister Tavola had known of the upcoming visit for months.", "The embassy issued a further statement on 7 May, demanding that Fiji discontinue any effort to establish a dialogue with Taiwan.The row escalated when, on 16 May, Health Minister Solomone Naivalu voted in support of Taiwan's bid to gain observer status at the World Health Assembly in Geneva.", "Naivalu had apparently done so on his own initiative, contrary to a government briefing, sparking a major public disagreement between himself and Foreign Minister Tavola.", "Jia Qinglin, chairman of the People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), was dispatched to Fiji and met Prime Minister Qarase during a brief stopover on 21–22 May, a move that Tavola said was not coincidental.", "He said that Fiji could not afford to lose China, and that the government would ensure that \"careless incidences\" like Naivalu's vote in Geneva would not recur.", "Naivalu responded by saying that his vote was nothing new: \"We always support Taiwan to get observer status every year,\" he said.On 10 December 2005, ''The New Zealand Herald'' quoted Tavola as saying that Fiji would have to find a way to resolve a stand-off between the PRC and Taiwan, over membership of the Suva-based Council of South Pacific Tourism Organisation; China was resisting Taiwanese attempts to join the organization on an equal basis.", "\"If China had its way it would not want Taiwan on that.", "So we have to resolve the situation amicably and are looking at how both countries can be represented there,\" Tavola said.In defence of the earlier incident over the Taiwanese President's visit, Tavola said that it was the Pacific way to welcome people.", "''\"Even when considering Taiwan as a province of China,'' he went on, ''the President of a province is a man of high profile, so when he comes there is an urge to extend hospitality.\"''", "It did not signify any modification to Fiji's adherence to the One China policy, he had explained to the Chinese ambassador.China has invested in a number of major projects in Fiji.", "These include the Suva sports stadium, built for the South Pacific Games of 2003.On 14 December 2005, Fiji's military commander, Commodore Frank Bainimarama began an official visit to China, at the invitation of the People's Liberation Army.", "He reaffirmed Fiji's support for the One China policy.It was announced on 24 January 2006 that Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao would visit Fiji that April to open the China-Pacific Islands Countries Economic Development & Cooperation Forum Ministerial Conference 2006 at Sofitel Fiji Resort in Nadi, a conference of economic and trade ministers from Pacific Island countries.", "Six prime ministers from neighbouring countries are expected to participate, according to a ''Fiji Times'' report on 23 February.", "His visit to Fiji will be the first by a senior Chinese Government official.In an interview with PACNEWS on 1 February 2006, Jeremaia Waqanisau, Fiji's ambassador to Beijing, made a stinging attack on the efficiency of the Fijian civil service, saying that it negatively affected Fiji's ability to present itself to China.", "Cabinet ministers visited China without the Fijian embassy being informed, he complained.", "Certain civil servants were extremely passive in their dealings with China, he said.", "Another factor inhibiting Chinese investment was the instability caused by friction between the government and the military, he surmised, and the Fijian embassy in Beijing was continually engaged in damage control.1 September 1972Fiji's ambassador to the United Nations, Berenado Vunibobo, stated in 2008 that his country could seek closer relations with Cuba, and in particular medical assistance, following a decline in Fiji's relations with New Zealand.", "Fiji's foreign minister Ratu Epeli Nailatikau took part in the first Cuba-Pacific Islands ministerial meeting in Havana in September 2008.", "* Fiji is accredited to Cuba from its High Commission in New Delhi, India.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Suva.", "Cyprus is represented in Fiji by its High Commission in Canberra, Australia.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations as republics.Fiji is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London, United Kingdom, with a consulate in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Fiji, through its embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia.", "Denmark has one consulate in Suva, Fiji.10 October 1970See Fiji–France relationsRelations between France and Fiji are currently strained, due to France's condemnation of the 2006 Fijian coup d'état.", "Previously, Franco-Fiji bilateral relations had primarily been centred on military cooperation, with France assisting Fiji in surveiling its maritime zone, and on development aid.", "French military assistance was suspended after the coup.French aid to Fiji includes the providing of equipment for poor and isolated areas, and assistance in the development of renewable energy.", "France also provides Fiji with translations into English of French scientific documents pertaining to the Pacific area.", "France promotes French culture and the French language in Fiji through the presence of the Alliance Française and by encouraging the teaching of French in schools and at the University of the South Pacific.", "* Fiji is accredited to France from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* France has an embassy in Suva.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 2010.", "Fiji is represented in Georgia by its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "Georgia is represented in Fiji by its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "1978 Diplomatic relations were established in 1978.", "* Fiji is represented in Greece through its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Greece is represented in Fiji through its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand and an honorary consulate in Suva.", "See Fiji–India relationsFiji's relationship with India is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its indigenous people and the 38 percent of the population who are of Indian descent.", "A major diplomatic event for Fiji in 2005 occurred from 8 to 15 October, when Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase and Foreign Minister Kaliopate Tavola made an official visit to India.", "* India has a High Commission in Suva.", "* Fiji maintains a High Commission in New Delhi.August 1970See Fiji–Israel relationsRelations with Israel have generally been cordial, with Fiji usually taking positions sympathetic to Israel in United Nations resolutions.", "Relations were strained in July 2006, however, when three Israelis, who arrived in Fiji on the 13th, were arrested and deported.", "Amit Ronen, Eldar Avracohen, and Nimrod Lahav were detained in a jail cell at Nadi Airport for six hours and deported to Australia the next day, for alleged mistreatment of Palestinians by Israel.See Fiji-Japan relations* Fiji has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Suva.13 February 2013Fiji recognised the Republic of Kosovo on 19 November 2012 and established official diplomatic relations on 13 February 2013.1977 See Fiji–Malaysia relationsBoth countries were part of the British Empire and have a long-standing relationship because many Fijian soldiers served in Peninsular Malaysia during the Malayan Emergency from 1952 to 1956.31 August 1975See Fiji–Mexico relations* Fiji is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Fiji from its embassy in Canberra, Australia and maintains an honorary consulate in Suva.10 October 1970See Fiji–New Zealand relationsOn 10 June 2005, Foreign Minister Tavola signed a \"Memorandum of Understanding\" with his New Zealand counterpart, Phil Goff, aimed at fostering cooperation in the fight against terrorism.", "Meanwhile, New Zealand's Prime Minister Helen Clark announced that New Zealand would double its annual aid to Fiji, from NZ$4 million to NZ$8 million.", "Much of this aid, the Fijian Government revealed, would be used for poverty alleviation and squatter resettlement.New Zealand's Foreign Minister Winston Peters (who replaced Goff in late 2005) flew into Fiji on 8 February 2006, for three days of talks with Fijian Government officials.", "He met Prime Minister Qarase, Finance Minister Ratu Jone Kubuabola, and military commander Commodore Frank Bainimarama on the first day of his visit; meetings with Foreign Minister Tavola and House of Representatives Speaker Ratu Epeli Nailatikau were held later.", "The meeting with Bainimarama attracted some media attention; Bainimarama said that the meeting had been approved by Prime Minister Qarase and that there was nothing underhanded about it.The talks are to cover such matters as the Pacific Plan and a cost-sharing agreement for a citizen education project, promoted by the United Nations Development Programme.The New Zealand Minister of Foreign Affairs Winston Peters described the 2006 coup as a \"creeping siege on democratic institutions\".", "Helen Clark said that the Fijian constitution only allowed the president to request the dissolving of parliament if the prime minister no longer had the confidence of the parliament and that this was clearly not the case.", "The New Zealand Government has also stated those taking part in the coup will be banned from entry to New Zealand, and that military ties, aid and sporting contacts will be cut.", "Helen Clark has said in the ''NZ Herald'' that she would consider sanctions against Fiji.On 3 November 2009, Fiji ordered the diplomatic envoys of New Zealand to leave Fiji within 24 hours.", "The expulsion of the diplomats followed accusations by leader of Fiji, Frank Bainimarama, that Australia and New Zealand were interfering in Fiji's internal affairs and attempting to \"wage a negative campaign against the government and people of Fiji\".", "In particular Bainimarama says that the two countries were exerting pressure on Sri Lankan judges, brought in by Bainimarama to replace the uncooperative local judiciary, not to travel to the country and refusing to grant them transit visas.", "New Zealand's top diplomat in Fiji at the time was Todd Cleaver.New Zealand returned the favour on 4 November when it expelled Fiji's acting head of mission, Kuliniasi Seru Savou, from the country.", "New Zealand's Foreign Minister Murray McCully said that \"Diplomatic relations with Fiji are roughly the same they have been for the last couple of years unfortunately\" and that \"we have had our ups and downs and unfortunately today they are down\".", "The event marked the third time that New Zealand's top diplomat in Fiji has been expelled since the 2006 coup.", "* Fiji has a High Commission in Wellington.", "* New Zealand has a High Commission in Suva.1975Relations between Fiji and Papua New Guinea became strained in November 2005, in the wake of revelations that a number of Fijian citizens, possibly mercenaries, had entered Papua New Guinea illegally and were involved in arming and training a separatist militia on the island of Bougainville.On a separate matter, PNG Trade and Industry Minister Paul Tiensten was quoted in Fiji Village on 21 February 2006 as saying that sanctions against Fiji were being considered, following a Fijian refusal of a PNG kava shipment and an earlier rejection of corned beef shipped from PNG.", "See also Fijian mercenaries in Bougainville1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 August 1975.", "Romania is represented in Fiji by its embassy in Canberra, Australia.30 January 1974See Fiji–Russia relations Fiji is accredited to Russia from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.", "* Russia is accredited to Fiji from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.10 November 1974* Fiji is accredited to Samoa from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs based in Suva.", "* Samoa has a High Commission in Suva, which was established early in 2021.See Fiji–Solomon Islands relationsDiplomatic relations are currently cordial, although the Solomon Islands government has aligned itself with other countries in the region to urge Fiji interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama to restore democracy in Fiji.", "Fiji and the Solomon Islands are both located in Melanesia, and are both members of the Melanesian Spearhead Group.", "They also participate in other regional organisations including the Pacific Islands Forum.", "In August 2008, it was announced that the Solomon Islands intended to open a High Commission in Suva, and in December the government of Fiji announced that it had \"formally endorsed the establishment of a Resident Diplomatic Mission in Suva by the Government of the Solomon Islands\".", "Fiji's High Commission to Papua New Guinea is accredited to the Solomon Islands.", "In July 2014, a row between the two nations erupted over air services which resulted in both nations airlines being prevented to fly over the other.", "But both nations reached an agreement in early January 2015 to lift the suspension of their Air Services Agreement, allowing Fiji Airways and Solomon Airlines to fly between the two countries.", "Fiji's Civil Aviation Minister Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum said both airlines are entitled to operate three flights per week.", "Fiji Airways Chief executive Stefan Pichler has indicated they will begin the flights in March however Solomon Airlines has yet to confirm when they will begin their flights.1970See Fiji–South Korea relationsThe Republic of the Fiji Islands and the Republic of Korea established official diplomatic relations in 1970, when Fiji became independent.", "There is a South Korean embassy in Suva and a Fijian embassy in Seoul.", "Relations between the two countries are currently friendly, and are being strengthened at the initiative of the Fijian authorities.See Fiji–Tonga relationsIt was reported on 2 November 2005 that a territorial dispute was looming between Fiji and Tonga over a reef lying to the south of both countries.", "The people of Ono-i-Lau in the Lau Islands archipelago claim that Minerva Reef is part of their traditional fishing ground.", "Attorney General Qoriniasi Bale told the Lau Provincial Council that the government had a team of experts preparing a case to be taken to the United Nations International Seabed Authority, which is based in Jamaica.", "The reef has also been claimed by Tonga since 1972, and Tonga's Surveyor General, Tevita Malolo, told Radio New Zealand that Fiji had never contested Tonga's claim until now.Dec.", "17, 1975Turkish ambassador in Wellington to New Zealand is also accredited to Fiji.See Fiji–Tuvalu relations Fiji has non-resident ambassador resident in Suva accredited to Tuvalu.", "* Tuvalu has a High Commission in Suva.22 July 1971See Fiji–United States relationsBefore the 2006 coup, the US government was highly critical of Fiji, causing tensions between the two countries.Relations are currently poor, due to the United States' opposition to Fiji's unelected government which took power after the coup d'état in December 2006 and did not allow elections until September 2014.", "* Fiji has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* United States has an embassy in Suva." ], [ "Fijian missions abroad", "Fiji maintains direct diplomatic or consular relations with countries with historical, cultural, or trading ties to Fiji; Ambassadors stationed in such countries are often accredited to neighbouring countries.", "Fiji maintains embassies in Belgium (taking care of Fiji's relations with the entire European Union), China, Japan, South Korea, and the United States; and High Commissions in Australia, India, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the United Kingdom and New Zealand (in keeping with the Commonwealth practice of calling missions in fellow-commonwealth countries High Commissions rather than Embassies).", "Fiji also has a Permanent Mission to the United Nations." ], [ "Foreign reaction to Fijian legislation", "Australia and New Zealand have both expressed concern over legislation currently before the Fijian Parliament (as of June 2005), which proposes to establish a Reconciliation and Unity Commission, with the power (subject to presidential approval) to compensate victims and pardon persons convicted of crimes related to the coup d'état which deposed the elected government in 2000.On 30 August 2005, the then Commonwealth Secretary-General Don McKinnon called on the Fijian government to ensure that the legislation reflected the views of its citizens.", "He emphasized, however, that the Commonwealth did not have a position on the bill." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Fiji* List of diplomatic missions of Fiji" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Goal line (gridiron football)" ], [ "Introduction", "The Kansas City Chiefs (red) and the Pittsburgh Steelers (black) line up for a play on the goal line.The '''goal line''' is the chalked or painted line dividing the end zone from the field of play in gridiron football.", "In American football the goal lines run parallel to the end lines, while in Canadian football they run parallel to the dead lines.", "In both football codes the distance is measured from the inside edge of the end line to the far edge of the goal line so that the line itself is part of the end zone.", "It is the line that must be crossed in order to score a touchdown.If any part of the ball reaches any part of the imaginary vertical plane transected by this line while in-bounds and in possession of a player whose team is striving toward that end of the field, this is considered a touchdown and scores six points for the team whose player has advanced the ball to, or recovered the ball in, this position.", "This is in contrast with other sports like Association football and ice hockey, which require the puck or ball to pass completely over the goal line to count as a score.If any member of the offensive team is downed while in possession of the ball behind his own team's goal line, this is called a safety and scores two points for the defensive team.If, during the course of play, a loose ball travels past the goal line and is recovered within the end zone, then it is a touchdown if recovered by the team that scores in that end zone, or a touchback if recovered and downed by the opposing teamIn the event of a kick recovered in one's own end zone, the entirety of the ball must pass the goal line in order for the ball to be considered a touchback, and to not be in the field of play." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of American football terms" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Tackle (football move)" ], [ "Introduction", "A tackle in Australian rules footballMost forms of football have a move known as a '''tackle'''.", "The primary purposes of tackling are to dispossess an opponent of the ball, to stop the player from gaining ground towards goal or to stop them from carrying out what they intend.The word is used in some contact variations of football to describe the act of physically holding or wrestling a player to the ground.", "In others, it simply describes one or more methods of contesting for possession of the ball.", "It can therefore be used as both a defensive or attacking move." ], [ "Name origin", "In Middle Dutch, the verb meant to grab or to handle.", "By the 14th century, this had come to be used for the equipment used for fishing, referring to the rod and reel, etc., and also for that used in sailing, referring to rigging, equipment, or gear used on ships.", "By the 18th century, a similar use was applied to harnesses or equipment used with horses.", "Modern use in football comes from the earlier sport of rugby, where the word was used in the 19th century." ], [ "Association football", "A tackle in association footballUnlike other codes, tackles in association football have to be predominantly directed against the ball rather than the player in possession of it.", "This is achieved by using either leg to wrest possession from the opponent, or sliding in on the grass to knock the ball away.", "A defender is permitted to use their body to obstruct the motion of a player with the ball, and this may be part of a successful tackle.", "Pulling a player to the ground in the style of tackle common to other codes is completely absent from the game (this would be considered \"violent conduct\" and result in a red card (dismissal)).Although some contact between players is allowed, the rules of association football significantly limit the physicality of tackles, explicitly forbidding contacts which are \"careless, reckless or use excessive force\".", "Almost all tackles where the tackler's legs make contact with the opponent before the ball are considered illegal, and heavy contact after initially touching the ball may also be penalised.Illegal tackles are fouls and are punished with a direct free kick (or penalty if committed within the penalty area) for the opponent's team.", "Such incidents are common, with dozens of occurrences in a typical match.", "In most cases these fouls are not considered misconducts, however yellow cards (cautions) may be delivered for more egregious fouls that constitute \"unsporting behaviour\".", "If a foul tackle endangers the tackled player's safety, it is likely to be considered as \"serious foul play\" by the referee and punished with a red card (dismissal).Alessandro Diamanti (22) slide tackles Steven Gerrard (4) at Euro 2012Tackles that involve lunging at an opponent with both legs, regardless of whether the ball is won, are generally considered to constitute serious foul play and hence result in a sending-off.", "This explicitly includes \"scissoring\" (tackling with legs apart, so as to trap the opponent's leg or legs in between), which is likely to be punished with a sending-off (red card), as it poses a high risk of severe knee injury to the player being tackled.", "Tackling with ''studs up'' is considered dangerous.", "A ''studs up tackle'' is made when a player lunges into a tackle with a leg or both legs outstretched exposing the soles of their boots.", "Referees are encouraged to at the very least caution (yellow card) players who commit such challenges.Additionally, an illegal tackle which is also a professional foul is considered misconduct.The most spectacular form of tackle in association football is the slide tackle, wherein a tackler slides, leg extended, along the ground, aiming to hit the ball away.", "This form of tackle carries a high risk of committing a foul.", "\"Diving\" in association football involves tackled players exaggerating the physicality of tackles, so as to gain favourable decisions from the referee." ], [ "Australian rules football", "Western Bulldogs player Liam Picken tackling Jordan Lewis of Melbourne, who is attempting a handballIn Australian rules football, the move commonly described as a \"tackle\" is similar to in rugby and involves wrapping, holding or wrestling a player who has possession of the ball to the ground.", "Tackling players not in possession of the ball is not allowed, this is considered “holding the man” and penalised with a free kick to the opposition.As there is no offside rule in Australian rules football, players can be tackled from any direction, and are often blindsided.", "For this reason, the sport allows players to shepherd and bump their opponents within 5 metres of the ball, to protect the ball carrier.A tackled player must immediately dispose of the ball legally, by kicking or handballing, but not by throwing or dropping the ball.", "If this is not done, a holding the ball free kick will be awarded to the tackler.", "If the ball is knocked free by the tackler, pinned to the player by the tackler, or the player unsuccessfully attempts a kick or handball, a free kick will only be awarded if the ball carrier is deemed to have had a prior opportunity to dispose of the ball prior to being tackled.", "If a player has not had prior opportunity to dispose of the ball and a tackler knocks the ball free during a tackle then no free kick is paid and the game continues.A tackle must only contact below the shoulders and above the knees, and a player is able to be thrown to the ground, so long as the tackle is deemed not to be reckless or likely to cause injury.", "There are also rules outlawing pushing in the back making tackling more difficult.", "Tripping, by both hand or foot, is not allowed and can be a reportable offence.Players wear little to no padding to cushion the impact of tackles, however players generally wear mouthguards to protect their teeth.=== Types of tackles in Australian rules ===Rory Laird attempts to break a Luke Hodge tackleThere are many types of tackles in Australian rules football:* '''perfect tackle''' – when a player lays a tackle on an opponent that has had prior opportunity to dispose of the ball and in the process makes it impossible for their opponent to dispose of the ball.", "For example, if a tackler pins an opponent's arm, then the opponent cannot possibly handball, and if they pin both arms, then it is nearly impossible to legally execute a kick.", "A player is almost always rewarded for a perfect tackle (except in the case of a slam tackle – see below).", "* '''gang tackle''' – when the player in possession is tackled by more than one opponent at the same time.", "* '''high tackle''' – any tackle which infringes on the opponent's neck or head.", "This includes any tackle which slips above the A/C joint.", "This is illegal and the penalty is a free kick.", "* '''coathanger''' – slang for high contact to the head, usually by a stiff arm, which causes a player to land flat on their back.", "It is often accidental due to the high pace of the game.", "The penalty may be a free kick if deemed accidental or a reportable offence which may result in suspension.", "* '''diving tackle''' – when a player leaves the ground in attempting to tackle* '''slinging''' – a player ''slung'' to the ground in a tackle* '''broken tackle''' – when a player is able to break free of a tackle* '''spear tackle''' – also known as a dangerous throw in rugby, it is a reportable offence and may result in suspension* '''push in the back''' – Any tackle which forces the player forward, into the ground, or both, from behind.", "This is an illegal tackle and the penalty is a free kick.", "* ''bump'' or '''hip and shoulder''' tackle is a legal Aussie rules tactic for both dispossession of the player with the ball and also impeding players involved in a contest but not in possession of the ball.", "The difference between a bump and a tackle is that arms are not used in a bump, which must be made side-on using the hip and or shoulder.", "Not all bumping is legal, however.", "Aggressive head on bumping or \"charging\" of a player with the ball is often described as \"rough play\" and is a reportable offence, this is particularly so if a player is deemed to have their head down over the ball in an attempt to picking it up off the ground when the bump is applied or contact is made above the shoulders.", "Standing ground against an oncoming player, however, is legal.", "* '''slam tackle''' – relatively new term for a tackle which results in an opponent's head being deliberately slammed to the ground.", "It is often associated with the pinning of the arms of an opponent so that they cannot cushion the impact of their head on the ground.", "Although tolerated in days gone by in recent years, in 2009, the AFL branded this a dangerous type of tackle.", "Incidents in the professional AFL involving Byron Pickett and Darren Milburn have come under particular scrutiny.", "* '''wing tackle''' or '''Chicken wing tackle''' – when one arm is pinned in a tackle.", "After sustaining severe damage from this type of tackle during the 2009 AFL season, Brent Harvey called for this type of tackle to be banned.=== Other tackling methods ===Although the term \"tackle\" is used in Australian rules to exclusively describe wrapping, holding or wrestling a player in possession, there are also several other ways of contesting possession in Australian rules that other sports would describe as a \"tackle\" and that also involve a degree of contact.Other defensive actions are generally categorised as ''one percenters''.", "The defensive tactic of punching away (commonly known as spoiling) from a player is allowed.", "''Smothering'', which involves using the arms or body to get in the way of an opponent's kick as it leaves their boot, is similar to a ''charge down'' in rugby football." ], [ "Gaelic football", "Gaelic football defines tackling as wresting the ball from an opponent's hands.", "Bumping is allowed on the player with the ball, but a player cannot be grabbed.==Gridiron football==College football game: Navy quarterback Kaipo-Noa Kaheaku-Enhada (center) is tackled by Massachusetts defensive back James Ihedigbo (left) and linebacker Charles Walker (right).In American football and Canadian football, to tackle is to physically interfere with the forward progress of a player in possession of the ball, such that his forward progress ceases and is not resumed, or such that he is caused to touch some part of his body to the ground other than his feet or hands, or such that he is forced to go out of bounds.", "In any such case, the ball becomes dead, the down is over, and play ceases until the beginning of the next play.A tackle is known as a quarterback sack when the quarterback is tackled at or behind the line of scrimmage while attempting to throw a pass.", "A '''tackle for loss''' is a tackle that causes a loss of yardage for the opposing running back or wide receiver.", "This happens when the quarterback is sacked, when either a rusher or a receiver is tackled behind the line of scrimmage, or when the ball is fumbled behind the line of scrimmage and was picked up by an offensive player who does not manage to move past the line before being tackled.", "When a player who does not have the ball is taken down, it is generally referred to as a block.Tacklers are not required to wrap their arms around the ball carrier before bringing him to the ground; in fact, the ball carrier is often \"tackled\" by the defender taking a running start and hitting the ball carrier to knock them to the ground.", "Tackles can also be made by grabbing the ball carrier's jersey (or even hair, should it be long enough and allowed to dangle freely from beneath the helmet) and pulling him to the ground.", "As mentioned above, the referee can declare that a play is dead if the ball carrier's forward progress has been stopped, even if he has not actually been taken to the ground.To protect players from potentially catastrophic injury, there are some restrictions on tackles and blocks.", "At no time may a defensive player tackle an offensive player by grabbing the facemask of their helmet; doing so incurs a 15-yard penalty and the victimized team is awarded a new set of downs.", "Although spear tackles are allowed in gridiron football, a player may not use his helmet to tackle an opponent as the technique can cause serious injury to both players (more often the tackler, due to the force of reaction on the tackler, which is apt to be beyond the limit that the neck can handle) and also warrants a 15-yard penalty as well as a fresh set of downs if committed by the defending team; this is known as \"spearing the player\".", "A similar penalty is assessed to any player attempting to make contact with his helmet against another opponent's helmet, which is known as a helmet-to-helmet collision.", "Grabbing a ball carrier by the pads behind his neck and pulling him down is known as a \"horse collar\", a method which has been made illegal at all levels of American football.It is also illegal to tackle a player who has thrown a forward pass (generally a quarterback) after he has released the ball; doing so is called \"roughing the passer\" and incurs a 15-yard penalty and a fresh set of downs for the team with the ball.", "However, in the NFL a player can continue forward for one step, which means that often a player who is committed to attacking the quarterback will still make a tackle.", "Place kickers and punters are afforded an even greater protection from being tackled.Once the play is ruled complete, no contact is permitted; a player who makes contact with an opponent after the play is charged with \"unnecessary roughness\" and his team is assessed a 15-yard penalty.Blocks that occur in the back of the legs and below the knees, initiated below the waist, or clotheslines are also generally prohibited and players who use them are subject to much more severe penalties than other illegal tackles.", "However, a player who plays on the line ''can'' block below the knees (cut block) as long the block is within five yards of the line and the player they block is in front of them and not engaged by another blocker (chop block).In the National Football League (NFL), tackles are tracked as an unofficial statistic by a scorekeeper hired by the home team.", "Though the statistic is widely cited, the league does not verify that the counts are accurate.On November 12, 2022, Carlton Martial of Troy recorded his 546th tackle to break the Division I FBS record for most tackles in a career." ], [ "International rules football", "International rules football is a hybrid game between Australian rules football and Gaelic football.Tackling in International Rules is subject to similar rules as Australian rules football, but with some subtle differences.", "Tackling is only allowed as low as the waist, whereas it is allowed down to the knees in Aussie Rules.", "One handed tackling has been banned in International Rules since the 2008 International Rules Series." ], [ "Rugby football", "===Rugby league===In rugby league the ball-carrier can be tackled by any number of defenders from any direction.", "The initial contact in the tackle must be made below the ball carrier's neck or it will be deemed a high tackle and penalised.", "A tackle in rugby league is completed when any of the following occurs:The attacking player's ball or the hand or arm holding the ball comes into contact with the ground while still held by one or more defenders.", "Although still on his feet, the attacking player's forward momentum has ceased while still held by one or more defender.", "Being held by a defender, the attacking player makes it evident that he has succumbed to the tackle and wishes to be released in order to play-the-ball.", "A defender places a hand on the attacking player lying on the ground.Once the tackle is completed, the ball-carrier must be allowed to get to his feet to 'play-the-ball' and the defensive team must retreat 10 metres (except 2 markers, facing the tackled player).", "Spear tackles are illegal in rugby league, with most tackles in which the defender is lifted 'above the horizontal' bringing about penalties in the modern game.", "A stiff arm tackle is an offence.", "A 2012 New Zealand study found that over 659 tackles are made per game in professional rugby league.", "Of all the rugby league positions, averages the most tackles.===Rugby union===In rugby union, a player must be brought to ground for a tackle to be completed.", "The tackled player must release the ball, but the ball is not dead and a ''ruck'' forms to contest possession of it.", "If the ball carrier is not brought to the ground a ''maul'' will usually form.", "High/reckless or stiff arm tackles laws once dictated any contact made above the shoulders was an offence.", "Now, even if contact starts below the shoulders, if the head is involved in any reckless tackle it results in the offending player being given a yellow card and therefore sin binned.", "World Rugby now defines a reckless tackle as being any contact where the tackler \"knew or should have known that there was a risk of making contact with the head of an opponent, but did so anyway\"" ], [ "Non-tackling variants", "For various codes of football, variant codes have been developed which substitute out the tackling element, making the game less physical.", "In these games, either a being touched by an opponent or, in some codes, having a tag on the player's person removed, has effects similar to a tackle in the parent code.+Major non-tackling variantsParent football codeMajor non-tackling variantsGridironTouch footballFlag football.", "RugbyTouch rugby* Touch* League tag* Tag rugby* American flag rugbyAustralianRec footy" ], [ "Other uses", "Other non-football games that feature ball-tackling or similar concepts include hurling, hockey and shinty, while tackling of people is featured in games like kabaddi.", "With the increasing popularity of football in the late 19th century, tackling had been integrated into field-based chasing games such as British Bulldog (game), Pom-Pom-Pull-Away and British Bulldog.", "For younger boys, these children's games became essential for the acquisition of football skills." ], [ "Tackle types", "Some illegal tackle moves result in a penalty play, however others may be \"reportable\" offences — that is, the option exists for an official to penalise a player's conduct individually rather than during the game refer it to a tribunal for deferred penalty.", "'''Allowable / forbidden tackles by football code''' Code Slidingtackle Speartackle Dumptackle Body tackle Ankle tap Diving tackle Bumping/blocking Shoulder charge Intercept ball Chicken wing Other Association Australian rules Spoil, Shepherd, Smother Gaelic Gridiron Rugby league Charge down Rugby union Charge down;Notes" ], [ "Controversial techniques", "* spear tackle (dangerous throw) – (illegal in both rugby codes and Australian rules)* high tackle (illegal head-high tackle) – rugby league and Australian rules (see also coathanger)* grapple tackle – a controversial rugby league tackling technique similar to a chokehold.", "* chicken wing tackle – banned in rugby league* horse-collar tackle – banned in gridiron football by the NFL, the NCAA, and the CFL.", "This tackle involves the defender reaching his hand inside the ball carrier's collar, grabbing the collar (and usually, the collar of the shoulder pads), and pulling player straight down or backwards and down.", "The tackle has the potential to cause severe injuries to the tackled player's neck, legs and ankles.", "It is considered an \"equipment tackle\", meaning the protective equipment used by the players is what is used to make the tackle (similarly, a face-mask tackle is considered an \"equipment tackle\").", "The horse-collar was made infamous by Dallas Cowboys free safety Roy Williams when he performed it on Philadelphia Eagles wide receiver Terrell Owens." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Play from scrimmage" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''play from scrimmage''' is the sequence in the game of gridiron football during which one team tries to advance the ball, get a first down, or score, and the other team tries to stop them or take the ball away.", "Once a play is over, and before the next play starts, the football is considered dead.", "A game of American football (or Canadian Football) consists of many (about 120–150) such plays." ], [ "Specifications", "The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team.", "For instance, the offensive team may be faced with one or two downs left in a possession and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs.", "In this instance, they may decide to employ a forward pass.", "Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of forward pass plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team.", "They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution to outsiders.", "The team's coach, or perhaps the quarterback, will choose one of the planned forward passing strategies, and tell the team, during the huddle which one has been chosen.", "Because of planning and practice, each player is expected to know what his role in the play is to be, and how to execute it.", "This will be the offensive play.Conversely, the defensive team will know that the offense has to cover a good deal of ground in a single play, will expect a forward pass, and will know from earlier study something of the propensities of the offense they face.", "The defensive captain is likely to call out a specific formation or defensive play, to anticipate and counteract the expected action by the offense." ], [ "The play", "The play will begin with the snap of the ball (typically but not exclusively to the quarterback), and it will end when the effort by the offensive squad to advance the ball has either succeeded in scoring, or has been frustrated by the ball being downed before the aim of the offensive play is accomplished, or by the defensive squad having managed to come into possession of the ball without first downing it.", "In the event of change of possession during a play, the team newly in possession of the ball may try to advance it toward their opponent's goal, which the team formerly in possession will naturally resist.", "Change of possession during a routine play may occur by interception or by fumble (often collectively referred to as ''turnovers'').Change of possession may also occur in other ways.", "A change of possession can occur \"on downs\", if the offensive team fails to achieve a first down or a touchdown in a specified number of consecutive attempts, known as \"downs\" (four in American football; three in Canadian football).", "Another way is through a change of possession play, when the offensive team (having perhaps surmised the unlikelihood of scoring or of achieving a first down within the allowed consecutive attempts to do so) kicks the ball away in what is known as a punt.", "A touchdown (and subsequent conversion attempt, whether successful or not) or successful field goal attempt will be followed by a kickoff.", "Kickoffs and field goal attempts are not considered true change of possession plays.", "An unsuccessful field goal attempt will usually also result in a change of possession (without a kickoff), but is usually not counted as a turnover." ], [ "See also", "*Glossary of American football" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Football player" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''football player''' or '''footballer''' is a sportsperson who plays one of the different types of football.", "The main types of football are association football, American football, Canadian football, Australian rules football, Gaelic football, rugby league, and rugby union.It has been estimated that there are 250 million association football players in the world, and many play other forms of football." ], [ "Career", "Jean-Pierre Papin has described football as a \"universal language\".", "Footballers across the world and at almost any level may regularly attract large crowds of spectators, and players are the focal points of widespread social phenomena such as association football culture.Footballers generally begin as amateurs and the best players progress to become professional players.", "Normally they start at a youth team (any local team) and from there, based on skill and talent, scouts offer contracts.", "Once signed, some learn to play better football and a few advance to the senior or professional teams.===Pay===Pay in some top men's leagues is significantly higher than in other jobs.", "Players in the Premier League earn an average of $3 million per year.", "In the wealthiest clubs in European football leagues, men earn an average $7.19 million per year.", "The best players of those clubs can earn up to $260 million per year.However, only a fraction of men's professional football players are paid at this level.", "Wages may be somewhat more moderate in other divisions and leagues.", "For example, the average annual salary for footballers in Major League Soccer (MLS) is $530,262 as of May 2023.Average salaries in women's leagues are far lower.", "For example, players in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), which started in 2012, earn an average of $54,000 per year as of May 2022.For the first time in 2022, the NWSL guaranteed players a living wage.", "The minimum salary in 2023 is $36,400 to ensure players do not need second or third jobs to survive.===Post-retirement===A minority of retired footballers continue working full-time in football, for instance as football managers.", "A 1979 study reported that former first-team ballplayers were over-represented as top-ranking executives in their companies and had greater income mobility than second-teamers and reserves.", "However, some experience chronic health issues, see below." ], [ "Skills and specialties", "===Association football specialties (positions)===In association football, there are four traditional types of specialties (positions): goalkeepers (goalies), defenders (full-backs), midfielders (half-backs), and forwards (attackers).", "Special purpose positions include such performers as sweepers, stoppers, second forwards (under-attackers), wingers, insiders, etc.", "* '''Goalkeepers''': good reflexes, communication with defence, one-on-one ability, command of the penalty area and aerial intelligence.", "* '''Centre-backs''': good heading and tackling ability, height, bravery in attempting challenges, and concentration.", "* '''Full-backs''': pace, stamina, anticipation, tackling and marking abilities, work rate, and team responsibility.", "* '''Central midfielders''': stamina, passing ability, team responsibility, positioning, marking abilities.", "* '''Wingers''': pace, technical ability like dribbling and close control, off-the-ball intelligence, creativity.", "* '''Forwards''': finishing ability, composure, technical ability, heading ability, pace, off-the-ball intelligence.===American football===The American football teams' positions are categorized by a form of play where each of them has its spectrum of positions.", "Those are offensive, defensive, and special teams.===Australian football===" ], [ "Psychological aspects of performance", "Research shows that association football players who take less than 200 milliseconds after the referee blows their whistle to make a penalty kick are significantly less likely to score than those who take over a second." ], [ "Health issues", "An Irish 2002 study of association and Gaelic football players characterized players as \"lean and muscular with a reasonably high level of capacity in all areas of physical performance\".", "The opposite is the case for American football, where obesity could be the cause of grave health problems.A 2000 study documented injuries sustained by Czech association football players at all levels: Patellar tendinitis (knee pain) is considered an injury that comes from overexertion, which also happens to other athletes of virtually every sport.", "It is a common problem that football players develop and can usually be treated by a quadriceps strengthening program.", "Jumping activities place particularly high strains on the tendon and with repetitive jumping, tearing and injury of the tendon can occur.", "The chronic injury and healing response results in inflammation and localized pain.Although levels of depression and pain in retired football players are on par with the societal average, some players suffer from post-retirement chronic injuries.", "Head injuries are a particular concern.===Life expectancy===Studies have long shown former American football NFL players have a longer life expectancy than the general public or males with a similar age and race distribution, but a higher rate of cardiovascular issues.", "A study comparing the deaths of former Major League Baseball players found baseball players lived longer still, perhaps suggesting a \"healthy worker\" bias where NFL athletes lived less long than they would otherwise have, despite their longer than average life expectancy.", "A 2009 review of the evidence in the American Journal of Medicine concluded the existing evidence \"did not suggest an increased mortality\" but does \"suggest increased cardiovascular risk..., particularly the heavier linemen.", "\"In association football, a 2011 German study found that German national team players lived 1.9 years less than the general male population.A 1983 study of rugby players found that the life expectancy of All Blacks was the same as for the general population.Australian rules footballers have lower death rates than the general population.===Head===American football players are prone to head injuries such as concussions.", "In later life, this increases the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's.", "Professional American football players self-reporting concussions are at greater risk for having depressive episodes later in life compared with those retired players self-reporting no concussions.Probably due to the repeated trauma associated with heading balls, professional association football has been suggested to increase the incidence of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.", "In a 1987 study of former Norwegian association football national team players, one third of the players were found to have central cerebral atrophy, ''i.e.''", "brain damage.", "A 1999 study connected soccer to chronic traumatic head injury (CTHI):===Knee===Anterior cruciate ligaments are particularly vulnerable in most types of football due to injuries that can be sustained during tackles.===Hip===An increased incidence of osteoarthritis in the hip joint has been found in retired football players.===Muscles===A 2012 study of association football injuries found that 19% of all injuries were muscle injuries, of which 54% affected the thigh muscles.===Sleep and psychological functioning===In a 2009 study, association football was found to be associated with favourable sleep patterns and psychological functioning in adolescent male football players.The rate of suicide among NFL vets has been found to be 59% lower than in the general population.===FIFA response===In 2012, FIFA released a paper intended to identify key risk factors for association football players." ], [ "Longevity and factors of mortality", "In 2015, a systematic review of a sample of fifty-four peer-reviewed publications and three articles on elite athletes’ mortality and longevity, resulted in major longevity outcomes for the elite athletes (baseball, football, soccer, basketball, and cycling) \"compared to age and sex-matched controls from the general population and other athletes.\"", "The span longevities were influenced by factors like the type of sport, the playing position, the race, and the energy system.=== International level ===An observational study held from professional footballers -active (during their career) and recently retired (post-career, aged more than 45 years)- in 70 countries between 2007 and 2013, elaborated on data from the World Footballers' Union (FIFPro), recorded 214 deaths of which 25% was caused by accidents, 11% by suicides and 33% by a suspected cardiac pathology (on an overall 55% of deaths caused by some sort of disease).Clinical evaluation, ECG , and echocardiography are required for the athletes as pre-participation tools in order to prevent sudden cardiac deaths in people aged less than 35.To evaluate the risk of myocardial fibrosis, may use and recommend the additional use of late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) with pre- and post-contrast and extracellular volume fraction (ECV) images.", "Even encouraged, it wasn't yet made mandatory.=== North America ===In 2015, 205 deaths among North American professional athletes who were registered as active at the time of their decease were analysed.", "Data were collected for the four major sports: National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), National Hockey League (NHL), and Major League Baseball (MLB).", "The NFL and NBA active players had \"a higher likelihood of dying in a car accident\" and a significantly higher likelihood of dying from a cardiac-related illness compared to the NHL and MLB active populations.In 2013, a study on 3,439 retired athletes of the National Football Leagues with at least five credited playing seasons between 1959 and 1988 did not show a statistical correlation between suicide mortality and professional activity, particularly football-related compared with the general control sample.", "No stratification was reported between speed and non-speed position players.=== Italy ===Until the 2000s a very limited number of formal studies has been published on mortality from all causes in soccer players, despite the high interest of the public to the matter.An extended study held in Italy between 1975 and 2003 on a total of 5.389 players, aged 14–35 years, highlighted that, while the mortality for cancer and cardiovascular diseases among the football players cohort was significantly lower than the general Italian population, the \"mortality rates for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and car accidents were significantly higher than expected, and for ALS the risk is 18 times than expected.\"" ], [ "Lists of players", "Lists of association football playersList of American football players*List of footballers (Gaelic football):Category: Lists of rugby league footballers" ], [ "See also", "*Sports unions" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Friedrich Nietzsche" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche''' ( , or ; 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher.", "He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy.", "He became the youngest person to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869 at the age of 24, but resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life; he completed much of his core writing in the following decade.", "In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and afterward a complete loss of his mental faculties, with paralysis and probably vascular dementia.", "He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897 and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche.", "Nietzsche died in 1900, after experiencing pneumonia and multiple strokes.Nietzsche's work spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism and irony.", "Prominent elements of his philosophy include his radical critique of truth in favour of perspectivism; a genealogical critique of religion and Christian morality and a related theory of master–slave morality; the aesthetic affirmation of life in response to both the \"death of God\" and the profound crisis of nihilism; the notion of Apollonian and Dionysian forces; and a characterisation of the human subject as the expression of competing wills, collectively understood as the will to power.", "He also developed influential concepts such as the '''' and his doctrine of eternal return.", "In his later work, he became increasingly preoccupied with the creative powers of the individual to overcome cultural and moral mores in pursuit of new values and aesthetic health.", "His body of work touched a wide range of topics, including art, philology, history, music, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from Greek tragedy as well as figures such as Zoroaster, Arthur Schopenhauer, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Richard Wagner, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.After his death, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth became the curator and editor of his manuscripts.", "She edited his unpublished writings to fit her German ultranationalist ideology, often contradicting or obfuscating Nietzsche's stated opinions, which were explicitly opposed to antisemitism and nationalism.", "Through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with fascism and Nazism.", "20th-century scholars such as Walter Kaufmann, R. J. Hollingdale, and Georges Bataille defended Nietzsche against this interpretation, and corrected editions of his writings were soon made available.", "Nietzsche's thought enjoyed renewed popularity in the 1960s and his ideas have since had a profound impact on 20th- and early 21st-century thinkers across philosophy—especially in schools of continental philosophy such as existentialism, postmodernism, and post-structuralism—as well as art, literature, poetry, politics, and popular culture." ], [ "Life", "=== Youth (1844–1868) ===Born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the town of Röcken (now part of Lützen), near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony.", "He was named after King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, who turned 49 on the day of Nietzsche's birth (Nietzsche later dropped his middle name Wilhelm).", "Nietzsche's parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche (1813–1849), a Lutheran pastor and former teacher; and Franziska Nietzsche (''née'' Oehler) (1826–1897), married in 1843, the year before their son's birth.", "They had two other children: a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846; and a second son, Ludwig Joseph, born in 1848.Nietzsche's father died from a brain disease in 1849, after a year of excruciating agony, when the boy was only four years old; Ludwig Joseph died six months later at age two.", "The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsche's maternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters.", "After the death of Nietzsche's grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre.Young Nietzsche, 1861Nietzsche attended a boys' school and then a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug and Wilhelm Pinder, all three of whom came from highly respected families.", "Academic records from one of the schools attended by Nietzsche noted that he excelled in Christian theology.In 1854, he began to attend the Domgymnasium in Naumburg.", "Because his father had worked for the state (as a pastor) the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognised Schulpforta.", "The claim that Nietzsche was admitted on the strength of his academic competence has been debunked: his grades were not near the top of the class.", "He studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and Carl von Gersdorff (1844-1904), who later became a jurist.", "He also found time to work on poems and musical compositions.", "Nietzsche led \"Germania\", a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg.", "At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important grounding in languages—Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and French—so as to be able to read important primary sources; he also experienced for the first time being away from his family life in a small-town conservative environment.", "His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German; a 2a in Greek and Latin; a 2b in French, History, and Physics; and a \"lackluster\" 3in Hebrew and Mathematics.Nietzsche was an amateur composer.", "He composed several works for voice, piano, and violin beginning in 1858 at the Schulpforta in Naumburg when he started to work on musical compositions.", "Richard Wagner was dismissive of Nietzsche's music, allegedly mocking a birthday gift of a piano composition sent by Nietzsche in 1871 to his wife Cosima.", "German conductor and pianist Hans von Bülow also described another of Nietzsche's pieces as \"the most undelightful and the most anti-musical draft on musical paper that I have faced in a long time\".While at Schulpforta, Nietzsche pursued subjects that were considered unbecoming.", "He became acquainted with the work of the then almost-unknown poet Friedrich Hölderlin, calling him \"my favorite poet\" and writing an essay in which he said that the poet raised consciousness to \"the most sublime ideality\".", "The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a good mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid, and more \"German\" writers.", "Additionally, he became acquainted with Ernst Ortlepp, an eccentric, blasphemous, and often drunken poet who was found dead in a ditch weeks after meeting the young Nietzsche but who may have introduced Nietzsche to the music and writing of Richard Wagner.", "Perhaps under Ortlepp's influence, he and a student named Richter returned to school drunk and encountered a teacher, resulting in Nietzsche's demotion from first in his class and the end of his status as a prefect.leftAfter graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche began studying theology and classical philology at the University of Bonn in the hope of becoming a minister.", "For a short time, he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft ''Frankonia''.", "After one semester (and to the anger of his mother), he stopped his theological studies and lost his faith.", "As early as his 1862 essay \"Fate and History\", Nietzsche had argued that historical research had discredited the central teachings of Christianity, but David Strauss's ''Life of Jesus'' also seems to have had a profound effect on the young man.", "In addition, Ludwig Feuerbach's ''The Essence of Christianity'' influenced young Nietzsche with its argument that people created God, and not the other way around.", "In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith.", "This letter contains the following statement:Hence the ways of men part: if you wish to strive for peace of soul and pleasure, then believe; if you wish to be a devotee of truth, then inquire....Arthur Schopenhauer strongly influenced Nietzsche's philosophical thought.Nietzsche subsequently concentrated on studying philology under Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl, whom he followed to the University of Leipzig in 1865.There he became close friends with his fellow student Erwin Rohde.", "Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after.In 1865, Nietzsche thoroughly studied the works of Arthur Schopenhauer.", "He owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading Schopenhauer's ''The World as Will and Representation'' and later admitted that Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers whom he respected, dedicating the essay \"Schopenhauer as Educator\" in the ''Untimely Meditations'' to him.In 1866, he read Friedrich Albert Lange's ''History of Materialism''.", "Lange's descriptions of Kant's anti-materialistic philosophy, the rise of European Materialism, Europe's increased concern with science, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and the general rebellion against tradition and authority intrigued Nietzsche greatly.", "Nietzsche would ultimately argue the impossibility of an evolutionary explanation of the human aesthetic sense.In 1867, Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary service with the Prussian artillery division in Naumburg.", "He was regarded as one of the finest riders among his fellow recruits, and his officers predicted that he would soon reach the rank of captain.", "However, in March 1868, while jumping into the saddle of his horse, Nietzsche struck his chest against the pommel and tore two muscles in his left side, leaving him exhausted and unable to walk for months.", "Consequently, he turned his attention to his studies again, completing them in 1868.Nietzsche also met Richard Wagner for the first time later that year.=== Professor at Basel (1869–1879) ===Left to right: Erwin Rohde, Karl von Gersdorff and Nietzsche, October 1871In 1869, with Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received an offer to become a professor of classical philology at the University of Basel in Switzerland.", "He was only 24 years old and had neither completed his doctorate nor received a teaching certificate (\"''habilitation''\").", "He was awarded an honorary doctorate by Leipzig University in March 1869, again with Ritschl's support.Despite his offer coming at a time when he was considering giving up philology for science, he accepted.", "To this day, Nietzsche is still among the youngest of the tenured Classics professors on record.Nietzsche's 1870 projected doctoral thesis, \"Contribution toward the Study and the Critique of the Sources of Diogenes Laertius\" (\"''Beiträge zur Quellenkunde und Kritik des Laertius Diogenes''\"), examined the origins of the ideas of Diogenes Laërtius.", "Though never submitted, it was later published as a ('congratulatory publication') in Basel.Before moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless.Nevertheless, Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) as a medical orderly.", "In his short time in the military, he experienced much and witnessed the traumatic effects of battle.", "He also contracted diphtheria and dysentery.", "Walter Kaufmann speculates that he also contracted syphilis at a brothel along with his other infections at this time.", "On returning to Basel in 1870, Nietzsche observed the establishment of the German Empire and Otto von Bismarck's subsequent policies as an outsider and with a degree of scepticism regarding their genuineness.", "His inaugural lecture at the university was \"Homer and Classical Philology\".", "Nietzsche also met Franz Overbeck, a professor of theology who remained his friend throughout his life.", "Afrikan Spir, a little-known Russian philosopher responsible for the 1873 ''Thought and Reality'' and Nietzsche's colleague, the historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended, began to exercise significant influence on him.Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in 1868 and later Wagner's wife, Cosima.", "Nietzsche admired both greatly and during his time at Basel frequently visited Wagner's house in Tribschen in Lucerne.", "The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their most intimate circle—including Franz Liszt, of whom Nietzsche colloquially described: \"Liszt or the art of running after women!\"", "Nietzsche enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Bayreuth Festival.", "In 1870, he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of \"The Genesis of the Tragic Idea\" as a birthday gift.", "In 1872, Nietzsche published his first book, ''The Birth of Tragedy''.", "However, his colleagues within his field, including Ritschl, expressed little enthusiasm for the work in which Nietzsche eschewed the classical philologic method in favour of a more speculative approach.", "In his polemic ''Philology of the Future'', Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff damped the book's reception and increased its notoriety.", "In response, Rohde (then a professor in Kiel) and Wagner came to Nietzsche's defence.", "Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted unsuccessfully to transfer to a position in philosophy at Basel.Nietzsche, c. 1872In 1873, Nietzsche began to accumulate notes that would be posthumously published as ''Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks''.", "Between 1873 and 1876, he published four separate long essays: \"David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer\", \"On the Use and Abuse of History for Life\", \"Schopenhauer as Educator\", and \"Richard Wagner in Bayreuth\".", "These four later appeared in a collected edition under the title ''Untimely Meditations''.", "The essays shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner.", "During this time in the circle of the Wagners, he met Malwida von Meysenbug and Hans von Bülow.", "He also began a friendship with Paul Rée who, in 1876, influenced him into dismissing the pessimism in his early writings.", "However, he was deeply disappointed by the Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where the banality of the shows and baseness of the public repelled him.", "He was also alienated by Wagner's championing of \"German culture\", which Nietzsche felt a contradiction in terms, as well as by Wagner's celebration of his fame among the German public.", "All this contributed to his subsequent decision to distance himself from Wagner.With the publication in 1878 of ''Human, All Too Human'' (a book of aphorisms ranging from metaphysics to morality to religion), a new style of Nietzsche's work became clear, highly influenced by Afrikan Spir's ''Thought and Reality'' and reacting against the pessimistic philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer.", "Nietzsche's friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled as well.", "In 1879, after a significant decline in health, Nietzsche had to resign his position at Basel and was pensioned.", "Since his childhood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him, including moments of shortsightedness that left him nearly blind, migraine headaches, and violent indigestion.", "The 1868 riding accident and diseases in 1870 may have aggravated these persistent conditions, which continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became impractical.=== Independent philosopher (1879–1888) ===Lou Salomé, Paul Rée and Nietzsche travelled through Italy in 1882, planning to establish an educational commune together, but the friendship disintegrated in late 1882 due to complications from Rée's and Nietzsche's mutual romantic interest in Salomé.Living on his pension from Basel along with aid from friends, Nietzsche travelled frequently to find climates more conducive to his health.", "He lived until 1889 as an independent author in different cities.", "He spent many summers in Sils Maria near St. Moritz in Switzerland, and many of his winters in the Italian cities of Genoa, Rapallo, and Turin and the French city of Nice.", "In 1881, when France occupied Tunisia, he planned to travel to Tunis to view Europe from the outside but later abandoned that idea, probably for health reasons.", "Nietzsche occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and, especially during this time, he and his sister Elisabeth had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation.While in Genoa, Nietzsche's failing eyesight prompted him to explore the use of typewriters as a means of continuing to write.", "He is known to have tried using the Hansen Writing Ball, a contemporary typewriter device.", "In the end, a past student of his, Peter Gast, became a private secretary to Nietzsche.", "In 1876, Gast transcribed the crabbed, nearly illegible handwriting of Nietzsche's first time with Richard Wagner in Bayreuth.", "He subsequently transcribed and proofread the galleys for almost all of Nietzsche's work.", "On at least one occasion, on 23 February 1880, the usually poor Gast received 200 marks from their mutual friend, Paul Rée.", "Gast was one of the very few friends Nietzsche allowed to criticise him.", "In responding most enthusiastically to ''Also Sprach Zarathustra'' (\"Thus Spoke Zarathustra\"), Gast did feel it necessary to point out that what were described as \"superfluous\" people were in fact quite necessary.", "He went on to list the number of people Epicurus, for example, had to rely on to supply his simple diet of goat cheese.To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck remained consistently faithful friends.", "Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle.", "Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music-critic Carl Fuchs.", "Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most productive period.", "Beginning with ''Human, All Too Human'' in 1878, Nietzsche published one book or major section of a book each year until 1888, his last year of writing; that year, he completed five.In 1882, Nietzsche published the first part of ''The Gay Science''.", "That year he also met Lou Andreas-Salomé, through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée.Salomé's mother took her to Rome when Salomé was 21.At a literary salon in the city, Salomé became acquainted with Paul Rée.", "Rée proposed marriage to her, but she, instead, proposed that they should live and study together as \"brother and sister\", along with another man for company, where they would establish an academic commune.", "Rée accepted the idea and suggested that they be joined by his friend Nietzsche.", "The two met Nietzsche in Rome in April 1882, and Nietzsche is believed to have instantly fallen in love with Salomé, as Rée had done.", "Nietzsche asked Rée to propose marriage to Salomé, which she rejected.", "She had been interested in Nietzsche as a friend, but not as a husband.", "Nietzsche nonetheless was content to join with Rée and Salomé touring through Switzerland and Italy together, planning their commune.", "The three travelled with Salomé's mother through Italy and considered where they would set up their \"Winterplan\" commune.", "They intended to set up their commune in an abandoned monastery, but no suitable location was found.", "On 13 May, in Lucerne, when Nietzsche was alone with Salomé, he earnestly proposed marriage to her again, which she rejected.", "He nonetheless was happy to continue with the plans for an academic commune.", "After discovering the relationship, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth became determined to get Nietzsche away from the \"immoral woman\".", "Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in Tautenburg in Thuringia, often with Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth as a chaperone.", "Salomé reports that he asked her to marry him on three separate occasions and that she refused, though the reliability of her reports of events is questionable.", "Arriving in Leipzig (Germany) in October, Salomé and Rée separated from Nietzsche after a falling-out between Nietzsche and Salomé, in which Salomé believed that Nietzsche was desperately in love with her.While the three spent a number of weeks together in Leipzig in October 1882, the following month Rée and Salomé left Nietzsche, leaving for Stibbe (today Zdbowo in Poland) without any plans to meet again.", "Nietzsche soon fell into a period of mental anguish, although he continued to write to Rée, stating \"We shall see one another from time to time, won't we?\"", "In later recriminations, Nietzsche would blame on separate occasions the failure in his attempts to woo Salomé on Salomé, Rée, and on the intrigues of his sister (who had written letters to the families of Salomé and Rée to disrupt the plans for the commune).", "Nietzsche wrote of the affair in 1883, that he now felt \"genuine hatred for my sister\".Amidst renewed bouts of illness, living in near-isolation after a falling out with his mother and sister regarding Salomé, Nietzsche fled to Rapallo, where he wrote the first part of ''Also Sprach Zarathustra'' in only ten days.Photo of Nietzsche by Gustav-Adolf Schultze, 1882By 1882, Nietzsche was taking huge doses of opium and continued to have trouble sleeping.", "In 1883, while staying in Nice, he was writing out his own prescriptions for the sedative chloral hydrate, signing them \"Dr. Nietzsche\".He turned away from the influence of Schopenhauer, and after he severed his social ties with Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends.", "Now, with the new style of ''Zarathustra'', his work became even more alienating, and the market received it only to the degree required by politeness.", "Nietzsche recognised this and maintained his solitude, though he often complained.", "His books remained largely unsold.", "In 1885, he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of ''Zarathustra'' and distributed a fraction of them among close friends, including Helene von Druskowitz.In 1883, he tried and failed to obtain a lecturing post at the University of Leipzig.", "According to a letter he wrote to Peter Gast, this was due to his \"attitude towards Christianity and the concept of God\".In 1886, Nietzsche broke with his publisher Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted by his antisemitic opinions.", "Nietzsche saw his own writings as \"completely buried and in this anti-Semitic dump\" of Schmeitzner—associating the publisher with a movement that should be \"utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind\".", "He then printed ''Beyond Good and Evil'' at his own expense.", "He also acquired the publication rights for his earlier works and over the next year issued second editions of ''The Birth of Tragedy'', ''Human, All Too Human'', ''Daybreak'', and of ''The Gay Science'' with new prefaces placing the body of his work in a more coherent perspective.", "Thereafter, he saw his work as completed for a time and hoped that soon a readership would develop.", "In fact, interest in Nietzsche's thought did increase at this time, if rather slowly and imperceptibly to him.", "During these years Nietzsche met Meta von Salis, Carl Spitteler, and Gottfried Keller.In 1886, his sister Elisabeth married the antisemite Bernhard Förster and travelled to Paraguay to found Nueva Germania, a \"Germanic\" colony.", "Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued through cycles of conflict and reconciliation, but they met again only after his collapse.", "He continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible.In 1887, Nietzsche wrote the polemic ''On the Genealogy of Morality''.", "During the same year, he encountered the work of Fyodor Dostoyevsky, to whom he felt an immediate kinship.", "He also exchanged letters with Hippolyte Taine and Georg Brandes.", "Brandes, who had started to teach the philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard in the 1870s, wrote to Nietzsche asking him to read Kierkegaard, to which Nietzsche replied that he would come to Copenhagen and read Kierkegaard with him.", "However, before fulfilling this promise, Nietzsche slipped too far into illness.", "At the beginning of 1888, Brandes delivered in Copenhagen one of the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy.Although Nietzsche had previously announced at the end of ''On the Genealogy of Morality'' a new work with the title ''The Will to Power: Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values'', he seems to have abandoned this idea and, instead, used some of the draft passages to compose ''Twilight of the Idols'' and ''The Antichrist'' in 1888.His health improved and he spent the summer in high spirits.", "In the autumn of 1888, his writings and letters began to reveal a higher estimation of his own status and \"fate\".", "He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, however, especially to the recent polemic, ''The Case of Wagner''.", "On his 44th birthday, after completing ''Twilight of the Idols'' and ''The Antichrist'', he decided to write the autobiography ''Ecce Homo''.", "In its preface—which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generate—he declares, \"Hear me!", "For I am such and such a person.", "Above all, do not mistake me for someone else.\"", "In December, Nietzsche began a correspondence with August Strindberg and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages.", "Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation ''Nietzsche contra Wagner'' and of the poems that made up his collection ''Dionysian-Dithyrambs''.=== Insanity and death (1889–1900) ===Drawing by 251x251pxOn 3 January 1889, Nietzsche suffered a mental breakdown.", "Two policemen approached him after he caused a public disturbance in the streets of Turin.", "What happened remains unknown, but an often-repeated tale from shortly after his death states that Nietzsche witnessed the flogging of a horse at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms around its neck to protect it, then collapsed to the ground.", "In the following few days, Nietzsche sent short writings—known as the ''Wahnzettel'' or ''Wahnbriefe'' (literally \"Delusion notes\" or \"letters\")—to a number of friends including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt.", "Most of them were signed \"Dionysus\", though some were also signed \"der Gekreuzigte\" meaning \"the crucified one\".", "To his former colleague Burckhardt, Nietzsche wrote:I have had Caiaphas put in fetters.", "Also, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner.", "Wilhelm, Bismarck, and all anti-Semites abolished.Additionally, he commanded the German emperor to go to Rome to be shot and summoned the European powers to take military action against Germany, writing also that the pope should be put in jail and that he, Nietzsche, created the world and was in the process of having all anti-Semites shot dead.Nietzsche in care of his sister, 1899On 6 January 1889, Burckhardt showed the letter he had received from Nietzsche to Overbeck.", "The following day, Overbeck received a similar letter and decided that Nietzsche's friends had to bring him back to Basel.", "Overbeck travelled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel.", "By that time Nietzsche appeared fully in the grip of a serious mental illness, and his mother Franziska decided to transfer him to a clinic in Jena under the direction of Otto Binswanger.", "In January 1889, they proceeded with the planned release of ''Twilight of the Idols'', by that time already printed and bound.", "From November 1889 to February 1890, the art historian Julius Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treating Nietzsche's condition.", "Langbehn assumed progressively greater control of Nietzsche until his secretiveness discredited him.", "In March 1890, Franziska removed Nietzsche from the clinic and, in May 1890, brought him to her home in Naumburg.", "During this process Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works.", "In February, they ordered a fifty-copy private edition of ''Nietzsche contra Wagner'', but the publisher C. G. Naumann secretly printed one hundred.", "Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing ''The Antichrist'' and ''Ecce Homo'' because of their more radical content.", "Nietzsche's reception and recognition enjoyed their first surge.In 1893, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth returned from Nueva Germania in Paraguay following the suicide of her husband.", "She studied Nietzsche's works and, piece by piece, took control of their publication.", "Overbeck was dismissed and Gast finally co-operated.", "After the death of Franziska in 1897, Nietzsche lived in Weimar, where Elisabeth cared for him and allowed visitors, including Rudolf Steiner (who in 1895 had written ''Friedrich Nietzsche: A Fighter Against His Time'', one of the first books praising Nietzsche), to meet her uncommunicative brother.", "Elisabeth employed Steiner as a tutor to help her to understand her brother's philosophy.", "Steiner abandoned the attempt after only a few months, declaring that it was impossible to teach her anything about philosophy.Peter Gast \"corrected\" Nietzsche's writings without his approval.\|alt=\|left\|350x350pxNietzsche's insanity was originally diagnosed as tertiary syphilis, in accordance with a prevailing medical paradigm of the time.", "Although most commentators regard his breakdown as unrelated to his philosophy, Georges Bataille dropped dark hints (\"'Man incarnate' must also go mad\") and René Girard's postmortem psychoanalysis posits a worshipful rivalry with Richard Wagner.", "Nietzsche had previously written, \"All superior men who were irresistibly drawn to throw off the yoke of any kind of morality and to frame new laws had, if they were not actually mad, no alternative but to make themselves or pretend to be mad.\"", "(Daybreak, 14) The diagnosis of syphilis has since been challenged and a diagnosis of \"manic-depressive illness with periodic psychosis followed by vascular dementia\" was put forward by Cybulska prior to Schain's study.", "Leonard Sax suggested the slow growth of a right-sided retro-orbital meningioma as an explanation of Nietzsche's dementia; Orth and Trimble postulated frontotemporal dementia while other researchers have proposed a hereditary stroke disorder called CADASIL.", "Poisoning by mercury, a treatment for syphilis at the time of Nietzsche's death, has also been suggested.In 1898 and 1899, Nietzsche suffered at least two strokes.", "They partially paralysed him, leaving him unable to speak or walk.", "He likely suffered from clinical hemiparesis/hemiplegia on the left side of his body by 1899.After contracting pneumonia in mid-August 1900, he had another stroke during the night of 24–25 August and died at about noon on 25 August.", "Elisabeth had him buried beside his father at the church in Röcken near Lützen.", "His friend and secretary Gast gave his funeral oration, proclaiming: \"Holy be your name to all future generations!", "\"Nietzsche's grave at Röcken in Germany, with the sculpture ''Das Röckener Bacchanal'' by Klaus Friedrich Messerschmidt (2000)Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche compiled ''The Will to Power'' from Nietzsche's unpublished notebooks and published it posthumously in 1901.Because his sister arranged the book based on her own conflation of several of Nietzsche's early outlines and took liberties with the material, the scholarly consensus has been that it does not reflect Nietzsche's intent.", "(For example, Elisabeth removed aphorism 35 of ''The Antichrist'', where Nietzsche rewrote a passage of the Bible.)", "Indeed, Mazzino Montinari, the editor of Nietzsche's ''Nachlass'', called it a forgery.", "Yet, the endeavour to rescue Nietzsche's reputation by discrediting ''The Will to Power'' often leads to scepticism about the value of his late notes, even of his whole ''Nachlass''.", "However, his ''Nachlass'' and ''The Will to Power'' are distinct.=== Citizenship, nationality, and ethnicity ===General commentators and Nietzsche scholars, whether emphasising his cultural background or his language, overwhelmingly label Nietzsche as a \"German philosopher.\"", "Others do not assign him a national category.", "While Germany had not yet been unified into a nation-state, Nietzsche was born a citizen of Prussia, which was mostly part of the German Confederation.", "His birthplace, Röcken, is in the modern German state of Saxony-Anhalt.", "When he accepted his post at Basel, Nietzsche applied for annulment of his Prussian citizenship.", "The official revocation of his citizenship came in a document dated 17 April 1869, and for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless.At least toward the end of his life, Nietzsche believed his ancestors were Polish.", "He wore a signet ring bearing the Radwan coat of arms, traceable back to Polish nobility of medieval times and the surname \"Nicki\" of the Polish noble (szlachta) family bearing that coat of arms.", "Gotard Nietzsche, a member of the Nicki family, left Poland for Prussia.", "His descendants later settled in the Electorate of Saxony circa the year 1700.Nietzsche wrote in 1888, \"My ancestors were Polish noblemen (Nietzky); the type seems to have been well preserved despite three generations of German mothers.\"", "At one point, Nietzsche becomes even more adamant about his Polish identity.", "\"I am a pure-blooded Polish nobleman, without a single drop of bad blood, certainly not German blood.\"", "On yet another occasion, Nietzsche stated, \"Germany is a great nation only because its people have so much Polish blood in their veins....", "I am proud of my Polish descent.\"", "Nietzsche believed his name might have been Germanised, in one letter claiming, \"I was taught to ascribe the origin of my blood and name to Polish noblemen who were called Niëtzky and left their home and nobleness about a hundred years ago, finally yielding to unbearable suppression: they were Protestants.", "\"Most scholars dispute Nietzsche's account of his family's origins.", "Hans von Müller debunked the genealogy put forward by Nietzsche's sister in favour of Polish noble heritage.", "Max Oehler, Nietzsche's cousin and curator of the Nietzsche Archive at Weimar, argued that all of Nietzsche's ancestors bore German names, including the wives' families.", "Oehler claims that Nietzsche came from a long line of German Lutheran clergymen on both sides of his family, and modern scholars regard the claim of Nietzsche's Polish ancestry as \"pure invention.\"", "Colli and Montinari, the editors of Nietzsche's assembled letters, gloss Nietzsche's claims as a \"mistaken belief\" and \"without foundation.\"", "The name ''Nietzsche'' itself is not a Polish name, but an exceptionally common one throughout central Germany, in this and cognate forms (such as ''Nitsche'' and ''Nitzke'').", "The name derives from the forename ''Nikolaus,'' abbreviated to ''Nick''; assimilated with the Slavic ''Nitz''; it first became ''Nitsche'' and then ''Nietzsche''.It is not known why Nietzsche wanted to be thought of as Polish nobility.", "According to biographer R. J. Hollingdale, Nietzsche's propagation of the Polish ancestry myth may have been part of his \"campaign against Germany.\"", "Nicholas D. More states that Nietzsche's claims of having an illustrious lineage were a parody on autobiographical conventions, and suspects ''Ecce Homo'', with its self-laudatory titles, such as \"''Why I Am So Wise''\", as being a work of satire.", "He concludes that Nietzsche's supposed Polish genealogy was a joke—not a delusion.=== Relationships and sexuality ===Nietzsche was never married.", "He proposed to Lou Salomé three times and each time was rejected.", "One theory blames Salomé's view on sexuality as one of the reasons for her alienation from Nietzsche.", "As articulated in her 1898 novella ''Fenitschka'', Salomé viewed the idea of sexual intercourse as prohibitive and marriage as a violation, with some suggesting that they indicated sexual repression and neurosis.", "Reflecting on unrequited love, Nietzsche considered that \"indispensable ... to the lover is his unrequited love, which he would at no price relinquish for a state of indifference\".Deussen cited the episode of Cologne's brothel in February 1865 as instrumental to understanding the philosopher's way of thinking, mostly about women.", "Nietzsche was surreptitiously accompanied to a \"call house\" from which he clumsily escaped upon seeing \"a half dozen apparitions dressed in sequins and veils.\"", "According to Deussen, Nietzsche \"never decided to remain unmarried all his life.", "For him, women had to sacrifice themselves to the care and benefit of men.\"", "Nietzsche scholar has attempted to explain Nietzsche's life history and philosophy by claiming that he was homosexual.", "Köhler argues that Nietzsche's supposed syphilis, which is \"...usually considered to be the product of his encounter with a prostitute in a brothel in Cologne or Leipzig, is equally likely.", "Some maintain that Nietzsche contracted it in a male brothel in Genoa.\"", "The acquisition of the infection from a homosexual brothel was the theory believed by Sigmund Freud, who cited Otto Binswanger as his source.", "Köhler also suggests that Nietzsche had a romantic relationship, as well as a friendship, with Paul Rée.", "There is the claim that Nietzsche's homosexuality was widely known in the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, with Nietzsche's friend Paul Deussen claiming that \"he was a man who had never touched a woman.", "\"Köhler's views have not found wide acceptance among Nietzsche scholars and commentators.", "Allan Megill argues that, while Köhler's claim that Nietzsche was conflicted about his homosexual desire cannot simply be dismissed, \"the evidence is very weak,\" and Köhler may be projecting twentieth-century understandings of sexuality on nineteenth-century notions of friendship.", "It is also rumoured that Nietzsche frequented heterosexual brothels.", "Nigel Rodgers and Mel Thompson have argued that continuous sickness and headaches hindered Nietzsche from engaging much with women.", "Yet they offer other examples in which Nietzsche expressed his affections to women, including Wagner's wife Cosima Wagner.Other scholars have argued that Köhler's sexuality-based interpretation is not helpful in understanding Nietzsche's philosophy.", "However, there are also those who stress that, if Nietzsche preferred men—with this preference constituting his psycho-sexual make-up—but could not admit his desires to himself, it meant he acted in conflict with his philosophy." ], [ "Philosophy", "Because of Nietzsche's evocative style and provocative ideas, his philosophy generates passionate reactions.", "His works remain controversial, due to varying interpretations and misinterpretations.", "In Western philosophy, Nietzsche's writings have been described as a case of free revolutionary thought, that is, revolutionary in its structure and problems, although not tied to any revolutionary project.", "His writings have also been described as a revolutionary project in which his philosophy serves as the foundation of a European cultural rebirth.=== Apollonian and Dionysian ===The ''Apollonian and Dionysian'' is a two-fold philosophical concept based on two figures in ancient Greek mythology, Apollo and Dionysus.", "This relationship takes the form of a dialectic.", "Even though the concept is related to ''The Birth of Tragedy'', the poet Hölderlin had already spoken of it, and Winckelmann had talked of Bacchus.Nietzsche found in classical Athenian tragedy an art form that transcended the pessimism found in the so-called wisdom of Silenus.", "The Greek spectators, by looking into the abyss of human suffering depicted by characters on stage, passionately and joyously affirmed life, finding it worth living.", "The main theme in ''The Birth of Tragedy'' is that the fusion of Dionysian and Apollonian ''Kunsttriebe'' (\"artistic impulses\") forms dramatic arts or tragedies.", "He argued that this fusion has not been achieved since the ancient Greek tragedians.", "Apollo represents harmony, progress, clarity, logic and the principle of individuation, whereas Dionysus represents disorder, intoxication, emotion, ecstasy and unity (hence the omission of the principle of individuation).", "Nietzsche used these two forces because, for him, the world of mind and order on one side, and passion and chaos on the other, formed principles that were fundamental to the Greek culture: the Apollonian a dreaming state, full of illusions; and Dionysian a state of intoxication, representing the liberations of instinct and dissolution of boundaries.", "In this mould, a man appears as the satyr.", "He is the horror of the annihilation of the principle of individuality and at the same time someone who delights in its destruction.Apollonian and Dionysian juxtapositions appear in the interplay of tragedy: the tragic hero of the drama, the main protagonist, struggles to make (Apollonian) order of his unjust and chaotic (Dionysian) fate, though he dies unfulfilled.", "Elaborating on the conception of Hamlet as an intellectual who cannot make up his mind, and is a living antithesis to the man of action, Nietzsche argues that a Dionysian figure possesses the knowledge that his actions cannot change the eternal balance of things, and it disgusts him enough not to act at all.", "Hamlet falls under this category—he glimpsed the supernatural reality through the Ghost; he has gained true knowledge and knows that no action of his has the power to change this.", "For the audience of such drama, this tragedy allows them to sense what Nietzsche called the ''Primordial Unity'', which revives Dionysian nature.", "He describes primordial unity as the increase of strength, the experience of fullness and plenitude bestowed by frenzy.", "Frenzy acts as intoxication and is crucial for the physiological condition that enables the creation of any art.", "Stimulated by this state, a person's artistic will is enhanced:In this state one enriches everything out of one's own fullness: whatever one sees, whatever wills is seen swelled, taut, strong, overloaded with strength.", "A man in this state transforms things until they mirror his power—until they are reflections of his perfection.", "This having to transform into perfection is—art.Nietzsche is adamant that the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles represent the apex of artistic creation, the true realisation of tragedy; it is with Euripides, that tragedy begins its ''Untergang'' (literally 'going under' or 'downward-way;' meaning decline, deterioration, downfall, death, etc.).", "Nietzsche objects to Euripides' use of Socratic rationalism and morality in his tragedies, claiming that the infusion of ethics and reason robs tragedy of its foundation, namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian.", "Socrates emphasised reason to such a degree that he diffused the value of myth and suffering to human knowledge.", "Plato continued along this path in his dialogues, and the modern world eventually inherited reason at the expense of artistic impulses found in the Apollonian and Dionysian dichotomy.", "He notes that without the Apollonian, the Dionysian lacks the form and structure to make a coherent piece of art, and without the Dionysian, the Apollonian lacks the necessary vitality and passion.", "Only the fertile interplay of these two forces brought together as an art represented the best of Greek tragedy.An example of the impact of this idea can be seen in the book ''Patterns of Culture'', where anthropologist Ruth Benedict acknowledges Nietzschean opposites of \"Apollonian\" and \"Dionysian\" as the stimulus for her thoughts about Native American cultures.", "Carl Jung has written extensively on the dichotomy in ''Psychological Types''.", "Michel Foucault commented that his own book ''Madness and Civilization'' should be read \"under the sun of the great Nietzschean inquiry\".", "Here Foucault referenced Nietzsche's description of the birth and death of tragedy and his explanation that the subsequent tragedy of the Western world was the refusal of the tragic and, with that, refusal of the sacred.", "Painter Mark Rothko was influenced by Nietzsche's view of tragedy presented in ''The Birth of Tragedy.", "''=== Perspectivism ===Nietzsche claimed the death of God would eventually lead to the realisation that there can never be a universal perspective on things and that the traditional idea of objective truth is incoherent.", "Nietzsche rejected the idea of objective reality, arguing that knowledge is contingent and conditional, relative to various fluid perspectives or interests.", "This leads to constant reassessment of rules (i.e., those of philosophy, the scientific method, etc.)", "according to the circumstances of individual perspectives.", "This view has acquired the name ''perspectivism''.In ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'', Nietzsche proclaimed that a table of values hangs above every great person.", "He pointed out that what is common among different peoples is the act of esteeming, of creating values, even if the values are different from one person to the next.", "Nietzsche asserted that what made people great was not the content of their beliefs, but the act of valuing.", "Thus the values a community strives to articulate are not as important as the collective will to see those values come to pass.", "The willingness is more essential than the merit of the goal itself, according to Nietzsche.", "\"A thousand goals have there been so far\", says Zarathustra, \"for there are a thousand peoples.", "Only the yoke for the thousand necks is still lacking: the one goal is lacking.", "Humanity still has no goal.\"", "Hence, the title of the aphorism, \"On The Thousand And One Goal\".", "The idea that one value-system is no more worthy than the next, although it may not be directly ascribed to Nietzsche, has become a common premise in modern social science.", "Max Weber and Martin Heidegger absorbed it and made it their own.", "It shaped their philosophical and cultural endeavours, as well as their political understanding.", "Weber, for example, relied on Nietzsche's perspectivism by maintaining that objectivity is still possible—but only after a particular perspective, value, or end has been established.Among his critique of traditional philosophy of Kant, Descartes, and Plato in ''Beyond Good and Evil'', Nietzsche attacked the ''thing in itself'' and ''cogito ergo sum'' (\"I think, therefore I am\") as unfalsifiable beliefs based on naive acceptance of previous notions and fallacies.", "Philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre put Nietzsche in a high place in the history of philosophy.", "While criticising nihilism and Nietzsche together as a sign of general decay, he still commended him for recognising psychological motives behind Kant and Hume's moral philosophy:For it was Nietzsche's historic achievement to understand more clearly than any other philosopher ... not only that what purported to be appeals of objectivity were in fact expressions of subjective will, but also the nature of the problems that this posed for philosophy.=== Slave revolt in morals ===In ''Beyond Good and Evil'' and ''On the Genealogy of Morality'', Nietzsche's genealogical account of the development of modern moral systems occupies a central place.", "For Nietzsche, a fundamental shift took place during the human history from thinking in terms of \"good and bad\" toward \"good and evil\".The initial form of morality was set by a warrior aristocracy and other ruling castes of ancient civilisations.", "Aristocratic values of good and bad coincided with and reflected their relationship to lower castes such as slaves.", "Nietzsche presented this \"master morality\" as the original system of morality—perhaps best associated with Homeric Greece.", "To be \"good\" was to be happy and to have the things related to happiness: wealth, strength, health, power, etc.", "To be \"bad\" was to be like the slaves over whom the aristocracy ruled: poor, weak, sick, pathetic—objects of pity or disgust rather than hatred.", "\"Slave morality\" developed as a reaction to master morality.", "Value emerges from the contrast between good and evil: good being associated with other-worldliness, charity, piety, restraint, meekness, and submission; while evil is worldly, cruel, selfish, wealthy, and aggressive.", "Nietzsche saw slave morality as pessimistic and fearful, its values emerging to improve the self-perception of slaves.", "He associated slave morality with the Jewish and Christian traditions, as it is born out of the ''ressentiment'' of slaves.", "Nietzsche argued that the idea of equality allowed slaves to overcome their own conditions without despising themselves.", "By denying the inherent inequality of people—in success, strength, beauty, and intelligence—slaves acquired a method of escape, namely by generating new values on the basis of rejecting master morality, which frustrated them.", "It was used to overcome the slave's sense of inferiority before their (better-off) masters.", "It does so by depicting slave weakness, for example, as a matter of choice, by relabelling it as \"meekness\".", "The \"good man\" of master morality is precisely the \"evil man\" of slave morality, while the \"bad man\" is recast as the \"good man\".Nietzsche saw slave morality as a source of the nihilism that has overtaken Europe.", "Modern Europe and Christianity exist in a hypocritical state due to a tension between master and slave morality, both contradictory values determining, to varying degrees, the values of most Europeans (who are \"motley\").", "Nietzsche called for exceptional people not to be ashamed in the face of a supposed morality-for-all, which he deems to be harmful to the flourishing of exceptional people.", "He cautioned, however, that morality, per se, is not bad; it is good for the masses and should be left to them.", "Exceptional people, in contrast, should follow their own \"inner law\".", "A favourite motto of Nietzsche, taken from Pindar, reads: \"Become what you are.", "\"A long-standing assumption about Nietzsche is that he preferred master over slave morality.", "However, eminent Nietzsche scholar Walter Kaufmann rejected this interpretation, writing that Nietzsche's analyses of these two types of morality were used only in a descriptive and historic sense; they were not meant for any kind of acceptance or glorification.", "On the other hand, Nietzsche called master morality \"a higher order of values, the noble ones, those that say Yes to life, those that guarantee the future\".", "Just as \"there is an order of rank between man and man\", there is also an order of rank \"between morality and morality\".", "Nietzsche waged a philosophic war against the slave morality of Christianity in his \"revaluation of all values\" to bring about the victory of a new master morality that he called the \"philosophy of the future\" (''Beyond Good and Evil'' is subtitled ''Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future'').In ''Daybreak'', Nietzsche began his \"Campaign against Morality\".", "He called himself an \"immoralist\" and harshly criticised the prominent moral philosophies of his day: Christianity, Kantianism, and utilitarianism.", "Nietzsche's concept \"God is dead\" applies to the doctrines of Christendom, though not to all other faiths: he claimed that Buddhism is a successful religion that he complimented for fostering critical thought.", "Still, Nietzsche saw his philosophy as a counter-movement to nihilism through appreciation of art:Nietzsche claimed that the Christian faith as practised was not a proper representation of Jesus' teachings, as it forced people merely to believe in the way of Jesus but not to act as Jesus did; in particular, his example of refusing to judge people, something that Christians constantly did.", "He condemned institutionalised Christianity for emphasising a morality of pity (''Mitleid''), which assumes an inherent illness in society:In ''Ecce Homo'' Nietzsche called the establishment of moral systems based on a dichotomy of good and evil a \"calamitous error\", and wished to initiate a re-evaluation of the values of the Christian world.", "He indicated his desire to bring about a new, more naturalistic source of value in the vital impulses of life itself.While Nietzsche attacked the principles of Judaism, he was not antisemitic: in his work ''On the Genealogy of Morality'', he explicitly condemned antisemitism and pointed out that his attack on Judaism was not an attack on contemporary Jewish people but specifically an attack upon the ancient Jewish priesthood who he claimed antisemitic Christians paradoxically based their views upon.", "An Israeli historian who performed a statistical analysis of everything Nietzsche wrote about Jews claims that cross-references and context make clear that 85% of the negative comments are attacks on Christian doctrine or, sarcastically, on Richard Wagner.Nietzsche felt that modern antisemitism was \"despicable\" and contrary to European ideals.", "Its cause, in his opinion, was the growth in European nationalism and the endemic \"jealousy and hatred\" of Jewish success.", "He wrote that Jews should be thanked for helping uphold a respect for the philosophies of ancient Greece, and for giving rise to \"the noblest human being (Christ), the purest philosopher (Baruch Spinoza), the mightiest book, and the most effective moral code in the world\".=== Death of God and nihilism ===The statement \"God is dead,\" occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in ''The Gay Science''), has become one of his best-known remarks.", "On the basis of it, many commentators regard Nietzsche as an atheist; others (such as Kaufmann) suggest that this statement might reflect a more subtle understanding of divinity.", "Scientific developments and the increasing secularisation of Europe had effectively 'killed' the Abrahamic God, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years.", "The death of God may lead beyond bare perspectivism to outright nihilism, the belief that nothing has any inherent importance and that life lacks purpose.", "While Nietzsche rejected the traditional Christian morality and theology, he also rejected the nihilism which many thought was the only alternative to it.Nietzsche believed that Christian moral doctrine was originally constructed to counteract nihilism.", "It provides people with traditional beliefs about the moral values of good and evil, belief in God (whose existence one might appeal to in justifying the evil in the world), and a framework with which one might claim to have objective knowledge.", "In constructing a world where objective knowledge is supposed to be possible, Christianity is an antidote to a primal form of nihilism—the despair of meaninglessness.", "As Heidegger put the problem, \"If God as the supra sensory ground and goal of all reality is dead if the supra sensory world of the ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalising and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself.", "\"One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Nietzsche called ''passive nihilism'', which he recognised in the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer.", "Schopenhauer's doctrine—which Nietzsche also referred to as Western Buddhism—advocates separating oneself from will and desires to reduce suffering.", "Nietzsche characterised this ascetic attitude as a \"will to nothingness\".", "Life turns away from itself as there is nothing of value to be found in the world.", "This moving away of all value in the world is characteristic of the nihilist, although, in this, the nihilist appears to be inconsistent; this \"will to nothingness\" is still a (disavowed) form of willing.Nietzsche approached the problem of nihilism as a deeply personal one, stating that this problem of the modern world had \"become conscious\" in him.", "Furthermore, he emphasised the danger of nihilism and the possibilities it offers, as seen in his statement that \"I praise, I do not reproach, nihilism's arrival.", "I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity.", "Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes a master of this crisis, is a question of his strength!\"", "According to Nietzsche, it is only when nihilism is ''overcome'' that a culture can have a true foundation on which to thrive.", "He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure.", "Heidegger interpreted the death of God with what he explained as the death of metaphysics.", "He concluded that metaphysics has reached its potential and that the ultimate fate and downfall of metaphysics was proclaimed with the statement \"God is dead.", "\"Scholars such as Nishitani and Parkes have aligned Nietzsche's religious thought with Buddhist thinkers, particularly those of the Mahayana tradition.", "Occasionally, Nietzsche has also been considered in relation to Catholic mystics such as Meister Eckhart.", "Milne has argued against such interpretations on the grounds that such thinkers from Western and Eastern religious traditions strongly emphasise the divestment of will and the loss of ego, while Nietzsche offers a robust defence of egoism.", "Milne argues that Nietzsche's religious thought is better understood in relation to his self-professed ancestors: “Heraclitus, Empedocles, Spinoza, Goethe\".", "Milne plays particularly close attention to Nietzsche’s relationship to Goethe, who has typically been neglected in research by academic philosophers.", "Milne shows that Goethe’s views on the one and the many allow a reciprocal determinism between part and whole, meaning that a claimed identity between part and whole does not give the part value solely in terms of belonging to the whole.", "In essence, this allows for a unitive sense of the individual’s relationship to the universe, while also fostering a sense of “self-esteem” which Nietzsche found lacking in mystics such as Eckhart.With regard to Nietzsche's development of thought, it has been noted in research that although he dealt with \"nihilistic\" themes (\"pessimism, with nirvana and with nothingness and non-being\") from 1869 onwards, a conceptual use of nihilism first took place in handwritten notes in mid-1880.This period saw the publication of a then popular work that reconstructed so-called \"Russian nihilism\" on the basis of Russian newspaper reports (N. Karlowitsch: The Development of Nihilism.", "Berlin 1880), which is significant for Nietzsche's terminology .=== Will to power ===A basic element in Nietzsche's philosophical outlook is the \"will to power\" (), which he maintained provides a basis for understanding human behaviour—more so than competing explanations, such as the ones based on pressure for adaptation or survival.", "As such, according to Nietzsche, the drive for conservation appears as the major motivator of human or animal behaviour only in exceptions, as the general condition of life is not one of a 'struggle for existence.'", "More often than not, self-conservation is a consequence of a creature's will to exert its strength on the outside world.In presenting his theory of human behaviour, Nietzsche also addressed and attacked concepts from philosophies then popularly embraced, such as Schopenhauer's notion of an aimless will or that of utilitarianism.", "Utilitarians claim that what moves people is the desire to be happy and accumulate pleasure in their lives.", "But such a conception of happiness Nietzsche rejected as something limited to, and characteristic of, the bourgeois lifestyle of the English society, and instead put forth the idea that happiness is not an aim ''per se''.", "It is a consequence of overcoming hurdles to one's actions and the fulfilment of the will.Related to his theory of the will to power is his speculation, which he did not deem final, regarding the reality of the physical world, including inorganic matter—that, like man's affections and impulses, the material world is also set by the dynamics of a form of the will to power.", "At the core of his theory is a rejection of atomism—the idea that matter is composed of stable, indivisible units (atoms).", "Instead, he seemed to have accepted the conclusions of Ruđer Bošković, who explained the qualities of matter as a result of an interplay of forces.", "One study of Nietzsche defines his fully developed concept of the will to power as \"the element from which derive both the quantitative difference of related forces and the quality that devolves into each force in this relation\" revealing the will to power as \"the principle of the synthesis of forces\".", "Of such forces Nietzsche said they could perhaps be viewed as a primitive form of the will.", "Likewise, he rejected the view that the movement of bodies is ruled by inexorable laws of nature, positing instead that movement was governed by the power relations between bodies and forces.Other scholars disagree that Nietzsche considered the material world to be a form of the will to power: Nietzsche thoroughly criticised metaphysics, and by including the will to power in the material world, he would simply be setting up a new metaphysics.", "Other than Aphorism 36 in ''Beyond Good and Evil'', where he raised a question regarding will to power as being in the material world, they argue, it was only in his notes (unpublished by himself), where he wrote about a metaphysical will to power.", "And they also claim that Nietzsche directed his landlord to burn those notes in 1888 when he left Sils Maria.", "According to these scholars, the \"burning\" story supports their thesis that Nietzsche rejected his project on the will to power at the end of his lucid life.", "However, a recent study (Huang 2019) shows that although it is true that in 1888 Nietzsche wanted some of his notes burned, this indicates little about his project on the will to power, not only because only 11 \"aphorisms\" saved from the flames were ultimately incorporated into ''The Will to Power'' (this book contains 1067 \"aphorisms\"), but also because these abandoned notes mainly focus on topics such as the critique of morality while touching upon the \"feeling of power\" only once.=== Eternal return ===\"Eternal return\" (also known as \"eternal recurrence\") is a hypothetical concept that posits that the universe has been recurring, and will continue to recur, for an infinite number of times across infinite time or space.", "It is a purely physical concept, involving no supernatural reincarnation, but the return of beings in the same bodies.", "Nietzsche first proposed the idea of eternal return in a parable in Section 341 of ''The Gay Science'', and also in the chapter \"Of the Vision and the Riddle\" in ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'', among other places.", "Nietzsche considered it as potentially \"horrifying and paralyzing\", and said that its burden is the \"heaviest weight\" imaginable (\"'' das schwerste Gewicht''\").", "The wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of life, a reaction to Schopenhauer's praise of denying the will-to-live.", "To comprehend eternal recurrence, and to not only come to peace with it but to embrace it, requires ''amor fati'', \"love of fate\".", "As Heidegger pointed out in his lectures on Nietzsche, Nietzsche's first mention of eternal recurrence presents this concept as a hypothetical ''question'' rather than stating it as fact.", "According to Heidegger, it is the burden imposed by the ''question'' of eternal recurrence – the mere possibility of it, and the reality of speculating on that possibility – which is so significant in modern thought: \"The way Nietzsche here patterns the first communication of the thought of the 'greatest burden' of eternal recurrence makes it clear that this 'thought of thoughts' is at the same time 'the most burdensome thought.", "'\"Alexander Nehamas writes in ''Nietzsche: Life as Literature'' of three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence:# \"My life will recur in exactly identical fashion:\" this expresses a totally fatalistic approach to the idea;# \"My life may recur in exactly identical fashion:\" This second view conditionally asserts cosmology, but fails to capture what Nietzsche refers to in ''The Gay Science'', p. 341; and finally,# \"If my life were to recur, then it could recur only in identical fashion.\"", "Nehamas shows that this interpretation exists totally independently of physics and does not presuppose the truth of cosmology.Nehamas concluded that, if individuals constitute themselves through their actions, they can only maintain themselves in their current state by living in a recurrence of past actions (Nehamas, 153).", "Nietzsche's thought is the negation of the idea of a history of salvation.=== Übermensch ===Another concept important to understanding Nietzsche is the ''Übermensch'' (Superman).", "Writing about nihilism in ''Also Sprach Zarathustra'', Nietzsche introduced an ''Übermensch''.", "According to Laurence Lampert, \"the death of God must be followed by a long twilight of piety and nihilism (II.", "19; III.", "8).", "Zarathustra's gift of the overman is given to mankind not aware of the problem to which the overman is the solution.\"", "Zarathustra presents the ''Übermensch'' as the creator of new values, and he appears as a solution to the problem of the death of God and nihilism.", "The ''Übermensch'' does not follow the morality of common people since that favours mediocrity but rises above the notion of good and evil and above the \"herd\".", "In this way Zarathustra proclaims his ultimate goal as the journey towards the state of the ''Übermensch''.", "He wants a kind of spiritual evolution of self-awareness and overcoming of traditional views on morality and justice that stem from the superstitious beliefs still deeply rooted or related to the notion of God and Christianity.From ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' (Zarathustra's Prologue; pp.", "9–11):Zarathustra contrasts the ''Übermensch'' with the last man of egalitarian modernity (the most obvious example being democracy), an alternative goal humanity might set for itself.", "The last man is possible only by mankind's having bred an apathetic creature who has no great passion or commitment, who is unable to dream, who merely earns his living and keeps warm.", "This concept appears only in ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'', and is presented as a condition that would render the creation of the ''Übermensch'' impossible.Some have suggested that the eternal return is related to the , since willing the eternal return of the same is a necessary step if the is to create new values untainted by the spirit of gravity or asceticism.", "Values involve a rank-ordering of things, and so are inseparable from approval and disapproval, yet it was dissatisfaction that prompted men to seek refuge in other-worldliness and embrace other-worldly values.", "It could seem that the , in being devoted to any values at all, would necessarily fail to create values that did not share some bit of asceticism.", "Willing the eternal recurrence is presented as accepting the existence of the low while still recognising it as the low, and thus as overcoming the spirit of gravity or asceticism.", "One must have the strength of the to will the eternal recurrence.", "Only the will have the strength to fully accept all of his past life, including his failures and misdeeds, and to truly will their eternal return.", "This action nearly kills Zarathustra, for example, and most human beings cannot avoid other-worldliness because they really are sick, not because of any choice they made.", "9 April 1939: \"What does not kill me makes me stronger.", "\"The Nazis attempted to incorporate the concept into their ideology by means of taking Nietzsche's figurative form of speech and creating a literal superiority over other ethnicities.", "After his death, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche became the curator and editor of her brother's manuscripts.", "She reworked Nietzsche's unpublished writings to fit her own German nationalist ideology while often contradicting or obfuscating Nietzsche's stated opinions, which were explicitly opposed to antisemitism and nationalism.", "Through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with fascism and Nazism; 20th-century scholars contested this interpretation of his work and corrected editions of his writings were soon made available.Although Nietzsche has been misrepresented as a predecessor to Nazism, he criticised antisemitism, pan-Germanism and, to a lesser extent, nationalism.", "Thus, he broke with his editor in 1886 because of his opposition to his editor's antisemitic stances, and his rupture with Richard Wagner, expressed in ''The Case of Wagner'' and ''Nietzsche contra Wagner'', both of which he wrote in 1888, had much to do with Wagner's endorsement of pan-Germanism and antisemitism—and also of his rallying to Christianity.", "In a 29 March 1887 letter to Theodor Fritsch, Nietzsche mocked antisemites, Fritsch, Eugen Dühring, Wagner, Ebrard, Wahrmund, and the leading advocate of pan-Germanism, Paul de Lagarde, who would become, along with Wagner and Houston Chamberlain, the main official influences of Nazism.", "This 1887 letter to Fritsch ended by: \"And finally, how do you think I feel when the name Zarathustra is mouthed by anti-Semites?\"", "In contrast to these examples, Nietzsche's close friend Franz Overbeck recalled in his memoirs, \"When hespeaks frankly, the opinions he expresses about Jews go, in their severity, beyond any anti-Semitism.", "The foundation of his anti-Christianity is essentially anti-Semitic.", "\"=== Critique of mass culture ===Friedrich Nietzsche held a pessimistic view of modern society and culture.", "He believed the press and mass culture led to conformity, brought about mediocrity, and the lack of intellectual progress was leading to the decline of the human species.", "In his opinion, some people would be able to become superior individuals through the use of willpower.", "By rising above mass culture, those persons would produce higher, brighter, and healthier human beings." ], [ "Reading and influence", "The residence of Nietzsche's last three years along with archive in Weimar, Germany, which holds many of Nietzsche's papersA trained philologist, Nietzsche had a thorough knowledge of Greek philosophy.", "He read Kant, Plato, Mill, Schopenhauer and Spir, who became the main opponents in his philosophy, and later engaged, via the work of Kuno Fischer in particular, with the thought of Baruch Spinoza, whom he saw as his \"precursor\" in many respects but as a personification of the \"ascetic ideal\" in others.", "However, Nietzsche referred to Kant as a \"moral fanatic\", Plato as \"boring\", Mill as a \"blockhead\", and of Spinoza, he asked: \"How much of personal timidity and vulnerability does this masquerade of a sickly recluse betray?\"", "He likewise expressed contempt for British author George Eliot.Nietzsche's philosophy, while innovative and revolutionary, was indebted to many predecessors.", "While at Basel, Nietzsche lectured on pre-Platonic philosophers for several years, and the text of this lecture series has been characterised as a \"lost link\" in the development of his thought.", "\"In it, concepts such as the will to power, the eternal return of the same, the overman, gay science, self-overcoming and so on receive rough, unnamed formulations and are linked to specific pre-Platonic, especially Heraclitus, who emerges as a pre-Platonic Nietzsche.\"", "The pre-Socratic thinker Heraclitus was known for rejecting the concept of being as a constant and eternal principle of the universe and embracing \"flux\" and incessant change.", "His symbolism of the world as \"child play\" marked by amoral spontaneity and lack of definite rules was appreciated by Nietzsche.", "Due to his Heraclitean sympathies, Nietzsche was also a vociferous critic of Parmenides, who, in contrast to Heraclitus, viewed the world as a single, unchanging Being.In his ''Egotism in German Philosophy'', George Santayana claimed that Nietzsche's whole philosophy was a reaction to Schopenhauer.", "Santayana wrote that Nietzsche's work was \"an emendation of that of Schopenhauer.", "The will to live would become the will to dominate; pessimism founded on reflection would become optimism founded on courage; the suspense of the will in contemplation would yield to a more biological account of intelligence and taste; finally in the place of pity and asceticism (Schopenhauer's two principles of morals) Nietzsche would set up the duty of asserting the will at all costs and being cruelly but beautifully strong.", "These points of difference from Schopenhauer cover the whole philosophy of Nietzsche.", "\"The superficial similarity of Nietzsche's ''Übermensch'' to Thomas Carlyle's Hero as well as both authors' rhetorical prose style has led to speculation concerning the degree to which Nietzsche might have been influenced by his reading of Carlyle.", "G. K. Chesterton believed that \"Out of Carlyle flows most of the philosophy of Nietzsche\", qualifying his statement by adding that they were \"profoundly different\" in character.", "Ruth apRoberts has shown that Carlyle anticipated Nietzsche in asserting the importance of metaphor (with Nietzsche's metaphor-fiction theory \"appearing to owe something to Carlyle\"), announcing the death of God, and recognising both Goethe's ''Entsagen'' (renunciation) and Novalis's ''Selbsttödtung'' (self-annihilation) as prerequisites for engaging in philosophy.", "apRoberts writes that \"Nietzsche and Carlyle had the same German sources, but Nietzsche may owe more to Carlyle than he cares to admit\", noting that \"Nietzsche takes the trouble to repudiate Carlyle with malicious emphasis.\"", "Ralph Jessop, senior lecturer at the University of Glasgow, has recently argued that a reassessment of Carlyle's influence on Nietzsche is \"long-overdue\".Nietzsche expressed admiration for 17th-century French moralists such as La Rochefoucauld, La Bruyère and Vauvenargues, as well as for Stendhal.", "The organicism of Paul Bourget influenced Nietzsche, as did that of Rudolf Virchow and Alfred Espinas.", "In 1867 Nietzsche wrote in a letter that he was trying to improve his German style of writing with the help of Lessing, Lichtenberg and Schopenhauer.", "It was probably Lichtenberg (along with Paul Rée) whose aphoristic style of writing contributed to Nietzsche's own use of aphorism.", "Nietzsche early learned of Darwinism through Friedrich Albert Lange.", "The essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson had a profound influence on Nietzsche, who \"loved Emerson from first to last\", wrote \"Never have I felt so much at home in a book\", and called him \"the author who has been richest in ideas in this century so far\".", "Hippolyte Taine influenced Nietzsche's view on Rousseau and Napoleon.", "Notably, he also read some of the posthumous works of Charles Baudelaire, Tolstoy's ''My Religion'', Ernest Renan's ''Life of Jesus'', and Fyodor Dostoyevsky's ''Demons''.", "Nietzsche called Dostoyevsky \"the only psychologist from whom I have anything to learn\".", "While Nietzsche never mentions Max Stirner, the similarities in their ideas have prompted a minority of interpreters to suggest a relationship between the two.In 1861, Nietzsche wrote an enthusiastic essay on his \"favorite poet,\" Friedrich Hölderlin, mostly forgotten at that time.", "He also expressed deep appreciation for Stifter's ''Indian Summer'', Byron's ''Manfred'' and Twain's ''Tom Sawyer''.A Louis Jacolliot translation of the Calcutta version of the ancient Hindu text called the Manusmriti was reviewed by Friedrich Nietzsche.", "He commented on it both favourably and unfavorably:He deemed it \"an incomparably spiritual and superior work\" to the Christian Bible, observed that \"the sun shines on the whole book\" and attributed its ethical perspective to \"the noble classes, the philosophers and warriors, who stand above the mass\".", "Nietzsche does not advocate a caste system, states David Conway, but endorses the political exclusion conveyed in the Manu text.", "Nietzsche considered Manu's social order as far from perfect, but considers the general idea of a caste system to be natural and right, and stated that \"caste-order, order of rank is just a formula for the supreme law of life itself\", a \"natural order, lawfulness par excellence\".", "According to Nietzsche, states Julian Young, \"Nature, not Manu, separates from each other: predominantly spiritual people, people characterized by muscular and temperamental strength, and a third group of people who are not distinguished in either way, the average\".", "He wrote that \"To prepare a book of law in the style of Manu means to give a people the right to become master one day, to become perfect, – to aspire to the highest art of life.", "\"The Law of Manu was also criticised by Nietzsche.", "Nietzsche writes, \"these regulations teach us enough, in them we find for once Aryan humanity, quite pure, quite primordial, we learn that the concept of pure blood is the opposite of a harmless concept.\"" ], [ "Reception and legacy", "Portrait of Nietzsche by Edvard Munch, 1906Nietzsche's works did not reach a wide readership during his active writing career.", "However, in 1888 the influential Danish critic Georg Brandes aroused considerable excitement about Nietzsche through a series of lectures he gave at the University of Copenhagen.", "In the years after Nietzsche's death in 1900, his works became better known, and readers have responded to them in complex and sometimes controversial ways.", "Many Germans eventually discovered his appeals for greater individualism and personality development in ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'', but responded to them divergently.", "He had some following among left-wing Germans in the 1890s; in 1894–1895 German conservatives wanted to ban his work as subversive.", "During the late 19th century Nietzsche's ideas were commonly associated with anarchist movements and appear to have had influence within them, particularly in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States.", "Gustav Landauer is credited with the most in-depth appreciation and critique of Nietzsche's ideas from an anarchist perspective.", "H.L.", "Mencken produced the first book on Nietzsche in English in 1907, ''The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche'', and in 1910 a book of translated paragraphs from Nietzsche, increasing knowledge of his philosophy in the United States.", "Nietzsche is known today as a precursor to existentialism, post-structuralism and postmodernism.W.", "B. Yeats and Arthur Symons described Nietzsche as the intellectual heir to William Blake.", "Symons went on to compare the ideas of the two thinkers in ''The Symbolist Movement in Literature'', while Yeats tried to raise awareness of Nietzsche in Ireland.", "A similar notion was espoused by W. H. Auden who wrote of Nietzsche in his ''New Year Letter'' (released in 1941 in ''The Double Man''): \"O masterly debunker of our liberal fallacies ... all your life you stormed, like your English forerunner Blake.\"", "Nietzsche made an impact on composers during the 1890s.", "Writer Donald Mitchell noted that Gustav Mahler was \"attracted to the poetic fire of Zarathustra, but repelled by the intellectual core of its writings\".", "He also quoted Mahler himself, and adds that he was influenced by Nietzsche's conception and affirmative approach to nature, which Mahler presented in his Third Symphony using Zarathustra's roundelay.", "Frederick Delius produced a piece of choral music, ''A Mass of Life'', based on a text of ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'', while Richard Strauss (who also based his ''Also sprach Zarathustra'' on the same book), was only interested in finishing \"another chapter of symphonic autobiography\".", "Writers and poets influenced by Nietzsche include André Gide, August Strindberg, Robinson Jeffers, Pío Baroja, D.H. Lawrence, Edith Södergran and Yukio Mishima.Nietzsche was an early influence on the poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke.", "Knut Hamsun counted Nietzsche, along with Strindberg and Dostoyevsky, as his primary influences.", "Author Jack London wrote that he was more stimulated by Nietzsche than by any other writer.", "Critics have suggested that the character of David Grief in ''A Son of the Sun'' was based on Nietzsche.", "Nietzsche's influence on Muhammad Iqbal is most evidenced in ''Asrar-i-Khudi'' (''The Secrets of the Self'').", "Wallace Stevens was another reader of Nietzsche, and elements of Nietzsche's philosophy were found throughout Stevens's poetry collection ''Harmonium''.", "Olaf Stapledon was influenced by the idea of the and it is a central theme in his books ''Odd John'' and ''Sirius''.", "In Russia, Nietzsche influenced Russian symbolism and figures such as Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Andrei Bely, Vyacheslav Ivanov and Alexander Scriabin incorporated or discussed parts of Nietzsche philosophy in their works.", "Thomas Mann's novel ''Death in Venice'' shows a use of Apollonian and Dionysian, and in ''Doctor Faustus'' Nietzsche was a central source for the character of Adrian Leverkühn.", "Hermann Hesse, similarly, in his ''Narcissus and Goldmund'' presents two main characters as opposite yet intertwined Apollonian and Dionysian spirits.", "Painter Giovanni Segantini was fascinated by ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'', and he drew an illustration for the first Italian translation of the book.", "The Russian painter Lena Hades created the oil painting cycle ''Also Sprach Zarathustra'' dedicated to the book ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''.By World War I, Nietzsche had acquired a reputation as an inspiration for right-wing German militarism and leftist politics.", "German soldiers received copies of ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' as gifts during World War I.", "The Dreyfus affair provided a contrasting example of his reception: the French antisemitic Right labelled the Jewish and leftist intellectuals who defended Alfred Dreyfus as \"Nietzscheans\".", "Nietzsche had a distinct appeal for many Zionist thinkers around the start of the 20th century, most notable being Ahad Ha'am, Hillel Zeitlin, Micha Josef Berdyczewski, A.D. Gordon and Martin Buber, who went so far as to extoll Nietzsche as a \"creator\" and \"emissary of life\".", "Chaim Weizmann was a great admirer of Nietzsche; the first president of Israel sent Nietzsche's books to his wife, adding a comment in a letter that \"This was the best and finest thing I can send to you.\"", "Israel Eldad, the ideological chief of the Stern Gang that fought the British in Palestine in the 1940s, wrote about Nietzsche in his underground newspaper and later translated most of Nietzsche's books into Hebrew.", "Eugene O'Neill remarked that ''Zarathustra'' influenced him more than any other book he ever read.", "He also shared Nietzsche's view of tragedy.", "The plays ''The Great God Brown'' and ''Lazarus Laughed'' are examples of Nietzsche's influence on him.", "The First International claimed Nietzsche as ideologically one of their own.", "From 1888 through the 1890s there were more publications of Nietzsche works in Russia than in any other country.", "Nietzsche was influential among the Bolsheviks.", "Among the Nietzschean Bolsheviks were Vladimir Bazarov, Anatoly Lunacharsky and Aleksandr Bogdanov.", "Nietzsche's influence on the works of Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno can be seen in the ''Dialectic of Enlightenment''.", "Adorno summed up Nietzsche's philosophy as expressing the \"humane in a world in which humanity has become a sham\".Nietzsche's growing prominence suffered a severe setback when his works became closely associated with Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany.", "Many political leaders of the twentieth century were at least superficially familiar with Nietzsche's ideas, although it is not always possible to determine whether they actually read his work.", "It is debated among scholars whether Hitler read Nietzsche, although if he did, it may not have been extensively.", "He was a frequent visitor to the Nietzsche museum in Weimar and used expressions of Nietzsche's, such as \"lords of the earth\" in ''Mein Kampf''.", "The Nazis made selective use of Nietzsche's philosophy.", "Alfred Baeumler was perhaps the most notable exponent of Nietzschean thought in Nazi Germany.", "Baeumler had published his book \"Nietzsche, Philosopher and Politician\" in 1931, before the Nazis' rise to power, and subsequently published several editions of Nietzsche's work during the Third Reich.", "Mussolini, Charles de Gaulle and Huey P. Newton read Nietzsche.", "Richard Nixon read Nietzsche with \"curious interest\", and his book ''Beyond Peace'' might have taken its title from Nietzsche's book ''Beyond Good and Evil'' which Nixon read beforehand.", "Bertrand Russell wrote that Nietzsche had exerted great influence on philosophers and on people of literary and artistic culture, but warned that the attempt to put Nietzsche's philosophy of aristocracy into practice could only be done by an organisation similar to the Fascist or the Nazi party.A decade after World War II, there was a revival of Nietzsche's philosophical writings thanks to translations and analyses by Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale.", "Georges Bataille was also influential in this revival, defending Nietzsche against appropriation by the Nazis with his notable 1937 essay \"Nietzsche and Fascists\".", "Others, well known philosophers in their own right, wrote commentaries on Nietzsche's philosophy, including Martin Heidegger, who produced a four-volume study, and Lev Shestov, who wrote a book called ''Dostoyevski, Tolstoy and Nietzsche'' where he portrays Nietzsche and Dostoyevski as the \"thinkers of tragedy\".", "Georg Simmel compares Nietzsche's importance to ethics to that of Copernicus for cosmology.", "Sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies read Nietzsche avidly from his early life, and later frequently discussed many of his concepts in his own works.", "Nietzsche has influenced philosophers such as Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Oswald Spengler, George Grant, Emil Cioran, Albert Camus, Ayn Rand, Jacques Derrida, Sarah Kofman, Leo Strauss, Max Scheler, Michel Foucault, Bernard Williams, and Nick Land.Camus described Nietzsche as \"the only artist to have derived the extreme consequences of an aesthetics of the absurd\".", "Paul Ricœur called Nietzsche one of the masters of the \"school of suspicion\", alongside Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud.", "Carl Jung was also influenced by Nietzsche.", "In ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'', a biography transcribed by his secretary, he cites Nietzsche as a large influence.", "Aspects of Nietzsche's philosophy, especially his ideas of the self and his relation to society, run through much of late-twentieth and early twenty-first century thought.", "Nietzsche's writings have also been influential to some advancers of Accelerationist thought through his influence on Deleuze and Guattari.", "His deepening of the romantic-heroic tradition of the nineteenth century, for example, as expressed in the ideal of the \"grand striver\" appears in the work of thinkers from Cornelius Castoriadis to Roberto Mangabeira Unger.", "For Nietzsche, this grand striver overcomes obstacles, engages in epic struggles, pursues new goals, embraces recurrent novelty, and transcends existing structures and contexts." ], [ "Works", "The ''Nietzsche Stone'', near Surlej, the inspiration for ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''* ''The Birth of Tragedy'' (1872)* ''On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense'' (1873)* ''Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks'' (1873; first published in 1923)* ''Untimely Meditations'' (1876)* ''Human, All Too Human'' (1878)* ''The Dawn'' (1881)* ''The Gay Science'' (1882)* ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' (1883)* ''Beyond Good and Evil'' (1886)* ''On the Genealogy of Morality'' (1887)* ''The Case of Wagner'' (1888)* ''Twilight of the Idols'' (1888)* ''The Antichrist'' (1888)* ''Ecce Homo'' (1888; first published in 1908)* ''Nietzsche contra Wagner'' (1888)* ''The Will to Power'' (various unpublished manuscripts edited by his sister Elisabeth; not recognised as a unified work after )" ], [ "See also", "* Difference (poststructuralism)* ''Dionysos''* Existential nihilism* Faith in the Earth* Friedrich Nietzsche and free will* Manusmriti* Relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner* Rigveda* ''When Nietzsche Wept'' – a film about his life* World riddle" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ======Works cited===* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * Babich, Babette E. (1994), ''Nietzsche's Philosophy of Science'', Albany: State University of New York Press.", "* * * Breitschmid, Markus, ''Der bauende Geist.", "Friedrich Nietzsche und die Architektur''.", "Lucerne: Quart Verlag, 2001, * Breitschmid, Markus, ''Nietzsche's Denkraum''.", "Zurich: Edition Didacta, 2006, Hardcover Edition: ; Paperback Edition: * Brinton, Crane, ''Nietzsche''.", "(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941; reprint with a new preface, epilogue, and bibliography, New York: Harper Torchbooks/The Academy Library, 1965.", ")* Brunger, Jeremy.", "2015.\"", "Public Opinions, Private Laziness: The Epistemological Break in Nietzsche.", "''Numero Cinq'' magazine (August).", "* Corriero, Emilio Carlo, ''Nietzsche oltre l'abisso.", "Declinazioni italiane della 'morte di Dio''', Marco Valerio, Torino, 2007* Corriero, Emilio Carlo, \"Nietzsche's Death of God and Italian Philosophy\".", "Preface by Gianni Vattimo, Rowman & Littlefield, London & New York, 2016* Dod, Elmar, \"Der unheimlichste Gast.", "Die Philosophie des Nihilismus\".", "Marburg: Tectum Verlag 2013.. \"Der unheimlichste Gast wird heimisch.", "Die Philosophie des Nihilismus – Evidenzen der Einbildungskraft\".", "(Wissenschaftliche Beiträge Philosophie Bd.", "32) Baden–Baden 2019 * * Garrard, Graeme (2008).", "\"Nietzsche For and Against the Enlightenment,\" ''Review of Politics'', Vol.", "70, No.", "4, pp. 595–608.", "* * Golan, Zev.", "''God, Man, and Nietzsche: A Startling Dialogue between Judaism and Modern Philosophers'' (iUniverse, 2007).", "* * Huskinson, Lucy.", "''Nietzsche and Jung: The whole self in the union of opposites'' (London and New York: Routledge, 2004)* Kaplan, Erman.", "''Cosmological Aesthetics through the Kantian Sublime and Nietzschean Dionysian''.", "Lanham: UPA, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.", "* Kopić, Mario, ''S Nietzscheom o Europi'', Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb, 2001 * * Magnus and Higgins, \"Nietzsche's works and their themes\", in ''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'', Magnus and Higgins (ed.", "), University of Cambridge Press, 1996, pp. 21–58.", "* O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., ''Studies in Nietzsche and the Classical Tradition'' (University of North Carolina Press) 1979 * O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., ''Studies in Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian Tradition'' (University of North Carolina Press) 1985 * Owen, David.", "''Nietzsche, Politics & Modernity'' (London: Sage Publications, 1995).", "* Pérez, Rolando.", "''Towards a Genealogy of the Gay Science: From Toulouse and Barcelona to Nietzsche and Beyond''.", "eHumanista/IVITRA.", "Volume 5, 2014.", "* Porter, James I.", "''Nietzsche and the Philology of the Future'' (Stanford University Press, 2000).", "* * de Pourtalès, Guy, ''Nietzsche in Italy'' (Pushkin Press, 2022).", ".", "Review Translation by Will Stone of ''Nietzsche en Italie'', Bernard Grasset, 1929.", "* Prideaux, Sue, ''I Am Dynamite!", "A Life of Nietzsche'' (Faber & Faber (UK) and Tim Duggan Books (US), 2018)* Ratner-Rosenhagen, Jennifer (2011), ''American Nietzsche: A History of an Icon and His Ideas.''", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "* * * Seung, T.K.", "''Nietzsche's Epic of the Soul: Thus Spoke Zarathustra''.", "Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2005.", "* * * * Solomon, Robert C. and Higgins, Kathleen M., ''What Nietzsche'' Really ''Said''.", "New York: Schocken Books, 2000.", "* * .", "* Waite, Geoff.", "(1996), ''Nietzsche's Corps/e: Aesthetics, Prophecy, Politics, or, The Spectacular Technoculture of Everyday Life'', Durham, NC: Duke University Press.", "* Weir, Simon & Hill Glen.", "(2021), \"Making space for degenerate thinking: revaluing architecture with Friedrich Nietzsche.\"", "arq: architecture research quarterly 25:2.Making space for degenerate thinking: revaluing architecture with Friedrich Nietzsche* * Young, Julian.", "''Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography'' (Cambridge University Press; 2010) 649 pp.•Review of modern philosophy, Atusa Mousai Ghale: Shahrekord 1402" ], [ "External links", "* Entry on Nietzsche at Britannica.com* Nietzsche's brief autobiography* * * * * * * ** * Nietzsche Source: Digital version of the German critical edition of the complete works and Digital facsimile edition of the entire Nietzsche estate* Lexido: Searchable Database index of Public Domain editions of all Nietzsche's major works * * * Timeline of German Philosophers* Walter Kaufmann 1960 Prof. Nietzsche and the Crisis in Philosophy (audio)* * Burkhart Brückner, Robin Pape: Biography of Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche in: Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY).", "* * Rick Roderick (1991) Nietzsche and the Postmodern Condition (1991) Video Lectures" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frank Zappa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frank Vincent Zappa''' (December 21, 1940 – December 4, 1993) was an American musician, composer, and bandleader.", "His work is characterized by nonconformity, free-form improvisation, sound experimentation, musical virtuosity and satire of American culture.", "In a career spanning more than 30 years, Zappa composed rock, pop, jazz, jazz fusion, orchestral and ''musique concrète'' works; he also produced almost all of the 60-plus albums that he released with his band the Mothers of Invention and as a solo artist.", "Zappa also directed feature-length films and music videos, and designed album covers.", "He is considered one of the most innovative and stylistically diverse musicians of his generation.As a mostly self-taught composer and performer, Zappa had diverse musical influences that led him to create music that was sometimes difficult to categorize.", "While in his teens, he acquired a taste for 20th-century classical modernism, African-American rhythm and blues, and doo-wop music.", "He began writing classical music in high school, while at the same time playing drums in rhythm and blues bands, later switching to electric guitar.", "His debut studio album with the Mothers of Invention, ''Freak Out!''", "(1966), combined satirical songs in seemingly conventional rock and roll format with collective improvisations and studio-generated sound collages.", "He continued this eclectic and experimental approach whether the fundamental format was rock, jazz, or classical.Zappa's output is unified by a conceptual continuity he termed \"Project/Object\", with numerous musical phrases, ideas, and characters reappearing across his albums.", "His lyrics reflected his iconoclastic views of established social and political processes, structures and movements, often humorously so, and he has been described as the \"godfather\" of comedy rock.", "He was a strident critic of mainstream education and organized religion, and a forthright and passionate advocate for freedom of speech, self-education, political participation and the abolition of censorship.", "Unlike many other rock musicians of his generation, he disapproved of recreational drug use, but supported decriminalization and regulation.Zappa was a highly productive and prolific artist with a controversial critical standing; supporters of his music admired its compositional complexity, while detractors found it lacking emotional depth.", "He had greater commercial success outside the US, particularly in Europe.", "Though he worked as an independent artist, Zappa mostly relied on distribution agreements he had negotiated with the major record labels.", "He remains a major influence on musicians and composers.", "His many honors include his posthumous 1995 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the 1997 Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award." ], [ "1940–1965: Early life and career", "===Childhood===Zappa was born on December 21, 1940, in Baltimore, Maryland.", "His mother, Rose Marie ( Colimore), was of Italian (Neapolitan and Sicilian) and French ancestry; his father, whose name was anglicized to Francis Vincent Zappa, was an immigrant from Partinico, near Palermo on the Italian island of Sicily, and was of Greek and Arab descent.Frank, the eldest of four children, was raised in an Italian-American household where Italian was often spoken by his grandparents.", "The family moved often because his father, a chemist and mathematician, worked in the defense industry.", "After a time in Florida in the 1940s, the family returned to Maryland, where Zappa's father worked at the Edgewood Arsenal chemical warfare facility of the Aberdeen Proving Ground run by the U.S. Army.", "Due to their home's proximity to the arsenal, which stored mustard gas, gas masks were kept in the home in case of an accident.", "This living arrangement had a profound effect on Zappa, and references to germs, germ warfare, ailments and the defense industry occur frequently throughout his work.Zappa's father often brought mercury-filled lab equipment home from his workplace and gave it to Zappa to play with.", "Zappa said that as a child he \"used to play with it all the time\", often by putting liquid mercury on the floor and using a hammer to spray out mercury droplets in a circular pattern, eventually covering the entire floor of his bedroom with them.Zappa was often sick as a child, suffering from asthma, earaches and sinus problems.", "A doctor treated his sinusitis by inserting a pellet of radium into each of Zappa's nostrils.", "At the time, little was known about the potential dangers of even small amounts of therapeutic radiation.Nasal imagery and references appear in his music and lyrics, as well as in the collage album covers created by his long-time collaborator Cal Schenkel.", "Zappa believed his childhood diseases might have been due to exposure to mustard gas, released by the nearby chemical warfare facility, and his health worsened when he lived in Baltimore.", "In 1952, his family relocated for reasons of health to Monterey, California, where his father taught metallurgy at the Naval Postgraduate School.", "They soon moved to the San Diego neighborhood of Clairemont, and then to the nearby city of El Cajon, before finally returning to San Diego.===First musical interests===Zappa joined his first band at Mission Bay High School in San Diego as a drummer.", "At about the same time, his parents bought a phonograph, which allowed him to develop his interest in music, and to begin building his record collection.", "According to ''The Rough Guide to Rock'' (2003), \"as a teenager Zappa was simultaneously enthralled by black R&B (Johnny 'Guitar' Watson, Guitar Slim), doo-wop (The Channels, The Velvets), and modern composers, such as Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern and Edgard Varèse.", "\"R&B singles were early purchases for Zappa, starting a large collection he kept for the rest of his life.", "He was interested in sounds for their own sake, particularly the sounds of drums and other percussion instruments.", "By age twelve, he had obtained a snare drum and began learning the basics of orchestral percussion.", "Zappa's deep interest in modern classical music began when he read a ''LOOK'' magazine article about the Sam Goody record store chain that lauded its ability to sell an LP as obscure as ''The Complete Works of Edgard Varèse, Volume One''.", "The article described Varèse's percussion composition ''Ionisation'', produced by EMS Recordings, as \"a weird jumble of drums and other unpleasant sounds\".", "Zappa decided to seek out Varèse's music.", "After searching for over a year, Zappa found a copy (he noticed the LP because of the \"mad scientist\" looking photo of Varèse on the cover).", "Not having enough money with him, he persuaded the salesman to sell him the record at a discount.", "Thus began his lifelong passion for Varèse's music and that of other modern classical composers.", "He also liked the Italian classical music listened to by his grandparents, especially Puccini's opera arias.Zappa's senior yearbook photo, 1958By 1956, the Zappa family had moved to Lancaster, a small aerospace and farming town in the Antelope Valley of the Mojave Desert close to Edwards Air Force Base; he would later refer to Sun Village (a town close to Lancaster) in the 1973 track \"Village of the Sun\".", "Zappa's mother encouraged him in his musical interests.", "Although she disliked Varèse's music, she was indulgent enough to give her son a long-distance call to the New York composer as a fifteenth birthday present.", "Unfortunately, Varèse was in Europe at the time, so Zappa spoke to the composer's wife and she suggested he call back later.", "In a letter, Varèse thanked him for his interest, and told him about a composition he was working on called \"Déserts\".", "Living in the desert town of Lancaster, Zappa found this very exciting.", "Varèse invited him to visit if he ever came to New York.", "The meeting never took place (Varèse died in 1965), but Zappa framed the letter and kept it on display for the rest of his life.At Antelope Valley High School, Zappa met Don Glen Vliet (who later changed his name to Don Van Vliet and adopted the stage name Captain Beefheart).", "Zappa and Vliet became close friends, sharing an interest in R&B records and influencing each other musically throughout their careers.", "Around the same time, Zappa started playing drums in a local band, the Blackouts.", "The band was racially diverse and included Euclid James \"Motorhead\" Sherwood who later became a member of the Mothers of Invention.", "Zappa's interest in the guitar grew, and in 1957 he was given his first instrument.", "Among his early influences were Johnny \"Guitar\" Watson, Howlin' Wolf and Clarence \"Gatemouth\" Brown.", "In the 1970s/1980s, he invited Watson to perform on several albums.", "Zappa considered soloing the equivalent of forming \"air sculptures\", and developed an eclectic, innovative and highly personal style.", "He was also influenced by Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh.Zappa's interest in composing and arranging flourished in his last high-school years.", "By his final year, he was writing, arranging and conducting avant-garde performance pieces for the school orchestra.", "He graduated from Antelope Valley High School in 1958, and later acknowledged two of his music teachers on the sleeve of the 1966 album ''Freak Out!''", "Due to his family's frequent moves, Zappa attended at least six different high schools, and as a student he was often bored and given to distracting the rest of the class with juvenile antics.", "In 1959, he attended Chaffey College but left after one semester, and maintained thereafter a disdain for formal education, taking his children out of school at age 15 and refusing to pay for their college.", "While in college, Zappa met Terry Kirkman and played gigs at local coffee houses with him.Zappa left home in 1959, and moved into a small apartment in Echo Park, Los Angeles.", "After he met Kathryn J.", "\"Kay\" Sherman during his short period of private composition study with Prof. Karl Kohn of Pomona College, they moved in together in Ontario, and were married December 28, 1960.Zappa worked for a short period in advertising as a copywriter.", "His sojourn in the commercial world was brief, but gave him valuable insights into its workings.", "Throughout his career, he took a keen interest in the visual presentation of his work, designing some of his album covers and directing his own films and videos.===Studio Z===Zappa attempted to earn a living as a musician and composer, and played different nightclub gigs, some with a new version of the Blackouts.", "Zappa's earliest professional recordings, two soundtracks for the low-budget films ''The World's Greatest Sinner'' (1962) and ''Run Home Slow'' (1965) were more financially rewarding.", "The former score was commissioned by actor-producer Timothy Carey and recorded in 1961.It contains many themes that appeared on later Zappa records.", "The latter soundtrack was recorded in 1963 after the film was completed, but it was commissioned by one of Zappa's former high school teachers in 1959 and Zappa may have worked on it before the film was shot.", "Excerpts from the soundtrack can be heard on the posthumous album ''The Lost Episodes'' (1996).During the early 1960s, Zappa wrote and produced songs for other local artists, often working with singer-songwriter Ray Collins and producer Paul Buff.", "Their \"Memories of El Monte\" was recorded by the Penguins, although only Cleve Duncan of the original group was featured.", "Buff owned the small Pal Recording Studio in Cucamonga, which included a unique five-track tape recorder he had built.", "At that time, only a handful of the most sophisticated commercial studios had multi-track facilities; the industry standard for smaller studios was still mono or two-track.", "Although none of the recordings from the period achieved major commercial success, Zappa earned enough money to allow him in 1963 to stage a concert of his orchestral music and to broadcast and record it.", "In March of that same year Zappa appeared on Steve Allen's syndicated late night show playing a bicycle as a musical using drum sticks and a bow borrowed from the band's bass player he proceeded to pluck, bang, and bow the spokes of the bike, producing strange, comical sounds from his newfound instrument.", "With Captain Beefheart, Zappa recorded some songs under the name of the Soots.", "They were rejected by Dot Records.", "Later, the Mothers were also rejected by Columbia Records for having \"no commercial potential\", a verdict Zappa subsequently quoted on the sleeve of ''Freak Out!", "''In 1964, after his marriage started to break up, he moved into the Pal studio and began routinely working 12 hours or more per day recording and experimenting with overdubbing and audio tape manipulation.", "This established a work pattern that endured for most of his life.", "Aided by his income from film composing, Zappa took over the studio from Paul Buff, who was now working with Art Laboe at Original Sound.", "It was renamed Studio Z.", "Studio Z was rarely booked for recordings by other musicians.", "Instead, friends moved in, notably James \"Motorhead\" Sherwood.", "Zappa started performing in local bars as a guitarist with a power trio, the Muthers, to support himself.An article in the local press describing Zappa as \"the Movie King of Cucamonga\" prompted the local police to suspect that he was making pornographic films.", "In March 1965, Zappa was approached by a vice squad undercover officer, and accepted an offer of $100 () to produce a suggestive audio tape for an alleged stag party.", "Zappa and a female friend recorded a faked erotic episode.", "When Zappa was about to hand over the tape, he was arrested, and the police stripped the studio of all recorded material.", "The press was tipped off beforehand, and next day's ''The Daily Report'' wrote that \"Vice Squad investigators stilled the tape recorders of a free-swinging, a-go-go film and recording studio here Friday and arrested a self-styled movie producer\".", "Zappa was charged with \"conspiracy to commit pornography\".", "This felony charge was reduced and he was sentenced to six months in jail on a misdemeanor, with all but ten days suspended.", "His brief imprisonment left a permanent mark, and was central to the formation of his anti-authoritarian stance.", "Zappa lost several recordings made at Studio Z in the process, as the police returned only 30 of 80 hours of tape seized.", "Eventually, he could no longer afford to pay the rent on the studio and was evicted.", "Zappa managed to recover some of his possessions before the studio was torn down in 1966." ], [ "1965–1970: The Mothers of Invention", "===Formation===In April 1965, Ray Collins asked Zappa to take over as guitarist in local R&B band the Soul Giants, following a fight between Collins and the group's original guitarist.", "Zappa accepted, and soon assumed leadership and the role as co-lead singer (even though he never considered himself a singer, then or later).", "He convinced the other members that they should play his music to increase the chances of getting a record contract.", "The band debuted at the Broadside Club in Pomona, California and was renamed the Mothers since this gig took place on May 10, 1965Mother's Day.", "They increased their bookings after beginning an association with manager Herb Cohen, and gradually gained attention on the burgeoning Los Angeles underground music scene.", "In early 1966, they were spotted by leading record producer Tom Wilson when playing \"Trouble Every Day\", a song about the Watts riots.", "Wilson had earned acclaim as the producer for Bob Dylan and Simon & Garfunkel, and was one of the few African-Americans working as a major label pop music producer at this time.", "Wilson signed the Mothers to the Verve division of MGM, which had built up a strong reputation for its releases of modern jazz recordings in the 1940s and 1950s, but was attempting to diversify into pop and rock audiences.", "Verve insisted that the band officially rename themselves the Mothers of Invention as ''Mother'' was short for ''motherfucker''—a term that, apart from its profane meanings, can denote a skilled musician.===Debut album: ''Freak Out!", "''===With Wilson credited as producer, the Mothers of Invention, augmented by a studio orchestra, recorded the groundbreaking ''Freak Out!''", "(1966), which, after Bob Dylan's ''Blonde on Blonde'', was the second rock double album ever released.", "It mixed R&B, doo-wop, musique concrète, and experimental sound collages that captured the \"freak\" subculture of Los Angeles at that time.", "Although he was dissatisfied with the final product, ''Freak Out'' immediately established Zappa as a radical new voice in rock music, providing an antidote to the \"relentless consumer culture of America\".", "The sound was raw, but the arrangements were sophisticated.", "While recording in the studio, some of the additional session musicians were shocked that they were expected to read the notes on sheet music from charts with Zappa conducting them, since it was not standard when recording rock music.", "The lyrics praised non-conformity, disparaged authorities, and had dadaist elements.", "Yet, there was a place for seemingly conventional love songs.", "Most compositions are Zappa's, which set a precedent for the rest of his recording career.", "He had full control over the arrangements and musical decisions and did most overdubs.", "Wilson provided the industry clout and connections and was able to provide the group with the financial resources needed.", "Although Wilson was able to provide Zappa and the Mothers with an extraordinary degree of artistic freedom for the time, the recording did not go entirely as planned.", "In a 1967 radio interview, Zappa explained that the album's outlandish 11-minute closing track, \"Return of the Son of Monster Magnet\" was not finished.", "The track as it appears on the album was only a backing track for a much more complex piece, but MGM refused to allow the additional recording time needed for completion.", "Much to Zappa's chagrin, it was issued in its unfinished state.During the recording of ''Freak Out!", "'', Zappa moved into a house in Laurel Canyon with friend Pamela Zarubica, who appeared on the album.", "The house became a meeting (and living) place for many LA musicians and groupies of the time, despite Zappa's disapproval of their illicit drug use.", "After a short promotional tour following the release of ''Freak Out!", "'', Zappa met Adelaide Gail Sloatman.", "He fell in love within \"a couple of minutes\", and she moved into the house over the summer.", "They married in 1967, had four children and remained together until Zappa's death.Wilson nominally produced the Mothers' second album ''Absolutely Free'' (1967), which was recorded in November 1966, and later mixed in New York, although by this time Zappa was in ''de facto'' control of most facets of the production.", "It featured extended playing by the Mothers of Invention and focused on songs that defined Zappa's compositional style of introducing abrupt, rhythmical changes into songs that were built from diverse elements.", "Examples are \"Plastic People\" and \"Brown Shoes Don't Make It\", which contained lyrics critical of the hypocrisy and conformity of American society, but also of the counterculture of the 1960s.", "As Zappa put it, \"We're satirists, and we are out to satirize everything.\"", "At the same time, Zappa had recorded material for an album of orchestral works to be released under his own name, ''Lumpy Gravy'', released by Capitol Records in 1967.Due to contractual problems, the album was pulled.", "Zappa took the opportunity to radically restructure the contents, adding newly recorded, improvised dialogue.", "After the contractual problems were resolved, a new album of the same name was issued by Verve in 1968.It is an \"incredible ambitious musical project\", a \"monument to John Cage\", which intertwines orchestral themes, spoken words and electronic noises through radical audio editing techniques.===New York period (1966–1968)===The Mothers of Invention played in New York in late 1966 and were offered a contract at the Garrick Theater (at 152 Bleecker Street, above the Cafe au Go Go) during Easter 1967.This proved successful and Herb Cohen extended the booking, which eventually lasted half a year.", "As a result, Zappa and his wife Gail, along with the Mothers of Invention, moved to New York.", "Their shows became a combination of improvised acts showcasing individual talents of the band as well as tight performances of Zappa's music.", "Everything was directed by Zappa using hand signals.", "Guest performers and audience participation became a regular part of the Garrick Theater shows.", "One evening, Zappa managed to entice some U.S. Marines from the audience onto the stage, where they proceeded to dismember a big baby doll, having been told by Zappa to pretend that it was a \"gook baby\".In 1967, filmmaker Ed Seeman paid Zappa $2,000 to produce music for a Luden's cough drops television commercial.", "Zappa's music was matched with Seeman's animation and the advertisement won a Clio Award for \"Best Use of Sound\".", "An alternate version of the soundtrack, called \"The Big Squeeze\", later appeared on Zappa's posthumous 1996 album \"The Lost Episodes\".", "This version lacks Seeman's narration.While living in New York City, and interrupted by the band's first European tour, the Mothers of Invention recorded the album widely regarded as the peak of the group's late 1960s work, ''We're Only in It for the Money'' (released 1968).", "It was produced by Zappa, with Wilson credited as executive producer.", "From then on, Zappa produced all albums released by the Mothers of Invention and as a solo artist.", "''We're Only in It for the Money'' featured some of the most creative audio editing and production yet heard in pop music, and the songs ruthlessly satirized the hippie and flower power phenomena.", "He sampled surf music from his Studio Z days in the audio collage ''Nasal Retentive Caliope Music''.", "The cover photo parodied that of the Beatles' ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''.", "The cover art was provided by Cal Schenkel whom Zappa met in New York.", "This initiated a lifelong collaboration in which Schenkel designed covers for numerous Zappa and Mothers albums.Reflecting Zappa's eclectic approach to music, the next album, ''Cruising with Ruben & the Jets'' (1968), was very different.", "It represented a collection of doo-wop songs; listeners and critics were not sure whether the album was a satire or a tribute.", "Zappa later remarked that the album was conceived like Stravinsky's compositions in his neo-classical period: \"If he could take the forms and clichés of the classical era and pervert them, why not do the same ... to doo-wop in the fifties?\"", "The opening theme from Stravinsky's ''The Rite of Spring'' is sung in \"Fountain of Love\".In 1967 and 1968, Zappa made two appearances with the Monkees.", "The first appearance was on an episode of their TV series, \"The Monkees Blow Their Minds\", where Zappa, dressed up as Mike Nesmith, interviews Nesmith who is dressed up as Zappa.", "After the interview, Zappa destroys a car with a sledgehammer as the song \"Mother People\" plays.", "He later provided a cameo in the Monkees' movie ''Head'' where, leading a cow, he tells Davy Jones \"the youth of America depends on you to show them the way.\"", "Zappa respected the Monkees and recruited Micky Dolenz to the Mothers but RCA/Columbia/Colgems would not release Dolenz from his contract.During the late 1960s, Zappa continued to develop the business side of his career.", "He and Herb Cohen formed the Bizarre Records and Straight Records labels to increase creative control and produce recordings by other artists.", "These labels were distributed in the US by Warner Bros. Records.", "Zappa/Mothers recordings appeared on Bizarre along with Wild Man Fischer and Lenny Bruce.", "Straight released the double album ''Trout Mask Replica'' for Captain Beefheart, and releases by Alice Cooper, The Persuasions, and the GTOs.", "The Mothers' first album on Bizarre was 1969's ''Uncle Meat'', which Zappa described as \"most of the music from the Mothers' movie of the same name which we haven't got enough money to finish yet\".", "A version of the Uncle Meat film was released direct-to-video in 1987.Principal photography having never been completed, the VHS videocassette is a \"making of\" documentary showing rehearsals and background footage from 1968 and interviews with people involved with the uncompleted production.In the Mothers' second European tour in September/October 1968 they performed for the at the Grugahalle in Essen, Germany; at the Tivoli in Copenhagen, Denmark; for TV programs in Germany (''Beat-Club''), France, and England; at the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam; at the Royal Festival Hall in London; and at the Olympia in Paris.===Disbandment===Zappa and the Mothers of Invention returned to Los Angeles in mid-1968, and the Zappas moved into a house on Laurel Canyon Boulevard, only to move again to Woodrow Wilson Drive.", "This was Zappa's home for the rest of his life.", "Despite being successful in Europe, the Mothers of Invention were not doing well financially.", "Their first records were vocally oriented, but as Zappa wrote more instrumental jazz and classical style music for the band's concerts, audiences were confused.", "Zappa felt that audiences failed to appreciate his \"electrical chamber music\".Theatre de Clichy, Paris, 1971In 1969, there were nine band members and Zappa was supporting the group from his publishing royalties whether they played or not.", "In late 1969, Zappa broke up the band.", "He often cited the financial strain as the main reason, but also commented on the band members' lack of diligence.", "Many band members were bitter about Zappa's decision, and some took it as a sign of Zappa's perfectionism at the expense of human feeling.", "Others were irritated by 'his autocratic ways', exemplified by Zappa's never staying at the same hotel as the band members.", "Several members would play with Zappa again in subsequent years, while guitarist/vocalist Lowell George and bassist Roy Estrada went on to form the band Little Feat.", "Zappa assembled remaining unreleased recordings of the band on the albums ''Burnt Weeny Sandwich'' and ''Weasels Ripped My Flesh'', both released in 1970.After he disbanded the Mothers of Invention, Zappa released the acclaimed solo album ''Hot Rats'' (1969).", "It features, for the first time on record, Zappa playing extended guitar solos and contains one of his most enduring compositions, \"Peaches en Regalia\", which reappeared several times on future recordings.", "He was backed by jazz, blues and R&B session players including violinist Don \"Sugarcane\" Harris, drummers John Guerin and Paul Humphrey, multi-instrumentalist and former Mothers of Invention member Ian Underwood, and multi-instrumentalist Shuggie Otis on bass, along with a guest appearance by Captain Beefheart on the only vocal track, \"Willie the Pimp\".", "It became a popular album in England, and had a major influence on the development of jazz-rock fusion." ], [ "1970–1980: A decade of highs and lows", "===Rebirth of the Mothers and filmmaking===Frank Zappa, 1970Frank Zappa in Paris, early 1970sIn 1970, Zappa met conductor Zubin Mehta.", "They arranged a May 1970 concert where Mehta conducted the Los Angeles Philharmonic augmented by a rock band.", "According to Zappa, the music was mostly written in motel rooms while on tour with the Mothers of Invention.", "Some of it was later featured in the movie ''200 Motels''.", "Although the concert was a success, Zappa's experience working with a symphony orchestra was not a happy one.", "His dissatisfaction became a recurring theme throughout his career; he often felt that the quality of performance of his material delivered by orchestras was not commensurate with the money he spent on orchestral concerts and recordings.Later in 1970, Zappa formed a new version of the Mothers (from then on, he mostly dropped the \"of Invention\").", "It included British drummer Aynsley Dunbar, jazz keyboardist George Duke, Ian Underwood, Jeff Simmons (bass, rhythm guitar), and three members of the Turtles: bass player Jim Pons, and singers Mark Volman and Howard Kaylan, who, due to persistent legal and contractual problems, adopted the stage name \"The Phlorescent Leech and Eddie\", or \"Flo & Eddie\".This version of the Mothers debuted on Zappa's next solo album ''Chunga's Revenge'' (1970), which was followed by the double-album soundtrack to the movie ''200 Motels'' (1971), featuring the Mothers, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Ringo Starr, Theodore Bikel, and Keith Moon.", "Co-directed by Zappa and Tony Palmer, it was filmed in a week at Pinewood Studios outside London.", "Tensions between Zappa and several cast and crew members arose before and during shooting.", "The film deals loosely with life on the road as a rock musician.", "It was the first feature film photographed on videotape and transferred to 35 mm film, a process that allowed for novel visual effects.", "It was released to mixed reviews.", "The score relied extensively on orchestral music, and Zappa's dissatisfaction with the classical music world intensified when a concert, scheduled at the Royal Albert Hall after filming, was canceled because a representative of the venue found some of the lyrics obscene.", "In 1975, he lost a lawsuit against the Royal Albert Hall for breach of contract.After ''200 Motels'', the band went on tour, which resulted in two live albums, ''Fillmore East – June 1971'' and ''Just Another Band from L.A.''; the latter included the 20-minute track \"Billy the Mountain\", Zappa's satire on rock opera set in Southern California.", "This track was representative of the band's theatrical performances—which used songs to build sketches based on ''200 Motels'' scenes, as well as new situations that often portrayed the band members' sexual encounters on the road.===Accident, attack, and aftermath===Zappa with the Mothers, 1971On December 4, 1971, Zappa suffered his first of two serious setbacks.", "While performing at Casino de Montreux in Switzerland, the Mothers' equipment was destroyed when a flare set off by an audience member started a fire that burned down the casino.", "Rock band Deep Purple were in the audience that night, and would immortalize the event on their classic 1972 song \"Smoke on the Water\".", "A recording of the incident and immediate aftermath can be heard on the bootleg album ''Swiss Cheese/Fire'', released legally as part of Zappa's ''Beat the Boots II'' box set.", "After losing $50,000 () worth of equipment and a week's break, the Mothers played at the Rainbow Theatre, London, with rented gear.", "During the encore, an audience member, jealous because of his girlfriend's infatuation with Zappa, pushed him off the stage and into the concrete-floored orchestra pit.", "The band thought Zappa had been killed—he had suffered serious fractures, head trauma and injuries to his back, leg, and neck, as well as a crushed larynx, which ultimately caused his voice to drop a third after healing.After the attack Zappa needed to use a wheelchair for an extended period, making touring impossible for over half a year.", "Upon return to the stage in September 1972, Zappa was still wearing a leg brace, had a noticeable limp and could not stand for very long while on stage.", "Zappa noted that one leg healed \"shorter than the other\" (a reference later found in the lyrics of songs \"Zomby Woof\" and \"Dancin' Fool\"), resulting in chronic back pain.", "Meanwhile, the Mothers were left in limbo and eventually formed the core of Flo and Eddie's band as they set out on their own.In December 1972, David Walley published the first biography of Zappa, titled ''No Commercial Potential''.", "Zappa was severely critical, calling it \"a quickie, paperback, sensational book\".", "He said that it contained \"gross inaccuracies\", described the writing as \"not quality workmanship\" and claimed that Walley had \"just slung together a bunch of quotes\".", "Despite Zappa's complaints, the book was later published in an updated edition in 1980 and again in 1996 after Zappa's death.=== Solo albums: Waka/Jawaka and The Grand Wazoo ===During 1971–1972, Zappa released two strongly jazz-oriented solo LPs, ''Waka/Jawaka'' and ''The Grand Wazoo'', which were recorded during the forced layoff from concert touring, using floating line-ups of session players and Mothers alumni.", "Musically, the albums were akin to ''Hot Rats,'' in that they featured extended instrumental tracks with extended soloing.", "Zappa began touring again in late 1972.His first effort was a series of concerts in September 1972 with a 20-piece big band referred to as the Grand Wazoo.", "This was followed by a scaled-down version known as the Petit Wazoo that toured the U.S. for five weeks from October to December 1972.===Top 10 album: ''Apostrophe ()''===Zappa then formed and toured with smaller groups that variously included Ian Underwood (reeds, keyboards), Ruth Underwood (vibes, marimba), Sal Marquez (trumpet, vocals), Napoleon Murphy Brock (sax, flute and vocals), Bruce Fowler (trombone), Tom Fowler (bass), Chester Thompson (drums), Ralph Humphrey (drums), George Duke (keyboards, vocals), and Jean-Luc Ponty (violin).By 1973, the Bizarre and Straight labels were discontinued.", "Zappa and Cohen then created DiscReet Records, also distributed by Warner.", "Zappa continued a high rate of production through the first half of the 1970s, including the solo album ''Apostrophe (')'' (1974), which reached a career-high No.", "10 on the ''Billboard'' pop album charts helped by the No.", "86 chart hit \"Don't Eat The Yellow Snow\".", "Other albums from the period are ''Over-Nite Sensation'' (1973), which contained several future concert favorites, such as \"Dinah-Moe Humm\" and \"Montana\", and the albums ''Roxy & Elsewhere'' (1974) and ''One Size Fits All'' (1975) which feature ever-changing versions of a band still called the Mothers, and are notable for the tight renditions of highly difficult jazz fusion songs in such pieces as \"Inca Roads\", \"Echidna's Arf (Of You)\" and \"Be-Bop Tango (Of the Old Jazzmen's Church)\".", "A live recording from 1974, ''You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol.", "2'' (1988), captures \"the full spirit and excellence of the 1973–1975 band\".", "Zappa released ''Bongo Fury'' (1975), which featured a live recording at the Armadillo World Headquarters in Austin from a tour the same year that reunited him with Captain Beefheart for a brief period.", "They later became estranged for a period of years, but were in contact at the end of Zappa's life.", "After 1975, Zappa dropped the \"Mothers (of Invention)\" name from his bands.===Business breakups and touring===Zappa with Captain Beefheart, seated left, during a 1975 concertIn 1976, Zappa produced the album ''Good Singin', Good Playin''' for Grand Funk Railroad.", "Zappa's relationship with long-time manager Herb Cohen ended in May 1976.After Cohen cashed one of Zappa's royalty checks from Warner and kept the money for himself, Zappa sued Cohen.", "Zappa was also upset with Cohen for signing acts he did not approve.", "Cohen filed a lawsuit against Zappa in return, which froze the money Zappa and Cohen were expecting to receive from an out-of-court settlement with MGM/Verve over the rights to Zappa's early Mothers of Invention recordings.", "The MGM settlement was finalized in mid-1977 after two years of negotiations.", "Litigation with Cohen also prevented Zappa having access to any of his previously recorded material during the trials.", "Zappa therefore took his personal master copies of the album ''Zoot Allures'' (1976) directly to Warner, while bypassing DiscReet.", "Following the split with Cohen, Zappa hired Bennett Glotzer as new manager.By late 1976, Zappa was upset with Warner over inadequate promotion of his recordings and he was eager to move on as soon as possible.", "In March 1977, Zappa delivered four albums (five full-length LPs) to Warner to complete his contract: ''Zappa in New York'', ''Studio Tan'', ''Sleep Dirt'' and ''Orchestral Favorites''.", "These albums contained recordings mostly made between 1972 and 1976.Warner failed to meet contractual obligations to Zappa, and in response he filed a multi-million dollar breach of contract lawsuit.", "During a lengthy legal debate, Warner eventually released the four disputed albums during 1978 and 1979, ''Zappa in New York'' having been censored to remove references to guitarist Punky Meadows.", "Also, in 1977 Zappa prepared a four-LP box set called ''Läther'' (pronounced \"leather\") and negotiated distribution with Phonogram Inc. for release on the Zappa Records label.", "The ''Läther'' box set was scheduled for release on Halloween 1977, but legal action from Warner forced Zappa to shelve this project.In December 1977, Zappa appeared on the Pasadena, California radio station KROQ-FM and played the entire ''Läther'' album, while encouraging listeners to make tape recordings of the broadcast.", "Both sets of recordings (five-LP and four-LP) have much of the same material, but each also has unique content.", "The albums integrate many aspects of Zappa's 1970s work: heavy rock, orchestral works, and complex jazz instrumentals, along with Zappa's distinctive guitar solos.", "''Läther'' was officially released in 1996.It has been debated as to whether Zappa had conceived the material as a four-LP set from the beginning, or only later when working with Phonogram.", "Despite posthumous claims to the contrary by wife Gail, Zappa himself stated in an October 1978 radio interview that \"Läther was made out of four albums.", "Warners has released two of them already and they have two more that they're probably gonna release.", "\"Although Zappa eventually gained the rights to all his material created under the MGM and Warner contracts, the various lawsuits meant that for a period Zappa's only income came from touring, which he therefore did extensively in 1975–1977 with relatively small, mainly rock-oriented, bands.", "Drummer Terry Bozzio became a regular band member, Napoleon Murphy Brock stayed on for a while, and original Mothers of Invention bassist Roy Estrada joined.", "Among other musicians were bassist Patrick O'Hearn, singer-guitarist Ray White and keyboardist/violinist Eddie Jobson.", "In December 1976, Zappa appeared as a featured musical guest on the NBC television show ''Saturday Night Live''.", "Zappa's song \"I'm the Slime\" was performed with a voice-over by ''SNL'' booth announcer Don Pardo, who also introduced \"Peaches En Regalia\" on the same airing.", "In 1978, Zappa served both as host and musical act on the show, and as an actor in various sketches.", "The performances included an impromptu musical collaboration with cast member John Belushi during the instrumental piece \"The Purple Lagoon\".", "Belushi appeared as his Samurai Futaba character playing the tenor sax with Zappa conducting.", "However, he earned a ban from the show after the latter episode because he had done what producers called \"a disastrous job of hosting\" (Zappa reportedly did not get along with cast and crew in the lead-up to recording, then told the audience he was simply reading from cue cards).Zappa in Toronto, 1977Zappa's band had a series of Christmas shows in New York City in 1976, recordings of which appear on ''Zappa in New York'' (1978) and also on the four-LP ''Läther'' project.", "The band included Ruth Underwood and a horn section (featuring Michael and Randy Brecker).", "It mixes complex instrumentals such as \"The Black Page\" and humorous songs like \"Titties and Beer\".", "The former composition, written originally for drum kit but later developed for larger bands, is notorious for its complexity in rhythmic structure and short, densely arranged passages.", "''Zappa in New York'' also featured a song about sex criminal Michael H. Kenyon, \"The Illinois Enema Bandit\", in which Don Pardo provides the opening narrative.", "Like many songs on the album, it contained numerous sexual references, leading to many critics objecting and being offended by the content.", "Zappa dismissed the criticism by noting that he was a journalist reporting on life as he saw it.", "Predating his later fight against censorship, he remarked: \"What do you make of a society that is so primitive that it clings to the belief that certain words in its language are so powerful that they could corrupt you the moment you hear them?\"", "The remaining albums released by Warner without Zappa's approval were ''Studio Tan'' in 1978 and ''Sleep Dirt'' and ''Orchestral Favorites'' in 1979.These releases were not promoted and were largely overlooked in midst of the press about Zappa's legal problems.===Zappa Records label===Zappa released two of his most important projects in 1979.These were the best-selling albums of his career, ''Sheik Yerbouti'', and what author Kelley Lowe called the \"bona fide masterpiece\", ''Joe's Garage''.The double album ''Sheik Yerbouti'' appeared in March 1979 and was the first release to appear on Zappa Records.", "It contained the Grammy-nominated single \"Dancin' Fool\", which reached No.", "45 on the ''Billboard'' charts.", "It also contained \"Jewish Princess\", which received attention when a Jewish group, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), attempted to prevent the song from receiving radio airplay due to its alleged anti-Semitic lyrics.", "Zappa vehemently denied any anti-Semitic sentiments, and dismissed the ADL as a \"noisemaking organization that tries to apply pressure on people in order to manufacture a stereotype image of Jews that suits their idea of a good time.\"", "The album's commercial success was attributable in part to \"Bobby Brown\".", "Due to its explicit lyrics about a young man's encounter with a \"dyke by the name of Freddie\", the song did not get airplay in the U.S., but it topped the charts in several European countries where English is not the primary language.", "''Joe's Garage'' initially had to be released in two parts due to economic conditions.", "The first was a single LP ''Joe's Garage Act I'' in September 1979, followed by a double LP ''Joe's Garage Acts II and III'' in November 1979.The albums feature singer Ike Willis as lead character \"Joe\" in a rock opera about the danger of political systems, the suppression of freedom of speech and music—inspired in part by the 1979 Islamic Iranian revolution that had made music illegal—and about the \"strange relationship Americans have with sex and sexual frankness\".", "The first act contains the song \"Catholic Girls\" (a riposte to the controversies of \"Jewish Princess\"), and the title track, which was also released as a single.", "The second and third acts have extended guitar improvisations, which were recorded live, then combined with studio backing tracks.", "Zappa described this process as xenochrony.", "In this period the band included drummer Vinnie Colaiuta (with whom Zappa had a particularly strong musical rapport) ''Joe's Garage'' contains one of Zappa's most famous guitar \"signature pieces\", \"Watermelon in Easter Hay\".", "This work later appeared as a three-LP, or two-CD set.Zappa had been known for his long hair since the mid-1960s, but he had Gail cut it short around August 1979.That fall he cancelled tour plans and stayed home to celebrate two of his children's birthdays in September.", "At this time Zappa also completed the Utility Muffin Research Kitchen (UMRK) studios, which were located at his house, thereby giving him complete freedom in his work.On December 21, 1979, Zappa's movie ''Baby Snakes'' premiered in New York.", "The movie's tagline was \"A movie about people who do stuff that is not normal\".", "The 2 hour and 40 minutes movie was based on footage from concerts in New York around Halloween 1977, with a band featuring keyboardist Tommy Mars and percussionist Ed Mann (who would both return on later tours) as well as guitarist Adrian Belew.", "It also contained several extraordinary sequences of clay animation by Bruce Bickford who had earlier provided animation sequences to Zappa for a 1974 TV special (which became available on the 1982 video ''The Dub Room Special'').", "The movie did not do well in theatrical distribution, but won the Premier Grand Prix at the First International Music Festival in Paris in 1981." ], [ "1980–1993: Later years", "Memorial Auditorium, Buffalo, New York, 1980.The concert was released in 2007 as ''Buffalo''.Zappa cut ties with Phonogram after the distributor refused to release his song \"I Don't Wanna Get Drafted\", which was recorded in February 1980.The single was released independently by Zappa in the United States and was picked up by CBS Records internationally.After spending much of 1980 on the road, Zappa released ''Tinsel Town Rebellion'' in 1981.It was the first release on his own Barking Pumpkin Records, and it contains songs taken from a 1979 tour, one studio track and material from the 1980 tours.", "The album is a mixture of complicated instrumentals and Zappa's use of ''sprechstimme'' (speaking song or voice)—a compositional technique utilized by such composers as Arnold Schoenberg and Alban Berg—showcasing some of the most accomplished bands Zappa ever had (mostly featuring drummer Vinnie Colaiuta).", "While some lyrics still raised controversy among critics, some of whom found them sexist, the political and sociological satire in songs like the title track and \"The Blue Light\" have been described as a \"hilarious critique of the willingness of the American people to believe anything\".", "The album is also notable for the presence of guitarist Steve Vai, who joined Zappa's touring band in late 1980.The same year the double album ''You Are What You Is'' was released.", "The album included one complex instrumental, \"Theme from the 3rd Movement of Sinister Footwear\", but mainly consisted of rock songs with Zappa's sardonic social commentary—satirical lyrics directed at teenagers, the media, and religious and political hypocrisy.", "\"Dumb All Over\" is a tirade on religion, as is \"Heavenly Bank Account\", wherein Zappa rails against TV evangelists such as Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson for their purported influence on the U.S. administration as well as their use of religion as a means of raising money.", "Songs like \"Society Pages\" and \"I'm a Beautiful Guy\" show Zappa's dismay with the Reagan era and its \"obscene pursuit of wealth and happiness\".", "Zappa made his only music video for a song from this album – \"You Are What You Is\" – directed by Jerry Watson, produced by Paul Flattery.", "The video was banned from MTV, though was later featured by Mike Judge in the Beavis & Butthead episode \"Canoe\".In 1981, Zappa also released three instrumental albums, ''Shut Up 'n Play Yer Guitar'', ''Shut Up 'N Play Yer Guitar Some More'', and ''The Return of the Son of Shut Up 'N Play Yer Guitar'', which were initially sold via mail order, but later released through CBS Records (now Sony Music Entertainment) due to popular demand.The albums focus exclusively on Frank Zappa as a guitar soloist, and the tracks are predominantly live recordings from 1979 to 1980; they highlight Zappa's improvisational skills with \"beautiful performances from the backing group as well\".", "Another guitar-only album, ''Guitar'', was released in 1988, and a third, ''Trance-Fusion'', which Zappa completed shortly before his death, was released in 2006.Zappa later expanded on his television appearances in a non-musical role.", "He was an actor or voice artist in episodes of ''Shelley Duvall's Faerie Tale Theatre'', ''Miami Vice'' and ''The Ren & Stimpy Show''.", "A voice part in ''The Simpsons'' never materialized, to creator Matt Groening's disappointment (Groening was a neighbor of Zappa and a lifelong fan).===\"Valley Girl\" and classical performances===In May 1982, Zappa released ''Ship Arriving Too Late to Save a Drowning Witch'', which featured his biggest selling single ever, the Grammy Award-nominated song \"Valley Girl\" (topping out at No.", "32 on the ''Billboard'' charts).", "In her improvised lyrics to the song, Zappa's daughter Moon satirized the patois of teenage girls from the San Fernando Valley, which popularized many \"Valleyspeak\" expressions such as \"gag me with a spoon\", \"fer sure, fer sure\", \"grody to the max\", and \"barf out\".In 1983, two different projects were released, beginning with ''The Man from Utopia,'' a rock-oriented work.", "The album is eclectic, featuring the vocal-led \"Dangerous Kitchen\" and \"The Jazz Discharge Party Hats\", both continuations of the sprechstimme excursions on ''Tinseltown Rebellion.''", "The second album, ''London Symphony Orchestra, Vol.", "I'', contained orchestral Zappa compositions conducted by Kent Nagano and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO).", "A second record of these sessions, ''London Symphony Orchestra, Vol.", "II'' was released in 1987.The material was recorded under a tight schedule with Zappa providing all funding, helped by the commercial success of \"Valley Girl\".", "Zappa was not satisfied with the LSO recordings.", "One reason is \"Strictly Genteel\", which was recorded after the trumpet section had been out for drinks on a break: the track took 40 edits to hide out-of-tune notes.Conductor Nagano, who was pleased with the experience, noted that \"in fairness to the orchestra, the music is humanly very, very difficult\".", "Some reviews noted that the recordings were the best representation of Zappa's orchestral work so far.", "In 1984 Zappa teamed again with Nagano and the Berkeley Symphony Orchestra for a live performance of ''A Zappa Affair'' with augmented orchestra, life-size puppets, and moving stage sets.", "Although critically acclaimed the work was a financial failure, and only performed twice.", "Zappa was invited by conference organizer Thomas Wells to be the keynote speaker at the American Society of University Composers at the Ohio State University.", "It was there Zappa delivered his famous \"Bingo!", "There Goes Your Tenure\" address, and had two of his orchestra pieces, \"Dupree's Paradise\" and \"Naval Aviation in Art?\"", "performed by the Columbus Symphony Orchestra and ProMusica Chamber Orchestra of Columbus.", "Zappa's management relationship with Bennett Glotzer ended in 1984.Starting in 1985 Gail began managing much of the Zappa business empire, which included a record label, a mail-order company, a video company and a music publishing firm.===Synclavier works===For the remainder of his career, much of Zappa's work was influenced by his use of the Synclavier, an early digital synthesizer, as a compositional and performance tool.", "According to Zappa, \"With the Synclavier, any group of imaginary instruments can be invited to play the most difficult passages ... with ''one-millisecond'' accuracy—every time\".", "Even though it essentially did away with the need for musicians, Zappa viewed the Synclavier and real-life musicians as separate.In 1984, he released four albums.", "''Boulez Conducts Zappa: The Perfect Stranger'' contains orchestral works commissioned and conducted by celebrated conductor, composer and pianist Pierre Boulez (who was listed as an influence on ''Freak Out!", "''), and performed by his Ensemble intercontemporain.", "These were juxtaposed with premiere Synclavier pieces.", "Again, Zappa was not satisfied with the performances of his orchestral works, regarding them as under-rehearsed, but in the album liner notes he respectfully thanks Boulez's demands for precision.", "The Synclavier pieces stood in contrast to the orchestral works, as the sounds were electronically generated and not, as became possible shortly thereafter, sampled.The album ''Thing-Fish'' was an ambitious three-record set in the style of a Broadway play dealing with a dystopian \"what-if\" scenario involving feminism, homosexuality, manufacturing and distribution of the AIDS virus, and a eugenics program conducted by the United States government.", "New vocals were combined with previously released tracks and new Synclavier music; \"the work is an extraordinary example of ''bricolage''\".", "''Francesco Zappa'', a Synclavier rendition of works by 18th-century composer Francesco Zappa, was also released in 1984.=== Merchandising ===Zappa's mail-order merchandise business, Barfko-Swill, established during the 1980s by Zappa's wife Gail, offers t-shirts, videos, posters, sheet music, and collector's recordings, most of them unavailable through other media.", "Gail has explained why Barfko-Swill was founded: \"Just piles and piles of fan mail sitting around unanswered or with no response.", "The first thing that we did was put a list together from the fan mail and made a Barking Pumpkin t-shirt available which we still have – same old shirt, same old logo, same old price – just to see what would happen.", "Everybody would write to us and ask us if there was something they could get besides records.", "... That was really the primary reason for getting into the business – for setting up Barfko-Swill – in those days was to be independent.", "To not have to rely on a major record company's interest and ability to promote your product.", "And that was what the challenge was for me.", "I prefer the autonomy.", "\"From 1983 to 1993, Barfko-Swill was run by Gerry Fialka, who also worked for Zappa as archivist, production assistant, tour assistant, and factotum, and answered the phone for Zappa's Barking Pumpkin Records hotline.", "Fialka appears giving a tour of Barfko-Swill in the 1987 VHS release (but not the original 1979 film release) of Zappa's film ''Baby Snakes''.", "He is credited on-screen as \"GERALD FIALKA Cool Guy Who Wraps Stuff So It Doesn't Break\".", "A short clip of this tour is also included in the 2020 documentary film '' Zappa''.=== Digital medium and last tour ===Around 1986, Zappa undertook a comprehensive re-release program of his earlier vinyl recordings.", "He personally oversaw the remastering of all his 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s albums for the new digital compact disc medium.", "Certain aspects of these re-issues have been criticized by some fans as being unfaithful to the original recordings, with changes made to ''We're Only in It for the Money'', ''Cruising with Ruben & the Jets'', ''Uncle Meat'' and ''Sleep Dirt'' being the most strongly criticized.", "Nearly twenty years before the advent of online music stores, Zappa had proposed to replace \"phonographic record merchandising\" of music by \"direct digital-to-digital transfer\" through phone or cable TV (with royalty payments and consumer billing automatically built into the accompanying software).", "In 1989, Zappa considered his idea a \"miserable flop\".The album ''Jazz from Hell,'' released in 1986, earned Zappa his first Grammy Award in 1988 for Best Rock Instrumental Performance.", "Except for one live guitar solo (\"St. Etienne\"), the album exclusively featured compositions brought to life by the Synclavier.Zappa's last tour in a rock and jazz band format took place in 1988 with a 12-piece group which had a repertoire of over 100 (mostly Zappa) compositions, but which split under acrimonious circumstances before the tour was completed.", "The tour was documented on the albums ''Broadway the Hard Way'' (new material featuring songs with strong political emphasis); ''The Best Band You Never Heard in Your Life'' (Zappa \"standards\" and an eclectic collection of cover tunes, ranging from Maurice Ravel's ''Boléro'' to Led Zeppelin's \"Stairway to Heaven\"; and ''Make a Jazz Noise Here'' (Zappa's more instrumentally complex and jazz orientated material).", "An album of guitar solos from this tour also appeared as the posthumous 2006 album ''Trance-Fusion'', a follow-up to the ''Shut Up 'n Play Yer Guitar'' and ''Guitar'' albums.More recordings from the 1988 tour would appear as part of ''You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore'', a series of six double CDs complied by Zappa from unreleased live recordings dating back to the earliest Mothers recordings from 1965.The six volumes were released between 1988 and 1992.Two further archival live albums, ''Playground Psychotics'' and ''Ahead of Their Time'', were released in 1992 and 1993 respectively.", "The former collected recordings by the early 1970s \"Flo and Eddie\" era Mothers, while the latter was a complete concert by the original Mothers at the Royal Albert Hall in 1968 (footage from which has been used in the ''Uncle Meat'' movie).===Health deterioration===In 1990, Zappa was diagnosed with terminal prostate cancer.", "The disease had been developing unnoticed for years and was considered inoperable.", "After the diagnosis, Zappa devoted most of his energy to modern orchestral and Synclavier works.", "Shortly before his death in 1993 he completed ''Civilization Phaze III'', a major Synclavier work which he had begun in the 1980s.In 1991, Zappa was chosen to be one of four featured composers at the Frankfurt Festival in 1992 (the others were John Cage, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Alexander Knaifel).", "Zappa was approached by the German chamber ensemble Ensemble Modern which was interested in playing his music for the event.", "Although ill, he invited them to Los Angeles for rehearsals of new compositions and new arrangements of older material.", "Zappa also got along with the musicians, and the concerts in Germany and Austria were set up for later in the year.", "Zappa also performed in 1991 in Prague, claiming that \"was the first time that he had a reason to play his guitar in 3 years\", and that that moment was just \"the beginning of a new country\", and asked the public to \"try to keep your country unique, do not change it into something else\".In September 1992, the concerts went ahead as scheduled but Zappa could only appear at two in Frankfurt due to illness.", "At the first concert, he conducted the opening \"Overture\", and the final \"G-Spot Tornado\" as well as the theatrical \"Food Gathering in Post-Industrial America, 1992\" and \"Welcome to the United States\" (the remainder of the program was conducted by the ensemble's regular conductor Peter Rundel).", "Zappa received a 20-minute ovation.", "G-Spot Tornado was performed with Canadian dancer Louise Lecavalier.", "It was Zappa's last professional public appearance as the cancer was spreading to such an extent that he was in too much pain to enjoy an event that he otherwise found \"exhilarating\".", "Recordings from the concerts appeared on ''The Yellow Shark'' (1993), Zappa's last release during his lifetime, and some material from studio rehearsals appeared on the posthumous ''Everything Is Healing Nicely'' (1999)." ], [ "Death", "Zappa died from prostate cancer on December 4, 1993, 17 days shy of his 53rd birthday, at his home with his wife and children by his side.", "At a private ceremony the following day, his body was buried in a grave at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery, in Los Angeles.", "The grave has since been unmarked.", "On December 6, his family publicly announced that \"Composer Frank Zappa left for his final tour just before 6:00 pm on Saturday\"." ], [ "Musical style and development", "===Genres===Zappa performing in 1973The general phases of Zappa's music have been variously categorized under blues rock, experimental rock, jazz, classical, avant-pop, experimental pop, comedy rock, doo-wop, jazz fusion, progressive rock, proto-prog, avant-jazz, and psychedelic rock.===Influences===Zappa grew up influenced by avant-garde composers such as Edgard Varèse, Igor Stravinsky, and Anton Webern; 1950s blues artists Clarence \"Gatemouth\" Brown, Guitar Slim, Howlin' Wolf, Johnny \"Guitar\" Watson, and B.B.", "King; Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh; R&B and doo-wop groups (particularly local pachuco groups); and modern jazz.", "His own heterogeneous ethnic background, and the diverse social and cultural mix in and around greater Los Angeles, were crucial in the formation of Zappa as a practitioner of underground music and of his later distrustful and openly critical attitude towards \"mainstream\" social, political and musical movements.", "He frequently lampooned musical fads like psychedelia, rock opera and disco.", "Television also exerted a strong influence, as demonstrated by quotations from show themes and advertising jingles found in his later works.In his book ''The Real Frank Zappa Book'', Zappa credited composer Spike Jones for his frequent use of funny sound effects, mouth noises, and humorous percussion interjections.", "After explaining his ideas on this, he said \"I owe this part of my musical existence to Spike Jones.", "\"===Project/Object===Zappa's albums make extensive use of segued tracks, breaklessly joining the elements of his albums.", "His total output is unified by a conceptual continuity he termed \"Project/Object\", with numerous musical phrases, ideas, and characters reappearing across his albums.", "He also called it a \"conceptual continuity\", meaning that any project or album was part of a larger project.", "Everything was connected, and musical themes and lyrics reappeared in different form on later albums.", "Conceptual continuity clues are found throughout Zappa's entire œuvre.===Techniques=======Guitar playing====Zappa is widely recognized as one of the most significant electric guitar soloists.", "In a 1983 issue of ''Guitar World'', John Swenson declared: \"the fact of the matter is that Zappa is one of the greatest guitarists we have and is sorely unappreciated as such.\"", "His idiosyncratic style developed gradually and was mature by the early 1980s, by which time his live performances featured lengthy improvised solos during many songs.", "A November 2016 feature by the editors of ''Guitar Player'' magazine wrote: \"Brimming with sophisticated motifs and convoluted rhythms, Zappa's extended excursions are more akin to symphonies than they are to guitar solos.\"", "The symphonic comparison stems from his habit of introducing melodic themes that, like a symphony's main melodies, were repeated with variations throughout his solos.", "He was further described as using a wide variety of scales and modes, enlivened by \"unusual rhythmic combinations\".", "His left hand was capable of smooth legato technique, while Zappa's right was \"one of the fastest pick hands in the business.\"", "In 2016, Dweezil Zappa explained a distinctive element of his father's guitar improvisation technique was relying heavily on upstrokes much more than many other guitarists, who are more likely to use downstrokes with their picking.His song \"Outside Now\" from ''Joe's Garage'' poked fun at the negative reception of Zappa's guitar technique by those more commercially minded, as the song's narrator lives in a world where music is outlawed and he imagines \"imaginary guitar notes that would irritate/An executive kind of guy\", lyrics that are followed by one of Zappa's characteristically quirky solos in 11/8 time.", "Zappa transcriptionist Kasper Sloots wrote, \"Zappa's guitar solos aren't meant to show off technically (Zappa hasn't claimed to be a big virtuoso on the instrument), but for the pleasure it gives trying to build a composition right in front of an audience without knowing what the outcome will be.", "\"Zappa's guitar style was not without its critics.", "English guitarist and bandleader John McLaughlin, whose band Mahavishnu Orchestra toured with the Mothers of Invention in 1973, opined that Zappa was \"very interesting as a human being and a very interesting composer\" and that he \"was a very good musician but he was a dictator in his band,\" and that he \"was taking very long guitar solos when performing live—10–15 minute guitar solos and really he should have taken two or three minute guitar solos, because they were a little bit boring.", "\"In 2000, he was ranked number 36 on VH1's ''100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock''.", "In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked him at number 71 on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\", and in 2011 at number 22 on its list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\".====Tape manipulation====In New York, Zappa increasingly used tape editing as a compositional tool.", "A prime example is found on the double album ''Uncle Meat'' (1969), where the track \"King Kong\" is edited from various studio and live performances.", "Zappa had begun regularly recording concerts, and because of his insistence on precise tuning and timing, he was able to augment his studio productions with excerpts from live shows, and vice versa.", "Later, he combined recordings of different compositions into new pieces, irrespective of the tempo or meter of the sources.", "He dubbed this process \"xenochrony\" (strange synchronizations)—reflecting the Greek \"xeno\" (alien or strange) and \"chronos\" (time)." ], [ "Personal life", "Left to right: Simon Prentis (Zappa's \"Semantic Scrutinizer\"), Zappa, Zappa's production assistant Gerry Fialka, and Zappa's second wife Gail outside Zappa's home recording studio Utility Muffin Research Kitchen in 1986.Prentis holds a preview cassette of the album ''Jazz From Hell'' that Fialka had just delivered for Zappa's approval.Zappa was married to Kathryn J.", "\"Kay\" Sherman from 1960 to 1963.In 1967, he married Adelaide Gail Sloatman.", "He and his second wife had four children: Moon , Dweezil, Ahmet, and Diva.Following Zappa's death, his widow Gail created the Zappa Family Trust, which owns the rights to Zappa's music and some other creative output: more than 60 albums were released during Zappa's lifetime and 65 posthumously as of November 2023.Upon Gail's death in October 2015, the Zappa children received shares of the trust; Ahmet and Diva received 30% each, Moon and Dweezil received 20% each." ], [ "Beliefs and politics", "===Drugs===Zappa stated, \"Drugs do not become a problem until the person who uses the drugs does something to you, or does something that would affect your life that you don't want to have happen to you, like an airline pilot who crashes because he was full of drugs.\"", "Zappa was a heavy tobacco smoker for most of his life, and critical of anti-tobacco campaigns.While he disapproved of drug use, he criticized the War on Drugs, comparing it to alcohol prohibition, and stated that the United States Treasury would benefit from the decriminalization and regulation of drugs.", "Describing his philosophical views, Zappa stated, \"I believe that people have a right to decide their own destinies; people own themselves.", "I also believe that, in a democracy, government exists because (and only so long as) individual citizens give it a 'temporary license to exist'—in exchange for a promise that it will behave itself.", "In a democracy, you own the government—it doesn't own you.", "\"===Government and religion===Zappa with Václav Havel, 1990In a 1991 interview, Zappa reported that he was a registered Democrat but added \"that might not last long—I'm going to shred that.\"", "Describing his political views, Zappa categorized himself as a \"practical conservative.\"", "He favored limited government and low taxes; he also stated that he approved of national defense, social security, and other federal programs, but only if recipients of such programs are willing and able to pay for them.", "He opposed military drafts, saying that military service should be voluntary.", "He favored capitalism, entrepreneurship, and independent business, stating that musicians could make more from owning their own businesses than from collecting royalties.", "He opposed communism, stating, \"A system that doesn't allow ownership... has—to put it mildly—a fatal design flaw.\"", "He always encouraged his fans to register to vote on album covers, and throughout 1988, he had registration booths at his concerts.", "He even considered running for president of the United States as an independent.Zappa was an atheist.", "He recalled his parents being \"pretty religious\" and trying to make him go to Catholic school despite his resentment.", "He felt disgust towards organized religion (Christianity in particular) because he believed that it promoted ignorance and anti-intellectualism.", "He held the view that the Garden of Eden story shows that the essence of Christianity is to oppose gaining knowledge.", "Some of his songs, concert performances, interviews and public debates in the 1980s criticized and derided Republicans and their policies—President Ronald Reagan, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), televangelism, and the Christian Right—and warned that the United States government was in danger of becoming a \"fascist theocracy.", "\"In early 1990, Zappa visited Czechoslovakia at the request of President Václav Havel.", "The meeting had been arranged by keyboardist Michael Kocáb.", "A longtime admirer of Zappa's commitment to individualism, Havel designated him as Czechoslovakia's \"Special Ambassador to the West on Trade, Culture and Tourism.\"", "Havel was a lifelong fan of Zappa, who had great influence in the avant-garde and underground scene in Central Europe in the 1970s and 1980s.", "The Plastic People of the Universe, a Czechoslovakian jazz rock group associated with Prague underground culture, took its name from Zappa's 1968 song \"Plastic People\").", "Under pressure from Secretary of State, James Baker, Zappa's posting (as Czech 'Special Ambassador') was withdrawn.", "Havel made Zappa an unofficial cultural attaché instead.", "Zappa planned to develop an international consulting enterprise to facilitate trade between the former Eastern Bloc and Western businesses.===Anti-censorship===Zappa expressed opinions on censorship when he appeared on CNN's ''Crossfire'' TV series and debated issues with ''Washington Times'' commentator John Lofton in 1986.On September 19, 1985, Zappa testified before the United States Senate Commerce, Technology, and Transportation committee, attacking the Parents Music Resource Center or PMRC, a music organization co-founded by Tipper Gore, wife of then-senator Al Gore.", "The PMRC consisted of many wives of politicians, including the wives of five members of the committee, and was founded to address the issue of song lyrics with sexual or satanic content.", "During Zappa's testimony, he stated that there was a clear conflict of interest between the PMRC due to the relations of its founders to the politicians who were then trying to pass what he referred to as the \"Blank Tape Tax.\"", "Kandy Stroud, a spokeswoman for the PMRC, announced that Senator Gore (who co-founded the committee) was a co-sponsor of that legislation.", "Zappa suggested that record labels were trying to get the bill passed quickly through committees, one of which was chaired by Senator Strom Thurmond, who was also affiliated with the PMRC.", "Zappa further said that this committee was being used as a distraction from that bill being passed, which would lead only to the benefit of a select few in the music industry.Zappa saw their activities as on a path towards censorship and called their proposal for voluntary labelling of records with explicit content \"extortion\" of the music industry.In his prepared statement, he said:The PMRC proposal is an ill-conceived piece of nonsense which fails to deliver any real benefits to children, infringes the civil liberties of people who are not children, and promises to keep the courts busy for years dealing with the interpretational and enforcemental problems inherent in the proposal's design.", "It is my understanding that, in law, First Amendment issues are decided with a preference for the least restrictive alternative.", "In this context, the PMRC's demands are the equivalent of treating dandruff by decapitation. ...", "The establishment of a rating system, voluntary or otherwise, opens the door to an endless parade of moral quality control programs based on things certain Christians do not like.", "What if the next bunch of Washington wives demands a large yellow \"J\" on all material written or performed by Jews, in order to save helpless children from exposure to concealed Zionist doctrine?Zappa set excerpts from the PMRC hearings to Synclavier music in his composition \"Porn Wars\" on the 1985 album ''Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention'', and the full recording was released in 2010 as ''Congress Shall Make No Law...'' Zappa is heard interacting with Senators Fritz Hollings, Slade Gorton and Al Gore." ], [ "Legacy", "Zappa was a controversial figure.", "As Geoffrey Himes noted in 1993 after the artist's death, Zappa was hailed as a genius by conductor Kent Nagano and nominated by Czechoslovakian President Václav Havel to the country's cultural ambassadorship, but he was in his lifetime rejected twice for admission into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "In ''Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies'' (1981), Robert Christgau dismissed Zappa's music as \"sexist adolescent drivel ... with meters and voicings and key changes that are as hard to play as they are easy to forget.\"", "According to Himes:===Acclaim and honors===''The Rolling Stone Album Guide'' (2004) writes: \"Frank Zappa dabbled in virtually all kinds of music—and, whether guised as a satirical rocker, jazz-rock fusionist, guitar virtuoso, electronics wizard, or orchestral innovator, his eccentric genius was undeniable.\"", "Even though his work drew inspiration from many different genres, Zappa was seen as establishing a coherent and personal expression.In 1980, biographer David Walley noted that \"The whole structure of his music is unified, not neatly divided by dates or time sequences and it is all building into a composite\".On commenting on Zappa's music, politics and philosophy, Barry Miles noted in 2004 that they cannot be separated: \"It was all one; all part of his 'conceptual continuity'.", "\"Zappa in 1977''Guitar Player'' devoted a special issue to Zappa in 1992, and asked on the cover \"Is FZ America's Best Kept Musical Secret?\"", "Editor Don Menn remarked that the issue was about \"The most important composer to come out of modern popular music\".Among those contributing to the issue was composer and musicologist Nicolas Slonimsky, who conducted premiere performances of works of Ives and Varèse in the 1930s.", "He became friends with Zappa in the 1980s, and said, \"I admire everything Frank does, because he practically created the new musical millennium.", "He does beautiful, beautiful work ...", "It has been my luck to have lived to see the emergence of this totally new type of music.", "\"Conductor Kent Nagano remarked in the same issue that \"Frank is a genius.", "That's a word I don't use often ...", "In Frank's case it is not too strong ...", "He is extremely literate musically.", "I'm not sure if the general public knows that.\"", "Pierre Boulez told ''Musician'' magazine's posthumous Zappa tribute article that Zappa \"was an exceptional figure because he was part of the worlds of rock and classical music and that both types of his work would survive.", "\"In 1994, jazz magazine ''DownBeat''s critics poll placed Zappa in its Hall of Fame.", "Zappa was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995.There, it was written that \"Frank Zappa was rock and roll's sharpest musical mind and most astute social critic.", "He was the most prolific composer of his age, and he bridged genres—rock, jazz, classical, avant-garde and even novelty music—with masterful ease\".", "He was ranked number 36 on VH1's ''100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock'' in 2000.In 2005, the U.S. National Recording Preservation Board included ''We're Only in It for the Money'' in the National Recording Registry as \"Frank Zappa's inventive and iconoclastic album presents a unique political stance, both anti-conservative and anti-counterculture, and features a scathing satire on hippiedom and America's reactions to it\".", "The same year, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked him at No.", "71 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.In 2011, he was ranked at No.", "22 on the list of the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time by the same magazine.", "In 2016, ''Guitar World'' magazine placed Zappa atop its list of \"15 of the best progressive rock guitarists through the years.", "\"The street of Partinico where his father lived at number 13, Via Zammatà, has been renamed to Via Frank Zappa.Since his death, several musicians have been considered by critics as filling the artistic niche left behind by Zappa, in view of their prolific output, eclecticism and other qualities, including Devin Townsend, Mike Patton and Omar Rodríguez-López.====Grammy Awards====In the course of his career, Zappa was nominated for nine competitive Grammy Awards, which resulted in two wins (one posthumous).", "In 1998, he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "1980 \"Rat Tomago\" Best Rock Instrumental Performance \"Dancin' Fool\" Best Male Rock Vocal Performance 1983 \"Valley Girl\" Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal 1985 ''The Perfect Stranger'' Best New Classical Composition 1988 \"Jazz from Hell\" Best Instrumental Composition ''Jazz from Hell'' Best Rock Instrumental Performance (Orchestra, Group or Soloist) 1989 ''Guitar'' 1990 ''Broadway the Hard Way'' Best Musical Cast Show Album 1996 ''Civilization Phaze III'' Best Recording Package – Boxed 1998 Frank Zappa Lifetime Achievement Award ===Artists influenced by Zappa===Many musicians, bands and orchestras from diverse genres have been influenced by Zappa's music.", "Rock artists such as The Plastic People of the Universe, Alice Cooper, Larry LaLonde of Primus, Fee Waybill of the Tubes all cite Zappa's influence, as do progressive, alternative, electronic and avant-garde/experimental rock artists like Can, Pere Ubu, Yes, Soft Machine, Henry Cow, Faust, Devo, Kraftwerk, Trey Anastasio and Jon Fishman of Phish, Jeff Buckley, John Frusciante, Steven Wilson, and The Aristocrats.Paul McCartney regarded ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' as the Beatles' ''Freak Out!.''", "Jimi Hendrix and heavy rock and metal acts like Black Sabbath, Living Colour, Simon Phillips, Mike Portnoy, Warren DeMartini, Alex Skolnick, Steve Vai, Strapping Young Lad, System of a Down, and Clawfinger have acknowledged Zappa as inspiration.", "On the classical music scene, Tomas Ulrich, Meridian Arts Ensemble, Ensemble Ambrosius and the Fireworks Ensemble regularly perform Zappa's compositions and quote his influence.", "Contemporary jazz musicians and composers Bobby Sanabria, Bill Frisell and John Zorn are inspired by Zappa, as is funk legend George Clinton.Other artists affected by Zappa include ambient composer Brian Eno, new age pianist George Winston, electronic composer Bob Gluck, parodist artist and disk jockey Dr. Demento, parodist and novelty composer \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, industrial music pioneer Genesis P-Orridge, singer Cree Summer, noise music artist Masami Akita of Merzbow, the Italian band Elio e le Storie Tese and Chilean composer Cristián Crisosto from Fulano and Mediabanda.===References in arts and sciences===Frank Zappa bust by Vaclav Cesak in Bad Doberan, GermanyScientists from various fields have honored Zappa by naming new discoveries after him.", "In 1967, paleontologist Leo P. Plas Jr., identified an extinct mollusc in Nevada and named it ''Amaurotoma zappa'' with the motivation that, \"The specific name, ''zappa'', honors Frank Zappa\".In the 1980s, biologist Ed Murdy named a genus of gobiid fishes of New Guinea ''Zappa'', with a species named ''Zappa confluentus''.", "Biologist Ferdinando Boero named a Californian jellyfish ''Phialella zappai'' (1987), noting that he had \"pleasure in naming this species after the modern music composer\".Belgian biologists Bosmans and Bosselaers discovered in the early 1980s a Cameroonese spider, which they in 1994 named ''Pachygnatha zappa'' because \"the ventral side of the abdomen of the female of this species strikingly resembles the artist's legendary moustache\".A gene of the bacterium ''Proteus mirabilis'' that causes urinary tract infections was in 1995 named ''zapA'' by three biologists from Maryland.", "In their scientific article, they \"especially thank the late Frank Zappa for inspiration and assistance with genetic nomenclature\".", "Repeating regions of the genome of the human tumor virus KSHV were named ''frnk'', ''vnct'' and ''zppa'' in 1996 by Yuan Chang and Patrick S. Moore who discovered the virus.", "Also, a 143 base pair repeat sequence occurring at two positions was named ''waka/jwka''.In the late 1990s, American paleontologists Marc Salak and Halard L. Lescinsky discovered a metazoan fossil, and named it ''Spygori zappania'' to honor \"the late Frank Zappa ... whose mission paralleled that of the earliest paleontologists: to challenge conventional and traditional beliefs when such beliefs lacked roots in logic and reason\".In 1994, lobbying efforts initiated by psychiatrist John Scialli led the International Astronomical Union's Minor Planet Center to name an asteroid in Zappa's honor: 3834 Zappafrank.", "The asteroid was discovered in 1980 by Czechoslovakian astronomer Ladislav Brožek, and the citation for its naming says that \"Zappa was an eclectic, self-trained artist and composer ... Before 1989 he was regarded as a symbol of democracy and freedom by many people in Czechoslovakia\".In 1995, a bust of Zappa by sculptor Konstantinas Bogdanas was installed in Vilnius, the Lithuanian capital .", "The choice of Zappa was explained as \"a symbol that would mark the end of communism, but at the same time express that it wasn't always doom and gloom.\"", "A replica was offered to the city of Baltimore in 2008, and on September 19, 2010—the twenty-fifth anniversary of Zappa's testimony to the U.S. Senate—a ceremony dedicating the replica was held, and the bust was unveiled at a library in the city.Frank-Zappa-Straße in BerlinIn 2002, a bronze bust was installed in German city Bad Doberan, location of the ''Zappanale'' since 1990, an annual music festival celebrating Zappa.", "At the initiative of musicians community ORWOhaus, the city of Berlin named a street in the Marzahn district \"Frank-Zappa-Straße\" in 2007.The same year, Baltimore mayor Sheila Dixon proclaimed August 9 as the city's official \"Frank Zappa Day\" citing Zappa's musical accomplishments as well as his defense of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.=== ''Zappa'' documentary ===The biographical documentary ''Zappa'', directed by Alex Winter and released on November 27, 2020, includes previously unreleased footage from Zappa's personal vault, to which he was granted access by the Zappa Family Trust." ], [ "Discography", "During his lifetime, Zappa released 62 albums.", "Since 1994, the Zappa Family Trust has released 64 posthumous albums, making a total of 126 albums.", "The distributor of Zappa's recorded output is Universal Music Enterprises.", "In June 2022, the Zappa Trust announced that it had sold Zappa's entire catalog to Universal Music, including master tapes, song copyrights and trademarks." ], [ "Tour", "Tour and the relative video:* 1971 – The Mothers Of Invention (January 28, 1971 Frank Zappa's 200 Motels)* 1972 – \"Grand Wazoo\"* 1973 – The Mothers Of Invention* 1974 – 10th Anniversary Tour (August 27, 1974 Hollywood – A Token Of His Extreme)* 1975 – \"Bongo Fury\" * 1976 – World Tour* 1977 – \"Sheik Yerbouti\" (October 31, 1977 New York – The Palladium – Baby Snakes)* 1978 – World Tour* 1979 – European Tour* 1980 – Spring-Summer Tour* 1981 – US-Canada Tour (October 31, 1981 New York – The Palladium – The Torture Never Stops)* 1982 – Europe Tour* 1984 – 20th Anniversary World Tour (August 25, 1984 New York – The Pier – Does Humor Belong In Music?", ")* 1988 – The Last TourTimeline of videos with tour:" ], [ "See also", "* List of performers on Frank Zappa records* Frank Zappa in popular culture" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fagales" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Fagales''' are an order of flowering plants, including some of the best-known trees.", "The order name is derived from genus ''Fagus'', beeches.", "They belong among the rosid group of dicotyledons.", "The families and genera currently included are as follows:Betulaceae – birch family (''Alnus'', ''Betula'', ''Carpinus'', ''Corylus'', ''Ostrya'', and ''Ostryopsis'')Casuarinaceae – she-oak family (''Allocasuarina'', ''Casuarina'', ''Ceuthostoma'', and ''Gymnostoma'')Fagaceae – beech family (''Castanea'', ''Castanopsis'', ''Chrysolepis'', ''Fagus'', ''Lithocarpus'', ''Notholithocarpus'', ''Quercus'', and ''Trigonobalanus'')Juglandaceae – walnut family (''Alfaroa'', ''Carya'', ''Cyclocarya'', ''Engelhardia'', ''Juglans'', ''Oreomunnea'', ''Platycarya'', ''Pterocarya'', and ''Rhoiptelea'')Myricaceae – bayberry family (''Canacomyrica'', ''Comptonia'', and ''Myrica'')Nothofagaceae – southern beech family (''Nothofagus'')Ticodendraceae – ticodendron family (''Ticodendron'')The older Cronquist system only included four families (Betulaceae, Corylaceae, Fagaceae, Ticodendraceae; Corylaceae now being included within Betulaceae); this arrangement is followed by, for example, the World Checklist of selected plant families.", "The other families were split into three different orders, placed among the Hamamelidae.", "The Casuarinales comprised the single family Casuarinaceae, the Juglandales comprised the Juglandaceae and Rhoipteleaceae, and the Myricales comprised the remaining forms (plus ''Balanops'').", "The change is due to studies suggesting the Myricales, so defined, are paraphyletic to the other two groups." ], [ "Characteristics", "Most Fagales are wind pollinated and are monoecious with unisexual flowers." ], [ "Evolutionary history", "The oldest member of the order is the flower ''Soepadmoa cupulata'' preserved in the late Turonian-Coniacian New Jersey amber, which is a mosaic with characteristics characteristic of both ''Nothofagus'' and other Fagales, suggesting that the ancestor of all Fagales was ''Nothofagus''-like." ], [ "Systematics", "Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships:" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Missouri Botanical Gardens - Fagales" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fabales" ], [ "Introduction", "''Desmodium gangeticum'' '''Fabales''' is an order of flowering plants included in the rosid group of the eudicots in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II classification system.", "In the APG II circumscription, this order includes the families Fabaceae or legumes (including the subfamilies Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae, and Faboideae), Quillajaceae, Polygalaceae or milkworts (including the families Diclidantheraceae, Moutabeaceae, and Xanthophyllaceae), and Surianaceae.", "Under the Cronquist system and some other plant classification systems, the order Fabales contains only the family Fabaceae.", "In the classification system of Dahlgren the Fabales were in the superorder Fabiflorae (also called Fabanae) with three families corresponding to the subfamilies of Fabaceae in APG II.", "The other families treated in the Fabales by the APG II classification were placed in separate orders by Cronquist, the Polygalaceae within its own order, the Polygalales, and the Quillajaceae and Surianaceae within the Rosales.", "The Fabaceae, as the third-largest plant family in the world, contain most of the diversity of the Fabales, the other families making up a comparatively small portion of the order's diversity.", "Research in the order is largely focused on the Fabaceae, due in part to its great biological diversity, and to its importance as food plants.", "The Polygalaceae are fairly well researched among plant families, in part due to the large diversity of the genus ''Polygala'', and other members of the family being food plants for various Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species.", "While taxonomists using molecular phylogenetic techniques find strong support for the order, questions remain about the morphological relationships of the Quillajaceae and Surianaceae to the rest of the order, due in part to limited research on these families." ], [ "Distribution", "The Fabales are a cosmopolitan order of plants, except only the subfamily Papilionoideae (Faboideae) of the Fabaceae are well dispersed throughout the northern part of the North Temperate Zone." ], [ "Phylogeny", "The phylogeny of the Fabales is shown below." ], [ "Gallery", "Image:Lathyrus tuberosa (Guixa).jpg\|Tuberous pea (''Lathyrus tuberosus'') of the FabaceaeImage:Quillaja saponaria.jpg\|Soap bark tree (''Quillaja saponaria'') of the Quillajaceae Image:Polygala myrtifolia0.jpg\|Milkwort (''Polygala myrtifolia'') of the PolygalaceaeFile:Polygala elongata in Talakona, AP I IMG 8388.jpg\|Milkwort (''Polygala elongata'') of the PolygalaceaeImage:Suriana maritima flowers.JPG\|Bay cedar (''Suriana maritima'' of the Surianaceae" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "French" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French''' may refer to:* Something of, from, or related to France French language, which originated in France French people, a nation and ethnic group** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices" ], [ "Arts and media", "* The French (band), a British rock band* \"French\" (episode), a live-action episode of ''The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!", "''* ''Française'' (film), a 2008 film* French Stewart (born 1964), American actor" ], [ "Other uses", "* French (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name)* French (tunic), a type of military jacket or tunic* French's, an American brand of mustard condiment* French (catheter scale), a unit of measurement* French Defence, a chess opening* French kiss, a type of kiss" ], [ "See also", "* France (disambiguation)* Franch, a surname* French Revolution (disambiguation)* French River (disambiguation), several rivers and other places* Frenching (disambiguation)* Justice French (disambiguation)* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of French people" ], [ "Introduction", "'''French people''' of note include:" ], [ "Actors", "===A–C===Carole AchacheIsabelle AdjaniRenée AdoréeAnouk AiméeFlo AnkahArlettyAntonin ArtaudFanny ArdantJeanne AubertJean-Louis AubertJean-Pierre AumontClaude Autant-LaraDaniel AuteuilCharles AznavourBrigitte BardotEmmanuelle BéartLoleh BellonJean-Paul BelmondoFrançois BerléandCharles BerlingAdam BessaSuzanne BianchettiJuliette BinocheBernard BlierSandrine BonnaireÉlodie BouchezBourvilDany BoonAngelique BoyerCharles BoyerGuillaume CanetCapucineMartine CarolLeslie CaronIsabelle CarréVincent CasselJean-Pierre CasselLaetitia CastaRobert ClaryGrégoire ColinMarion CotillardClotilde CourauDarry Cowl===D–L===Béatrice DalleLili DamitaDanielle DarrieuxAlain DelonDanièle DelormeJulie DelpyCatherine DeneuveÉlisabeth DepardieuGérard DepardieuGuillaume DepardieuPatrick DewaereArielle DombasleMichel DruckerMorgane DubledJean DujardinAnny DupéreyRomain DurisNicolas DuvauchelleFernandelBrigitte FosseyLouis de FunèsFélicité Du JeuJean GabinJulie GayetAnnie GirardotJudith GodrècheEva GreenSacha GuitryIsabelle HuppertIrène JacobClaude JadeMarlène JobertValérie KapriskyLouise LabèqueMélanie LaurentJean-Pierre LéaudVirginie LedoyenNoémie LenoirMax LinderSheryfa Luna===M–Z===Marcel MarceauSophie MarceauJean MaraisJean-Pierre MarielleAli MarhyarOlivier MartinezJean-Baptiste MaunierBernard MinetMiou-MiouMistinguettYves MontandJeanne MoreauMichèle MorganMusidoraPierre NineyGérard PhilipeMichel PiccoliClémence PoésyAlexia PortalYvonne PrintempsMarguerite Priola, stage name of Marguerite–Marie–Sophie PolliartPérette PradierJérôme PradonRachel, pseudonym for Elisa-Rachel FélixGabrielle RéjaneJean RenoMarine RenoirPierre RichardSebastian RochéJean RochefortBéatrice RomandPhilippine de RothschildNathalie RousselMichel RouxEmmanuelle Seigner* David SereroLéa SeydouxDelphine SeyrigSimone SignoretAudrey TautouJean-Louis TrintignantMarie TrintignantGaspard UllielMichael VartanHervé VillechaizeMallory WanecqueLambert Wilson" ], [ "Architects", "Jacques-François BlondelGermain BoffrandÉtienne-Louis BoulléeSalomon de BrosseLibéral BruantAndrouet du Cerceau familyLe Corbusier ''pseudonym for Charles Edouard Jeanneret'' (Swiss-born)Philibert de l'OrmeGustave EiffelPierre François Léonard FontaineAnge-Jacques GabrielCharles GarnierTony GarnierHector GuimardVillard de HonnecourtPierre Jeanneret (Swiss-born)Henri LabrousteClaude Nicolas LedouxPierre LescotAndré LurçatRobert Mallet-StevensFrançois MansartJules Hardouin MansartLouis MétezeauMichel Mimran (born 1954)Jean NouvelCharles PercierClaude PerraultDominique PerraultAuguste PerretChristian de PortzamparcJean ProuvéAlain ProvostHenri SauvageJacques-Germain SoufflotLouis Le VauEugène Viollet-le-Duc" ], [ "Artists", "Auguste Rodin===Painters======Photographers===Carole AchacheYann Arthus-BertrandBrassaï born in HungaryHenri Cartier-BressonRaymond DepardonRobert DoisneauPierre DubreuilJules Gervais-CourtellemontNadarWilly Ronis===Sculptors===Frédéric BartholdiAntoine BourdelleAntonin CarlèsJean-Baptiste CarpeauxCésarAntoine-Denis ChaudetCamille ClaudelPaul DuboisRaymond Duchamp-VillonAlexandre FalguièreJean-Antoine HoudonRené IchéAntonin IdracAntonin MerciéHippolyte MoulinÉmile Louis PicaultJean-Baptiste PigalleAntoine-Augustin PréaultAuguste RodinRené RozetFrançois RudeNiki de Saint PhalleSacha SosnoMarie-Renée Ucciani" ], [ "Athletes", "===A–J===André the GiantSarah AbitbolJessica FoxAndré the Giant, professional wrestlerSarah Abitbol, pairs figure skater (with Stéphane Bernadis); World Figure Skating Championship bronzeTariq Abdul-Wahad (born Olivier Saint-Jean), basketball player Luc Alphand, Alpine skierJacques Anquetil, cyclistJonathan Assous, France/Israel, defensive midfielder (Beitar Ramat Gan)Fabien Barthez, football player and racing driver Elliot Benchetrit, tennis playerBrice Blanc, jockeyMarion Bartoli, tennis playerFabrice Benichou, world-champion super bantamweight boxerStéphane Bernadis, pairs figure skater (with Sarah Abitbol)Alain Bernard, Olympic swimmerSerge Betsen, Cameroon-born French citizen, rugby playerSerge Blanco, Venezuela-born French citizen, rugby playerJean Bloch, Olympic silver football playerLouison Bobet, cyclistSurya Bonaly, figure skaterSébastien Bourdais, Indycar driver Frédéric Bourdillon (born 1991), French-Israeli basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier LeagueAndrée Brunet and Pierre Brunet, 1928 and 1932 Olympic skating gold medalistsJean-Luc Cairon (born 1962), gymnast and coachAlain Calmat, figure skater, Olympic silver, world championship gold, silver, two-time bronzePhilippe Candeloro, figure skaterEric Cantona, football playerGeorges Carpentier, world-champion boxerMarcel Cerdan, world-champion boxerFrançois Cevert (born François Goldenberg), Formula One driverEugène Christophe, cyclistAlbert Clément (c. 1878–1907), motor racing driverRobert Cohen, world-champion bantamweight boxerStéphanie Cohen-Aloro, tennis playerEugène Criqui, world-champion boxerJean Cruguet, jockey of Seattle SlewRichard Dacoury, basketball playerPierre Darmon, tennis player, highest world ranking # André Darrigade, cyclistMathieu Debuchy, football playerÉmile Delahaye, race car pioneerMarcel Desailly, Ghana-born French citizen, football playerAbou Diaby, football playerBoris Diaw, basketball playerDavid Douillet, judokaYves Dreyfus, épée fencer, Olympic bronze medal, French championIsabelle Duchesnay and Paul Duchesnay, ice dancers Alojzy Ehrlich, Poland, table tennis, 3x won silver and 1x won bronze in the World Championships, incarcerated by the Nazis in Auschwitz, represented France after 1945.", "Andre Ethier, Major League Baseball outfielder for the Los Angeles DodgersPatrice Evra, football player for Monaco and Manchester UnitedAndré Fabre, horse trainerEvan Fournier, basketball playerLaurent Fignon, cyclistJeremy Flores, surferJust Fontaine, football playerJacques Fouroux, rugby union player and coach* Jessica Fox (born 1994), French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), five golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (two-time K-1, three-time K-1 team)Pierre Galle, basketball player and coachPierre Gasly, racing driver currently competing in Formula One with Alpine F1 TeamCamille du Gast, race car driverLucien Gaudin, fencer Fabien Gilot, Olympic and world champion swimmerYoann Gourcuff, football playerStéphane Haccoun, boxerRudy Haddad, soccer midfielder (Hapoel Ashkelon & U21 national team)Alphonse Halimi (\"la Petite Terreur\"), world-champion bantamweight boxerMarlène Harnois (born 1986), taekwondo practitionerThierry Henry, football playerBernard Hinault, cyclistJaylen Hoard (born 1999), French-American basketball player for Hapoel Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier LeaguePierre Houseaux, triathleteCristobal Huet, hockey playerConstant Huret, cyclistOlivier Jacque, motorcycle riderRene Jacquot, boxer, underdog who became world championLaurent Jalabert, cyclistMax Jean, Formula One driverBrian Joubert, figure skater* Natan Jurkovitz (born 1995), French-Swiss-Israeli basketball player for Hapoel Be'er Sheva of the Israeli Basketball Premier League===K–Z===Alexander LévyTidjan Keita (born 1996), French-Guinean basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier LeagueJean-Claude Killy (born 1943), skierRaymond Kopa, football playerPascal Lavanchy, ice dancer (with Sophie Moniotte)Suzanne Lenglen, tennis playerAlexander Lévy (born 1990), American-born professional golferAlexandre Lippmann (1881–1960), épée fencer, two-time Olympic champion, two-time silver, bronzeBixente Lizarazu, football playerSébastien Loeb (born 1974), rally driver and five-time championJeannie Longo, cyclistMickaël Madar (born 1968), footballer André Mahé, cyclistClaude Makélélé, football playerLaure Manaudou, swimmerAmélie Mauresmo, tennis playerKylian Mbappé, football playerJacques Mayol, freediverJose Meiffret, cyclistÉric Millot, figure skaterAlain Mimoun, athleteSophie Moniotte, ice dancer (with Pascal Lavanchy)Carole Montillet, skierArmand Mouyal (1925–1988), épée fencer, Olympic bronze, world championMoustapha N'Diaye (born 1984), basketball playerAlfred \"Artem\" Nakache (1915–1983), swimmer, world record (200 m breaststroke), one-third of French two-time world record (3x100 relay team)Claude Netter (1924–2007), foil fencer, Olympic champion, silverHellé Nice, pioneer female race car driverJoakim Noah, NBA basketball player (Chicago Bulls)Yannick Noah, tennis player Jacques Ochs (1883–1971), French-born Belgian artist and Olympic fencing championEsteban Ocon, Formula One driverMicheline Ostermeyer, Olympic champion in discus and shot put, bronze in high jumpFrédéric Ouvret (born 1970), former professional footballerSimon Pagenaud, Indy car driverTony Parker, Belgian-born French citizen, basketball playerGwendal Peizerat, ice dancerMarie-José Pérec, athleteMary Pierce, Canadian-born French citizen, tennis playerStéphane Peterhansel, car and motor racer, nine-time Dakar Rally winnerJulien Pillet, fencerMichel Platini, football playerAlain Prost, Formula One driver and four-time championAntoine Rigaudeau, basketball player Arthur Rozenfeld (born 1995), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League* François Rozenthal (born 1975), ice hockey player* Maurice Rozenthal (born 1975), ice hockey player* Georges Stern (1882–1928), jockeyJean Stern (1875–1962), épée fencer, Olympic championLéon Théry, race car driverMarcel Thil, world-champion boxerChristophe Tiozzo, world-champion boxer; brother of Fabrice TiozzoFabrice Tiozzo, world-champion boxer; brother of Christophe TiozzoDavid Trezeguet, football playerTristan Vautier, Indy car driverPatrick Vieira, Senegal-born French citizen, football playerRichard Virenque, Morocco-born French citizen, cyclistRoger Walkowiak, cyclistJean-Pierre Wimille, race car driverAlbert Wolff (1906–1989), French-born American Olympic fencerZinedine Zidane, football player" ], [ "Authors", "===A–E===Carole AchacheMarcel AchardAlain-FournierMathilde Alanic, novelist, short story writerOlivier AmeisenAlix André, romance novelistJean Anouilh, 20th-century dramatistGuillaume ApollinaireLouis AragonMarie Célestine Amélie d'Armaillé, writer, biographer, and historianAntonin ArtaudMarcel AyméJean-Louis Baghio'oHonoré de Balzac, realist authorHenri BarbusseCharles Baudelaire, 19th-century poetPierre Beaumarchais, comedy playwrightSimone de Beauvoir, 20th-century authorDany Bébel-GislerCyrano de BergeracJean BernabéGeorges BernanosTristan BernardMaurice BlanchotStella BlandyAntoine BlondinNicolas BoileauLucie Boissonnas, 19th-century authorJacques-Bénigne BossuetPierre BoulleFernand BraudelAndré BretonRetif de la BretonneJean Anthelme Brillat-SavarinMichel ButorAlbert Camus, existentialist authorMarie-Magdeleine CarbetLouis-Ferdinand Céline, 20th-century authorBlaise CendrarsAimé Césaire, 20th-century poetNicolas ChamfortPatrick ChamoiseauRené Char, 20th-century poetVictorine ChastenayFrançois-René de ChateaubriandAmélie Chekroun, historianPierre Choderlos de LaclosEmil CioranFanny Clar, journalist and authorPaul ClaudelJean Cocteau, 20th-century poet and playwrightColette, 20th-century authorHenri Collomb, psychiatristJoséphine Colomb, 19th-century children's writerMaryse CondéRaphaël ConfiantBenjamin ConstantTristan CorbièrePierre Corneille, classicist playwrightMarquis de Custine, travel writerJean-Marie DalletJoseph DalloisMyriam David, psychoanalystJeanine Delpech, journalist, translator, novelistRobert Desnos, 20th-century poetGisèle d'Estoc, writer, sculptor, and feministCharles Dezobry, historian and historical novelistDenis DiderotClotilde Dissard, journalist and feministAlexandre Dumas, père, authorAlexandre Dumas, fils, playwright/authorMarguerite Duras, 20th-century novelistVanessa DurièsPaul ÉluardSalvat Etchart===F–O===Victor HugoFrantz Fanon, 20th-century author, psychiatristLéon-Paul FargueGeorges FeydeauMarc FerroAmanda Filipacchi, novelist (French and U.S. citizenship, writes in English)Alain Finkielkraut, essayistGustave Flaubert, realist authorAnatole FranceMarie de France, poetRomain GaryJean GenetAndré Gide, Nobel Prize winnerJean GionoJean GiraudouxFrançoise GiroudÉdouard GlissantEdmond de Goncourt, writer, critic, and founder of the Académie GoncourtJulien GracqJulien GreenPierre GuyotatNahema Hanafi, historianJean-Edern HallierJuliette Heuzey, novelist, biographerAuguste Himly, historianVictor Hugo, novelist, poet, and playwrightJoris-Karl HuysmansEugène IonescoMartine L. JacquotMarie-Reine de JahamAlain Jouffroy, poet, art critic, plasticianFabienne KanorJean de La BruyèreJean de La FontainePierre Choderlos de LaclosComte de Lautréamont (Isidore Ducasse)Leconte de Lisle, parnassian poetAlphonse de LamartineJacques Lacan, psychoanalystEmmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, historianPaul LafargueJules LaforgueValéry LarbaudMaurice Leblanc, created Arsène LupinMarie Léra, journalist, novelist, and translatorGaston Leroux, journalist and author, credited with creating the locked room puzzle mystery novel ''Le Mystère de la chambre jaune'' ''(The Mystery of the Yellow Room)'' and author of ''Le Fantôme de l'Opéra'' ''(The Phantom of the Opera)''Pauline de Lézardière, 18th-century historianStéphane Mallarmé, poetHector Malot, 19th-century authorAndré MalrauxMatthieu Marais, 18th-century lawyer and writerMarcel Marceau, 20th-century mime (and member of the French Resistance in World War II)René MaranPierre de Marivaux, playwrightClément Marot, poetGuy de Maupassant, novelistFrançois Mauriac, Roman Catholic writerDaniel MaximinProsper Mérimée, 19th-century novelistCatherine Millet, art expert, editor and erotic memoiristPatrick ModianoJean Baptiste Poquelin dit Molière, 17th-century comedic playwright and actorAlfred de Musset, 19th-century poetClaire Julie de Nanteuil, 19th-century writerGérard de NervalPaul NigerAnaïs NinMona Ozouf, historian===P–Z===Marcel PagnolGisela Pankow, psychoanalystÈve Paul-Margueritte, novelistLucie Paul-Margueritte, writer and translatorCharles Péguy, 20th-century poetCharles Perrault, ''Mother Goose Tales''Georges PerecSaint-John PerseRoger PeyrefitteJean Piaget, psychologistJean PiatGisèle PineauChristine de Pizan, historian, poet, philosopherJacques Prévert, 20th-century poetAbbé PrévostMarcel PrévostMarcel Proust, novelistRaymond QueneauFrançois Rabelais, Renaissance writerRaymond RadiguetJean Racine, classicist playwrightPauline Réage, novelistGabrielle Réval, novelist and essayistArthur Rimbaud, symbolist poetAlain Robbe-GrilletPierre de RonsardEdmond Rostand, neo-romantic playwrightRaymond RousselMaximilien RubelMarquis de Sade, erotic and philosophic authorCharles Augustin Sainte-BeuveGeorge Sand, feminist authorJean-Paul Sartre, 20th-century existentialist philosopherNathalie SarrauteAndré Schwarz-BartSimone Schwarz-BartPierre Seel, homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, authorVictor SegalenMadame de SévignéAudrey SpiryMadame de StaëlAntoine de Saint-Exupery, author and aviatorClaude SimonStendhal, novelist (born Henry Beyle)Alain Tasso, poet, painter, essayist, art critic, literary criticRaphaël TardonGuy TirolienFrançois Truffaut, 20th-century filmmakerPaul Valéry, 20th-century poetVercors, pseudonym of Jean BrullerPaul Verlaine, symbolist poetJules Verne, novelistBoris Vian, 20th-century authorAlfred de Vigny, 19th-century poetAuguste Villiers de l'Isle-AdamFrançois VillonVoltaireMyriam Warner-VieyraMarguerite YourcenarJoseph ZobelÉmile Zola, naturalist author" ], [ "Aviators", "Clément AderJacqueline AuriolLouis BlériotHenri FarmanRené FonckRoland Garros, first to cross the Mediterranean; French Open is named after him.", "Georges GuynemerRaymonde de LarocheHubert LathamLéon LemartinMarie MarvingtJean MermozLes Frères Robert, balloonists Anne-Jean Robert and Nicolas-Louis RobertAntoine de Saint-Exupéry, author and aviatorAndré TurcatGabriel Voisin" ], [ "Business", "Bernard Arnault (born 1949), entrepreneurMarie-Claude Beaud (born 1946), museumistLiliane Bettencourt, cosmeticsMarcel Bich (1914–1994), Bic pensVincent Bolloré (born 1952), transportation and engineeringMarcel Boussac, textiles, fashion, newspapers, race horse breedingAnne Bouverot (born 1966), telecommunications business executive Ettore Bugatti (1881–1947), automobile manufacturerAndré Citroën (1878–1935), automobile manufacturerAdolphe Clément-Bayard (1855–1928), transportation manufacturerMarcel Dassault (1892–1986), aviationAlexandre Darracq (1855–1931), automotive pioneerClaude Dauphin (1951–2015), commodities traderPierre Dauzier (1939–2007), businessman, former president of HavasLouis Delâge (1874–1947), automotive pioneerÉmile Delahaye (1843–1905), automotive pioneerGérard Louis-Dreyfus (1932–2016), agricultural commoditiesEleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours (1771–1834), founder of DuPontPierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours (1739–1817), entrepreneurJacques Foccart (?–1997), import-exportLéon Gaumont, pioneer film inventorPaul-Louis Halley (1934–2004), supermarket tycoonMax Hymans (1900–1961), aviationJean-Marie Messier (born 1957), former Vivendi CEOGérard Mestrallet (born 1949), chairman and CEO of SuezGérard Mulliez, entrepreneurXavier Niel (born 1967), entrepreneur and businessman at IliadCharles Pathé, film industry pioneerArmand Peugeot (1849–1915), automobile manufacturerFrançois Pinault (born 1936), entrepreneurJacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont (1726–1803), shipping magnate and a \"Father of the American Revolution\"Marcel Renault (1872–1903), co-founder of automobile manufacturer RenaultCésar Ritz, hotelierJames Mayer de Rothschild (1792–1868), bankerPhilippe de Rothschild (1902–1988), wine makerEugène Schueller (1881–1954), founder of L'OréalBernard Tapie (1943–2021), entrepreneurPierre Vidoue (c. 1490–1543), Parisian printer and bookseller" ], [ "Chefs", "Raymond BlancPaul BocuseDaniel BouludMichel BrasPascal CaffetMarie-Antoine CarêmeAlain DucasseAdolphe DugléréAuguste EscoffierPierre GagnaireMichel GuérardVictor HirtzlerMarc LanteriLudovic LefebvreJacques PépinGeorges PerrierFernand PointCharles RanhoferEric RipertJoël RobuchonAlbert RouxMichel RouxMichel Roux, Jr.Julien RoyerGuy SavoyPaul ThalamasFrançois VatelMarc VeyratJean-Georges VongerichtenPhilippe EtchebestHélène DarrozePaul PairetMichel Sarran" ], [ "Colonial administrators", "Félix Éboué, Governor General of French Equatorial AfricaPierre Savorgnan de Brazza, French CongoAntoine de la Mothe Cadillac, LouisianaSamuel de Champlain, New FranceFrançois Caron, first Governor of French territories of IndiaFrançois Martin, Governor for French territories in IndiaPierre Christoph Le Noir, Governor for French territories in IndiaPierre Benoît Dumas, Governor for French territories in IndiaBertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, French naval officer and administrator, in the service of the French East India Company.", "Joseph François Dupleix, Governor for French territories in IndiaLally-Tollendal, Governor for French territories in IndiaMarquis de Bussy-Castelnau, Governor for French territories in IndiaLouis Faidherbe, SenegalJoseph Gallieni, MadagascarFrancis Garnier, French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos)Émile Gentil, French CongoLouis Hubert Gonzalve Lyautey, AlgeriaJean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, LouisianaJean Talon, Canada" ], [ "Composers" ], [ "Craftspeople and inventors", "André Charles Boulle, cabinet makerLouis Braille, blind inventorCharles Cros, poet and inventorPaul Héroult, inventorClaude de Jouffroy d'Abbans, designed the first steamship in 1783René François Lacôte, luthierRené Lalique, glass designerMarie-Anne Leroudier, embroiderer Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventorsBenoît Raclet, inventorPhilippe Starck, industrial architect and designerFranky Zapata, inventor of flyboard and flyboard Air" ], [ "Criminals", "For collaboration with Nazi Germany see also the ''politicians'' section.", "Jacques de Bernonville (1897–1972), war criminal sentenced to deathJules BonnotÉmile LouisHenri Désiré Landru, serial killerJacques MesrineZacarias MoussaouiMaurice Papon, politician and war criminalMarcel Petiot, serial killerGilles de Rais, prolific serial killerJean-Claude Romand, murdererAlbert SpaggiariCharles Sobhraj, killerPaul Touvier, one of only two Frenchmen to be convicted of crimes against humanity" ], [ "Dancers", "Josette AmielJane AvrilLa GoulueSylvie GuillemMarcelle LenderCléo de MérodeClaire MotteAntonine MeunierJacqueline MoreauHellé NiceFrançois PerronRoland PetitJeanne SchwarzSolange SchwarzLes Twins, Larry and Laurent Bourgeois" ], [ "Economists", "Antoine Augustin CournotMaurice Allais, Nobel PrizeRaymond Barre, economist and politicianFrédéric BastiatFernand BraudelAlexandre Cazeau de RoumillacJules DupuitGérard Debreu, Nobel memorial prize 1983Charles GideDominique GuellecAchille-Nicolas Isnard, political economist and engineerJean-Jacques LaffontPierre Émile LevasseurAlain Lipietz, green economistBernard MarisThomas PikettyPierre Samuel du Pont de NemoursFrançois QuesnayPascal SalinJean-Baptiste SayJean TiroleTurgotLéon Walras" ], [ "Fashion", "Christian Audigier, fashion designer and business manLiliane Bettencourt, majority owner of ''L'Oréal'', one of the wealthiest people in EuropePierre Cardin, fashion designerLaetitia Casta, modelCoco Chanel, fashion designerJean-Charles de CastelbajacHubert de GivenchyInès de La Fressange, model and fashion designerChristian Dior, fashion designerMorgane Dubled, modelJulien FourniéJean Paul GaultierDaniel Hechter, inventor of ready-to-wearChristian LacroixJeanne Lanvin, fashion designerNoémie Lenoir, modelChristian Louboutin, shoe designerIris Mittenaere, model, Miss France 2016 and Miss Universe 2016Jennifer Messelier, modelClaude MontanaThierry MuglerPaul PoiretNina Ricci, fashion designerSonia RykielYves Saint Laurent, fashion designerHedi SlimaneLouis Vuitton, fashion designer" ], [ "Filmmakers", "Mona AchacheOlivier AssayasJacques AudiardJacques BeckerJean-Jacques BeineixLuc BessonYves BillonAlice Guy-BlachéBertrand BlierPatrick BokanowskiBertrand BonelloMartin BourboulonCatherine BreillatRobert BressonLaurent CantetYves CaumonAndré CayatteClaude ChabrolJean-Paul CiveyracRené ClairRené ClémentHenri-Georges ClouzotJean CocteauRomain CogitoreFabien CousteauJacques CousteauJacques DemyClaire DenisArnaud DesplechinHenri Diamant-BergerAbel GanceJean-Luc GodardMichel GondryMichel HazanaviciusVanessa FilhoJean-Pierre JeunetMathieu KassovitzJan KounenPatrice LeconteClaude LelouchPhilippe LioretLouis MalleAndré MalrauxGeorges MélièsJean-Pierre MelvilleMaurice PialatJean RenoirAlain ResnaisJacques RivetteYves RobertÉric RohmerJean RollinAlain SardeClaude SautetRamzi Ben SlimanStraub-HuilletJacques TatiJacques TourneurMaurice TourneurFrançois TruffautRoger VadimAgnès VardaFlore VasseurJean Vigo" ], [ "Humorists", "Alain ChabatColuchePierre Dac, humorist and Resistance workerJamel DebbouzePierre DesprogesRaymond DevosGad ElmalehFlorence ForestiThierry Le LuronDieudonné M'bala M'balaElie SemounCabuStef and Jim" ], [ "Military leaders" ], [ "Monarchs and royals" ], [ "Musicians", "===A–J===Dominique AAir (band)AlizéeCharles AznavourJosephine Baker, American-born entertainerThomas Bangalter, member of Daft PunkJane Bathori, opera singerBarbaraGuy BéartBénabarCarla BruniMichel BergerDidier BocquetPierre BouvierLucienne BoyerGeorges BrassensBreakbotAristide BruantJulie BudetManu ChaoSébastien CharlierMatthieu ChedidRichard Clayderman, pianistChuck ComeauMarie-Anne CouperinDalidaDamiaClaude DebussyDavid DesrosiersNatalie Dessay, opera singerDimitri from ParisSacha Distel, heartthrob: covered \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\"Marie DubasJacques DutroncKenza FarahMylène FarmerJean FerratLéo FerréNino FerrerThomas FersenClaude François, popular singer during the 1960s and 1970sFréhelCharlotte GainsbourgSerge GainsbourgFrance GallLaurent GarnierGipsy KingsGeorgiusGesaffelsteinJean-Jacques GoldmanStéphane Grappelli, jazz musicianJuliette GrécoGribouille (born Marie-France Gaîté)Hélène Grimaud, classical pianistDavid Guetta, house-music producer and DJYvette GuilbertArthur HDavid HallydayJohnny Hallyday, born in Belgium, served in the French ArmyFrançoise HardyJacques HigelinGuy-Manuel de Homem-Christo, member of Daft PunkIndilaSébastien Izambard, member of the quartet Il DivoIAMJoëlleJustice (band)===K–Z===Patricia KaasKaomaKassav'KavinskyRina KettyKiki, \"Queen of Montparnasse\"La GoulueLarussoBoby LapointeBernard LavilliersMaxime Le ForestierSébastien LefebvreGérard LenormanNolwenn LeroyLilly Wood and the PrickClaudine LongetDidier LucchesiSheryfa LunaM83MadeonChristophe MaéMano NegraLuis MarianoAnna MarlyAlain MarionDidier Marouani, musician and composerMireille MathieuFélix MayolMiossecMireilleMistinguettGinette NeveuYannick NoahClaude NougaroVincent NicloNTMNoir DésirVanessa ParadisPierre PerretMichel PetruccianiÉdith PiafMichel PolnareffLily Pons, opera singer (naturalized as a United States citizen in 1940)Rene RancourtRenaudTino RossiJean SablonDavid SereroBob SinclarSkip the UseAlain SouchonMano SoloJeff StincoSébastien TellierYann TiersenCharles TrenetChristian VanderSylvie VartanBoris VianPauline Viardot, opera singer and composerPedro WinterZazie" ], [ "Philosophers", "Pierre AbélardLouis AlthusserRaymond Aron, sociologist and philosopherJean le Rond d'AlembertGaston BachelardGeorges BatailleRoland BarthesJean Baudrillard, philosopher and sociologistPierre Bourdieu, sociologistJulien BendaHenri BergsonLouis de BonaldÉmile BoutrouxFabienne BrugèreMichel de CerteauFrançois-René de ChateaubriandAuguste ComteAndré Comte-SponvilleJean de CrèvecœurGuy DebordGilles DeleuzeNatalie DeprazJacques DerridaRené Descartes, scientist and philosopherDenis Diderot, Enlightenment author and deist philosopherFrantz FanonMichel FoucaultCamille Froidevaux-MetterieÉdouard GlissantFélix GuattariRené GuénonVladimir JankélévitchÉtienne de La Boétie, philosopher and politicianPhilippe Lacoue-LabartheFélicité de LamennaisHenri LefèbvreMarcel Légaut, Christian philosopherJean de Léry, ''corsaire'' and ethnologist, anti-racism activistEmmanuel LévinasJean-François LyotardJoseph de MaistreNicolas MalebrancheGabriel Marcel, philosopherJacques Maritain, philosopherMaurice Merleau-Ponty, phenomenologistMichel de Montaigne, philosopher essayistMontesquieu, political philosopherEdgar MorinEmmanuel Mounier, philosopherJean-Luc Nancy, philosopherBlaise Pascal, scientist, mathematician, Christian philosopher, and authorJuliette Rennes, sociologistJean-François RevelPaul RicœurJean-Jacques RousseauJean-Paul Sartre, existentialist philosopherMichel SerresHippolyte TaineAlexis de TocquevilleFrançois-Marie Arouet (Voltaire), Enlightenment author, deist/agnostic philosopherÉric Weil, philosopherSimone Weil" ], [ "Politicians", "Robert Badinter, lawyer, statesman and anti-death-sentence activistFrançois Bayrou, UDF party leaderLéon Blum, politician, Socialist party leader, prime ministerJosé Bové, anti-globalization activist, altermondialistAristide BriandJacques Chirac, politician, member of center-right wing party, former city mayor of Paris, two-term French presidentGeorges ClemenceauGaspard de ColignyBertrand Delanoë, mayor of ParisJacques DelorsFélix Faure, President of France who died of a heart attack while making love to his mistressCharles de Gaulle, heroic World War II general, commander of the Free French Forces, French presidentValéry Giscard d'EstaingFrançois Guizot, Prime MinisterGisèle Halimi, lawyer and feminist activistFrançois Hollande, former PS (Socialist Party) leader, former French president (15 May 2012 – 14 May 2017)Jean Jaurès, politician, pacifistLionel Jospin, socialist, former prime ministerBernard Kouchner, founder of Médecins du MondeJean-Marie Le Pen, leader of the extreme right party in France, Front National, presidential candidateLouis Lépine, Paris police chief, governor of Algiers, founder of the Concours LépineÉmile Loubet, President of France who was elected in 1899, after the death of Félix FaureHenri-Auguste Lozé, Paris police chief, senator of the Third RepublicEmmanuel Macron, founder and current President of Renaissance, current President of France (from 14 May 2017)Jean-Paul Marat, politician during the Revolution, journalist, physician, scientistJean-Claude Martinez, lawyer and European deputyPierre Mendès France, lawyer and statesman, prime ministerHonoré MirabeauFrançois Mitterrand, lawyer and statesman, presidentJean MonnetPhilippe Pétain, head of ''Vichy'' FranceAlexandre de Prouville, Viceroy of New FranceMarthe RichardMaximilien Robespierre, statesman and major figure in the French RevolutionGilberte Roca (1911–2004), CommunistJacques Rolland (1914–1999), politicianSégolène Royal, politician, Socialist party, presidential candidateNicolas Sarkozy, politician, President of the right wing partyVictor Schœlcher, anti-slavery activistCharles Maurice de TalleyrandMaurice ThorezJacques ToubonDominique de Villepin, former Prime Minister of FranceDominique Voynet, physician and Green party politician" ], [ "Popes" ], [ "Resistance workers", "Resistance workers during the German occupation of France in World War IILucie Samuel-Aubrac (1912–2007), human rights activistRaymond Aubrac (1914–2012), statesmanRobert Benoist (1895–1944), SOE operative, champion race car driverDenise Bloch (1915–1945), SOE operative: King's Commendation for Brave Conduct, Legion of Honor, French Resistance MedalAndrée Borrel (1919–1944), SOE operative: Croix de guerreBernadette Cattanéo (1899–1963), trade unionist and communist activist Madeleine Damerment (1917–1944), SOE operative: Legion of Honor, Croix de guerre, Médaille combattant volontaire de la RésistanceMarie Louise Dissard (1880–1957), U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom recipientWilliam Grover-Williams (1903–1945), SOE operative, champion race car driverAimée Lallement (1898–1988), Righteous Among the NationsCecily Lefort (1900–1945), SOE operative: Croix de guerrePierre Mendès France (1907–1982), lawyer, statesmanJean Moulin (1899–1943), statesmanAgnès de La Barre de Nanteuil (1922–1944), assisted allied airmenAbbé Pierre (1912–2007), priest and founder of EmmausChristian Pineau (1904–1995), statesmanEliane Plewman (1917–1944), SOE operative: Croix de guerreGermaine Ribière (1917–1999), Righteous among the NationsÉlise Rivet (1890–1945), nun executed by Nazis for aiding the resistanceLilian Rolfe (1914–1945), SOE agent executed by the NazisOdette Sansom (1912–1995), SOE operative: George Cross, MBE, Legion of HonorSuzanne Spaak, Belgian-born agent: \"Red Orchestra\" intelligence network; executed 1944Violette Szabo (1921–1945), SOE operative: George Cross, Croix de guerreJean-Pierre Wimille (1908–1949), SOE operative, champion race car driverSee also French Resistance" ], [ "Scientists" ], [ "Social activists", "Hubertine Auclert, journalist and feminist leaderSimone de Beauvoir, author, philosopher, and feministChristian de Boisredon, social activist Geneviève de Brunelle, counter-revolutionarySophie de Condorcet, feministMaria Deraismes, feministCamille Drevet, anti-colonialist, feminist and pacifist activistMarguerite Durand, journalist and feminist leaderAnna Féresse-Deraismes feminist activistOlympe de Gouges, feministFloresca Guépin, feminist and teacherAlice Jouenne, educator and socialist activistSamir Kassir, journalistJean Théophile Victor Leclerc, radical revolutionist, newspaper publisherMarie Léopold-Lacour, feminist activist, writer, and storytellerFélix Pécaut, education proponent and pastorGabrielle Petit, feminist activist, anticlerical, libertarian socialist, newspaper editorÉlisabeth Renaud, teacher, socialist activist, feministColette Reynaud, feminist, socialist, pacifist, journalistVictor Schœlcher, abolitionistPierre Seel, homosexual concentration camp survivor, activist, authorSéverine, feministMadeleine Tribolati (1905–1995), trade unionistFlora Tristan, feminist" ], [ "Soldiers", "Joan of Arc, commander and saintChevalier BayardFrançois Achille BazaineJean-Baptiste BernadotteGeorges BoulangerThomas Robert BugeaudRaymond H. A. CarterFrançois de CharetteLouis II de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, known as ''le Grand Condé''.", "Gaspard de ColignyFrançois DarlanLouis-Nicolas DavoutBob DenardAlfred DreyfusCharles François DumouriezFerdinand FochLouis Franchet d'EspèreyJoseph GallieniMaurice GamelinHenri GouraudBertrand du GuesclinJoseph JoffreEdmond JouhaudJean-Baptiste JourdanAlphonse JuinMarie-Pierre KœnigJacques de la PaliceMarquis de LafayetteCharles LeclercJean LannesJean de Lattre de TassignyPhilippe Leclerc de HauteclocqueFrançois-Henri de Montmorency, duc de LuxembourgHubert LyauteyPatrice MacMahonCharles ManginClaude MartinAndré MassénaJacques MassuLouis-Joseph de MontcalmSimon de MontfortPhilippe MorillonToussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la MotteJoachim MuratMichel NeyRobert NivellePhilippe PétainComte de RochambeauRaoul SalanMaurice SarrailNicolas SoultLouis Jules TrochuHenri de TurenneÉtienne de Vignolles, called La HireClaude Louis Hector de VillarsMaxime Weygand" ], [ "Spationauts" ], [ "Theologians", "'''O.P.'''", "(''Ordo Praedicatorum'') is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of the Dominican order, a Catholic religious order.'''S.J.'''", "(''Societas Iesu'') is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of the Society of Jesus, another Catholic religious order.", "Jean Arnauld, philosopher and theologianDenis Bérardier, priest and theologianMarie-Émile Boismard O.P.", "Jacques-Bénigne BossuetJean CalvinSebastian Castellio, translator of the BiblePierre Cauchon, condemned Joan of ArcRobert Ciboule, Roman Catholic theologianBernard of ClairvauxJean ClaudeYves Congar, O.P.", "Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange, O.P.", "Hubert LanguetMaurice Leenhardt, ethnologist, theologianJean Louail, theologianAndré Paul, scholar in the fields of theology, biblical studies and ancient JudaismFrançois Picquet, 18th-century missionary in New FranceJean Porthaise, theologianAlexander de Rhodes S.J., 17th-century missionary to IndochinaRichard of Saint-Laurent, canon at RouenAuguste SabatierAntonin Sertillanges O.P., founder of the ''Revue Thomiste''Pierre Teilhard de Chardin S.J.", "Simon-Michel Treuvé" ], [ "Others", "Marie-Louise Arconati-Visconti (1840–1923), art collector, philanthropistFabrice Balanche, geographerMarcel Bardiaux, sailorSuzanne Borel, first French woman diplomatJeanne Calment, title claimant for the longest documented human lifespan – 122 years and 164 daysPierre de Coubertin, initiator of the modern Olympic GamesThe Countess, transgender courtesan, demimondaine, singer, artist, and writerJean Crépin, Army generalFrançois Louis Castelnaux Darrac, upholstererSolange d'Ayen, noblewoman and journalistNinon de l'Enclos, courtesan, patron of the artsCavalier de la Salle, explorerMaurice Debesse, educatorSuzanne Deutsch de la Meurthe, philanthropist, aviation supporterRené Dumont, agronomist engineer and sociologist and ecology activistJules Dumont d'UrvilleMaurice Duverger, juristGustave Eiffel, engineerPierre Charles L'Enfant, city planner responsible for Washington, D.C.Charles-Michel de l'Épée, founder of world's first public school for deaf peopleNorbert Ferré, illusionistRobert Gloton, educatorArthur de Gobineau, diplomat, author of ''An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races''Lucie Grange, medium and feminist prophetMarie de Hennezel, psychologist, psychotherapist and writerDaniel Le Hirbec, navigatorLouis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds, explorer and canal engineerMarie-Antoinette Lix, governess and resistance fighterBrigitte Macron, high school teacher, first lady of FranceVirginie Mauvais, educator, philanthropistPhilippe Méaille, contemporary art collectorMontgolfier brothers, balloonistsFrançois Henri de la Motte, French spy executed for treason 1781 in LondonNostradamus, physician, author, translator, astrological consultantCharles François Adrien le Paulmier, diplomat, nobleman, and slaveholderAnne Quemere, sailor and sportswomanJean-Marie Raoul, lawyer, musician Élisée Reclus, geographer and anarchistJean-François Ricard (born 1956), prosecutor of the French National Terrorism Prosecution OfficeJean Eugène Robert-Houdin, magician, namesake of \"Harry Houdini\"Pierre Seel, homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, authorOdette Teissier du Cros (1906–1997), ethnologist, museum curatorVauban, engineerEugène François Vidocq, French convict-turned-spy considered the father of modern forensics" ], [ "See also", "List of French JewsList of French people of immigrant originList of people by nationality: Belgians, Catalans, Monégasque people, Quebecers, Swiss" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Five-card draw" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Five-card draw''' (also known as '''Cantrell draw''') is a poker variant that is considered the simplest variant of poker, and is the basis for video poker.", "As a result, it is often the first variant learned by new players.", "It is commonly played in home games but rarely played in casino and tournament play.", "The variant is also offered by some online venues, although it is not as popular as other variants such as seven-card stud and Texas hold 'em." ], [ "Gameplay", "In casino play the first betting round begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left.", "Home games typically use an ante; the first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, and the second round begins with the player who opened the first round.Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down.", "The remaining deck is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it.", "Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players, then a round of betting occurs.If more than one player remains after the first round, the \"draw\" phase begins.", "Each player specifies how many of their cards they wish to replace and discards them.", "The deck is retrieved, and each player is dealt in turn from the deck the same number of cards they discarded so that each player again has five cards.A second \"after the draw\" betting round occurs beginning with the player to the dealer's left or else beginning with the player who opened the first round (the latter is common when antes are used instead of blinds).", "This is followed by a showdown, if more than one player remains, in which the player with the best hand wins the pot." ], [ "House rules", "A common \"house rule\" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless they draw four cards while keeping an ace (or wild card).", "This rule is useful for low-stakes social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck.", "In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used.", "However, a rule used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck.", "In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of their cards, that player is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give the fifth replacement card; if no other player draws it is necessary to deal a burn card first.Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information.", "If the deck is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players.", "For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players' discards (but not the player's own discards), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player." ], [ "Sample deal", "rightThe sample deal is being played by four players as shown to the right with Alice dealing.", "All four players ante $1.Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck aside.Bob opens the betting round by betting $5.Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them.", "Alice retrieves the deck, deals a burn card, then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand.", "David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck.", "Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck.Now a second betting round begins.", "Bob checks, David checks, Alice bets $10, Bob folds, David raises $16, and Alice calls, ending the second betting round and going directly into a showdown.", "David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot." ], [ "Stripped deck variant", "Five-card draw is sometimes played with a stripped deck.", "This variant is commonly known as \"seven-to-ace\" or \"ace-to-seven\" (abbreviated as A-7 or 7-A).", "It can be played by up to five players.", "When four or fewer players play, a normal 32-card deck without jokers, with ranks ranging from ace to seven, is used.", "With five players, the sixes are added to make a 36-card deck.", "The deck thus contains only eight or nine different card ranks, compared to 13 in a standard deck.", "This affects the probabilities of making specific hands, so a flush ranks above a full house and below four of a kind.", "Many smaller online poker rooms, such as Boss Media, spread the variant, although it is unheard of in terrestrial casinos." ], [ "Maths of Five-card draw", "; Pre-draw odds of getting each hand* Royal flush\t<0.001%\t\t\t\t\t* Straight flush (not including royal flush)\t<0.002%\t\t\t\t\t* Four of a kind\t0.02%\t\t\t\t\t* Full house\t0.14%\t\t\t\t\t* Flush (excluding royal flush and straight flush)\t0.20%\t\t\t\t\t* Straight (excluding royal flush and straight flush)\t0.39%\t\t\t\t\t* Three of a kind\t2.11%\t\t\t\t\t* Two pair\t4.75%\t\t\t\t\t* One pair\t42.30%\t\t\t\t\t* No pair / High card\t50.10%" ], [ "See also", "* Draw poker* Poker strategy" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Rules of Card Games: Draw Poker" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flaming (Internet)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flaming''', also known as '''roasting''', is the act of posting insults, often including profanity or other offensive language, on the internet.", "Flaming is distinct from trolling, which is the act of someone causing discord online or in person.", "Flaming emerges from the anonymity that Internet forums provide for users and which allow them to act more aggressively.", "Anonymity can lead to disinhibition, which results in the swearing, offensive, and hostile language characteristic of flaming.", "Lack of social cues, less accountability of face-to-face communications, textual mediation and deindividualization are also likely factors.", "Deliberate flaming is carried out by individuals known as flamers, which are specifically motivated to incite flaming.", "These users specialize in flaming and target specific aspects of a controversial conversation.While these behaviors may be typical or expected in certain types of forums, they can have dramatic, adverse effects in others.", "'''Flame wars''' can have a lasting impact on some internet communities where even once a flame war has concluded a division or even dissolution may occur.The pleasant commentaries within a chat room or message board can be limited by a \"war of words\" fight or \"flaming\" with the intent to seek out a negative reaction from the reader.", "Humphreys defines flaming as \"the use of hostile language online, including swearing, insults and otherwise offensive language\"etc.", "Flaming by perpetrators within the online community is commonly received by messaging through text and rarely by face to face or video communication.", "By basing their conversations on text and not taking full accountability as the \"flamer\", they have a reduced self-awareness of others feelings, emotions and reactions based on the comments that they provide within the virtual community.", "The reader now has the perception that this \"flamer\" is difficult, rude and possibly a bully.", "The flamer may have limited social cues, emotional intelligence to adapt to others reactions and lack of awareness of how they are being perceived.", "Their personal social norms, may be considered disrespectful to the reader that has different social norms, education and experience with what is and is not appropriate within virtual communities.The individuals that create an environment of flaming and hostility, lead the readers to disengage with the offender and may potentially leave the message board and chat room.", "The continual use of flaming within the online community can create a disruptive and negative experience for those involved and can lead to limited involvement and engagement within the original chat room and program." ], [ "Purpose", "Social researchers have investigated flaming, coming up with several different theories about the phenomenon.", "These include deindividuation and reduced awareness of other people's feelings (online disinhibition effect), conformance to perceived norms, miscommunication caused by the lack of social cues available in face-to-face communication, and anti-normative behavior.Jacob Borders, in discussing participants' internal modeling of a discussion, says:Mental models are fuzzy, incomplete, and imprecisely stated.", "Furthermore, within a single individual, mental models change with time, even during the flow of a single conversation.", "The human mind assembles a few relationships to fit the context of a discussion.", "As debate shifts, so do the mental models.", "Even when only a single topic is being discussed, each participant in a conversation employs a different mental model to interpret the subject.", "Fundamental assumptions differ but are never brought into the open.", "Goals are different but left unstated.", "It is little wonder that compromise takes so long.", "And even when consensus is reached, the underlying assumptions may be fallacies that lead to laws and programs that fail.", "The human mind is not adapted to understanding correctly the consequences implied by a mental model.", "A mental model may be correct in structure and assumptions but, even so, the human mind—either individually or as a group consensus—is apt to draw the wrong implications for the future.Thus, online conversations often involve a variety of assumptions and motives unique to each individual user.", "Without social context, users are often helpless to know the intentions of their counterparts.", "In addition to the problems of conflicting mental models often present in online discussions, the inherent lack of face-to-face communication online can encourage hostility.", "Professor Norman Johnson, commenting on the propensity of Internet posters to flame one another, states:The literature suggests that, compared to face-to-face, the increased incidence of flaming when using computer-mediated communication is due to reductions in the transfer of social cues, which decrease individuals' concern for social evaluation and fear of social sanctions or reprisals.", "When social identity and ingroup status are salient, computer mediation can decrease flaming because individuals focus their attention on the social context (and associated norms) rather than themselves.A lack of social context creates an element of anonymity, which allows users to feel insulated from the forms of punishment they might receive in a more conventional setting.", "Johnson identifies several precursors to flaming between users, whom he refers to as \"negotiation partners,\" since Internet communication typically involves back-and-forth interactions similar to a negotiation.", "Flaming incidents usually arise in response to a perception of one or more negotiation partners being unfair.", "Perceived unfairness can include a lack of consideration for an individual's vested interests, unfavorable treatment (especially when the flamer has been considerate of other users), and misunderstandings aggravated by the inability to convey subtle indicators like non-verbal cues and facial expressions." ], [ "Factors", "There are multiple factors that play into why people would get involved with flaming.", "For instance, there is the anonymity factor and that people can use different means to have their identity hidden.", "Through the hiding of one's identity people can build a new persona and act in a way that they normally would not when they have their identity known.", "Another factor in flaming is proactive aggression \"which is initiated without perceived threat or provocation\" and those who are recipients of flaming may counter with flaming of their own and utilize reactive aggression.", "Another factor that goes into flaming are the different communication variables.", "For instance, offline communications networks can impact the way people act online and can lead them to engage in flaming.", "Finally, there is the factor of verbal aggression and how people who engage in verbal aggression will use those tactics when they engage in flaming online.Flaming can range from subtle to extremely aggressive in online behaviors, such as derogatory images, certain emojis used in combination, and even the use of capital letters.", "These things can show a pattern of behavior used to convey certain emotions online.", "Victims should do their best to avoid fighting back in an attempt to prevent a war of words.", "Flaming extends past social media interactions.", "Flaming can also take place through emails, and it may not matter so much whether someone calls an email a \"flame\", is based on whether she or he considers an email to be hostile, aggressive, insulting, or offensive.", "What matters is how the person receives the interaction.", "So much is lost in translation when communicating online versus in person, that it is hard to distinguish someone's intent." ], [ "History", "Evidence of debates which resulted in insults being exchanged quickly back and forth between two parties can be found throughout history.", "Arguments over the ratification of the United States Constitution were often socially and emotionally heated and intense, with many attacking one another through local newspapers.", "Such interactions have always been part of literary criticism.", "For example, Ralph Waldo Emerson's contempt for Jane Austen's works often extended to the author herself, with Emerson describing her as \"without genius, wit, or knowledge of the world\".", "In turn, Thomas Carlyle called Emerson a \"hoary-headed toothless baboon\"In the modern era, \"flaming\" was used at East Coast engineering schools in the United States as a present participle in a crude expression to describe an irascible individual and by extension to such individuals on the earliest Internet chat rooms and message boards.", "Internet flaming was mostly observed in Usenet newsgroups although it was known to occur in the WWIVnet and FidoNet computer networks as well.", "It was subsequently used in other parts of speech with much the same meaning.The term \"flaming\" was seen on Usenet newsgroups in the eighties, where the start of a flame was sometimes indicated by typing \"FLAME ON\", then \"FLAME OFF\" when the flame section of the post was complete.", "This is a reference to both The Human Torch of the Fantastic Four, who used those words when activating his flame abilities, and to the way text processing programs of the time worked, by placing commands before and after text to indicate how it should appear when printed.The term \"flaming\" is documented in ''The Hacker's Dictionary'', which in 1983 defined it as \"to speak rabidly or incessantly on an uninteresting topic or with a patently ridiculous attitude\".", "The meaning of the word has diverged from this definition since then.Jerry Pournelle in 1986 explained why he wanted a kill file for BIX:He added, \"I noticed something: most of the irritation came from a handful of people, sometimes only one or two.", "If I could only ignore them, the computer conferences were still valuable.", "Alas, it's not always easy to do\".Computer-mediated communication (CMC) research has spent a significant amount of time and effort describing and predicting engagement in uncivil, aggressive online communication.", "Specifically, the literature has described aggressive, insulting behavior as \"flaming\", which has been defined as hostile verbal behaviors, the uninhibited expression of hostility, insults, and ridicule, and hostile comments directed towards a person or organization within the context of CMC." ], [ "Types", "===Flame trolling===Flame trolling is the posting of a provocative or offensive message, known as ''flamebait'', to a public Internet discussion group, such as a forum, newsgroup or mailing list, with the intent of provoking an angry response (a \"flame\") or argument.Flamebait can provide the poster with a controlled trigger-and-response setting in which to anonymously engage in conflicts and indulge in aggressive behavior without facing the consequences that such behavior might bring in a face-to-face encounter.", "In other instances, flamebait may be used to reduce a forum's use by angering the forum users.", "In 2012, it was announced that the US State Department would start flame trolling jihadists as part of Operation Viral Peace.Among the characteristics of inflammatory behavior, the use of entirely capitalized messages, or the multiple repetition of exclamation marks, along with profanity have been identified as typical.===Flame war===A flame war results when multiple users engage in provocative responses to an original post, which is sometimes flamebait.", "Flame wars often draw in many users, including those trying to defuse the flame war, and can quickly turn into a mass flame war that overshadows regular forum discussion.Resolving a flame war can be difficult, as it is often hard to determine who is really responsible for the degradation of a reasonable discussion into a flame war.", "Someone who posts a contrary opinion in a strongly focused discussion forum may be easily labeled a \"baiter\", \"flamer\", or \"troll\".Flame wars can become intense and can include \"death threats, ad hominem invective, and textual amplifiers,” but to some sociologists flame wars can actually bring people together.", "What is being said in a flame war should not be taken too seriously since the harsh words are a part of flaming.An approach to resolving a flame war or responding to flaming is to communicate openly with the offending users.", "Acknowledging mistakes, offering to help resolve the disagreement, making clear, reasoned arguments, and even self-deprecation have all been noted as worthwhile strategies to end such disputes.", "However, others prefer to simply ignore flaming, noting that, in many cases, if the flamebait receives no attention, it will quickly be forgotten as forum discussions carry on.", "Unfortunately, this can motivate trolls to intensify their activities, creating additional distractions.", "\"Taking the bait\" or \"feeding the troll\" refers to someone who responds to the original message regardless of whether they are aware the original message was intended to provoke a response.", "Often when someone takes the bait, others will point this out to them with the acronym \"YHBT\", which is short for \"You have been trolled\", or reply with \"don't feed the trolls\".", "Forum users will usually not give the troll acknowledgement; that just \"feeds the troll\".In sociology, history, or any kind of online ethnographic academic study, flame wars as a corpus, in a STS approach of controversies, may be used to understand what is at stake in a community.", "The idea is that the flame war drives the actors into abandoning a polite stance and forces them to engage into debate and to unveil otherwise concealed arguments.", "In this respect, the most interesting parts of an online corpus are the flame wars as \"outbursts of heated, short and dense debates, in an ocean of evenly distributed polite messages\".=== Mass flamewar ===A mass flamewar is a flamewar that grows out of a single post or comment into multiple other comments or posts quickly, in the same area where the original post was in.", "A mass flamewar usually lasts for multiple weeks, months, or even years after the first post was posted and died out.", "=== Political flaming ===Political flaming typically occur when people have their views challenged and they seek to have their anger known.", "Through the covering of one's identity people may be more likely to engage in political flaming.", "In a 2015 study conducted by Hutchens, Cicchirillo, and Hmielowski, they found that \"those who were more experienced with political discussions—either online or offline—were more likely to indicate they would respond with a flame\", and they also found that verbal aggression also played a role in a person engaging in political flaming.=== Corporate flaming ===Corporate flaming is when a large number of critical comments, usually aggressive or insulting, are directed at a company's employees, products, or brands.", "Common causes include inappropriate behavior of company employees, negative customer experiences, inadequate care of customers and influencers, violation of ethical principles, along with apparent injustices and inappropriate reactions.", "Flame wars can result in reputational damage, decreased consumer confidence, drops in stock prices and company assets, increased liabilities, increased lawsuits, and a decrease in customers, influencers and sponsors.", "Based on an assessment of the damage, companies can take years to recover from a flame war that may detract from their core purpose.", "Kayser notes that companies should prepare for possible flame wars by creating alerts for a predefined \"blacklist\" of words and monitoring fast-growing topics about their company.", "Alternatively, Kayser, points out that a flame war can lead to a positive experience for the company.", "Based on the content, it could be shared across multiple platforms and increase company recognition, social media fans/followers, brand presence, purchases, and brand loyalty.", "Therefore, the type of marketing that results from a flame war can lead to higher profits and brand recognition on a broader scale.", "Nevertheless, it is encouraged that when a company utilizes social media they should be aware that their content could be used in a flame war and should be treated as an emergency." ], [ "Examples", "Any subject of a polarizing nature can feasibly cause flaming.", "As one would expect in the medium of the Internet, technology is a common topic.", "The perennial debates between users of competing operating systems, such as Windows, Classic Mac OS and macOS operating system, or operating systems based on the Linux kernel and iOS or Android operating system, users of Intel and AMD processors, and users of the Nintendo Switch, Wii U, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One video game systems, often escalate into seemingly unending \"flame wars\", also called software wars.", "As each successive technology is released, it develops its own outspoken fan base, allowing arguments to begin anew.Popular culture continues to generate large amounts of flaming and countless flame wars across the Internet, such as the constant debates between fans of ''Star Trek'' and ''Star Wars''.", "Ongoing discussion of current celebrities and television personalities within popular culture also frequently sparks debate.In 2005, author Anne Rice became involved in a flame war of sorts on the review boards of online retailer Amazon.com after several reviewers posted scathing comments about her latest novel.", "Rice responded to the comments with her own lengthy response, which was quickly met with more feedback from users.In 2007, tech expert Kathy Sierra was a victim of flaming as an image of her depicted as a mutilated body was spread around online forums.", "In addition to the doctored photo being spread virally, her social security number and home address were made public as well.", "Consequently, Sierra effectively gave up her technology career in response to the ensuing harassment and threats that she received as a result of the flaming.In November 2007, the popular audio-visual discussion site AVS Forum temporarily closed its HD DVD and Blu-ray discussion forums because of, as the site reported, \"physical threats that have involved police and possible legal action\" between advocates of the rival formats.The 2016 Presidential election, saw a flame war take place between Republican candidate Donald Trump and the Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton.", "The barbs exchanged between the two was highly publicized and is an example of political flaming and a flame war." ], [ "Legal implications", "Flaming varies in severity and as such so too does the reaction of states in imposing any sort of sanction.", "Laws vary from country to country, but in most cases, constant flaming can be considered cyber harassment, which can result in Internet Service Provider action to prevent access to the site being flamed.", "However, as social networks become more and more closely connected to people and their real life, the more harsh words may be considered defamation of the person.", "For instance, a South Korean Identity Verification law was created to help control flaming and to stop \"malicious use of the internet\" but opponents to the law argue that the law infringes on the right to free speech." ], [ "See also", "* Cyberbullying* Dogpiling* Eristic* ''Forumwarz''* Godwin's law* \"It's okay to be white\"* Internet troll* Meow Wars* Smack talk* Social software* Spiral of silence on the Internet" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " An Interactional Reconceptualization of \"Flaming\" and Other Problematic Messages, by Patrick B. O'Sullivan and Andrew J. Flanagin* FlameWarriors.net* Older flamebait reference on USENET, 1985 (via Google Groups)* Flame War Management Handling Crisis in the Social Media Age" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frank Lloyd Wright" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frank Lloyd Wright Sr.''' (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, designer, writer, and educator.", "He designed more than 1,000 structures over a creative period of 70 years.", "Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing architects worldwide through his works and hundreds of apprentices in his Taliesin Fellowship.", "Wright believed in designing in harmony with humanity and the environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture.", "This philosophy was exemplified in Fallingwater (1935), which has been called \"the best all-time work of American architecture\".Wright was the pioneer of what came to be called the Prairie School movement of architecture and also developed the concept of the Usonian home in Broadacre City, his vision for urban planning in the United States.", "He also designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums, and other commercial projects.", "Wright-designed interior elements (including leaded glass windows, floors, furniture and even tableware) were integrated into these structures.", "He wrote several books and numerous articles and was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe.", "Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as \"the greatest American architect of all time\".", "In 2019, a selection of his work became a listed World Heritage Site as ''The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright''.Raised in rural Wisconsin, Wright studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin and then apprenticed in Chicago, briefly with Joseph Lyman Silsbee, and then with Louis Sullivan at Adler & Sullivan.", "Wright opened his own successful Chicago practice in 1893 and established a studio in his Oak Park, Illinois home in 1898.His fame increased and his personal life sometimes made headlines: leaving his first wife Catherine \"Kitty\" Tobin for Mamah Cheney in 1909; the murder of Mamah and her children and others at his Taliesin estate by a staff member in 1914; his tempestuous marriage with second wife Miriam Noel (m. 1923–1927); and his courtship and marriage with Olgivanna Lazović (m. 1928–1959)." ], [ "Early life and education", "===Childhood (1867–1885)===Wright was born on June 8, 1867, in the town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, but maintained throughout his life that he was born in 1869.In 1987 a biographer of Wright suggested that he may have been christened as \"Frank Lincoln Wright\" or \"Franklin Lincoln Wright\" but these assertions were not supported by any evidence.Wright's father, William Cary Wright (1825–1904), was a \"gifted musician, orator, and sometime preacher who had been admitted to the bar in 1857.\"", "He was also a published composer.", "Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, but he later joined his wife's family in the Unitarian faith.Wright's mother, Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39–1923) was a teacher and a member of the Lloyd Jones clan; her parents had emigrated from Wales to Wisconsin.", "One of Anna's brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Midwest.According to Wright's autobiography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings.", "She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infant's ambition.Wright grew up in an \"unstable household, ... constant lack of resources, ... unrelieved poverty and anxiety\" and had a \"deeply disturbed and obviously unhappy childhood\".", "His father held pastorates in McGregor, Iowa (1869), Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1871), and Weymouth, Massachusetts (1874).", "Because the Wright family struggled financially also in Weymouth, they returned to Spring Green, where the supportive Lloyd Jones family could help William find employment.", "In 1877, they settled in Madison, where William gave music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society.", "Although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music with his children.In 1876, Anna saw an exhibit of educational blocks called the Froebel Gifts, the foundation of an innovative kindergarten curriculum.", "Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which the 9-year old Wright spent much time playing.", "The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form two- and three-dimensional compositions.", "In his autobiography, Wright described the influence of these exercises on his approach to design: \"For several years, I sat at the little kindergarten table-top... and played... with the cube, the sphere and the trianglethese smooth wooden maple blocks... All are in my fingers to this day... \"In 1881, soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated.", "In 1884, his father sued for a divorce from Anna on the grounds of \"... emotional cruelty and physical violence and spousal abandonment\".", "Wright attended Madison High School, but there is no evidence that he graduated.", "His father left Wisconsin after the divorce was granted in 1885.Wright said that he never saw his father again.===Education (1885–1887)===In 1886, at age 19, Wright was admitted to the University of Wisconsin–Madison as a special student.", "He worked under Allan D. Conover, a professor of civil engineering, before leaving the school without taking a degree; in 1955, the university presented Wright, then 88 years old, with an honorary doctorate of fine arts.Wright's uncle Jenkin Lloyd Jones had commissioned the Chicago architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee to design the All Souls Church in Chicago in 1885.In 1886, the Silsbee firm was commissioned by Jones to design the Unity Chapel as his private family chapel in Wyoming, Wisconsin.Although not officially employed by Silsbee, Wright was an accomplished draftsman and \"looked after the interior drawings and construction\" in Wisconsin.", "This chapel is thus Wright's earliest known work.After the chapel was finished, Wright moved to Chicago." ], [ "Career", "===Silsbee and other early work experience (1887–1888)===In 1887, Wright arrived in Chicago in search of employment.", "As a result of the devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and a population boom, new development was plentiful.", "Wright later recorded in his autobiography that his first impression of Chicago was as an ugly and chaotic city.", "Within days of his arrival, and after interviews with several prominent firms, he was hired as a draftsman with Joseph Lyman Silsbee.", "While with the firm, he also worked on two other family projects: All Souls Church in Chicago for his uncle, Jenkin Lloyd Jones, and the Hillside Home School I in Spring Green for two of his aunts.", "Other draftsmen who worked for Silsbee in 1887 included future architects Cecil Corwin, George W. Maher, and George G. Elmslie.", "Wright soon befriended Corwin, with whom he lived until he found a permanent home.Feeling that he was underpaid for the quality of his work for Silsbee at $8 a week, the young draftsman quit and found work as an architectural designer at the firm of Beers, Clay, and Dutton.", "However, Wright soon realized that he was not ready to handle building design by himself; he left his new job to return to Joseph Silsbeethis time with a raise in salary.", "Although Silsbee adhered mainly to Victorian and Revivalist architecture, Wright found his work to be more \"gracefully picturesque\" than the other \"brutalities\" of the period.===Adler & Sullivan (1888–1893)===Wright's home in Oak Park, Illinois (1889)The Walter Gale House in Oak Park, Illinois (1893).", "While a Queen Anne in style, it features window bands and a cantilevered porch roof which hint at Wright's developing aesthetics.Wright learned that the Chicago firm of Adler & Sullivan was \"... looking for someone to make the finished drawings for the interior of the Auditorium Building\".", "Wright demonstrated that he was a competent impressionist of Louis Sullivan's ornamental designs and two short interviews later, was an official apprentice in the firm.", "Wright did not get along well with Sullivan's other draftsmen; he wrote that several violent altercations occurred between them during the first years of his apprenticeship.", "For that matter, Sullivan showed very little respect for his own employees as well.", "In spite of this, \"Sullivan took Wright under his wing and gave him great design responsibility.\"", "As an act of respect, Wright would later refer to Sullivan as (German for \"Dear Master\").", "He also formed a bond with office foreman Paul Mueller.", "Wright later engaged Mueller in the construction of several of his public and commercial buildings between 1903 and 1923.By 1890, Wright had an office next to Sullivan's that he shared with friend and draftsman George Elmslie, who had been hired by Sullivan at Wright's request.", "Wright had risen to head draftsman and handled all residential design work in the office.", "As a general rule, the firm of Adler & Sullivan did not design or build houses, but would oblige when asked by the clients of their important commercial projects.", "Wright was occupied by the firm's major commissions during office hours, so house designs were relegated to evening and weekend overtime hours at his home studio.", "He later claimed total responsibility for the design of these houses, but a careful inspection of their architectural style (and accounts from historian Robert Twombly) suggests that Sullivan dictated the overall form and motifs of the residential works; Wright's design duties were often reduced to detailing the projects from Sullivan's sketches.", "During this time, Wright worked on Sullivan's bungalow (1890) and the James A. Charnley bungalow (1890) in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, the Berry-MacHarg House, James A. Charnley House (both 1891), and the Louis Sullivan House (1892), all in Chicago.Despite Sullivan's loan and overtime salary, Wright was constantly short on funds.", "Wright admitted that his poor finances were likely due to his expensive tastes in wardrobe and vehicles, and the extra luxuries he designed into his house.", "To supplement his income and repay his debts, Wright accepted independent commissions for at least nine houses.", "These \"bootlegged\" houses, as he later called them, were conservatively designed in variations of the fashionable Queen Anne and Colonial Revival styles.", "Nevertheless, unlike the prevailing architecture of the period, each house emphasized simple geometric massing and contained features such as bands of horizontal windows, occasional cantilevers, and open floor plans, which would become hallmarks of his later work.", "Eight of these early houses remain today, including the Thomas Gale, Robert Parker, George Blossom, and Walter Gale houses.As with the residential projects for Adler & Sullivan, he designed his bootleg houses on his own time.", "Sullivan knew nothing of the independent works until 1893, when he recognized that one of the houses was unmistakably a Frank Lloyd Wright design.", "This particular house, built for Allison Harlan, was only blocks away from Sullivan's townhouse in the Chicago community of Kenwood.", "Aside from the location, the geometric purity of the composition and balcony tracery in the same style as the Charnley House likely gave away Wright's involvement.", "Since Wright's five-year contract forbade any outside work, the incident led to his departure from Sullivan's firm.", "Several stories recount the break in the relationship between Sullivan and Wright; even Wright later told two different versions of the occurrence.", "In ''An Autobiography'', Wright claimed that he was unaware that his side ventures were a breach of his contract.", "When Sullivan learned of them, he was angered and offended; he prohibited any further outside commissions and refused to issue Wright the deed to his Oak Park house until after he completed his five years.", "Wright could not bear the new hostility from his master and thought that the situation was unjust.", "He \"... threw down his pencil and walked out of the Adler & Sullivan office never to return\".", "Dankmar Adler, who was more sympathetic to Wright's actions, later sent him the deed.", "However, Wright told his Taliesin apprentices (as recorded by Edgar Tafel) that Sullivan fired him on the spot upon learning of the Harlan House.", "Tafel also recounted that Wright had Cecil Corwin sign several of the bootleg jobs, indicating that Wright was aware of their forbidden nature.", "Regardless of the correct series of events, Wright and Sullivan did not meet or speak for 12 years.===Transition and experimentation (1893–1900)===William H. Winslow House in River Forest, Illinois (1893)Nathan G. Moore House in Oak Park, Illinois (1895) Wright's studio viewed from Chicago Avenue (1898)After leaving Adler & Sullivan, Wright established his own practice on the top floor of the Sullivan-designed Schiller Building on Randolph Street in Chicago.", "Wright chose to locate his office in the building because the tower location reminded him of the office of Adler & Sullivan.", "Cecil Corwin followed Wright and set up his architecture practice in the same office, but the two worked independently and did not consider themselves partners.In 1896, Wright moved from the Schiller Building to the nearby and newly completed Steinway Hall building.", "The loft space was shared with Robert C. Spencer, Jr., Myron Hunt, and Dwight H. Perkins.", "These young architects, inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement and the philosophies of Louis Sullivan, formed what became known as the Prairie School.", "They were joined by Perkins' apprentice Marion Mahony, who in 1895 transferred to Wright's team of drafters and took over production of his presentation drawings and watercolor renderings.", "Mahony, the third woman to be licensed as an architect in Illinois and one of the first licensed female architects in the U.S., also designed furniture, leaded glass windows, and light fixtures, among other features, for Wright's houses.", "Between 1894 and the early 1910s, several other leading Prairie School architects and many of Wright's future employees launched their careers in the offices of Steinway Hall.Wright's projects during this period followed two basic models.", "His first independent commission, the Winslow House, combined Sullivanesque ornamentation with the emphasis on simple geometry and horizontal lines.", "The Francis Apartments (1895, demolished 1971), Heller House (1896), Rollin Furbeck House (1897) and Husser House (1899, demolished 1926) were designed in the same mode.", "For his more conservative clients, Wright designed more traditional dwellings.", "These included the Dutch Colonial Revival style Bagley House (1894), Tudor Revival style Moore House I (1895), and Queen Anne style Charles E. Roberts House (1896).", "While Wright could not afford to turn down clients over disagreements in taste, even his most conservative designs retained simplified massing and occasional Sullivan-inspired details.Soon after the completion of the Winslow House in 1894, Edward Waller, a friend and former client, invited Wright to meet Chicago architect and planner Daniel Burnham.", "Burnham had been impressed by the Winslow House and other examples of Wright's work; he offered to finance a four-year education at the and two years in Rome.", "To top it off, Wright would have a position in Burnham's firm upon his return.", "In spite of guaranteed success and support of his family, Wright declined the offer.", "Burnham, who had directed the classical design of the World's Columbian Exposition and was a major proponent of the Beaux Arts movement, thought that Wright was making a foolish mistake.", "Yet for Wright, the classical education of the lacked creativity and was altogether at odds with his vision of modern American architecture.Wright relocated his practice to his home in 1898 to bring his work and family lives closer.", "This move made further sense as the majority of the architect's projects at that time were in Oak Park or neighboring River Forest.", "The birth of three more children prompted Wright to sacrifice his original home studio space for additional bedrooms and necessitated his design and construction of an expansive studio addition to the north of the main house.", "The space, which included a hanging balcony within the two-story drafting room, was one of Wright's first experiments with innovative structure.", "The studio embodied Wright's developing aesthetics and would become the laboratory from which his next 10 years of architectural creations would emerge.===Prairie Style houses (1900–1914)===Arthur Heurtley House in Oak Park, Illinois (1902)Taliesin in Spring Green, Wisconsin (1902)Darwin D. Martin House in Buffalo, New York (1904)Meyer May House in Grand Rapids, Michigan (1909)By 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park.", "As his son John Lloyd Wright wrote:William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur, Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts, and George Willis were the draftsmen.", "Five men, two women.", "They wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm.", "The men wore their hair like Papa, all except Albert, he didn't have enough hair.", "They worshiped Papa!", "Papa liked them!", "I know that each one of them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for which my father gets the full glory, headaches, and recognition today!Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses, which have since been identified as the onset of the \"Prairie Style\".", "Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations.", "Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as the first mature examples of the new style.", "At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American house widespread awareness through two publications in the ''Ladies' Home Journal''.", "The articles were in response to an invitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modern house design.", "\"A Home in a Prairie Town\" and \"A Small House with Lots of Room in it\" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901 issues of the journal.", "Although neither of the affordable house plans was ever constructed, Wright received increased requests for similar designs in following years.", "Wright came to Buffalo and designed homes for three of the company's executives: the Darwin D. Martin House (1904), the William R. Heath House 1905), and the Walter V. Davidson House (1908).", "Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the Prairie Style are the Frederick Robie House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois.", "The Robie House, with its extended cantilevered roof lines supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic.", "Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space.", "With this and other buildings, included in the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio (1910), Wright's work became known to European architects and had a profound influence on them after World War I.Wright's residential designs of this era were known as \"prairie houses\" because the designs complemented the land around Chicago.", "Prairie Style houses often have a combination of these features: one or two stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad, overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materialsespecially stone and wood.By 1909, Wright had begun to reject the upper-middle-class Prairie Style single-family house model, shifting his focus to a more democratic architecture.", "Wright went to Europe in 1909 with a portfolio of his work and presented it to Berlin publisher Ernst Wasmuth.", "''Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright'', published in 1911, was the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe.", "The work contained more than 100 lithographs of Wright's designs and is commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio.===Notable public works (1900–1917)===Wright designed the house of Cornell's chapter of Alpha Delta Phi literary society (1900), the Hillside Home School II (built for his aunts) in Spring Green, Wisconsin (1901) and the Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois.", "As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregation after their church burned down, working on the building from 1905 to 1909.Wright later said that Unity Temple was the edifice in which he ceased to be an architect of structure, and became an architect of space.Some other early notable public buildings and projects in this era: the Larkin Administration Building (1905); the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, 1911); the Midway Gardens (Chicago, Illinois, 1913); the Banff National Park Pavilion (Alberta, Canada, 1914).===Designing in Japan (1917–1922)===Hotel Imperial, 1930sJiyu Gakuen Main BuildingYodoko GuesthouseWhile working in Japan, Wright left an impressive architectural heritage.", "The Imperial Hotel, completed in 1923, is the most important.", "Thanks to its solid foundations and steel construction, the hotel survived the Great Kanto Earthquake almost unscathed.", "The hotel was damaged during the bombing of Tokyo and by the subsequent US military occupation of it after World War II.", "As land in the center of Tokyo increased in value the hotel was deemed obsolete and was demolished in 1968 but the lobby was saved and later re-constructed at the Meiji Mura architecture museum in Nagoya in 1976.Jiyu Gakuen was founded as a girls' school in 1921.The construction of the main building began in 1921 under Wright's direction and, after his departure, was continued by Endo.", "The school building, like the Imperial Hotel, is covered with Ōya stones.The Yodoko Guesthouse (designed in 1918 and completed in 1924) was built as the summer villa for Tadzaemon Yamamura.Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture had a strong influence on young Japanese architects.", "The Japanese architects Wright commissioned to carry out his designs were Arata Endo, Takehiko Okami, Taue Sasaki and Kameshiro Tsuchiura.", "Endo supervised the completion of the Imperial Hotel after Wright's departure in 1922 and also supervised the construction of the Jiyu Gakuen Girls' School and the Yodokō Guest House.", "Tsuchiura went on to create so-called \"light\" buildings, which had similarities to Wright's later work.===Textile concrete block system===Wright in 1926In the early 1920s, Wright designed a \"textile\" concrete block system.", "The system of precast blocks, reinforced by an internal system of bars, enabled \"fabrication as infinite in color, texture, and variety as in that rug.\"", "Wright first used his textile block system on the Millard House in Pasadena, California, in 1923.Typically Wrightian is the joining of the structure to its site by a series of terraces that reach out into and reorder the landscape, making it an integral part of the architect's vision.", "With the Ennis House and the Samuel Freeman House (both 1923), Wright had further opportunities to test the limits of the textile block system, including limited use in the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in 1927.The Ennis house is often used in films, television, and print media to represent the future.", "Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freeman, and Ennis Houses.", "Architectural historian Thomas Hines has suggested that Lloyd's contribution to these projects is often overlooked.After World War II, Wright updated the concrete block system, calling it the Usonian Automatic system, resulting in the construction of several notable homes.", "As he explained in ''The Natural House'' (1954), \"The original blocks are made on the site by ramming concrete into wood or metal wrap-around forms, with one outside face (which may be pattered), and one rear or inside face, generally coffered, for lightness.\"" ], [ "Midlife problems", "===Family turmoil===Aerial photo of Taliesin, Spring Green, WisconsinIn 1903, while Wright was designing a house for Edwin Cheney (a neighbor in Oak Park), he became enamored of Cheney's wife, Mamah Borthwick Cheney.", "Mamah was a modern woman with interests outside the home.", "She was an early feminist, and Wright viewed her as his intellectual equal.", "Their relationship became the talk of the town; they often could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park.", "In 1909, Wright and Mamah Cheney met up in Europe, leaving their spouses and children behind.", "Wright remained in Europe for almost a year, first in Florence, Italy (where he lived with his eldest son Lloyd) and, later, in Fiesole, Italy, where he lived with Mamah.", "During this time, Edwin Cheney granted Mamah a divorce, though Kitty still refused to grant one to her husband.", "After Wright returned to the United States in October 1910, he persuaded his mother to buy land for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin.", "The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's family, the Lloyd-Joneses.", "Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called , by May 1911.The recurring theme of also came from his mother's side: in Welsh mythology was a poet, magician, and priest.", "The family motto, \"''''\" (\"The Truth Against the World\"), was taken from the Welsh poet , who also had a son named Taliesin.", "The motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and chief bard of the in Wales.===Tragedy at Taliesin===Taliesin I was destroyed, set ablaze during the massacre.On August 15, 1914, while Wright was working in Chicago, a servant (Julian Carlton) set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and then murdered seven people with an axe as the fire burned.", "The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha Cheney; a gardener (David Lindblom); a draftsman (Emil Brodelle); a workman (Thomas Brunker); and another workman's son (Ernest Weston).", "Two people survived the mayhem, one of whom, William Weston, helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house.", "Carlton swallowed hydrochloric acid immediately following the attack in an attempt to kill himself.", "He was nearly lynched on the spot, but was taken to the Dodgeville jail.", "Carlton died from starvation seven weeks after the attack.===Divorces===In 1922, Kitty Wright finally granted Wright a divorce.", "Under the terms of the divorce, Wright was required to wait one year before he could marry his then-mistress, Maude \"Miriam\" Noel.", "In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died.", "Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year.", "In 1924, after the separation, but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg.", "They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon after Olgivanna became pregnant.", "Their daughter, Iovanna, was born on December 3, 1925.On April 20, 1925, another fire destroyed the bungalow at Taliesin.", "Crossed wires from a newly installed telephone system were deemed to be responsible for the blaze, which destroyed a collection of Japanese prints that Wright estimated to be worth $250,000 to $500,000 ($ to $ in ).", "Wright rebuilt the living quarters, naming the home \"Taliesin III\".In 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana.", "In October 1926, Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in Tonka Bay, Minnesota.", "The charges were later dropped.The divorce of Wright and Miriam Noel was finalized in 1927.Wright was again required to wait for one year before remarrying.", "Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928." ], [ "Later career", "===Taliesin Fellowship===In 1932, Wright and his wife Olgivanna put out a call for students to come to Taliesin to study and work under Wright while they learned architecture and spiritual development.", "Olgivanna Wright had been a student of G. I. Gurdjieff who had previously established a similar school.", "Twenty-three came to live and work that year, including John (Jack) H. Howe, who would become Wright's chief draftsman.", "A total of 625 people joined The Fellowship in Wright's lifetime.", "The Fellowship was a source of workers for Wright's later projects, including: Fallingwater; The Johnson Wax Headquarters; and The Guggenheim Museum in New York City.Considerable controversy exists over the living conditions and education of the fellows.", "Wright was reputedly a difficult person to work with.", "One apprentice wrote: \"He is devoid of consideration and has a blind spot regarding others' qualities.", "Yet I believe, that a year in his studio would be worth any sacrifice.\"", "The Fellowship evolved into The School of Architecture at Taliesin which was an accredited school until it closed under acrimonious circumstances in 2020.Taking on the name \"The School of Architecture\" in June 2020, the school moved to the Cosanti Foundation, which it had worked with in the past.===Usonian Houses===Charles Weltzheimer Residence, Oberlin, Ohio (1948)Wright is responsible for a series of concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City.", "He proposed the idea in his book ''The Disappearing City'' in 1932 and unveiled a model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years.", "Concurrent with the development of Broadacre City, also referred to as Usonia, Wright conceived a new type of dwelling that came to be known as the Usonian House.", "Although an early version of the form can be seen in the Malcolm Willey House (1934) in Minneapolis, the Usonian ideal emerged most completely in the Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House (1937) in Madison, Wisconsin.", "Designed on a gridded concrete slab that integrated the house's radiant heating system, the house featured new approaches to construction, including walls composed of a \"sandwich\" of wood siding, plywood cores and building papera significant change from typically framed walls.", "Usonian houses commonly featured flat roofs and were usually constructed without basements or attics, all features that Wright had been promoting since the early 20th century.Usonian houses were Wright's response to the transformation of domestic life that occurred in the early 20th century when servants had become less prominent or completely absent from most American households.", "By developing homes with progressively more open plans, Wright allotted the woman of the house a \"workspace\", as he often called the kitchen, where she could keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room.", "As in the Prairie Houses, Usonian living areas had a fireplace as a point of focus.", "Bedrooms, typically isolated and relatively small, encouraged the family to gather in the main living areas.", "The conception of spaces instead of rooms was a development of the Prairie ideal.", "The built-in furnishings related to the Arts and Crafts movement's principles that influenced Wright's early work.", "Spatially and in terms of their construction, the Usonian houses represented a new model for independent living and allowed dozens of clients to live in a Wright-designed house at relatively low cost.", "His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that influenced countless postwar developers.", "Many features of modern American homes date back to Wright: open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplified construction techniques that allowed more mechanization and efficiency in building.===Significant later works===Fallingwater, Mill Run, Pennsylvania (1937) ''Fallingwater'', one of Wright's most famous private residences (completed 1937), was built for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann, Sr., at Mill Run, Pennsylvania.", "Constructed over a 30-foot waterfall, it was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings.", "The house was intended to be more of a family getaway, rather than a live-in home.", "The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals.", "The house cost $155,000 (), including the architect's fee of $8,000 ().", "It was one of Wright's most expensive pieces.", "Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound.", "They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements.", "In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure.", "In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done.", "In March 2002, post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed.Taliesin West, Wright's winter home and studio complex in Scottsdale, Arizona, was a laboratory for Wright from 1937 to his death in 1959.It is now the home of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation.Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City (1959)The design and construction of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupied Wright from 1943 until 1959 and is probably his most recognized masterpiece.", "The building's unique central geometry allows visitors to experience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometric paintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp.Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma (1956)The only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-story tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma.", "It is also one of the two existing vertically oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax Research Tower in Racine, Wisconsin).", "The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C. Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm.", "On March 29, 2007, Price Tower was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior, one of only 20 such properties in Oklahoma.Monona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior, with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center.", "The \"as-built\" design was carried out by Wright's apprentice Tony Puttnam.", "Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy until the structure was completed.Florida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wright buildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project.", "It is the world's largest single-site collection of Frank Lloyd Wright architecture." ], [ "Personal style and concepts", "===Design elements===An open office area in Wright's Johnson Wax Headquarters complex, Racine, Wisconsin (1939)His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets, and other fittings.", "He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks, and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson Wax Headquarters.", "Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting).", "In 1897, Wright received a patent for \"Prism Glass Tiles\" that were used in storefronts to direct light toward the interior.", "Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it fit well into his philosophy of organic architecture.", "According to Wright's organic theory, all components of the building should appear unified, as though they belong together.", "Nothing should be attached to it without considering the effect on the whole.", "To unify the house to its site, Wright often used large expanses of glass to blur the boundary between the indoors and outdoors.", "Glass allowed for interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the elements.", "In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds.", "One of Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join solid walls.", "By using this large amount of glass, Wright sought to achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and the solid, hard walls.", "Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that of the Prairie style.", "The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career.", "Wright also designed some of his own clothing.===Influences and collaborations===Wright-designed window in Robie House, Chicago (1906)Interior from the Marin County Civic Center.", "Designed toward the end of Wright's life, the expansive public project was built posthumously in the 1960s.Wright, an individualist, did not affiliate with the American Institute of Architects during his career; he called the organization \"a harbor of refuge for the incompetent\" and \"a form of refined gangsterism\".", "When an associate referred to him as \"an old amateur\" Wright confirmed, \"I am the oldest.\"", "Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five major influences:# Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his ''Lieber Meister'' (dear master)# Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life# Music (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven)# Japanese art, prints and buildings# Froebel giftsWright was given a set of Froebel gifts at about age nine, and in his autobiography he cited them indirectly in explaining that he learned the geometry of architecture in kindergarten play: Wright later wrote, \"The virtue of all this lay in the awakening of the child-mind to rhythmic structures in Nature… I soon became susceptible to constructive pattern evolving in everything I saw.", "\"He routinely claimed the work of architects and architectural designers who were his employees as his own designs, and believed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators, and subordinates.", "As with any architect, though, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others.", "In his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan.", "In his Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects, including William Eugene Drummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin, and Walter Burley Griffin.", "The Czech-born architect Antonin Raymond worked for Wright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo.", "He subsequently stayed in Japan and opened his own practice.", "Rudolf Schindler also worked for Wright on the Imperial Hotel and his own work is often credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses.", "Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wright.", "In the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as Aaron Green, John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb, William Bernoudy, and Paolo Soleri.===Japanese art===Wright was a passionate Japanophile — he once proclaimed Japan to be \"the most romantic, artistic, nature-inspired country on earth.\"", "He was particularly interested in woodblock prints, to which he claimed he was \"enslaved.\"", "Wright spent much of his free time selling, collecting, and appreciating these prints.", "He held parties and other events centered around them, proclaiming their pedagogical value to his guests and students, and before arriving in Japan, his impressions of the nation were based almost entirely on them.Wright found particular inspiration in the formal aspects of Japanese art.", "He described prints as \"organic,\" because of their understatedness, harmony, and ability to be appreciated on a purely aesthetic level.", "Additionally, he cherished their freeform compositions, where elements of the scene would frequently breach in front of one another, and their lack of extraneous detail, which he called a \"gospel of elimination.\"", "His interpretation of (tea ceremony venues), mediated by the ideas of Okakura Kakuzō, was that of an architecture which emphasized openness, the \"vacant space between the roof and walls.\"", "Wright applied these principles on a large scale, and they became trademarks of his practice.Wright's floor plans exhibit strong similarities to their presumed Japanese forebears.", "The open living spaces of his early homes were likely appropriated from the World's Columbian Exposition's Ho-O-Den Pavilion, whose sliding-screen dividers were removed in preparation for the event.", "Likewise, Unity Temple follows a layout, characteristic of Shinto shrines and likely inspired by his 1905 visit to the Rinnō-ji temple complex, and the shape of many of his cantilevered towers, including the Johnson Research Tower, may have been inspired by Japanese pagodas.", "Wright's ornamental flourishes, as seen in his leaded glass windows and lively architectural drawings, demonstrate a technical indebtedness to .", "One modern commentator, discussing the Robie House, suggests that such elements combined allow Wright's architecture to exhibit , a particularly Japanese aesthetic value marked by a subdued stylishness.His ideas about the art of Japan appear to have drawn greatly from the activities of Ernest Fenollosa, whose work he likely first encountered between 1890 and 1893.Many of Fenollosa's ideas are quite similar to those of Wright: these include his view of architecture as a \"mother art,\" his condemnation of the West's \"separation of construction and decoration,\" and his identification of an \"organic wholeness\" within prints.", "Also like Wright, Fenollosa perceived a \"degeneracy\" in Western architecture, with particular emphasis on Renaissance architecture; Wright himself admitted that Japanese prints helped to \"vulgarize\" the Renaissance for him.", "Wright's art criticism treatise, ''The Japanese Print: An Interpretation'', may be read as a straightforward expansion upon Fenollosa's ideas.Though Wright always acknowledged his indebtedness to Japanese art and architecture, he took offense to claims that he copied or adapted it.", "In his view, Japanese art simply validated his personal principles especially well, and as such it was not a source of special inspiration.", "Responding to a claim by Charles Robert Ashbee that he was \"trying to adapt Japanese forms to the United States,\" Wright said that such borrowing was \"against his very religion.\"", "Nonetheless, his insistence did not stop others from observing the same throughout his life.===Community planning===Frank Lloyd Wright's commissions and theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death.", "He had 41 commissions on the scale of community planning or urban design.His thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for Charles E. Roberts entitled the \"Quadruple Block Plan\".", "This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets.", "The houses, which used the same design as published in \"A Home in a Prairie Town\" from the ''Ladies' Home Journal'', were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the center.", "This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house.", "Although this plan was never realized, Wright published the design in the ''Wasmuth Portfolio'' in 1910.The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land Development Competition in 1913.The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section.", "This design expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels.", "The design shows the placement of the upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and common spaces.", "The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc.", "This view of decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design.", "The philosophy behind his community planning was decentralization.", "The new development must be away from the cities.", "In this decentralized America, all services and facilities could coexist \"factories side by side with farm and home\".Notable community planning designs:* 1900–03 – Quadruple Block Plan, 24 homes in Oak Park, Illinois (unbuilt);* 1909 – Como Orchard Summer Colony, town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, Montana;* 1913 – Chicago Land Development competition, suburban Chicago quarter section;* 1934–59 – Broadacre City, theoretical decentralized city plan, exhibits of large-scale model;* 1938 – Suntop Homes, also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from Federal Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing, a low-cost multifamily housing alternative to suburban development;* 1942 – Cooperative Homesteads, commissioned by a group of auto workers, teachers and other professionals, 160-acre farm co-op was to be the pioneer of rammed earth and earth berm construction (unbuilt);* 1945 – Usonia Homes, 47 homes (three designed by Wright) in Pleasantville, New York; * 1949 – Parkwyn Village, a plat in Kalamazoo, Michigan, developed by Wright containing mostly Usonian houses by other architects with four by Wright.", "The community was planned to be on circular lots but was re-platted and squared off.", "* 1949 – The Acres, also known as Galesburg Country Homes, with five houses (four designed by Wright) in Charleston Township, Michigan; The Acres remains the sole example of a planned community that has not had its circular lots squared off or been sub-divided." ], [ "Personal life and death", "Wright's fashion sense was unique and he usually wore expensive suits, flowing neckties, and capes.", "He also had a fascination with automobiles, purchasing his first car in 1909, a Stoddard-Dayton roadster, and owned many exotic vehicles over the years.", "During the cash-strapped Depression, Wright drove cheaper vehicles.", "Some of his last cars in the 1950s included four Volkswagens and a Chevrolet Nomad station wagon along with flashier articles such as a Jaguar Mark VII.", "He owned some 50 cars between 1909 and his death, of which 10 are known to survive.===As an art dealer===One of Wright's favorite prints, by Katsukawa Shunkō I.", "The on the subject's sleeve is similar to a motif later used in the Imperial Hotel.Though most famous as an architect, Wright was also an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily .", "He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients: he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it.", "For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect.", "He also kept a personal collection, which he used as a teaching aid with his apprentices in what were called \"print parties\"; to better suit his taste, he sometimes modified these personal prints using colored pencils and crayons.", "Wright owned prints from masters such as Okumura Masanobu, Torii Kiyomasu I, Katsukawa Shunshō, Utagawa Toyoharu, Utagawa Kunisada, Katsushika Hokusai, and Utagawa Hiroshige; he was especially fond of Hiroshige, whom he considered \"the greatest artist in the world.", "\"Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints.", "The following year, he helped organize the world's first retrospective exhibition on Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago, a job which strengthened his reputation as an expert in Japanese art.", "Wright did not cease buying prints in his return trips to Japan, and for many years, he was a major presence in the art world, selling a great number of works both to prominent private collectors and to museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art.", "In sum, Wright spent over five hundred thousand dollars on prints between 1905 and 1923.He penned a book on Japanese art, ''The Japanese Print: An Interpretation'', in 1912.In 1920, many of the prints Wright sold had been found to exhibit signs of retouching, including pinholes and unoriginal pigments.", "These retouched prints were likely made in retribution by some of his Japanese dealers, who were disgruntled by the architect's under-the-table sales.", "In an attempt to clear his name, Wright took one of his dealers, Kyūgo Hayashi, to court over the issue; Hayashi was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison, and barred from selling prints for an extended period of time.Though Wright protested his innocence, and provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, the incident marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer.", "He was forced to sell off much of his art collection to pay off outstanding debts: in 1928, the Bank of Wisconsin claimed Taliesin and sold thousands of his prints — for only one dollar a piece — to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck.", "Nonetheless, Wright continued to collect and deal in prints until his death in 1959, using them as bartering chips and collateral for loans; he often relied upon his art business to remain financially solvent.", "He once claimed that Taliesin I and II were \"practically built\" by his prints.The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades.", "In 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints.", "She discovered \"a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller — 'F.", "L. Wright'\" — and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz.", "These discoveries and subsequent research led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer.===Death===On April 4, 1959, Wright was hospitalized for abdominal pains and was operated on April 6.He seemed to be recovering, but he died quietly on April 9 at the age of 91 years.", "''The New York Times'' then reported he was 89.After his death, Wright's legacy was engulfed in turmoil for years.", "His third wife Olgivanna's dying wish had been that she, Wright, and her daughter by her first marriage would all be cremated and interred together in a memorial garden being built at Taliesin West.", "According to his own wishes, Wright's body had lain in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel, within view of Taliesin in Wisconsin.", "Although Olgivanna had taken no legal steps to move Wright's remains (and against the wishes of other family members and the Wisconsin legislature), his remains were removed from his grave in 1985 by members of the Taliesin Fellowship.", "They were cremated and sent to Scottsdale where they were later interred as per Olgivanna's instructions.", "The original gravesite in Wisconsin is now empty but is still marked with Wright's name." ], [ "Legacy", "===Archives===After Wright's death, most of his archives were stored at the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation in Taliesin (in Wisconsin), and Taliesin West (in Arizona).", "These collections included more than 23,000 architectural drawings, some 44,000 photographs, 600 manuscripts, and more than 300,000 pieces of office and personal correspondence.", "It also contained about 40 large-scale architectural models, most of which were constructed for MoMA's retrospective of Wright in 1940.In 2012, to guarantee a high level of conservation and access, as well as to transfer the considerable financial burden of maintaining the archive, the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation partnered with the Museum of Modern Art and the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library of Columbia University to move the archive's content to New York.", "Wright's furniture and art collection remains with the foundation, which will also have a role in monitoring the archive.", "These three parties established an advisory group to oversee exhibitions, symposiums, events, and publications.Photographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago.", "The architect's personal archives are located at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, Arizona.", "The Frank Lloyd Wright archives include photographs of his drawings, indexed correspondence beginning in the 1880s and continuing through Wright's life, and other ephemera.", "The Getty Research Center, Los Angeles, also has copies of Wright's correspondence and photographs of his drawings in their Frank Lloyd Wright Special Collection.", "Wright's correspondence is indexed in ''An Index to the Taliesin Correspondence'', ed.", "by Professor Anthony Alofsin, which is available at larger libraries.===Destroyed Wright buildings===Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1923)Wright designed over 400 built structures of which about 300 survived .", "At least five have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August 1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone, Japan, destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.", "In January 2006, the Wilbur Wynant House in Gary, Indiana was destroyed by fire.", "In 2018 the Arch Oboler complex in Malibu, California was gutted in the Woolsey Fire.Many other notable Wright buildings were intentionally demolished: Midway Gardens (built 1913, demolished 1929), the Larkin Administration Building (built 1903, demolished 1950), the Francis Apartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (Chicago, built 1895, demolished 1971 and 1974, respectively), the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, built 1911, demolished 1970), and the Banff National Park Pavilion (built 1914, demolished 1934).", "The Imperial Hotel (built 1923) survived the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, but was demolished in 1968 due to urban developmental pressures.", "The Hoffman Auto Showroom in New York City (built 1954) was demolished in 2013.===Unbuilt, or posthumously built===The unbuilt Crystal Heights project in Washington, D.C.Several of Wright's projects were either built after his death, or remain unbuilt.", "These include:* Crystal Heights, a large mixed-use development in Washington, D.C., 1940 ''(unbuilt)''* The Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 ''(unbuilt)''* Marin County Civic Center, a municipal complex in San Rafael, California; groundbreaking occurred just one year after Wright's death* Monona Terrace, convention center in Madison, Wisconsin; designed 1938–1959, built in 1997* Clubhouse at the Nakoma Golf Resort, Plumas County, California; designed in 1923, opened in 2000* Passive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii; designed in 1954, built in 1995===Recognition===A 1966 U.S. postage stamp honoring WrightLater in his life (and after his death in 1959), Wright was accorded significant honorary recognition for his lifetime achievements.", "He received a Gold Medal award from The Royal Institute of British Architects in 1941.The American Institute of Architects awarded him the AIA Gold Medal in 1949.That medal was a symbolic \"burying the hatchet\" between Wright and the AIA.", "In a radio interview, he commented, \"Well, the AIA I never joined, and they know why.", "When they gave me the gold medal in Houston, I told them frankly why.", "Feeling that the architecture profession is all that's the matter with architecture, why should I join them?\"", "He was awarded the Franklin Institute's Frank P. Brown Medal in 1953.He received honorary degrees from several universities (including his ''alma mater'', the University of Wisconsin), and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their national academies of art and/or architecture.", "In 2000, Fallingwater was named \"The Building of the 20th century\" in an unscientific \"Top-Ten\" poll taken by members attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia.", "On that list, Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architects including Eero Saarinen, I.M.", "Pei, Louis Kahn, Philip Johnson, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe; he was the only architect who had more than one building on the list.", "The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum, the Frederick C. Robie House, and the Johnson Wax Building.In 1992, the Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin, commissioned and premiered the opera ''Shining Brow'', by composer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life.", "The work has since received numerous revivals, including a June 2013 revival at Fallingwater, in Bull Run, Pennsylvania, by Opera Theater of Pittsburgh.", "In 2000, ''Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright'', a play based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater.In 1966, the United States Postal Service honored Wright with a Prominent Americans series 2¢ postage stamp.", "\"So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright\" is a song written by Paul Simon.", "Art Garfunkel has stated that the origin of the song came from his request that Simon write a song about the famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright.", "Simon himself stated that he knew nothing about Wright, but proceeded to write the song anyway.In 1957, Arizona made plans to construct a new capitol building.", "Believing that the submitted plans for the new capitol were tombs to the past, Frank Lloyd Wright offered ''Oasis'' as an alternative to the people of Arizona.", "In 2004, one of the spires included in his design was erected in Scottsdale.The city of Scottsdale, Arizona renamed a portion of Bell Road, a major east–west thoroughfare in the Phoenix metropolitan area, in honor of Frank Lloyd Wright.Eight of Wright's buildings – Fallingwater, the Guggenheim Museum, the Hollyhock House, the Jacobs House, the Robie House, Taliesin, Taliesin West, and the Unity Temple – were inscribed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites under the title ''The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright'' in July 2019.UNESCO stated that these buildings were \"innovative solutions to the needs for housing, worship, work or leisure\" and \"had a strong impact on the development of modern architecture in Europe\"." ], [ "Selected works", "=== Books ===* '' Ausgeführte Bauten und Entwürfe von Frank Lloyd Wright'' (Wasmuth Portfolio) (1910)* ''An Organic Architecture: The Architecture of Democracy'' (1939)* ''In the Cause of Architecture: Essays by Frank Lloyd Wright for Architectural Record 1908–1952'' (1987)* ''Visions of Wright: Photographs by Farrell Grehan, Introduction by Terence Riley'' (1997)===Buildings===* Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 1889–1909* Winslow House, River Forest, Illinois, 1894* Frank Thomas House, Oak Park, Illinois, 1901* Ward Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener's Cottage and Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901* Dana–Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois, 1902* Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903 ''(demolished, 1950)''* Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903–1905* Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904* Dr. G.C.", "Stockman House, Mason City, Iowa, 1908* Cedar Rock, Lowell E. Walter House, Quasqueton, Iowa, 1950* Douglas and Charlotte Grant House, Marion, Iowa, 1951* Edward E. Boynton House, Rochester, New York, 1908* Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909* Roloson Houses, Chicago, Illinois 1894* Park Inn Hotel, the last standing Wright designed hotel, Mason City, Iowa, 1910* Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911 & 1925* Midway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 ''(demolished, 1929)''* Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles, 1919–1921* Ennis House, Los Angeles, 1923* Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923 ''(demolished, 1968; entrance hall reconstructed at Meiji Mura near Nagoya, Japan, 1976)''* Graycliff, Derby, New York, 1926* Westhope (Richard Lloyd Jones Residence, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1929* Malcolm Willey House 1934, Minneapolis, Minnesota* Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Mill Run, Pennsylvania, 1935–1937* Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936* First Jacobs House, Madison, Wisconsin, 1936–1937* Usonian homes, various locations, 1930s–1950s* Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937* Wingspread, Herbert F. Johnson Residence in Wind Point, Wisconsin, 1937* Ben Rebhuhn House, Great Neck Estates, New York, 1938* Pope–Leighey House, Alexandria, Virginia, 1941* Child of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida, 1941–1958, site of the largest collection of the architect's work* First Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin, 1947* V. C. Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, 1948* Kenneth and Phyllis Laurent House, Rockford, Illinois, only home Wright designed to be handicapped accessible, 1951* Patrick and Margaret Kinney House, Lancaster, Wisconsin, 1951–1953* Lindholm House (Mäntylä), Minnesota, 1952* Bachman-Wilson House, 1952 (Reconstructed at Crystal Bridges Museum of Art, Bentonville, Arkansas 2015)* Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1952–1956* Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954* Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, 1956–1961* Kentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956* Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses, various locations, 1956–1960* Duncan House, Lisle, Illinois, 1957* Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, California, 1957–1966* R. W. Lindholm Service Station, Cloquet, Minnesota, 1958* Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City, 1956–1959* Gammage Memorial Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1959–1964* Duey and Julia Wright House, Wausau, Wisconsin, 1957–1959" ], [ "See also", "* Richard Bock* Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy* Frank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District* George Mann Niedecken* List of Frank Lloyd Wright works* List of Frank Lloyd Wright works by location* Jaroslav Joseph Polivka* Maison Mattot* Roman brick* The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (UNESCO World Heritage site)* :Category:Frank Lloyd Wright buildings" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Wright's philosophy===* Hoffmann, Donald.", "''Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture''.", "New York: Dover Publications, 1995.", "* Kienitz, John Fabian. \"", "Fifty-two years of Frank Lloyd Wright's progressivism, 1893–1945\".", "''Wisconsin Magazine of History'', vol.", "29, no.", "1 (September 1945):61–71.", "* McCarter, Robert (ed.).", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles''.", "New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991.", "* Meehan, Patrick, ed.", "''Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture''.", "New York: Wiley, 1987.", "* Rosenbaum, Alvin.", "''Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America''.", "Washington, DC: Preservation Press, 1993.", "* Sergeant, John.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses: The Case for Organic Architecture''.", "New York: Watson-Guptill, 1984.", "* * Wright, Frank Lloyd.", "\"In the Cause of Architecture\", ''Architectural Record'', March 1908.Reprinted in ''Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol.", "1: 1894–1930''.", "New York: Rizzoli, 1992.", "* Wright, Frank Lloyd.", "''The Natural House''.", "New York: Horizon Press, 1954.===Biographies===* Alofsin, Anthony.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: the Lost Years, 1910–1922: A Study of Influence''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.", "* Alofsin, Anthony.", "''Wright and New York: The Making of America's Architect.''", "Yale University Press, 2019.", "* Farr, Finis.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography''.", "New York: Scribner, 1961.", "* Friedland, Roger and Harold Zellman.", "''The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship''.", "New York: Regan Books, 2006.", "* Gill, Brendan.", "''Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright''.", "New York: Putnam, 1987.", "* Huxtable, Ada Louise.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright''.", "New York: Lipper/Viking, 2004.", "* Nisbet, Earl.", "''Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright''.", "Petaluma, Calif.: Meridian Press, 2006.", "* Russell, Virginia L. \"You Dear Old Prima Donna: The Letters of Frank Lloyd Wright and Jens Jensen\", ''Landscape Journal'', 20.2 (2001): 141–155.", "* Seckel, Harry. \"", "Frank Lloyd Wright\".", "''The North American Review'', vol.", "246, no.", "1 (1938): 48–64.", "* Secrest, Meryle.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography''.", "New York: Knopf, 1992.", "* Treiber, Daniel.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright''.", "2nd ed.", "Basel: Birkhäuser, 2008.", "* Twombly, Robert C. ''Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture''.", "New York: Wiley, 1979.", "* Wright, Frank Lloyd.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography''.", "New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1943.", "* Wright, Iovanna Lloyd.", "''Architecture: Man in Possession of His Earth''.", "Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962.", "* Wright, John Lloyd.", "''My Father Who Is On Earth''.", "New York: G.P.", "Putnam's sons, 1946.", "* The Life of Frank Lloyd Wright – Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation* Frank Lloyd Wright – American Architect===Surveys of Wright's work===* Clearly, Richard.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: From Within Outward''.", "Skira Rizzoli, 2009.", "* Betsky, Aaron, Gideon Fink Shapiro, Andrew Pielage.", "''50 Lessons to Learn from Frank Lloyd Wright'': Rizzoli, 2021.", "* Aguar, Charles and Berdeana Aguar.", "''Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.", "* Blake, Peter.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture and Space''.", "Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1964.", "* Fell, Derek.", "''The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright''.", "London: Frances Lincoln, 2009.", "* Heinz, Thomas A.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide''.", "Chichester, West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1999.", "* Hildebrand, Grant.", "''The Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses''.", "Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991.", "* Larkin, David and Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: The Masterworks''.", "New York: Rizzoli, 1993.", "* Levine, Neil.", "''The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright''.", "Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.", "* Lind, Carla.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs''.", "San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, 1995.", "* McCarter, Robert.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright''.", "London: Phaidon Press, 1997.", "* Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959: Building for Democracy''.", "Los Angeles: Taschen, 2004.", "* Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks and Peter Gössel (eds.).", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: The Complete Works''.", "Los Angeles: Taschen, 2009.", "* Riley, Terence and Peter Reed (eds.).", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect''.", "New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994.", "* Smith, Kathryn.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright: America's Master Architect''.", "New York: Abbeville Press, 1998.", "* Storrer, William Allin.", "''The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog''.", "3rd ed.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.", "* Storrer, William Allin.", "''The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.===Selected books about specific Wright projects===* Lind, Carla.", "''Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses''.", "San Francisco: Promegranate Artbooks, 1994.", "* Toker, Franklin.", "''Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House''.", "New York: Alford A. Knopf, 2003.", "* Whiting, Henry, II.", "''At Nature's Edge: Frank Lloyd Wright's Artist Studio''.", "Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007.===The women in his life===" ], [ "External links", " * Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation official website* Guide to the Photographs of Frank Lloyd Wright 1950 May 16* Taliesin Preservation, stewards of Wright's home Taliesin* The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives at Columbia University* Frank Lloyd Wright documents at the Wisconsin Historical Society* Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy* Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House* Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture* Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program* Frank Lloyd Wright – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources* Frank Lloyd Wright.", "Designs for an American Landscape 1922–1932* Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey* Frank Lloyd Wright – Famous Interior Designers* Complete list of Wright buildings by location* Sullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture* Audio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright from ''The New York Review of Books''* Frank Lloyd Wright and Quebec* Frank Lloyd Wright interviewed by Mike Wallace on ''The Mike Wallace Interview'' recorded September 1 & 28, 1957* Interactive Map of Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings, created in the Harvard WorldMap Platform* Map of the Frank Lloyd Wright works – Wikiartmap, the art map of the public space* Fay Jones and Frank Lloyd Wright: Organic Architecture Comes to Arkansas digital exhibit, University of Arkansas Libraries* Frank Lloyd Wright's Personal Manuscripts and Letters* Passive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii, designed in 1954, built in 1995; only Wright home in Hawaii.", "Interactive Tour.", "* Taylor A. Woolley Papers at University of Utah Digital Library, Marriott Library Special Collections* Wright's TokaidoFLW's annotated Hiroshige albumdocumentary at hiroshige.org.uk" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Filk music" ], [ "Introduction", "ConClave XXX (2005)Patrick Nielsen Hayden and Emma Bull, making music at Wiscon, 2006'''Filk music''' is a musical culture, genre, and community tied to science fiction, fantasy, and horror fandom and a type of fan labor.", "The genre has existed since the early 1950s and been played primarily since the mid-1970s.", "The genre has a niche but faithful popularity in the underground." ], [ "Etymology and definitions", "The term \"filk\" (originally a typographical error) predates 1955.", "(See also below.", ")Interfilk, a charity registered in California to \"promote cultural exchange through filk music\", offered multiple sources of definitions, without summary, for filk music , but since relies almost entirely on an article by Jordin Kare titled \"Filk Music\", originally published by ''Sing Out!''", "magazine, for their definition.", "Kare quotes Nick Smith of the Los Angeles Filkharmonics as stating:It is a mixture of song parodies and original music, humorous and serious, about subjects like science fiction, fantasy, computers, cats, politics, the space program, books, movies, TV shows, love, war, death... and summarizes that \"almost anything goes at a filksing\".Filk has been defined as what is sung or performed by the network of people who originally gathered to sing at science fiction or fantasy conventions.Another definition focuses on filking as a community of those who are interested in filk music and who form part of the social network self-identified with filking.", "As described later in this article, the origins of filk in science fiction conventions and its current organization emphasizes the social-network aspect of filking.", "The social aspect of filk as contrasted with the \"performer vs. audience\" dichotomy of much of modern music was described in a speech by ethnomusicologist Sally Childs-Helton." ], [ "Styles and subjects", "The range of topics in filk songs stems from its cultural roots in fandom.", "Many songs honor specific works in science fiction, fantasy, or speculative fiction.", "Other songs are about science, fantasy, computers, technology in general, or values related to technological change.A significant number of filk songs are parodies, whether in the original sense of simply re-using a tune or in the modern sense of specifically humorous re-use.One subtype of filk songs is the \"ose\" song, one on themes of death and gloom.", "The term derives from the word \"morose\", as in \"ose, morose, even-more-ose\"." ], [ "History", "In the early 1950s, the term ''filk music'' started as a misspelling of ''folk music'' in an essay by Lee Jacobs, \"The Influence of Science Fiction on Modern American Filk Music\".", "Wrai Ballard, then editor of the Spectator Amateur Press Society refused to publish it for fear that the article's bawdy content could get them into trouble with the Post Office under the Comstock Laws, but found the typo itself amusing, and mentioned it repeatedly; thus, Jacobs' typo became the self-identified term for the genre/subculture while it was still an informal, unrecognized activity at conventions.", "Its first documented deliberate use was by Karen Anderson in ''Die Zeitschrift für vollständigen Unsinn'' (''The Journal for Utter Nonsense'') No.", "774 (June 1953), for a song written by her husband Poul Anderson.At the 1974 World Science Fiction Convention author Bob Asprin announced publicly the creation of a group of volunteers he dubbed the Dorsai Irregulars, and a singing session ensued later that night.", "In the 1970s and 1980s, filking slowly became established as an acknowledged activity at science fiction conventions.", "Some convention organizers allotted hotel function space late at night for filkers, or filking occurred in hallways, bars or any other place that the filkers could find.", "Some convention organizers in the 1980s began inviting guests specifically for their filking.", "Some specialized conventions focused entirely on filk, beginning with FilkCon in Chicago in 1979, organized by Margaret Middleton and Curt Clemmer, later joined by BayFilk in Northern California; the Ohio Valley Filk Fest (OVFF) in Columbus, Ohio; ConChord in Los Angeles and in San Diego, California; GAFilk in Atlanta, Georgia; Musicon in Nashville, Tennessee; FilKONtario near Toronto, Ontario; a rotating British filkcon, and one (NEFilk) in the northeastern US; and the German FilkCONtinental." ], [ "Filk circles", "===Physical layout===A filk circle at BayCon 2006As the name implies, a rough circle of chairs is usually formed.", "Traditionally, filk circles are started in the evening and tend to continue very late into the night.===Musical instruments===A wide range of instruments can be found in a filk circle, although the most common is the acoustic guitar.", "Acoustic instruments are more common than electric instruments, although portable keyboards and even theremins are not unheard of.===Types===Filk circleFilk circles are often given an organizational structure to make it easier for participants to know when it is time to perform or time to listen to other performers.", "There are many ways to accomplish this, but the most common types of filk circle are listed below.====Bardic====The advantage of the bardic circle is that it has a clear structure, which enforces politeness.", "It ensures everyone in the circle gets their turn so that even shy people can have a chance to request or perform.", "There are disadvantages, however.", "A bardic circle with large numbers of participants will take a long time to traverse the entire circle, making people wait too long for their turn.", "Such a circle was lamented in a filk by Suzette Haden Elgin: \"I've been here with my song at the ready since day before yesterday night.", "\"====Chaos====In a chaos circle, there is no sequential organization.", "Any performer can simply begin playing a song after the prior song is finished, or any participant can shout out a request.", "Care must be taken to prevent two songs from starting at the same time.", "Frequently the word \"follower!\"", "is shouted in a chaos circle, meaning that a performer believes they have the perfect song to follow the prior song, and they want to play it now.The chaos circle's advantage is its spontaneity and energy.", "\"Runs\" of songs will frequently get started, with each new song intended to make some sort of connection to or commentary on the prior song's topic.", "The disadvantage is that it takes concentration and effort to be polite and respectful in a chaos circle: It is easy to accidentally interrupt another performer who's trying to start up a song of their own, especially in a very large circle where one might not be able to easily hear the other performer on the opposite side of the room.", "Chaos circles thus have a reputation of favoring bold, loud performers who can command attention.", "One countermeasure to such conflicts is for someone, generally not one of the current/starting-up performers, to shout \"Filker up!", "\", possibly pointing to the one being interrupted.", "This alerts the room, and specifically the (usually unintentional) interrupter, to be quiet and pay attention to the filker who has started performing.====Token bardic====A token bardic circle, also known as a \"poker-chip\" bardic circle, attempts to combine the enforced politeness of the bardic circle with the freeform nature of the chaos circle.", "A container full of some type of token such as poker chips is supplied for the circle.", "Each person participating in the circle is given a fixed number of tokens when they enter the room (frequently two tokens) and can throw a token into the center of the circle at any time to claim a pick or play turn.", "When all the active tokens in the circle are used up, they are scooped up and redistributed for the next round.===Etiquette===The etiquette of the filk circle begins with a respect for all music, including (and perhaps especially) amateur music and amateur performers.", "Everyone is encouraged to perform, regardless of their skill level.", "No one is criticized except to occasionally give tips or suggestions." ], [ "Cultural perspective", "At a deep level, the folk culture of filk validates creative arts in the midst of an explicitly technological culture.", "When accepting induction into the Filk Hall of Fame in 2003, ethnomusicologist Sally Childs-Helton said, \"We have taken our right to be creative and to literally 'play' in the best sense of that word.\"", "Filk combines folk roots, live music circles, and dominant acoustical instrumentation, on the one hand, with high-tech cultural maintenance, on the other hand—a dense network of filkers' web pages, recordings, sound reinforcement at filk conventions, e-mail lists, and so on.", "The eclectic content of filk frequently contains that assertion of human creativity, especially in connection with technology.", "(See for example Leslie Fish's \"Hope Eyrie\".)", "While there are significant numbers of memorial songs, pessimistic songs blame carelessness, incompetence, and corruption, only rarely considering the frailties of a society built on technology or hopes for the future.", "Because these themes cross international boundaries in filk, they are not explainable as a purely American optimism vis-a-vis technology (in contrast to Nye, 1996).That openness to participation is a marked norm in filking.Occasional discussions over the boundaries of filk indicates the extent to which participants in filking are both aware of and keenly interested in the definition of filk as a community.", "Newsgroup debates over such topics as whether \"Weird Al\" Yankovic is a filker suggest the deep feelings involved.", "In practice, most formal recognition of filkers in various awards are to those who regularly attend self-identified filk events, not to professional artists whose work may be considered ''found filk''." ], [ "Pegasus Awards", "The OVFF convention committee solicits nominations for finalists for the Pegasus Awards (the nominating ballot) during the late spring and summer.", "There is an opinion poll that runs during the year as well to help interested folk brainstorm ideas for the nominating ballot.", "The finalist ballot is distributed in the early fall and must be returned by the opening night of OVFF.", "Voting can be done online—either to nominate finalists or to vote for the finalists themselves.", "The final round of voting happens at OVFF itself, where handwritten ballots are collected after the annual Pegasus concert.", "The entire process is administered by the OVFF convention committee." ], [ "Filk Hall of Fame", "The Filk Hall of Fame was created by David Hayman in 1995 as a complement to the Pegasus Awards.Anyone may make a nomination." ], [ "See also", "* " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * " ], [ "External links", " * Debbie Ohi's Filk FAQ * Filk Book Index* Filk Database* Filk Discography by Justin W. Eiler* Friends of Filk Calendar of Filk Events* List of upcoming Filk-Conventions* rec.music.filk FAQ* '' Tomorrow's Songs Today''—A filk history book written by Gary McGath, released January 2015* UK Filk Music Database" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frisbee" ], [ "Introduction", "A flying disc with the Wham-O registered trademark \"Frisbee\"A '''frisbee''' (pronounced ), also called a '''flying disc''' or simply a '''disc''', is a gliding toy or sporting item that is generally made of injection-molded plastic and roughly in diameter with a pronounced lip.", "It is used recreationally and competitively for throwing and catching, as in flying disc games.", "The shape of the disc is an airfoil in cross-section which allows it to fly by reducing the drag and increasing lift as it moves through the air, compared to a flat plate.", "Spinning the disc imparts a stabilizing gyroscopic force, allowing it to be both aimed with accuracy and thrown for distance.A wide range is available of flying disc variants.", "Those for disc golf are usually smaller but denser compared to ultimate frisbee, and tailored for particular flight profiles to increase or decrease stability and distance.", "The longest recorded disc throw is by David Wiggins Jr. with a distance of .", "Disc dog sports use relatively slow-flying discs made of more pliable material to better resist a dog's bite and prevent injury to the dog.", "Flying rings are also available which typically travel significantly farther than any traditional flying disc.", "Illuminated discs are made of phosphorescent plastic or contain chemiluminescent fluid or battery-powered LEDs for play after dark.", "Others whistle when they reach a certain velocity in flight.The term ''frisbee'' is often used generically to describe all flying discs, but '''Frisbee''' is a registered trademark of the Wham-O toy company.", "This protection results in organized sports such as ultimate or disc golf having to forgo use of the word \"Frisbee\"." ], [ "History", "Walter Frederick Morrison and his future wife Lucile had fun tossing a popcorn can lid after a Thanksgiving Day dinner in 1937.They soon discovered a market for a light-duty flying disc when they were offered 25 cents () for a cake pan that they were tossing back and forth on a beach near Los Angeles.", "In 2007, in an interview in ''The Virginian-Pilot'' newspaper, Morrison compared that with the 5 cents () it cost at the time: The Morrisons continued their business until World War II, when Walter served in the Army Air Force flying P-47s, and then was a prisoner of war.", "After the war, Morrison sketched a design for an aerodynamically improved flying disc that he called the Whirlo-Way, after the famous racehorse.", "He and business partner Warren Franscioni began producing the first plastic discs by 1948, after design modifications and experimentation with several prototypes.", "They renamed them the Flyin-Saucer in the wake of reported unidentified flying object sightings.", "\"We worked fairs, demonstrating it,\" Morrison told the ''Virginian-Pilot''.", "The two of them once overheard someone saying that the pair were using wires to make the discs hover, so they developed a sales pitch: \"The Flyin-Saucer is free, but the invisible wire is $1.\"", "() \"That's where we learned we could sell these things,\" he said, because people were enthusiastic about them.Morrison and Franscioni ended their partnership in early 1950, and Morrison formed his own company in 1954 called American Trends to buy and sell Flyin Saucers (no hyphen after 1953), which were being made of a flexible polypropylene plastic by Southern California Plastics, the original molder.", "He discovered that he could produce his own disc more cheaply, and he designed a new model in 1955 called the Pluto Platter, the archetype of all modern flying discs.", "He sold the rights to Wham-O on January 23, 1957.In June 1957, Wham-O co-founders Richard Knerr and Arthur \"Spud\" Melin gave the disc the brand name \"Frisbee\" after learning that college students were calling the Pluto Platter by that term, which was derived from the Connecticut-based pie manufacturer Frisbie Pie Company, a supplier of pies to Yale University, where students had started a campus craze tossing empty pie tins stamped with the company's logo—the way that Morrison and his wife had in 1937.In November 1957, the Frisbee was featured in what may be the first rock musical ever performed, ''Anything & Everything'', written by Ted Nelson.", "The game of Frisbee (spelled Frisby) is described in the song \"Friz Me the Frisby,\" as a frisbee was passed among stooges in the audience.", "The scene was expressly intended as a way to introduce the game to the audience.In 1964, Ed Headrick was hired as Wham-O's general manager and vice president of marketing.", "Headrick redesigned the Pluto Platter by reworking the mold, mainly to remove the names of the planets, but fortuitously increasing the rim thickness and mass in the process, creating a more controllable disc that could be thrown more accurately.Wham-O changed their marketing strategy to promote Frisbee use as a new sport, and sales increased.", "In 1964, the first professional model went on sale.", "Headrick patented its design; it featured raised ridges (the \"Rings of Headrick\") that were claimed to stabilize flight.Headrick became known as the father of Frisbee sports; he founded the International Frisbee Association and appointed Dan Roddick as its head.", "Roddick began establishing North American Series (NAS) tournament standards for various Frisbee sports, such as Freestyle, Guts, Double Disc Court, and overall events.", "Headrick later helped to develop the sport of disc golf, which was first played with Frisbees and later with more aerodynamic beveled-rim discs, by inventing standardized targets called \"pole holes\".", "When Headrick died, he was cremated, and his ashes were molded into memorial discs and given to family and close friends and sold to benefit The Ed Headrick Memorial Museum.In 1998, the Frisbee was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame." ], [ "Variations of flying discs", "Flying discs, or known as Frisbee, have variations produced for different purposes to optimize variations between branches of disc sports.", "The three main categories are: ultimate disc, golf disc, and freestyle disc.", "===Ultimate disc===Ultimate discs are designed to be used in the sport of Ultimate.", "Ultimate discs are made of durable plastic (often polyethylene) and are designed to be thrown for maximum distance and accuracy.Ultimate has a unique standard with a diameter of and a weight of .", "For competitive uses, WFDF or other official organizations set disc standards to ensure quality.===Disc golf===Disc golf discs in a target.Another type of flying disc is the disc golf disc, which is used in the sport of disc golf.", "Disc golf discs are similar in size and shape to ultimate discs, but have different weights and designs.", "The material often used to make golf discs is polypropylene.", "There are three main types of disc golf discs: drivers, mid-range discs, and putters.Each type is designed for a specific purpose, with drivers being used for long-distance throws, mid-range discs for more controlled shots, and putters for short and accurate throws into the target.", "The rim for golf discs are sharper than ultimate frisbee, to reduce wind drag.Each type of golf disc has hundreds of variations, subject to a uniform requirement in the size of discs: the minimum diameter of a golf disc is .===Freestyle disc===Freestyle discs are another variation of flying discs that are used in freestyle Frisbee competitions.", "These discs are usually smaller and lighter than other types of flying discs.", "Most freestyle discs have a diameter of or less and a weight of around , but this is subject to change according to the performer's need." ], [ "Disc sports", "The IFT guts competitions in Northern Michigan, the Canadian Open Frisbee Championships (1972), Toronto, Ontario, the Vancouver Open Frisbee Championships (1974), Vancouver, British Columbia, the Octad (1974), New Jersey, the American Flying Disc Open (1974), Rochester, New York, and the World Frisbee Championships (1974), Pasadena, California, are the earliest Frisbee competitions that presented the Frisbee as a new disc sport.", "Before these tournaments, the Frisbee was considered a toy and used for recreation.===Double disc court===Double disc court was invented and introduced in 1974 by Jim Palmeri, a sport played with two flying discs and two teams of two players.", "Each team defends its court and tries to land a flying disc in the opposing court.===Disc dog===Dogs and their human flying disc throwers compete in events such as distance catching and somewhat choreographed freestyle catching.===Disc golf===This is a precision and accuracy sport in which individual players throw a flying disc at a target pole hole.", "In 1926, In Bladworth, Saskatchewan, Canada, Ronald Gibson and a group of his Bladworth Elementary school chums played a game using metal lids, they called \"Tin Lid Golf\".", "In 1976, the game of disc golf was standardized with targets called \"pole holes\" invented and developed by Wham-O's Ed Headrick.===Freestyle competition===In 1974, freestyle competition was created and introduced by Ken Westerfield and Discraft's Jim Kenner.", "Teams of two or three players are judged as they perform a routine that consists of a series of creative throwing and catching techniques set to music.===Goaltimate===A half-court disc game derived from ultimate, similar to hot box.", "The object is to advance the disc on the field of play by passing, and score points by throwing the flying disc to a teammate in a small scoring area.===Guts===The game of guts was invented by the Healy Brothers in the 1950s and developed at the International Frisbee Tournament (IFT) in Eagle Harbor, Michigan.", "Two teams of one to five team members stand in parallel lines facing each other across a court and throw flying discs at members of the opposing team.===KanJam===A patented game scoring points by throwing and deflecting the flying disc and hitting or entering the goal.", "The game ends when a team scores exactly 21 points or \"chogs\" the disc for an instant win.===Ultimate===The most widely played disc game began in the late 1960s with Joel Silver and Jared Kass.", "In the 1970s, it developed as an organized sport with the creation of the Ultimate Players Association by Dan Roddick, Tom Kennedy and Irv Kalb.The object of the game is to advance the disc and score points by eventually passing the disc to a team member in the opposing team's end zone.", "Players may not run while holding the disc." ], [ "See also", "* Aerobie* AUDL* Boomerang* Flying ring* Flying cylinder* Ultimate Canada* USA Ultimate" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Further reading===* * * Norton, Gary, ''The Official Frisbee Handbook'', New York, Toronto, London: Bantam Books, 1972* * * * " ], [ "External links", " World Flying Disc Federation (WFDF) – international sports governing body for flying disc games* History of Frisbee and Disc Sports* Flying Disc Museum* All Frisbee Throw and catch techniques" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the modern Falkland IslandsThe '''history of the Falkland Islands''' () goes back at least five hundred years, with active exploration and colonisation only taking place in the 18th century.", "Nonetheless, the Falkland Islands have been a matter of controversy, as they have been claimed by the French, British, Spaniards and Argentines at various points.The islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans.", "France established a colony on the islands in 1764.In 1765, a British captain claimed the islands for Britain.", "In early 1770 a Spanish commander arrived from Buenos Aires with five ships and 1,400 soldiers forcing the British to leave Port Egmont.", "Britain and Spain almost went to war over the islands, but the British government decided that it should withdraw its presence from many overseas settlements in 1774.Spain, which had a garrison at Puerto Soledad on East Falklands, administered the garrison from Montevideo until 1811 when it was compelled to withdraw as a result of the war against Argentine independence and the pressures of Peninsular War.", "Luis Vernet attempted to establish a settlement in 1826, seeking support from both the Argentine and British Governments but most of his settlers took the opportunity to leave in 1831 following a raid by the USS ''Lexington''.", "An attempt made by Argentina to establish a penal colony in 1832 failed due to a mutiny.", "In 1833, the British returned to the Falkland Islands.", "Argentina invaded the islands on 2 April 1982.The British responded with an expeditionary force that forced the Argentines to surrender." ], [ "Claims of pre-Columbian discovery", "The extinct Falkland Islands wolf or warrah is sometimes taken as evidence of pre-European discovery.When the world sea level was lower in the Ice Age, the Falkland Islands may have been joined to the mainland of South America.While Fuegians from Patagonia could have visited the Falklands, the islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans.", "Recent discoveries of arrowheads in Lafonia (on the southern half of East Falkland) as well as the remains of a wooden canoe provide evidence that the Yaghan people of Tierra del Fuego may have made the journey to the islands.", "It is not known if these are evidence of one-way journeys, but there is no known evidence of pre-Columbian buildings or structures.", "However, it is not certain that the discovery predates arrival of Europeans.", "A Patagonian Missionary Society mission station was founded on Keppel Island (off the west coast of West Falkland) in 1856.Yahgan people were at this station from 1856 to 1898 so this may be the source of the artifacts that have been found.", "In 2021, a paper was published on deposits of marine animal bones (primarily South American sea lion and Southern rockhopper penguin) on New Island off the coast of West Falkland, at the same site where a quartzite arrowhead made of local stone had been found in 1979.The sites dated to 1275 to 1420 CE, and were interpreted as processing or midden sites where marine animals had been butchered.", "A charcoal spike consistent with anthropogenic causes (i.e.", "caused by humans) on New Island was also dated to 550 BP (1400 CE).", "The Yaghan people were capable seafarers, and are known to have travelled to the Diego Ramírez Islands around south of Cape Horn, and were suggested to be responsible for the creation of the mounds.", "Other authors have suggested that the mounds and arrowheads do not provide unambiguous evidence of pre-European presence.The past presence of the Falkland Islands wolf, ''Dusicyon australis'', has often been cited as evidence of pre-European occupation of the islands, but this is contested.", "The animal was observed in the Falklands by Charles Darwin, but is now extinct.The islands had no native trees when discovered but there is some ambiguous evidence of past forestation, which may be due to wood being transported by oceanic currents from Patagonia.", "All modern trees have been introduced by Europeans." ], [ "European discovery", "Richard HawkinsAn archipelago in the region of the Falkland Islands appeared on Portuguese maps from the early 16th century.", "Researchers Pepper and Pascoe cite the possibility that an unknown Portuguese expedition may have sighted the islands, based on the existence of a French copy of a Portuguese map from 1516.Maps from this period show islands known as the ''Sanson'' islands in a position that could be interpreted as the Falklands.Sightings of the islands are attributed to Ferdinand Magellan or Estêvão Gomes of ''San Antonio'', one of the captains in the expedition, as the Falklands fit the description of those visited to gather supplies.", "The account given by Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Magellan's voyage, contradicts attribution to either Gomes or Magellan, since it describes the position of islands close to the Patagonia coast, with the expedition following the mainland coast and the islands visited between a latitude of 49° and 51°S and also refers to meeting \"giants\" (described as Sansón or Samsons in the chronicle) who are believed to be the Tehuelche Indians.", "Although acknowledging that Pigafetta's account casts doubt upon the claim, the Argentine historian Laurio H. Destefani asserts it probable that a ship from the Magellan expedition discovered the islands citing the difficulty in measuring longitude accurately, which means that islands described as close to the coast could be further away.", "Destefani dismisses attribution to Gomes since the course taken by him on his return would not have taken the ships near the Falklands.Destefani also attributes an early visit to the Falklands by an unknown Spanish ship, although Destefani's firm conclusions are contradicted by authors who conclude the sightings refer to the Beagle Channel.John Hawkesworth and John Byron showing Richard Hawkins' apparent discovery of the FalklandsThe name of the archipelago derives from Lord Falkland, the Treasurer of the Admiralty, who organized the first expedition to South Atlantic with the intention to explore the Islands.When English explorer John Davis, commander of , one of the ships belonging to Thomas Cavendish's second expedition to the New World, separated from Cavendish off the coast of what is now southern Argentina, he decided to make for the Strait of Magellan in order to find Cavendish.", "On 9 August 1592 a severe storm battered his ship, and Davis drifted under bare masts, taking refuge \"among certain Isles never before discovered\".", "Davis did not provide the latitude of these islands, indicating they were away from the Patagonian coast (they are actually away).", "Navigational errors due to the longitude problem were a common problem until the late 18th century, when accurate marine chronometers became readily available, although Destefani asserts the error here to be \"unusually large\".In 1594, they may have been visited by English commander Richard Hawkins with his ship the ''Dainty'', who, combining his own name with that of Queen Elizabeth I, the \"Virgin Queen\", gave a group of islands the name of \"Hawkins' Maidenland\".", "However, the latitude given was off by at least 3 degrees and the description of the shore (including the sighting of bonfires) casts doubts on his discovery.", "Errors in the latitude measured can be attributed to a simple mistake reading a cross staff divided into minutes, meaning the latitude measured could have been 50° 48' S. The description of bonfires can also be attributed to peat fires caused by lightning, which is not uncommon in the outer islands of the Falklands in February.", "In 1925, Conor O'Brian analysed the voyage of Hawkins and concluded that the only land he could have sighted was Steeple Jason Island.", "The British historian Mary Cawkell also points out that criticism of the account of Hawkins' discovery should be tempered by the fact it was written nine years after the event; Hawkins was captured by the Spanish and spent eight years in prison.On 24 January 1600, the Dutchman Sebald de Weert visited the Jason Islands and called them the Sebald Islands (in Spanish, \"Islas Sebaldinas\" or \"Sebaldes\").", "This name remained in use for the entire Falkland Islands for a long time; William Dampier used the name ''Sibbel de Wards'' in his reports of his visits in 1684 and 1703, while James Cook still referred to the Sebaldine Islands in the 1770s.", "The latitude that De Weert provided (50° 40') was close enough as to be considered, for the first time beyond doubt, the Falkland Islands.French map, c. 1710, illustrating the fragmentary knowledge about the islands of the South Atlantic at the time.", "'Anycan' is most probably a corruption of 'Hawkin's'English Captain John Strong, commander of ''Welfare'', sailed between the two principal islands in 1690 and called the passage \"Falkland Channel\" (now Falkland Sound), after Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland (1656–1694), who as Commissioner of the Admiralty had financed the expedition and later became First Lord of the Admiralty.", "From this body of water the island group later took its collective name." ], [ "Early colonisation", "The French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville established a colony at Port St. Louis, on East Falkland's Berkeley Sound coast in 1764.The French name ''Îles Malouines'' was given to the islands – ''malouin'' being the adjective for the Breton port of Saint-Malo.", "The Spanish name ''Islas Malvinas'' is a translation of the French name of ''Îles Malouines''.John Byron, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1759.In 1765, Captain John Byron, who was unaware the French had established Port Saint Louis on East Falkland, explored Saunders Island around West Falkland.", "After discovering a natural harbour, he named the area Port Egmont and claimed the islands for Britain on the grounds of prior discovery.", "The next year Captain John MacBride established a permanent British settlement at Port Egmont.Under the alliance established by the Pacte de Famille, in 1766 France agreed to leave after the Spanish complained about French presence in territories they considered their own.", "Spain agreed to compensate Louis de Bougainville, the French admiral and explorer who had established the settlement on East Falkland at his own expense.", "In 1767, the Spanish formally assumed control of Port St. Louis and renamed it ''Puerto Soledad'' (English: Port Solitude).In early 1770 Spanish commander, Don Juan Ignacio de Madariaga, briefly visited Port Egmont.", "On 10 June he returned from Argentina with five armed ships and 1400 soldiers forcing the British to leave Port Egmont.", "This action sparked the Falkland Crisis between 10 July 1770 to 22 January 1771 when Britain and Spain almost went to war over the islands.", "However, conflict was averted when the colony was re-established by Captain John Stott with the ships , HMS ''Hound'' and HMS ''Florida'' (a mail ship which had already been at the founding of the original settlement).", "Egmont quickly became an important port-of-call for British ships sailing around Cape Horn.With the growing economic pressures stemming from the upcoming American War of Independence, the British government decided that it should withdraw its presence from many overseas settlements in 1774.On 20 May 1776 the British forces under the command of Royal Naval Lieutenant Clayton formally left Port Egmont, while leaving a plaque asserting Britain's continuing sovereignty over the islands.", "For the next four years, British sealers used Egmont as a base for their activities in the South Atlantic.", "This ended in 1780 when they were forced to leave by Spanish authorities who then ordered that the British colony be destroyed.The Spanish withdrew from the islands under pressure as a result of the Napoleonic invasion and the Argentine War of Independence.", "The Spanish garrison of Puerto Soledad was removed to Montevideo in 1811 aboard the brigantine ''Gálvez'' under an order signed by Francisco Javier de Elío.", "On departure, the Spanish also left a plaque proclaiming Spain's sovereignty over the islands as the British had done 35 years before.", "The total depopulation of the Falkland Islands took place." ], [ "Inter-colonial period", "Following the departure of the Spanish settlers, the Falkland Islands became the domain of whalers and sealers who used the islands to shelter from the worst of the South Atlantic weather.", "By merit of their location, the Falkland Islands have often been the last refuge for ships damaged at sea.", "Most numerous among those using the islands were British and American sealers, where typically between 40 and 50 ships were engaged in exploiting fur seals.", "This represents an itinerant population of up to 1,000 sailors.===''Isabella''===On 8 February 1813 ''Isabella'', a British ship of 193 tons en route from Sydney to London, ran aground off the coast of Speedwell Island, then known as Eagle Island.", "Among the ship's 54 passengers and crew, all of whom survived the wreck, was the United Irish general and exile Joseph Holt, who subsequently detailed the ordeal in his memoirs.", "Also aboard had been the heavily pregnant Joanna Durie, who on 21 February 1813 gave birth to Elizabeth Providence Durie.The next day, 22 February 1813, six men who had volunteered to seek help from any nearby Spanish outposts that they could find set out in one of the Isabella's longboats.", "Braving the South Atlantic in a boat little more than long, they made landfall on the mainland at the River Plate just over a month later.", "The British gun brig under the command of Lieutenant William D'Aranda was sent to rescue the survivors.On 5 April Captain Charles Barnard of the American sealer ''Nanina'' was sailing off the shore of Speedwell Island, with a discovery boat deployed looking for seals.", "Having seen smoke and heard gunshots the previous day, he was alert to the possibility of survivors of a ship wreck.", "This suspicion was heightened when the crew of the boat came aboard and informed Barnard that they had come across a new moccasin as well as the partially butchered remains of a seal.", "At dinner that evening, the crew observed a man approaching the ship who was shortly joined by eight to ten others.", "Both Barnard and the survivors from ''Isabella'' had harboured concerns the other party was Spanish and were relieved to discover their respective nationalities.Barnard dined with the ''Isabella'' survivors that evening and finding that the British party were unaware of the War of 1812 informed the survivors that technically they were at war with each other.", "Nevertheless, Barnard promised to rescue the British party and set about preparations for the voyage to the River Plate.", "Realising that they had insufficient stores for the voyage he set about hunting wild pigs and otherwise acquiring additional food.", "While Barnard was gathering supplies, however, the British took the opportunity to seize ''Nanina'' and departed leaving Barnard, along with one member of his own crew and three from ''Isabella'', marooned.", "Shortly thereafter, ''Nancy'' arrived from the River Plate and encountered ''Nanina'', whereupon Lieutenant D'Aranda rescued the erstwhile survivors of ''Isabella'' and took ''Nanina'' itself as a prize of war.Barnard and his party survived for eighteen months marooned on the islands until the British whalers and ''Asp'' rescued them in November 1814.The British admiral in Rio de Janeiro had requested their masters to divert to the area to search for the American crew.", "In 1829, Barnard published an account of his survival entitled ''A Narrative of the Sufferings and Adventures of Capt Charles H. Barnard''." ], [ "Argentine colonisation attempts", "Colonel JewettIn March 1820, , a privately owned frigate that was operated as a privateer under a license issued by the United Provinces of the River Plate, under the command of American Colonel David Jewett, set sail looking to capture Spanish ships as prizes.", "He captured ''Carlota'', a Portuguese ship, which was considered an act of piracy.", "A storm resulted in severe damage to ''Heroína'' and sank the prize ''Carlota'', forcing Jewett to put into Puerto Soledad for repairs in October 1820.Captain Jewett sought assistance from the British explorer James Weddell.", "Weddell reported the letter he received from Jewett as:Sir, I have the honor of informing you that I have arrived in this port with a commission from the Supreme Government of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata to take possession of these islands on behalf of the country to which they belong by Natural Law.", "While carrying out this mission I want to do so with all the courtesy and respect all friendly nations; one of the objectives of my mission is to prevent the destruction of resources necessary for all ships passing by and forced to cast anchor here, as well as to help them to obtain the necessary supplies, with minimum expenses and inconvenience.", "Since your presence here is not in competition with these purposes and in the belief that a personal meeting will be fruitful for both of us, I invite you to come aboard, where you'll be welcomed to stay as long as you wish; I would also greatly appreciate your extending this invitation to any other British subject found in the vicinity; I am, respectfully yours.", "Signed, Jewett, Colonel of the Navy of the United Provinces of South America and commander of the frigate ''Heroína''.Many modern authors report this letter as representing the declaration issued by Jewett.Jewett's ship received Weddell's assistance in obtaining anchorage off Port Louis.", "Weddell reported only 30 seamen and 40 soldiers fit for duty out of a crew of 200, and how Jewett slept with pistols over his head following an attempted mutiny earlier in the voyage.", "On 6 November 1820, Jewett raised the flag of the United Provinces of the River Plate (a predecessor of modern-day Argentina) and claimed possession of the islands.", "In the words of Weddell, \"In a few days, he took formal possession of these islands for the patriot government of Buenos Ayres, read a declaration under their colours, planted on a port in ruins, and fired a salute of twenty-one guns.", "\"Jewett departed from the Falkland Islands in April 1821.In total he had spent no more than six months on the island, entirely at Port Louis.", "In 1822, Jewett was accused of piracy by a Portuguese court, but by that time he was in Brazil.===Luis Vernet's enterprise===Luis Vernet, 1791–1871In 1823, the United Provinces of the River Plate granted fishing rights to Jorge Pacheco and Luis Vernet.", "Travelling to the islands in 1824, the first expedition failed almost as soon as it landed, and Pacheco chose not to continue with the venture.", "Vernet persisted, but the second attempt, delayed until winter 1826 by a Brazilian blockade, was also unsuccessful.", "The expedition intended to exploit the feral cattle on the islands but the boggy conditions meant the gauchos could not catch cattle in their traditional way.", "Vernet was by now aware of conflicting British claims to the islands and sought permission from the British consulate before departing for the islands.In 1828, the United Provinces government granted Vernet all of East Falkland including all its resources, and exempted him from taxation if a colony could be established within three years.", "He took settlers, including British Captain Matthew Brisbane (who had sailed to the islands earlier with Weddell), and before leaving once again sought permission from the British Consulate in Buenos Aires.", "The British asked for a report for the British government on the islands, and Vernet asked for British protection should they return.On 10 June 1829, Vernet was designated as 'civil and military commandant' of the islands (no governor was ever appointed) and granted a monopoly on seal hunting rights.", "A protest was lodged by the British Consulate in Buenos Aires.", "By 1831, the colony was successful enough to be advertising for new colonists, although 's report suggests that the conditions on the islands were quite miserable.", "Charles Darwin's visit in 1833 confirmed the squalid conditions in the settlement, although Captain Matthew Brisbane (Vernet's deputy) later claimed that this was the result of the ''Lexington'' raid.===USS ''Lexington'' raid===In 1831, Vernet attempted to assert his monopoly on seal hunting rights.", "This led him to capture the American ships ''Harriet'', ''Superior'' and ''Breakwater''.", "As a reprisal, the United States consul in Buenos Aires sent Captain Silas Duncan of USS ''Lexington'' to recover the confiscated property.", "After finding what he considered proof that at least four American fishing ships had been captured, plundered, and even outfitted for war, Duncan took seven prisoners aboard ''Lexington'' and charged them with piracy.Also taken on board, Duncan reported, \"were the whole of the (Falklands') population consisting of about forty persons, with the exception of some 'gauchos', or cowboys who were encamped in the interior.\"", "The group, principally German citizens from Buenos Aires, \"appeared greatly rejoiced at the opportunity thus presented of removing with their families from a desolate region where the climate is always cold and cheerless and the soil extremely unproductive\".", "However, about 24 people did remain on the island, mainly gauchos and several Charrúa Indians, who continued to trade on Vernet's account.Measures were taken against the settlement.", "The log of ''Lexington'' reports destruction of arms and a powder store, while settlers remaining later said that there was great damage to private property.", "Towards the end of his life, Luis Vernet authorised his sons to claim on his behalf for his losses stemming from the raid.", "In the case lodged against the US Government for compensation, rejected by the US Government of President Cleveland in 1885, Vernet stated that the settlement was destroyed.===Penal colony and mutiny===In the aftermath of the ''Lexington'' incident, Major Esteban Mestivier was commissioned by the Buenos Aires government to set up a penal colony.", "He arrived at his destination on 15 November 1832 but his soldiers mutinied and killed him.", "The mutiny was suppressed by armed sailors from the French whaler ''Jean Jacques'', whilst Mestivier's widow was taken on board the British sealer ''Rapid''.", "''Sarandí'' returned on 30 December 1832 and Major José María Pinedo took charge of the settlement." ], [ "British return", "draughtsman, Conrad Martens.", "Painted during the survey of Tierra del Fuego, it depicts ''Beagle'' being hailed by native Fuegians.", "''Beagle'' visited the Falklands in 1834, and a Fuegian \"mission\" was later planted on Keppel Island in the west of the FalklandsThe Argentinian assertions of sovereignty provided the spur for Britain to send a naval task force in order to finally and permanently return to the islands.On 3 January 1833, Captain James Onslow, of the brig-sloop , arrived at Vernet's settlement at Port Louis to request that the flag of the United Provinces of the River Plate be replaced with the British one, and for the administration to leave the islands.", "While Major José María Pinedo, commander of the schooner ''Sarandí'', wanted to resist, his numerical disadvantage was obvious, particularly as a large number of his crew were British mercenaries who were unwilling to fight their own countrymen.", "Such a situation was not unusual in the newly independent states in Latin America, where land forces were strong, but navies were frequently quite undermanned.", "As such he protested verbally, but departed without a fight on 5 January.", "Argentina claims that Vernet's colony was also expelled at this time, though sources from the time appear to dispute this, suggesting that the colonists were encouraged to remain initially under the authority of Vernet's storekeeper, William Dickson and later his deputy, Matthew Brisbane.Initial British plans for the Islands were based upon the continuation of Vernet's settlement at Port Louis.", "An Argentine immigrant of Irish origin, William Dickson, was appointed as the British representative and provided with a flagpole and flag to be flown whenever ships were in harbour.", "In March 1833, Vernet's Deputy, Matthew Brisbane returned and presented his papers to Captain Robert FitzRoy of , which coincidentally happened to be in harbour at the time.", "Fitzroy encouraged Brisbane to continue with Vernet's enterprise with the proviso that whilst private enterprise was encouraged, Argentine assertions of sovereignty would not be welcome.Brisbane reasserted his authority over Vernet's settlement and recommenced the practice of paying employees in promissory notes.", "Due to Vernet's reduced status, the promissory notes were devalued, which meant that the employees received fewer goods at Vernet's stores for their wages.", "After months of freedom following the ''Lexington'' raid this accentuated dissatisfaction with the leadership of the settlement.", "In August 1833, under the leadership of Antonio Rivero, a gang of Creole and Indian gauchos ran amok in the settlement.", "Armed with muskets obtained from American sealers, the gang killed five members of Vernet's settlement including both Dickson and Brisbane.", "Shortly afterward the survivors fled Port Louis, seeking refuge on Turf Island in Berkeley Sound until rescued by the British sealer ''Hopeful'' in October 1833.Lt Henry Smith was installed as the first British resident in January 1834.One of his first actions was to pursue and arrest Rivero's gang for the murders committed the previous August.", "The gang was sent for trial in London but could not be tried as the Crown Court did not have jurisdiction over the Falkland Islands.", "In the British colonial system, colonies had their own, distinct governments, finances, and judicial systems.", "Rivero was not tried and sentenced because the British local government and local judiciary had not yet been installed in 1834; these were created later, by the 1841 British Letters Patent.", "Subsequently, Rivero has acquired the status of a folk hero in Argentina, where he is portrayed as leading a rebellion against British rule.", "Ironically it was the actions of Rivero that were responsible for the ultimate demise of Vernet's enterprise on the Falklands.Charles Darwin revisited the Falklands in 1834; the settlements Darwin and Fitzroy both take their names from this visit.After the arrest of Rivero, Smith set about restoring the settlement at Port Louis, repairing the damage done by the ''Lexington'' raid and renaming it 'Anson's Harbour'.", "Lt Lowcay succeeded Smith in April 1838, followed by Lt Robinson in September 1839 and Lt Tyssen in December 1839.Vernet later attempted to return to the Islands but was refused permission to return.", "The British Crown reneged on promises and refused to recognise rights granted by Captain Onslow at the time of the reoccupation.", "Eventually, after travelling to London, Vernet received paltry compensation for horses shipped to Port Louis many years before.", "G.T.", "Whittington obtained a concession of from Vernet that he later exploited with the formation of the Falkland Islands Commercial Fishery and Agricultural Association." ], [ "British colonisation", "John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, (18 August 179228 May 1878)Immediately following their return to the Falkland Islands and the failure of Vernet's settlement, the British maintained Port Louis as a military outpost.", "There was no attempt to colonise the islands following the intervention, instead there was a reliance upon the remaining rump of Vernet's settlement.", "Lt. Smith received little support from the Royal Navy and the islands developed largely on his initiative but he had to rely on a group of armed gauchos to enforce authority and protect British interests.", "Smith received advice from Vernet in this regard, and in turn continued to administer Vernet's property and provide him with regular accounts.", "His superiors later rebuked him for his ideas and actions in promoting the development of the small settlement in Port Louis.", "In frustration, Smith resigned but his successors Lt. Lowcay and Lt. Tyssen did not continue with the initiatives Smith had pursued and the settlement began to stagnate.In 1836, East Falkland was surveyed by Admiral George Grey, and further in 1837 by Lowcay.", "Admiral George Grey, conducting the geographic survey in November 1836 had the following to say about their first view of East Falkland:Pressure to develop the islands as a colony began to build as the result of a campaign mounted by British merchant G. T. Whittington.", "Whittington formed the Falkland Islands Commercial Fishery and Agricultural Association and (based on information indirectly obtained from Vernet) published a pamphlet entitled \"The Falkland Islands\".", "Later a petition signed by London merchants was presented to the British Government demanding the convening of a public meeting to discuss the future development of the Falkland Islands.", "Whittington petitioned the Colonial Secretary, Lord Russell, proposing that his association be allowed to colonise the islands.", "In May 1840, the British Government made the decision to colonise the Falkland Islands.Unaware of the decision by the British Government to colonise the islands, Whittington grew impatient and decided to take action of his own initiative.", "Obtaining two ships, he sent his brother, J.", "B. Whittington, on a mission to land stores and settlers at Port Louis.", "On arrival he presented his claim to land that his brother had bought from Vernet.", "Lt. Tyssen was taken aback by Whittington's arrival, indicating that he had no authority to allow this; however, he was unable to prevent the party from landing.", "Whittington constructed a large house for his party, and using a salting house built by Vernet established a fish-salting business.=== Establishment of Port Stanley ===Halfpenny postage stamp, issued 1891, bearing the head of Queen VictoriaIn 1833 the United Kingdom asserted authority over the Falkland Islands and Richard Clement Moody, a highly esteemed Royal Engineer, was appointed as Lieutenant Governor of the islands.", "This post was renamed Governor of the Falkland Islands in 1843, when he also became Commander-in-Chief of the Falkland Islands.", "Moody left England for Falkland on 1 October 1841 aboard the ship ''Hebe'' andarrived in Anson's Harbour later that month.", "He was accompanied by twelve sappers and miners and their families; together with Whittington's colonists this brought the population of Anson's Harbour to approximately 50.When Moody arrived, the Falklands was 'almost in a state of anarchy', but he used his powers 'with great wisdom and moderation' to develop the Islands' infrastructure and, commanding detachment of sappers, erected government offices, a school and barracks, residences, ports, and a new road system.In 1842, Moody was instructed by Lord Stanley the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to report on the potential of the Port William area as the site of the new capital.", "Moody assigned the task of surveying the area to Captain Ross, leader of the Antarctic Expedition.", "Captain Ross delivered his report in 1843, concluding that Port William afforded a good deep-water anchorage for naval vessels, and that the southern shores of Port Jackson was a suitable location for the proposed settlement.", "Moody accepted the recommendation of Ross and construction of the new settlement started in July 1843.In July 1845, at Moody's suggestion, the new capital of the islands was officially named Port Stanley after Lord Stanley.", "Not everyone was enthused with the selection of the location of the new capital, J.", "B. Whittington famously remarked that \"Of all the miserable bog holes, I believe that Mr Moody has selected one of the worst for the site of his town.", "\"The structure of the Colonial Government was established in 1845 with the formation of the Legislative Council and Executive Council and work on the construction of Government House commenced.", "The following year, the first officers appointed to the Colonial Government took their posts; by this time a number of residences, a large storage shed, carpenter's shop and blacksmith's shop had been completed and the Government Dockyard laid out.", "In 1845 Moody introduced tussock grass into Great Britain from Falkland, for which he received the gold medal of the Royal Agricultural Society.", "The Coat of arms of the Falkland Islands notably includes an image of tussock grass.", "Moody returned to England in February 1849.Moody Brook is named after him.With the establishment of the deep-water anchorage and improvements in port facilities, Stanley saw a dramatic increase in the number of visiting ships in the 1840s in part due to the California Gold Rush.", "A boom in ship provisioning and ship-repair resulted, aided by the notoriously bad weather in the South Atlantic and around Cape Horn.", "Stanley and the Falkland Islands are famous as the repository of many wrecks of 19th-century ships that reached the islands only to be condemned as unseaworthy and were often employed as floating warehouses by local merchants.At one point in the 19th century, Stanley became one of the world's busiest ports.", "However, the ship-repair trade began to slacken off in 1876 with the establishment of the Plimsoll line, which saw the elimination of the so-called coffin ships and unseaworthy vessels that might otherwise have ended up in Stanley for repair.", "With the introduction of increasingly reliable iron steamships in the 1890s the trade declined further and was no longer viable following the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914.Port Stanley continued to be a busy port supporting whaling and sealing activities in the early part of the 20th century, British warships (and garrisons) in the First and Second World War and the fishing and cruise ship industries in the latter half of the century.Christ Church Cathedral in Stanley with Whalebone ArchGovernment House opened as the offices of the Lieutenant Governor in 1847.Government House continued to develop with various additions, formally becoming the Governor's residence in 1859 when Governor Moore took residence.", "Government House remains the residence of the Governor.Many of the colonists begin to move from Ansons' Harbour to Port Stanley.", "As the new town expanded, the population grew rapidly, reaching 200 by 1849.The population was further expanded by the arrival of 30 married Chelsea Pensioners and their families.", "The Royal Falkland Islands Police were established in November 1846 with the appointment of Francis Parry as Chief Constable.", "The force was initially staffed by three officers – the Chief Constable, the Gaoler (responsible for prisoners), and the Night Constable (responsible for policing during the night).", "The Constables Ordinance 1846, which had been enacted by the colony's Legislative Council on 27 October of that year.", "The Chelsea Pensioners were to form the permanent garrison and police force, taking over from the Royal Sappers and Miners Regiment which had garrisoned the early colony.The Exchange Building opened in 1854; part of the building was later used as a church.", "1854 also saw the establishment of Marmont Row, including the Eagle Inn, now known as the Upland Goose Hotel.", "In 1887, Jubilee Villas were built to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria.", "Jubilee Villas are a row of brick built houses that follow a traditional British pattern; positioned on Ross road near the waterfront, they became an iconic image during the Falklands War.Peat is common on the islands and has traditionally been exploited as a fuel.", "Uncontrolled exploitation of this natural resource led to peat slips in 1878 and 1886.The 1878 peat slip resulted in the destruction of several houses, whilst the 1886 peat slip resulted in the deaths of two women and the destruction of the Exchange Building.Christ Church Cathedral was consecrated in 1892 and completed in 1903.It received its famous whalebone arch, constructed from the jaws of two blue whales, in 1933 to commemorate the centenary of continuous British administration.", "Also consecrated in 1892 was the Tabernacle United Free Church, constructed from an imported timber kit.=== Development ===One of the remaining historic corrals at Sapper Hill, near Stanley.A few years after the British had established themselves in the islands, a number of new British settlements were started.", "Initially many of these settlements were established in order to exploit the feral cattle on the islands.", "Following the introduction of the Cheviot breed of sheep to the islands in 1852, sheep farming became the dominant form of agriculture on the Islands.Salvador Settlement was one of the earliest, being started in the 1830s, by a Gibraltarian immigrant (hence its other name of \"Gibraltar Settlement\"), and it is still run by his descendants, the Pitalugas.Cattle were concentrated in the southern part of East Falkland, an area that became known as Lafonia.", "Lafone was an absentee landlord and never actually set foot on the islands.", "His activities were not monitored by the British and rather than introducing more British settlers as he promised, he brought large numbers of Spanish and Indian gauchos to hunt cattle.", "In 1846, they established Hope Place on the south shores of Brenton Loch.", "Vernet furnished Samuel Fisher Lafone, a British merchant operating from Montevideo, with details of the Falkland Islands including a map.", "Sensing that the exploitation of feral cattle on the islands would be a lucrative venture, in 1846 he negotiated a contract with the British Government that gave him exclusive rights to this resource.", "Until 1846 Moody had allotted feral cattle to new settlers and the new agreement not only prevented this but made Stanley dependent upon Lafone for supplies of beef.", "In 1849 a sod wall (the Boca wall) was built across the isthmus at Darwin to control the movement of cattle.Falkland Islands Company's historical building in StanleyLafone continued to develop his business interests and in 1849 looked to establish a joint stock company with his London creditors.", "The company was launched as The Royal Falkland Land, Cattle, Seal and Fishery Company in 1850 but soon thereafter was incorporated under Royal Charter as The Falkland Islands Company Limited.", "Lafone became a director and his brother-in-law J.P. Dale the company's first manager in the islands.", "By 1852, the feral cattle had been hunted virtually to extinction by gauchos and the company switched to sheep farming with the introduction of the Cheviot breed of sheep.", "Hope Place proved to be an unsuitable location and the operation moved to Darwin.", "In 1860, the Lafone Beef contract was terminated but the Falkland Islands Company was given a grant to Lafonia.", "Ownership of the remaining cattle outside of Lafonia reverted to the Crown and hunting cattle without permission was banned.In the second half of the 19th century, Darwin, Goose Green, Fox Bay and Port Howard were established.", "Port Howard was founded by James Lovegrove Waldron, and his brother in 1866; the Waldron brothers later left for Patagonia, but left the farm under local management.Darwin was initially the haunt of gauchos and cattle farmers, but sheep farming came to dominate the area, and Scottish shepherds were brought in.", "A few years later, the first large tallow works in the islands (though not the first) was set up by the FIC in 1874.It handled 15,891 sheep in 1880.From the 1880s, until 1972, Darwin and Fox Bay had their own separate medical officers.", "Nowadays, most medical care is based in Stanley.=== Exploitation of maritime resources ===The Falkland Islands were used as a base for whaling ships hunting the southern right whale and sperm whale from the 1770s until British authority was established over the islands and surrounding seas.", "Whaling was briefly revived with the establishment of a whaling station on New Island from 1909 to 1917 until whaling operations moved to South Georgia.Fur seals had long been exploited for their pelts but numbers entered a drastic decline in the early 19th century.", "As a result, seal hunting died off, although continuing at a low level.", "In order to conserve stocks, a ban on the hunting of fur seals during summers months was enacted in 1881, but it was not until 1921 that hunting was banned entirely.Elephant seals were exploited for oil but like the fur seals their numbers declined drastically in the mid-1850s.", "Sealers instead turned their attention to the South American sea lion resulting in a dramatic decline in their numbers that made sealing uneconomic.", "Attempts to revive the trade, including a sealing station at Port Albemarle, were unsuccessful.Even penguins were exploited for oil.", "Rockhopper and gentoo penguins were rendered down in trypots from 1860 until the 1880s." ], [ "Twentieth century", "===Establishment of communications===Although the first telephone lines were installed by the Falkland Islands Company in the 1880s, the Falkland Islands Government was slow to embrace telephony.", "It was not until 1897 that a telephone line was installed between Cape Pembroke lighthouse and the police station.", "The islands isolation was broken in 1911 when Guglielmo Marconi installed a wireless telegraphy station that enabled telegrams to be sent to mainland Uruguay.A line was laid between Darwin and Stanley, with the ship ''Consort'' landing poles on the coast.", "Construction commenced in 1906 and was finished in 1907 (a length of nearly ).", "The line was initially only for business but the public could make calls occasionally.", "Lines continued to be laid to most of the major settlements in the islands, with the Falkland Islands police responsible for their maintenance until 1927.Communications among the settlements relied on the telephone network until radio telephones were introduced in the 1950s, although the telephone network continued until 1982.Telecommunications improved dramatically after the Falklands War, when an earth station was installed to allow direct dialling for the first time.", "In 1997, an Internet service was launched and by 2002 nearly 90% of Falkland homes had Internet access.===Economic development===The freezer plant at Ajax Bay.", "Most of the workers' cottages were moved to StanleyIn 1911 the islands had 3,275 inhabitants of whom 916 lived in Port Stanley.A canning factory was opened in 1911 at Goose Green and was initially extremely successful.", "It absorbed a large proportion of surplus sheep but during the postwar slump it suffered a serious loss and closed in 1921.Despite this setback, a mere year later, the settlement grew after it became the base for the Falkland Islands Company's sheep farm in Lafonia in 1922, with improved sheep handling and wool shed being built.", "In 1927, the settlement's huge sheep shearing shed was built, which is claimed to be the world's largest, with a capacity of five thousand sheep.", "In 1979, 100,598 sheep were shorn at Goose Green.The mid-20th century saw a number of abortive attempts to diversify the islands' economy away from large scale sheep ranching.In the period just after the Second World War, Port Albemarle, in the south west of West Falkland, was enlarged by the Colonial Development Company and included its own power station, jetty, Nissen huts etc.", "; this was an attempt to revive the old sealing industry which had flourished during the 19th century.", "However, the project proved to be nonviable, not least because seal numbers had declined massively.Islanders shovelling peat (1950s)Similarly, Ajax Bay on Falkland Sound, was developed by the Colonial Development Corporation in the 1950s, which was also responsible for developing Port Albemarle.", "It was mainly a refrigeration plant, and was supposed to freeze Falkland mutton, but this was found to be economically nonviable, despite the huge expense incurred.", "Many of the pre-fabricated houses here were moved to Stanley.", "The site later became a British field hospital during the landings of Operation Sutton.The seas around the Falkland Islands were not well policed prior to the Falklands War, and many foreign boats fished off the islands, despite protests that potential revenue was being lost.", "Fishing licences were only later to be introduced.===Education===In 1956, J. L. Waldron Ltd built a school at Port Howard, possibly inspired by the \"gift\" of the FIC at Darwin, a few years earlier.Up until the 1970s, Goose Green was the site of a boarding school, run by the state.", "\"Camp\" children boarded here, and there were 40 spaces.", "The boarding school was later transferred to Stanley, although the recent emphasis has been on locally based education.", "The school itself became an Argentine HQ, and was burnt down.", "A new (day) school has been built for local children.===First World War===HMS ''Canopus''.", "Canopus Hill in the Falkland Islands commemorates her role in the Battle of the Falkland Islands.The Battle of the Falkland Islands, 8 December 1914.The German armoured cruisers under Admiral von Spee that had been raiding British sealanes were sunk by a British battlecruiser task force.Port Stanley became an important coaling station for the Royal Navy.", "This led to ships based there being involved in major naval engagements in both the First and Second World Wars.The strategic significance of the Falkland Islands was confirmed by the second major naval engagement of the First World War.", "Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee's East Asia Squadron called at the islands on its trip from the Pacific Ocean back to Germany, intending to destroy the Royal Navy radio relay station and coaling depot there.", "Unknown to von Spee, a British squadron, including two battlecruisers considerably more powerful than his forces, had been sent to hunt down his squadron and happened to be in the harbour coaling.", "In the one-sided battle which followed, most of von Spee's squadron was sunk.", "Canopus Hill, south of Stanley, is named after , which had fired the first shot in the battle.===Second World War===The Falkland Islands Defence Force was called out to man gun positions and signalling posts around Stanley as soon as word was received of Britain's declaration of war on 3 September 1939.Mounted patrols were carried out in the Camp, and coast-watching stations were created around the islands to guard against the approach of enemy ships and the landing of enemy forces.", "The Falkland Islanders experienced much the same kind of war-time privations and restrictions as the British population, including black-outs, travel restrictions, and rationing.In December 1939, in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of the River Plate, heavy cruiser , which had been self-refitting in the Falkland Islands at the time of the battle, steamed to join and at the mouth of the River Plate, trapping the .", "Convinced by British propaganda and false intelligence that a major naval task force awaited his ship and short of ammunition, Captain Langsdorf of ''Admiral Graf Spee'' chose instead to scuttle the ship rather than face the Royal Navy.Operation Tabarin, an expedition to the Antarctic, was mounted from the islands during the war.", "The purpose of the expedition was to assert Britain's claims on the continent, as well as gather scientific data.", "Operation Tabarin was later replaced by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey, which was later renamed the British Antarctic Survey.In 1942, in response to the Japanese entry into the war, additional forces were sent to the islands to strengthen their defence against invasion.", "The largest component of these additional forces was a battalion of the West Yorkshire Regiment.", "In 1944, as a result of the reduced threat of invasion from Japan, the West Yorks were replaced by a smaller contingent of the Royal Scots.Over the whole war more than 150 Falkland Islanders out of a population of only 2,300 volunteered for the British armed forces - 6.5% of the entire population - 24 of whom did not return.", "In July 1944, all volunteers were given the right to be identified by a \"Falkland Islands\" shoulder-flash.", "In addition to these contributions to the British war-effort, the Falkland Islands also donated five Supermarine Spitfires to the British Royal Air Force.===Argentine incursions===With the exception of an attempt by President Juan Perón to buy the Falkland Islands in 1953 which was rejected as inconceivable by the British government, the immediate post-war period was fairly uneventful.", "However, a series of incidents in the 1960s marked the intensification of Argentine sovereignty claims.The first of these took place in 1964, when a light plane piloted by Miguel Fitzgerald touched down on the racecourse at Stanley.", "Leaping from the aircraft, he handed a letter claiming sovereignty to a bemused islander before flying off again.", "The stunt was timed to coincide with Argentine diplomatic efforts at the UN Decolonisation Committee.Miguel L. Fitzgerald flew to the Falkland Islands in a light aircraft in 1964 and 1968.", "(Originally published by ''Crónica'', 9 September 1964.", ")A more serious incident took place on 28 September 1966 when eighteen young Peronists staged a symbolic invasion of the Islands by hijacking an Aerolíneas Argentinas airliner and landing it in Stanley; the group called this action Operativo Cóndor.", "There, they raised seven Argentine flags and took four islanders hostage.", "The planning had been done during a trip to the islands that one of the leaders had made as a tourist.", "The airliner left at from Buenos Aires, bound for Río Gallegos with 48 passengers on board, including Argentine Rear Admiral José María Guzmán, who was on his way to Tierra del Fuego, an Argentine territory of which he was governor.", "Two armed men entered the flight deck and ordered the pilot to change course toward the Falklands.", "The pilot attempted to land at the racecourse but the plane hit telegraph poles, and the undercarriage sank into the mud.", "Islanders, assuming that the plane was in trouble, rushed to assist but found themselves taken hostage by the hijackers (included in the group of four was a young police sergeant, Terry Peck, who became a local hero in the Falklands War).", "Les Gleadell, acting Governor of the Falkland Islands, ordered that the DC-4 be surrounded.", "He received three of the invaders, who announced that they had as much right as anyone to be there and in reply were firmly told that they should disarm and give up.", "The result of this meeting was an agreement that seven men, including Peck and Captain Ian Martin, commanding a four-man Royal Marines detachment, should be exchanged for the hostages aboard the aircraft.", "The 26 passengers were then allowed to disembark and sent to lodge with local families, as the island had no hotel.", "On being taken past the governor's residence, Guzmán laughingly commented: ''\"Mi casa\"'' (\"my house\").After a bitterly cold night in the aircraft, which contained only brandy, wine, orange juice and a few biscuits, the kidnappers surrendered.", "They were kept locked up in an annex to St Mary's Church for a week until they were put aboard an Argentine ship, the ''Bahía Buen Suceso,'' which had lingered outside the harbor awaiting conclusion of the affair.", "The men were tried in Argentina on crimes that included illegal deprivation of freedom, possession of weapons of war, illegal association, piracy, and robbery in the open.", "The leaders were sentenced to three years in prison and the others to nine months.On October of the same year a group of Argentine naval special forces conducted covert landings from the submarine ARA ''Santiago del Estero''.", "The 12-man team, which landed some from Stanley, was led by Juan José Lombardo who later, as Chief of Naval Operations, planned the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands.The locally upgraded ARA ''Santiago del Estero'', Argentine Naval Base at Mar del Plata, circa 1969In November 1968, Miguel Fitzgerald was hired by the Argentine press to attempt a reprise of his 1964 landing.", "Accompanied by one of the 1966 hijackers, he flew to Stanley but on arrival found he could not land at the racecourse due to obstacles placed following the hijacking.", "The plane was forced to crash land on Eliza Cove Road, but the two occupants were unharmed.", "The stunt was intended to coincide with the visit of Lord Chalfont to the islands.The latter incident proved counter-productive to the Argentine sovereignty push, as Lord Chalfont had been talking to a public meeting at the time of the plane's arrival.", "The islanders made it plain to Lord Chalfont that they rejected a Memorandum of Agreement negotiated between Britain and Argentina that August which stated that Britain was prepared to discuss sovereignty provided the islanders' wishes were respected.", "This spurred the formation of the Falkland Islands Committee by London barrister Bill Hunter-Christie and others.", "The Emergency Committee, as it became known, proved to be an effective lobbying organisation, constantly undermining Foreign Office initiatives on sovereignty negotiations.", "In December 1968, the lobbying effort managed to force the British Government to state that the islanders' wishes would be paramount.===Growing links with Argentina===Partly as the result of diplomatic pressure, economic and political links with Argentina increased in the 1960s and 1970s.", "These became severed after the end of the Falklands War, but before the war they were not entirely negative, and some islanders sent their children to boarding schools in Argentina.Realising that any talks on the sovereignty issue would be derailed if it did not meet with the islanders' wishes, the British and Argentine Governments enacted a series of measures designed to encourage dependence on Argentina.", "In 1971, following secret talks between the two Governments (and without consulting the islanders), the communications agreement was signed.", "The thrust of the agreement was the establishment of direct air and sea links between the islands and Argentina, together with agreements on postal and telephony services.", "Following the agreement the subsidised shipping link with Montevideo ended, a passenger and cargo ship service to the mainland (that would ameliorate any dependence on Argentina) was promised by the British but never provided.", "''Líneas Aéreas del Estado'' (LADE), the airline operated by the Argentine Air Force (''Fuerza Aérea Argentina'' or FAA), began an air link to the islands.", "Initially this service operated amphibious aircraft between Comodoro Rivadavia and Stanley using Grumman HU-16 Albatross aircraft.", "The inauguration of the service was commemorated by a series of stamps issued by both the Argentine and Falkland Island postal services.", "In 1972, a temporary airstrip was constructed by Argentina near Stanley.", "Britain constructed a small permanent airstrip in 1976 suitable only for short haul flights.As part of the agreement, islanders had to travel via Argentina and were forced to carry Argentine Identity Cards issued in Buenos Aires.", "The ''Tarjeta Provisoria'' or \"white card\" as they were known were hated by the islanders, who felt they were a ''de facto'' Argentine passport, since only islanders were required to use them and not other temporary residents of the islands.", "Tensions were raised further with the agreement that male Falkland Islanders would not have to undertake conscription into the Argentine Army, since this carried the implication that Falkland Islanders were Argentine citizens.LADE set up an office in Stanley and mail was routed through Argentina.", "Medical treatments unavailable in the islands were provided in Argentina and scholarships were made available for study in Buenos Aires, Córdoba and other Argentine cities.", "Spanish language teachers were provided by Argentina.", "Foreign Office officials in Stanley were instructed to do everything possible to foster good relations between the Falkland Islands and Argentina.The islands became more dependent upon Argentina, when the British and Argentine governments agreed that the islands would be supplied with petrol, diesel and oil by YPF, the Argentine national oil and gas company.Prime Minister Jim Callaghan sent a naval task force in response to Argentine pressure in 1976.Despite these tensions relationships between the islanders and the Argentines operating the new services in the islands were cordial.", "Although there was apprehension, politics were generally avoided and on a one-to-one basis there was never any real hostility.On the international level, relations began to sour in 1975 when Argentine delegates at the London meeting of the International Parliamentary Union condemned Britain's \"act of international piracy\" in establishing a colony in the Falkland Islands.", "Diplomatic relations between Britain and Argentina were broken but resumed in 1976.In October 1975, the British Government tasked Lord Shackleton (son of the Antarctic explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton) with an economic survey of the Falkland Islands.", "The Argentine Government reacted furiously and refused permission for Lord Shackleton to travel via Argentina.", "Later the ship transporting Shackleton to the islands, , was fired upon by the Argentine destroyer ARA ''Almirante Storni''.In 1976, after a military junta took control of the country, Argentina covertly established a military base on Southern Thule.", "It was discovered by the British Antarctic Survey ship in 1977.The British protested but restricted their response to a diplomatic protest.", "Backing up the diplomatic efforts, the British Prime Minister Jim Callaghan sent a naval task force consisting of surface ships and a nuclear submarine.", "Nevertheless, Argentine aircraft and warships harassed ships fishing in Falkland waters.Lord Shackleton's report was delivered in 1977 and documented the economic stagnation in the islands.", "It nevertheless concluded that the islands made a net contribution to the British economy and had economic potential for development.", "Recommendations included oil exploration, exploitation of the fisheries, extension of the Stanley runway, the creation of a development agency, the expansion of the road network, expansion of the facilities at Stanley harbour and the breakdown of absentee landlord owned farms into family units.", "The report was largely ignored at the time, as it was felt that acting upon it would sour relations with Argentina.", "A reprise of the report by Lord Shackleton in 1982 following the Falklands War became the blueprint for subsequent economic development of the islands.===Falklands War===A message issued by the Argentine Military Governor during the occupation warning the Islanders against attempts to sabotage Argentine military equipment.Argentina invaded the islands on 2 April 1982, using special forces, which landed at Mullet Creek and advanced on Government House in Stanley, with a secondary force coming in from Yorke Bay.", "They encountered little opposition, there being only a small force of fifty-seven British marines and eleven sailors, in addition to the Falkland Islands Defence Force (who were later sent to Fox Bay).", "There was only one Argentine fatality.", "The event garnered international attention at a level which the islands had never experienced before, and made them a household name in the UK.For a brief period, the Falkland Islands found themselves under Argentine control.", "This included Spanish-language signage, and attempts to make the islanders drive on the right (although few roads in the Falklands at the time actually had two lanes).", "In many parts of the Camp, such as Goose Green and Pebble Island, the islanders found themselves under house arrest.The British responded with an expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and, after fierce fighting, forced the Argentine garrison to surrender on 14 June 1982.The war proved to be an anomaly in a number of different respects, not least that it proved that small arms still had a role to play.", "It also had major consequences for the military junta, which was toppled soon afterwards.Margaret Thatcher's general political legacy remains controversial and divisive within the UK and within the context of the Falklands her government's withdrawal of HMS ''Endurance'' is a stated contributing factor to the causes of the conflict because it gave the wrong signals about the UK attitude towards maintaining its possession.", "However, within the Falklands, she is considered a heroine because of the determination of her response to the Argentine invasion.", "The islanders celebrate Margaret Thatcher Day on 10 January; and Thatcher Drive in Stanley is named after her." ], [ "Post-war", "President Néstor Kirchner continued to pursue Argentine claims to the islands.Following the war, Britain focused on improving its facilities on the islands.", "It increased its military presence significantly, building a large base at RAF Mount Pleasant and its port at Mare Harbour.", "It also invested heavily in improving facilities in Stanley and transportation and infrastructure around the islands, tarmacking the Stanley–Mount Pleasant road and many roads within Stanley.", "The population has risen due to the growth of Stanley, but has declined in ''Camp'' (the countryside).", "Since November 2008, a regular ferry service has linked East and West Falkland, carrying cars, passengers and cargo serviced by MV ''Concordia Bay'', a twin-screw shallow draught landing craft.A major change to the governance of the Falkland Islands was introduced by the 1985 constitution.", "The Falkland Islands Government (FIG) became a parliamentary representative dependency, whose members are democratically elected; while the governor, as head of government and representative of the monarch, is purely a figurehead without executive powers.", "Effectively, the Falkland Islands are self-governing, with the exception of foreign policy.", "(The FIG represents itself at the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonisation, as the British Government no longer attends.", ")Links with Argentina were severed in the post-war period, and laws introduced forbidding Argentine citizens from buying land.", "An alternative trading partner was found in Chile, with links developing over the years, including flights to Punta Arenas (in the far south of Patagonian Chile, near Tierra del Fuego).", "In recent years, Argentines have been allowed to visit the islands again, often to visit the military cemeteries where their friends and loved ones are buried.An Argentine minefield at Port WilliamLand mines were a persistent problem for 38 years following the war.", "Land mine clearance was completed by November 2020.In 1983, the UK passed the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act granting full British citizenship to the islanders.", "High-profile dignitaries visited to show British commitment to the islands, including Margaret Thatcher, the Prince of Wales, and Princess Alexandra.", "In 1985, the Falkland Islands Dependency was split into the Falkland Islands proper and a newly separate territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.Relations between the UK and Argentina remained hostile after 1982.Although the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling on the UK and Argentina to return to negotiations over the Islands' future, the UK ruled out further talks over the islands' sovereignty.", "The UK also maintained the arms embargo against Argentina that they initiated during the war, compelling the Argentine armed forces (a traditional UK buyer) to switch to other markets.", "Diplomatic relations were restored in 1989.Relations between the UK and Argentina improved further in the 1990s.", "In 1998, Argentine President Carlos Menem visited London, where he reaffirmed Argentina claims to the Islands, but stated that only peaceful means would be used for their recovery.", "In 2001, UK Prime Minister Tony Blair visited Argentina, where he stated his hope that the UK and Argentina could resolve their differences.", "However, no talks on sovereignty took place during the visit.===Increased British military presence and new bases===After the war, the British still faced potential future aggression, so an aircraft carrier was kept on station guarding the islands with its squadron of Sea Harriers, while the local airfield was prepared for jet aircraft.", "took guard duty first, whilst went north to change a gearbox.", "''Invincible'' then returned to relieve ''Hermes'', which urgently needed to have its boilers cleaned.", "''Invincible'' remained until was rushed south (being commissioned during the journey).", "Once the Port Stanley runway was ready for jets, several RAF F-4 Phantoms were stationed there, relieving ''Illustrious.", "''The islands lacked barracks for a permanent garrison, so the Ministry of defence chartered two former car ferries as barracks ships: from the Union Company of New Zealand and from Sealink in Britain.", "''Rangatira'' arrived in Port Stanley on 11 July 1982 and stayed until 26 September 1983.Later, the British government decided to construct a new RAF base as the centrepiece of plans to strengthen the island defences and deter any further attempts to take the Falklands by force.", "This was a massive undertaking — including construction of the world's longest corridor, linking the barracks, messes, recreation and welfare areas of the base.", "The base is occasionally referred to by residents as \"the Death Star\" because of its vast size and sometimes confusing layout.RAF Mount PleasantMount Pleasant, to the west of Stanley, was chosen as the site for the new base.", "The airfield was opened by The Duke of York in 1985, and became fully operational in 1986.Using the IATA airport code MPN, RAF Mount Pleasant also acts as the Falkland Islands' only international airport, in addition to its military role.", "Flights open to civilian passengers are operated twice-weekly.These flights are currently operated by a civilian airline on behalf of the Royal Air Force, and fly to and from RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire, UK with a refuelling stop at RAF Ascension Island in the south-central Atlantic Ocean.", "Chilean airline LAN Airlines also operate weekly flights from Santiago.===Attempts at diversifying the economy===Port William representing two trends in recent economic developmentBefore the Falklands War, sheep-farming was the Falkland Islands' only industry.", "Since the late 1980s, when two species of squid popular with consumers were discovered in substantial numbers near the Falklands, fishing has become the largest part of the economy.On 14 September 2011, Rockhopper Exploration announced plans under way for oil production to commence in 2016, through the use of Floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) technology, replicating the methodology used on the Foinaven field off the Shetland Islands.", "The production site will require approximately 110 people working offshore and another 40 working onshore.", "The oil is expected to trade at of the Brent crude price.Some small businesses attempted at Fox Bay have included a market garden, a salmon farm and a knitting mill with \"Warrah Knitwear\".Tourism is the second-largest part of the economy.", "The war brought the islands newfound fame; now tourists come both to see wildlife and go on war tours.", "Cruise ships often visit, frequently as a tie-in to Antarctica.", "Nonetheless, the remoteness of the archipelago, and the lack of direct flights to major cities, make the Falklands an expensive destination.===Conservation===In line with increasing global interest in environmental issues, some nature reserves have been established around the islands, although there are no national parks.", "In 1990, the Clifton family who owned Sea Lion Island sold it to the Falkland Island Development Company.", "They had planted 60,000 stands of tussac grass, considered important because on the main islands much tussac has been depredated by grazing.", "A similar trend may be seen on Bleaker Island, where the farm \"went organic\" in 1999.Also in the 1990s, Steeple Jason Island and Grand Jason Island were bought by New York philanthropist Michael Steinhardt, who later donated them to the Bronx Zoo-based Wildlife Conservation Society.", "He also gave them US$425,000 to build a conservation station named after himself and his wife Judy." ], [ "See also", "* History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands* Origins of Falkland Islanders* Puerto Soledad* Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands* ''The Falkland Islands Journal''* Timeline of the history of the Falkland Islands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* 1987 American report by Richard D. Chenette, Lieutenant Commander, USN, laying out the history and background of the disputed claims* Silas Duncan and the Falkland Islands' Incident* Historia de las Relaciones Exteriores Argentinas, Obra dirigida por Carlos Escudé y Andrés Cisneros, desarrollada y publicada bajo los auspicios del Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales (CARI), GEL/Nuevohacer (Buenos Aires), 2000.", "* Timeline of Falklands Island history" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The Falkland Islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean between 51°S and 53°S on a projection of the Patagonian Shelf, part of the South American continental shelf.", "In ancient geological time this shelf was part of Gondwana, and around 400 million years ago split from what is now Africa and drifted westwards from it.", "Today the islands are subjected to the Roaring Forties, winds that shape both their geography and climate.The Falklands comprise two main islands, West Falkland and East Falkland, and about 776 small islands." ], [ "Geology", "The geological history of the Falkland Islands began during the Precambrian era more than 1 billion years ago, when Proterozoic granites and gneisses were laid down in Gondwana.", "These rocks became part of the Cape Meredith/ formation and outcrop at the Cape.", "During the Siluro-Devonian era, these rocks were overlain with quartzose and subarkosic sandstones with some siltstone and mudstone, rocks that are particularly erosion- and weather-resistant, giving these parts of the islands a rugged landscape and coastline.Location of the Falkland Islands in GondwanaTectonic forces continued to form the region: a mountain chain formed, part of which now creates Wickham Heights on East Falkland Island and extends westwards through West Falkland into the Jason Islands.", "A basin developed and was filled with land-based, or terrigenous, sediments.", "These layers of sand and mud filled the basin as it sank and as they hardened they produced the rocks of the sedimentary Lafonia Group of the Falklands.", "These rocks are similar to those in southern Africa's Karoo basin.About 290 million years ago, in the Carboniferous period, an ice age engulfed the area as glaciers advanced from the polar region eroding and transporting rocks.", "These rocks were deposited as extensive moraines and glacial till, or they sank in the sea while the glacier floated in a layer of ice.", "When the glacial sediments were turned into stone they formed the rocks that now make up the Fitzroy Tillite Formation in the Falklands.", "Identical rocks are found in southern Africa.During the break-up of Gondwana and the formation of the Atlantic Ocean some 200 million years ago, minor crustal fragments that were to become the Falkland Islands detached themselves from the nascent African continent and drifted westwards, dividing and rotating as they did so before settling on the Patagonian Shelf.", "Most of the layers of West Falkland and its surrounding islands are slightly inclined from the horizontal.", "This inclination shows different types of rocks in different places.", "The quartzites of Port Stephens and Stanley are more resistant than the arenaceous sediments of the formation at Fox Bay.", "The Hornby Mountains, near Falkland Sound have experienced tectonic forces of uplift and folding which has inclined the quartzite beds of Stanley to the vertical.Rocks from more recent geological periods such as the Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary periods usually contain lime-rich rocks.", "The absence of such rocks has led to an acidic substrate which manifests itself in the nature of the soil." ], [ "Topographical description", "Topographic map of the Falkland IslandsThe Falkland Islands are an archipelago of 778 islands with an area of located in the South Atlantic Ocean on a projection of the Patagonian Shelf.", "The two principal islands, East Falkland and West Falkland, account for 91% of the land area.", "These two islands, which have a combined distance of from east to west and from north to south, are separated by the Falkland Sound, a channel that averages in width and has a typical depth of .", "Cape Meredith on West Falkland is about north-west of the tip of Tierra del Fuego and Westpoint, also on West Falkland and adjacent to West Point Island, is about from the Patagonian coast.", "It is believed that at times during the Pleistocene epoch, relative sea level was some lower than the present time–sufficient for the sound to be bridged.===East Falkland===San Carlos Water, one of many inlets on East Falkland.", "The islands are heavily indented by sounds and fjordsEast Falkland, which has an area of , a little over half the total area of the islands consists of two land masses of approximately equal size – the southerly part known as Lafonia, but the northerly part has no specific name.", "These land masses are joined by an isthmus of width that separates two deep fjords, Choiseul Sound and Brenton Loch-Grantham Sound from each other.", "The island's coastline has many smaller bays, inlets and headlands.", "Over 70% of the population of the Falkland Islands live in the capital, Stanley, which is located in East Falkland.The northern part of the island, apart from the coastal strip bordering the Choiseul Sound, is largely underlain by Palaeozoic rocks in the form of quartzite and slate, which tend to form rugged landscapes and coastlines and to cause the soil to be poor and acidic.", "The principal range of hills, the Wickham Heights runs from north-east to south-west.", "The highest point of the range (also the highest point in the Falklands), is Mount Usborne which has a height of .", "The area away from the mountain range consists chiefly of low undulating ground, a mixture of pasture and morass, with many shallow freshwater tarns, and small streams running in the valleys.", "Two inlets, Berkeley Sound and Port William, run far into the land at the north-eastern extremity of the island and provide anchorage for shipping.In contrast, Lafonia is underlain by Mesozoic age sandstone, a younger rock than the Palaeozoic rock to the north, giving a flatter landscape than is seen elsewhere on the island.", "Sheets of liquid basalt intruded into the cracks that formed between the sedimentary layers.", "The resulting solidified sheets can now be seen in the form of dikes that cut the oldest sedimentary layers, those that lie principally in the southern part of East Falkland and in South Africa.===West Falkland===West Falkland has an area of , making it smaller than East Falkland.", "Mount Adam, the highest point in the island and part of the Hornby Hills, is above sea level.", "The Hornby Hills which are the principal range on the island run approximately north–south parallel with Falkland Sound.", "Geologically this range is a continuation of the Wickham Heights on East Falkland.In West Falkland there are several dykes that cut the rocks of the western islands, but these dykes, unlike the previous ones, are chemically more unstable and have been eroded.", "The only indications of their existence are the aligned linear depressions.", "In the margins of these depressions there is evidence of contact baking or hornfels formation adjacent to the once molten basalt dyke.West Falkland is more hilly on the side closest to East Falkland.The southernmost point of West Falkland is Cape Meredith, and the most south-westerly point is Calm Head.", "On the southerly side lie high cliffs with an abundance of seabirds.===Smaller islands===Albatross colony on WestpointStone runs on Weddell IslandIn addition to the two main islands, the Falkland Islands have over 700 further islands, many no more than a few hectares in area.", "The islands to the north west of West Falkland include Pebble Island (103 km2), Keppel Island (36 km2), Saunders Island (131 km2), Carcass Island, West Point Island and the Jason group of islands (33 km2) that lie some from West Falkland.The principal islands to the south west of West Falkland include New Island (22 km2), Weddell Island (265 km2), Beaver Island (48 km2) and Staats Island.", "The group of islands that are separated from Lafonia by the Eagle Passage include Speedwell Island (51 km2), and George Island (24 km2).", "Other islands off the Lafonia coast include Bleaker Island (21 km2), Sealion Island, Lively Island (56 km2), Barren Island.", "In addition, Beauchene Island, a rocky outcrop lies some from the Lafonia coast.Many of the islands are nature reserves, either in whole or in part.===Seabed===The Patagonian Shelf, which in ancient geological time was part of Gondwana and which broke from what is now Africa, drifted westwards relative to Africa.", "It is now the widest continental shelf in the world covering .It protrudes some into the South Atlantic Ocean from the Patagonian coastline and slopes gently to before falling away; the Falkland Islands being located two thirds of the way along this protrusion.", "The base of the plateau is about below sea level to the west of the islands (400 km from the Patagonian coast), sloping to to the east of the islands where it falls away into the South Atlantic Ocean.", "The Falklands Plateau, a slightly shallower stretch of water lies to the immediate east of the Falkland Islands.Bathymetry of the Scotia Arc and Falklands plateauTo the immediate south of the islands, the Falklands Plateau is split into two by the Falklands Trough, a submarine valley that separates the plateau proper from the Scotia Arc – an underwater ridge that links Tierra Del Fuego with the Burdwood Bank (where the water is only deep) and, further into the Atlantic Ocean/Great Southern Ocean, with a number of islands including South Orkneys, South Sandwich Islands and South Georgia.Burdwood Bank was the location of several landslides some three million years ago.", "This in turn produced tsunami like events that hit the Falkland Islands on its southern coast.", "Estimates of the size of the waves vary from up to at the southern coast and up to where the capital, Port Stanley, is located.Licences to harvest the large variety of fish that live on the shelf provides a major source of income for the islands as does the licensing of oil exploration." ], [ "Climate", "Mainland UK and the Falkland Islands on the same scale and latitudes.", "The Falkland Islands have been inverted to allow both the 51°N and 51°S latitude lines and the 53°N and 53°S latitude lines to be lined up.", "The Falkland Islands are slightly smaller than Northern Ireland.The Falkland Islands have a maritime climate in the transition region between the tundra and subarctic zones (Köppen classifications ''ET'' and ''Cfc'' respectively) which is characterised by both low seasonal and diurnal temperature ranges and no marked wet and dry season while in the sub-arctic zone the average monthly maximum temperature exceeds for no more than four months of the year and the average monthly minimum does not drop below .", "The Falkland Islands climate is very much influenced by both the cool ocean currents and the shielding effect of the Andes.The cold Antarctic Coastal Current flows in an easterly direction around Cape Horn where part of it is diverted northwards as the Falklands Current.", "Subsurface temperatures in the vicinity of the Falklands are of the order of 6 °C.", "The Falklands Current meets the warm South Brazilian Current at about 40°S (see Brazil–Falkland Confluence), some north of the islands.", "The prevailing winds at the Falklands' latitude are the westerlies that gather moisture across the Pacific Ocean, but the Andes form a barrier causing a rain shadow across Patagonia and to a lesser extent, the Falkland Islands.The January average maximum temperature is about 13 °C (55 °F), and the July maximum average temperature is about 4 °C (39 °F).", "The rainfall varies between 300 mm in parts of Lafonia to 1400 mm in the mountain ranges with an average annual rainfall of 573 mm.", "Humidity and winds, however, are constantly high.", "Snow is rare but can occur at almost any time of year.", "Gales are very frequent, particularly in winter.In addition to parts of the Falklands, a maritime subarctic climatic zone is found in parts of coastal Iceland, Faroe Islands, north western coastal Norway, southern islands of Alaska and parts of the Alaskan Panhandle, the southern tip of South America and mountainous areas of Europe including the Scottish Highlands and south-western Norway." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Biogeographically, the Falkland Islands are classified as part of the Antarctic ecozone and Antarctic Floristic Kingdom.", "Strong connections exist with the flora and fauna of Patagonia in South America.", "The only terrestrial mammal upon the arrival of Europeans was the warrah, the ''loup-renard'' of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, a kind of fox found on both major islands that became extinct in the mid-19th century.", "Slater suggests that the warrah was introduced into the Falkland Islands either by rafting or by dispersal of glacial ice during one of the glaciations of the late Pleistocene epoch (2.5 million and 15,000 years ago).A total of 14 species of marine mammals have been identified in the surrounding waters: elephant seal, fur seal and sea lions all breed on the islands with the largest elephant seal breeding site has over 500 animals.", "A total of 227 bird species have been seen on the islands, over 60 of which are known to breed on the islands.", "There are two endemic species and 14 endemic subspecies of bird.", "Five penguin species including the Magellanic penguin breed on the islands as do over 60% of the global black-browed albatross population.Penguins at Gypsy CoveThere are no native reptiles or amphibians on the islands.", "Over 200 species of insects have been recorded, along with 43 spider species and 12 worm species.", "Only 13 terrestrial invertebrates are recognised as endemic, although information on many species is lacking and it is suspected up to two thirds of species found are actually endemic.", "Due to the island environment, many insect species have developed reduced or absent wings.", "There are around 129 freshwater invertebrates, the majority being rotifer; however, the identification of some species remains in dispute.", "Six species of fish are found in freshwater areas, including zebra trout and falklands minnows.The islands claim a territorial sea of and an exclusive fishing zone of , which has been a source of disagreement with Argentina.", "Different species of krill are found in Falkland waters, with Lobster Krill inhabiting the warmer waters in the north.", "The waters around the Falkland Islands are part of the Patagonian Shelf Large Marine Environment.", "Fin fish that are harvested in the Falkland waters include southern blue whiting (''Micromesistius australis''), rock cod (''Patagonotothen''), Blue grenadier or Hoki (''Macruronus magellanicus'') and the principal species of squid that are harvested are the Illex squid (''Illex argentinus'') and the Patagonian squid (''Loligo gahi'').", "The squid spawn in the mouth of the Río de la Plata close to the confluence of the cold Falklands current and the warm Brazilian current, migrate southwards along the Patagonian Shelf into the Falklands waters and then return to their spawning grounds along that lies off the continental shelf.There are no native tree species on the archipelago, although two species of bushes, fachine and native box are found.", "Other vegetation consists of grasses and ferns.", "Around 363 species of vascular plants, 21 species of ferns and clubmosses and 278 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the islands.", "Of the vascular plants, 171 are believed to be native and 13 to be endemic.", "Some bogs and fens exist, freshwater plants include the soft-camp bog, Astelia pumila (Asteliaceae) dwarf marigold Caltha appendiculata (Ranunculaceae) and gaimardia Gaimardia australis (Centrolepidaceae) and the carnivorous sundew Drosera uniflora (Droseraceae).", "Tussac grass, which averages in height but can reach up to , is found within 300 m (1,000 ft) of the coast where it forms bands around larger islands.", "The dense canopies formed create an insulated micro-climate suitable for many birds and invertebrates.", "The pale maiden (''Olsynium filifolium'') is the islands' proposed national flower." ], [ "Human geography", "Prior to 1812, various colonial powers had small settlements on the Falkland Islands.", "In that year the islands were abandoned but within twenty years the British had re-established a settlement.", "In the 1851 census, the settlement's population was recorded as 287, increasing to 2,043 in 1901 and 2,563 in 2012.===Human settlements and activities===The main settlements in the islands are at Stanley which as of 2012 had a population of 2,121, and RAF Mount Pleasant, which in 2006 had a population of about 1,700.A further 351 people lived in \"Camp\" (outside Stanley) − just over half in East Falkland, a third in West Falkland and the remainder on outlying islands.", "The principal settlements on East Falkland (excluding Stanley and Mount Pleasant) are at Darwin and Goose Green, on West Falkland at Port Howard and Fox Bay and elsewhere, the Pebble Island Settlement.", "At the time of the Falklands War, the settlements in ''Camp'' were connected by tracks that were often impassable in wet weather, but by 2007 the Falkland Islands had a road network of , with further roads planned for construction to link all occupied mainland settlements by 2013.In the early nineteenth century, the main economic activity on the islands was seal hunting.", "Later the islands became a re-provisioning depot for clippers sailing from Australia to the United Kingdom via Cape Horn.Over 80% of the islands' land is given over to sheep farming, with half a million animals being supported on 11,239 km2 of farmland, of which 40 km2 was perennial pasture.", "Roughly 40% of the national flock are on West Falkland and 60% on East Falkland.", "In addition to dairy and pig farming, a small amount of reindeer farming is carried out, for example on the Beaver group of islands.", "This herd was the only herd in the world that was unaffected by the Chernobyl disaster.In the last decade of the twentieth century and the early twenty-first century tourism and fishing have made a major economic impact on the islands and as of 2012 an oil exploration industry was developing.===Impact of human activity===There is little long-term data on habitat changes, so the extent of human impact is unclear.", "Vegetation such as tussac grass, fachine, and native box (''Veronica elliptica'') have been heavily affected by introduced grazing animals.", "Many breeding birds similarly only live on offshore islands, where introduced animals such as cats and rats are not found.", "Virtually the entire area of the islands is used as pasture for sheep.", "There is also an introduced reindeer population, which was brought to the islands in 2001 for commercial purposes.", "Rats and grey foxes have been introduced and are having a detrimental impact on birds that nest on the shores, as are feral cats.", "Twenty-two introduced plant species are thought to provide a significant threat to local flora." ], [ "Extreme points", "* Northernmost point – West Jason Cay* Southernmost point – Beauchene Island* Westernmost point – West Jason Cay* Easternmost point – Cape Pembroke* Highest point – Mount Usborne: 705 m* Lowest point – Atlantic Ocean: 0 m" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of the Falkland Islands''' takes place in a framework of a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary representative democratic dependency as set out by the constitution, whereby the Governor exercises the duties of head of state in the absence of the monarch and the Chief Executive is the head of the Civil Service, with an elected Legislative Assembly to propose new laws, national policy, approve finance and hold the executive to account.The Falkland Islands, an archipelago in the southern Atlantic Ocean, are a self-governing British overseas territory.", "Executive power is exercised on behalf of the King by an appointed Governor, who primarily acts on the advice of the Executive Council.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "The military defence and foreign policy of the islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom.", "No political parties exist on the islands currently and so Members stand as independents, however the governmental and legal proceedings very closely resemble British standards.Following the Falklands War in 1982, Lord Shackleton published a report on the economy of the Falkland Islands which recommended many modernisations.", "On 1 January 1983 the Falkland Islanders gained British citizenship under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, and on 3 October 1985 the Constitution of the Falkland Islands was established.", "A new constitution came into force on 1 January 2009 which modernised the Chapter on fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, embedding self-determination in the main body of the constitution.", "The new constitution also replaced the Legislative Council with the Legislative Assembly, and better explained the role of the Governor and the Chief Executive." ], [ "Sovereignty issues", "The Argentine Republic claims the Falkland Islands (known in Spanish as ''Islas Malvinas'') to be part of its territory.", "This claim is disputed by the Falkland Islanders and the United Kingdom.", "In 1982, Argentina invaded and occupied the islands, starting the Falklands War.", "The islands were subsequently liberated by British forces just 74 days after the start of the war, which led to the collapse of the military dictatorship in Argentina.The sovereignty of the Falklands remains in dispute, with Argentina claiming the islands are an integral and indivisible part of its territory, 'illegally occupied by an occupying power'.", "The United Kingdom and the Government of the Falkland Islands maintains that the Islanders have the right to determine the sovereignty of their birthplace.", "In a referendum in 2013 the people of the Falkland Islands soundly rejected Argentina's claim to the islands, with 99.8% of voters supporting the Falklands remaining an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom." ], [ "Executive", "Falkland House, the representative office for the Falkland Islands Government in Westminster, LondonExecutive authority on the Falkland Islands is vested in Charles III, who has been the head of state since his accession to the British throne on 8 September 2022.As the King is absent from the islands for most of the time, executive authority is exercised \"in His Majesty's name and on His Majesty's behalf\" by the Governor of the Falkland Islands.", "Alison Blake has been Governor since 23 July 2022.The Governor normally acts only on the advice of the Executive Council of the Falkland Islands, which is composed of three Members of the Legislative Assembly elected by the Assembly to serve on the Council every year, the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance and the Governor, who acts as presiding officer.", "The only members with a vote to progress a change in law or policy are the democratically elected Members of the Legislative Assembly who are serving on Executive Council.", "The constitution does permit the Governor to act without consulting the Executive Council and even going against its instructions, but in both cases the Governor must immediately inform the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs in the United Kingdom, who can overrule the Governor's actions.Government policy and the execution thereof is primarily decided by the 3 officio Executive Council MLAs.", "The Chief Executive leads the civil service and undertakes actions from Executive Council." ], [ "Legislature", "The legislative branch consists of a unicameral Legislative Assembly.", "General elections must take place at least once every four years, in which the islanders elect eight members to the Legislative Assembly (five from Stanley and three from Camp) through universal suffrage using block voting.", "There are also two ex officio members of the Assembly (the Chief Executive and the Director of Finance) who take part in proceedings but are not permitted to vote in the Assembly.The following major conventions apply to the Falkland Islands and should be taken into account during the drafting of legislation:European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)United Nations Convention Against Torture (UNCAT)UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)UN Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).Until 2009, when the new constitution came into force and created the Legislative Assembly, the legislature of the islands was the Legislative Council, which had existed since the 19th century." ], [ "Judiciary", "The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the Summary Court and the Magistrates' Court.", "The judiciary is strictly independent of the executive and legislature, although it has links with the other branches of the government through the Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy.", "The government also employs six lawyers (the Attorney General, Law Commissioner, two Crown Counsels and two Legislative Drafters), a Policy Adviser and one Policy Officer.===Courts===The court system of the Falklands is set out by Chapter VIII of the Constitution and closely resembles the system in England and Wales.", "The Supreme Court of the Falkland Islands has unlimited jurisdiction to hear and determine any civil or criminal proceedings, and consists of the Chief Justice (CJ) who is generally a senior barrister or solicitor with a good amount of judicial experience in the United Kingdom.", "The CJ is not resident in the Falkland Islands but travels to the islands if and when necessary to hear cases.", "The most serious criminal and civil matters are reserved for the Supreme Court.", "In civil matters, generally there is no jury however, in criminal matters, the defendant can elect trial by judge and jury or judge alone.", "There are only a few criminal cases which must be heard before the Supreme Court; these are murder, manslaughter, rape, piracy, treason and arson with the intent to endanger life.", "The CJ also hears appeals from the Magistrates' Court.From the Supreme Court, appeals are sent to the Falkland Islands Court of Appeal, which is based on the Court of Appeal of England and Wales.", "The Court of Appeal consists of a President and two Justices of Appeal, as well as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who serves as an ex officio member.", "The President and Justices of Appeal are normally from the UK and are Judges of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales.", "Appeals from the Court of Appeal are sent to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.The Falkland Islands does not have its own bar or law society, but has a \"Falkland Islands Legal Community\".", "There is no differentiation between being a barrister or a solicitor; the private practitioners being called legal practitioners.", "The Legal Practitioners Ordinance defines who can hold themselves out as being a legal practitioner and therefore have rights of audience before the Falkland Islands courts.", "Only the Chief Justice of the Falkland Islands can prohibit a legal practitioner from practising.In the court system on the islands, there is a panel of Justices of the Peace (JPs) who sit in the Summary Court, which has no jury.", "JPs are all non-lawyers and are made up of \"upstanding members of the community\".", "They hear the most simple of criminal cases (or sit when the Senior Magistrate is not in the Islands) and they also act as the Licensing Justices who deal with alcohol-related applications, such as extended opening hours, special occasion licences, etc.The Senior Magistrate (SM) is appointed by the Governor and presides over the Magistrates' Court, which again has no jury.", "The SM is usually a UK qualified lawyer, with at least 10 years experience as an advocate and, usually, with some judicial experience.", "The SM holds office for a maximum of three years and is then replaced.", "The SM is resident in the Islands and hears the majority of cases from simple criminal and civil matters right up to very serious criminal matters or complex civil cases.", "The SM also hears appeals from the Summary Court.==== List of chief justices ==== 1987–1997: Sir Renn Davis* 1998–2007: James Wood* 2007–2015: Christopher Gardner QC* 2015–2017: Simon Bryan QC (Sir Simon Bryan)* 2018–present: James Lewis KC===Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy===The Governor has the power to grant a pardon to any person concerned in or convicted of an offence, but the Governor can only use this power after consultation with the Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy.", "The Committee consist of two elected members of the Legislative Assembly (appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Legislative Assembly), the Chief Executive, the Attorney General and the Chief Medical Officer.===Attorney general===The Attorney General (AG), appointed by the Governor, is the main legal adviser to the Falkland Islands Government.", "The AG's primary role is to determine the legality of government proceedings and action, and has the power to institute and undertake criminal proceedings before any court of law, to take over and continue any criminal proceedings that may have been instituted by another person or authority, or to discontinue at any stage before judgment any criminal proceedings instituted or undertaken by another person or authority.", "In the exercise of his or her powers, the AG is not subject to the direction or control of any other person or authority.The Attorney General is also a member of the Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy and acts as presiding officer during Speaker elections in the Legislative Assembly, and has a constitutional right to attend all meetings of the Assembly and all meetings of the Executive Council.The current Attorney General is Simon Young, who took office in December 2017." ], [ "Finances", "The Director of Finance of the Falkland Islands is responsible for government expenditure on the islands, acting with authorisation from the Legislative Assembly.", "The Director is also an ex officio member of both the Legislative Assembly and the Executive Council.There is also a Public Accounts Committee consisting of a chairman and two other members appointed by the Governor (in consultation with the elected MLAs) and two elected members of the Legislative Assembly.", "Reporting to the Legislative Assembly, the Committee overseas the economy, government expenditure, all public accounts and audit reports on the islands.", "The Director of Finance is not permitted to be a member of the Public Accounts Committee." ], [ "Elections and parties", "Map of constituencies of the Falkland IslandsAs in many parliamentary democracies, there are no direct elections for the executive branch of the Falkland Islands Government.", "Instead the people elect the legislature which then advises and forms part of the executive.", "General elections, which elect the Legislative Assembly, must take place at least once every four years.", "Suffrage is universal in the Falklands, with the minimum voting age at eighteen.", "The Legislative Assembly has ten members, eight of which are elected using block voting (five from the Stanley constituency and three from the Camp constituency) and two ''ex officio'' members (the Chief Executive and the Director of Finance).In the last general election, which took place on 4 November 2021, only non-partisans were elected as there are no active political parties in the Falkland Islands.", "The next elections will take place in 2025." ], [ "See also", "''Falkland Islands Gazette'' – official journal of the Falkland Islands Government" ], [ "References and sources", ";References;Sources L.L.", "Ivanov ''et al.''.", "''The Future of the Falkland Islands and Its People''.", "Sofia: Manfred Wörner Foundation, 2003.Printed in Bulgaria by Double T Publishers.", "96 pp." ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of the Falkland Islands''', which first involved sealing, whaling and provisioning ships, became heavily dependent on sheep farming from the 1870s to 1980.It then diversified and now has income from tourism, commercial fishing, and servicing the fishing industry as well as agriculture.", "The Falkland Islands use the Falkland pound, which is backed by the British pound." ], [ "Historical development", "Port William representing two trends in recent economic developmentDuring the 19th century, the supply and maintenance depot for ships at Stanley developed into a port serving ships rounding Cape Horn.", "There was also trade in cow hides from the wild descendants of cattle introduced by French settlers in the late 18th century.", "Sheep farming was then introduced, taking over from the cattle trade in the 1870s and becoming self-supporting by 1885.The islands also provided a base for whaling and sealing, with factories being built on East Falkland and South Georgia Island, but these industries ended.By the Falklands War of 1982 sheep farming was the islands' only industry and their economic viability was in doubt, but after the war there was a new commitment from the Government of the United Kingdom.", "The Falkland Islands Development Corporation was formed in mid 1984 and in its annual report at the end of that year it set out to increase employment opportunities by encouraging diversification, to increase population levels through selective immigration, to aim for long-term self-sufficiency and to improve community facilities.", "To achieve this, the Corporation identified agricultural improvements, tourism, self-sufficiency in energy, development of the industrial and service sector, fisheries, and land subdivision as areas to tackle.The largest company in the islands used to be the Falkland Islands Company (FIC), a publicly quoted company on the London Stock Exchange.", "The company was responsible for the majority of the economic activity on the islands, though its farms were sold in 1991 to the Falkland Islands Government.", "The company now operates several retail outlets in Stanley and is involved in port services and shipping operations.By 2002 the Falklands' economy was booming, with income from tourism and the sale of squid fishing licences as well as from indigenous fishing companies with locally registered boats.", "Fishing boats visit the islands from Spain, Korea, Taiwan and Japan, and obtain supplies and services from the islands.", "An islander told the BBC that \"we were the luckiest people that was ever mixed up in a war\", and British diplomats joked that the Falklands should have a monument to Leopoldo Galtieri, the Argentinean dictator who invaded the islands.", "In 2007, Argentina withdrew from a 1995 agreement that set terms for exploitation of offshore resources.", "It is thought that there might be up to of oil under the sea bed surrounding the islands.", "Desire Petroleum and Rockhopper Exploration began drilling for oil in the vicinity of the Falklands in the first half of 2010, sparking strong protest from the Argentine government.", "Diplomatic disputes with Argentina disrupted tourism slightly in 2004.Buenos Aires refused permission for charter flights from Chile that served cruise ships to fly over Argentina to reach the islands." ], [ "Economic overview", "The Falkland Islands have a GDP of $164.5 million, and a per capita GDP of $70,800 (2015 estimate) compared with the United Kingdom GDP per capita of $35,200 (2009 estimate).", "The contributors to the GDP by sector (2010 forecast) are:Fisheries – 52.5%Government (including health and education) – 14.0%Communications, Finance and Business services – 11.4%Hospitality & Transport – 7.7%Construction – 6.6%Housing and other services – 3.2%Mining.", "Quarrying & Manufacturing – 2.1%Agriculture – 1.6%Utilities – 0.9%In the 2009/10 financial year, the government revenue was £42.4 million of which £14.5 million came from fishery licences and services and £10.5 million from taxes.", "During the same period the government expenditure was £47.6 million.Other economic indicators include:'''Electricity – production:'''19 million kWh (2016 est.", ")'''Electricity – production by source:''' (2016 est.", ")Fossil fuels: 74%Non-hydro renewables: 26%'''Electricity – consumption:'''17.67 million kWh (2016 est.", ")'''Installed nameplate capacity of electric generation'''12,100 kW (2016 est.)" ], [ "Banking", "The Falkland Islands do not have a central bank but the Standard Chartered Bank has a single branch in Stanley that offers retail, commercial and wholesale banking facilities.The constitution requires the governor of the islands to seek the approval of a British Secretary of State before assenting to any bill that affects \"''the currency of the Falkland Islands or relating to the issue of banknotes''\" or any bill that establishes \"''any banking association or altering the constitution, rights or duties of any such association''\".", "These restrictions effectively give the British Government the ability to prevent the island's government from declaring the islands to be a tax haven or from establishing a central bank." ], [ "Agriculture", "Farmland accounts for a little over 80% of the Falklands land area and a sheep appears on the islands' coat of arms, but agriculture is now less than 2% of the economy.", ", 670,000 sheep resided on the islands; a 2011 report estimated the sheep population at over one million.Roughly 40% of the national flock are on West Falkland and 60% on East Falkland.", "The base flock are Corriedale and Polwarth breeds with Dohne Merino, South African Meat Merinos, Afrinos and other breeds having been introduced to improve the fineness of wool and meat characteristics.", "The wool price suffered a slump in 2005/6 and a peak in 2008.Since 2003 the relative premium commanded by higher quality wool has increased with coarser wool missing out on the high prices in 2008.A summary of the prices for the period 2002 to 2010, which are often dictated by Australian exchange rate and weather conditions is shown below:Fibre diameterMinimum price (p/kg)Maximum price (p/kg)32 microns130 (2007)210 (2003)28 microns180 (2006)280 (2003)24 microns255 (2006)530 (2010)20 microns290 (2005)590 (2010)Although the production of wool is spread across the islands, the breeding of animals for slaughter is concentrated on East Falkland where the EU accredited Send Bay abattoir is situated.", "An additional cost borne by producers on West Falklands is the fare charged for crossing the Falklands Sound.", "As of 2010, the ferry company making the crossing charged commercial vehicles £30 per metre for a single trip plus £2 per head of sheep.", "Wool on the other hand is charged \"£45 per tonne delivered to Stanley\".An increasing number of farmers are supplying lamb to the Falkland Islands Meat Company.", "The abattoir received export accreditation in December 2002 and began exporting meat in May 2003.The number of farms supplying lambs increased from 6 in 2003 to 27 in 2007 while the number of lambs sent to the abattoir rose from 2600 to 11,963 in the same period.Selected statistics for the year 2008/9 relating to sheep farming are given below:RegionArea used for sheep (hectares)Number of sheepSheep slaughteredWool clipped (kg)Average fleece (kg)Greasy wool yield (kg/hectare)East Falkland612,935292,91722,023923,6323.691.86West Falkland425,592182,7417,839602,6183.601.54Islands85,45828,9624,197110,5954.551.69Total1,123,985504,62034,0591,636,8453.951.70There are also a small number of cows, pigs and horses on the islands that are reared for local use." ], [ "Fishing", "St Nicholas, the patron saint of fishermen.", "The icon is located at the premises of the Falklands Legislative Assembly at Gilbert House in Stanley, Falkland IslandsMap of the Falkland Islands economic zone in relation to her neighboursFishing is the largest part of the economy.", "Although Lord Shackleton's Report (1982) recommended the setting up of a fisheries limit which gave an impetus to the fishing industry, the report did not go into much detail regarding the expansion of the industry.", "The Falkland Islands Development Corporation which formed as a result of the Shackleton Report provided the impetus for the Falkland Islands to exploit their marine environment.===Fishing grounds===The Falkland Islands' fishing waters form part of the 2.7 million square kilometre Patagonian Shelf large marine ecosystem and are located on a spur from the Patagonian Continental Shelf.Most of the fishing takes place in water up to deep on this spur or on the Burdwood Bank - another spur lying on an undersea ridge to the south of the Falkland Islands and separated from the islands by a deep channel known as the Falklands Trough.", "At its highest point, the Burdwood Bank is below sea level.The principal ocean currents in the Falkland Island waters are the West Wind Drift, a cold current from the Southern Pacific Ocean that flows westwards to the south of the Burdwood Bank and the north flowing cold Falklands current, an offshoot of the West Wind Drift that curls around the east of Falklands Plateau and along the Falklands and Patagonian escarpments.", "It joins the saltier warm Brazil Current in the vicinity of the mouth of the Río de la Plata to form the South Atlantic Current.In 1986 the Falklands opened up their fishing industry to outsiders with the declaration of a radius Fisheries Conservation & Management Zone centered on the Falkland Sound.", "This zone was later to become the Falklands Inner Conservation Zone (FICZ).", "Apart from the Falkland Trough, this zone lies within the continental shelf.", "In 1990 the Falklands Outer Conservation Zone (FOCZ) was declared – a zone that lay between the perimeter of the FICZ and the Falklands 200-nautical-mile economic zone boundary.", "The FOCZ includes part of the Burdwood Bank, borders on the confines of the continental shelf and includes part of the Falklands Escarpment - a undersea escarpment running east–west.At the same time that the FOCZ was declared, the Argentine declared its 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and together with the British Government (acting on behalf of the Falkland Islands) set up the South Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SAFC) to coordinate the management of fishing stocks in the area.===Fish stocks=== 1 tonne= 1000 kg1 tonne= 0.984 long tons1 tonne= 1.102 short tons 1 tonne= 2204 lbsMost of the fish that are harvested in the Falkland Islands waters are either squid or finfish.", "Other types of fish form an insignificant part of the Falkland Islands' catch.", "A significant number of the fish that are taken are migratory with the spawning grounds and feeding grounds of some species being highly dependent on the water temperature.====Squid====The Illex squid (''Illex argentinus'') which typically has a mantle length of and a weight of is the most important fish to the Falklands economy followed by its smaller cousin, the Patagonian squid (''Doryteuthis gahi'') which typically has a mantle length of and a weight of .", "Neither species was discovered in substantial numbers near the Falklands until the late 1980s.The lllex squid has its spawning grounds at the mouth of the Río de la Plata and a migratory pattern that takes it southwards along the Patagonian Shelf as far as the FICZ to its feeding grounds.", "It then returns to its spawning grounds via a route that lies off the continental shelf.", "In some years, such as 2007, it enters the FICZ with a resultant good harvest, it other years, such as 2009, it does not migrate as far south as the FICZ at all.", "The catch for the 2010 season in the Falklands recovered to 12105 tonnes, but still the fourth lowest since the beginning of the licensing system.", "This has been attributed to the lower than usual sea temperatures during the feeding season in February–May.The Patagonian squid, unlike the Illex, remain in Falkland Island waters all year and are concentrated in the ''Loloigo box''—an area within the Falklands Plateau to the east and south-east of the islands and are harvested during both the austral spring and autumn.====Finfish====In the 1970s many fin fish, particularly the rock cod, a high volume low value fish were exploited to near-extinction.", "The levels of rock cod taken in the whole of the South Atlantic dropped by 99.3% in the space of two years between the 1969–70 and 1971–72 seasons.", "while the patagonian rockcod was fished to near-extinction in the Shag Rock area.", "This resulted in a ban on fishing which was lifted in 2005.Following the collapse of the Illex industry in 2008/9, the rock cod has become, by weight, the most heavily harvested species in the area.In 2006, a Spanish vessel on an exploratory trawl found commercial quantities of grenadiers (''Macrourus spp., Coelorhynchus spp.'')", "to the south and east of the Falkland Islands at depths between depths in the eastern part of FICZ.", "It has been estimated that this species needs a stock biomass of 40000 tonnes to produce a sustainable harvest of 3000 tonnes per annum and is now reflected as a separate entry in the tables below.===License quota policy and revenue===With the establishment of the FICZ, the Falklands Fisheries Department issued licences that enable foreign vessels to fish in Falklands waters.", "Initially there were seven classes of licence, but as of the 2009 season, this was increased to ten classes of licence.", "Each class of licence has its own characteristics – species or combination of species that may be taken, net sizes that may be used and seasons when the licence is valid.", "The main fishing areas are in waters that are up to deep with principal concentrations close to the confluence of the FOCZ, FICZ and EEZ to the north west of the Islands and also on the Burwood Bank – a shallow water to the south of the Islands.", "Initially licences were issued on a total allowable effort (TAE) but in 2007, the toothfish longline fishery became the first fishery in the Falkland Islands to be issued on a total allowable catch (TAC) basis.Apart from the Islander's own fleet, the principal fishing fleets come from Spain, Korea and Taiwan.", "When the Falkland Islands first opened up her waters, the Polish fishing fleet had a presence as did the Japanese, but the Poles stopped fishing in the area in the mid-1990s and the Japanese in the middle of the first decade of the twenty-first century.", "By 2002 the license revenue was so great that the island government had no debt and had built up more than £80 million in savings.Since 1993, the principal licence classes have been:A licence – Permits the taking of unrestricted fin fish during the first seasonB licence – Permits the taking of ''Illex'' squid.", "X licence – Permits the taking of Patagonian squid during the second season (''Loligo'').", "Y licence – Permits the taking of unrestricted fin fish during the second season (The Southern blue whitting and the Hoki in particular are classed as restricted finship).", "'''Revenue from licence fees (£ millions)'''Licence type1989–1993(Average)1994–1998(Average)1999–2003(Average)2004–2008(Average)2009Average1989–2009B19.9112.4513.604.090.0011.92X3.773.583.671.701.943.12Y0.802.081.803.074.242.05Others1.703.674.874.654.673.76Total26.1821.7823.9313.5110.8520.85===International cooperation===The Antarctic Treaty was signed by both the United Kingdom and Argentina in 1959.In its wake, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty signed by 24 nations and covering the area that includes most of the Falkland Islands waters, came into force in 1982, having been signed by the United Kingdom on 31 August 1981 and Argentina on 28 May 1982.The convention covers Southern Ocean ecosystem which is generally accepted as being south of approximately 50° to 55°S.", "The CCAMLR provides a forum for exchanging information regarding marine life in the Antarctic region and has the authority to ban the harvesting of certain type of fish and also to ban or put restrictions on the use of certain methods of harvesting.", "The convention requires that member states who are not parties to the Antarctic Treaty accept certain provisions of that treaty.The South Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SAFC) was set up in 1990 between the Argentine and the United Kingdom (acting on behalf of the Falkland Islands) to exchange information and to coordinate fishing activities in the South Atlantic.", "One of their prime activities was the monitoring of the Illex spawning stock biomass (SSB).", "If the SSB drops below a threshold of 40000 tonnes the SAFC recommend will early closure of the fishing season.", "Since 2005 the SAFC has been largely moribund as the Argentine Government reduced co-operation, declining to continue the routine joint meeting process and suspending joint scientific activities.", "She has since extended her claim to all of the Falkland Island waters.===Catch statistics===The table below shows the average catch in tonnes of various species (as categorised by FIFD - Falkland Island Fishing Department) for successive five-year periods.Common NameScientific nameTypeSeason1989–1993 (Average)1994–1998 (Average)1999–2003 (Average)2004–2008 (Average)2009Red cod''Salilota australis''FinFeb–Nov43506564493235985079Southern blue whiting''Micromesistius australis''FinSep–Mar4505331834246752030910395Argentine shortfin squid''Illex argentinus''SquidMar–Jun161277891201446657265644Kingklip''Genypterus blacodes''FinFeb–Nov12741635172024833395Patagonian squid''Loligo gahi''SquidFeb–AprJul–Sep7823860646448114459531475Sevenstar flying squid''Martialia hyadesii''Squid3620035250Argentine hakeSouthern hake (or austral hake)''Merluccius hubbsi''''Merluccius australis''FinMar–Oct8448200325837763690130510Skates and rays''Rajidae''Skate & rayApr–Dec53613769406050095865Patagonian toothfish''Dissostichus eleginoides''FinAll year5461806211216401419Patagonian grenadier''Macruronus magellanicus''FinFeb–Nov961214973217701899223170Grenadier''Macrouridae''Fin787958Patagonian rockcod''Patagonotothen brevicauda brevicauda''Fin4698658149Scallop''Zygochlamys patagonica''Mollusc27376413OtherAll year2285166227493706246Total316479215632254284203182153258" ], [ "Tourism", "Tourism is the second-largest part of the economy.", "In 1982, an average of only 500 tourists visited the Falklands per annum but by 2007, this figure had grown to 55,000 and the Falkland Islands Tourist Board hired its first tourism director that year.", "In 2010, the transport and hospitality sector was expected to contribute £7.8 million or 7.7% of the island's GDP.", "Tourism forms a significant part of this figure with land-based visitors expected to contribute £2.7 million to the Islands' economy in 2010.The islands have become a regular port of call for the growing market of cruise ships to Antarctica and elsewhere in the South Atlantic.", "Attractions include the scenery and wildlife conservation including 1,000,000 penguins, seabirds, seals, and sea lions, as well as visits to battlefields, golf, fishing and wreck diving.", "In addition to accommodation in Stanley, there are tourist lodges at Port Howard, Darwin, Pebble Island, Carcass Island, and Sea Lion Island.", "Self-catering accommodation at holiday cottages on island farms.", "The total contribution of tourism to the Islands' is expected to reach £5.4 million in 2010.During the 2008–2009 season almost 69,000 tourists visited the Falklands, with 62,600 of these arriving onboard cruise or expedition vessels.", "Since cruise liners have their own accommodation, substantial numbers of tourists can be accommodated at once, such as an occasion in 2005 when 3000 tourists visited the islands in one day.", "In 2013 passengers from cruise ships faced protests in Latin American ports over the British military presence.", "The cruise industry is expecting passenger numbers to decline from 39,500 in 2013–2014 to 34,000 for 2014–2015.However land tourism is increasing which is offsetting the effect of a decrease in cruise tourism.Other sources of \"tourist\" revenue include spending by the British military personnel based on the islands, by business travellers and by pilgrims to the graves of both British and Argentine soldiers who fell in the 1982 Falklands War.", "Although there is still a resentment in the Islands to the Argentine occupation, the Falkland Islands Government continues \"''to respect the need for Argentine veterans of the 1982 conflict and their next of kin to visit the battlefield sites and the cemetery at Darwin''\".", "Such visits are arranged in conjunction with LAN Airlines (Chile) who, on such occasions, use larger aircraft than normal for the weekly flights." ], [ "Energy and minerals", "===Petroleum exploration===Four sedimentary basins that could potentially contain hydrocarbons have been identified in the Falkland Island waters.", "They are:'''North Falkland Basin''' which is located to the north of the islands.", "'''Falklands Plateau Basin''' which is located to the east of the East Falkland.", "'''South Falklands Basin''' which lies to the south-east of the islands and extends up to the Falklands Trough.", "'''Malvinas Basin''' which lies to the south-west of West Falkland, between that island and Tierra del Fuego at the head of the Falklands Trough.", "Part of this basin lies in Argentine waters.The latter three basins are part of a larger contiguous formation.An agreement signed in 1995 with Argentina had set the terms for exploitation of offshore resources including large oil reserves as it was thought that there might be up to of oil under the sea bed surrounding the islands.", "However, in 2007 Argentina unilaterally withdrew from the agreement.", "In response, Falkland Oil & Gas has signed an agreement with BHP Billiton to investigate the potential exploitation of oil reserves.", "Climatic conditions of the southern seas mean that exploitation will be a difficult task, though economically viable, and the continuing Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute with Argentina is hampering progress.Some 2012 exploration results have indicated that taxation on oil revenues, even though they will be amongst the lowest in the world, are expected to more than double the country's revenue.====North Falklands basin====In February 2010, exploratory drilling for oil was begun by Desire Petroleum, but the results from the first test well were disappointing.", "Two months later, on 6 May 2010, when Rockhopper Exploration announced that \"it may have struck oil\", Argentina's Foreign Minister warned that his country would take all possible lawful steps to impede British oil exploration and production there.", "On 17 September 2010, Rockhopper Exploration published the results of the borehole analysis – the well was drilled in water 451 m deep and a flow test showed that a payable oil column of 53 m was capable of producing over .", "In February 2011 Rockhopper Exploration commenced an appraisal programme of the Sea-Lion discovery.", "An update of the first appraisal drill was released on Monday 21 March 2011 indicating a significant reservoir package with a downhole mini Drill Stern Test flowing oil at better rates then the September 2010 flow test: confidence in the commerciality of the Sea Lion discovery has been increased by this first appraisal.On 14 September 2011 Rockhopper Exploration announced plans are under way for oil production to commence in 2016, through the use of Floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) technology, replicating the methodology used on the Foinaven oilfield off the Shetland Islands.", "The proposal envisages a FPSO vessel located 200 km offshore servicing 24 production wells and 12 water injection wells in about 450 m of water.", "The wells will be arranged in clusters of 6 wells per drill centre.", "The two water injection well clusters will be 3.0 km from the four oil well clusters.", "Oil will be transferred from the FPSO vessel to shuttle oil tankers.", "Each year thereafter the production date has been pushed back another year.The production site will require approximately 110 people working offshore and another 40 working onshore.", "The oil expected to trade at of the Brent crude price.In May 2015 oil was discovered in Isobel deep by a consortium of oil companies including Falkland Oil & Gas, Premier Oil, and Rockhopper Oil & Gas.", "In 2023, Rockhopper (working with Tel Aviv-listed Navitas Petroleum) indicated that it had been presented with a new development plan for its Sea Lion project that aimed to cut costs and proceed in phases.", "It was stated that: \"If realized, the new plan — with a total price tag of $2.2 billion — could lead to 80,000 barrels per day of production (up to 100,000 b/d at peak) via a leased floating production, storage and offloading unit\".", "A final investment decision was targeted for early 2024.====East and south Falklands fields====As of 2011 the East and South Falklands Fields had not been fully evaluated; ''Leiv Eiriksson'', a 5th generation semi-submersible drilling rig, had been expected to drill two exploratory wells for Falkland oil and gas in 2012.===Renewable energy sources ===The islands have been investing in windpower – in 2010, three 330 kW wind turbines were installed at Sand Bay, about from Stanley on the opposite side of the valley from three turbines that were installed in 2007.The island's government has plans to install a 2 MWh battery storage system which will allow surplus wind energy to be stored.", "The first three turbines resulted in a 20% reduction in the Stanley power station's fuel consumption and it was hoped that the second set of three turbines would double this figure.", "In parallel, there are on-going investigations into other forms of renewable energy for remote locations on the islands." ], [ "Transport in the Falkland Islands", "The Falkland Islands currently has three primary means of transport - road, sea and air.", "There is now an international airport, a domestic airport, a number of airstrips, a growing road network and a much-improved ferry service between the two main islands." ], [ "Philately and numismatics", "1952 Falkland Islands stamp with Gentoo PenguinsIn October 1877, the Secretary of State of the Colonial Office, the Earl of Carnarvon began the process of application for the Falkland Islands to join the General Postal Union (renamed Universal Postal Union in 1879).", "The first stamps, 1d, 6d, and 1 shilling values featuring the usual profile of Queen Victoria, were issued 19 June 1878.Since then the islands have issued their own stamps, which are a source of revenue from overseas collectors.", "Between 2000 and 2008, the islands issued between six and eight sets of commemorative stamps.", "The workload placed on the Falkland Islands Post Office by overseas collectors led to the establishments in 1978 of the Falkland Islands Philatelic Bureau.", "The Bureau also handles philately-related sales on behalf of the governments of Government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and of the British Antarctic Territory.Coins and banknotes may only be issued by the Falkland Islands Government with the authorisation of the British Government.", "Coins for local use were first struck in 1974 and are the same size as the corresponding British coins.", "There is a flourishing business in the issue of commemorative coins struck on behalf of the Falkland Island Government for collectors – in particular the 2007 series of coins that commemorated the 25th anniversary of the liberation of islands attracted much attention.", "The Falkland Islands Government (FIG) is required to deposit 110% of the face value of any coins struck on its behalf into its currency fund, thereby effectively backing the Falkland pound with the pound sterling.", "In the case of commemorative coins that are unlikely to be redeemed, this money represents a long-term investment.", "In many cases the set-up and production costs are carried by the mint concerned, who pay the FIG a royalty on coins that it sells to collectors." ], [ "See also", "Falkland Islands Company" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Falkland Islands Development Corporation - Annual Report 1984* A Visitor's View of the Falkland Islands* Share the Falklands ''The Guardian''* Four Seasons and more than 3,000 Tourists in One Day* \"Falklands Experience\" tours* Falklandsinfo: Welcome to our Spectacular Islands!", "* Britain sends minister to resolve Falklands air row with Argentina* Guardian Unlimited - Special Reports - The Falklands' rise to riches*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands''' includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio: Radio services provided by the public broadcaster, Falkland Islands Radio Service, broadcasting on both AM and FM frequencies, and by the British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) (2007).", "* Radio sets: 1,000 (1997).", "* Television: TV service provided by a multi-channel service provider (2007).", "* Television sets: 1,008 (2001).Six free-to-air digital channels are provided by BFBS: BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4, Sky News and BFBS Extra for non-military audiences.", "Entitled personnel within British Forces South Atlantic can also receive Sky Sports 1, Sky Sports 2 and BFBS Sport.A local subscription service, KTV carries satellite channels such as ESPN, Discovery, CNN International and Turner Classic Movies (from the United States) along with BBC World News from the United Kingdom." ], [ "Telephones", "* Calling code: +500* International call prefix: 00* Main lines: 1,980 lines in use (2012), 218th in the world.", "* Mobile cellular: 3,450 lines, 216th in the world (2012); Cable & Wireless launched \"Touch\" a GSM 900 mobile service during December 2005; Roaming became partially available in April 2007 depending on providers.", "* Domestic: Government-operated radiotelephone and private VHF/CB radiotelephone networks provide effective service to almost all points on both islands (2011).", "Services in Stanley are delivered via fibre optic and copper.", "Telephone penetration by household is 100%.", "* Satellite earth station: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) with links through the United Kingdom to other countries (2011)." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .fk* Internet users: 2,842 users, 208th in the world; 96.9% of the population, 1st in the world (2012).", "* Fixed broadband: 1,187 subscriptions, 179th in the world; 40.5% of the population, 5th in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: unknown (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 110 hosts, 207th in the world (2012).", "* Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Sure South Atlantic (formerly Cable & Wireless).", "* ADSL services were launched in Stanley in mid-2006." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* KTV, website.", "* Station History, Falkland Islands Radio Service (FIRS).", "* How it all started, Saint FM (Falklands).", "* Sure Falkland Islands History, Sure South Atlantic, the successor to Cable & Wireless." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The Falkland Islands currently has three primary means of transport - road, sea and air.", "However, in 1946, when Sir Miles Clifford arrived as governor, there were no air services, no roads outside Stanley and an indifferent sea service.", "Sir Miles was instrumental in starting the Falkland Islands Government Air Service in December 1948.The inaugural flight involved a mercy flight from North Arm Settlement to Stanley to bring a girl with peritonitis to life-saving medical help in Stanley.", "There is now an international airport, a domestic airport, a number of airstrips, a growing road network and a much-improved ferry service between the two main islands." ], [ "Road", "Typical Falkland Islands road In 1982, the Falkland Islands had no roads outside Stanley, only tracks.", "By 2007, the Falkland Islands had a road network of with a further roads planned for construction link to all occupied mainland settlements by 2013.In 2012, the Falkland Islands Government classified the road network - East Falkland and West Falkland - into \"A\" roads, \"B\" roads and \"C\" roads for purposes of ''Highways Asset Management Plan''.", "The \"A\" roads are the link between Stanley and New Haven (East Falkland) and the link between Port Howard and Fox Bay (West Falkland).", "All roads within Stanley are asphalted as are the ones at Mount Pleasant Airport (MPA).", "The road between Stanley and MPA is mostly gravel all-weather roads (as like the rest of the roads in the islands) with some short asphalted sections.", "The road between Stanley and MPA has a large trench on either side, which will ground any vehicle driving into it.", "These trenches were allegedly dug deeper than they needed to be as annual rainfall was taken as a number for the monthly rainfall.Stanley has two taxi services which can be used for travel within the town and the surrounding areas.", "A variety of four-wheel drive vehicles can be hired in Stanley, which are essential for travel along unpaved roads that are potentially badly potholed.", "A bus service ferries passengers between the main airport for international flights at Mount Pleasant and Stanley.Bicycles can also be hired, though because of the unsealed roads and hilly terrain, these are more suitable for use around the Stanley area.Speed limits are 25 mph (40 km/h) in built-up areas and 40 mph (64 km/h) elsewhere." ], [ "Sea", "Stanley Harbour There are two seaports in the Falkland Islands, Stanley (East Falkland) and Fox Bay (West Falkland).", "Additionally, British forces in the islands use a port facility located at Mare Harbour.", "The designated harbours in Stanley area include Berkeley Sound, Port William and Stanley Harbour itself.", "Fox Bay is also a customs entry point for West Falkland.", "In 2020 the Government awarded a contract to BAM Nuttall to design and build a new port for the Falklands.", "The Falkland Islands do not have a merchant navy.", "Since November 2008, a regular ferry service has linked the two main islands, carrying cars, passengers and cargo.", "The ferry, ''MV Concordia Bay'', a 42.45 m twin-screw shallow draft (2.59 m) landing craft runs between Port Howard in West Falkland and New Haven in East Falkland.", "She has a deck, 30 m in length and 10 m in width which is sufficient for 16 one-ten Land Rovers (or equivalent) and accommodation for 30 passengers.", "She also has a crane that is capable of lifting 10 tonnes at 7 m. She also visits some of the smaller islands.Other smaller boats may be chartered in advance.", "Tourist cruise ships often visit many of the islands, making use of inflatable boats where adequate docking facilities are not available." ], [ "Rail", "A gauge railway, known as the Camber Railway, was built along the north side of Stanley Harbour in 1915-1916 and used until the 1920s.", "It was about long.", "The trackbed is still visible." ], [ "Air", "VP-FBD operated by the Falkland Islands Government Air Service, Stanley, 1994The Falkland Islands have two airports with paved runways.", "The main international airport is RAF Mount Pleasant, west of Stanley.", "LAN Airlines operate weekly flights to Punta Arenas.", "Once a month, this flight also stops in Río Gallegos, Argentina.The Royal Air Force operates flights from RAF Mount Pleasant to RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire, England, with a refuelling stop at RAF Ascension Island.", "This service is called the South Atlantic Airbridge.Bristow Helicopters also operate two Sikorsky S-92 helicopters, based at RAF Mount Pleasant, under contract to the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence, primarily for moving military personnel, equipment and supplies around the islands.A Britten-Norman Islander owned by FIGAS touching down at a landing strip on Sea Lion Island The smaller Port Stanley Airport, outside the city, is used mainly for internal flights.", "The Falkland Islands Government Air Service (FIGAS) operates Islander aircraft that can use the grass airstrips that most settlements have.", "Flight schedules are decided a day in advance according to passenger needs and the next day's timetable is published every evening.", "The schedules are based on three routes - a Northern Shuttle and the Southern Shuttle that each have one flight a day and the East - West Shuttle that has a morning and an evening flight every day.The British Antarctic Survey operates a transcontinental air link between Port Stanley Airport and the Rothera Research Station on the Antarctic Peninsula and servicing also other British bases in the British Antarctic Territory using a de Havilland Canada Dash 7." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Military of the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Falkland Islands''' are a British overseas territory and, as such, rely on the United Kingdom for the guarantee of their security.", "The other UK territories in the South Atlantic, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, fall under the protection of '''British Forces South Atlantic Islands''' (BFSAI), formerly known as '''British Forces Falkland Islands''' (BFFI), which includes commitments from the British Army, Royal Air Force and Royal Navy.", "They are headed by the Commander, British Forces South Atlantic Islands (CBFSAI), a brigadier-equivalent appointment that rotates among all three services (Navy, British Army, and RAF).Argentina invaded and took control of the Falklands on 2 April 1982.After recapturing the territory in June 1982, the UK invested heavily in the defence of the islands, the centrepiece of which was a new airfield at RAF Mount Pleasant, west of Stanley.", "The base was opened in 1985, and became fully operational in 1986." ], [ "Falkland Islands Defence Force", "The Falkland Islands maintains its own part-time volunteer force, the Falkland Islands Defence Force (FIDF), previously known as the Falkland Islands Volunteer Corps.", "Although this unit existed in 1982 as a reinforcement for the Governor's detachment of Royal Marines, it did not play any part in the main conflict during the war of 1982, its members having spent the duration of the hostilities under house arrest by the Argentines after their surrender on the Argentine capture of the islands.", "The FIDF is now a platoon to company-strength light infantry unit with a permanent training Warrant Officer seconded from the Royal Marines.", "The FIDF operates in a number of roles and is fully integrated into the defence scheme for the islands.FIDF soldiers can deploy aboard the Falklands Government patrol vessel for sovereignty protection duties if the vessel requires an armed presence.", "As of 2023, the Falklands Government sovereignty and fisheries patrol vessel is the FPV ''Lilibet'', which arrived in the islands in April and is tasked with policing the exclusive economic zone around the islands.", "The ship is named in honour of the late Queen Elizabeth II, and has been leased to the Falklands Government by Seagull Maritime Limited for fifteen years.", "Civilian-crewed, the vessel is a Damen Stan 5009 patrol ship with a maximum speed of up to and a crew of up to 28 persons.", "She has an endurance of 30 days, though sixty days of provisions can be carried.", "If patrolling at 10 knots she can reportedly operate for 42 days with a range of up to 10,000 nautical miles.", "She is fitted with two Browning .50 caliber heavy machine gun mounts though she routinely deploys unarmed." ], [ "Royal Navy", "Type 45 guided missile destroyer.RAF Mount Pleasant has its own port facility called Mare Harbour, operated by Naval Party 2010 (NP2010).", "The Royal Navy deploys a River-class offshore patrol vessel, , in the south Atlantic and the ship is the principal naval presence permanently close to the islands.", "In addition, an Ice Patrol Ship, , is on station close to Antarctica during the regional summer months.Prior to 2015 a major warship and RFA vessel commonly carried out the Atlantic Patrol Task (South) mission, which provides for \"a maritime presence to protect the UK's interests in the region\".", "The Type 42 destroyer took over the South Atlantic Patrol Task in October 2006, replacing .", "Prior to ''Southampton''s deployment in August 2005, the role was filled by , which was decommissioned on return to the UK.", "As of February 2010, the on-station warship was the Type 42 destroyer .", "In late April 2010, ''York'' was relieved by the Type 23 frigate .", "In August 2010, ''Portland'' was relieved by the Type 42 destroyer .", "On 21 April 2011, ''York'' returned to the East Cove Military Port in the Falkland Islands, beginning patrol duties for the islands.", "October 2011 saw the arrival of the Type 23 frigate , generating a statement from UNASUR (Union of South American Nations).", "The Type 45 guided missile destroyer replaced ''Montrose'' as of April 2012.In the second half of 2013, was deployed on the Royal Navy's south Atlantic patrol duty.", "''Portland'' was deployed in January 2014, followed by in 2015 and ''Portland'' again in late 2016/early 2017 on the return leg of a longer deployment to the Gulf and Indian Ocean.", "As of 2024, ''Portland''s deployment was the last time a frigate deployed to the Falklands.Former , a nuclear submarineSince 2015, with the commitment to deploy a destroyer or frigate scaled back, HMS ''Forth'' has been the principal Royal Navy asset permanently in the south Atlantic having replaced in 2020.HMS ''Forth'' is expected to be tasked to the south Atlantic mission for a decade or more.", "HMS ''Clyde'' returned to Britain in late 2019 for decommissioning, after itself having relieved the s and which maintained the patrol vessel commitment on rotation up to 2007.temporarily replaced ''Forth'' in 2023 during her refit.The Royal Navy also has and -class nuclear submarines that it can deploy to the area, though such deployments are classified and likely rare.", "In February 2012, a ''Trafalgar''-class submarine may have been deployed to the Falkland Islands.", "The threat posed by submarines to hostile ships was demonstrated during the Falklands War when sank the Argentine cruiser .", "The Royal Navy's current fleet submarines also carry BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missiles, which have a range of ." ], [ "British Army", "Sky Sabre: radar targeting system, command and control and missile launcher vehiclesThe British Army maintains a garrison on the Falkland Islands based at Mount Pleasant.", "The force is made up of a roulement infantry company, an engineer squadron, a signals unit (part of the Joint Communications Unit – see below), a logistics group and supporting services.Ground-based air defence of RAF Mount Pleasant is provided by the 16th Regiment Royal Artillery of the British Army's 7th Air Defence Group.", "Up until 2021, the detachment was equipped with the Rapier FSC surface-to-air missile system.", "Rapier has been replaced with the new Sky Sabre surface-to-air missile system incorporating an expanded capability.", "Sky Sabre achieved informal initial operating capability at RAF Mount Pleasant in October 2021.In the same month Rapier was fully withdrawn from service on the Falklands.The British Army contributed to the Joint Service Explosive Ordnance Disposal group in the Falkland Islands, providing 33 Engineer Regiment (EOD) and RLC EOD teams.", "This was subsequently reduced to a team of 11 personnel.", "In November 2020, it was announced that all remaining land mines had been cleared from the islands.Main article: Land mines in the Falkland Islands" ], [ "Royal Air Force", "Eurofighter TyphoonVoyager KC2A400MRoyal Air Force elements in the Falklands are under the command of No.", "905 Expeditionary Air Wing which, as of 2023, consists of two flights: Typhoon multi-role fighters of No.", "1435 Flight RAF and Voyager KC.2/A400M Atlas aircraft of No.", "1312 Flight RAF.RAF Mount Pleasant was built in 1985–86, able to accept large trans-Atlantic aircraft such as the Lockheed TriStar.", "The TriStar was initially purchased mainly for the UK-Falklands route; until their entry into service, the UK used leased 747s and 767s.", "As of early 2023, all major RAF transport aircraft are able to fly into RAF Mount Pleasant, as may be required.", "Utilizing RAF Ascension Island, a station which reports to the Commander BFSAI, these aircraft maintain direct air links between the U.K. and the Falklands.Four Typhoon multi-role fighter aircraft of No.", "1435 Flight RAF provide air defence for the islands and surrounding territories and have a secondary ground attack/anti-ship role.Originally Lockheed Hercules C.1K were used for air-to-air refuelling missions, but these were later replaced by a VC10.On 31 August 2013 the VC10 was temporarily replaced by a TriStar K.1, which was itself replaced by a Voyager KC.2 in March 2014.The Voyager is deployed in the islands for air refueling operations but is unable to fit within a hangar at RAF Mount Pleasant due to its size.Initially, a C-130 Hercules was used for transport, search and rescue and maritime patrol until replaced with an A400M Atlas aircraft in April 2018.The aircraft is used for both regional operations, as well as for providing support for the British Antarctic Survey.", "In August 2022, an RAF A400M aircraft flying from RAF Ascension Island was refueled for the first time by a Voyager KC.2 aircraft flying out of RAF Mount Pleasant.", "In January 2023, an RAF A400M Atlas supported by a Voyager tanker aircraft, dropped the first of 300 fuel drums as part of a tasking to resupply the Sky Blu facility of the British Antarctic Survey.For a lengthy period, the helicopters of No.", "1564 Flight (formerly No.", "78 Squadron) provided tactial air transport support.", "The Sea Kings carried out short and medium range search and rescue missions, until their retirement.", "AAR Corp was awarded a contract for helicopter search and rescue services in the Falkland Islands to replace 1564 Flight, using AgustaWestland AW189 helicopters in the role from 2016.In March 2015, the UK announced that a pair of Chinooks would be stationed in the Falklands again, the first of which started flying in June 2016.1564 Flight disbanded in March 2016 being subsequently replaced by the Chinooks of No.", "1310 Flight.These military helicopters only remained on the islands for a short period and, as of 2022, Chinooks are no longer based in the Falklands.", "In lieu of this military capability, the firms AAR Corp and British International Helicopters (part of Bristow Helicopters), jointly provide two AW189s (in the Search and Rescue role) and two Sikiorsky S92A helicopters (in the support role) from RAF Mount Pleasant.", "The latter helicopter replaced the formerly used S61N helicopter in 2023.There were initially two air defence radar units, both located on West Falkland; No.", "7 Signals Unit at Byron Heights and No.", "751 Signals Unit at Mount Alice.", "Byron Heights and Mount Alice were later augmented by a further radar installation on Mount Kent, designated No.", "303 Signals Unit.", "No.", "7 Signals Unit and No.", "751 Signals Unit were eventually disbanded and all three radar installations were reduced to Remote Radar Heads under the control of No.", "303 Signals Unit who moved into a purpose-built operations building at Mount Pleasant Complex to form the Control and Reporting Centre.", "The building was officially opened on 4 October 1998 by Air Chief Marshall Sir Richard Johns, then Chief of the Air Staff.===Organisation===Sikorsky S-92AgustaWestland AW189No.", "905 Expeditionary Air WingNo.", "1435 Flight4 Eurofighter TyphoonsNo.", "1312 Flight1 Voyager KC2, 1 Airbus A400M Atlas Bristow Helicopters/AAR Corp civilian-crewed aircraft 2 x Sikorsky S-92A (support role) 2 x AgustaWestland AW189 (SAR role)" ], [ "Joint Service", "The Joint Communications Unit Falkland Islands (JCUFI) provides the electronic warfare and command and control systems for the Royal Navy, Army and RAF stationed there.", "It incorporates the Army's signals unit and RAF personnel." ], [ "Commanders", "The following have served as Commander British Forces Falkland Islands/South Atlantic Islands:Major General Sir David Thorne, CBFFI (1982–1983)Major General Keith Spacie, CBFFI (1983–1984)Major General Peter de la Billière, CBFFI (1984–1985) (left post by 20 November 1985)Air Marshal Sir John Kemball, CBFFI (1985–1986)Rear Admiral Christopher Layman, CBFFI (1986–1987)Major General Anthony Carlier (1987–1988)Air Vice Marshal David Crwys-Williams (1988–1989)Major General Paul Stevenson (1989–1990)Major General Malcolm Hunt (1990–1991)Air Vice Marshal Peter Beer (1991–1992)Rear Admiral Neil Rankin (1992–1993)Major General Iain Mackay-Dick (1993–1994)Air Commodore Peter Johnson (1994–1995)Commodore Alexander Backus (1995–1996)Brigadier Iain Campbell (1996–1998)Air Commodore Raymond Dixon (1998–1999)Brigadier David Nicholls (1999–2000)Brigadier Geoff Sheldon (2000–2001)Air Vice Marshal John Cliffe (2001–2002)Vice Admiral Sir Richard Ibbotson (2002)Brigadier James Gordon (2002–2003)Air Vice Marshal Richard Lacey (2003–2005)Rear Admiral Ian Moncrieff (2005–2006)Brigadier Nick Davies (2006–2008)Air Commodore Gordon Moulds (2008–2009)Commodore Philip Thicknesse (2009–2011)Brigadier William Aldridge (2011–2013)Air Commodore Russell La Forte (2013–2015)Commodore Darren Bone (2015–2017)Brigadier Baz Bennett (2017–2018)Brigadier Nick Sawyer (2018–2020)Commodore Jonathan Lett (2020–2023)* Brigadier Dan Duff (2023- )" ], [ "British Forces South Atlantic Islands installations", " Name Region Opened Description Mount Pleasant Complex East Falkland 1985 HQ for British Force South Atlantic Islands with approximately 1000 Joint Service personnel permanently deployed.", "Falklands Defence Force HQ, Stanley East Falkland Mare Harbour East Falkland Military port for RAF Mount Pleasant; facility for Royal Navy ships in the South Atlantic RRH Mount Alice West Falkland One of two early-warning and airspace control radar sites on West Falkland.", "RRH Byron Heights West Falkland One of two early-warning and airspace control radar sites on West Falkland.", "RRH Mount Kent East Falkland An early-warning and airspace control radar site on East Falkland." ], [ "See also", "* List of British Army installations* Argentine Armed Forces" ], [ "Sources" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The early details of the history of the Faroe Islands are unclear.", "It is possible that Brendan, an Irish monk, sailed past the islands during his North Atlantic voyage in the 6th century.", "He saw an 'Island of Sheep' and a 'Paradise of Birds', which some say could be the Faroes with its dense bird population and sheep.", "This does suggest however that other sailors had got there before him, to bring the sheep.", "Norsemen settled the Faroe Islands in the 9th or 10th century.", "The islands were officially converted to Christianity around the year 1000, and became a part of the Kingdom of Norway in 1035.Norwegian rule on the islands continued until 1380, when the islands became part of the dual Denmark–Norway kingdom, under king Olaf II of Denmark.Following the 1814 Treaty of Kiel that ended the dual Denmark–Norway kingdom, the Faroe Islands remained under the administration of Denmark as a county.", "During World War II, after Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany, the British invaded and occupied the Faroe Islands until shortly after the end of the war.", "Following an independence referendum in 1946 that took place unrecognized by Denmark, the Faroe Islands were in 1948 granted extended self-governance with the Danish Realm with the signing of the ''Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands''." ], [ "Early Gaelic and Norse settlements", "Faroese stamp depicting Saint Brendan discovering the Faroe IslandsThere is some evidence of settlement on the Faroe Islands before Norse Viking settlers arrived in the ninth century AD.", "Scientific researchers found burnt grains of domesticated barley and peat ash deposited in two phases: the first dated between the mid-fourth and mid-sixth centuries, and another between the late-sixth and late-eighth centuries.", "Researchers have also found sheep DNA in lake-bed sediments, which were dated to around the year 500.Barley and sheep had to have been brought to the islands by humans.", "It is unlikely the Norse would have sailed near the Faroes long before the early 800s.", "The first settlers may have come from the British Isles.", "Archaeologist Mike Church suggested that the people living there might have been from Ireland, Scotland or Scandinavia, or from all three.According to a ninth-century voyage tale, the Irish saint Brendan visited islands resembling the Faroes in the sixth century.", "This description, however, is not conclusive.The earliest text which has been claimed to be a description of the Faroe Islands was written by the Irish monk Dicuil c.825 in his work ''Liber de Mensura Orbis Terrae'' (description of the sphere of the earth).", "Dicuil had met a \"man worthy of trust\" who related to his master, the abbot Sweeney (Suibhne), how he had landed on islands in the far north after sailing \"two days and a summer night in a little vessel of two banks of oars\" (''in duobus aestivis diebus, et una intercedente nocte, navigans in duorum navicula transtrorum'').", "\"Many other islands lie in the northerly British Ocean.", "One reaches them from the northerly islands of Britain, by sailing directly for two days and two nights with a full sail in a favourable wind the whole time....", "Most of these islands are small, they are separated by narrow channels, and for nearly a hundred years hermits lived there, coming from our land, Ireland, by boat.", "But just as these islands have been uninhabited from the beginning of the world, so now the Norwegian pirates have driven away the monks; but countless sheep and many different species of sea-fowl are to be found there...\"Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands is recorded in the Færeyinga saga, whose original manuscript is lost.", "Portions of the tale were inscribed in three other sagas: the ''Flateyjarbók'', the Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason, and AM 62 fol.", "Similar to other sagas, the historical credibility of the Færeyinga saga is highly questioned.Both the Saga of Ólafr Tryggvason and the ''Flateyjarbók'' claim that Grímr Kamban was the first man to discover the Faroe Islands.", "The two sources disagree, however, on the year in which he left and the circumstances of his departure.", "The ''Flateyjarbók'' details the emigration of Grímr Kamban as sometime during the reign of Harald Hårfagre, between 872 and 930 AD.", "The Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason indicates that Kamban was residing in the Faroes long before the rule of Harald Hårfagre, and that other Norse were driven to the Faroe Islands due to his chaotic rule.", "This mass migration to the Faroe Islands shows a prior knowledge of the Viking settlements' locations, furthering the claim of Grímr Kamban's settlement much earlier.", "While Kamban is recognized as the first Viking settler of the Faroe Islands, his surname is of Gaelic origin.", "Writings from the Papar, an order of Irish monks, show that they left the Faroe Islands due to ongoing Viking raids." ], [ "Pre-14th century", "The name of the islands is first recorded on the Hereford ''Mappa Mundi'' (1280), where they are labelled ''farei''.The name has long been understood as based on Old Norse ''fár'' \"livestock\", thus ''fær-øer'' \"sheep islands\".The main historical source for this period is the 13th-century work ''Færeyinga saga'' (''Saga of the Faroese''), though it is disputed as to how much of this work is historical fact.", "''Færeyinga saga'' only exists today as copies in other sagas, in particular the manuscripts called ''Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason'', ''Flateyjarbók'' and one registered as AM 62 fol.According to Flateyjarbók, Grímr Kamban settled in Faroe when Harald Hårfagre was king of Norway (872–930).", "A slightly different account is found in the version of ''Færeyinga saga'' in Ólafs Saga Tryggvasonar::''There was a man named Grímr Kamban; he first settled in Faroe.", "But in the days of Harold Fairhair many men fled before the king's overbearing.", "Some settled in Faroe and began to dwell there, and others sought to other waste lands.", "''The text suggests that Grímr Kamban settled in the Faroes some time before the flight from Harald Hårfagre, perhaps even hundreds of years before.", "His first name, ''Grímr'', is Norse, but his last, ''Kamban'', suggests a Gaelic origin (''Cambán'').", "He may have been of mixed Norse and Irish origin and have come from a settlement in the British Isles: a so-called Norse-Gael.", "The Norse-Gaels had intermarried with speakers of Irish, a language also spoken at the time in Scotland (being the ancestor of Scottish Gaelic).", "Evidence of a mixed cultural background in later settlers may be found in the Norse-Irish ring pins found in the Faroe Islands, and in features of Faroese vocabulary.", "Examples of such words (derived from Middle Irish) are: \"blak/blaðak\" (buttermilk), Irish ''bláthach''; \"drunnur\" (animal tail), Irish ''dronn'' (chine); \"grúkur\" (head), Irish ''gruaig'' (hair); \"lámur\" (hand, paw), Irish ''lámh'' (hand); \"tarvur\" (bull), Irish ''tarbh''; and \"ærgi\" (pasture in the outfield), Irish ''áirge'' (byre, milking place: Mod.", "Irish ''áirí'').", "The discovery at Toftanes on Eysturoy of wooden devotional crosses apparently modelled on Irish or Scottish exemplars suggests that some of the settlers were Christian.", "It has also been suggested that the typical curvilinear stone-built walls enclosing early ecclesiastical sites in the Faroes (as in Norse settlements elsewhere) reflect a Celtic Christian style, seen in the circular enclosures of early ecclesiastical sites in Ireland.", "Indirect support for this theory has been found in genetic research showing that many Norse settler women in the Faroe Islands had Celtic forebears.If there was settlement in the Faroes in the reign of Harald Hårfagre, it is possible that people already knew about the Faroes because of previous visitors or settlers.The fact that immigrants from Norway also settled in the Faroe Islands is proven by a runestone (''see Sandavágur stone'') found in the village of Sandavágur on Vágoy Island.", "It says: :''Thorkil Onundsson, eastman (Norwegian) from Rogaland, settled first in this place (Sandavágur)''This description \"eastman\" (from Norway) has to be seen together with the description \"westman\" (from Ireland/Scotland), which is to be found in local place-names such as \"Vestmanna-havn\" i.e.", "\"Irishmen's harbour\" in the Faroe Isles, and \"Vestmannaeyjar\" i.e.", "\"Irishmen's islands\" in Iceland.Faroese stamp depicting Tróndur í Gøtu raising the hammer of Thor against ChristianityAccording to ''Færeyinga saga'' there was an ancient institution on the headland called Tinganes in Tórshavn on the island of Streymoy.", "This was an ''Alþing'' or Althing (All-council.)", "This was the place where laws were made and disputes solved.", "All free men had the right to meet in the Alþing.", "It was a parliament and law court for all, thus the name.", "Historians estimate the Alþing to have been established from 800 to 900.The islands were officially converted to Christianity around the year 1000, with the Diocese of the Faroe Islands based at Kirkjubøur, southern Streymoy, of which there were 33 Catholic bishops.The Faroes became a part of the Kingdom of Norway in 1035.Early in the 11th century Sigmund or Sigmundur Brestisson, whose family had flourished in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the islands of the north, was sent from Norway, to where he had escaped, to take possession of the islands for Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway.", "He introduced Christianity, and, though he was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld and continued.King Sverre of Norway was brought up in the Faroes, being stepson of a Faroese man, and relative to Roe, bishop of the islands." ], [ "Foreign commercial interest: 14th century to Second World War", "The 14th century saw the start of what would prove to be a long era of foreign encroachment on the Faroese economy.", "At this time trading regulations were set up so that all Faroese commerce had to pass through Bergen, Norway, in order to collect customs tax.", "Meanwhile, the Hanseatic League was gaining in power, threatening Scandinavian commerce.", "Though Norway tried to halt this, it was forced to desist after the Black Death decimated its population.Norwegian supremacy continued until 1380, when the islands became part of the Kalmar Union.", "The islands were still a possession of the Norwegian crown since the crowns had not been joined.", "In 1380 the Alþting was renamed the Løgting, though it was by now little more than a law court.In 1390s, Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney, took possession of the islands (as vassal of Norway, however) and for some time they were part of the Sinclair principality in the North Atlantic.Archaeological excavations on the islands indicate sustained pig keeping up to and beyond the 13th century, a unique situation when compared to Iceland and Greenland.", "The Faroese at Junkarinsfløtti remained dependent upon bird resources, especially puffins, far longer and to a greater degree than with any of the other Viking Age settlers of the North Atlantic islands.English adventurers gave great trouble to the inhabitants in the 16th century, and the name of Magnus Heinason, a native of Streymoy, who was sent by Frederick II to clear the seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories.===Reformation era===In 1535 Christian II, the deposed monarch, tried to regain power from King Christian III who had just succeeded his father Frederick I.", "Several of the powerful German companies backed Christian II, but he eventually lost.", "In 1537 the new King Christian III gave the German trader Thomas Köppen exclusive trading rights in the Faroes.", "These rights were subject to the following conditions: only good quality goods were to be supplied by the Faroese and were to be made in numbers proportionate to the rest of the market; the goods were to be bought at their market value; and the traders were to deal fairly and honestly with the Faroese.Christian III also introduced Lutheranism to the Faroes, to replace Catholicism.", "This process took five years to complete, in which time Danish was used instead of Latin and church property was transferred to the state.", "The bishopric at Kirkjubøur, south of Tórshavn, where remains of the cathedral may be seen, was also abolished.After Köppen, others took over the trading monopoly, though the economy suffered as a result of the Dano-Swedish war between Denmark–Norway and Sweden.", "During this period of the monopoly most Faroese goods (wool products, fish, meat) were taken to the Netherlands, where they were sold at pre-determined prices.", "The guidelines of the trading agreement, however, were often ignored or corrupted.", "This caused delays and shortages in the supply of Faroese goods and a reduction in quality.", "With the trading monopoly nearing collapse smuggling and piracy were rife.===1600s onwards===English map of the Faroe Islands in 1806The Faroe Islands as seen by the French navigator Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec in 1767The Danish king tried to solve the problem by giving the Faroes to the courtier Christoffer Gabel (and later on his son, Frederick) as a personal feudal estate.", "However, the Gabel rule was harsh and repressive, breeding much resentment in the Faroese.", "This caused Denmark–Norway, in 1708, to entrust the islands and trading monopoly once more to the central government.", "However, they too struggled to keep the economy going, and many merchants were trading at a loss.", "Finally, on 1 January 1856 the trading monopoly was abolished.The Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland became a part of Denmark at the Peace of Kiel in 1814, when the union of Denmark–Norway was dissolved.In 1816 the Løgting (the Faroese parliament) was officially abolished and replaced by a Danish judiciary.", "Danish was introduced as the main language, whilst Faroese was discouraged.", "In 1849 a new constitution came into use in Denmark and was promulgated in the Faroes in 1850, giving the Faroese two seats in the Rigsdag (Danish parliament).", "The Faroese, however, managed in 1852 to re-establish the Løgting as a county council with an advisory role, with many people hoping for eventual independence.", "The late 19th century saw increasing support for the home rule/independence movement, though not all were in favour.", "Meanwhile, the Faroese economy was growing with the introduction of large-scale fishing.", "The Faroese were allowed access to the large Danish waters in the North Atlantic.", "Living standards subsequently improved and there was a population increase.", "Though Faroese was standardized as a written language in 1890, it was not allowed to be used in public schools until 1938, or in the church (Fólkakirkjan) until 1939." ], [ "World War II", "British Army soldier with local children in TórshavnDuring the Second World War, Denmark was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany.", "The British subsequently made a pre-emptive invasion and occupation of the Faroes, known as Operation Valentine, to prevent a German invasion.", "Given their strategic location in the North Atlantic, the Faroes could have proved useful to Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic, possibly as a submarine base.", "Instead, the British forces built an airbase on Vágar, which is still in use as Vágar Airport.", "Faroese fishing boats also provided a large amount of fish to the UK, which was crucial given food rationing.The Løgting gained legislative powers, with the Danish prefect Carl Aage Hilbert retaining executive power.", "The Faroese flag was recognized by British authorities.", "There were some attempts to declare complete independence in this period, but the UK had given an undertaking not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Faroe Islands nor to act without the permission of a liberated Denmark.", "The experience of wartime self-government was crucial in paving the way for formal autonomy in 1948.The British presence was broadly popular (particularly given the alternative of a German occupation).", "Approximately 150 marriages took place between British soldiers and Faroese women, although the scale of the British presence on Vágar did lead to some local tensions.", "The British presence also left a lasting popularity for British chocolate and sweets, which are readily available in Faroese shops but uncommon in Denmark." ], [ "Post-World War II: Home Rule", "Following the liberation of Denmark and the end of World War II, the last British troops left in September 1945.Until 1948 the Faroes had the official status of a Danish amt (county).", "A referendum on full independence was held in 1946, which produced a majority in favour.", "This was, however, not recognised by the Danish Government or king due to only 2/3 of the population participating in the referendum, so the Danish king abolished the government of the Faroes.", "The subsequent elections Løgting were won by an anti-independence majority and instead a high degree of self-governance was attained in 1948 with the passing of the Act of Faroese Home Rule.", "Faroese was now an official language, though Danish is still taught as a second language in schools.", "The Faroese flag was also officially recognised by Danish authorities.In 1973 Denmark joined the European Community (now European Union).", "The Faroes refused to join, mainly over the issue of fishing limits.The 1980s saw an increase in support for Faroese independence.", "Unemployment was very low, and the Faroese were enjoying one of the world's highest standards of living, but the Faroese economy was almost entirely reliant on fishing.", "The early 1990s saw a dramatic slump in fish stocks, which were being overfished with new high-tech equipment.", "During the same period the government was also engaged in massive overspending.", "National debt was now at 9.4 billion Danish krones (DKK).", "Finally, in October 1992, the Faroese national bank (Sjóvinnurbankin) called in receivers and was forced to ask Denmark for a huge financial bailout.", "The initial sum was 500 million DKK, though this eventually grew to 1.8 billion DKK (this was in addition to the annual grant of 1 billion DKK).", "Austerity measures were introduced: public spending was cut, there was a tax and VAT increase and public employees were given a 10% wage-cut.", "Much of the fishing industry was put into receivership, with talk of cutting down the number of fish-farms and ships.It was during this period that many Faroese (6%) decided to emigrate, mainly to Denmark.", "Unemployment rose to as much as 20% in Tórshavn, and even higher in the outlying islands.In 1993 the Sjóvinnurbankin merged with the Faroe Islands' second largest bank, Føroya Banki.", "A third was declared bankrupt.", "Meanwhile, there was a growing international boycott of Faroese produce because of the grindadráp (whaling) issue.", "The independence movement dissolved on the one hand while Denmark found itself left with the Faroe Islands' unpaid bills on the other.Recuperative measures were put in place and largely worked.", "Unemployment peaked in January 1994 at 26%, since which it fell (10% in mid-1996, 5% in April 2000).", "The fishing industry survived largely intact.", "Fish stocks also rose, with the annual catch being 100,000 in 1994, rising to 150,000 in 1995.In 1998 it was 375,000.Emigration also fell to 1% in 1995, and there was a small population increase in 1996.In addition, oil was discovered nearby.", "By the early 21st century weaknesses in the Faroese economy had been eliminated and, accordingly, many minds turned once again to the possibility of independence from Denmark.", "However, a planned referendum in 2001 on first steps towards independence was called off following Danish Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen saying that Danish money grants would be phased out within four years if there were a 'yes' vote." ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of Faroese history* Faroese language conflict" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Church, MJ, Arge, SV, Brewington, S, McGovern, TH, Woollett, JM, Perdikaris, S, Lawson, IT, Cook, GT, Amundsen, C. Harrison, R, Krivogorskaya, Y and Dunar, E. (2005).", "Puffins, Pigs, Cod and Barley: Palaeoeconomy at Undir Junkarinsfløtti, Sandoy, Faroe Islands.", "''Environmental Archaeology'' 10#2 pp: 179–197." ], [ "Further reading", "* Brandt, Don.", "''Stamps and Story of the Faroe Islands''.", "Reykjavík: Nesútgáfan, 1996.", "* Johnston, George.", "''The Faroe Islanders' Saga''.", "Ottawa: Oberon, 1975.", "* Miller, James.", "''The North Atlantic Front: Orkney, Shetland, Faroe, and Iceland at War'' (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2003), on the Second World War* West, John F. ''The History of the Faroe Islands, 1709–1816''.", "København: C.A.", "Reitzel, 1985.", "* Wylie, Jonathan.", "''The Faroe Islands: Interpretations of History''.", "Lexington, Ky: University Press of Kentucky, 1987." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Satellite image of the Faroe IslandsThe Faroe Islands are an island group consisting of eighteen islands between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about half-way between Iceland and Norway.", "Its coordinates are .", "It is 1,393 square kilometres in area, and includes small lakes and rivers, but no major ones.", "There are 1,117 kilometres of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country.The Faroe Islands generally have cool summers and cool to cold winters, with a usually overcast sky and frequent fog and strong winds.", "Although at a high latitude, due to the Gulf Stream their climate is ameliorated.", "The islands are rugged and rocky with some low peaks; the coasts are mostly bordered by cliffs.", "The Faroe Islands are notable for having the highest sea cliffs in Europe, and some of the highest in the world otherwise.", "The lowest point is at sea level, and the highest is at Slættaratindur, which is 882 metres above sea level.", "The landscape made roadbuilding difficult, and only recently has this been remedied by building tunnels.View of the west coast of SuðuroyDetailed map of the Faroe IslandsMany of the Faroese islands tend to be elongated in shape.", "Natural resources include fish and hydropower." ], [ "Statistics", "Map including the Faroe Islands; Geographic coordinates::* :* North: Enniberg, 62°29′,2 N:* South: Sumbiarsteinur, 61°21′,6 N:* West: Gáadrangur, 7°40′,1 W:* East: Stapin, 6°21′,5 W; Area::* Land: 1,393 km² :* Water: 7.19 km² (the area includes 10 of the largest lakes.", "There are a number of smaller lakes and streams.", "); Land boundaries:: 0 km; Coastline:: 1,117 km; Maritime claims::* Territorial sea: :* Continental shelf: or agreed boundaries or median line:* Exclusive economic zone: or agreed boundaries or median line; Climate:: Subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfc'') moderated by North Atlantic Current; long, mild, windy winters; short, cool summers, damp in the South and West.", "Arctic climate (Köppen ''ET'') in some mountains.", "; Terrain:: Rugged, rocky, some low peaks; cliffs along most of coast.", "The coasts are deeply indented with fjords, and the narrow passages between islands are agitated by strong tidal currents.", "Multiple sea stacks exist along the coast.", "; Elevation extremes::* Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m:* Highest point: Slættaratindur 880 m; Natural resources:: Fish, whales, hydropower, wind, possible petroleum and natural gas; Land use::* Arable land: 2.14%:* Permanent crops: 0%:* Other: 97.86% (2012); Environment—international agreements:: Marine dumping" ], [ "Climate", "The climate is classed as subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfc''), with areas having a tundra climate, especially in the mountains, although some coastal or low-lying areas may have very mild-winter versions of a tundra climate.", "The overall character of the climate of the islands is influenced by the strong warming influence of the Atlantic Ocean, which produces the North Atlantic Current.", "This, together with the remoteness of any source of landmass-induced warm or cold airflows, ensures that winters are mild (mean temperature 3.0 to 4.0 °C or 37 to 39 °F) while summers are cool (mean temperature 9.5 to 10.5 °C or 49 to 51 °F).The islands are windy, cloudy and cool throughout the year with an average of 210 rainy or snowy days per year.", "The islands lie in the path of depressions moving northeast, making strong winds and heavy rain possible at all times of the year.", "Sunny days are rare and overcast days are common.", "Hurricane Faith struck the Faroe Islands on 5 September 1966 with sustained winds over 100 mph (160 km/h) and only then did the storm cease to be a tropical system.An October evening on EysturoyDue to the altitude, ocean currents, topography, and winds, the islands exhibit a variety of microclimates.", "Precipitation varies considerably throughout the archipelago.", "In some highland areas, snow cover may last for months with snowfalls possible for the greater part of the year (on the highest peaks, summer snowfall is by no means rare), while in some sheltered coastal locations, several years pass without any snowfall whatsoever.Tórshavn receives frosts more often than other areas just a short distance to the south.", "Snow is also seen at a much higher frequency than outlying islands nearby.", "The area receives on average 49 frosts a year.While receiving more frost than most of the Faroe Islands, Mykines is more temperate in the winter than nearby Vágar.", "Snow is also less common despite the relatively lower winter temperatures due to the relatively low precipitation in the area.", "It also has a very mild tundra climate bordering on subpolar oceanic.", "Frost occurs on 46 days in an average year It is also likely that the lower areas of the island experience less than this, as the weather station is located at 105 meters above sea level.Akraberg is milder than much of the Faroe Islands and experiences frost on 38 days in an average year, possibly less in lower areas, as the weather station is located at an elevation of 101 meters above sea level.Vágar has colder and snowier winters than most other places in the archipelago.", "Lower temperatures combined with higher precipitation are responsible for this, and measurable snow cover can be seen- a rarity in the Faroe Islands, in which snow cover (in areas which regularly experience it) is usually limited to a thin coating.", "The airport, at which data is recorded, is also located at a higher altitude on the island (84 meters above sea level), which might result in lower temperatures and higher precipitation than lower-lying areas on the island.", "Frost occurs on average on 62 days of the year, the most out of all stations included in the records of the Danish Meteorological Institute.Kirkja has a very mild climate, similar to Akraberg.", "It has the lowest frequency of frosts out of all weather stations included in the records by the Danish Meteorological Institute, with 36 days of frost in an average year.", "Snowfall is uncommon, due to mild temperatures and relatively low precipitation.", "The weather station is somewhat high at 53 meters above sea level, which could possibly affect the data, but not as much as the previous stations.Nólsoy experiences a climate that is quite typical of the surrounding area and the Faroe Islands in general, and is similar to nearby Tórshavn.", "There are on average 44 days of frost a year.", "Also, as in the case of previous weather stations, the location is higher on its respective island, and the climate of the lower areas of the island differs slightly.The climate of Sandur is typical for a low-lying coastal location in the south of the Faroe Islands, as the weather station for Sandur is located at 5 meters above sea level.", "On average, Sandur experiences 41 days of frost a year." ], [ "See also", "* List of islands of the Faroe Islands* List of mountains of the Faroe Islands* Geology of the Faroe Islands* Extreme points of the Faroe IslandsFjords in the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Further reading", " Ostenfeld, C. H., and Eugenius Warming.", "''Geography, Geology and Climate of the Faeröes, With the Historical Notes on the Botanical Investigation of These Islands''.", "Copenhagen: H.H.", "Thiele, 1901.", "* Peacock, Martin A.", "''Recent Lines of Fracture in the Færoes in Relation to the Theories of Fiord Formation in Northern Basaltic Plateaux''.", "Glasgow: Jackson, Wylie, 1928." ], [ "References", "* \"Faroe Islands\" ''World Fact Book 2004'', CIA, Washington." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of the Faroe Islands include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.", "The vast majority of the population are ethnic Faroese, of North Germanic descent.", "Ethnic Faroese are, in genetic terms, among the most homogenous groups ever found.Demographics of the Faroe Islands, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.A 2004 DNA analysis revealed that Y chromosomes, tracing male descent, are 87% Scandinavian.", "The studies show that mitochondrial DNA, tracing female descent, is 84% Scottish/Irish.Of the approximately 48,000 inhabitants of the Faroe Islands (16,921 private households (2004)), 98% are Danish realm citizens, meaning Faroese, Danish, or Greenlandic.", "By birthplace one can derive the following origins of the inhabitants: born on the Faroes 91.7%, in Denmark 5.8%, and in Greenland 0.3%.", "The largest group of foreigners are Icelanders comprising 0.4% of the population, followed by Norwegians and Poles, each comprising 0.2%.", "Altogether, on the Faroe Islands there are people from 77 different nationalities.", "The Faroe Islands have the highest rate of adoption in the world, despite a relatively high fertility rate of 2.6 children.Faroese is spoken in the entire country as a first language.", "It is not possible to say exactly how many people worldwide speak the Faroese language.The 2011 census, called Manntal, shows that 10% were not born in the Faroe Islands, but of these only 3% were born outside the Kingdom of Denmark.", "6.5% of people older than 15 did not speak Faroese as their mother tongue.", "33 persons said that they did not understand Faroese at all.", "According to the 2011 census, 45 361 Faroese people (people living in the Faroes) spoke Faroese as their first language and 1546 spoke Danish as their first language." ], [ "Vital statistics since 1900", "Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total Fertility Rate 1900 15,000 455 233 222 30.3 15.5 14.8 1901 15,300 457 228 229 29.9 14.9 15.0 1902 15,600 502 217 285 32.2 13.9 18.3 1903 15,900 435 199 236 27.4 12.5 14.8 1904 16,200 489 234 255 30.2 14.4 15.7 1905 16,500 498 296 202 30.2 17.9 12.2 1906 16,700 493 229 264 29.5 13.7 15.8 1907 17,000 479 196 283 28.2 11.5 16.6 1908 17,300 576 182 394 33.3 10.5 22.8 1909 17,600 528 196 332 30.0 11.1 18.9 1910 17,900 576 157 419 32.2 8.8 23.4 1911 18,200 559 164 395 30.7 9.0 21.7 1912 18,600 624 184 440 33.5 9.9 23.7 1913 18,900 650 169 481 34.4 8.9 25.4 1914 19,200 580 182 398 30.2 9.5 20.7 1915 19,600 643 288 355 32.8 14.7 18.1 1916 19,900 636 261 375 32.0 13.1 18.8 1917 20,200 570 240 330 28.2 11.9 16.3 1918 20,600 625 199 426 30.3 9.7 20.7 1919 20,900 607 221 386 29.0 10.6 18.5 1920 21,200 665 227 438 31.4 10.7 20.7 1921 21,500 614 230 384 28.6 10.7 17.9 1922 21,800 668 211 457 30.6 9.7 21.0 1923 22,100 652 255 397 29.5 11.5 18.0 1924 22,400 631 268 363 28.2 12.0 16.2 1925 22,700 599 228 371 26.4 10.0 16.3 1926 23,000 592 199 393 25.7 8.7 17.1 1927 23,300 579 157 422 24.8 6.7 18.1 1928 23,600 620 194 426 26.3 8.2 18.1 1929 23,900 575 253 322 24.1 10.6 13.5 1930 24,200 633 273 360 26.2 11.3 14.9 1931 24,500 607 239 368 24.8 9.8 15.0 1932 24,700 604 210 394 24.5 8.5 16.0 1933 25,000 545 248 297 21.8 9.9 11.9 1934 25,300 578 231 347 22.8 9.1 13.7 1935 25,600 585 269 316 22.9 10.5 12.3 1936 25,900 565 265 300 21.8 10.2 11.6 1937 26,200 615 212 403 23.5 8.1 15.4 1938 26,600 617 241 376 23.2 9.1 14.1 1939 26,900 577 182 395 21.4 6.8 14.7 1940 27,300 698 228 470 25.6 8.4 17.2 1941 27,600 690 286 404 25.0 10.4 14.6 1942 28,000 721 250 471 25.8 8.9 16.8 1943 28,300 804 235 569 28.4 8.3 20.1 1944 28,700 732 247 485 25.5 8.6 16.9 1945 29,000 718 247 471 24.8 8.5 16.2 1946 29,000 708 248 460 24.4 8.6 15.9 1947 30,000 742 242 500 24.7 8.1 16.7 1948 30,000 821 227 595 27.4 7.6 19.8 1949 31,000 876 256 626 28.3 8.3 20.2 1950 31,000 856 282 585 27.6 9.1 18.9 1951 31,000 857 229 628 27.6 7.4 20.3 1952 32,000 809 240 569 25.3 7.5 17.8 1953 33,000 758 228 530 23.0 6.9 16.1 1954 33,000 757 248 509 22.9 7.5 15.4 1955 32,000 749 221 528 23.4 6.9 16.5 1956 33,000 767 239 528 23.2 7.2 16.0 1957 33,000 746 268 478 22.6 8.1 14.5 1958 34,000 845 226 619 24.9 6.6 18.2 1959 34,000 856 242 614 25.2 7.1 18.1 1960 34,000 764 274 490 22.5 8.1 14.4 1961 35,000 781 206 575 22.3 5.9 16.4 1962 36,000 800 234 566 22.2 6.5 15.7 1963 36,000 848 242 606 23.6 6.7 16.8 1964 36,000 857 253 604 23.8 7.0 16.8 1965 37,000 889 261 628 24.0 7.1 17.0 1966 37,000 969 262 707 26.2 7.1 19.1 1967 38,000 956 289 667 25.2 7.6 17.6 1968 38,000 878 262 616 23.1 6.9 16.2 1969 38,300 843 269 574 22.0 7.0 15.0 1970 38,700 814 287 527 21.0 7.4 13.6 3.42 1971 38,700 779 308 471 20.1 8.0 12.2 3.22 1972 38,900 798 267 531 20.5 6.9 13.7 3.26 1973 39,400 808 303 505 20.5 7.7 12.8 3.22 1974 40,100 798 303 495 19.9 7.6 12.3 3.07 1975 40,800 781 280 501 19.1 6.9 12.3 2.90 1976 41,300 756 291 465 18.3 7.0 11.3 2.74 1977 41,800 759 271 488 18.2 6.5 11.7 2.68 1978 42,400 742 303 439 17.5 7.1 10.4 2.60 1979 43,000 790 269 521 18.4 6.3 12.1 2.70 1980 43,400 741 309 432 17.1 7.1 10.0 2.46 1981 43,800 753 293 460 17.2 6.7 10.5 2.47 1982 44,200 726 316 410 16.4 7.1 9.3 2.35 1983 44,500 688 361 327 15.5 8.1 7.4 2.16 1984 45,000 695 350 345 15.4 7.8 7.6 2.17 1985 45,500 740 340 400 16.3 7.5 8.8 2.28 1986 46,000 791 370 421 17.2 8.1 9.1 2.41 1987 46,600 782 372 410 16.8 8.0 8.8 2.36 1988 47,300 870 424 446 18.4 9.0 9.4 2.57 1989 47,700 932 374 558 19.5 7.8 11.7 2.71 1990 47,600 947 359 588 19.9 7.5 12.4 2.80 1991 47,400 866 398 468 18.3 8.4 9.9 2.63 1992 47,100 809 400 409 17.2 8.5 8.7 2.52 1993 46,100 762 385 377 16.6 8.4 8.2 2.51 1994 44,500 667 354 313 15.0 8.0 7.0 2.39 1995 43,600 644 365 279 14.8 8.4 6.4 2.46 1996 43,600 675 395 280 15.5 9.1 6.4 2.58 1997 44,000 665 377 288 15.1 8.6 6.5 2.51 1998 44,500 625 377 248 14.0 8.5 5.5 2.34 1999 45,100 626 401 225 13.9 8.9 5.0 2.33 2000 46,022 692 354 338 15.1 7.7 7.4 2.58 2001 46,867 632 360 272 13.6 7.7 5.9 2.34 2002 47,558 709 392 317 15.0 8.3 6.7 2.56 2003 48,118 705 405 300 14.7 8.5 6.2 2.54 2004 48,301 713 380 333 14.8 7.9 6.9 2.59 2005 48,106 711 417 294 14.7 8.6 6.1 2.64 2006 48,269 662 417 245 13.7 8.7 5.0 2.50 2007 48,311 675 381 294 14.0 7.9 6.1 2.57 2008 48,637 667 383 284 13.8 7.9 5.9 2.58 2009 48,530 614 386 228 12.6 8.0 4.6 2.38 2010 48,489 642 349 293 13.2 7.2 6.0 2.51 2011 48,256 581 385 196 12.0 8.0 4.0 2.31 2012 48,030 619 408 211 12.9 8.5 4.4 2.57 2013 48,126 626 364 262 13.0 7.6 5.4 2.54 2014 48,591 639 394 245 13.2 8.1 5.1 2.56 2015 49,100 608 377 231 12.4 7.7 4.7 2.43 2016 49,796 675 379 296 13.6 7.7 5.9 2.63 2017 50,466 656 447 209 13.1 8.9 4.2 2.48 2018 51,279 684 394 290 13.4 7.7 5.7 2.50 2019 52,111 683 411 272 13.2 8.0 5.2 2.41 2020 52,925 678 366 312 12.9 7.0 5.9 2.32 2021 53,676 683 429 254 12.8 8.1 4.7 2.29 2022 54,200 631 487 144 11.6 9.0 2.6 2.11 2023 54,320 577 406 171 10.6 7.5 3.1 1.93(e)thumb===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January-November 2022''' 578 450 +128 '''January-November 2023''' 538 371 +167 '''Difference''' -40 (-6.92%) -79 (-17.55%) +39===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 27 631 25 752 53 383 100 0–4 1 869 1 822 3 691 6.91 5–9 1 864 1 756 3 620 6.78 10–14 1 847 1 829 3 676 6.89 15–19 1 952 1 758 3 710 6.95 20–24 1 758 1 435 3 193 5.98 25–29 1 594 1 379 2 973 5.57 30–34 1 816 1 681 3 497 6.55 35–39 1 661 1 462 3 123 5.85 40–44 1 714 1 552 3 266 6.12 45–49 1 828 1 515 3 343 6.26 50–54 1 793 1 615 3 408 6.38 55–59 1 770 1 622 3 392 6.35 60–64 1 532 1 497 3 029 5.67 65-69 1 373 1 301 2 674 5.01 70-74 1 278 1 218 2 496 4.68 75-79 989 929 1 918 3.59 80-84 544 622 1 166 2.18 85-89 300 428 728 1.36 90-94 131 254 385 0.72 95-99 17 71 88 0.16 100+ 1 6 7 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 5 580 5 407 10 987 20.58 15–64 17 418 15 516 32 934 61.69 65+ 4 633 4 829 9 462 17.72" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Age structure===: 0–14 years: 19.89% (male 5,214/female 4,878): 15–24 years: 14.34% (male 3,738/female 3,538): 25–54 years: 37.31% (male 10,252/female 8,676): 55–64 years: 11.69% (male 3,054/female 2,878): 65 years and over: 16.76% (male 4,111/female 4,391) (2017 est.", ")===Sex ratio===: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female: 0–14 years: 1.07 male(s)/female: 15–24 years: 1.05 male(s)/female: 25–54 years: 1.18 male(s)/female: 55–64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female: 65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female: total population: 1.08 male(s)/female (2017 est.", ")===Infant mortality rate===5.4 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===: ''total population:'' 79.85 years (2012 est.", "): ''male:'' 77.37 years: ''female:'' 82.50 years===Total fertility rate===: 2.4 children born/woman (2012 est.", ")===Nationality===: ''noun:'' Faroese (singular and plural): ''adjective:'' Faroese===Ethnic groups===– Faroese– Danes===Religions===* Protestant Christianity, 97.54% in 2020===Languages===The official languages are Faroese (derived from Old Norse), and Danish.According to the Faroese census of 2011, here is the breakdown of people in the Faroe Islands by language:* Faroese: 45,361 (93.9%)* Danish: 1,546 (3.2%)* Other Scandinavian languages, including Icelandic: 411 (0.9%)* Other European languages: 607 (1.3%)* Asian languages: 290 (0.6%)* Languages from the Middle East and North Africa: 40 (0.1%)* Other African languages: 31 (0.1%)* Sign language: 18 (0.04%)* No language: 41 (0.08%)The percentages have been calculated based on the total number of respondents, which was 48,345 residents of the Faroe Islands who were asked to reply to the questions in November 2011.===Literacy===''definition:''NA''total population:''NA%''male:''NA%''female:''NA%''note:''similar to Denmark proper" ], [ "Population by island", "NameAreaInhabitantsPeople per km2Main placesRegionsStreymoy373.521,71757.4Tórshavn and VestmannaTórshavn and rest of StreymoyEysturoy286.310,73837.5Fuglafjørður and RunavíkNorth Eysturoy and South EysturoyVágar177.62,85615.7Míðvágur and SørvágurVágarSuðuroy1665,07430.9Tvøroyri and VágurSuðuroySandoy112.11,42812.4Sandur and SkopunSandoyBorðoy955,03052.4KlaksvíkKlaksvík and rest of northern Faroes (Norðoyar)Viðoy4160515ViðareiðiNorðoyarKunoy35.51353.8KunoyNorðoyarKalsoy30.91364.8Mikladalur and HúsarNorðoyarSvínoy27.4582.7SvínoyNorðoyarFugloy11.2464KirkjaNorðoyarNólsoy10.326226.1NólsoyStreymoyMykines10.3191.8MykinesVágarSkúvoy10615.7SkúvoySandoyHestur6.1407.1HesturStreymoyStóra Dímun2.771.9DímunSandoyKoltur2.520.8KolturStreymoyLítla Dímun0.800–Suðuroy" ], [ "See also", "* Faroe Islands* List of Faroese people" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of the Faroe Islands''', an autonomous country () of the Kingdom of Denmark, function within the framework of a parliamentary, representative democratic dependency, whereby the Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "The Faroe Islands are politically associated with the Kingdom of Denmark but have been self-governing since 1948.Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Løgting.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and the responsibility of Denmark." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|KingFrederik X 14 January 2024High CommissionerLene Moyell Johansen15 May 2017Prime MinisterAksel V. JohannesenSocial Democratic22 December 2022The high commissioner is appointed by the Monarch of Denmark.", "The High Commissioner has a seat in the Løgting, with the ability to speak in the Løgting regarding common Danish/Faroese affairs, but is unable to vote.", "Following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually given the initiative to establish a new coalition by the Faroese Parliament, unless the current Løgmaður (''Prime Minister'' in English) is still in power.", "However, if he or she fails, the Chairman of the parliament asks all chairmen of the parties elected to the parliament, and asks them to point to another chairman who they feel can rightly form a new coalition.", "The chairman with the most votes is then handed the initiative.", "After forming the coalition, the Løgmaður leads the landsstýri.", "The landsstýri will often consist of around 7 members.", "The coalition parties divide the various ministries among themselves and after this, the parties elect their representative to these ministries.", "Any other member of the cabinet is called a ''landsstýrismaður'' if the person is a man, or ''landsstýriskvinna'' if the person is a woman.", "The word ''ráðharri'' is also used for a member of the cabinet, i.e.", "''mentamálaráðharri'' (minister of culture) or ''heilsumálaráðharri'' (minister of health).===Current government===Following the 2022 Faroese general election, a new government, consisting of three parties (Social Democratic Party, Republic, and Progress) under Prime Minister Aksel V. Johannesen was created." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The '''Faroese Parliament''' (''Løgtingið in Faroese'') has 33 MPs (members of parliament), elected for a four-year term by proportional representation.Election of 2 seats to the Danish Parliament was last held 31 october 2022: Social Democrat 1, Unionist 1." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "The Faroe Islands have a multi-party system (disputing on independence and unionism as well as left and right), with numerous parties in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments.", "The Faroese Parliament (Løgting) has 33 seats.", "Members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.", "For the Løgting elections, there were seven electoral districts, each one comprehending a''sýslur'', while Streymoy is divided into northern and southern parts (Tórshavn region), but since 2008, the Faroes constitute a single district.Schematic depiction of the political party spectrum in the Faroe Islands." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The islands are administratively divided into 29 municipalities with about 120 cities and villages.Traditionally, there are also the 6 sýslur (Norðoyar, Eysturoy, Streymoy, Vágar, Sandoy, and Suðuroy).", "''Sýsla'' means district and although it is only a police district today, it is still commonly understood as a geographical region.", "In earlier times, each sýsla had its own ting, the so-called ''várting'' (spring ting)." ], [ "International affairs", "The nation continues to be intimately tied with the Nordic countries of Europe and the European Union.", "Mission of the Faroe Islands in Reykjavik, IcelandAlong with diplomatic missions to Iceland, the Court of St. James's (United Kingdom), Russia, and the European Union, the Faroe Islands participate in the Nordic Council, NIB, International Maritime Organization, International Whaling Commission ( Complete list of participation of the Faroe Islands in international organisations)." ], [ "Further reading", "* Debes, Hans Jacob.", "1988.", "\"Reflections on the Position, Participation and Co-Operation of Small Nations in International Politics Case The Faroe Islands\".", "''Nordic Journal of International Law''.", "573: 365–368." ], [ "See also", "Cabinet of the Faroe IslandsList of lawmen and prime ministers of the Faroe IslandsPolitics of DenmarkList of high commissioners of the Faroe Islands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Prime Minister’s Office" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''economy of the Faroe Islands''' was the 166th largest in the world in 2014, having a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of $2.613 billion per annum.", "GDP increased from DKK 8 billion in 1999, to 21 billion in 2019.The vast majority of Faroese exports, around 90%, consists of fishery products." ], [ "History", "After the severe economic troubles of the early 1990s, brought on by a drop in the vital fish catch and poor management of the economy, the Faroe Islands have recently recovered, with unemployment down to 5% in mid-1998, and holding below 3% since 2006, one of the lowest rates in Europe." ], [ "Challenges and opportunities", "Salmon farmHigh dependence on fishing (including salmon farming) means the Faroe Islands' economy remains vulnerable.", "The Faroese hope to broaden their economic base by building new fish-processing plants.", "The islands allow up to 25% foreign ownership of ocean industry decreasing gradually until 2032 when foreign ownership must end.", "Petroleum found close to the Faroese area gives hope for deposits in the immediate area, which may lay the basis for sustained economic prosperity.", "Also important are the annual subsidy from Denmark, which amounted to about 3% of the GDP.The Faroes have one of the lowest unemployment rates in Europe (1% in 2019), but this is not necessarily a sign of a recovering economy, as many young students move to Denmark and other countries once they are finished with high school.", "This leaves a largely middle-aged and elderly population that may lack the skills and knowledge to take IT positions in business and industry.", "Since 2000, new information technology and business projects have been fostered in the Faroe Islands to attract new investment.", "The result from these projects is not yet known but is hoped to bring a better market economy to the Faroe Islands.", "The population was around 52,000 by 2019.General salaries increased from DKK 7 billion in 2013 to DKK 10 billion in 2019.In 2020, salmon exports were DKK 3.3 billion.", "Fishing industries occupied 1,441 people on land and 1,341 at sea." ], [ "Trade", "In 2014 the Faroe Islands had a trade surplus of 401 million DKK, a figure that rose to 1.43 billion DKK in 2016.As of 2016, the Faroe Islands mainly imported goods from Denmark (2,467 million DKK), Germany (877 million DKK), and Norway (610 million DKK).", "The country's top export destinations were Russia (1,907 million DKK), the United States (898 million DKK), the United Kingdom (851 million DKK), and Denmark (697 million DKK).", "European Union countries constituted 72.9% of total Faroese imports, while the exports of the Faroe Islands were more equally distributed between European Union (44.4%) and non-European Union countries (55.6%).", "The vast majority of Faroese exports, around 90%, consists of fishery products.", "Russian countersanctions on food imports from Norway and the European Union, saw the Faroe Islands increase its fresh salmon exports to Russia.", "The Faroe Islands has a free trade agreement with Iceland since 2005.+'''Imports and exports in 2014; values in million Danish krone (DKK)'''Rank Imports Rank Exports Origin Value Destination Value 1 2,467 DKK 1 1,907 DKK 2 897 DKK 2 898 DKK 3 610 DKK 3 851 DKK 4 371 DKK 4 697 DKK 5 282 DKK 5 569 DKK 6 248 DKK 6 521 DKK 7 186 DKK 7 460 DKK 8 169 DKK 8 369 DKK 9 148 DKK 9 284 DKK 10 143 DKK 10 251 DKK – 4,807 DKK – 3,561 DKK – Non-EU countries 1,785 DKK – Non-EU countries 4,461 DKK – Total 6,592 DKK – Total 8,022 DKK" ], [ "Energy", "Oil consumption peaked at over 300,000 tonnes in 2020, of which 30% was for fishing vessels.", "In 2014 217,547 tonnes of oil products were consumed in the Faroe Islands.", "Of this 31.58% was consumed by fishing vessels, 14.73% was used by SEV for electricity production, 23.23% was consumed in air, sea or land transport, 9.6% was used in the industry, and the rest was used in public or private buildings.The islands have 6 hydroelectric plants, 4 diesel plants and several wind power plants with a capacity factor above 40%.", "In 2014, a 12MW wind farm for DKK 180 million became operational near Torshavn and increased wind capacity from 6.6 to 18.6MW.", "It decreases oil consumption by 8,000 ton (approximately 4M€) per year.", "A 2.3MW 700 kWh lithium-ion battery became operational in 2016.Planners also consider converting the existing hydropower to pumped-storage hydroelectricity.", "Tidal power and Thermal energy storage solutions are also considered.", "The islands have a goal of 100% green electricity production by 2030.In 2014 and 2017 50.8% of the electricity production of SEV in the Faroe Islands came from green energy like hydro and wind, while 49.2% was produced by the thermal power plants, which was 12.4% less than in 2013.", "''fossil fuel:'' 49.2%''hydro:'' 39.5%''wind:'' 11.3% (2014)''nuclear:'' 0%Total annual production: 305.4 GWh (2014) of which the production of thermal, hydropower and wind power was:Thermal: 150,2 GWhHydropower: 120,7 GWhWind: 34,5 GWhThe Faroe Islands have no electricity connections to other areas, and thus operate in island condition.", "Some islands are also not connected to the other islands, and must maintain their own electric system." ], [ "Other", "'''Agriculture - products:'''milk, potatoes, vegetables; sheep; salmon, other fish'''Currency:'''1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 ører'''Exchange rates:'''Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 – 5.560 (2008), 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995)" ], [ "Further reading", " www.FaroeseSeafood.com - Information site on fisheries and aquaculture in the Faroe Islands* Apostle, Richard A.", "''The Restructuration of the Faroese Economy The Significance of the Inner Periphery''.", "Frederiksberg, Denmark: Samfundslitteratur, 2002.", "* Elkjær-Hansen, Niels.", "''The Faroe Islands Scenery, Culture, and Economy''.", "Copenhagen: Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1959.", "* Hagstova.fo, 2008 figures" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Faroese banknote series Information about Faroese banknotes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''22,000 (1995)'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''35,000 (2004) est.", "'''Telephone system:'''good international communications; good domestic facilities''domestic:''digitalization was to have been completed in 1998''international:''satellite earth stations - 1 Orion; 2 fiber-optic submarine cable linking the Faroe Islands with Denmark, Iceland and Scotland'''Radio broadcast stations:'''AM 1, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)'''Radios:'''26,000 (1997)'''Television broadcast stations:'''7 (plus 51 low-power repeaters) (September 1995)'''Televisions:'''15,000 (1997)'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''DataNet El & Tele Føroya Tele Hey Teletech '''Country code (TLD):''' FO" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in the Faroe Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Ferries of Strandfaraskip Landsins, with the new vessel MS ''Smyril'' on the leftThe Faroe Islands is served by an internal transport system based on roads, ferries, and helicopters.", "As of the 1970s, the majority of the population centres of the Faroe Islands have been joined to a single road network, connected by bridges and tunnels.International transport, both for passengers and freight, remains difficult due to high costs, long distances, and bad weather, especially during the winter.", "Exporting domestically produced goods is thus expensive; this limits the development of a commodity-based economy." ], [ "History", "The general history of the Faroese transportation system can be divided into four periods:===Before 1900===During this first period, transportation was rather primitive; it consisted of row boats, walking, and, in certain places, horse transport (for the upper class).", "Boats were used for transport between villages, even on the same island, as land transport was difficult due to the steep mountains.===1900 to the end of World War II===The second period commenced in the late-19th century, when ferry connections began to emerge.", "The ferries were largely private initiatives, but they increasingly came to be operated by the public sector.", "This was supplemented by an emerging culture of automobiles.", "After World War II, a large part of the Faroe Islands was accessible via ferries and automobiles; private buses and taxis operated as well.===The end of World War II to the 1970s===The third period was characterized by modernization.", "The introduction of the car ferry made it possible to drive between the various city centres of the country.", "It became possible to drive from the capital Tórshavn to Vágur and Tvøroyri in the south, to Fuglafjørður and Klaksvík in the north, and to the airport at Sørvágur in the west.", "Vágar Airport was built by the British during World War II; it was reopened as a civilian international airport in 1963.Additionally, the road network was further developed.", "Tunnels to distant valleys and firths such as Hvalba, Sandvík, and Norðdepil were constructed in the 1960s.===1970s onwards===Entrance to the Norðoyatunnilin at Leirvík on EysturoyThe fourth period saw the emergence of a \"mainland\" thanks to tunnels and bridges.", "In 1973 the Streymin Bridge, the first bridge between two Faroese islands, was established between Norðskáli on Eysturoy and Nesvík on Streymoy; in 1976 the new tunnel between Norðskáli and Eysturoy was completed.", "The Faroes' two largest islands were connected into what is now referred to as \"Meginlandið\", the Mainland.", "In 1975 the causeway between Viðoy and Borðoy was constructed, in 1986 a similar one between Borðoy and Kunoy was established, and in 1992 the capital Tórshavn was granted a first-class connection to the northern parts of the islands, creating the infrastructural prerequisites for a mobile society on the mainland.The newest developments of the Faroese transportation network are the sub-sea tunnels.", "In 2002 the tunnel between Streymoy and Vágar—the latter is the airport island—was finished, and in 2006 the Norðoyatunnilin between Eysturoy and Borðoy was finished.", "A toll, payable at petrol stations, of 170 DKK (130 DKK in June 2013) is charged to drive through these two tunnels; the others are free.", "Now more than 85% of the Faroese population is accessible by automobile.", "On 19 December 2020 the Eysturoyartunnilin between Streymoy and Eysturoy opened for traffic.====Future====In early 2014 all political parties of the Løgting agreed to the construction of two tunnels: Eysturoyartunnilin, a tunnel connecting Eysturoy and Streymoy, which was completed in 2020, and Sandoyartunnilin, a tunnel connecting Streymoy and Sandoy, will be completed by 2023.The combined cost of the project is estimated at almost 3 billion DKK, and will be the most expensive construction project in Faroese history.", "Eysturoyartunnilin has the world's first under-sea roundabout.", "Its three tubes are 7.1 km, 2.1 km and 1.8 km long, linked together by the roundabout.", "Sandoyartunnilin will be 10.6 km long.There have been talks about a possible tunnel between Sandoy and Suðuroy.", "The tunnel would be around 20–25 km long.", "If completed this would mean that 99% of the Faroes would be connected by road.== Railways == There are no passenger railways on the Faroe Islands due to the difficult landscape, small population, and relatively short distances.Two railways have operated on the islands.", "A tunnel and rail system supplied a NATO radar installation, now decommissioned, which previously existed on a mountaintop in the southern part of Streymoy Island.", "The Gjógv incline railway operates a freight service between the harbour and the village of Gjógv on Eysturoy island." ], [ "Roads", "Streymin Bridge, connecting Streymoy and Eysturoy, was opened in 1973.", "\"Light Art\" inside the NorðoyatunnilinRoads have become the main method of transportation on the islands, replacing boats.", "In 2021, there were 16,289 petrol cars, 9,795 diesel cars, and 567 electric cars.", "Google Street View became available for some roads in November 2017, supplied by residents and sheep rather than Google cars.=== Highways ===''total:'' :''national highways:'' :''local roads:'' === Bus services ===The national bus network (''Bygdaleiðir'', Village routes) is operated by Strandfaraskip Landsins operating the characteristic blue buses.", "Most buses are modern and were built by the Volvo company.", "The principal route is Tórshavn-Klaksvík (via the Norðoyatunnilin tunnel and Streymin Bridge).", "Although individual buses are generally owned by individuals or small companies, the timetables, fares, and levels of service are set by Strandfaraskip Landsins and the government.The municipalities of Tórshavn, Klaksvík, Eysturkommuna and Sunda operate their own free-of-charge local services, usually referred to as ''Bussleiðin''.", "Tórshavn's Bussleiðin has five routes and is operated by the Tórshavn municipality.", "Like Bygdaleiðir, the actual buses are privately owned, but contracted to Bussleiðin.", "Klaksvík's service commenced in 2014." ], [ "Sea", "The ''Norröna'' of the Smyril Line at Tórshavn in 1997.This vessel has since been replaced by the new ''Norröna''.=== Ports and harbours ===* Tórshavn* Klaksvík* Tvøroyri* Vágur* Vestmanna* Kollafjørður* Runavík* Fuglafjørður* Krambatangi* Gamlarætt=== Merchant marine ===''total:'' 6 ships ( or over) totaling / (1999 est.", "):''ships by type:'':* cargo ship 2,:* petroleum tanker 1,:* refrigerated cargo ship 1,:* roll-on/roll-off 1,:* short-sea passenger 1.=== Ferries ===The Faroese ferry company Strandfaraskip Landsins operates a network of ferries, in addition to the rural blue buses, called Bygdaleiðir (Villagelines).", "Their largest vessel is the ''Smyril'', a roll-on/roll-off ferry which maintains the link between Tórshavn and the southern island, Suðuroy.", "This vessel entered service in 2005.Another ferry, ''Teistin'', a roll-on-off ferry, maintains the link between the island of Sandoy and Streymoy; the ferry port on Streymoy is at Gamlarætt near Kirkjubøur and Velbastaður on the south-west coast of Streymoy.", "A sub-sea tunnel is under construction between Sandoy and Streymoy, it will open in 2023 according to the plan.", "After that there will not be need of a ferry between the two islands.", "The proposed Suðuroyartunnilin would also remove the ferry services to Skúvoy and Suðuroy.Since the early 1980s, Smyril Line has operated a regular international passenger, car and freight service using a large, modern, multipurpose ferry, the ''Norröna''.", "The weekly service links the Faroe Islands with Seyðisfjörður, Iceland, and Hirtshals, Denmark." ], [ "Air", "Atlantic Airways AgustaWestland AW139 at Froðba helicopter station.Atlantic Airways is the national airline of the Faroe Islands, and has its operating base at Vágar Airport.", "It operates regular flights to Iceland, Denmark, Norway, and Scotland while there are also seasonal flights connecting the Faroe Islands with destinations including Barcelona, Mallorca, Lisbon, and Stewart International Airport, New York.Originally state-owned, the airline has been partially privatised.", "The Government has plans to continue selling its remaining share in the airline.", "As a private company, Atlantic Airways continues to provide the Faroe Islands search and rescue capability, under contract to the government.===Airports===The Faroe Islands has only one commercial airport.", "Vágar Airport is located close to the village of Sørvágur, on the island of Vágar.", "It has a paved 1,799 m / 5,902 ft runway, and was originally built by British Royal Engineers during the Second World War.", "The main airlines operating regular scheduled flights are Atlantic Airways and Scandinavian Airlines.", "Other airlines operate charter flights.===Heliports===Helicopters provide domestic scheduled transportation, medical evacuation, and search & rescue activities.There are public (passenger and freight) heliports at Froðba, Hattarvík, Kirkja, Klaksvík, Mykines, Skúvoy, Stóra Dímun, Svínoy, and Tórshavn (Boðanes).", "There are air ambulance heliports at Skopun and Tórshavn (hospital)." ], [ "See also", "* Transport in Denmark* Tunnels of the Faroes* Smyril Line* Strandfaraskip Landsins" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Smyril Line* Strandfaraskip Landsins – the website of the public transport service, including schedules for busses and ferries* * Getting around Faroe Islands from Vagar Airport" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fiji" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fiji''' ( , ; , ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the '''Republic of Fiji''', is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean.", "It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand.", "Fiji consists of an archipelago of more than 330 islands—of which about 110 are permanently inhabited—and more than 500 islets, amounting to a total land area of about .", "The most outlying island group is Ono-i-Lau.", "About 87% of the total population of live on the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.", "About three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts, either in the capital city of Suva, or in smaller urban centres such as Nadi (where tourism is the major local industry) or Lautoka (where the sugar-cane industry is dominant).", "The interior of Viti Levu is sparsely inhabited because of its terrain.The majority of Fiji's islands were formed by volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago.", "Some geothermal activity still occurs today on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni.", "The geothermal systems on Viti Levu are non-volcanic in origin and have low-temperature surface discharges (of between roughly ).Humans have lived in Fiji since the second millennium BC—first Austronesians and later Melanesians, with some Polynesian influences.", "Europeans first visited Fiji in the 17th century.", "In 1874, after a brief period in which Fiji was an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji.", "Fiji operated as a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence and became known as the Dominion of Fiji.", "In 1987, following a series of coups d'état, the military government that had taken power declared it a republic.", "In a 2006 coup, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power.", "In 2009, the Fijian High Court ruled that the military leadership was unlawful.", "At that point, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo, whom the military had retained as the nominal head of state, formally abrogated the 1997 Constitution and re-appointed Bainimarama as interim prime minister.", "Later in 2009, Ratu Epeli Nailatikau succeeded Iloilo as president.", "On 17 September 2014, after years of delays, a democratic election took place.", "Bainimarama's FijiFirst party won 59.2% of the vote, and international observers deemed the election credible.Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific through its abundant forest, mineral, and fish resources.", "The currency is the Fijian dollar, with the main sources of foreign exchange being the tourist industry, remittances from Fijians working abroad, bottled water exports, and sugar cane.", "The Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development supervises Fiji's local government, which takes the form of city and town councils.== Etymology ==The name of Fiji's main island, Viti Levu, served as the origin of the name \"Fiji\", though the common English pronunciation is based on that of Fiji's island neighbours in Tonga.", "An official account of the emergence of the name states:\"Feejee\", the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, occurred in accounts and other writings by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji until the late-19th century." ], [ "History", "===Early settlement===Austronesians, beginning from TaiwanA Fijian mountain warrior.", "Photograph by Francis Herbert Dufty, 1870sPottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled by Austronesian peoples by at least 3500 to 1000 BC, with Melanesians following around a thousand years later, although there are still many open questions about the specific dates and patterns of human migration.", "It is believed that either the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first, but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; the old culture may have had some influence on the new one, and archaeological evidence shows that some of the migrants moved on to Samoa, Tonga and even Hawai'i.", "Archeological evidence also shows signs of human settlement on Moturiki Island beginning at least by 600 BC and possibly as far back as 900 BC.", "Although some aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the Melanesian culture of the western Pacific, Fijian culture has a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures.", "The evidence is clear that there was trade between Fiji and neighbouring archipelagos long before Europeans made contact with Fiji.In the 10th century, the Tu'i Tonga Empire was established in Tonga, and Fiji came within its sphere of influence.", "The Tongan influence brought Polynesian customs and language into Fiji.", "That empire began to decline in the 13th century.Fiji has long had permanent settlements, but its peoples also have a history of mobility.", "Over the centuries, unique Fijian cultural practices developed.", "Fijians constructed large, elegant watercraft, with rigged sails called ''drua'' and exported some to Tonga.", "Fijians also developed a distinctive style of village architecture, consisting of communal and individual ''bure'' and ''vale'' housing, and an advanced system of ramparts and moats that were usually constructed around the more important settlements.", "Pigs were domesticated for food, and a variety of agricultural endeavors, such as banana plantations, existed from an early stage.", "Villages were supplied with water brought in by constructed wooden aqueducts.", "Fijians lived in societies led by chiefs, elders and notable warriors.", "Spiritual leaders, often called ''bete'', were also important cultural figures, and the production and consumption of ''yaqona'' was part of their ceremonial and community rites.", "Fijians developed a monetary system where the polished teeth of the sperm whale, called ''tambua'', became an active currency.", "A type of writing existed which can be seen today in various petroglyphs around the islands.", "Fijians developed a refined ''masi'' cloth textile industry, and used the cloth they produced to make sails and clothes such as the ''malo'' and the ''liku''.", "As with most other ancient human civilisations, warfare or preparation for warfare was an important part of everyday life in pre-colonial Fiji.", "The Fijians were noted for their distinctive use of weapons, especially war clubs.", "Fijians used many different types of clubs that can be broadly divided into two groups, two handed clubs and small specialised throwing clubs called ''ula''.Bure-kalou or temple, and scene of cannibalismWith the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century, and European colonization in the late 19th century, many elements of Fijian culture were either repressed or modified to ensure European – specifically, British – control.", "This was especially the case with respect to traditional Fijian spiritual beliefs.", "Early colonists and missionaries pointed to the practice of cannibalism in Fiji as providing a moral imperative justifying colonization.", "Europeans labelled many native Fijian customs as debased or primitive, enabling many colonists to see Fiji as a \"paradise wasted on savage cannibals\".", "Authors such as Deryck Scarr have perpetuated 19th century claims of \"freshly killed corpses piled up for eating\" and ceremonial mass human sacrifice on the construction of new houses and boats.", "In fact, during colonial times, Fiji was known as ''the Cannibal Isles''.", "Modern archaeological research conducted on Fijian sites has shown that Fijians did in fact practice cannibalism, which has helped modern scholars to assess the accuracy of some of these colonial European accounts.", "Studies conducted by scholars including Degusta, Cochrane, and Jones provide evidence of burnt or cut human skeletons, suggesting that cannibalism was practised in Fiji.", "However, these archaeological accounts indicate that cannibalistic practices were likely more intermittent and less ubiquitous than European settlers had implied; it appears that the cannibalism may more often have been nonviolent and ritualistic.=== Early interaction with Europeans ===Levuka, 1842Dutch explorer Abel Tasman was the first known European visitor to Fiji, sighting the northern island of Vanua Levu and the North Taveuni archipelago in 1643 while looking for the Great Southern Continent.James Cook, the British navigator, visited one of the southern Lau islands in 1774.It was not until 1789, however, that the islands were charted and plotted, when William Bligh, the castaway captain of , passed Ovalau and sailed between the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu en route to Batavia, in what is now Indonesia.", "Bligh Water, the strait between the two main islands, is named after him and for a time, the Fiji Islands were known as the ''Bligh Islands''.Charles Savage.The first Europeans to maintain substantial contact with the Fijians were sandalwood merchants, whalers and \"beche-de-mer\" (sea cucumber) traders.", "The first whaling vessel known to have visited was the ''Ann and Hope'' in 1799, and she was followed by many others in the 19th century.", "These ships came for drinking water, food and firewood and, later, for men to help man their ships.", "Some of the Europeans who came to Fiji in this period were accepted by the locals and were allowed to stay as residents.By the 1820s, Levuka was established as the first European-style town in Fiji, on the island of Ovalau.", "The market for \"beche-de-mer\" in China was lucrative, and British and American merchants set up processing stations on various islands.", "Local Fijians were utilised to collect, prepare and pack the product which would then be shipped to Asia.", "A good cargo would result in a half-yearly profit of around $25,000 for the dealer.", "The Fijian workers were often given firearms and ammunition as an exchange for their labour, and by the end of the 1820s most of the Fijian chiefs had muskets and many were skilled at using them.", "Some Fijian chiefs soon felt confident enough with their new weapons to forcibly obtain more destructive weaponry from the Europeans.", "In 1834, men from Viwa and Bau were able to take control of the French ship ''L'amiable Josephine'' and use its cannon against their enemies on the Rewa River, although they later ran it aground.Christian missionaries like David Cargill also arrived in the 1830s from recently converted regions such as Tonga and Tahiti, and by 1840 the European settlement at Levuka had grown to about 40 houses with former whaler David Whippey being a notable resident.", "The religious conversion of the Fijians was a gradual process which was observed first-hand by Captain Charles Wilkes of the United States Exploring Expedition.", "Wilkes wrote that \"all the chiefs seemed to look upon Christianity as a change in which they had much to lose and little to gain\".", "Christianised Fijians, in addition to forsaking their spiritual beliefs, were pressured into cutting their hair short, adopting the sulu form of dress from Tonga and fundamentally changing their marriage and funeral traditions.", "This process of enforced cultural change was called ''lotu''.", "Intensification of conflict between the cultures increased, and Wilkes was involved in organising a large punitive expedition against the people of Malolo.", "He ordered an attack with rockets which acted as makeshift incendiary devices.", "The village, with the occupants trapped inside, quickly became an inferno with Wilkes noting that the \"shouts of men were intermingled with the cries and shrieks of the women and children\" as they burnt to death.", "Wilkes demanded the survivors should \"sue for mercy\" and if not \"they must expect to be exterminated\".", "Around 57 to 87 Maloloan people were killed in this encounter.=== Cakobau and the wars against Christian infiltration ===Ratu Tanoa VisawaqaRatu Seru Epenisa Cakobau, ''Self Proclaimed Tui Viti''The 1840s was a time of conflict where various Fiji clans attempted to assert dominance over each other.", "Eventually, a warlord named Seru Epenisa Cakobau of Bau Island was able to become a powerful influence in the region.", "His father was Ratu Tanoa Visawaqa, the Vunivalu (a chiefly title meaning warlord'','' often translated also as paramount chief) who had previously subdued much of western Fiji.", "Cakobau, following on from his father, became so dominant that he was able to expel the Europeans from Levuka for five years over a dispute about their giving of weapons to his local enemies.", "In the early 1850s, Cakobau went one step further and declared war on all Christians.", "His plans were thwarted after the missionaries in Fiji received support from the already converted Tongans and the presence of a British warship.", "The Tongan Prince Enele Maʻafu, a Christian, had established himself on the island of Lakeba in 1848, forcibly converting the local people to the Methodist Church.", "Cakobau and other chiefs in the west of Fiji regarded Maʻafu as a threat to their power and resisted his attempts to expand Tonga's dominion.", "Cakobau's influence, however, began to wane, and his heavy imposition of taxes on other Fijian chiefs, who saw him at best as first among equals, caused them to defect from him.Around this time the United States also became interested in asserting their power in the region, and they threatened intervention following a number of incidents involving their consul in the Fiji islands, John Brown Williams.", "In 1849, Williams had his trading store looted following an accidental fire, caused by stray cannon fire during a Fourth of July celebration, and in 1853 the European settlement of Levuka was burnt to the ground.", "Williams blamed Cakobau for both these incidents, and the U.S. representative wanted Cakobau's capital at Bau destroyed in retaliation.", "A naval blockade was instead set up around the island which put further pressure on Cakobau to give up on his warfare against the foreigners and their Christian allies.", "Finally, on 30 April 1854, Cakobau offered his ''soro'' (supplication) and yielded to these forces.", "He underwent the ''lotu'' and converted to Christianity.", "The traditional Fijian temples in Bau were destroyed, and the sacred ''nokonoko'' trees were cut down.", "Cakobau and his remaining men were then compelled to join with the Tongans, backed by the Americans and British, to subjugate the remaining chiefs in the region who still refused to convert.", "These chiefs were soon defeated with Qaraniqio of the Rewa being poisoned and Ratu Mara of Kaba being hanged in 1855.After these wars, most regions of Fiji, except for the interior highland areas, had been forced into giving up much of their traditional systems and were now vassals of Western interest.", "Cakobau was retained as a largely symbolic representative of a few Fijian peoples and was allowed to take the ironic and self proclaimed title of \"Tui Viti\" (\"King of Fiji\"), but the overarching control now lay with foreign powers.=== Cotton, confederacies and the Kai Colo ===Kai Colo warriorThe rising price of cotton in the wake of the American Civil War (1861–1865) caused an influx of hundreds of settlers to Fiji in the 1860s from Australia and the United States in order to obtain land and grow cotton.", "Since there was still a lack of functioning government in Fiji, these planters were often able to get the land in violent or fraudulent ways such as exchanging weapons or alcohol with Fijians who may or may not have been the true owners.", "Although this made for cheap land acquisition, competing land claims between the planters became problematic with no unified government to resolve the disputes.", "In 1865, the settlers proposed a confederacy of the seven main native kingdoms in Fiji to establish some sort of government.", "This was initially successful, and Cakobau was elected as the first president of the confederacy.Flag of the Confederacy of Independent Kingdoms of Fiji, 1865–1867With the demand for land high, the white planters started to push into the hilly interior of Viti Levu.", "This put them into direct confrontation with the Kai Colo, which was a general term to describe the various Fijian clans resident to these inland districts.", "The Kai Colo were still living a mostly traditional lifestyle, they were not Christianised, and they were not under the rule of Cakobau or the confederacy.", "In 1867, a travelling missionary named Thomas Baker was killed by Kai Colo in the mountains at the headwaters of the Sigatoka River.", "The acting British consul, John Bates Thurston, demanded that Cakobau lead a force of Fijians from coastal areas to suppress the Kai Colo. Cakobau eventually led a campaign into the mountains but suffered a humiliating loss with 61 of his fighters being killed.", "Settlers also came into conflict with the local eastern Kai Colo people called the Wainimala.", "Thurston called in the Australia Station section of the Royal Navy for assistance.", "The Navy duly sent Commander Rowley Lambert and to conduct a punitive mission against the Wainimala.", "An armed force of 87 men shelled and burnt the village of Deoka, and a skirmish ensued which resulted in the deaths of over 40 Wainimala.=== Kingdom of Fiji (1871–1874) ===Flag of the Kingdom of Fiji, 1871–1874After the collapse of the confederacy, Enele Maʻafu established a stable administration in the Lau Islands and the Tongans.", "Other foreign powers such as the United States were considering the possibility of annexing Fiji.", "This situation was not appealing to many settlers, almost all of whom were British subjects from Australia.", "Britain, however, refused to annex the country, and a compromise was needed.In June 1871, George Austin Woods, an ex-lieutenant of the Royal Navy, managed to influence Cakobau and organise a group of like-minded settlers and chiefs into forming a governing administration.", "Cakobau was declared the monarch (''Tui Viti'') and the Kingdom of Fiji was established.", "Most Fijian chiefs agreed to participate, and even Ma'afu chose to recognise Cakobau and participate in the constitutional monarchy.", "However, many of the settlers had come from Australia, where negotiation with the indigenous people almost universally involved forced coercion.", "As a result, several aggressive, racially motivated opposition groups, such as the British Subjects Mutual Protection Society, sprouted up.", "One group called themselves the Ku Klux Klan in a homage to the white supremacist group in America.", "However, when respected individuals such as Charles St Julian, Robert Sherson Swanston and John Bates Thurston were appointed by Cakobau, a degree of authority was established.Three Kai Colo men in traditional Fijian attireWith the rapid increase in white settlers into the country, the desire for land acquisition also intensified.", "Once again, conflict with the Kai Colo in the interior of Viti Levu ensued.", "In 1871, the killing of two settlers near the Ba River in the northwest of the island prompted a large punitive expedition of white farmers, imported slave labourers, and coastal Fijians to be organised.", "This group of around 400 armed vigilantes, including veterans of the U.S. Civil War, had a battle with the Kai Colo near the village of Cubu, in which both sides had to withdraw.", "The village was destroyed, and the Kai Colo, despite being armed with muskets, received numerous casualties.", "The Kai Colo responded by making frequent raids on the settlements of the whites and Christian Fijians throughout the district of Ba.", "Likewise, in the east of the island on the upper reaches of the Rewa River, villages were burnt, and many Kai Colo were shot by the vigilante settler squad called the Rewa Rifles.Although the Cakobau government did not approve of the settlers taking justice into their own hands, it did want the Kai Colo subjugated and their land sold.", "The solution was to form an army.", "Robert S. Swanston, the minister for Native Affairs in the Kingdom, organised the training and arming of suitable Fijian volunteers and prisoners to become soldiers in what was variably called the King's Troops or the Native Regiment.", "In a similar system to the Native Police that was present in the colonies of Australia, two white settlers, James Harding and W. Fitzgerald, were appointed as the head officers of this paramilitary brigade.", "The formation of this force did not sit well with many of the white plantation owners as they did not trust an army of Fijians to protect their interests.The situation intensified further in early 1873 when the Burns family was killed by a Kai Colo raid in the Ba River area.", "The Cakobau government deployed 50 King's Troopers to the region under the command of Major Fitzgerald to restore order.", "The local whites refused their posting, and deployment of another 50 troops under Captain Harding was sent to emphasise the government's authority.", "To prove the worth of the Native Regiment, this augmented force went into the interior and massacred about 170 Kai Colo people at Na Korowaiwai.", "Upon returning to the coast, the force was met by the white settlers who still saw the government troops as a threat.", "A skirmish between the government's troops and the white settlers' brigade was only prevented by the intervention of Captain William Cox Chapman of , who detained the leaders of the locals, forcing the group to disband.", "The authority of the King's Troops and the Cakobau government to crush the Kai Colo was now total.From March to October 1873, a force of about 200 King's Troops under the general administration of Swanston with around 1,000 coastal Fijian and white volunteer auxiliaries, led a campaign throughout the highlands of Viti Levu to annihilate the Kai Colo. Major Fitzgerald and Major H.C. Thurston (the brother of John Bates Thurston) led a two pronged attack throughout the region.", "The combined forces of the different clans of the Kai Colo made a stand at the village of Na Culi.", "The Kai Colo were defeated with dynamite and fire being used to flush them out from their defensive positions amongst the mountain caves.", "Many Kai Colo were killed, and one of the main leaders of the hill clans, Ratu Dradra, was forced to surrender with around 2,000 men, women and children being taken prisoner and sent to the coast.", "In the months after this defeat, the only main resistance was from the clans around the village of Nibutautau.", "Major Thurston crushed this resistance in the two months following the battle at Na Culi.", "Villages were burnt, Kai Colo were killed, and a further large number of prisoners were taken.", "About 1,000 of the prisoners (men, women and children) were sent to Levuka where some were hanged and the rest were sold into slavery and forced to work on various plantations throughout the islands.=== Blackbirding and slavery in Fiji ===Map of MelanesiaThe blackbirding era began in Fiji in 1865 when the first New Hebridean and Solomon Islands labourers were transported there to work on cotton plantations.", "The American Civil War had cut off the supply of cotton to the international market when the Union blockaded Confederate ports.", "Cotton cultivation was potentially an extremely profitable business.", "Thousands of European planters flocked to Fiji to establish plantations but found the natives unwilling to adapt to their plans.", "They sought labour from the Melanesian islands.", "On 5 July 1865 Ben Pease received the first licence to provide 40 labourers from the New Hebrides to Fiji.The British and Queensland governments tried to regulate this recruiting and transport of labour.", "Melanesian labourers were to be recruited for a term of three years, paid three pounds per year, issued basic clothing, and given access to the company store for supplies.", "Most Melanesians were recruited by deceit, usually being enticed aboard ships with gifts, and then locked up.", "In 1875, the chief medical officer in Fiji, Sir William MacGregor, listed a mortality rate of 540 out of every 1,000 labourers.", "After the expiry of the three-year contract, the government required captains to transport the labourers back to their villages, but most ship captains dropped them off at the first island they sighted off the Fiji waters.", "The British sent warships to enforce the law (Pacific Islanders' Protection Act of 1872), but only a small proportion of the culprits were prosecuted.Seizure of the blackbirder ''Daphne''A notorious incident of the blackbirding trade was the 1871 voyage of the brig ''Carl'', organised by Dr. James Patrick Murray to recruit labourers to work in the plantations of Fiji.", "Murray had his men reverse their collars and carry black books, to appear as church missionaries.", "When islanders were enticed to a religious service, Murray and his men would produce guns and force the islanders onto boats.", "During the voyage Murray shot about 60 islanders.", "He was never brought to trial for his actions, as he was given immunity in return for giving evidence against his crew members.", "The captain of the ''Carl'', Joseph Armstrong, was later sentenced to death.In addition to the blackbirded labour from other Pacific islands, thousands of people indigenous to the Fijian archipelago were sold into slavery on the plantations.", "As the white settler backed Cakobau government, and later the British colonial government, subjugated areas in Fiji under its power, the resultant prisoners of war were regularly sold at auction to the planters.", "This provided a source of revenue for the government and also dispersed the rebels to different, often isolated islands where the plantations were located.", "The land that was occupied by these people before they became slaves was then also sold for additional revenue.", "An example of this is the Lovoni people of Ovalau, who after being defeated in a war with the Cakobau government in 1871, were rounded up and sold to the settlers at £6 per head.", "Two thousand Lovoni men, women and children were sold, and their period of slavery lasted five years.", "Likewise, after the Kai Colo wars in 1873, thousands of people from the hill tribes of Viti Levu were sent to Levuka and sold into slavery.", "Warnings from the Royal Navy stationed in the area that buying these people was illegal were largely given without enforcement, and the British consul in Fiji, Edward Bernard Marsh, regularly turned a blind eye to this type of labour trade.=== Colonisation ===Despite achieving military victories over the Kai Colo, the Cakobau government was faced with problems of legitimacy and economic viability.", "Indigenous Fijians and white settlers refused to pay taxes, and the cotton price had collapsed.", "With these major issues in mind, John Bates Thurston approached the British government, at Cakobau's request, with another offer to cede the islands.", "The newly elected Tory British government under Benjamin Disraeli encouraged expansion of the empire and was therefore much more sympathetic to annexing Fiji than it had been previously.", "The murder of Bishop John Patteson of the Melanesian Mission at Nukapu in the Reef Islands had provoked public outrage, which was compounded by the massacre by crew members of more than 150 Fijians on board the brig ''Carl.''", "Two British commissioners were sent to Fiji to investigate the possibility of an annexation.", "The question was complicated by maneuverings for power between Cakobau and his old rival, Ma'afu, with both men vacillating for many months.", "On 21 March 1874, Cakobau made a final offer, which the British accepted.", "On 23 September, Sir Hercules Robinson, soon to be appointed the British Governor of Fiji, arrived on HMS ''Dido'' and received Cakobau with a royal 21-gun salute.", "After some vacillation, Cakobau agreed to renounce his ''Tui Viti'' title, retaining the title of ''Vunivalu'', or Protector.", "The formal cession took place on 10 October 1874, when Cakobau, Ma'afu, and some of the senior chiefs of Fiji signed two copies of the Deed of Cession.", "Thus the Colony of Fiji was founded; 96 years of British rule followed.==== Measles epidemic of 1875 ====To celebrate the annexation of Fiji, Hercules Robinson, who was Governor of New South Wales at the time, took Cakobau and his two sons to Sydney.", "There was a measles outbreak in that city and the three Fijians all came down with the disease.", "On returning to Fiji, the colonial administrators decided not to quarantine the ship on which the convalescents travelled.", "This was despite the British having a very extensive knowledge of the devastating effect of infectious disease on an unexposed population.", "In 1875–76 the resulting epidemic of measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, about one-third of the Fijian population.", "Some Fijians allege that this failure of quarantine was a deliberate action to introduce the disease into the country.", "Historians have found no such evidence; the disease spread before the new British governor and colonial medical officers had arrived, and no quarantine rules existed under the outgoing regime.===== Sir Arthur Gordon and the \"Little War\" =====Governor Arthur Hamilton GordonRobinson was replaced as Governor of Fiji in June 1875 by Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon.", "Gordon was immediately faced with an insurgency of the Qalimari and Kai Colo people.", "In early 1875, colonial administrator Edgar Leopold Layard had met with thousands of highland clans at Navuso to formalise their subjugation to British rule and Christianity.", "Layard and his delegation managed to spread the measles epidemic to the highlanders, causing mass deaths in this population.", "As a result, anger at the British colonists flared throughout the region, and a widespread uprising quickly took hold.", "Villages along the Sigatoka River and in the highlands above this area refused British control, and Gordon was tasked with quashing this rebellion.In what Gordon termed the \"Little War\", the suppression of this uprising took the form of two co-ordinated military campaigns in the western half of Viti Levu.", "The first was conducted by Gordon's second cousin, Arthur John Lewis Gordon, against the Qalimari insurgents along the Sigatoka River.", "The second campaign was led by Louis Knollys against the Kai Colo in the mountains to the north of the river.", "Governor Gordon invoked a type of martial law in the area where Arthur John Lewis Gordon and Knollys had absolute power to conduct their missions outside of any restrictions of legislation.", "The two groups of rebels were kept isolated from each other by a force led by Walter Carew and George Le Hunte who were stationed at Nasaucoko.", "Carew also ensured the rebellion did not spread east by securing the loyalty of the Wainimala people of the eastern highlands.", "The war involved the use of the soldiers of the old Native Regiment of Cakobau supported by around 1,500 Christian Fijian volunteers from other areas of Viti Levu.", "The colonial New Zealand Government provided most of the advanced weapons for the army including 100 Snider rifles.The campaign along the Sigatoka River was conducted under a scorched earth policy whereby numerous rebel villages were burnt and their fields ransacked.", "After the capture and destruction of the main fortified towns of Koroivatuma, Bukutia and Matanavatu, the Qalimari surrendered ''en masse''.", "Those not killed in the fighting were taken prisoner and sent to the coastal town of Cuvu.", "This included 827 men, women and children as well as Mudu, the leader of the insurgents.", "The women and children were distributed to places like Nadi and Nadroga.", "Of the men, 15 were sentenced to death at a hastily conducted trial at Sigatoka.", "Governor Gordon was present, but chose to leave the judicial responsibility to his relative, Arthur John Lewis Gordon.", "Four were hanged and ten, including Mudu, were shot with one prisoner managing to escape.", "By the end of proceedings the governor noted that \"my feet were literally stained with the blood that I had shed\".The northern campaign against the Kai Colo in the highlands was similar but involved removing the rebels from large, well protected caves in the region.", "Knollys managed to clear the caves \"after some considerable time and large expenditure of ammunition\".", "The occupants of these caves included whole communities, and as a result many men, women and children were either killed or wounded in these operations.", "The rest were taken prisoner and sent to the towns on the northern coast.", "The chief medical officer in British Fiji, William MacGregor, also took part both in killing Kai Colo and tending to their wounded.", "After the caves were taken, the Kai Colo surrendered and their leader, Bisiki, was captured.", "Various trials were held, mostly at Nasaucoko under Le Hunte, and 32 men were either hanged or shot including Bisiki, who was killed trying to escape.By the end of October 1876, the \"Little War\" was over, and Gordon had succeeded in vanquishing the rebels in the interior of Viti Levu.", "Remaining insurgents were sent into exile with hard labour for up to 10 years.", "Some non-combatants were allowed to return to rebuild their villages, but many areas in the highlands were ordered by Gordon to remain depopulated and in ruins.", "Gordon also constructed a military fortress, Fort Canarvon, at the headwaters of the Sigatoka River where a large contingent of soldiers were based to maintain British control.", "He renamed the Native Regiment, the Armed Native Constabulary to lessen its appearance of being a military force.To further consolidate social control throughout the colony, Governor Gordon introduced a system of appointed chiefs and village constables in the various districts to both enact his orders and report any disobedience from the populace.", "Gordon adopted the chiefly titles ''Roko'' and ''Buli'' to describe these deputies and established a Great Council of Chiefs which was directly subject to his authority as Supreme Chief.", "This body remained in existence until being suspended by the military-backed interim government in 2007 and only abolished in 2012.Gordon also extinguished the ability of Fijians to own, buy or sell land as individuals, the control being transferred to colonial authorities.==== Indian indenture system in Fiji ====Gordon decided in 1878 to import indentured labourers from India to work on the sugarcane fields that had taken the place of the cotton plantations.", "The 463 Indians arrived on 14 May 1879 – the first of some 61,000 that were to come before the scheme ended in 1916.The plan involved bringing the Indian workers to Fiji on a five-year contract, after which they could return to India at their own expense; if they chose to renew their contract for a second five-year term, they would be given the option of returning to India at the government's expense, or remaining in Fiji.", "The great majority chose to stay.", "The Queensland Act, which regulated indentured labour in Queensland, was made law in Fiji also.Between 1879 and 1916, tens of thousands of Indians moved to Fiji to work as indentured labourers, especially on sugarcane plantations.", "Given the steady influx of ships carrying indentured Indians to Fiji up until 1916, repatriated Indians generally boarded these same ships on their return voyage.", "The total number of repatriates under the Fiji indenture system is recorded as 39,261, while the number of arrivals is said to have been 60,553.Because the return figure includes children born in Fiji, many of the indentured Indians never returned to India.==== Tuka rebellions ====With almost all aspects of indigenous Fijian social life being controlled by the British colonial authorities, a number of charismatic individuals preaching dissent and return to pre-colonial culture were able to forge a following amongst the disenfranchised.", "These movements were called Tuka, which roughly translates as \"those who stand up\".", "The first Tuka movement was led by Ndoongumoy, better known as Navosavakandua, which means \"he who speaks only once\".", "He told his followers that if they returned to traditional ways and worshipped traditional deities such as Degei and Rokola, their current condition would be transformed, with the whites and their puppet Fijian chiefs being subservient to them.", "Navosavakandua was previously exiled from the Viti Levu highlands in 1878 for disturbing the peace, and the British quickly arrested him and his followers after this open display of rebellion.", "He was again exiled, this time to Rotuma where he died soon after his 10-year sentence ended.Other Tuka organisations, however, soon appeared.", "The British colonial administration ruthlessly suppressed both the leaders and followers, with figureheads such as Sailose being banished to an asylum for 12 years.", "In 1891, entire populations of villages who were sympathetic to the Tuka ideology were deported as punishment.", "Three years later in the highlands of Vanua Levu, where locals had re-engaged in traditional religion, Governor Thurston ordered in the Armed Native Constabulary to destroy the towns and the religious relics.", "Leaders were jailed and villagers exiled or forced to amalgamate into government-run communities.", "Later, in 1914, Apolosi Nawai came to the forefront of Fijian Tuka resistance by founding Viti Kabani, a co-operative company that would legally monopolise the agricultural sector and boycott European planters.", "The British and their proxy Council of Chiefs were not able to prevent the Viti Kabani's rise, and again the colonists were forced to send in the Armed Native Constabulary.", "Apolosi and his followers were arrested in 1915, and the company collapsed in 1917.Over the next 30 years, Apolosi was re-arrested, jailed and exiled, with the British viewing him as a threat right up to his death in 1946.====World War I and II====Fiji was only peripherally involved in World War I.", "One memorable incident occurred in September 1917 when Count Felix von Luckner arrived at Wakaya Island, off the eastern coast of Viti Levu, after his raider, , had run aground in the Cook Islands following the shelling of Papeete in the French colony of Tahiti.", "On 21 September, the district police inspector took a number of Fijians to Wakaya, and von Luckner, not realising that they were unarmed, unwittingly surrendered.Citing unwillingness to exploit the Fijian people, the colonial authorities did not permit Fijians to enlist.", "One Fijian of chiefly rank, a great-grandson of Cakobau, joined the French Foreign Legion and received France's highest military decoration, the Croix de Guerre.", "After going on to complete a law degree at Oxford University, this same chief returned to Fiji in 1921 as both a war hero and the country's first-ever university graduate.", "In the years that followed, Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna, as he was later known, established himself as the most powerful chief in Fiji and forged embryonic institutions for what would later become the modern Fijian nation.Flag of Fiji 1924–1970By the time of World War II, the United Kingdom had reversed its policy of not enlisting natives, and many thousands of Fijians volunteered for the Fiji Infantry Regiment, which was under the command of Ratu Sir Edward Cakobau, another great-grandson of Cakobau.", "The regiment was attached to New Zealand and Australian army units during the war.", "Because of its central location, Fiji was selected as a training base for the Allies.", "An airstrip was built at Nadi (later to become an international airport), and gun emplacements studded the coast.", "Fijians gained a reputation for bravery in the Solomon Islands campaign, with one war correspondent describing their ambush tactics as \"death with velvet gloves\".", "Corporal Sefanaia Sukanaivalu, of Yucata, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross, as a result of his bravery in the Battle of Bougainville.====Responsible government and independence====Kamisese MaraA constitutional conference was held in London in July 1965 to discuss constitutional changes with a view to introducing responsible government.", "Indo-Fijians, led by A. D. Patel, demanded the immediate introduction of full self-government, with a fully elected legislature, to be elected by universal suffrage on a common voters' roll.", "These demands were vigorously rejected by the ethnic Fijian delegation, who still feared loss of control over natively owned land and resources should an Indo-Fijian dominated government come to power.", "The British made it clear, however, that they were determined to bring Fiji to self-government and eventual independence.", "Realizing that they had no choice, Fiji's chiefs decided to negotiate for the best deal they could get.A series of compromises led to the establishment of a cabinet system of government in 1967, with Ratu Kamisese Mara as the first Chief Minister.", "Ongoing negotiations between Mara and Sidiq Koya, who had taken over the leadership of the mainly Indo-Fijian National Federation Party on Patel's death in 1969, led to a second constitutional conference in London, in April 1970, at which Fiji's Legislative Council agreed on a compromise electoral formula and a timetable for independence as a fully sovereign and independent nation within the Commonwealth.", "The Legislative Council would be replaced with a bicameral Parliament, with a Senate dominated by Fijian chiefs and a popularly elected House of Representatives.", "In the 52-member House, Native Fijians and Indo-Fijians would each be allocated 22 seats, of which 12 would represent communal constituencies comprising voters registered on strictly ethnic roles, and another 10 representing national constituencies to which members were allocated by ethnicity but elected by universal suffrage.", "A further 8 seats were reserved for \"general electors\" – Europeans, Chinese, Banaban Islanders, and other minorities; 3 of these were \"communal\" and 5 \"national\".", "With this compromise, it was agreed that Fiji would become independent.The British flag, the Union Jack, was lowered for the last time at sunset on 9 October 1970 in the capital Suva.", "The Fijian flag was raised after dawn on the morning of 10 October 1970; the country had officially become independent at midnight.=== Independence =======1987 coups d'état====The British granted Fiji independence in 1970.Democratic rule was interrupted by two military coups in 1987 precipitated by a growing perception that the government was dominated by the Indo-Fijian (Indian) community.", "The second 1987 coup saw both the Fijian monarchy and the Governor General replaced by a non-executive president and the name of the country changed from ''Dominion of Fiji'' to ''Republic of Fiji'' and then in 1997 to ''Republic of the Fiji Islands''.", "The two coups and the accompanying civil unrest contributed to heavy Indo-Fijian emigration; the resulting population loss resulted in economic difficulties and ensured that Melanesians became the majority.In 1990, the new constitution institutionalised ethnic Fijian domination of the political system.", "The Group Against Racial Discrimination (GARD) was formed to oppose the unilaterally imposed constitution and to restore the 1970 constitution.", "In 1992 Sitiveni Rabuka, the Lieutenant Colonel who had carried out the 1987 coup, became Prime Minister following elections held under the new constitution.", "Three years later, Rabuka established the Constitutional Review Commission, which in 1997 wrote a new constitution which was supported by most leaders of the indigenous Fijian and Indo-Fijian communities.", "Fiji was re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations.====2000 coup d'état====In 2000, a coup was instigated by George Speight, which effectively toppled the government of Mahendra Chaudhry, who in 1997 had become the country's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister following the adoption of the new constitution.", "Commodore Frank Bainimarama assumed executive power after the resignation, possibly forced, of President Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara.", "Later in 2000, Fiji was rocked by two mutinies when rebel soldiers went on a rampage at Suva's Queen Elizabeth Barracks.", "The High Court ordered the reinstatement of the constitution, and in September 2001, to restore democracy, a general election was held which was won by interim Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase's Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua party.In 2005, the Qarase government amid much controversy proposed a Reconciliation and Unity Commission with power to recommend compensation for victims of the 2000 coup and amnesty for its perpetrators.", "However, the military, especially the nation's top military commander, Frank Bainimarama, strongly opposed this bill.", "Bainimarama agreed with detractors who said that to grant amnesty to supporters of the present government who had played a role in the violent coup was a sham.", "His attack on the legislation, which continued unremittingly throughout May and into June and July, further strained his already tense relationship with the government.====2006 coup d'état====In late November and early December 2006, Bainimarama was instrumental in the 2006 Fijian coup d'état.", "Bainimarama handed down a list of demands to Qarase after a bill was put forward to parliament, part of which would have offered pardons to participants in the 2000 coup attempt.", "He gave Qarase an ultimatum date of 4 December to accede to these demands or to resign from his post.", "Qarase adamantly refused either to concede or resign, and on 5 December President Ratu Josefa Iloilo signed a legal order dissolving the parliament after meeting with Bainimarama.Citing corruption in the government, Bainimarama staged a military takeover on 5 December 2006 against the prime minister that he had installed after a 2000 coup.", "The commodore took over the powers of the presidency and dissolved the parliament, paving the way for the military to continue the takeover.", "The coup was the culmination of weeks of speculation following conflict between the elected prime minister, Laisenia Qarase, and Bainimarama.", "Bainimarama had repeatedly issued demands and deadlines to the prime minister.", "A particular issue was previously pending legislation to pardon those involved in the 2000 coup.", "Bainimarama named Jona Senilagakali as caretaker prime minister.", "The next week Bainimarama said he would ask the Great Council of Chiefs to restore executive powers to the president, Ratu Josefa Iloilo.On 4 January 2007, the military announced that it was restoring executive power to Iloilo, who made a broadcast endorsing the actions of the military.", "The next day, Iloilo named Bainimarama as the interim prime minister, indicating that the military was still effectively in control.", "In the wake of the takeover, reports emerged of alleged intimidation of some of those critical of the interim regime.====2009 transfer of power====In April 2009, the Fiji Court of Appeal overturned the High Court decision that Bainimarama's takeover of Qarase's government was lawful and declared the interim government to be illegal.", "Bainimarama agreed to step down as interim prime minister immediately, along with his government, and President Iloilo was to appoint a new prime minister.", "President Iloilo abrogated the constitution, and removed all office holders under the constitution including all judges and the governor of the Central Bank.", "In his own words, he \"appointed himself as the Head of the State of Fiji under a new legal order\".", "He then reappointed Bainimarama under his \"New Order\" as interim prime minister and imposed a \"Public Emergency Regulation\" limiting internal travel and allowing press censorship.On 2 May 2009, Fiji became the first nation ever to have been suspended from participation in the Pacific Islands Forum, for its failure to hold democratic elections by the date promised.", "Nevertheless, it remains a member of the Forum.On 1 September 2009, Fiji was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations.", "The action was taken because Bainimarama failed to hold elections by 2010 as the Commonwealth of Nations had demanded after the 2006 coup.", "Bainimarama stated a need for more time to end a voting system that heavily favoured ethnic Fijians at the expense of the multi-ethnic minorities.", "Critics claimed that he had suspended the constitution and was responsible for human rights violations by arresting and detaining opponents.In his 2010 New Year's address, Bainimarama announced the lifting of the Public Emergency Regulations (PER).", "However, the PER was not rescinded until January 2012, and the Suva Philosophy Club was the first organisation to reorganise and convene public meetings.", "The PER had been put in place in April 2009 when the former constitution was abrogated.", "The PER had allowed restrictions on speech, public gatherings, and censorship of news media and had given security forces added powers.", "He also announced a nationwide consultation process leading to a new constitution under which the 2014 elections were held.The official name of the country was reverted to ''Republic of Fiji'' in February 2011.==== Since 2014 ====On 14 March 2014, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group voted to change Fiji's full suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations to a suspension from the councils of the Commonwealth, allowing them to participate in a number of Commonwealth activities, including the 2014 Commonwealth Games.", "The suspension was lifted in September 2014.The FijiFirst party, led by Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama, won outright majority in the country's 51-seat parliament both in 2014 election and narrowly in 2018 election.", "In October 2021, Tui Macuata Ratu Wiliame Katonivere was elected the new President of Fiji by the parliament.On 24 December 2022, Sitiveni Rabuka, the head of the People's Alliance (PAP), became Fiji's 12th prime minister, succeeding Bainimarama, following the December 2022 general election." ], [ "Geography", "Fiji's location in OceaniaA map of FijiTopography of FijiFiji lies approximately southwest of Hawaii and roughly from Sydney, Australia.", "Fiji is the hub of the Southwest Pacific, midway between Vanuatu and Tonga.", "The archipelago is located between 176° 53′ east and 178° 12′ west.", "The archipelago is roughly and less than 2 percent is dry land.", "The 180° meridian runs through Taveuni, but the International Date Line is bent to give uniform time (UTC+12) to all of the Fiji group.", "With the exception of Rotuma, the Fiji group lies between 15° 42′ and 20° 02′ south.", "Rotuma is located north of the group, from Suva, 12° 30′ south of the equator.Fiji covers a total area of some of which around 10% is land.", "Fiji consists of 332 islands (of which 106 are inhabited) and 522 smaller islets.", "The two most important islands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, which account for about three-quarters of the total land area of the country.", "The islands are mountainous, with peaks up to 1,324 metres (4,341 ft), and covered with thick tropical forests.The highest point is Mount Tomanivi on Viti Levu.", "Viti Levu hosts the capital city of Suva and is home to nearly three-quarters of the population.", "Other important towns include Nadi (the location of the international airport), and Lautoka, Fiji's second largest city with large sugar cane mills and a seaport.The main towns on Vanua Levu are Labasa and Savusavu.", "Other islands and island groups include Taveuni and Kadavu (the third and fourth largest islands, respectively), the Mamanuca Group (just off Nadi) and Yasawa Group, which are popular tourist destinations, the Lomaiviti Group, off Suva, and the remote Lau Group.", "Rotuma has special administrative status in Fiji.", "Ceva-i-Ra, an uninhabited reef, is located about southwest of the main archipelago.Fiji contains two ecoregions: Fiji tropical moist forests and Fiji tropical dry forests.", "It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.35/10, ranking it 24th globally out of 172 countries.=== Climate ===The climate in Fiji is tropical marine and warm year round with minimal extremes.", "The warm season is from November to April, and the cooler season lasts from May to October.", "Temperatures in the cool season average .", "Rainfall is variable, with the warm season experiencing heavier rainfall, especially inland.", "For the larger islands, rainfall is heavier on the southeast portions of the islands than on the northwest portions, with consequences for agriculture in those areas.", "Winds are moderate, though cyclones occur about once annually (10–12 times per decade).Climate change in Fiji is an exceptionally pressing issue for the country – as an island nation, Fiji is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels, coastal erosion and extreme weather.", "These changes, along with temperature rise, will displace Fijian communities and will prove disruptive to the national economy – tourism, agriculture and fisheries, the largest contributors to the nation's GDP, will be severely impacted by climate change causing increases in poverty and food insecurity.", "As a party to both the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement, Fiji hopes to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts of climate change.", "The governments of Fiji and other climate other island states at risk from climate change (Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Tonga and Vanuatu) launched the \"Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific\", calling for the phase out fossil fuels and the 'rapid and just transition' to renewable energy and strengthening environmental law including introducing the crime of ecocide." ], [ "Government and politics", "Politics in Fiji normally take place in the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic wherein the Prime Minister of Fiji is the head of government and the President the Head of State, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government, legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji, and the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.A general election took place on 17 September 2014.Bainimarama's FijiFirst party won with 59.2% of the vote, and the election was deemed credible by a group of international observers from Australia, India and Indonesia.In the 2018 election FijiFirst won with 50.02 per cent of the total votes cast.", "It held its outright majority in the parliament, winning 27 of the 51 seats.", "The Social Democratic Liberal Party (SODELPA) came in second with 39.85 per cent of the vote.In the 2022 election FijiFirst lost its parliamentary majority.", "Sitiveni Rabuka of People's Alliance party, with the backing of the Social Liberal Democratic party (Sodelpa), became Fiji's new Prime Minister to succeed Frank Bainimarama.=== Armed forces and law enforcement ===The military consists of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces with a total manpower of 3,500 active soldiers and 6,000 reservists, and includes a Navy unit of 300 personnel.", "The land force comprises the Fiji Infantry Regiment (regular and territorial force organised into six light infantry battalions), Fiji Engineer Regiment, Logistic Support Unit and Force Training Group.", "Relative to its size, Fiji has fairly large armed forces and has been a major contributor to UN peacekeeping missions in various parts of the world.", "In addition, a significant number of former military personnel have served in the lucrative security sector in Iraq following the 2003 U.S.-led invasion.The law enforcement branch is composed of the Fiji Police Force and Fiji Corrections Service.=== Administrative divisions ===A map of Fiji's administrative divisionsFiji is divided into four major divisions which are further divided into 14 provinces.", "They are:* Central Division has 5 provinces: Naitasiri, Namosi, Rewa, Serua, and Tailevu.", "* Eastern Division has 3 provinces: Kadavu, Lau, and Lomaiviti.", "* Northern Division has 3 provinces: Bua, Cakaudrove, and Macuata.", "* Western Division has 3 provinces: Ba, Nadroga-Navosa, and Ra.Fiji was divided into three confederacies or governments during the reign of Seru Epenisa Cakobau, though these are not considered political divisions, they are still considered important in the social divisions of the indigenous Fijians: Confederacy Chief Kubuna Vacant Burebasaga Ro Teimumu Vuikaba Kepa Tovata Ratu Naiqama Tawake Lalabalavu" ], [ "Economy", "Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector.", "Some progress was experienced by this sector when Marion M. Ganey introduced credit unions to the islands in the 1950s.", "Natural resources include timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil, and hydropower.", "Fiji experienced a period of rapid growth in the 1960s and 1970s but stagnated in the 1980s.", "The coups of 1987 caused further contraction.Economic liberalisation in the years following the coups created a boom in the garment industry and a steady growth rate despite growing uncertainty regarding land tenure in the sugar industry.", "The expiration of leases for sugar cane farmers (along with reduced farm and factory efficiency) has led to a decline in sugar production despite subsidies for sugar provided by the EU.", "Fiji's gold mining industry is based in Vatukoula.Urbanisation and expansion in the service sector have contributed to recent GDP growth.", "Sugar exports and a rapidly growing tourist industry – with tourists numbering 430,800 in 2003 and increasing in the subsequent years – are the major sources of foreign exchange.", "Fiji is highly dependent on tourism for revenue.", "Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity.", "Long-term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights.Suva, capital and commercial centre of FijiThe South Pacific Stock Exchange (SPSE) is the only licensed securities exchange in Fiji and is based in Suva.", "Its vision is to become a regional exchange.=== Tourism ===Fijian luxury resortAn island in the Mamanuca Islands groupView of the over water bures located at Marriott Momi Bay, Western FijiFiji has a significant amount of tourism with the popular regions being Nadi, the Coral Coast, Denarau Island, and Mamanuca Islands.", "The biggest sources of international visitors by country are Australia, New Zealand and the United States.", "Fiji has a significant number of soft coral reefs, and scuba diving is a common tourist activity.", "Fiji's main attractions to tourists are primarily white sandy beaches and aesthetically pleasing islands with all-year tropical weather.", "In general, Fiji is a mid-range priced holiday/vacation destination with most of the accommodations in this range.", "It also has a variety of world-class five-star resorts and hotels.", "More budget resorts are being opened in remote areas, which will provide more tourism opportunities.", "CNN named Fiji's Laucala Island Resort as one of the fifteen world's most beautiful island hotels.Official statistics show that in 2012, 75% of visitors stated that they came for a holiday/vacation.", "Honeymoons are very popular as are romantic getaways in general.", "There are also family-friendly resorts with facilities for young children including kids' clubs and nanny options.", "Fiji has several popular tourism destinations.", "The Botanical Gardens of Thursten in Suva, Sigatoka Sand Dunes, and Colo-I-Suva Forest Park are three options on the mainland (Viti Levu).", "A major attraction on the outer islands is scuba diving.According to the Fiji Bureau of Statistics, most visitors arriving to Fiji on a short-term basis are from the following countries or regions of residence: Country 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 367,020 365,660 365,689 360,370 367,273 205,998 198,718 184,595 163,836 138,537 96,968 86,075 81,198 69,628 67,831 47,027 49,271 48,796 49,083 40,174 16,856 16,297 16,925 16,712 16,716 13,269 13,220 12,421 11,780 11,709 14,868 11,903 6,350 6,274 6,092 6,806 8,176 8,871 8,071 6,700 Total 894,389 870,309 842,884 792,320 754,835Fiji has also served as a location for various Hollywood movies starting from the ''Mr Robinson Crusoe'' in 1932 to ''The Blue Lagoon'' (1980) starring Brooke Shields and ''Return to the Blue Lagoon'' (1991) with Milla Jovovich.", "Other popular movies shot in Fiji include ''Cast Away'' (2000) and ''Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid'' (2004).The U.S. version of the reality television show ''Survivor'' has filmed all of its semiannual seasons in the Mamanuca Islands since its 33rd season in 2016.Typically, two 39-day competitions will be filmed back to back, with the first season airing in the fall of that year, and the second airing in the spring of the following year.", "This marks the longest consecutive period that ''Survivor'' has filmed in one location.", "Before the airing of the 35th season (''Survivor: Heroes vs. Healers vs. Hustlers)'', host Jeff Probst said in an interview with ''Entertainment Weekly'' that the Mamanucas are the optimal location for the show and he would like to stay there permanently.=== Transport ===Nadi airport – arrivalsThe ''Yasawa Flyer'' ferry connects Port Denarau near Nadi with the Yasawa Islands.The Nadi International Airport is located north of central Nadi and is the largest Fijian hub.", "Nausori International Airport is about northeast of downtown Suva and serves mostly domestic traffic with flights from Australia and New Zealand.", "The main airport in the second largest island of Vanua Levu is Labasa Airport located at Waiqele, southwest of Labasa Town.", "The largest aircraft handled by Labasa Airport is the ATR 72.Airports Fiji Limited (AFL) is responsible for the operation of 15 public airports in the Fiji Islands.", "These include two international airports: Nadi international Airport, Fiji's main international gateway, and Nausori Airport, Fiji's domestic hub, and 13 outer island airports.", "Fiji's main airline is Fiji Airways.", "An inter-island vessel sails past one of the islands in the east of FijiFiji's larger islands have extensive bus routes that are affordable and consistent in service.", "There are bus stops, and in rural areas buses are often simply hailed as they approach.", "Buses are the principal form of public transport and passenger movement between the towns on the main islands.", "Buses also serve on inter-island ferries.", "Bus fares and routes are regulated by the Land Transport Authority (LTA).", "Bus and taxi drivers hold Public Service Licenses issued by the LTA.", "Taxis are licensed by the LTA and operate widely all over the country.", "Apart from urban, town-based taxis, there are others that are licensed to serve rural or semi-rural areas.Inter-island ferries provide services between Fiji's principal islands, and large vessels operate roll-on-roll-off services such as Patterson Brothers Shipping Company LTD, transporting vehicles and large amounts of cargo between the main island of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, and other smaller islands." ], [ "Science and technology", "Fiji is the only developing Pacific Island country with recent data for gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD), with the exception of Papua New Guinea.", "The national Bureau of Statistics cites a GERD/GDP ratio of 0.15% in 2012.Private-sector research and development (R&D) is negligible.", "Government investment in research and development tends to favour agriculture.", "In 2007, agriculture and primary production accounted for just under half of government expenditure on R&D, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics.", "This share had risen to almost 60% by 2012.However, scientists publish much more in the field of geosciences and health than in agriculture.", "The rise in government spending on agricultural research has come to the detriment of research in education, which dropped to 35% of total research spending between 2007 and 2012.Government expenditure on health research has remained fairly constant, at about 5% of total government research spending, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics.The Fijian Ministry of Health is seeking to develop endogenous research capacity through the ''Fiji Journal of Public Health'', which it launched in 2012.A new set of guidelines are now in place to help build endogenous capacity in health research through training and access to new technology.Fiji is also planning to diversify its energy sector through the use of science and technology.", "In 2015, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that \"while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources.", "\"In 2014, the Centre of Renewable Energy became operational at the University of Fiji, with the assistance of the Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme (EPIC) funded by the European Union.", "From 2013 to 2017, the European Union funded the EPIC programme, which developed two master's programmes in renewable energy management, one at the University of Papua New Guinea and the other at the University of Fiji, both accredited in 2016.In Fiji, 45 students have enrolled for the master's degree since the launch of the programme and a further 21 students have undertaken a related diploma programme introduced in 2019.In 2020, the Regional Pacific Nationally Determined Contributions Hub Office in Fiji was launched to support climate change mitigation and adaptation.", "Pacific authors on the frontlines of climate change remain underrepresented in the scientific literature on the impact of disasters and on climate resilience strategies." ], [ "Society", "=== Demographics ===The 2017 census found that the population of Fiji was 884,887, compared to the population of 837,271 in the 2007 census.", "The population density at the time of the 2007 census was 45.8 inhabitants per square kilometre.", "The life expectancy in Fiji was 72.1 years.", "Since the 1930s the population of Fiji has increased at a rate of 1.1% per year.", "The median age of the population was 29.9, and the gender ratio was 1.03 males per 1 female.=== Ethnic groups ===Native Fijian women, 1935The population of Fiji is mostly made up of native Fijians, who are Melanesians (54.3%), although many also have Polynesian ancestry; and Indo-Fijians (38.1%), descendants of Indian contract labourers brought to the islands by the British colonial powers in the 19th century.", "The percentage of the population of Indo-Fijian descent has declined significantly over the last two decades through migration for various reasons.", "Indo-Fijians suffered reprisals for a period after the coup of 2000.Relationships between ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians in the political arena have often been strained, and the tension between the two communities has dominated politics in the islands for the past generation.", "The level of political tension varies among different regions of the country.About 1.2% of the population is Rotuman – natives of Rotuma Island, whose culture has more in common with countries such as Tonga or Samoa than with the rest of Fiji.", "There are also small but economically significant groups of Europeans, Chinese, and other Pacific island minorities.The membership of other ethnic groups is about 4.5%.", "3,000 people or 0.3% of the people living in Fiji are from Australia.The concept of family and community is of great importance to Fijian culture.", "Within the indigenous communities many members of the extended family will adopt particular titles and roles of direct guardians.", "Kinship is determined through a child's lineage to a particular spiritual leader, so that a clan is based on traditional customary ties as opposed to actual biological links.", "These clans, based on the spiritual leader, are known as a matangali.", "Within the matangali are a number of smaller collectives, known as the mbito.", "The descent is patrilineal, and all the status is derived from the father's side.=== Demonym ===Constitutionally, citizens of Fiji were previously referred to as \"Fiji Islanders\" though the term ''Fiji Nationals'' was used for official purposes.", "However, the current constitution refers to all Fijian citizens as \"Fijians\".", "In August 2008, shortly before the proposed People's Charter for Change, Peace and Progress was due to be released to the public, it was announced that it recommended a change in the name of Fiji's citizens.", "If the proposal were adopted, all citizens of Fiji, whatever their ethnicity, would be called \"Fijians\".", "The proposal would change the English name of indigenous Fijians from \"Fijians\" to ''itaukei'', the Fijian language endonym for indigenous Fijians.", "Deposed Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase reacted by stating that the name \"Fijian\" belonged exclusively to indigenous Fijians, and that he would oppose any change in legislation enabling non-indigenous Fijians to use it.", "The Methodist Church, to which a large majority of indigenous Fijians belong, also reacted strongly to the proposal, stating that allowing any Fiji citizen to call themselves \"Fijian\" would be \"daylight robbery\" inflicted on the indigenous population.In an address to the nation during the constitutional crisis of April 2009, military leader and interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama, who has been at the forefront of the attempt to change the definition of \"Fijian\", stated:FijiansIn May 2010, Attorney-General Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum reiterated that the term \"Fijian\" should apply to all Fiji nationals, but the statement was again met with protest.", "A spokesperson for the Viti Landowners and Resource Owners Association claimed that even fourth-generation descendants of migrants did not fully understand \"what it takes to be a Fijian\", and added that the term refers to a legal standing, since legislation affords specific rights to \"Fijians\" (meaning, in legislation, indigenous Fijians).=== Languages ===Fiji has three official languages under the 1997 constitution (and not revoked by the 2013 Constitution): English, Fijian (iTaukei) and Fiji Hindi.", "Fijian is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken in Fiji.", "It has 350,000 native speakers, and another 200,000 speak it as a second language.There are many dialects of the language across the Fiji Islands, which may be classified in two major branches—eastern and western.", "Missionaries in the 1840s chose an eastern dialect, the speech of Bau Island to be the written standard of the Fijian language.", "Bau Island was home to Seru Epenisa Cakobau, the chief who eventually became the self-proclaimed King of Fiji.Fiji Hindi, also known as Fijian Baat or Fijian Hindustani, is the language spoken by most Fijian citizens of Indian descent.", "It is derived mainly from the Awadhi and Bhojpuri varieties of Hindi.", "It has also borrowed a large number of words from Fijian and English.", "The relation between Fiji Hindi and Standard Hindi is similar to the relation between Afrikaans and Dutch.", "Indian indentured labourers were initially brought to Fiji mainly from districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North-West Frontier and South India such as from Andhra and Tamil Nadu.", "They spoke numerous, mainly Hindi, dialects and languages depending on their district of origin.English, a remnant of British colonial rule over the islands, was the sole official language until 1997 and is widely used in government, business and education as a lingua franca.", "English hello/hi good morning goodbye Fijian bula yadra (pronounced yandra) moce (pronounced mothe) Fiji Hindi नमस्ते (Namaste in general) राम राम (Ram Ram for Hindus) (As-salamu alaykum for Muslims) सुप्रभात (suprabhat) अलविदा (alavidā)=== Religion ===According to the 2007 census, 64.4% of the population at the time was Christian, while 27.9% was Hindu, 6.3% Muslim, 0.8% non-religious, 0.3% Sikh, and the remaining 0.3% belonged to other religions.Among Christians, 54% were counted as Methodist, followed by 14.2% Catholic, 8.9% Assemblies of God, 6.0% Seventh-day Adventist, 1.2% Anglican with the remaining 16.1% belonging to other denominations.The largest Christian denomination is the Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma.", "With 34.6% of the population (including almost two-thirds of ethnic Fijians), the proportion of the population adhering to Methodism is higher in Fiji than in any other nation.", "Fijian Catholics are administered by the Archdiocese of Suva.", "The archdiocese is the metropolitan see of an ecclesiastical province which includes the Dioceses of Rarotonga (on the Cook Islands, for those and Niue, both New Zealand-associated countries) and Tarawa and Nauru (with see at Tarawa on Kiribati, also for Nauru) and the Mission sui iuris of Tokelau (New Zealand).The Assemblies of God and the Seventh-day Adventist denominations are significantly represented.", "Fiji is the base for the Anglican Diocese of Polynesia (part of the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia).These and other denominations have small numbers of Indo-Fijian members; Christians of all kinds comprised 6.1% of the Indo-Fijian population in the 1996 census.", "Hindus in Fiji mostly belong to the Sanatan sect (74.3% of all Hindus) or else are unspecified (22%).", "Muslims in Fiji are mostly Sunni (96.4%).=== Education ===Fiji has a high literacy rate (91.6 percent), and although there is no compulsory education, more than 85 percent of the children between the ages of 6 and 13 attend primary school.", "Schooling is free and provided by both public and church-run schools.", "Generally, the Fijian and Hindu children attend separate schools, reflecting the political split that exists in the nation.+Education system in FijiEducationSchool/levelGradesYearsNotesPrimaryPrimary education1–88Education is not compulsory but is free through the first eight years.", "Schools from pre-school to secondary are mostly managed by either the government, religion (Catholic, Methodist, Sabha or Muslim) or provinces.SecondarySecondary education9–135Courses include carpentry, metalwork, woodwork, home economics, agricultural science, economics, accounting, biology, chemistry, physics, history, geography.", "English and maths are compulsory.TertiaryDiploma programs2Higher education is offered at technical institutes and is structured around two-year diploma programs.", "There are also four or five-year professional degree programs in specific fields.Bachelor's degree3–5Master's degree1–3==== Primary education ====In Fiji, the role of government in education is to provide an environment in which children realise their full potential, and school is free from age 6 to 14.The primary school system consists of eight years of schooling and is attended by children from the ages of 6 to 14 years.", "Upon completion of primary school, a certificate is awarded and the student is eligible to take the secondary school examination.==== Secondary education ====High school education may continue for a total of five years following an entry examination.", "Students either leave after three years with a Fiji school leaving certificate, or remain on to complete their final two years and qualify for tertiary education.", "Entry into the secondary school system, which is a total of five years, is determined by a competitive examination.", "Students passing the exam then follow a three-year course that leads to the Fiji School Leaving Certificate and the opportunity to attend senior secondary school.", "At the end of this level, they may take the Form VII examination, which covers four or five subjects.", "Successful completion of this process gains students access to higher education.==== Tertiary education ====The University of the South Pacific, called the crossroads of the South Pacific because it serves ten English-speaking territories in the South Pacific, is the major provider of higher education.", "Admission to the university requires a secondary school diploma, and all students must take a one-year foundation course at the university regardless of their major.", "Financing for the university is derived from school fees, funds from the Fiji government and other territories, and aid from Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United Kingdom.", "In addition to the university, Fiji also has teacher-training colleges, as well as medical, technological, and agricultural schools.", "Primary school teachers are trained for two years, whereas secondary school teachers train for three years; they then have the option to receive a diploma in education or read for a bachelor's degree in arts or science and continue for an additional year to earn a postgraduate certificate of education.The Fiji Polytechnic School offers training in various trades, apprenticeship courses, and other courses that lead to diplomas in engineering, hotel catering, and business studies.", "Some of the course offerings can also lead to several City and Guilds of London Institute Examinations.", "In addition to the traditional educational system, Fiji also offers the opportunity to obtain an education through distance learning.", "The University Extension Service provides centres and a network of terminals in most regional areas.", "For students taking non-credit courses, no formal qualifications are necessary.", "However, students who enroll in the credit courses may be awarded the appropriate degree or certificate upon successful completion of their studies through the extension services." ], [ "Culture", "bure'' (one-room Fijian houses) in the village of Navala in the Nausori HighlandsWhile indigenous Fijian culture and traditions are very vibrant and are integral components of everyday life for the majority of Fiji's population, Fijian society has evolved over the past century with the introduction of traditions such as Indian and Chinese as well as significant influences from Europe and Fiji's Pacific neighbours, particularly Tonga and Samoa.", "Thus, the various cultures of Fiji have come together to create a unique multicultural national identity.Fiji's culture was showcased at the World Exposition held in Vancouver, Canada, in 1986 and more recently at the Shanghai World Expo 2010, along with other Pacific countries in the Pacific Pavilion.=== Sport ===Sports are very popular in Fiji, particularly sports involving physical contact.", "Fiji's national sport is Rugby sevens.", "Cricket is a minor sport in Fiji.", "Cricket Fiji is an associate member of the International Cricket Council (\"ICC\").", "Netball is the most popular women's participation sport in Fiji.", "The national team has been internationally competitive, at Netball World Cup competitions reaching 6th position in 1999, its highest level to date.", "The team won gold medals at the 2007 and 2015 Pacific Games.Because of the success of Fiji's national basketball teams, the popularity of basketball has experienced rapid growth in recent years.", "In the past, the country only had few basketball courts, which severely limited Fijians who desired to practice the sport more frequently.", "Through recent efforts by the national federation Basketball Fiji and with the support of the Australian government, many schools have been able to construct courts and provide their students with basketball equipment.Vijay Singh, a PGA golfer from Fiji, was ranked the world number one male golfer for a total of 32 weeks.==== Rugby union ====The Fiji national rugby union team during the 2007 Rugby World Cup playing against CanadaRugby Union is the most-popular team sport played in Fiji.", "The Fiji national sevens side is a popular and successful international rugby sevens team and has won the Hong Kong Sevens a record eighteen times since its inception in 1976.Fiji has also won the Rugby World Cup Sevens twice – in 1997 and 2005.The Fiji national rugby union sevens team is the reigning Sevens World Series Champions in World Rugby.", "In 2016, they won Fiji's first ever Olympic medal in the Rugby sevens at the Summer Olympics, winning gold by defeating Great Britain 43–7 in the final.The national rugby union team is a member of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance formerly along with Samoa and Tonga.", "In 2009, Samoa announced their departure from the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance, leaving just Fiji and Tonga in the union.", "Fiji is currently ranked eleventh in the world by the IRB ().", "The national rugby union team has competed at five Rugby World Cup competitions, the first being in 1987, where they reached the quarter-finals.", "The team again qualified in the 2007 Rugby World Cup when they upset Wales 38–34 to progress to the quarter-finals where they lost to the eventual Rugby World Cup winners, South Africa.Fiji competes in the Pacific Tri-Nations and the IRB Pacific Nations Cup.", "The sport is governed by the Fiji Rugby Union which is a member of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance, and contributes to the Pacific Islanders rugby union team.", "At the club level there are the Skipper Cup and Farebrother Trophy Challenge.==== Rugby league ====The Fiji national rugby league team, nicknamed the Bati (pronounced mˈbatʃi), represents Fiji in the sport of rugby league football and has been participating in international competition since 1992.It has competed in the Rugby League World Cup on three occasions, with their best results coming when they made consecutive semi-final appearances in the 2008 Rugby League World Cup, 2013 Rugby League World Cup and 2019 Rugby League World Cup.", "The team also competes in the Pacific Cup.==== Association football ====Association football was traditionally a minor sport in Fiji, popular largely amongst the Indo-Fijian community, but with international funding from FIFA and sound local management over the past decade, the sport has grown in popularity in the wider Fijian community.", "It is now the second most-popular sport in Fiji, after rugby for men and after netball for women.The Fiji Football Association is a member of the Oceania Football Confederation.", "The national football team defeated New Zealand 2–0 in the 2008 OFC Nations Cup, on their way to a joint-record third-place finish.", "However, they have never reached a FIFA World Cup to date.", "Fiji won the Pacific Games football tournament in 1991 and 2003.Fiji qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics men's tournament for the first time in history." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Fiji-related articles* List of festivals in Fiji* Outline of Fiji" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Cited sources", "* * Morens, David M. \"Measles in Fiji, 1875: thoughts on the history of emerging infectious diseases.\"", "''Pacific Health Dialog'' 5#1 (1998): 119–128 online.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Traces the colonisation of the Fiji Islands, explains how the Fijians have managed to keep their language and culture intact, and describes modern Fiji society.", "* Details on Fiji its history and Geography.", "* Details of Fiji's History, Geography, Economy.", "* * * * David Routledge: ''Matanitu – The Struggle for Power in Early Fiji'', University of the South Pacific, Suva 1985* " ], [ "Sources", "" ], [ "External links", "===Government===* Official website of the Government of Fiji* Chief of State and Cabinet Members (archived 24 March 2010)* Fiji Bureau of Statistics===General information===* Geologic Map* * * Fiji.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Fiji at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Fiji profile from the BBC News* J. Edward Hoffmeister Films from the J. Edward Hoffmeister Papers.", "MSS 231.Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego" ] ]	wikipedia

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