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[ [ "Finagle's law" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Finagle's law of dynamic negatives''' (also known as '''Melody's law''', '''Sod's Law''' or '''Finagle's corollary to Murphy's law''') is usually rendered as \"Anything that can go wrong, will—at the worst possible moment.", "\"The term \"Finagle's law\" was first used by John W. Campbell Jr., the influential editor of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' (later ''Analog'').", "He used it frequently in his editorials for many years in the 1940s to 1960s, but it never came into general usage the way Murphy's law has." ], [ "Variants", "One variant (known as O'Toole's corollary of Finagle's law) favored among hackers is a takeoff on the second law of thermodynamics (related to the augmentation of entropy):In the ''Star Trek'' episode \"Amok Time\" (written by Theodore Sturgeon in 1967), Captain Kirk tells Spock, \"As one of Finagle's laws puts it: 'Any home port the ship makes will be somebody else's, not mine.", "'\"The term \"Finagle's law\" was popularized by science fiction author Larry Niven in several stories (for example, ''Protector'' Ballantine Books paperback edition, 4th printing, p. 23), depicting a frontier culture of asteroid miners; this \"Belter\" culture professed a religion or running joke involving the worship of the dread god Finagle and his mad prophet Murphy.", "\"Finagle's law\" can also be the related belief \"Inanimate objects are out to get us\", also known as Resistentialism.Similar to Finagle's law is the verbless phrase of the German novelist Friedrich Theodor Vischer: \"''die Tücke des Objekts''\" (the perfidy of inanimate objects).A related concept, the \"Finagle factor\", is an ''ad hoc'' multiplicative or additive term in an equation, which can be justified only by the fact that it gives more correct results.", "Also known as Finagle's variable constant, it is sometimes defined as the correct answer divided by your answer.One of the first records of \"Finagle factor\" is probably a December 1962 article in ''The Michigan Technic'', credited to Campbell, but bylined \"I Finaglin\" The term is also used in a 1960 wildlife management article." ], [ "See also", "Hanlon's razorHofstadter's lawList of eponymous lawsMurphy's lawResistentialismSod's law*Sturgeon's law" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fundamental interaction" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics, the '''fundamental interactions''' or '''fundamental forces''' are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions.", "There are four fundamental interactions known to exist:* gravity* electromagnetism* weak interaction* strong interactionThe gravitational and electromagnetic interactions produce long-range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life.", "The strong and weak interactions produce forces at minuscule, subatomic distances and govern nuclear interactions inside atoms.Some scientists hypothesize that a fifth force might exist, but these hypotheses remain speculative.", "It is possible, however, that the fifth force is a combination of the prior four forces in the form of a scalar field; such as the Higgs field.Each of the known fundamental interactions can be described mathematically as a ''field''.", "The gravitational force is attributed to the curvature of spacetime, described by Einstein's general theory of relativity.", "The other three are discrete quantum fields, and their interactions are mediated by elementary particles described by the Standard Model of particle physics.Within the Standard Model, the strong interaction is carried by a particle called the gluon and is responsible for quarks binding together to form hadrons, such as protons and neutrons.", "As a residual effect, it creates the nuclear force that binds the latter particles to form atomic nuclei.", "The weak interaction is carried by particles called W and Z bosons, and also acts on the nucleus of atoms, mediating radioactive decay.", "The electromagnetic force, carried by the photon, creates electric and magnetic fields, which are responsible for the attraction between orbital electrons and atomic nuclei which holds atoms together, as well as chemical bonding and electromagnetic waves, including visible light, and forms the basis for electrical technology.", "Although the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravity, it tends to cancel itself out within large objects, so over large (astronomical) distances gravity tends to be the dominant force, and is responsible for holding together the large scale structures in the universe, such as planets, stars, and galaxies.Many theoretical physicists believe these fundamental forces to be related and to become unified into a single force at very high energies on a minuscule scale, the Planck scale, but particle accelerators cannot produce the enormous energies required to experimentally probe this.", "Devising a common theoretical framework that would explain the relation between the forces in a single theory is perhaps the greatest goal of today's theoretical physicists.", "The weak and electromagnetic forces have already been unified with the electroweak theory of Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg, for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics.", "Some physicists seek to unite the electroweak and strong fields within what is called a Grand Unified Theory (GUT).", "An even bigger challenge is to find a way to quantize the gravitational field, resulting in a theory of quantum gravity (QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical framework with the other three forces.", "Some theories, notably string theory, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with mass generation within a theory of everything (ToE)." ], [ "History", "===Classical theory===In his 1687 theory, Isaac Newton postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus absolute space and time.", "Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an attractive force.", "His law of universal gravitation implied there to be instant interaction among all objects.", "As conventionally interpreted, Newton's theory of motion modelled a ''central force'' without a communicating medium.", "Thus Newton's theory violated the tradition, going back to Descartes, that there should be no action at a distance.", "Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism, Michael Faraday inferred a ''field'' filling space and transmitting that force.", "Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one.In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at constant speed in vacuum.", "If his electromagnetic field theory held true in all inertial frames of reference, this would contradict Newton's theory of motion, which relied on Galilean relativity.", "If, instead, his field theory only applied to reference frames at rest relative to a mechanical luminiferous aether—presumed to fill all space whether within matter or in vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field—then it could be reconciled with Galilean relativity and Newton's laws.", "(However, such a \"Maxwell aether\" was later disproven; Newton's laws did, in fact, have to be replaced.", ")===The Standard Model=== The Standard Model of elementary particles, with the fermions in the first three columns, the gauge bosons in the fourth column, and the Higgs boson in the fifth columnThe Standard Model of particle physics was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century.", "In the Standard Model, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with elementary particles, whose behaviours are modelled in quantum mechanics (QM).", "For predictive success with QM's probabilistic outcomes, particle physics conventionally models QM events across a field set to special relativity, altogether relativistic quantum field theory (QFT).", "Force particles, called gauge bosons—''force carriers'' or ''messenger particles'' of underlying fields—interact with matter particles, called fermions.", "Everyday matter is atoms, composed of three fermion types: up-quarks and down-quarks constituting, as well as electrons orbiting, the atom's nucleus.", "Atoms interact, form molecules, and manifest further properties through electromagnetic interactions among their electrons absorbing and emitting photons, the electromagnetic field's force carrier, which if unimpeded traverse potentially infinite distance.", "Electromagnetism's QFT is quantum electrodynamics (QED).The force carriers of the weak interaction are the massive W and Z bosons.", "Electroweak theory (EWT) covers both electromagnetism and the weak interaction.", "At the high temperatures shortly after the Big Bang, the weak interaction, the electromagnetic interaction, and the Higgs boson were originally mixed components of a different set of ancient pre-symmetry-breaking fields.", "As the early universe cooled, these fields split into the long-range electromagnetic interaction, the short-range weak interaction, and the Higgs boson.", "In the Higgs mechanism, the Higgs field manifests Higgs bosons that interact with some quantum particles in a way that endows those particles with mass.", "The strong interaction, whose force carrier is the gluon, traversing minuscule distance among quarks, is modeled in quantum chromodynamics (QCD).", "EWT, QCD, and the Higgs mechanism comprise particle physics' Standard Model (SM).", "Predictions are usually made using calculational approximation methods, although such perturbation theory is inadequate to model some experimental observations (for instance bound states and solitons).", "Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as science's most experimentally confirmed theory.Beyond the Standard Model, some theorists work to unite the electroweak and strong interactions within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT).", "Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize \"shadow\" particles, such that every known matter particle associates with an undiscovered force particle, and vice versa, altogether supersymmetry (SUSY).", "Other theorists seek to quantize the gravitational field by the modelling behaviour of its hypothetical force carrier, the graviton and achieve quantum gravity (QG).", "One approach to QG is loop quantum gravity (LQG).", "Still other theorists seek both QG and GUT within one framework, reducing all four fundamental interactions to a Theory of Everything (ToE).", "The most prevalent aim at a ToE is string theory, although to model matter particles, it added SUSY to force particles—and so, strictly speaking, became superstring theory.", "Multiple, seemingly disparate superstring theories were unified on a backbone, M-theory.", "Theories beyond the Standard Model remain highly speculative, lacking great experimental support." ], [ "Overview of the fundamental interactions", "An overview of the various families of elementary and composite particles, and the theories describing their interactions.", "Fermions are on the left, and Bosons are on the right.In the conceptual model of fundamental interactions, matter consists of fermions, which carry properties called charges and spin ± (intrinsic angular momentum ±, where ħ is the reduced Planck constant).", "They attract or repel each other by exchanging bosons.The interaction of any pair of fermions in perturbation theory can then be modelled thus:: Two fermions go in → ''interaction'' by boson exchange → Two changed fermions go out.The exchange of bosons always carries energy and momentum between the fermions, thereby changing their speed and direction.", "The exchange may also transport a charge between the fermions, changing the charges of the fermions in the process (e.g., turn them from one type of fermion to another).", "Since bosons carry one unit of angular momentum, the fermion's spin direction will flip from + to − (or vice versa) during such an exchange (in units of the reduced Planck's constant).", "Since such interactions result in a change in momentum, they can give rise to classical Newtonian forces.", "In quantum mechanics, physicists often use the terms \"force\" and \"interaction\" interchangeably; for example, the weak interaction is sometimes referred to as the \"weak force\".According to the present understanding, there are four fundamental interactions or forces: gravitation, electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction.", "Their magnitude and behaviour vary greatly, as described in the table below.", "Modern physics attempts to explain every observed physical phenomenon by these fundamental interactions.", "Moreover, reducing the number of different interaction types is seen as desirable.", "Two cases in point are the unification of:Electric and magnetic force into electromagnetism;The electromagnetic interaction and the weak interaction into the electroweak interaction; see below.Both magnitude (\"relative strength\") and \"range\" of the associated potential, as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework.", "The table below lists properties of a conceptual scheme that remains the subject of ongoing research.", "Interaction Current theory Mediators Relative strength Long-distance behavior (potential) Range (m) Weak Electroweak theory (EWT) W and Z bosons 1033 10−18 Strong Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) gluons 1038 (Color confinement, see discussion below) 10−15 Gravitation General relativity(GR) gravitons (hypothetical) 1 Electromagnetic Quantum electrodynamics (QED) photons 1036 The modern (perturbative) quantum mechanical view of the fundamental forces other than gravity is that particles of matter (fermions) do not directly interact with each other, but rather carry a charge, and exchange virtual particles (gauge bosons), which are the interaction carriers or force mediators.", "For example, photons mediate the interaction of electric charges, and gluons mediate the interaction of color charges.", "The full theory includes perturbations beyond simply fermions exchanging bosons; these additional perturbations can involve bosons that exchange fermions, as well as the creation or destruction of particles: see Feynman diagrams for examples." ], [ "The interactions", "===Gravity===''Gravitation'' is the weakest of the four interactions at the atomic scale, where electromagnetic interactions dominate.Gravitation is the most important of the four fundamental forces for astronomical objects over astronomical distances for two reasons.", "First, gravitation has an infinite effective range, like electromagnetism but unlike the strong and weak interactions.", "Second, gravity always attracts and never repels; in contrast, astronomical bodies tend toward a near-neutral net electric charge, such that the attraction to one type of charge and the repulsion from the opposite charge mostly cancel each other out.Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero.", "Nothing \"cancels\" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive.", "On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts.", "Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale structure of the universe.The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies and black holes and, being only attractive, it retards the expansion of the universe.", "Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as planetary orbits, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground, and animals can only jump so high.Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically.", "In ancient times, Aristotle hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates.", "During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this hypothesis was wrong under certain circumstances—neglecting the friction due to air resistance and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g.", "the case of a dropped air-filled balloon vs a water-filled balloon), all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate.", "Isaac Newton's law of Universal Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation.", "Present-day understanding of gravitation stems from Einstein's General Theory of Relativity of 1915, a more accurate (especially for cosmological masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the geometry of spacetime.Merging general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more general theory of quantum gravity is an area of active research.", "It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless spin-2 particle called the graviton.Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least for weak fields, i.e.", "not black holes) on all but the smallest scales, there are alternatives to general relativity.", "These theories must reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limits on what deviations from general relativity are possible.Proposed extra dimensions could explain why the gravity force is so weak.===Electroweak interaction===Electromagnetism and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies.", "They can be modeled using two different theories.", "However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force.The electroweak theory is very important for modern cosmology, particularly on how the universe evolved.", "This is because shortly after the Big Bang, when the temperature was still above approximately 1015 K, the electromagnetic force and the weak force were still merged as a combined electroweak force.For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979.====Electromagnetism====Electromagnetism is the force that acts between electrically charged particles.", "This phenomenon includes the electrostatic force acting between charged particles at rest, and the combined effect of electric and magnetic forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other.Electromagnetism has an infinite range like gravity, but is vastly stronger than it, and therefore describes several macroscopic phenomena of everyday experience such as friction, rainbows, lightning, and all human-made devices using electric current, such as television, lasers, and computers.", "Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic-level, properties of the chemical elements, including all chemical bonding.In a four kilogram (~1 gallon) jug of water, there isof total electron charge.", "Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force ofThis force is many times larger than the weight of the planet Earth.", "The atomic nuclei in one jug also repel those in the other with the same force.", "However, these repulsive forces are canceled by the attraction of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force.", "Electromagnetic forces are tremendously stronger than gravity but cancel out so that for large bodies gravity dominates.Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century James Clerk Maxwell discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction.", "By 1864, Maxwell's equations had rigorously quantified this unified interaction.", "Maxwell's theory, restated using vector calculus, is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes.The constant speed of light in vacuum (customarily denoted with a lowercase letter '''') can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity.", "Albert Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity, however, which follows from the observation that the speed of light is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell's equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.In another work that departed from classical electro-magnetism, Einstein also explained the photoelectric effect by utilizing Max Planck's discovery that light was transmitted in 'quanta' of specific energy content based on the frequency, which we now call photons.", "Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac combined quantum mechanics with the relativistic theory of electromagnetism.", "Further work in the 1940s, by Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, completed this theory, which is now called quantum electrodynamics, the revised theory of electromagnetism.", "Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such as quantum tunneling, in which a certain percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible under the classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices such as transistors to function.====Weak interaction====The ''weak interaction'' or ''weak nuclear force'' is responsible for some nuclear phenomena such as beta decay.", "Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two aspects of a unified electroweak interaction — this discovery was the first step toward the unified theory known as the Standard Model.", "In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak force are the massive gauge bosons called the W and Z bosons.", "The weak interaction is the only known interaction that does not conserve parity; it is left–right asymmetric.", "The weak interaction even violates CP symmetry but does conserve CPT.===Strong interaction===The ''strong interaction'', or ''strong nuclear force'', is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance.", "The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre (fm, or 10−15 metres), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm.", "At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear force becomes repulsive.", "This repulsive component is responsible for the physical size of nuclei, since the nucleons can come no closer than the force allows.After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force, today known as the nuclear force, was needed to overcome the electrostatic repulsion, a manifestation of electromagnetism, of the positively charged protons.", "Otherwise, the nucleus could not exist.", "Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume whose diameter is about 10−15 m, much smaller than that of the entire atom.", "From the short range of this force, Hideki Yukawa predicted that it was associated with a massive force particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV.The 1947 discovery of the pion ushered in the modern era of particle physics.", "Hundreds of hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an extremely complicated theory of hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed.", "Most notably:The pions were understood to be oscillations of vacuum condensates;Jun John Sakurai proposed the rho and omega vector bosons to be force carrying particles for approximate symmetries of isospin and hypercharge;Geoffrey Chew, Edward K. Burdett and Steven Frautschi grouped the heavier hadrons into families that could be understood as vibrational and rotational excitations of strings.While each of these approaches offered insights, no approach led directly to a fundamental theory.Murray Gell-Mann along with George Zweig first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961.Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as simple models for the interactions of quarks.", "The first to hypothesize the gluons of QCD were Moo-Young Han and Yoichiro Nambu, who introduced the quark color charge.", "Han and Nambu hypothesized that it might be associated with a force-carrying field.", "At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks.", "Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were fractionally charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined.In 1971, Murray Gell-Mann and Harald Fritzsch proposed that the Han/Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short-distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks.", "A little later, David Gross, Frank Wilczek, and David Politzer discovered that this theory had the property of asymptotic freedom, allowing them to make contact with experimental evidence.", "They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales.", "The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD since it became clear that even the long-distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently confined: the strong force increases indefinitely with distance, trapping quarks inside the hadrons.Assuming that quarks are confined, Mikhail Shifman, Arkady Vainshtein and Valentine Zakharov were able to compute the properties of many low-lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum.", "In 1980, Kenneth G. Wilson published computer calculations based on the first principles of QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks.", "Since then, QCD has been the established theory of strong interactions.QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 bosonic particles called gluons.", "The gluons also interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings, loosely modeled by a linear potential, a constant attractive force.", "In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only explains how quarks interact over short distances but also the string-like behavior, discovered by Chew and Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances.===Higgs interaction===Conventionally, the Higgs interaction is not counted among the four fundamental forces.Nonetheless, although not a gauge interaction nor generated by any diffeomorphism symmetry, the Higgs field's cubic Yukawa coupling produces a weakly attractive fifth interaction.", "After spontaneous symmetry breaking via the Higgs mechanism, Yukawa terms remain of the form:,with Yukawa coupling , particle mass (in eV), and Higgs vacuum expectation value .", "Hence coupled particles can exchange a virtual Higgs boson, yielding classical potentials of the form:,with Higgs mass .", "Because the reduced Compton wavelength of the Higgs boson is so small (, comparable to the W and Z bosons), this potential has an effective range of a few attometers.", "Between two electrons, it begins roughly 1011 times weaker than the weak interaction, and grows exponentially weaker at non-zero distances.===Beyond the Standard Model===Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four fundamental interactions on the model of electroweak unification.Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that the three fundamental interactions described by the Standard Model are all different manifestations of a single interaction with symmetries that break down and create separate interactions below some extremely high level of energy.", "GUTs are also expected to predict some of the relationships between constants of nature that the Standard Model treats as unrelated, as well as predicting gauge coupling unification for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces (this was, for example, verified at the Large Electron–Positron Collider in 1991 for supersymmetric theories).Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include string theory, loop quantum gravity, and twistor theory, have secured wide acceptance.", "Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force-carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the possibility that time-space itself may have a quantum aspect to it.Some theories beyond the Standard Model include a hypothetical fifth force, and the search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental physics research.", "In supersymmetric theories, some particles acquire their masses only through supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as moduli, can mediate new forces.", "Another reason to look for new forces is the discovery that the expansion of the universe is accelerating (also known as dark energy), giving rise to a need to explain a nonzero cosmological constant, and possibly to other modifications of general relativity.", "Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as CP violations, dark matter, and dark flow." ], [ "See also", " Quintessence, a hypothesized fifth force* Gerardus 't Hooft* Edward Witten* Howard Georgi" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* 2nd ed.", " While all interactions are discussed, discussion is especially thorough on the weak.", "***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Floppy disk" ], [ "Introduction", "8-inch, 5¼-inch, and 3½-inch floppy disks8-inch, 5¼-inch (full height), and 3½-inch drivesA 3½-inch floppy disk removed from its housingA '''floppy disk''' or '''floppy diskette''' (casually referred to as a '''floppy''' or a '''diskette''') is a type of disk storage composed of a thin and flexible disk of a magnetic storage medium in a square or nearly square plastic enclosure lined with a fabric that removes dust particles from the spinning disk.", "Floppy disks store digital data which can be read and written when the disk is inserted into a '''floppy disk drive''' ('''FDD''') connected to or inside a computer or other device.The first floppy disks, invented and made by IBM, had a disk diameter of .", "Subsequently, the 5¼-inch and then the 3½-inch (90 mm) became a ubiquitous form of data storage and transfer into the first years of the 21st century.", "3½-inch floppy disks can still be used with an external USB floppy disk drive.", "USB drives for 5¼-inch, 8-inch, and other-size floppy disks are rare to non-existent.", "Some individuals and organizations continue to use older equipment to read or transfer data from floppy disks.Floppy disks were so common in late 20th-century culture that many electronic and software programs continue to use save icons that look like floppy disks well into the 21st century, as a form of skeuomorphic design.", "While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer equipment, they have been superseded by data storage methods with much greater data storage capacity and data transfer speed, such as USB flash drives, memory cards, optical discs, and storage available through local computer networks and cloud storage." ], [ "History", "8-inch floppy disk, inserted in drive,(3½-inch floppy diskette, in front, shown for scale)3½-inch, high-density floppy diskettes with adhesive labels affixedThe first commercial floppy disks, developed in the late 1960s, were in diameter; they became commercially available in 1971 as a component of IBM products and both drives and disks were then sold separately starting in 1972 by Memorex and others.", "These disks and associated drives were produced and improved upon by IBM and other companies such as Memorex, Shugart Associates, and Burroughs Corporation.", "The term \"floppy disk\" appeared in print as early as 1970, and although IBM announced its first media as the ''Type 1 Diskette'' in 1973, the industry continued to use the terms \"floppy disk\" or \"floppy\".In 1976, Shugart Associates introduced the 5¼-inch FDD.", "By 1978, there were more than ten manufacturers producing such FDDs.", "There were competing floppy disk formats, with hard- and soft-sector versions and encoding schemes such as differential Manchester encoding (DM), modified frequency modulation (MFM), M2FM and group coded recording (GCR).", "The 5¼-inch format displaced the 8-inch one for most uses, and the hard-sectored disk format disappeared.", "The most common capacity of the 5¼-inch format in DOS-based PCs was 360 KB (368,640 bytes) for the Double-Sided Double-Density (DSDD) format using MFM encoding.", "In 1984, IBM introduced with its PC/AT the 1.2 MB (1,228,800 bytes) dual-sided 5¼-inch floppy disk, but it never became very popular.", "IBM started using the 720 KB double density 3½-inch microfloppy disk on its Convertible laptop computer in 1986 and the 1.44 MB high-density version with the IBM Personal System/2 (PS/2) line in 1987.These disk drives could be added to older PC models.", "In 1988, Y-E Data introduced a drive for 2.88 MB Double-Sided Extended-Density (DSED) diskettes which was used by IBM in its top-of-the-line PS/2 and some RS/6000 models and in the second-generation NeXTcube and NeXTstation; however, this format had limited market success due to lack of standards and movement to 1.44 MB drives.Throughout the early 1980s, limits of the 5¼-inch format became clear.", "Originally designed to be more practical than the 8-inch format, it was becoming considered too large; as the quality of recording media grew, data could be stored in a smaller area.", "Several solutions were developed, with drives at 2-, 2½-, 3-, 3¼-, 3½- and 4-inches (and Sony's disk) offered by various companies.", "They all had several advantages over the old format, including a rigid case with a sliding metal (or later, sometimes plastic) shutter over the head slot, which helped protect the delicate magnetic medium from dust and damage, and a sliding write protection tab, which was far more convenient than the adhesive tabs used with earlier disks.", "The large market share of the well-established 5¼-inch format made it difficult for these diverse mutually-incompatible new formats to gain significant market share.", "A variant on the Sony design, introduced in 1983 by many manufacturers, was then rapidly adopted.", "By 1988, the 3½-inch was outselling the 5¼-inch.Generally, the term floppy disk persisted, even though later style floppy disks have a rigid case around an internal floppy disk.By the end of the 1980s, 5¼-inch disks had been superseded by 3½-inch disks.", "During this time, PCs frequently came equipped with drives of both sizes.", "By the mid-1990s, 5¼-inch drives had virtually disappeared, as the 3½-inch disk became the predominant floppy disk.", "The advantages of the 3½-inch disk were its higher capacity, its smaller physical size, and its rigid case which provided better protection from dirt and other environmental risks.===Prevalence===Imation USB floppy drive, model 01946: an external drive that accepts high-density disksFloppy disks became commonplace during the 1980s and 1990s in their use with personal computers to distribute software, transfer data, and create backups.", "Before hard disks became affordable to the general population, floppy disks were often used to store a computer's operating system (OS).", "Most home computers from that time have an elementary OS and BASIC stored in read-only memory (ROM), with the option of loading a more advanced OS from a floppy disk.By the early 1990s, the increasing software size meant large packages like Windows or Adobe Photoshop required a dozen disks or more.", "In 1996, there were an estimated five billion standard floppy disks in use.An attempt to enhance the existing 3½-inch designs was the SuperDisk in the late 1990s, using very narrow data tracks and a high precision head guidance mechanism with a capacity of 120 MB and backward-compatibility with standard 3½-inch floppies; a format war briefly occurred between SuperDisk and other high-density floppy-disk products, although ultimately recordable CDs/DVDs, solid-state flash storage, and eventually cloud-based online storage would render all these removable disk formats obsolete.", "External USB-based floppy disk drives are still available, and many modern systems provide firmware support for booting from such drives.===Gradual transition to other formats===Front and rear of a retail 3½-inch and 5¼-inch floppy disk drive cleaning kit, as sold in Australia at retailer Big W, circa early 1990sDifferent data storage media (Examples include: Flash drive, CD, tape drive, and CompactFlash)In the mid-1990s, mechanically incompatible higher-density floppy disks were introduced, like the Iomega Zip disk.", "Adoption was limited by the competition between proprietary formats and the need to buy expensive drives for computers where the disks would be used.", "In some cases, failure in market penetration was exacerbated by the release of higher-capacity versions of the drive and media being not backward-compatible with the original drives, dividing the users between new and old adopters.", "Consumers were wary of making costly investments into unproven and rapidly changing technologies, so none of the technologies became the established standard.Apple introduced the iMac G3 in 1998 with a CD-ROM drive but no floppy drive; this made USB-connected floppy drives popular accessories, as the iMac came without any writable removable media device.Recordable CDs were touted as an alternative, because of the greater capacity, compatibility with existing CD-ROM drives, and—with the advent of re-writeable CDs and packet writing—a similar reusability as floppy disks.", "However, CD-R/RWs remained mostly an archival medium, not a medium for exchanging data or editing files on the medium itself, because there was no common standard for packet writing which allowed for small updates.", "Other formats, such as magneto-optical discs, had the flexibility of floppy disks combined with greater capacity, but remained niche due to costs.", "High-capacity backward compatible floppy technologies became popular for a while and were sold as an option or even included in standard PCs, but in the long run, their use was limited to professionals and enthusiasts.Flash-based USB-thumb drives finally were a practical and popular replacement, that supported traditional file systems and all common usage scenarios of floppy disks.", "As opposed to other solutions, no new drive type or special software was required that impeded adoption, since all that was necessary was an already common USB port.===Usage in the 21st century===floppy hardware emulator, same size as a 3½-inch drive, provides a USB interface to the user.By 2002, most manufacturers still provided floppy disk drives as standard equipment to meet user demand for file-transfer and an emergency boot device, as well as for the general secure feeling of having the familiar device.", "By this time, the retail cost of a floppy drive had fallen to around $20 (), so there was little financial incentive to omit the device from a system.", "Subsequently, enabled by the widespread support for USB flash drives and BIOS boot, manufacturers and retailers progressively reduced the availability of floppy disk drives as standard equipment.", "In February 2003, Dell, one of the leading personal computer vendors, announced that floppy drives would no longer be pre-installed on Dell Dimension home computers, although they were still available as a selectable option and purchasable as an aftermarket OEM add-on.", "By January 2007, only 2% of computers sold in stores contained built-in floppy disk drives.Floppy disks are used for emergency boots in aging systems lacking support for other bootable media and for BIOS updates, since most BIOS and firmware programs can still be executed from bootable floppy disks.", "If BIOS updates fail or become corrupt, floppy drives can sometimes be used to perform a recovery.", "The music and theatre industries still use equipment requiring standard floppy disks (e.g.", "synthesizers, samplers, drum machines, sequencers, and lighting consoles).", "Industrial automation equipment such as programmable machinery and industrial robots may not have a USB interface; data and programs are then loaded from disks, damageable in industrial environments.", "This equipment may not be replaced due to cost or requirement for continuous availability; existing software emulation and virtualization do not solve this problem because a customized operating system is used that has no drivers for USB devices.", "Hardware floppy disk emulators can be made to interface floppy-disk controllers to a USB port that can be used for flash drives.In May 2016, the United States Government Accountability Office released a report that covered the need to upgrade or replace legacy computer systems within federal agencies.", "According to this document, old IBM Series/1 minicomputers running on 8-inch floppy disks are still used to coordinate \"the operational functions of the United States' nuclear forces\".", "The government planned to update some of the technology by the end of the 2017 fiscal year.Windows 10 and Windows 11 no longer come with drivers for floppy disk drives (both internal and external).", "However, they will still support them with a separate device driver provided by Microsoft.The British Airways Boeing 747-400 fleet, up to its retirement in 2020, used 3½-inch floppy disks to load avionics software.Some workstations in corporate computing environments still retained floppy disks while disabling USB ports, both moves done to restrict the amount of data that could be copied by unscrupulous employees.Sony, who had been in the floppy disk business since 1983, ended domestic sales of all six 3½-inch floppy disk models as of March 2011.This has been viewed by some as the end of the floppy disk.", "While production of new floppy disk media has ceased, sales and uses of this media from inventories is expected to continue until at least 2026.===Legacy===Screenshot depicting a floppy disk as \"save\" iconFor more than two decades, the floppy disk was the primary external writable storage device used.", "Most computing environments before the 1990s were non-networked, and floppy disks were the primary means to transfer data between computers, a method known informally as sneakernet.", "Unlike hard disks, floppy disks are handled and seen; even a novice user can identify a floppy disk.", "Because of these factors, a picture of a 3½-inch floppy disk became an interface metaphor for saving data.", "The floppy disk symbol is still used by software on user-interface elements related to saving files (such as LibreOffice) even though physical floppy disks are largely obsolete." ], [ "Design", "===Structure=======8-inch and 5¼-inch disks====Inside an 8-inch floppy diskconverts single-sided 5¼-inch diskettes to double-sided.The 8-inch and 5¼-inch floppy disks contain a magnetically coated round plastic medium with a large circular hole in the center for a drive's spindle.", "The medium is contained in a square plastic cover that has a small oblong opening in both sides to allow the drive's heads to read and write data and a large hole in the center to allow the magnetic medium to spin by rotating it from its middle hole.Inside the cover are two layers of fabric with the magnetic medium sandwiched in the middle.", "The fabric is designed to reduce friction between the medium and the outer cover, and catch particles of debris abraded off the disk to keep them from accumulating on the heads.", "The cover is usually a one-part sheet, double-folded with flaps glued or spot-welded together.A small notch on the side of the disk identifies that it is writable, detected by a mechanical switch or phototransistor above it; if it is not present, the disk can be written; in the 8-inch disk the notch is covered to enable writing while in the 5¼-inch disk the notch is open to enable writing.", "Tape may be used over the notch to change the mode of the disk.", "Punch devices were sold to convert read-only disks to writable ones and enable writing on the unused side of single sided disks; such modified disks became known as flippy disks.Another LED/photo-transistor pair located near the center of the disk detects the ''index hole'' once per rotation in the magnetic disk; it is used to detect the angular start of each track and whether or not the disk is rotating at the correct speed.", "Early 8‑inch and 5¼‑inch disks had physical holes for each sector and were termed ''hard sectored'' disks.", "Later ''soft-sectored'' disks have only one index hole, and sector position is determined by the disk controller or low-level software from patterns marking the start of a sector.", "Generally, the same drives are used to read and write both types of disks, with only the disks and controllers differing.", "Some operating systems using soft sectors, such as Apple DOS, do not use the index hole, and the drives designed for such systems often lack the corresponding sensor; this was mainly a hardware cost-saving measure.====3½-inch disk====Rear side of a 3½-inch floppy disk in a transparent case, showing its internal partsThe core of the 3½-inch disk is the same as the other two disks, but the front has only a label and a small opening for reading and writing data, protected by the shutter—a spring-loaded metal or plastic cover, pushed to the side on entry into the drive.", "Rather than having a hole in the center, it has a metal hub which mates to the spindle of the drive.", "Typical 3½-inch disk magnetic coating materials are:* DD: 2 μm magnetic iron oxide* HD: 1.2 μm cobalt-doped iron oxide* ED: 3 μm barium ferriteTwo holes at the bottom left and right indicate whether the disk is write-protected and whether it is high-density; these holes are spaced as far apart as the holes in punched A4 paper, allowing write-protected high-density floppies to be clipped into standard ring binders.", "The dimensions of the disk shell are not quite square: its width is slightly less than its depth, so that it is impossible to insert the disk into a drive slot sideways (i.e.", "rotated 90 degrees from the correct shutter-first orientation).", "A diagonal notch at top right ensures that the disk is inserted into the drive in the correct orientation—not upside down or label-end first—and an arrow at top left indicates direction of insertion.", "The drive usually has a button that, when pressed, ejects the disk with varying degrees of force, the discrepancy due to the ejection force provided by the spring of the shutter.", "In IBM PC compatibles, Commodores, Apple II/IIIs, and other non-Apple-Macintosh machines with standard floppy disk drives, a disk may be ejected manually at any time.", "The drive has a disk-change switch that detects when a disk is ejected or inserted.", "Failure of this mechanical switch is a common source of disk corruption if a disk is changed and the drive (and hence the operating system) fails to notice.One of the chief usability problems of the floppy disk is its vulnerability; even inside a closed plastic housing, the disk medium is highly sensitive to dust, condensation and temperature extremes.", "As with all magnetic storage, it is vulnerable to magnetic fields.", "Blank disks have been distributed with an extensive set of warnings, cautioning the user not to expose it to dangerous conditions.", "Rough treatment or removing the disk from the drive while the magnetic media is still spinning is likely to cause damage to the disk, drive head, or stored data.", "On the other hand, the 3½‑inch floppy has been lauded for its mechanical usability by human–computer interaction expert Donald Norman:The spindle motor from a 3½‑inch unitread-write head from a 3½‑inch unit===Operation===How the read-write head is applied on the floppyVisualization of magnetic information on floppy disk (image recorded with CMOS-MagView)A spindle motor in the drive rotates the magnetic medium at a certain speed, while a stepper motor-operated mechanism moves the magnetic read/write heads radially along the surface of the disk.", "Both read and write operations require the media to be rotating and the head to contact the disk media, an action originally accomplished by a disk-load solenoid.", "Later drives held the heads out of contact until a front-panel lever was rotated (5¼-inch) or disk insertion was complete (3½-inch).", "To write data, current is sent through a coil in the head as the media rotates.", "The head's magnetic field aligns the magnetization of the particles directly below the head on the media.", "When the current is reversed the magnetization aligns in the opposite direction, encoding one bit of data.", "To read data, the magnetization of the particles in the media induce a tiny voltage in the head coil as they pass under it.", "This small signal is amplified and sent to the floppy disk controller, which converts the streams of pulses from the media into data, checks it for errors, and sends it to the host computer system.====Formatting====A blank unformatted diskette has a coating of magnetic oxide with no magnetic order to the particles.", "During formatting, the magnetizations of the particles are aligned forming tracks, each broken up into sectors, enabling the controller to properly read and write data.", "The tracks are concentric rings around the center, with spaces between tracks where no data is written; gaps with padding bytes are provided between the sectors and at the end of the track to allow for slight speed variations in the disk drive, and to permit better interoperability with disk drives connected to other similar systems.Each sector of data has a header that identifies the sector location on the disk.", "A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is written into the sector headers and at the end of the user data so that the disk controller can detect potential errors.Some errors are soft and can be resolved by automatically re-trying the read operation; other errors are permanent and the disk controller will signal a failure to the operating system if multiple attempts to read the data still fail.====Insertion and ejection====After a disk is inserted, a catch or lever at the front of the drive is manually lowered to prevent the disk from accidentally emerging, engage the spindle clamping hub, and in two-sided drives, engage the second read/write head with the media.In some 5¼-inch drives, insertion of the disk compresses and locks an ejection spring which partially ejects the disk upon opening the catch or lever.", "This enables a smaller concave area for the thumb and fingers to grasp the disk during removal.Newer 5¼-inch drives and all 3½-inch drives automatically engage the spindle and heads when a disk is inserted, doing the opposite with the press of the eject button.On Apple Macintosh computers with built-in 3½-inch disk drives, the ejection button is replaced by software controlling an ejection motor which only does so when the operating system no longer needs to access the drive.", "The user could drag the image of the floppy drive to the trash can on the desktop to eject the disk.", "In the case of a power failure or drive malfunction, a loaded disk can be removed manually by inserting a straightened paper clip into a small hole at the drive's front panel, just as one would do with a CD-ROM drive in a similar situation.", "The Sharp X68000 featured soft-eject 5¼-inch drives.", "Some late-generation IBM PS/2 machines had soft-eject 3½-inch disk drives as well for which some issues of DOS (i.e.", "PC DOS 5.02 and higher) offered an EJECT command.====Finding track zero====Before a disk can be accessed, the drive needs to synchronize its head position with the disk tracks.", "In some drives, this is accomplished with a Track Zero Sensor, while for others it involves the drive head striking an immobile reference surface.In either case, the head is moved so that it is approaching track zero position of the disk.", "When a drive with the sensor has reached track zero, the head stops moving immediately and is correctly aligned.", "For a drive without the sensor, the mechanism attempts to move the head the maximum possible number of positions needed to reach track zero, knowing that once this motion is complete, the head will be positioned over track zero.Some drive mechanisms such as the Apple II 5¼-inch drive without a track zero sensor, produce characteristic mechanical noises when trying to move the heads past the reference surface.", "This physical striking is responsible for the 5¼-inch drive clicking during the boot of an Apple II, and the loud rattles of its DOS and ProDOS when disk errors occurred and track zero synchronization was attempted.====Finding sectors====All 8-inch and some 5¼-inch drives used a mechanical method to locate sectors, known as either ''hard sectors'' or ''soft sectors'', and is the purpose of the small hole in the jacket, off to the side of the spindle hole.", "A light beam sensor detects when a punched hole in the disk is visible through the hole in the jacket.For a soft-sectored disk, there is only a single hole, which is used to locate the first sector of each track.", "Clock timing is then used to find the other sectors behind it, which requires precise speed regulation of the drive motor.For a hard-sectored disk, there are many holes, one for each sector row, plus an additional hole in a half-sector position, that is used to indicate sector zero.The Apple II computer system is notable in that it did not have an index hole sensor and ignored the presence of hard or soft sectoring.", "Instead, it used special repeating data synchronization patterns written to the disk between each sector, to assist the computer in finding and synchronizing with the data in each track.The later 3½-inch drives of the mid-1980s did not use sector index holes, but instead also used synchronization patterns.Most 3½-inch drives used a constant speed drive motor and contain the same number of sectors across all tracks.", "This is sometimes referred to as Constant Angular Velocity (CAV).", "In order to fit more data onto a disk, some 3½-inch drives (notably the Macintosh External 400K and 800K drives) instead use Constant Linear Velocity (CLV), which uses a variable speed drive motor that spins more slowly as the head moves away from the center of the disk, maintaining the same speed of the head(s) relative to the surface(s) of the disk.", "This allows more sectors to be written to the longer middle and outer tracks as the track length increases." ], [ "Sizes", "While the original IBM 8-inch disk was actually so defined, the other sizes are defined in the metric system, their usual names being but rough approximations.Different sizes of floppy disks are mechanically incompatible, and disks can fit only one size of drive.", "Drive assemblies with both 3½-inch and 5¼-inch slots were available during the transition period between the sizes, but they contained two separate drive mechanisms.", "In addition, there are many subtle, usually software-driven incompatibilities between the two.", "5¼-inch disks formatted for use with Apple II computers would be unreadable and treated as unformatted on a Commodore.", "As computer platforms began to form, attempts were made at interchangeability.", "For example, the \"SuperDrive\" included from the Macintosh SE to the Power Macintosh G3 could read, write and format IBM PC format 3½-inch disks, but few IBM-compatible computers had drives that did the reverse.", "8-inch, 5¼-inch and 3½-inch drives were manufactured in a variety of sizes, most to fit standardized drive bays.", "Alongside the common disk sizes were non-classical sizes for specialized systems.===8-inch floppy disk===8-inch floppy diskFloppy disks of the first standard are 8 inches in diameter, protected by a flexible plastic jacket.", "It was a read-only device used by IBM as a way of loading microcode.", "Read/write floppy disks and their drives became available in 1972, but it was IBM's 1973 introduction of the 3740 data entry system that began the establishment of floppy disks, called by IBM the ''Diskette 1'', as an industry standard for information interchange.", "Formatted diskette for this system store 242,944 bytes.", "Early microcomputers used for engineering, business, or word processing often used one or more 8-inch disk drives for removable storage; the CP/M operating system was developed for microcomputers with 8-inch drives.The family of 8-inch disks and drives increased over time and later versions could store up to 1.2 MB; many microcomputer applications did not need that much capacity on one disk, so a smaller size disk with lower-cost media and drives was feasible.", "The 5¼-inch drive succeeded the 8-inch size in many applications, and developed to about the same storage capacity as the original 8-inch size, using higher-density media and recording techniques.===5¼-inch floppy disk===The head gap of an 80‑track high-density (1.2 MB in the MFM format) 5¼‑inch drive (a.k.a.", "'''Mini diskette''', '''Mini disk''', or Minifloppy) is smaller than that of a 40‑track double-density (360 KB if double-sided) drive but can also format, read and write 40‑track disks provided the controller supports double stepping or has a switch to do so.", "5¼-inch 80-track drives were also called '''hyper drives'''.", "A blank 40‑track disk formatted and written on an 80‑track drive can be taken to its native drive without problems, and a disk formatted on a 40‑track drive can be used on an 80‑track drive.", "Disks written on a 40‑track drive and then updated on an 80 track drive become unreadable on any 40‑track drives due to track width incompatibility.Single-sided disks were coated on both sides, despite the availability of more expensive double sided disks.", "The reason usually given for the higher price was that double sided disks were certified error-free on both sides of the media.", "Double-sided disks could be used in some drives for single-sided disks, as long as an index signal was not needed.", "This was done one side at a time, by turning them over (flippy disks); more expensive dual-head drives which could read both sides without turning over were later produced, and eventually became used universally.===3½-inch floppy disk===Internal parts of a 3½-inch floppy disk.A 3½-inch floppy disk driveIn the early 1980s, many manufacturers introduced smaller floppy drives and media in various formats.", "A consortium of 21 companies eventually settled on a 3½-inch design known as the ''Micro diskette'', ''Micro disk'', or ''Micro floppy'', similar to a Sony design but improved to support both single-sided and double-sided media, with formatted capacities generally of 360 KB and 720 KB respectively.", "Single-sided drives of the consortium design first shipped in 1983, and double-sided in 1984.The double-sided, high-density 1.44 MB (actually 1440 KiB = 1.41 MiB) disk drive, which would become the most popular, first shipped in 1986.The first Macintosh computers used single-sided 3½-inch floppy disks, but with 400 KB formatted capacity.", "These were followed in 1986 by double-sided 800 KB floppies.", "The higher capacity was achieved at the same recording density by varying the disk-rotation speed with head position so that the linear speed of the disk was closer to constant.", "Later Macs could also read and write 1.44 MB HD disks in PC format with fixed rotation speed.", "Higher capacities were similarly achieved by Acorn's RISC OS (800 KB for DD, 1,600 KB for HD) and AmigaOS (880 KB for DD, 1,760 KB for HD).All 3½-inch disks have a rectangular hole in one corner which, if obstructed, write-enables the disk.", "A sliding detented piece can be moved to block or reveal the part of the rectangular hole that is sensed by the drive.", "The HD 1.44 MB disks have a second, unobstructed hole in the opposite corner that identifies them as being of that capacity.In IBM-compatible PCs, the three densities of 3½-inch floppy disks are backwards-compatible; higher-density drives can read, write and format lower-density media.", "It is also possible to format a disk at a lower density than that for which it was intended, but only if the disk is first thoroughly demagnetized with a bulk eraser, as the high-density format is magnetically stronger and will prevent the disk from working in lower-density modes.Writing at different densities than those at which disks were intended, sometimes by altering or drilling holes, was possible but not supported by manufacturers.", "A hole on one side of a 3½-inch disk can be altered as to make some disk drives and operating systems treat the disk as one of higher or lower density, for bidirectional compatibility or economical reasons.", "Some computers, such as the PS/2 and Acorn Archimedes, ignored these holes altogether.===Other sizes===Other smaller floppy sizes were proposed, especially for portable or pocket-sized devices that needed a smaller storage device.", "* 3¼-inch floppies otherwise similar to 5¼-inch floppies were proposed by Tabor and Dysan.", "* Three-inch disks similar in construction to 3½-inch were manufactured and used for a time, particularly by Amstrad computers and word processors.", "* A two-inch nominal size known as the Video Floppy was introduced by Sony for use with its Mavica still video camera.", "* An incompatible two-inch floppy produced by Fujifilm called the LT-1 was used in the Zenith Minisport portable computer.None of these sizes achieved much market success.===Sizes, performance and capacity===Floppy disk size is often referred to in inches, even in countries using metric and though the size is defined in metric.", "The ANSI specification of 3½-inch disks is entitled in part \"90 mm (3.5-inch)\" though 90 mm is closer to 3.54 inches.", "Formatted capacities are generally set in terms of kilobytes and megabytes.+ Historical sequence of floppy disk formatsIn quantities of bits (b) or bytes (B) the prefixes: k = 1,000 and K = 1,024 M has varying amounts.", "Disk format Year introduced Formatted storage capacity Marketed capacity 8-inch: IBM 23FD (read-only) 1971 81.664 kB not marketed commercially 8-inch: Memorex 650 1972 175 kB 1.5 megabit full track 8-inch: SS SDIBM 33FD / Shugart 901 1973 242.844 kB 3.1 megabit unformatted 8-inch: DS SDIBM 43FD / Shugart 850 1976 568.320 kB 6.2 megabit unformatted 5¼-inch (35 track) Shugart SA 400 1976 87.5 KB 110 kB 8-inch DS DDIBM 53FD / Shugart 850 1977 962–1,184 KB depending upon sector size 1.2 MB 5¼-inch DD 1978 360 or 800 KB 360 KB 5¼-inch Apple Disk II (Pre-DOS 3.3) 1978 113.75 KB (256 byte sectors, 13 sectors/track, 35 tracks) 113 KB 5¼-inch Atari DOS 2.0S 1979 90 KB (128 byte sectors, 18 sectors/track, 40 tracks) 90 KB 5¼-inch Commodore DOS 1.0 (SSDD) 1979 172.5 KB 170 KB 5¼-inch Commodore DOS 2.1 (SSDD) 1980 170.75 KB 170 KB 5¼-inch Apple Disk II (DOS 3.3) 1980 140 KB (256 byte sectors, 16 sectors/track, 35 tracks) 140 KB 5¼-inch Apple Disk II ( Roland Gustafsson's RWTS18) 1988 157.5 KB (768 byte sectors, 6 sectors/track, 35 tracks) Game publishers privately contracted 3rd party custom DOS.5¼-inch Victor 9000 / ACT Sirius 1 (SSDD) 1982 612 KB (512 byte sectors, 11-19 variable sectors / track, 80 tracks) 600 KB5¼-inch Victor 9000 / ACT Sirius 1 (DSDD) 1982 1,196 KB (512 byte sectors, 11-19 variable sectors / track, 80 tracks) 1,200 KB 3½-inch HP SS 1982 280 KB (256 byte sectors, 16 sectors/track, 70 tracks) 264 KB 5¼-inch Atari DOS 3 1983 127 KB (128 byte sectors, 26 sectors/track, 40 tracks) 130 KB 3-inch 1982 ?", "125 KB (SS/SD),500 KB (DS/DD) 3½-inch SS DD (at release) 1983 360 KB (400 KB on Macintosh) 500 KB 3½-inch DS DD 1983 720 KB (800 KB on Macintosh and RISC OS, 880 KB on Amiga) 1 MB 5¼-inch QD 1980 720 KB 720 KB 5¼-inch RX50 (SSQD) 400 KB 5¼-inch HD 1982 1,200 KB 1.2 MB 3-inch Mitsumi Quick Disk 1985 128 to 256 KB ?", "3-inch Famicom Disk System (derived from Quick Disk) 1986 112 KB 128 KB 2-inch 1989 720 KB ?", "2½-inch Sharp CE-1600F, CE-140F (chassis: FDU-250, medium: CE-1650F) 1986 turnable diskette with 62,464 bytes per side (512 byte sectors, 8 sectors/track, 16 tracks, GCR (4/5) recording) 2× 64 KB (128 KB) 5¼-inch Perpendicular 1986 100 KB per inch ?", "3½-inch HD 1986 1,440 KB (512 bytes sectors, 18 sectors/track, 160 tracks); 1,760 KB on Amiga 1.44 MB (2.0 MB unformatted) 3½-inch HD 1987 1,600 KB on RISC OS 1.6 MB 3½-inch ED 1987 2,880 KB (3,200 KB on Sinclair QL) 2.88 MB 3½-inch Floptical (LS) 1991 20,385 KB 21 MB 3½-inch SuperDisk (LS-120) 1996 120,375 KB 120 MB 3½-inch SuperDisk (LS-240) 1997 240,750 KB 240 MB 3½-inch HiFD 1998/99 ?", "150/200 MB Abbreviations: Formatted storage capacity is total size of all sectors on the disk:* For 8-inch see ''List of floppy disk formats#IBM 8-inch formats''.", "Spare, hidden and otherwise reserved sectors are included in this number.", "* For 5¼- and 3½-inch capacities quoted are from subsystem or system vendor statements.Marketed capacity is the capacity, typically unformatted, by the original media OEM vendor or in the case of IBM media, the first OEM thereafter.", "Other formats may get more or less capacity from the same drives and disks.The USB stick under the two boxes of about 80 floppy disks is capable of holding over 130 times as much data as the two boxes of disks put together.Data is generally written to floppy disks in sectors (angular blocks) and tracks (concentric rings at a constant radius).", "For example, the HD format of 3½-inch floppy disks uses 512 bytes per sector, 18 sectors per track, 80 tracks per side and two sides, for a total of 1,474,560 bytes per disk.", "Some disk controllers can vary these parameters at the user's request, increasing storage on the disk, although they may not be able to be read on machines with other controllers.", "For example, Microsoft applications were often distributed on 3½-inch 1.68 MB DMF disks formatted with 21 sectors instead of 18; they could still be recognized by a standard controller.", "On the IBM PC, MSX and most other microcomputer platforms, disks were written using a constant angular velocity (CAV) format, with the disk spinning at a constant speed and the sectors holding the same amount of information on each track regardless of radial location.Because the sectors have constant angular size, the 512 bytes in each sector are compressed more near the disk's center.", "A more space-efficient technique would be to increase the number of sectors per track toward the outer edge of the disk, from 18 to 30 for instance, thereby keeping nearly constant the amount of physical disk space used for storing each sector; an example is zone bit recording.", "Apple implemented this in early Macintosh computers by spinning the disk more slowly when the head was at the edge, while maintaining the data rate, allowing 400 KB of storage per side and an extra 80 KB on a double-sided disk.", "This higher capacity came with a disadvantage: the format used a unique drive mechanism and control circuitry, meaning that Mac disks could not be read on other computers.", "Apple eventually reverted to constant angular velocity on HD floppy disks with their later machines, still unique to Apple as they supported the older variable-speed formats.Disk formatting is usually done by a utility program supplied by the computer OS manufacturer; generally, it sets up a file storage directory system on the disk, and initializes its sectors and tracks.", "Areas of the disk unusable for storage due to flaws can be locked (marked as \"bad sectors\") so that the operating system does not attempt to use them.", "This was time-consuming so many environments had quick formatting which skipped the error checking process.", "When floppy disks were often used, disks pre-formatted for popular computers were sold.", "The unformatted capacity of a floppy disk does not include the sector and track headings of a formatted disk; the difference in storage between them depends on the drive's application.", "Floppy disk drive and media manufacturers specify the unformatted capacity (for example, 2 MB for a standard 3½-inch HD floppy).", "It is implied that this should not be exceeded, since doing so will most likely result in performance problems.", "DMF was introduced permitting 1.68 MB to fit onto an otherwise standard 3½-inch disk; utilities then appeared allowing disks to be formatted as such.Mixtures of decimal prefixes and binary sector sizes require care to properly calculate total capacity.", "Whereas semiconductor memory naturally favors powers of two (size doubles each time an address pin is added to the integrated circuit), the capacity of a disk drive is the product of sector size, sectors per track, tracks per side and sides (which in hard disk drives with multiple platters can be greater than 2).", "Although other sector sizes have been known in the past, formatted sector sizes are now almost always set to powers of two (256 bytes, 512 bytes, etc.", "), and, in some cases, disk capacity is calculated as multiples of the sector size rather than only in bytes, leading to a combination of decimal multiples of sectors and binary sector sizes.", "For example, 1.44 MB 3½-inch HD disks have the \"M\" prefix peculiar to their context, coming from their capacity of 2,880 512-byte sectors (1,440 KiB), consistent with neither a decimal megabyte nor a binary mebibyte (MiB).", "Hence, these disks hold 1.47 MB or 1.41 MiB.", "Usable data capacity is a function of the disk format used, which in turn is determined by the FDD controller and its settings.", "Differences between such formats can result in capacities ranging from approximately 1,300 to 1,760 KiB (1.80 MB) on a standard 3½-inch high-density floppy (and up to nearly 2 MB with utilities such as 2M/2MGUI).", "The highest capacity techniques require much tighter matching of drive head geometry between drives, something not always possible and unreliable.", "For example, the LS-240 drive supports a 32 MB capacity on standard 3½-inch HD disks, but this is a write-once technique, and requires its own drive.The raw maximum transfer rate of 3½-inch ED floppy drives (2.88 MB) is nominally 1,000 kilobits/s, or approximately 83% that of single-speed CD‑ROM (71% of audio CD).", "This represents the speed of raw data bits moving under the read head; however, the effective speed is somewhat less due to space used for headers, gaps and other format fields and can be even further reduced by delays to seek between tracks." ], [ "See also", "* Berg connector for 3½-inch floppy drive* dd (Unix)* Disk image* Don't Copy That Floppy* Floppy disk controller* Floppy disk hardware emulator* Floppy disk variants* Hard disk drive* History of the floppy disk* List of floppy disk formats* Shugart bus – popular mainly for 8-inch drives, and partially for 5¼-inch* XDF* VGA-Copy copy tool (retries on errors, over-formatted floppies), DOS, discontinued* MO disc* Zip drive" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Weyhrich, Steven (2005).", "\"The Disk II\": A detailed essay describing one of the first commercial floppy disk drives (from the Apple II History website).", "* Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984).", "''Inside Commodore DOS: The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System''.", "Datamost & Reston Publishing Company (Prentice-Hall).", ".", "* Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984).", "''The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive''.", "Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA, Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf, Data Becker GmbH).", ".", "* Hewlett Packard: 9121D/S Disc Memory Operator's Manual; printed 1 September 1982; part number 09121-90000." ], [ "External links", "* HowStuffWorks: How Floppy Disk Drives Work* Computer Hope: Information about computer floppy drives* NCITS (mention of ANSI X3.162 and X3.171 floppy standards)* Floppy disk drives and media technical information* The Floppy User Guide -historical technical material* Summary of Floppy Disk Types and Specifications" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fencing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fencing''' is a combat sport that features sword fighting.", "The three disciplines of modern fencing are the foil, the épée, and the sabre (also ''saber''); each discipline uses a different kind of blade, which shares the same name, and employs its own rules.", "Most competitive fencers specialise in one discipline.", "The modern sport gained prominence near the end of the 19th century and is based on the traditional skill set of swordsmanship.", "The Italian school altered the historical European martial art of classical fencing, and the French school later refined that system.", "Scoring points in a fencing competition is done by making contact with an opponent.The 1904 Olympics Games featured a fourth discipline of fencing known as singlestick, but it was dropped after that year and is not a part of modern fencing.", "Competitive fencing was one of the first sports to be featured in the Olympics and, along with athletics, cycling, swimming, and gymnastics, has been featured in every modern Olympics." ], [ "Competitive fencing", "===Governing body===Fencing is governed by the Fédération Internationale d'Escrime (FIE), headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland.", "The FIE is composed of 155 national federations, each of which is recognised by its state Olympic Committee as the sole representative of Olympic-style fencing in that country.===Rules===The FIE maintains the current rules used by major international events, including world cups, world championships and the Olympic Games.", "The FIE handles proposals to change the rules at an annual congress.===Universities and schools===University students compete internationally at the World University Games.", "The United States holds two national-level university tournaments (the NCAA championship and the USACFC National Championships).", "The BUCS holds fencing tournaments in the United Kingdom.", "Many universities in Ontario, Canada have fencing teams that participate in an annual inter-university competition called the OUA Finals.", "National fencing organisations have set up programmes to encourage more students to fence.", "Examples include the Regional Youth Circuit program in the US and the Leon Paul Youth Development series in the UK.The UK hosts two national competitions in which schools compete against each other directly: the Public Schools Fencing Championship, a competition only open to Independent Schools, and the Scottish Secondary Schools Championships, open to all secondary schools in Scotland.", "It contains both teams and individual events and is highly anticipated.", "Schools organise matches directly against one another and school age pupils can compete individually in the British Youth Championships.In recent years, attempts have been made to introduce fencing to a wider and younger audience, by using foam and plastic swords, which require much less protective equipment.", "This makes it much less expensive to provide classes, and thus easier to take fencing to a wider range of schools than traditionally has been the case.", "There is even a competition series in Scotland – the Plastic-and-Foam Fencing FunLeague – specifically for Primary and early Secondary school-age children using this equipment." ], [ "History", "Fencing School at Leiden University, Netherlands, 1610Fencing traces its roots to the development of swordsmanship for duels and self-defence.", "The oldest surviving treatise on western fencing is the Royal Armouries Ms. I.33, also known as the Tower manuscript, written in present-day Germany, which discusses the usage of the arming sword together with the buckler.", "It was followed by a number of treatises, primarily from Germany and Italy, with the oldest surviving Italian treatise being Fior di Battaglia by Fiore dei Liberi, written .", "However, because they were written for the context of a knightly duel with a primary focus on archaic weapons such as the arming sword, longsword, or poleaxe, these older treatises do not really stand in continuity with modern fencing.From the 16th century onward, the Italian school of fencing would be dominated by the Bolognese or Dardi-School of fencing, named after its founder, Filippo Dardi, a Bolognese fencing master and Professor of Geometry at the University of Bologna.", "Unlike the previous traditions, the Bolognese school would primarily focus on the sidesword being either used alone or in combination with a buckler, a cape, a parrying dagger, or dual-wielded with another sidesword, though some Bolognese masters, such as Achille Marozo, would still cover the usage of the two-handed greatsword or spadone.", "The Bolognese school would eventually spread outside of Italy and lay the foundation for modern fencing, eclipsing both older Italian and German traditions.", "This was partially due to the German schools' focus on archaic weapons such as the longsword, but also due to a general decline in fencing within Germany.The mechanics of modern fencing originated in the 18th century in an Italian school of fencing of the Renaissance, and under their influence, were improved by the French school of fencing.", "The Spanish school of fencing stagnated and was replaced by the Italian and French schools.===Development into a sport===The shift towards fencing as a sport rather than as military training happened from the mid-18th century, and was led by Domenico Angelo, who established a fencing academy, Angelo's School of Arms, in Carlisle House, Soho, London in 1763.There, he taught the aristocracy the fashionable art of swordsmanship.", "His school was run by three generations of his family and dominated the art of European fencing for almost a century.1763 fencing print from Domenico Angelo's instruction book.", "Angelo was instrumental in turning fencing into an athletic sport.He established the essential rules of posture and footwork that still govern modern sport fencing, although his attacking and parrying methods were still much different from current practice.", "Although he intended to prepare his students for real combat, he was the first fencing master to emphasise the health and sporting benefits of fencing more than its use as a killing art, particularly in his influential book ''L'École des armes'' (''The School of Fencing''), published in 1763.Basic conventions were collated and set down during the 1880s by the French fencing master Camille Prévost.", "It was during this time that many officially recognised fencing associations began to appear in different parts of the world, such as the Amateur Fencers League of America was founded in 1891, the Amateur Fencing Association of Great Britain in 1902, and the Fédération Nationale des Sociétés d’Escrime et Salles d’Armes de France in 1906.The first regularised fencing competition was held at the inaugural Grand Military Tournament and Assault at Arms in 1880, held at the Royal Agricultural Hall, in Islington in June.", "The Tournament featured a series of competitions between army officers and soldiers.", "Each bout was fought for five hits and the foils were pointed with black to aid the judges.", "The Amateur Gymnastic & Fencing Association drew up an official set of fencing regulations in 1896.Fencing was part of the Olympic Games in the summer of 1896.Sabre events have been held at every Summer Olympics; foil events have been held at every Summer Olympics except 1908; épée events have been held at every Summer Olympics except in the summer of 1896 because of unknown reasons.Starting with épée in 1933, side judges were replaced by the Laurent-Pagan electrical scoring apparatus, with an audible tone and a red or green light indicating when a touch landed.", "Foil was automated in 1956, sabre in 1988.The scoring box reduced the bias in judging, and permitted more accurate scoring of faster actions, lighter touches, and more touches to the back and flank than before." ], [ "Weapons", "Each of the three weapons in fencing has its own rules and strategies.===Foil===Valid foil targetsThe foil is a light thrusting weapon with a maximum weight of 500 grams.", "The foil targets the torso, but not the arms or legs.", "The foil has a small circular hand guard that serves to protect the hand from direct stabs.", "As the hand is not a valid target in foil, this is primarily for safety.", "Touches are scored only with the tip; hits with the side of the blade do not register on the electronic scoring apparatus (and do not halt the action).", "Touches that land outside the target area (called an ''off-target touch'' and signalled by a distinct color on the scoring apparatus) stop the action, but are not scored.", "Only a single touch can be awarded to either fencer at the end of a phrase.", "If both fencers land touches within 300 ms (± 25 ms tolerance)Material rules to register two lights on the machine, the referee uses the rules of \"right of way\" to determine which fencer is awarded the touch, or if an off-target hit has priority over a valid hit, in which case no touch is awarded.", "If the referee is unable to determine which fencer has right of way, no touch is awarded.===Épée===Valid épée targetsThe épée is a thrusting weapon like the foil, but heavier, with a maximum total weight of 775 grams.", "In épée, the entire body is a valid target.", "The hand guard on the épée is a large circle that extends towards the pommel, effectively covering the hand, which is a valid target in épée.", "Like foil, all hits must be with the tip and not the sides of the blade.", "Hits with the side of the blade do not register on the electronic scoring apparatus (and do not halt the action).", "As the entire body is a legal target, there is no concept of an off-target touch, except if the fencer accidentally strikes the floor, setting off the light and tone on the scoring apparatus.", "Unlike foil and sabre, épée does not use \"right of way\", simultaneous touches to both fencers, known as \"double touches.\"", "However, if the score is tied in a match at the last point and a double touch is scored, the point is null and void.===Sabre===Valid sabre targetsThe sabre is a light cutting and thrusting weapon that targets the entire body above the waist, including the head and both the hands.", "Sabre is the newest weapon to be used.", "Like the foil, the maximum legal weight of a sabre is 500 grams.", "The hand guard on the sabre extends from hilt to the point at which the blade connects to the pommel.", "This guard is generally turned outwards during sport to protect the sword arm from touches.", "Hits with the entire blade or point are valid.", "As in foil, touches that land outside the target area are not scored.", "However, unlike foil, these ''off-target'' touches do not stop the action, and the fencing continues.", "In the case of both fencers landing a scoring touch, the referee determines which fencer receives the point for the action, again through the use of \"right of way\"." ], [ "Equipment", "===Protective clothing===Most personal protective equipment for fencing is made of tough cotton or nylon.", "Kevlar was added to top level uniform pieces (jacket, breeches, underarm protector, lamé, and the bib of the mask) following the death of Vladimir Smirnov at the 1982 World Championships in Rome.", "However, Kevlar is degraded by both ultraviolet light and chlorine, which can complicate cleaning.Other ballistic fabrics, such as Dyneema, have been developed that resist puncture, and which do not degrade the way that Kevlar does.", "FIE rules state that tournament wear must be made of fabric that resists a force of , and that the mask bib must resist twice that amount.The complete fencing kit includes:;Jacket:The jacket is form-fitting, and has a strap (''croissard'') that passes between the legs.", "In sabre fencing, jackets are cut along the waist.", "A small gorget of folded fabric is sewn in around the collar to prevent an opponent's blade from slipping under the mask and along the jacket upwards towards the neck.", "Fencing instructors may wear a heavier jacket, such as one reinforced by plastic foam, to deflect the frequent hits an instructor endures.", ";Plastron:A plastron is an underarm protector worn underneath the jacket.", "It provides double protection on the side of the sword arm and upper arm.", "There is no seam under the arm, which would line up with the jacket seam and provide a weak spot.", ";Glove:The sword hand is protected by a glove with a gauntlet that prevents blades from going up the sleeve and causing injury.", "The glove also improves grip.", ";Breeches:Breeches or knickers are short trousers that end just below the knee.", "The breeches are required to have 10 cm of overlap with the jacket.", "Most are equipped with suspenders (braces).", ";Socks:Fencing socks are long enough to cover the knee; some cover most of the thigh.", ";Shoes:Fencing shoes have flat soles, and are reinforced on the inside for the back foot, and in the heel for the front foot.", "The reinforcement prevents wear from lunging.", ";Mask:The fencing mask has a bib that protects the neck.", "The mask should support on the metal mesh and of penetration resistance on the bib.", "FIE regulations dictate that masks must withstand on the mesh and on the bib.", "Some modern masks have a see-through visor in the front of the mask.", "These have been used at high level competitions (World Championships etc.", "), however, they are currently banned in foil and épée by the FIE, following a 2009 incident in which a visor was pierced during the European Junior Championship competition.", "There are foil, sabre, and three-weapon masks.", ";Chest protector:A chest protector, made of plastic, is worn by female fencers and, sometimes, by males.", "Fencing instructors also wear them, as they are hit far more often during training than their students.", "In foil fencing, the hard surface of a chest protector decreases the likelihood that a hit registers.", ";Lamé:A lamé is a layer of electrically conductive material worn over the fencing jacket in foil and sabre fencing.", "The lamé covers the entire target area, and makes it easier to determine whether a hit fell within the target area.", "(In épée fencing the lamé is unnecessary, since the target area spans the competitor's entire body.)", "In sabre fencing, the lamé's sleeves end in a straight line across the wrist; in foil fencing, the lamé is sleeveless.", "A body cord is necessary to register scoring.", "It attaches to the weapon and runs inside the jacket sleeve, then down the back and out to the scoring box.", "In sabre and foil fencing, the body cord connects to the lamé in order to create a circuit to the scoring box.", ";Sleeve:An instructor or master may wear a protective sleeve or a leg leather to protect their fencing arm or leg, respectively.File:Fencing jacket.jpg\|JacketFile:Fencing glove.jpg\|GloveFile:Fencing plastron.jpg\|Sous-PlastronFile:Fencing knickers.jpg\|Breeches/KnickersFile:Fencingmask.jpg\|MaskFile:Chest protector.jpg\|Chest protector for womenTraditionally, the fencer's uniform is white, and an instructor's uniform is black.", "This may be due to the occasional pre-electric practice of covering the point of the weapon in dye, soot, or coloured chalk in order to make it easier for the referee to determine the placing of the touches.", "As this is no longer a factor in the electric era, the FIE rules have been relaxed to allow coloured uniforms (save black).", "The guidelines also limit the permitted size and positioning of sponsorship logos.===Grips===Some pistol grips used by foil and épée fencers File:Absolute visconti.jpg\|Visconti gripFile:Uhlmann Belgian.jpg\|Belgian gripFile:Russian grip.jpg\|Russian gripFile:Hungarian grip.jpg\|Hungarian grip===Electric equipment===A set of electric fencing equipment is required to participate in electric fencing.", "Electric equipment in fencing varies depending on the weapon with which it is used in accordance.", "The main component of a set of electric equipment is the body cord.", "The '''body cord''' serves as the connection between a fencer and a reel of wire that is part of a system for electrically detecting that the weapon has touched the opponent.", "There are two types: one for épée, and one for foil and sabre.Épée body cords consist of two sets of three prongs each connected by a wire.", "One set plugs into the fencer's weapon, with the other connecting to the reel.", "Foil and sabre body cords have only two prongs (or a twist-lock bayonet connector) on the weapon side, with the third wire connecting instead to the fencer's lamé.", "The need in foil and sabre to distinguish between on and off-target touches requires a wired connection to the valid target area.A body cord consists of three wires known as the A, B, and C lines.", "At the reel connector (and both connectors for Épée cords) The B pin is in the middle, the A pin is 1.5 cm to one side of B, and the C pin is 2 cm to the other side of B.", "This asymmetrical arrangement ensures that the cord cannot be plugged in the wrong way around.In foil, the A line is connected to the lamé and the B line runs up a wire to the tip of the weapon.", "The B line is normally connected to the C line through the tip.", "When the tip is depressed, the circuit is broken and one of three things can happen:A foil/sabre body cord.", "Left to right: alligator clip, connection to reel, connection to weapon.", "* The tip is touching the opponent's lamé (their A line): Valid touch* The tip is touching the opponent's weapon or the grounded strip: nothing, as the current is still flowing to the C line.", "* The tip is not touching either of the above: Off-target hit (white light).In Épée, the A and B lines run up separate wires to the tip (there is no lamé).", "When the tip is depressed, it connects the A and B lines, resulting in a valid touch.", "However, if the tip is touching the opponents weapon (their C line) or the grounded strip, nothing happens when it is depressed, as the current is redirected to the C line.", "Grounded strips are particularly important in Épée, as without one, a touch to the floor registers as a valid touch (rather than off-target as in Foil).In Sabre, similarly to Foil, the A line is connected to the lamé, but both the B and C lines are connected to the body of the weapon.", "Any contact between one's B/C line (either one, as they are always connected) and the opponent's A line (their lamé) results in a valid touch.", "There is no need for grounded strips in Sabre, as hitting something other than the opponent's lame does nothing.A foil lamé conductive vestIn a professional fencing competition, a complete set of electric equipment is needed.A complete set of foil electric equipment includes:* An electric body cord, which runs under the fencer's jacket on his/her dominant side.", "* An electric blade.", "* A conductive lamé or electric vest.", "* A conductive bib (often attached to the mask).", "* An electric mask cord, connecting the conductive bib and the lamé.", "The electric equipment of sabre is very similar to that of foil.", "In addition, equipment used in sabre includes:* A larger conductive lame.", "* An electric sabre.", "* A completely conductive mask.", "* A conductive glove or overlay.Épée fencers lack a lamé, conductive bib, and head cord due to their target area.", "Also, their body cords are constructed differently as described above.", "However, they possess all of the other components of a foil fencer's equipment." ], [ "Techniques", "Techniques or movements in fencing can be divided into two categories: offensive and defensive.", "Some techniques can fall into both categories (e.g.", "the beat).", "Certain techniques are used offensively, with the purpose of landing a hit on one's opponent while holding the right of way (foil and sabre).", "Others are used defensively, to protect against a hit or obtain the right of way.The attacks and defences may be performed in countless combinations of feet and hand actions.", "For example, fencer A attacks the arm of fencer B, drawing a high outside parry; fencer B then follows the parry with a high line riposte.", "Fencer A, expecting that, then makes his own parry by pivoting his blade under fencer B's weapon (from straight out to more or less straight down), putting fencer B's tip off target and fencer A now scoring against the low line by angulating the hand upwards.===Offensive===* Attack: A basic fencing technique, also called a thrust, consisting of the initial offensive action made by extending the arm and continuously threatening the opponent's target.", "There are four different attacks (straight thrust, disengage attack, counter-disengage attack and cutover).", "In sabre, attacks are also made with a cutting action.", "* Riposte: An attack by the defender after a successful parry.", "After the attacker has completed their attack, and it has been parried, the defender then has the opportunity to make an attack, and (at foil and sabre) take right of way.", "* Feint: A false attack with the purpose of provoking a reaction from the opposing fencer.", "* Lunge: A thrust while extending the front leg by using a slight kicking motion and propelling the body forward with the back leg.", "* Beat attack: In foil and sabre, the attacker beats the opponent's blade to gain priority (right of way) and continues the attack against the target area.", "In épée, a similar beat is made but with the intention to disturb the opponent's aim and thus score with a single light.", "* Disengage: A blade action whereby the blade is moved around the opponent's blade to threaten a different part of the target or deceive a parry.", "* Compound attack: An attack preceded by one or more feints which oblige the opponent to parry, allowing the attacker to deceive the parry.", "* Continuation/renewal of Attack: A typical épée action of making a 2nd attack after the first attack is parried.", "This may be done with a change in line; for example, an attack in the high line (above the opponent's bell guard, such as the shoulder) is then followed with an attack to the low line (below the opponent's bell guard, such as the thigh, or foot); or from the outside line (outside the bell guard, such as outer arm) to the inside line (inside the bell guard, such as the inner arm or the chest).", "A second continuation is stepping slight past the parry and angulating the blade to bring the tip of the blade back on target.", "A renewal may also be direct (without a change of line or any further blade action), in which case it is called a remise.", "In foil or sabre, a renewal is considered to have lost right of way, and the defender's immediate riposte, if it lands, will score instead of the renewal.", "* Flick: a technique used primarily in foil and épée.", "It takes advantage of the extreme flexibility of the blade to use it like a whip, bending the blade so that it curves over and strikes the opponent with the point; this allows the fencer to hit an obscured part of the target (e.g., the back of the shoulder or, at épée, the wrist even when it is covered by the guard).", "This technique has become much more difficult due to timing changes which require the point to stay depressed for longer to set off the light.", "* Flèche: an offensive manoeuvre, in which the fencer leans forward past the point of balance, and then crosses their feet, running past the opponent after the touch is scored.", "* Flunge: a technique used by sabreurs in which the attacker makes a flying lunge, as FIE rules state that crossing one's feet is illegal in Sabre.===Defensive===* Parry: Basic defence technique, block the opponent's weapon while it is preparing or executing an attack to deflect the blade away from the fencer's valid area and (in foil and sabre) to give fencer the right of way.", "Usually followed by a riposte, a return attack by the defender.", "* Circle parry: A parry where the weapon is moved in a circle to catch the opponent's tip and deflect it away.", "* Counter attack: A basic fencing technique of attacking one's opponent while generally moving back out of the way of the opponent's attack.", "Used quite often in épée to score against the attacker's hand/arm.", "More difficult to accomplish in foil and sabre unless one is quick enough to make the counterattack and retreat ahead of the advancing opponent without being scored upon, or by evading the attacking blade via moves such as the In Quartata (turning to the side) or Passata-sotto (ducking).", "Counterattacks can also be executed in opposition, grazing along the opponent's blade and deflecting it to cause the attack to miss.", "* Point-in-line: A specific position where the arm is straight and the point is threatening the opponent's target area.", "In foil and sabre, this gives one priority if the extension is completed before the opponent begins the final action of their attack.", "When performed as a defensive action, the attacker must then disturb the extended weapon to re-take priority; otherwise the defender has priority and the point-in-line will win the touch if the attacker does not manage a single light.", "In épée, there is no priority; the move may be used as a means by either fencer to achieve a double-touch and advance the score by 1 for each fencer.", "In all weapons, the point-in-line position is commonly used to slow the opponent's advance and cause them to delay the execution of their attack." ], [ "Other variants", "Other variants include wheelchair fencing for those with disabilities, chair fencing, ''one-hit épée'' (one of the five events which constitute modern pentathlon) and the various types of non-Olympic competitive fencing.", "Chair fencing is similar to wheelchair fencing, but for the able bodied.", "The opponents set up opposing chairs and fence while seated; all the usual rules of fencing are applied.", "An example of the latter is the American Fencing League (distinct from the United States Fencing Association): the format of competitions is different and the right of way rules are interpreted in a different way.", "In a number of countries, school and university matches deviate slightly from the FIE format.", "A variant of the sport using toy lightsabers earned national attention when ESPN2 acquired the rights to a selection of matches and included it as part of its \"ESPN8: The Ocho\" programming block in August 2018." ], [ "In popular culture", "One of the most notable films related to fencing is the 2015 Finnish-Estonian-German film ''The Fencer'', directed by Klaus Härö, which is loosely based on the life of Endel Nelis, an accomplished Estonian fencer and coach.", "The film was nominated for the 73rd Golden Globe Awards in the Foreign Language Film Category.In 2017, the first issue of the ''Fence'' comic book series, which follows a fictional team of young fencers, was published by the US-based Boom!", "Studios." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of fencing* Outline of fencing* List of fencers* Kendo" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Amberger, Johann Christoph (1999).", "''The Secret History of the Sword''.", "Burbank: Multi-Media.", "* British Fencing (September 2008). \"", "FIE Competition Rules (English)\".", "Official document.", "Retrieved 16 December 2008.", "* Evangelista, Nick (1996).", "''The Art and Science of Fencing''.", "Indianapolis: Masters Press.", ".", "* Evangelista, Nick (2000).", "''The Inner Game of Fencing: Excellence in Form, Technique, Strategy, and Spirit''.", "Chicago: Masters Press.", ".", "* Gaugler, William M. (2004).", "\"The Science of Fencing: A Comprehensive Training Manual for Master and Student: Including Lesson Plans for Foil, Sabre and Epee Instruction\".", "Laureate Press.", ".", "* United States Fencing Association (September 2010). ''", "United States Fencing Association Rules for Competition''.", "Retrieved 3 October 2011.", "* Vass, Imre (2011).", "\"Epee Fencing: A Complete System\".", "SKA SwordPlay Books.", "." ], [ "External links", "* FIE statutes (PDF)* * Fencing – FAQ from rec.sport.fencing* Links to videos of basic fencing moves from MIT OpenCourseWare as taught in Spring 2007" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "The Free Software Definition" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Free Software Definition''' written by Richard Stallman and published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF), defines free software as being software that ensures that the users have freedom in using, studying, sharing and modifying that software.", "The term \"free\" is used in the sense of \"free speech,\" not of \"free of charge.\"", "The earliest-known publication of the definition was in the February 1986 edition of the now-discontinued ''GNU's Bulletin'' publication by the FSF.", "The canonical source for the document is in the philosophy section of the GNU Project website.", ", it is published in 39 languages.", "The FSF publishes a list of licences that meet this definition." ], [ "The Four Essential Freedoms of Free Software", "The definition published by the FSF in February 1986 had two points:In 1996, when the gnu.org website was launched, \"free software\" was defined referring to \"three levels of freedom\" by adding an explicit mention of the freedom to study the software (which could be read in the two-point definition as being part of the freedom to change the program).", "Stallman later avoided the word \"levels\", saying that all of the freedoms are needed, so it is misleading to think in terms of levels.Finally, another freedom was added, to explicitly say that users should be able to run the program.", "The existing freedoms were already numbered one to three, but this freedom should come before the others, so it was added as \"freedom zero\".The modern definition defines free software by whether or not the recipient has the following four freedoms:Freedoms 1 and 3 require source code to be available because studying and modifying software without its source code is highly impractical." ], [ "Later definitions", "In July 1997, Bruce Perens published the Debian Free Software Guidelines.", "A definition based on the DFSG was also used by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) under the name \"''The Open Source Definition''\"." ], [ "Comparison with ''The Open Source Definition''", "Despite the philosophical differences between the free software movement and the open-source-software movement, the official definitions of free software by the FSF and of open-source software by the OSI basically refer to the same software licences, with a few minor exceptions.", "While stressing these philosophical differences, the Free Software Foundation comments:" ], [ "See also", "* Free software movement (FSM)* The ''GNU Manifesto''* Definition of Free Cultural Works* Debian Free Software Guidelines* ''The Open Source Definition''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Free Software Definition" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Felix Bloch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Felix Bloch''' (23 October 1905 – 10 September 1983) was a Swiss-American physicist and Nobel physics laureate who worked mainly in the U.S.", "He and Edward Mills Purcell were awarded the 1952 Nobel Prize for Physics for \"their development of new ways and methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements.\"", "In 1954–1955, he served for one year as the first director-general of CERN.", "Felix Bloch made fundamental theoretical contributions to the understanding of ferromagnetism and electron behavior in crystal lattices.", "He is also considered one of the developers of nuclear magnetic resonance." ], [ "Biography", "Felix Bloch in the lab, 1950s===Early life, education, and family===Bloch was born in Zürich, Switzerland to Jewish parents Gustav and Agnes Bloch.", "Gustav Bloch, his father, was financially unable to attend University and worked as a wholesale grain dealer in Zürich.", "Gustav moved to Zürich from Moravia in 1890 to become a Swiss citizen.", "Their first child was a girl born in 1902 while Felix was born three years later.Bloch entered public elementary school at the age of six and is said to have been teased, in part because he \"spoke Swiss German with a somewhat different accent than most members of the class\".", "He received support from his older sister during much of this time, but she died at the age of twelve, devastating Felix, who is said to have lived a \"depressed and isolated life\" in the following years.", "Bloch learned to play the piano by the age of eight and was drawn to arithmetic for its \"clarity and beauty\".", "Bloch graduated from elementary school at twelve and enrolled in the Cantonal Gymnasium in Zürich for secondary school in 1918.He was placed on a six-year curriculum here to prepare him for University.", "He continued his curriculum through 1924, even through his study of engineering and physics in other schools, though it was limited to mathematics and languages after the first three years.", "After these first three years at the Gymnasium, at age fifteen Bloch began to study at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETHZ), also in Zürich.", "Although he initially studied engineering he soon changed to physics.", "During this time he attended lectures and seminars given by Peter Debye and Hermann Weyl at ETH Zürich and Erwin Schrödinger at the neighboring University of Zürich.", "A fellow student in these seminars was John von Neumann.", "Bloch graduated in 1927, and was encouraged by Debye to go to Leipzig to study with Werner Heisenberg.", "Bloch became Heisenberg's first graduate student, and gained his doctorate in 1928.His doctoral thesis established the quantum theory of solids, using waves to describe electrons in periodic lattices.On March 14, 1940, Bloch married Lore Clara Misch (1911–1996), a fellow physicist working on X-ray crystallography, whom he had met at an American Physical Society meeting.", "They had four children, twins George Jacob Bloch and Daniel Arthur Bloch (born January 15, 1941), son Frank Samuel Bloch (born January 16, 1945), and daughter Ruth Hedy Bloch (born September 15, 1949).===Career===Bloch remained in European academia, working on superconductivity with Wolfgang Pauli in Zürich; with Hans Kramers and Adriaan Fokker in Holland; with Heisenberg on ferromagnetism, where he developed a description of boundaries between magnetic domains, now known as \"Bloch walls\", and theoretically proposed a concept of spin waves, excitations of magnetic structure; with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, where he worked on a theoretical description of the stopping of charged particles traveling through matter; and with Enrico Fermi in Rome.", "In 1932, Bloch returned to Leipzig to assume a position as \"Privatdozent\" (lecturer).", "In 1933, immediately after Hitler came to power, he left Germany because he was Jewish, returning to Zürich, before traveling to Paris to lecture at the Institut Henri Poincaré.In 1934, the chairman of Stanford Physics invited Bloch to join the faculty.", "Bloch accepted the offer and emigrated to the United States.", "In the fall of 1938, Bloch began working with the 37 inch cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley to determine the magnetic moment of the neutron.", "Bloch went on to become the first professor for theoretical physics at Stanford.", "In 1939, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.During WWII, Bloch briefly worked on the atomic bomb project at Los Alamos.", "Disliking the military atmosphere of the laboratory and uninterested in the theoretical work there, Bloch left to join the radar project at Harvard University.After the war, he concentrated on investigations into nuclear induction and nuclear magnetic resonance, which are the underlying principles of MRI.", "In 1946 he proposed the Bloch equations which determine the time evolution of nuclear magnetization.", "He was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1948.Along with Edward Purcell, Bloch was awarded the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on nuclear magnetic induction.When CERN was being set up in the early 1950s, its founders were searching for someone of stature and international prestige to head the fledgling international laboratory, and in 1954 Professor Bloch became CERN's first director-general, at the time when construction was getting under way on the present Meyrin site and plans for the first machines were being drawn up.", "After leaving CERN, he returned to Stanford University, where he in 1961 was made Max Stein Professor of Physics.In 1964, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "He was also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.Bloch died in Zürich in 1983." ], [ "See also", "* List of Jewish Nobel laureatesList of things named after Felix Bloch" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "Further reading", "Bloch, F.; Staub, H. \"Fission Spectrum\", Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) (through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Lab), United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the US Atomic Energy Commission), (August 18, 1943)." ], [ "External links", "** * Oral History interview transcript with Felix Bloch on 14 May 1964, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives - interview conducted by Thomas S. Kuhn in Palo Alto, California* Oral History interview transcript with Felix Bloch on 15 August 1968, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives - interview conducted by Charles Weiner at Stanford University* Oral History interview transcript with Felix Bloch 15 December 1981, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives - interview conducted by Lillian Hoddeson at Stanford University* Felix Bloch Papers, 1931–1987 (33 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries* National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir* Felix Bloch Papers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fugue" ], [ "Introduction", "The six-part fugue in the \"Ricercar a 6\" from ''The Musical Offering'', in the hand of Johann Sebastian BachIn classical music, a '''fugue''' () is a contrapuntal, polyphonic compositional technique in two or more voices, built on a subject (a musical theme) that is introduced at the beginning in imitation (repetition at different pitches), which recurs frequently throughout the course of the composition.", "It is not to be confused with a ''fuguing tune'', which is a style of song popularized by and mostly limited to early American (i.e.", "shape note or \"Sacred Harp\") music and West Gallery music.", "A fugue usually has three main sections: an exposition, a development, and a final entry that contains the return of the subject in the fugue's tonic key.", "Fugues can also have episodes—parts of the fugue where new material is heard, based on the subject—a stretto, when the fugue's subject \"overlaps\" itself in different voices, or a recapitulation.", "A popular compositional technique in the Baroque era, the fugue was fundamental in showing mastery of harmony and tonality as it presented counterpoint.In the Middle Ages, the term was widely used to denote any works in canonic style; by the Renaissance, it had come to denote specifically imitative works.", "Since the 17th century, the term ''fugue'' has described what is commonly regarded as the most fully developed procedure of imitative counterpoint.Most fugues open with a short main theme, the subject, which then sounds successively in each voice (after the first voice is finished stating the subject, a second voice repeats the subject at a different pitch, and other voices repeat in the same way); when each voice has completed the subject, the ''exposition'' is complete.", "This is often followed by a connecting passage, or ''episode'', developed from previously heard material; further \"entries\" of the subject then are heard in related keys.", "Episodes (if applicable) and entries are usually alternated until the \"final entry\" of the subject, by which point the music has returned to the opening key, or tonic, which is often followed by closing material, the coda.", "In this sense, a fugue is a style of composition, rather than a fixed structure.The form evolved during the 18th century from several earlier types of contrapuntal compositions, such as imitative ricercars, capriccios, canzonas, and fantasias.", "The famous fugue composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) shaped his own works after those of Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562-1621), Johann Jakob Froberger (1616–1667), Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583–1643), Dieterich Buxtehude (c. 1637–1707) and others.", "With the decline of sophisticated styles at the end of the baroque period, the fugue's central role waned, eventually giving way as sonata form and the symphony orchestra rose to a dominant position.", "Nevertheless, composers continued to write and study fugues for various purposes; they appear in the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827), as well as modern composers such as Dmitri Shostakovich (1906–1975) and Paul Hindemith (1895-1963)." ], [ "Etymology", "The English term ''fugue'' originated in the 16th century and is derived from the French word ''fugue'' or the Italian ''fuga''.", "This in turn comes from Latin, also ''fuga'', which is itself related to both ''fugere'' (\"to flee\") and ''fugare'' (\"to chase\").", "The adjectival form is ''fugal''.", "Variants include ''fughetta'' (\"a small fugue\") and ''fugato'' (a passage in fugal style within another work that is not a fugue)." ], [ "Musical outline", "A fugue begins with the ''exposition'' and is written according to certain predefined rules; in later portions the composer has more freedom, though a logical key structure is usually followed.", "Further entries of the subject will occur throughout the fugue, repeating the accompanying material at the same time.", "The various entries may or may not be separated by ''episodes''.What follows is a chart displaying a fairly typical fugal outline, and an explanation of the processes involved in creating this structure.+Example of key and entry structure in a three-voice Baroque fugue Exposition First mid-entry Secondmid-entry Final entries in tonic Tonic Dom.", "T (D-redundant entry) Relative maj/min Dom.", "of rel.", "Subdom.", "T TSoprano S CS1 Codetta CS2 A Episode CS1 CS2 Episode S Episode CS1 Freecounterpoint '''Coda'''Alto A CS1 CS2 S CS1 CS2 S CS1Bass S CS1 CS2 A CS1 CS2 S::'''S''' = subject; '''A''' = answer; '''CS''' = countersubject; '''T''' = tonic; '''D''' = dominant===Exposition===A fugue begins with the exposition of its subject in one of the voices alone in the tonic key.", "After the statement of the subject, a second voice enters and states the subject with the subject transposed to another key (usually the dominant or subdominant), which is known as the ''answer''.", "To make the music run smoothly, it may also have to be altered slightly.", "When the answer is an exact copy of the subject to the new key, with identical intervals to the first statement, it is classified as a ''real answer''; if the intervals are altered to maintain the key it is a ''tonal answer''.J.S.", "Bach's Fugue No.", "16 in G minor, BWV 861, from the ''Well-Tempered Clavier'', Book 1.The first note of the subject, D (in red), is a prominent dominant note, demanding that the first note of the answer (in blue) sound as the tonic, G.File:Comienzo Fuga en Sol menor.midA tonal answer is usually called for when the subject begins with a prominent dominant note, or where there is a prominent dominant note very close to the beginning of the subject.", "To prevent an undermining of the music's sense of key, this note is transposed up a fourth to the tonic rather than up a fifth to the supertonic.", "Answers in the subdominant are also employed for the same reason.While the answer is being stated, the voice in which the subject was previously heard continues with new material.", "If this new material is reused in later statements of the subject, it is called a ''countersubject''; if this accompanying material is only heard once, it is simply referred to as ''free counterpoint''.fifth inverts to a fourth (dissonant) and therefore cannot be employed in invertible counterpoint, without preparation and resolution.The countersubject is written in invertible counterpoint at the octave or fifteenth.", "The distinction is made between the use of free counterpoint and regular countersubjects accompanying the fugue subject/answer, because in order for a countersubject to be heard accompanying the subject in more than one instance, it must be capable of sounding correctly above or below the subject, and must be conceived, therefore, in invertible (double) counterpoint.In tonal music, invertible contrapuntal lines must be written according to certain rules because several intervallic combinations, while acceptable in one particular orientation, are no longer permissible when inverted.", "For example, when the note \"G\" sounds in one voice above the note \"C\" in lower voice, the interval of a fifth is formed, which is considered consonant and entirely acceptable.", "When this interval is inverted (\"C\" in the upper voice above \"G\" in the lower), it forms a fourth, considered a dissonance in tonal contrapuntal practice, and requires special treatment, or preparation and resolution, if it is to be used.", "The countersubject, if sounding at the same time as the answer, is transposed to the pitch of the answer.", "Each voice then responds with its own subject or answer, and further countersubjects or free counterpoint may be heard.When a tonal answer is used, it is customary for the exposition to alternate subjects (S) with answers (A), however, in some fugues this order is occasionally varied: e.g., see the SAAS arrangement of Fugue No.", "1 in C Major, BWV 846, from J.S.", "Bach's ''Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1''.", "A brief codetta is often heard connecting the various statements of the subject and answer.", "This allows the music to run smoothly.", "The codetta, just as the other parts of the exposition, can be used throughout the rest of the fugue.The first answer must occur as soon after the initial statement of the subject as possible; therefore the first codetta is often extremely short, or not needed.", "In the above example, this is the case: the subject finishes on the quarter note (or crotchet) B of the third beat of the second bar which harmonizes the opening G of the answer.", "The later codettas may be considerably longer, and often serve to (a) develop the material heard so far in the subject/answer and countersubject and possibly introduce ideas heard in the second countersubject or free counterpoint that follows (b) delay, and therefore heighten the impact of the reentry of the subject in another voice as well as modulating back to the tonic.The exposition usually concludes when all voices have given a statement of the subject or answer.", "In some fugues, the exposition will end with a redundant entry, or an extra presentation of the theme.", "Furthermore, in some fugues the entry of one of the voices may be reserved until later, for example in the pedals of an organ fugue (see J.S.", "Bach's Fugue in C major for Organ, BWV 547).===Episode===Further entries of the subject follow this initial exposition, either immediately (as for example in Fugue No.", "1 in C major, BWV 846 of the ''Well-Tempered Clavier'') or separated by episodes.", "Episodic material is always modulatory and is usually based upon some element heard in the exposition.", "Each episode has the primary function of transitioning for the next entry of the subject in a new key, and may also provide release from the strictness of form employed in the exposition, and middle-entries.", "André Gedalge states that the episode of the fugue is generally based on a series of imitations of the subject that have been fragmented.===Development===Further entries of the subject, or middle entries, occur throughout the fugue.", "They must state the subject or answer at least once in its entirety, and may also be heard in combination with the countersubject(s) from the exposition, new countersubjects, free counterpoint, or any of these in combination.", "It is uncommon for the subject to enter alone in a single voice in the middle entries as in the exposition; rather, it is usually heard with at least one of the countersubjects and/or other free contrapuntal accompaniments.Middle entries tend to occur at pitches other than the initial.", "As shown in the typical structure above, these are often closely related keys such as the relative dominant and subdominant, although the key structure of fugues varies greatly.", "In the fugues of J.S.", "Bach, the first middle entry occurs most often in the relative major or minor of the work's overall key, and is followed by an entry in the dominant of the relative major or minor when the fugue's subject requires a tonal answer.", "In the fugues of earlier composers (notably, Buxtehude and Pachelbel), middle entries in keys other than the tonic and dominant tend to be the exception, and non-modulation the norm.", "One of the famous examples of such non-modulating fugue occurs in Buxtehude's Praeludium (Fugue and Chaconne) in C, BuxWV 137.When there is no entrance of the subject and answer material, the composer can develop the subject by altering the subject.", "This is called an ''episode'', often by ''inversion'', although the term is sometimes used synonymously with middle entry and may also describe the exposition of completely new subjects, as in a double fugue for example (see below).", "In any of the entries within a fugue, the subject may be altered, by inversion, retrograde (a less common form where the entire subject is heard back-to-front) and diminution (the reduction of the subject's rhythmic values by a certain factor), augmentation (the increase of the subject's rhythmic values by a certain factor) or any combination of them.===Example and analysis===The excerpt below, bars 7–12 of J.S.", "Bach's Fugue No.", "2 in C minor, BWV 847, from the ''Well-Tempered Clavier'', Book 1 illustrates the application of most of the characteristics described above.", "The fugue is for keyboard and in three voices, with regular countersubjects.", "This excerpt opens at last entry of the exposition: the subject is sounding in the bass, the first countersubject in the treble, while the middle-voice is stating a second version of the second countersubject, which concludes with the characteristic rhythm of the subject, and is always used together with the first version of the second countersubject.", "Following this an episode modulates from the tonic to the relative major by means of sequence, in the form of an accompanied canon at the fourth.", "Arrival in E major is marked by a quasi perfect cadence across the bar line, from the last quarter note beat of the first bar to the first beat of the second bar in the second system, and the first middle entry.", "Here, Bach has altered the second countersubject to accommodate the change of mode.J.S.", "Bach's Fugue No.", "2 in C minor, BWV 847, from the ''Well-Tempered Clavier'', Book 1 (bars 7–12)File:Wiki fugue analysis audio.mid===False entries===At any point in the fugue there may be \"false entries\" of the subject, which include the start of the subject but are not completed.", "False entries are often abbreviated to the head of the subject, and anticipate the \"true\" entry of the subject, heightening the impact of the subject proper.J.S.", "Bach's Fugue No.", "2 in C minor, BWV 847, from the ''Well-Tempered Clavier'', Book 1.This passage is bars 6/7, at the end of the codetta before the first entry of the third voice, the bass, in the exposition.", "The false entry occurs in the alto, and consists of the head of the subject only, marked in red.", "It anticipates the true entry of the subject, marked in blue, by one quarter note.===Counter-exposition===The counter-exposition is a second exposition.", "However, there are only two entries, and the entries occur in reverse order.", "The counter-exposition in a fugue is separated from the exposition by an episode and is in the same key as the original exposition.===Stretto===Sometimes counter-expositions or the middle entries take place in ''stretto,'' whereby one voice responds with the subject/answer before the first voice has completed its entry of the subject/answer, usually increasing the intensity of the music.Example of ''stretto'' fugue in a quotation from Fugue in C major by Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer who died in 1746.The subject, including an eighth note rest, is seen in the alto voice, starting on beat 1 bar 1 and ending on beat 1 bar 3, which is where the answer would usually be expected to begin.", "As this is a ''stretto'', the answer already takes place in the tenor voice, on the third quarter note of the first bar, therefore coming in \"early\"File:Fugue in C major by Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer.midOnly one entry of the subject must be heard in its completion in a ''stretto''.", "However, a ''stretto'' in which the subject/answer is heard in completion in all voices is known as ''stretto maestrale'' or ''grand stretto''.", "''Strettos'' may also occur by inversion, augmentation and diminution.", "A fugue in which the opening exposition takes place in ''stretto'' form is known as a ''close fugue'' or ''stretto fugue'' (see for example, the ''Gratias agimus tibi'' and '''' choruses from J.S.", "Bach's Mass in B minor).===Final entries and coda===The closing section of a fugue often includes one or two counter-expositions, and possibly a stretto, in the tonic; sometimes over a tonic or dominant pedal note.", "Any material that follows the final entry of the subject is considered to be the final coda and is normally cadential." ], [ "Types", "===Simple fugue===A '''simple fugue''' has only one subject, and does not utilize invertible counterpoint.===Double (triple, quadruple) fugue===A '''double fugue''' has two subjects that are often developed simultaneously.", "Similarly, a triple fugue has three subjects.", "There are two kinds of double (triple) fugue: (a) a fugue in which the second (third) subject is (are) presented simultaneously with the subject in the exposition (e.g.", "as in Kyrie Eleison of Mozart's Requiem in D minor or the fugue of Bach's Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582), and (b) a fugue in which all subjects have their own expositions at some point, and they are not combined until later (see for example, the three-subject Fugue No.", "14 in F minor from Bach's ''Well-Tempered Clavier'' Book 2, or more famously, Bach's \"St. Anne\" Fugue in E major, BWV 552, a triple fugue for organ.", ")===Counter-fugue===A '''counter-fugue''' is a fugue in which the first answer is presented as the subject in inversion (upside down), and the inverted subject continues to feature prominently throughout the fugue.", "Examples include ''Contrapunctus V'' through ''Contrapunctus VII'', from Bach's ''The Art of Fugue''.===Permutation fugue==='''Permutation fugue''' describes a type of composition (or technique of composition) in which elements of fugue and strict canon are combined.", "Each voice enters in succession with the subject, each entry alternating between tonic and dominant, and each voice, having stated the initial subject, continues by stating two or more themes (or countersubjects), which must be conceived in correct invertible counterpoint.", "(In other words, the subject and countersubjects must be capable of being played both above and below all the other themes without creating any unacceptable dissonances.)", "Each voice takes this pattern and states all the subjects/themes in the same order (and repeats the material when all the themes have been stated, sometimes after a rest).There is usually very little non-structural/thematic material.", "During the course of a permutation fugue, it is quite uncommon, actually, for every single possible voice-combination (or \"permutation\") of the themes to be heard.", "This limitation exists in consequence of sheer proportionality: the more voices in a fugue, the greater the number of possible permutations.", "In consequence, composers exercise editorial judgment as to the most musical of permutations and processes leading thereto.", "One example of permutation fugue can be seen in the eighth and final chorus of J.S.", "Bach's cantata, ''Himmelskönig, sei willkommen'', BWV 182.Permutation fugues differ from conventional fugue in that there are no connecting episodes, nor statement of the themes in related keys.", "So for example, the fugue of Bach's Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582 is not purely a permutation fugue, as it does have episodes between permutation expositions.", "Invertible counterpoint is essential to permutation fugues but is not found in simple fugues.===Fughetta===A '''fughetta''' is a short fugue that has the same characteristics as a fugue.", "Often the contrapuntal writing is not strict, and the setting less formal.", "See for example, variation 24 of Beethoven's ''Diabelli Variations'' Op.", "120." ], [ "History", "=== Middle Ages and Renaissance ===The term ''fuga'' was used as far back as the Middle Ages, but was initially used to refer to any kind of imitative counterpoint, including canons, which are now thought of as distinct from fugues.", "Prior to the 16th century, fugue was originally a genre.", "It was not until the 16th century that fugal technique as it is understood today began to be seen in pieces, both instrumental and vocal.", "Fugal writing is found in works such as fantasias, ricercares and canzonas.", "\"Fugue\" as a theoretical term first occurred in 1330 when Jacobus of Liege wrote about the ''fuga'' in his ''Speculum musicae''.", "The fugue arose from the technique of \"imitation\", where the same musical material was repeated starting on a different note.Gioseffo Zarlino, a composer, author, and theorist in the Renaissance, was one of the first to distinguish between the two types of imitative counterpoint: fugues and canons (which he called imitations).", "Originally, this was to aid improvisation, but by the 1550s, it was considered a technique of composition.", "The composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525?–1594) wrote masses using modal counterpoint and imitation, and fugal writing became the basis for writing motets as well.", "Palestrina's imitative motets differed from fugues in that each phrase of the text had a different subject which was introduced and worked out separately, whereas a fugue continued working with the same subject or subjects throughout the entire length of the piece.===Baroque era===It was in the Baroque period that the writing of fugues became central to composition, in part as a demonstration of compositional expertise.", "Fugues were incorporated into a variety of musical forms.", "Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, Girolamo Frescobaldi, Johann Jakob Froberger and Dieterich Buxtehude all wrote fugues, and George Frideric Handel included them in many of his oratorios.", "Keyboard suites from this time often conclude with a fugal gigue.", "Domenico Scarlatti has only a few fugues among his corpus of over 500 harpsichord sonatas.", "The French overture featured a quick fugal section after a slow introduction.", "The second movement of a sonata da chiesa, as written by Arcangelo Corelli and others, was usually fugal.The Baroque period also saw a rise in the importance of music theory.", "Some fugues during the Baroque period were pieces designed to teach contrapuntal technique to students.", "The most influential text was Johann Joseph Fux's ''Gradus Ad Parnassum'' (\"Steps to Parnassus\"), which appeared in 1725.This work laid out the terms of \"species\" of counterpoint, and offered a series of exercises to learn fugue writing.", "Fux's work was largely based on the practice of Palestrina's modal fugues.", "Mozart studied from this book, and it remained influential into the nineteenth century.", "Haydn, for example, taught counterpoint from his own summary of Fux and thought of it as the basis for formal structure.Bach's most famous fugues are those for the harpsichord in ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'', which many composers and theorists look at as the greatest model of fugue.", "''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' comprises two volumes written in different times of Bach's life, each comprising 24 prelude and fugue pairs, one for each major and minor key.", "Bach is also known for his organ fugues, which are usually preceded by a prelude or toccata.", "''The Art of Fugue'', BWV 1080, is a collection of fugues (and four canons) on a single theme that is gradually transformed as the cycle progresses.", "Bach also wrote smaller single fugues and put fugal sections or movements into many of his more general works.", "J.S.", "Bach's influence extended forward through his son C.P.E.", "Bach and through the theorist Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg (1718–1795) whose ''Abhandlung von der Fuge'' (\"Treatise on the fugue\", 1753) was largely based on J.S.", "Bach's work.===Classical era===During the Classical era, the fugue was no longer a central or even fully natural mode of musical composition.", "Nevertheless, both Haydn and Mozart had periods of their careers in which they in some sense \"rediscovered\" fugal writing and used it frequently in their work.==== Haydn ====Joseph Haydn was the leader of fugal composition and technique in the Classical era.", "Haydn's most famous fugues can be found in his \"Sun\" Quartets (op.", "20, 1772), of which three have fugal finales.", "This was a practice that Haydn repeated only once later in his quartet-writing career, with the finale of his String Quartet, Op.", "50 No.", "4 (1787).", "Some of the earliest examples of Haydn's use of counterpoint, however, are in three symphonies (No.", "3, No.", "13, and No.", "40) that date from 1762 to 1763.The earliest fugues, in both the symphonies and in the Baryton trios, exhibit the influence of Joseph Fux's treatise on counterpoint, ''Gradus ad Parnassum'' (1725), which Haydn studied carefully.Haydn's second fugal period occurred after he heard, and was greatly inspired by, the oratorios of Handel during his visits to London (1791–1793, 1794–1795).", "Haydn then studied Handel's techniques and incorporated Handelian fugal writing into the choruses of his mature oratorios ''The Creation'' and ''The Seasons,'' as well as several of his later symphonies, including No.", "88, No.", "95, and No.", "101; and the late string quartets, Opus 71 no.", "3 and (especially) Opus 76 no.", "6.==== Mozart ====The young Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart studied counterpoint with Padre Martini in Bologna.", "Under the employment of Archbishop Colloredo, and the musical influence of his predecessors and colleagues such as Johann Ernst Eberlin, Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, Michael Haydn, and his own father, Leopold Mozart at the Salzburg Cathedral, the young Mozart composed ambitious fugues and contrapuntal passages in Catholic choral works such as Mass in C minor, K. 139 \"Waisenhaus\" (1768), Mass in C major, K. 66 \"Dominicus\" (1769), Mass in C major, K. 167 \"in honorem Sanctissimae Trinitatis\" (1773), Mass in C major, K. 262 \"Missa longa\" (1775), Mass in C major, K. 337 \"Solemnis\" (1780), various litanies, and vespers.", "Leopold admonished his son openly in 1777 that he not forget to make public demonstration of his abilities in \"fugue, canon, and contrapunctus\".", "Later in life, the major impetus to fugal writing for Mozart was the influence of Baron Gottfried van Swieten in Vienna around 1782.Van Swieten, during diplomatic service in Berlin, had taken the opportunity to collect as many manuscripts by Bach and Handel as he could, and he invited Mozart to study his collection and encouraged him to transcribe various works for other combinations of instruments.", "Mozart was evidently fascinated by these works and wrote a set of five transcriptions for string quartet, K. 405 (1782), of fugues from Bach's ''Well-Tempered Clavier'', introducing them with preludes of his own.", "In a letter to his sister Nannerl Mozart, dated in Vienna on 20 April 1782, Mozart recognizes that he had not written anything in this form, but moved by his wife's interest he composed one piece, which is sent with the letter.", "He begs her not to let anybody see the fugue and manifests the hope to write five more and then present them to Baron van Swieten.", "Regarding the piece, he said \"I have taken particular care to write ''andante maestoso'' upon it, so that it should not be played fast – for if a fugue is not played slowly the ear cannot clearly distinguish the new subject as it is introduced and the effect is missed\".", "Mozart then set to writing fugues on his own, mimicking the Baroque style.", "These included a fugue in C minor, K. 426, for two pianos (1783).", "Later, Mozart incorporated fugal writing into his opera ''Die Zauberflöte'' and the finale of his Symphony No.", "41.Fugal passage from the finale of Mozart's Symphony No.", "41 (''Jupiter'')File:Mozart Symphony 41, finale, fugal passage.wavThe parts of the Requiem he completed also contain several fugues (most notably the Kyrie, and the three fugues in the Domine Jesu; he also left behind a sketch for an Amen fugue which, some believe, would have come at the end of the Sequentia).==== Beethoven ====Ludwig van Beethoven was familiar with fugal writing from childhood, as an important part of his training was playing from ''The Well-Tempered Clavier''.", "During his early career in Vienna, Beethoven attracted notice for his performance of these fugues.", "There are fugal sections in Beethoven's early piano sonatas, and fugal writing is to be found in the second and fourth movements of the ''Eroica Symphony'' (1805).", "Beethoven incorporated fugues in his sonatas, and reshaped the episode's purpose and compositional technique for later generations of composers.Nevertheless, fugues did not take on a truly central role in Beethoven's work until his late period.", "The finale of Beethoven's ''Hammerklavier'' Sonata contains a fugue, which was practically unperformed until the late 19th century, due to its tremendous technical difficulty and length.", "The last movement of his Cello Sonata, Op.", "102 No.", "2 is a fugue, and there are fugal passages in the last movements of his Piano Sonatas in A major, Op.", "101 and A major Op.", "110.According to Charles Rosen, \"With the finale of 110, Beethoven re-conceived the significance of the most traditional elements of fugue writing.", "\"Fugal passages are also found in the ''Missa Solemnis'' and all movements of the Ninth Symphony, except the third.", "A massive, dissonant fugue forms the finale of his String Quartet, Op.", "130 (1825); the latter was later published separately as Op.", "133, the ''Große Fuge'' (\"Great Fugue\").", "However, it is the fugue that opens Beethoven's String Quartet in C minor, Op.", "131 that several commentators regard as one of the composer's greatest achievements.", "Joseph Kerman (1966, p. 330) calls it \"this most moving of all fugues\".", "J. W. N. Sullivan (1927, p. 235) hears it as \"the most superhuman piece of music that Beethoven has ever written.\"", "Philip Radcliffe (1965, p. 149) says \"a bare description of its formal outline can give but little idea of the extraordinary profundity of this fugue .\"", "Beethoven, Quartet in C minor, Op.", "131, opening fugal exposition.", "Listen===Romantic era===By the beginning of the Romantic era, fugue writing had become specifically attached to the norms and styles of the Baroque.", "Felix Mendelssohn wrote many fugues inspired by his study of the music of Johann Sebastian Bach.Johannes Brahms' ''Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel'', Op.", "24, is a work for solo piano written in 1861.It consists of a set of twenty-five variations and a concluding fugue, all based on a theme from George Frideric Handel's ''Harpsichord Suite No.", "1 in B♭ major'', HWV 434.Franz Liszt's Piano Sonata in B minor (1853) contains a powerful fugue, demanding incisive virtuosity from its player:Liszt Piano Sonata fugue subject Link to passageRichard Wagner included several fugues in his opera ''Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg''.", "Giuseppe Verdi included a whimsical example at the end of his opera ''Falstaff'' and his setting of the Requiem Mass contained two (originally three) choral fugues.", "Anton Bruckner and Gustav Mahler also included them in their respective symphonies.", "The exposition of the finale of Bruckner's Symphony No.", "5 begins with a fugal exposition.", "The exposition ends with a chorale, the melody of which is then used as a second fugal exposition at the beginning of the development.", "The recapitulation features both fugal subjects concurrently.", "The finale of Mahler's Symphony No.", "5 features a \"fugue-like\" passage early in the movement, though this is not actually an example of a fugue.===20th century===Twentieth-century composers brought fugue back to its position of prominence, realizing its uses in full instrumental works, its importance in development and introductory sections, and the developmental capabilities of fugal composition.The second movement of Maurice Ravel's piano suite ''Le Tombeau de Couperin'' (1917) is a fugue that Roy Howat (200, p. 88) describes as having \"a subtle glint of jazz\".", "Béla Bartók's ''Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta'' (1936) opens with a slow fugue that Pierre Boulez (1986, pp.", "346–47) regards as \"certainly the finest and most characteristic example of Bartók's subtle style... probably the most ''timeless'' of all Bartók's works – a fugue that unfolds like a fan to a point of maximum intensity and then closes, returning to the mysterious atmosphere of the opening.\"", "The second movement of Bartók's Sonata for Solo Violin is a fugue, and the first movement of his Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion contains a fugato.", "''Schwanda the Bagpiper'' (Czech: Švanda dudák), written in 1926, an opera in two acts (five scenes), with music by Jaromír Weinberger, includes a ''Polka'' followed by a powerful ''Fugue'' based on the Polka theme.Igor Stravinsky also incorporated fugues into his works, including the Symphony of Psalms and the Dumbarton Oaks concerto.", "Stravinsky recognized the compositional techniques of Bach, and in the second movement of his Symphony of Psalms (1930), he lays out a fugue that is much like that of the Baroque era.", "It employs a double fugue with two distinct subjects, the first beginning in C and the second in E. Techniques such as stretto, sequencing, and the use of subject incipits are frequently heard in the movement.", "Dmitri Shostakovich's 24 Preludes and Fugues is the composer's homage to Bach's two volumes of The Well-Tempered Clavier.", "In the first movement of his Fourth Symphony, starting at rehearsal mark 63, is a gigantic fugue in which the 20-bar subject (and tonal answer) consist entirely of semiquavers, played at the speed of quaver = 168.Olivier Messiaen, writing about his ''Vingt regards sur l'enfant-Jésus'' (1944) wrote of the sixth piece of that collection, \"''Par Lui tout a été fait''\" (\"By Him were all things made\"): György Ligeti wrote a five-part double fugue for his ''Requiem'''s second movement, the Kyrie, in which each part (SMATB) is subdivided in four-voice \"bundles\" that make a canon.", "The melodic material in this fugue is totally chromatic, with melismatic (running) parts overlaid onto skipping intervals, and use of polyrhythm (multiple simultaneous subdivisions of the measure), blurring everything both harmonically and rhythmically so as to create an aural aggregate, thus highlighting the theoretical/aesthetic question of the next section as to whether fugue is a form or a texture.", "According to Tom Service, in this work, LigetiBenjamin Britten used a fugue in the final part of ''The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra'' (1946).", "The Henry Purcell theme is triumphantly cited at the end, making it a choral fugue.Canadian pianist and musical thinker Glenn Gould composed ''So You Want to Write a Fugue?", "'', a full-scale fugue set to a text that cleverly explicates its own musical form.===Outside classical music===Fugues (or fughettas/fugatos) have been incorporated into genres outside Western classical music.", "Several examples exist within jazz, such as ''Bach goes to Town'', composed by the Welsh composer Alec Templeton and recorded by Benny Goodman in 1938, and ''Concorde'' composed by John Lewis and recorded by the Modern Jazz Quartet in 1955.In \"Fugue for Tinhorns\" from the Broadway musical Guys and Dolls, written by Frank Loesser, the characters Nicely-Nicely, Benny, and Rusty sing simultaneously about hot tips they each have in an upcoming horse race.", "In \"West Side Story\", the dance sequence following the song \"Cool\" is structured as a fugue.", "Interestingly, Leonard Bernstein quotes Beethoven's monumental \"Große Fuge\" for string quartet and employs Arnold Schoenberg's twelve tone technique, all in the context of a jazz infused Broadway show stopper.A few examples also exist within progressive rock, such as the central movement of \"The Endless Enigma\" by Emerson, Lake & Palmer and \"On Reflection\" by Gentle Giant.On their EP of the same name, Vulfpeck has a composition called \"Fugue State\", which incorporates a fugue-like section between Theo Katzman (guitar), Joe Dart (bass), and Woody Goss (Wurlitzer keyboard).The composer Matyas Seiber included an atonal or twelve-tone fugue, for flute trumpet and string quartet, in his score for the 1953 film ''Graham Sutherland''The film composer John Williams includes a fugue in his score for the 1990 film, ''Home Alone'', at the point where Kevin, accidentally left at home by his family, and realizing he is about to be attacked by a pair of bumbling burglars, begins to plan his elaborate defenses.", "Another fugue occurs at a similar point in the 1992 sequel film, ''Home Alone 2: Lost in New York''.The jazz composer and film composer, Michel Legrand, includes a fugue as the climax of his score (a classical theme with variations, and fugue) for Joseph Losey's 1972 film ''The Go-Between'', based on the 1953 novel by British novelist, L.P. Hartley, as well as several times in his score for Jacques Demy's 1970 film ''Peau d'âne''." ], [ "Discussion", "===Musical form or texture===A widespread view of the fugue is that it is not a musical form but rather a technique of composition.The Austrian musicologist Erwin Ratz argues that the formal organization of a fugue involves not only the arrangement of its theme and episodes, but also its harmonic structure.", "In particular, the exposition and coda tend to emphasize the tonic key, whereas the episodes usually explore more distant tonalities.", "Ratz stressed, however, that this is the core, underlying form (\"Urform\") of the fugue, from which individual fugues may deviate.Although certain related keys are more commonly explored in fugal development, the overall structure of a fugue does not limit its harmonic structure.", "For example, a fugue may not even explore the dominant, one of the most closely related keys to the tonic.", "Bach's Fugue in B major from Book 1 of the ''Well Tempered Clavier'' explores the relative minor, the supertonic and the subdominant.", "This is unlike later forms such as the sonata, which clearly prescribes which keys are explored (typically the tonic and dominant in an ABA form).", "Then, many modern fugues dispense with traditional tonal harmonic scaffolding altogether, and either use serial (pitch-oriented) rules, or (as the Kyrie/Christe in György Ligeti's ''Requiem'', Witold Lutosławski works), use panchromatic, or even denser, harmonic spectra.===Perceptions and aesthetics===The fugue is the most complex of contrapuntal forms.", "In Ratz's words, \"fugal technique significantly burdens the shaping of musical ideas, and it was given only to the greatest geniuses, such as Bach and Beethoven, to breathe life into such an unwieldy form and make it the bearer of the highest thoughts.\"", "In presenting Bach's fugues as among the greatest of contrapuntal works, Peter Kivy points out that \"counterpoint itself, since time out of mind, has been associated in the thinking of musicians with the profound and the serious\" and argues that \"there seems to be some rational justification for their doing so.", "\"This is related to the idea that restrictions create freedom for the composer, by directing their efforts.", "He also points out that fugal writing has its roots in improvisation, and was, during the Renaissance, practiced as an improvisatory art.", "Writing in 1555, Nicola Vicentino, for example, suggests that:" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " " ], [ "External links", " Score , J. S. Bach's ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'', Mutopia Project* Fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavier (viewable in Adobe Flash or Shockwave)* Theory on fugues* Fugues and fugue sets* Analyses of J. S. Bach's ''Well-Tempered Clavier'' with accompanying recordings* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dissociative fugue" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dissociative fugue''' (), formerly called a '''fugue state''' or '''psychogenic fugue''', is a rare psychiatric phenomenon characterized by reversible amnesia for one's identity in conjunction with unexpected wandering or travel.", "This is sometimes accompanied by the establishment of a new identity and the inability to recall personal information prior to the presentation of symptoms.", "Dissociative fugue is a mental and behavioral disorder that is classified variously as a dissociative disorder, a conversion disorder, and a somatic symptom disorder.", "It is a facet of dissociative amnesia, according to the fifth edition of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM-5).After recovery from a fugue state, previous memories usually return intact, and further treatment is unnecessary.", "An episode of fugue is not characterized as attributable to a psychiatric disorder if it can be related to the ingestion of psychotropic substances, to physical trauma, to a general medical condition or to dissociative identity disorder, delirium, or dementia.", "Fugues are precipitated by a series of long-term traumatic episodes.", "It is most commonly associated with childhood victims of sexual abuse who learn to dissociate memory of the abuse (dissociative amnesia)." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Symptoms of a dissociative fugue include mild confusion and once the fugue ends, possible depression, grief, shame, and discomfort.", "People have also experienced a post-fugue anger.", "Another symptom of the fugue state can consist of loss of one's identity." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Before dissociative fugue can be diagnosed, either dissociative amnesia or dissociative identity disorder must be diagnosed.", "The only difference between dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder and dissociative ''fugue'' is that the person affected by the latter travels or wanders.", "This traveling or wandering is typically associated with the amnesia-induced identity or the person’s physical surroundings.Sometimes dissociative fugue cannot be diagnosed until the patient returns to their pre-fugue identity and is distressed to find themselves in unfamiliar circumstances, sometimes with awareness of \"lost time\".", "The diagnosis is usually made retroactively when a doctor reviews the history and collects information that documents the circumstances before the patient left home, the travel itself, and the establishment of an alternative life.Functional amnesia can also be situation-specific, varying from all forms and variations of trauma or generally violent experiences, with the person experiencing severe memory loss for a particular trauma.", "Committing homicide, experiencing or committing a violent crime such as rape or torture, experiencing combat violence, attempting suicide, and being in automobile accidents and natural disasters have all induced cases of situation-specific amnesia.", "In these unusual cases, care must be exercised in interpreting cases of psychogenic amnesia when there are compelling motives to feign memory deficits for legal or financial reasons.", "However, although some fraction of psychogenic amnesia cases can be explained in this fashion, it is generally acknowledged that true cases are not uncommon.", "Both global and situationally specific amnesia are often distinguished from the organic amnesic syndrome, in that the capacity to store new memories and experiences remains intact.", "Given the very delicate and oftentimes dramatic nature of memory loss in such cases, there usually is a concerted effort to help the person recover their identity and history.", "This will sometimes allow the subject to recover spontaneously, when particular cues are encountered.===Definition===The cause of the fugue state is related to dissociative amnesia, (Code 300.12 of the DSM-IV codes) which has several other subtypes: selective amnesia, generalized amnesia, continuous amnesia, and systematized amnesia, in addition to the subtype \"dissociative fugue\".Unlike retrograde amnesia (which is popularly referred to simply as \"amnesia\", the state where someone forgets events before brain damage), dissociative amnesia is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, DSM-IV Codes 291.1 & 292.83) or a neurological or other general medical condition (e.g., amnestic disorder due to a head trauma, DSM-IV Code 294.0).", "It is a complex neuropsychological process.As the person experiencing a dissociative fugue may have recently experienced the reappearance of an event or person representing an earlier trauma, the emergence of an armoring or defensive personality seems to be for some, a logical defense strategy in the situation.Therefore, the terminology \"fugue state\" may carry a slight linguistic distinction from \"dissociative fugue\", the former implying a greater degree of \"motion\".", "For the purposes of this article, then, a \"fugue state\" occurs while one is \"acting out\" a \"dissociative fugue\".The ''DSM-IV'' defines \"dissociative fugue\" as:sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's customary place of work, with inability to recall one's pastconfusion about personal identity, or the assumption of a new identitysignificant distress or impairmentThe ''Merck Manual'' defines \"dissociative fugue\" as:: One or more episodes of amnesia in which the inability to recall some or all of one's past and either the loss of one's identity or the formation of a new identity occur with sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home.In support of this definition, the ''Merck Manual'' further defines dissociative amnesia as:: An inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness." ], [ "Prognosis", "The DSM-IV-TR states that the fugue may have a duration from days to months, and recovery is usually rapid.", "However, some cases may be refractory.", "An individual usually has only one episode." ], [ "Cases", "Shirley Ardell Mason (1923–1998), also known as \"Sybil\", would disappear and then reappear with no recollection of what happened during the time span.", "She recalled \"being here and then not here\" and having no identity of herself.", "It was claimed by her psychiatrist, Cornelia Wilbur, that she also had dissociative identity disorder.", "Wilbur's diagnosis of DID was disputed by Wilbur's contemporary Herbert Spiegel.", "Jody Roberts, a reporter for the ''Tacoma News Tribune'', disappeared in 1985, only to be found 12 years later in Sitka, Alaska, living under the name of \"Jane Dee Williams\".", "While there were some initial suspicions that she had been faking amnesia, some experts have come to believe that she genuinely experienced a protracted fugue state.", "David Fitzpatrick, who had dissociative fugue disorder, was profiled in the UK on Five's television series ''Extraordinary People''.", "He entered a fugue state on December 4, 2005, and was working on regaining his entire life's memories at the time of his appearance in his episode of the documentary series.", "Hannah Upp, a teacher originally from Salem, Oregon, was given a diagnosis of dissociative fugue after she had disappeared from her New York home in August 2008 and was rescued from the New York Harbor 20 days later.", "News coverage at the time focused on her refusal to speak to detectives right after she was found and the fact that she was seen checking her email at Apple Stores while she was missing.", "This coverage has since led to criticism of the often \"condemning and discrediting\" attitude toward dissociative conditions.", "On September 3, 2013, she went into another fugue, disappearing from her new job as a teacher's assistant at Crossway Community Montessori in Kensington, Maryland.", "She was found unharmed two days later on September 5, 2013, in Wheaton, Maryland.", "On September 14, 2017, she went missing again, having last been seen near Sapphire Beach in her home in St. Thomas right before the arrival of Hurricane Maria that month.", "Her mother and a group of friends searched for her in the Virgin Islands and surrounding areas; , she remains missing.", "Jeff Ingram appeared in Denver in 2006 with no memory of his name or where he was from.", "After his appearance on national television, to appeal for help identifying himself, his fiancée called Denver police identifying him.", "The episode was diagnosed as dissociative fugue.", "As of December 2012, Ingram had experienced three incidents of amnesia: in 1994, 2006, and 2007.", "Doug Bruce \"came to\" on a subway train claiming to have no memory of his name or where he was from, nor any identification documents.", "Bruneri-Canella case (alleged reappearance of a man who had gone missing in World War I)Agatha Christie (possibly)" ], [ "See also", "Depersonalization disorder (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.6)Dissociation ''(psychology)''Dissociative disorders (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders)Dissociative identity disorder (''formerly'' multiple personality disorder) (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.14)Dromomania, a similar historical diagnosisPsychogenic amnesia; dissociative amnesia (''formerly'' psychogenic amnesia) (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.12)Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV''Paris, Texas'', a film by Wim Wenders where the protagonist (Harry Dean Stanton) portrays and must cope with the disorder''The Fisher King'', a film by Terry Gilliam where the supporting protagonist (Robin Williams) portrays the disorder in order to cope with losing his wife in a homicide he witnessed''Lost Highway'', a film by David Lynch that explores the disorder''Nurse Betty'', a film by Neil LaBute where the protagonist (Renée Zellweger) portrays the disorder in order to cope with losing her husband to a homicide she witnessed''K-Pax'', a film by Iain Softley where the supporting protagonist (Kevin Spacey) is suspected of having some form of the disorder''Doctor Who'', In an episode The Next Doctor the protagonist (David Tennant) encounters a character (David Morrissey) who portrays the disorder" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*\" Dissociative Fugue\" from the Merck & Co. website." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Force" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics, a '''force''' is an influence that can cause an object to change its velocity, i.e., to accelerate, meaning a change in speed or direction, unless counterbalanced by other forces.", "The concept of force makes the everyday notion of pushing or pulling mathematically precise.", "Because the magnitude and direction of a force are both important, force is a vector quantity.", "The SI unit of force is the newton (N), and force is often represented by the symbol .Force plays a central role in classical mechanics, figuring in all three of Newton's laws of motion, which specify that the force on an object with an unchanging mass is equal to the product of the object's mass and the acceleration that it undergoes.", "Types of forces often encountered in classical mechanics include elastic, frictional, contact or \"normal\" forces, and gravitational.", "The rotational version of force is torque, which produces changes in the rotational speed of an object.", "In an extended body, each part often applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces through the body is the internal mechanical stress.", "In equilibrium these stresses cause no acceleration of the body as the forces balance one another.", "If these are not in equilibrium they can cause deformation of solid materials, or flow in fluids.In modern physics, which includes relativity and quantum mechanics, the laws governing motion are revised to rely on fundamental interactions as the ultimate origin of force.", "However, the understanding of force provided by classical mechanics is useful for practical purposes." ], [ "Development of the concept", "Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects and simple machines, but thinkers such as Aristotle and Archimedes retained fundamental errors in understanding force.", "In part, this was due to an incomplete understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction and a consequently inadequate view of the nature of natural motion.", "A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, even at a constant velocity.", "Most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton.", "With his mathematical insight, Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved for over two hundred years.By the early 20th century, Einstein developed a theory of relativity that correctly predicted the action of forces on objects with increasing momenta near the speed of light and also provided insight into the forces produced by gravitation and inertia.", "With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms.", "The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed.", "Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.", "High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction." ], [ "Pre-Newtonian concepts", "Aristotle famously described a force as anything that causes an object to undergo \"unnatural motion\"Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines.", "The mechanical advantage given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work.", "Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids.Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology.", "In Aristotle's view, the terrestrial sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different \"natural places\" therein.", "Aristotle believed that motionless objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, were in their natural place when on the ground, and that they stay that way if left alone.", "He distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find their \"natural place\" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led to \"natural motion\", and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force.", "This theory, based on the everyday experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of projectiles, such as the flight of arrows.", "An archer causes the arrow to move at the start of the flight, and it then sails through the air even though no discernible efficient cause acts upon it.", "Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path carries the projectile to its target.", "This explanation requires a continuous medium such as air to sustain the motion.Though Aristotelian physics was criticized as early as the 6th century, its shortcomings would not be corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus.", "Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion.", "He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent that was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction.", "Galileo's idea that force is needed to change motion rather than to sustain it, further improved upon by Isaac Beeckman, René Descartes, and Pierre Gassendi, became a key principle of Newtonian physics.In the early 17th century, before Newton's ''Principia'', the term \"force\" () was applied to many physical and non-physical phenomena, e.g., for an acceleration of a point.", "The product of a point mass and the square of its velocity was named (live force) by Leibniz.", "The modern concept of force corresponds to Newton's (accelerating force)." ], [ "Newtonian mechanics", "Sir Isaac Newton described the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force.", "In 1687, Newton published his magnum opus, ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica''.", "In this work Newton set out three laws of motion that have dominated the way forces are described in physics to this day.", "The precise ways in which Newton's laws are expressed have evolved in step with new mathematical approaches.=== First law ===Newton's first law of motion states that the natural behavior of an object at rest is to continue being at rest, and the natural behavior of an object moving at constant speed in a straight line is to continue moving at that constant speed along that straight line.", "The latter follows from the former because of the principle that the laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers, i.e., all observers who do not feel themselves to be in motion.", "An observer moving in tandem with an object will see it as being at rest.", "So, its natural behavior will be to remain at rest with respect to that observer, which means that an observer who sees it moving at constant speed in a straight line will see it continuing to do so.Sir Isaac Newton in 1689.His ''Principia'' presented his three laws of motion in geometrical language, whereas modern physics uses differential calculus and vectors.=== Second law ===According to the first law, motion at constant speed in a straight line does not need a cause.", "It is ''change'' in motion that requires a cause, and Newton's second law gives the quantitative relationship between force and change of motion.", "Newton's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time.", "If the mass of the object is constant, this law implies that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.A modern statement of Newton's second law is a vector equation:where is the momentum of the system, and is the net (vector sum) force.", "If a body is in equilibrium, there is zero ''net'' force by definition (balanced forces may be present nevertheless).", "In contrast, the second law states that if there is an ''unbalanced'' force acting on an object it will result in the object's momentum changing over time.In common engineering applications the mass in a system remains constant allowing as simple algebraic form for the second law.", "By the definition of momentum,where ''m'' is the mass and is the velocity.", "If Newton's second law is applied to a system of constant mass, ''m'' may be moved outside the derivative operator.", "The equation then becomesBy substituting the definition of acceleration, the algebraic version of Newton's second law is derived:=== Third law ===Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the latter simultaneously exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.", "In vector form, if is the force of body 1 on body 2 and that of body 2 on body 1, thenThis law is sometimes referred to as the ''action-reaction law'', with called the ''action'' and the ''reaction''.Newton's Third Law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects.", "The third law means that all forces are ''interactions'' between different bodies.", "and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts on only one body.In a system composed of object 1 and object 2, the net force on the system due to their mutual interactions is zero:More generally, in a closed system of particles, all internal forces are balanced.", "The particles may accelerate with respect to each other but the center of mass of the system will not accelerate.", "If an external force acts on the system, it will make the center of mass accelerate in proportion to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.Combining Newton's Second and Third Laws, it is possible to show that the linear momentum of a system is conserved in any closed system.", "In a system of two particles, if is the momentum of object 1 and the momentum of object 2, thenUsing similar arguments, this can be generalized to a system with an arbitrary number of particles.", "In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained.=== Defining \"force\" ===Some textbooks use Newton's second law as a ''definition'' of force.", "However, for the equation for a constant mass to then have any predictive content, it must be combined with further information.", "Moreover, inferring that a force is present because a body is accelerating is only valid in an inertial frame of reference.", "The question of which aspects of Newton's laws to take as definitions and which to regard as holding physical content has been answered in various ways, which ultimately do not affect how the theory is used in practice.", "Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more explicit definition of the concept of force include Ernst Mach and Walter Noll." ], [ "Combining forces", "Addition of vectors and results in Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how strong the push or pull is.", "Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as \"vector quantities\".", "This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quantities).", "For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the result.", "If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force, the situation is ambiguous.Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces canceled each other out.", "Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector quantities: they have magnitude and direction.", "When two forces act on a point particle, the resulting force, the ''resultant'' (also called the ''net force''), can be determined by following the parallelogram rule of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector that is equal in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram.", "The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action.Free body diagrams of a block on a flat surface and an inclined plane.", "Forces are resolved and added together to determine their magnitudes and the net force.Free-body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system.", "Ideally, these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector addition can be done to determine the net force.As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other.", "A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east.", "Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force.", "Resolving force vectors into components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using magnitudes and directions.", "This is because, for orthogonal components, the components of the vector sum are uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors.", "Orthogonal components are independent of each other because forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on the magnitude or direction of the other.", "Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis vectors will make the mathematics most convenient.", "Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component.", "Orthogonal force vectors can be three-dimensional with the third component being at right angles to the other two.===Equilibrium===When all the forces that act upon an object are balanced, then the object is said to be in a state of equilibrium.", "Hence, equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is zero).", "When dealing with an extended body, it is also necessary that the net torque be zero.", "A body is in ''static equilibrium'' with respect to a frame of reference if it at rest and not accelerating, whereas a body in ''dynamic equilibrium'' is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, i.e., moving but not accelerating.", "What one observer sees as static equilibrium, another can see as dynamic equilibrium and vice versa.==== Static ====Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics.", "Objects that are at rest have zero net force acting on them.The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.", "For example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of gravity.", "At the same time, a force is applied by the surface that resists the downward force with equal upward force (called a normal force).", "The situation produces zero net force and hence no acceleration.Pushing against an object that rests on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface.", "For a situation with no movement, the static friction force ''exactly'' balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration.", "The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object.A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as weighing scales and spring balances.", "For example, an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the \"spring reaction force\", which equals the object's weight.", "Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant density (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); Archimedes' principle for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the lever; Boyle's law for gas pressure; and Hooke's law for springs.", "These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his Three Laws of Motion.==== Dynamic ====Galileo Galilei was the first to point out the inherent contradictions contained in Aristotle's description of forces.Dynamic equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic.", "Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an \"absolute rest frame\" did not exist.", "Galileo concluded that motion in a constant velocity was completely equivalent to rest.", "This was contrary to Aristotle's notion of a \"natural state\" of rest that objects with mass naturally approached.", "Simple experiments showed that Galileo's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest were correct.", "For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it.", "Thus, in an Aristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a moving ship.", "When this experiment is actually conducted, the cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to travel with the ship despite being separated from it.", "Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls.", "Thus, no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity.Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force).", "This is the definition of dynamic equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity.", "A simple case of dynamic equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction.", "In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force.", "This results in zero net force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to move with a non-zero velocity.", "Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force.", "When kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity motion." ], [ "Examples of forces in classical mechanics <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Non-fundamental forces\"></span>", "Some forces are consequences of the fundamental ones.", "In such situations, idealized models can be used to gain physical insight.", "For example, each solid object is considered a rigid body.=== Gravitational ===Images of a freely falling basketball taken with a stroboscope at 20 flashes per second.", "The distance units on the right are multiples of about 12 millimeters.", "The basketball starts at rest.", "At the time of the first flash (distance zero) it is released, after which the number of units fallen is equal to the square of the number of flashes.What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton.", "Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects.", "Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the acceleration of every object in free-fall was constant and independent of the mass of the object.", "Today, this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as and has a magnitude of about 9.81 meters per second squared (this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and points toward the center of the Earth.", "This observation means that the force of gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass.", "Thus an object that has a mass of will experience a force:For an object in free-fall, this force is unopposed and the net force on the object is its weight.", "For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reaction forces applied by their supports.", "For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since a normal force (a reaction force) is exerted by the ground upward on the person that counterbalances his weight that is directed downward.Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth.", "He proposed a law of gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler's laws of planetary motion.Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances.", "In particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law.", "Further, Newton realized that the acceleration of a body due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the other attracting body.", "Combining these ideas gives a formula that relates the mass () and the radius () of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration:where the vector direction is given by , is the unit vector directed outward from the center of the Earth.In this equation, a dimensional constant is used to describe the relative strength of gravity.", "This constant has come to be known as the Newtonian constant of gravitation, though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime.", "Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion balance; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing could allow one to solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation.", "Newton realized that since all celestial bodies followed the same laws of motion, his law of gravity had to be universal.", "Succinctly stated, Newton's law of gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass due to the gravitational pull of mass iswhere is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and is the unit vector pointed in the direction away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object.This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the 20th century.", "During that time, sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis were invented to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet, moon, comet, or asteroid.", "The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was observed.=== Electromagnetic ===The electrostatic force was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force that existed intrinsically between two charges.", "The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial direction, was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic polarity), was independent of the mass of the charged objects, and followed the superposition principle.", "Coulomb's law unifies all these observations into one succinct statement.Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the ''electric field'' to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space.", "The electric field was based on using a hypothetical \"test charge\" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force.", "Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined aswhere is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge.", "Similarly, the idea of the ''magnetic field'' was introduced to express how magnets can influence one another at a distance.", "The Lorentz force law gives the force upon a body with charge due to electric and magnetic fields:where is the electromagnetic force, is the electric field at the body's location, is the magnetic field, and is the velocity of the particle.", "The magnetic contribution to the Lorentz force is the cross product of the velocity vector with the magnetic field.The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by Oliver Heaviside and Josiah Willard Gibbs.", "These \"Maxwell's equations\" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves.", "This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be \"self-generating\" through a wave that traveled at a speed that he calculated to be the speed of light.", "This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum.=== Normal ===''F''N represents the normal force exerted on the object.When objects are in contact, the force directly between them is called the normal force, the component of the total force in the system exerted normal to the interface between the objects.", "The normal force is closely related to Newton's third law.", "The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an external force pushes on a solid object.", "An example of the normal force in action is the impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface.=== Friction ===Friction is a force that opposes relative motion of two bodies.", "At the macroscopic scale, the frictional force is directly related to the normal force at the point of contact.", "There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: static friction and kinetic friction.The static friction force () will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface up to the limit specified by the coefficient of static friction () multiplied by the normal force ().", "In other words, the magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality:The kinetic friction force () is typically independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object.", "Thus, the magnitude of the force equals:where is the coefficient of kinetic friction.", "The coefficient of kinetic friction is normally less than the coefficient of static friction.=== Tension ===Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings that are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and do not stretch.", "They can be combined with ideal pulleys, which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction.", "Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action–reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object.", "By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a configuration that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied.", "For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load.", "Such machines allow a mechanical advantage for a corresponding increase in the length of displaced string needed to move the load.", "These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the load is the same no matter how complicated the machine.=== Spring ===''Fk'' is the force that responds to the load on the springA simple elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length.", "An ideal spring is taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable.", "Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position.", "This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676, for whom Hooke's law is named.", "If is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring equals:where is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring.", "The minus sign accounts for the tendency of the force to act in opposition to the applied load.=== Centripetal ===For an object in uniform circular motion, the net force acting on the object equals:where is the mass of the object, is the velocity of the object and is the distance to the center of the circular path and is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center.", "This means that the net force felt by the object is always directed toward the center of the curving path.", "Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the speed of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector.", "More generally, the net force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is tangential to the path.", "This yields both the tangential force, which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up, and the radial (centripetal) force, which changes its direction.=== Continuum mechanics ===dynamic equilibrium at terminal velocity.Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than three-dimensional objects.", "In real life, matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object.", "For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of continuum mechanics describe the way forces affect the material.", "For example, in extended fluids, differences in pressure result in forces being directed along the pressure gradients as follows:where is the volume of the object in the fluid and is the scalar function that describes the pressure at all locations in space.", "Pressure gradients and differentials result in the buoyant force for fluids suspended in gravitational fields, winds in atmospheric science, and the lift associated with aerodynamics and flight.A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance: a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity.", "For so-called \"Stokes' drag\" the force is approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction:where:* is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the cross-sectional area), and* is the velocity of the object.More formally, forces in continuum mechanics are fully described by a stress tensor with terms that are roughly defined aswhere is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress tensor is being calculated.", "This formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the matrix diagonals of the tensor) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to the cross-sectional area (the off-diagonal elements).", "The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all strains (deformations) including also tensile stresses and compressions.=== Fictitious ===There are forces that are frame dependent, meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non-Newtonian (that is, non-inertial) reference frames.", "Such forces include the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force.", "These forces are considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating.", "Because these forces are not genuine they are also referred to as \"pseudo forces\".In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry." ], [ "Concepts derived from force", "=== Rotation and torque ===momentum vectors (''p'' and ''L'') in a rotating system.Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with torques.", "Mathematically, the torque of a force is defined relative to an arbitrary reference point as the cross product:where is the position vector of the force application point relative to the reference point.Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum.", "As a consequence of Newton's first law of motion, there exists rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque.", "Likewise, Newton's second law of motion can be used to derive an analogous equation for the instantaneous angular acceleration of the rigid body:where* is the moment of inertia of the body* is the angular acceleration of the body.This provides a definition for the moment of inertia, which is the rotational equivalent for mass.", "In more advanced treatments of mechanics, where the rotation over a time interval is described, the moment of inertia must be substituted by the tensor that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the characteristics of rotations including precession and nutation.Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque:where is the angular momentum of the particle.Newton's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite torques, and therefore also directly implies the conservation of angular momentum for closed systems that experience rotations and revolutions through the action of internal torques.=== Kinematic integrals ===Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables.", "For example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse:which by Newton's Second Law must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the Impulse momentum theorem).Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the work done by a force:which is equivalent to changes in kinetic energy (yielding the work energy theorem).Power ''P'' is the rate of change d''W''/d''t'' of the work ''W'', as the trajectory is extended by a position change in a time interval d''t'':sowith the velocity.=== Potential energy ===Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a potential energy field is used.", "For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the gravitational field that is present at the object's location.", "Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of work), a potential scalar field is defined as that field whose gradient is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point:Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative.", "Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a potential while nonconservative forces are not.=== Conservation ===A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between kinetic or potential forms.", "This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system.", "The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space, and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the contour map of the elevation of an area.Conservative forces include gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the spring force.", "Each of these forces has models that are dependent on a position often given as a radial vector emanating from spherically symmetric potentials.", "Examples of this follow:For gravity:where is the gravitational constant, and is the mass of object ''n''.For electrostatic forces:where is electric permittivity of free space, and is the electric charge of object ''n''.For spring forces:where is the spring constant.For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to a simple gradient of potentials.", "This is often due a macroscopic statistical average of microstates.", "For example, static friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms, but manifests as a force model that is independent of any macroscale position vector.", "Nonconservative forces other than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag.", "For any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.The connection between macroscopic nonconservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with statistical mechanics.", "In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat.", "According to the Second law of thermodynamics, nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases." ], [ "Units", "The SI unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared, or kg·m·s−2.The corresponding CGS unit is the dyne, the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or g·cm·s−2.A newton is thus equal to 100,000 dynes.The gravitational foot-pound-second English unit of force is the pound-force (lbf), defined as the force exerted by gravity on a pound-mass in the standard gravitational field of 9.80665 m·s−2.The pound-force provides an alternative unit of mass: one slug is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by one pound-force.", "An alternative unit of force in a different foot–pound–second system, the absolute fps system, is the poundal, defined as the force required to accelerate a one-pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared.The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass.", "The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass that accelerates at 1 m·s−2 when subjected to a force of 1 kgf.", "The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is generally deprecated, sometimes used for expressing aircraft weight, jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension, torque wrench settings and engine output torque.", ": See also ''Ton-force''." ], [ "Revisions of the force concept", "At the beginning of the 20th century, new physical ideas emerged to explain experimental results in astronomical and submicroscopic realms.", "As discussed below, relativity alters the definition of momentum and quantum mechanics reuses the concept of \"force\" in microscopic contexts where Newton's laws do not apply directly.=== Special theory of relativity ===In the special theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to accelerate an object).", "When an object's velocity increases, so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia).", "It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity.", "Newton's Second Law,remains valid because it is a mathematical definition.", "But for momentum to be conserved at relativistic relative velocity, , momentum must be redefined as:where is the rest mass and the speed of light.The expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non-zero rest mass moving in the direction at velocity is:whereis called the Lorentz factor.", "The Lorentz factor increases steeply as the relative velocity approaches the speed of light.", "Consequently, the greater and greater force must be applied to produce the same acceleration at extreme velocity.", "The relative velocity cannot reach .If is very small compared to , then is very close to 1 andis a close approximation.", "Even for use in relativity, one can restore the form ofthrough the use of four-vectors.", "This relation is correct in relativity when is the four-force, is the invariant mass, and is the four-acceleration.The ''general'' theory of relativity incorporates a more radical departure from the Newtonian way of thinking about force, specifically gravitational force.", "This reimagining of the nature of gravity is described more fully below.=== Quantum mechanics ===Quantum mechanics is a theory of physics originally developed in order to understand microscopic phenomena: behavior at the scale of molecules, atoms or subatomic particles.", "Generally and loosely speaking, the smaller a system is, the more an adequate mathematical model will require understanding quantum effects.", "The conceptual underpinning of quantum physics is different from that of classical physics.", "Instead of thinking about quantities like position, momentum, and energy as properties that an object ''has'', one considers what result might ''appear'' when a measurement of a chosen type is performed.", "Quantum mechanics allows the physicist to calculate the probability that a chosen measurement will elicit a particular result.", "The expectation value for a measurement is the average of the possible results it might yield, weighted by their probabilities of occurrence.In quantum mechanics, interactions are typically described in terms of energy rather than force.", "The Ehrenfest theorem provides a connection between quantum expectation values and the classical concept of force, a connection that is necessarily inexact, as quantum physics is fundamentally different from classical.", "In quantum physics, the Born rule is used to calculate the expectation values of a position measurement or a momentum measurement.", "These expectation values will generally change over time; that is, depending on the time at which (for example) a position measurement is performed, the probabilities for its different possible outcomes will vary.", "The Ehrenfest theorem says, roughly speaking, that the equations describing how these expectation values change over time have a form reminiscent of Newton's second law, with a force defined as the negative derivative of the potential energy.", "However, the more pronounced quantum effects are in a given situation, the more difficult it is to derive meaningful conclusions from this resemblance.Quantum mechanics also introduces two new constraints that interact with forces at the submicroscopic scale and which are especially important for atoms.", "Despite the strong attraction of the nucleus, the uncertainty principle limits the minimum extent of an electron probability distribution and the Pauli exclusion principle prevents electrons from sharing the same probability distribution.", "This gives rise to an emergent pressure known as degeneracy pressure.", "The dynamic equilibrium between the degeneracy pressure and the attractive electromagnetic force give atoms, molecules, liquids, and solids stability.=== Quantum field theory ===Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton.", "The W boson is between two vertices indicating a repulsion.In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by-product of exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons.", "With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics).", "The conservation of momentum can be directly derived from the homogeneity or symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force.", "Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be \"fundamental interactions\".While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the result of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe them through the use of Feynman diagrams.", "In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line) traveling through time, which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram.", "Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram.", "World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines.", "Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.", "The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of fundamental interactions but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules.", "For example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and antineutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force." ], [ "Fundamental interactions", "All of the known forces of the universe are classified into four fundamental interactions.", "The strong and the weak forces act only at very short distances, and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles, including nucleons and compound nuclei.", "The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges, and the gravitational force acts between masses.", "All other forces in nature derive from these four fundamental interactions operating within quantum mechanics, including the constraints introduced by the Schrödinger equation and the Pauli exclusion principle.", "For example, friction is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between atoms of two surfaces.", "The forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are also the result of electromagnetic forces.", "Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces that arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference.The fundamental theories for forces developed from the unification of different ideas.", "For example, Newton's universal theory of gravitation showed that the force responsible for objects falling near the surface of the Earth is also the force responsible for the falling of celestial bodies about the Earth (the Moon) and around the Sun (the planets).", "Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through a theory of electromagnetism.", "In the 20th century, the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter (fermions) interacting by exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons.", "This Standard Model of particle physics assumes a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak theory, which was subsequently confirmed by observation.+ '''The four fundamental forces of nature''' Property/InteractionGravitationWeakElectromagneticStrong (Electroweak)FundamentalResidualActs on:Mass - EnergyFlavorElectric chargeColor chargeAtomic nucleiParticles experiencing:AllQuarks, leptonsElectrically chargedQuarks, GluonsHadronsParticles mediating:Graviton (not yet observed)W+ W− Z0γGluonsMesonsStrength in the scale of quarks:160Not applicable to quarksStrength in the scale of protons/neutrons:1Not applicable to hadrons20=== Gravitational ===Instruments like GRAVITY provide a powerful probe for gravity force detection.Newton's law of gravitation is an example of ''action at a distance'': one body, like the Sun, exerts an influence upon any other body, like the Earth, no matter how far apart they are.", "Moreover, this action at a distance is ''instantaneous.''", "According to Newton's theory, the one body shifting position changes the gravitational pulls felt by all other bodies, all at the same instant of time.", "Albert Einstein recognized that this was inconsistent with special relativity and its prediction that influences cannot travel faster than the speed of light.", "So, he sought a new theory of gravitation that would be relativistically consistent.", "Mercury's orbit did not match that predicted by Newton's law of gravitation.", "Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of an undiscovered planet (Vulcan) that could explain the discrepancies.", "When Einstein formulated his theory of general relativity (GR) he focused on Mercury's problematic orbit and found that his theory added a correction, which could account for the discrepancy.", "This was the first time that Newton's theory of gravity had been shown to be inexact.Since then, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory that best explains gravity.", "In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved spacetime – defined as the shortest spacetime path between two spacetime events.", "From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever.", "It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of spacetime can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path.", "Thus, the straight line path in spacetime is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ''ballistic trajectory'' of the object.", "For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field.", "Its spacetime trajectory is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years).", "The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as \"gravitational force\".=== Electromagnetic ===Maxwell's equations and the set of techniques built around them adequately describe a wide range of physics involving force in electricity and magnetism.", "This classical theory already includes relativity effects.", "Understanding quantized electromagnetic interactions between elementary particles requires quantum electrodynamics (or QED).", "In QED, photons are fundamental exchange particles, describing all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.=== Strong nuclear ===There are two \"nuclear forces\", which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories of particle physics.", "The strong nuclear force is the force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei, and gains its name from its ability to overpower the electromagnetic repulsion between protons.The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).", "The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves.", "The strong force only acts ''directly'' upon elementary particles.", "A residual is observed between hadrons (notably, the nucleons in atomic nuclei), known as the nuclear force.", "Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons that form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons, the classical transmitters of the nuclear force.", "The failure of many searches for free quarks has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable.", "This phenomenon is called color confinement.=== Weak nuclear ===Unique among the fundamental interactions, the weak nuclear force creates no bound states.", "The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons.", "Since the weak force is mediated by two types of bosons, it can be divided into two types of interaction or \"vertices\" — charged current, involving the electrically charged W+ and W− bosons, and neutral current, involving electrically neutral Z0 bosons.", "The most familiar effect of weak interaction is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity.", "This is a type of charged-current interaction.", "The word \"weak\" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force.", "Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances.", "A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed, which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately .", "Such temperatures occurred in the plasma collisions in the early moments of the Big Bang." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Family law" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Family law''' (also called '''matrimonial law''' or the '''law of domestic relations''') is an area of the law that deals with family matters and domestic relations." ], [ "Overview", "Subjects that commonly fall under a nation's body of family law include:* Marriage, civil unions, and domestic partnerships: Entry into legally recognized spousal and domestic relationships The termination of legally recognized family relationships and ancillary matters, including divorce, annulment, property settlements, alimony, child custody and visitation, child support and alimony awards*Prenuptial and Postnuptial agreements Adoption: proceedings to adopt a child and, in some cases, an adult.", "* Surrogacy: the law and process of giving birth as a surrogate mother* Child protective proceedings: court proceedings that may result from state intervention in cases of child abuse and child neglect* Juvenile law: Matters relating to minors including status offenses, delinquency, emancipation and juvenile adjudication* Paternity: proceedings to establish and disestablish paternity, and the administration of paternity testingThis list is not exhaustive and varies depending on jurisdiction." ], [ "Conflict of laws", "Issues may arise in family law where there is a question as to the laws of the jurisdiction that apply to the marriage relationship or to custody and divorce, and whether a divorce or child custody order is recognized under the laws of another jurisdiction.", "For child custody, many nations have joined the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction in order to grant recognition to other member states' custody orders and avoid issues of parental kidnapping." ], [ "See also", "=== Specific jurisdictions ===" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " Testimony of Barbara Dafoe Whitehead, Ph.D., Co-Director, National Marriage Project Rutgers University, before US Senate Subcommittee* (an analysis of the long-term effect of divorce on children)* R. Partain, \"Comparative Family Law, Korean Family Law, and the Missing Definitions of Family\", (2012) HongIk University Journal of Law, Vol.", "13, No.", "2.", "*\" Hong Kong Family Court Tables\" includes a summary of Hong Kong family law principles, a guide to the recent case law and relevant statutes, and a glossary of relevant terms related to the Hong Kong family law." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foonly" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Foonly Inc.''' was an American computer company formed by Dave Poole in 1976, that produced a series of DEC PDP-10 compatible mainframe computers, named ''Foonly F1'' to ''Foonly F5''.The first and most famous Foonly machine, the ''F1'', was the computer used by Triple-I to create some of the computer-generated imagery in the 1982 film ''Tron''." ], [ "History", "At the beginning of the 1970s, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) began to study the building of a new computer to replace their ''DEC PDP-10 KA10'', by a far more powerful machine, with a funding from Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).", "This project was named \"''Super-Foonly''\", and was developed by a team led by Phil Petit, Jack Holloway, and Dave Poole.", "The name itself came from FOO NLI, an error message emitted by a PDP-10 assembler at SAIL meaning \"FOO is Not a Legal Identifier\".", "In 1974, DARPA cut the funding, and a large part of the team went to DEC to develop the ''PDP-10 model KL10'', based on the ''Super-Foonly project''.But Dave Poole, with Phil Petit and Jack Holloway, preferred to found the Foonly Company in 1976, to try to build a series of computers based on the ''Super-Foonly project''.During the early 1980s, after the releasing of their first and only F1, Foonly built and sold some F2, F4 and F5 low cost DEC PDP-10 compatible machines.In 1983, after the cancellation of the Jupiter project, Foonly tried to propose a new ''Foonly F1'', but it was eclipsed by the ''SC Group'' company and their ''Mars project'', and the company never quite recovered, shutting down in 1989." ], [ "Computers", "===List of models===Model MIPS Word SizeFrequency Memory Price Bays Power Foonly F1 4.5 MIPS 36 bits 11.1 MHz 18 MB $700 000 4 5 kW Foonly F2 0.5 MIPS 36 bits 2.8 MHz 4.5 MB $150 000 1 0.5 kWFoonly F4 1.4 MIPS 36 bits 8 MHz 9 MB $300 000 1 1 kW Foonly F4B 1.8 MIPS 36 bits 8 MHz 9 MB $350 000 1 1.5 kW Foonly F5 0.3 MIPS 36 bits 3.3 MHz 2.25 MB $80 000 0.5 0.8 kW ===The Foonly F1===The Foonly F1 was the first and most powerful Foonly computer, but also the only one being built of its kind.", "It was based on the ''Super-Foonly project'' designs, aimed to be the fastest DEC PDP-10 compatible, but using emitter-coupled logic (ECL) gates rather than transistor–transistor logic (TTL), and without the extended instruction set.", "It was developed with the help of Triple-I, its first customer, and began operations in 1978.The computer consisted of four cabinets:* One for the central processing unit (CPU)* One AMPEX for the random-access memory (RAM), with 2 MB of core memory* A specific cabinet holding the Magic Movie Memory, a 3 MB video buffer, used especially to render movie frames* One cabinet with tape and disk controllers, and power switches.It was able to reach 4.5 MIPS.The F1 is mostly famous for having been the computer behind some of the Computer-generated imagery of the Disney 1982 ''Tron'' movie, and also ''Looker'' (1981).After that, the computer was bought by the Canadian Omnibus Computer Graphics company, and was used on some movies, such as television logos for CBC, CTV, and Global Television Network channels, opening titles for the show ''Hockey Night in Canada'', ''Star Trek III: The Search for Spock'' (1984), ''Flight of the Navigator'' (1986), ''Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future'' television series (1987), and ''MarilynMonrobot''." ], [ "Other models", "Unlike the F1, the other models (F2, F4, F4B, F5) were built with the slower TTL rather than ECL circuits, and housed in a single cabinet, rather than four.Rather than use DEC's Massbus (or other DEC bus), Foonly developed F-bus, which can work with DEC and non-DEC peripherals.===F2===Foonly described the F2 as \"a powerful mainframe at a minicomputer price,\" \"with an average execution speed about 25% of that of the DECSYSTEM-2060.\"" ], [ "Peripherals", "Standard equipment:* Disk drives: 1–6 units, with choices of 160 MB Winchester or 300 MB removable* Tape drives: 1–4 units, with choices of 800, 1600 & 6250 BPI" ], [ "Software", "The Foonly machines, which could run the TENEX operating system, came with a derivative thereof, FOONEX." ], [ "Tymshare", "Tymshare attempted marketing the Foonly line, using the name \"Tymshare XX Series Computer Family\" of which the ''Tymshare System XXVI\" was the main focus." ], [ "See also", "Other companies that produced PDP-10 compatible computers:* Systems Concepts* XKL" ], [ "External links", "* Lars Brinkhoff's table showing the F1 in perspective with other PDP-10 models* Dave Sieg's notes and description of the F1* The Foonly's entry, in The New Hacker's Dictionary, by Eric S. Raymond, Guy L. Steele* The product line overview, Foonly brochure* The Foonly F2 Brochure, 1981" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Functional group" ], [ "Introduction", "Example functional groups of benzyl acetate: In organic chemistry, a '''functional group''' is a substituent or moiety in a molecule that causes the molecule's characteristic chemical reactions.", "The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reactions regardless of the rest of the molecule's composition.", "This enables systematic prediction of chemical reactions and behavior of chemical compounds and the design of chemical synthesis.", "The reactivity of a functional group can be modified by other functional groups nearby.", "Functional group interconversion can be used in retrosynthetic analysis to plan organic synthesis.A functional group is a group of atoms in a molecule with distinctive chemical properties, regardless of the other atoms in the molecule.", "The atoms in a functional group are linked to each other and to the rest of the molecule by covalent bonds.", "For repeating units of polymers, functional groups attach to their nonpolar core of carbon atoms and thus add chemical character to carbon chains.", "Functional groups can also be charged, e.g.", "in carboxylate salts (), which turns the molecule into a polyatomic ion or a complex ion.", "Functional groups binding to a central atom in a coordination complex are called ''ligands''.", "Complexation and solvation are also caused by specific interactions of functional groups.", "In the common rule of thumb \"like dissolves like\", it is the shared or mutually well-interacting functional groups which give rise to solubility.", "For example, sugar dissolves in water because both share the hydroxyl functional group () and hydroxyls interact strongly with each other.", "Plus, when functional groups are more electronegative than atoms they attach to, the functional groups will become polar, and the otherwise nonpolar molecules containing these functional groups become polar and so become soluble in some aqueous environment.Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent alkanes generates what is termed a systematic nomenclature for naming organic compounds.", "In traditional nomenclature, the first carbon atom after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is called the alpha carbon; the second, beta carbon, the third, gamma carbon, etc.", "If there is another functional group at a carbon, it may be named with the Greek letter, e.g., the gamma-amine in gamma-aminobutyric acid is on the third carbon of the carbon chain attached to the carboxylic acid group.", "IUPAC conventions call for numeric labeling of the position, e.g.", "4-aminobutanoic acid.", "In traditional names various qualifiers are used to label isomers, for example, isopropanol (IUPAC name: propan-2-ol) is an isomer of n-propanol (propan-1-ol).", "The term moiety has some overlap with the term \"functional group\".", "However, a moiety is an entire \"half\" of a molecule, which can be not only a single functional group, but also a larger unit consisting of multiple functional groups.", "For example, an \"aryl moiety\" may be any group containing an aromatic ring, regardless of how many functional groups the said aryl has." ], [ "Table of common functional groups", "The following is a list of common functional groups.", "In the formulas, the symbols R and R' usually denote an attached hydrogen, or a hydrocarbon side chain of any length, but may sometimes refer to any group of atoms.===Hydrocarbons===Hydrocarbons are a class of molecule that is defined by functional groups called hydrocarbyls that contain only carbon and hydrogen, but vary in the number and order of double bonds.", "Each one differs in type (and scope) of reactivity.", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural Formula Prefix Suffix Example Alkane Alkyl R(CH2)nH Alkyl alkyl- -ane 135x135pxEthane Alkene Alkenyl R2C=CR2 Alkene alkenyl- -ene ethyleneEthylene''(Ethene)'' Alkyne Alkynyl RC≡CR' R-C#C-R' alkynyl- -yne H-C#C-HAcetylene''(Ethyne)'' Benzene derivative Phenyl RC6H5RPh Phenyl phenyl- -benzene 75pxCumene''(Isopropylbenzene)''There are also a large number of branched or ring alkanes that have specific names, e.g., tert-butyl, bornyl, cyclohexyl, etc.", "Hydrocarbons may form charged structures: positively charged carbocations or negative carbanions.", "Carbocations are often named ''-um''.", "Examples are tropylium and triphenylmethyl cations and the cyclopentadienyl anion.===Groups containing halogen===Haloalkanes are a class of molecule that is defined by a carbon–halogen bond.", "This bond can be relatively weak (in the case of an iodoalkane) or quite stable (as in the case of a fluoroalkane).", "In general, with the exception of fluorinated compounds, haloalkanes readily undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions or elimination reactions.", "The substitution on the carbon, the acidity of an adjacent proton, the solvent conditions, etc.", "all can influence the outcome of the reactivity.", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural formula Prefix Suffix Example haloalkane halo RX R-X halo- alkyl '''halide''' 65x65pxChloroethane''(Ethyl chloride)'' fluoroalkane fluoro RF R-F fluoro- alkyl '''fluoride''' 92x92pxFluoromethane''(Methyl fluoride)'' chloroalkane chloro RCl R-Cl chloro- alkyl '''chloride''' ChloromethaneChloromethane''(Methyl chloride)'' bromoalkane bromo RBr R-Br bromo- alkyl '''bromide''' 107x107pxBromomethane''(Methyl bromide)'' iodoalkane iodo RI R-I iodo- alkyl '''iodide''' IodomethaneIodomethane''(Methyl iodide)''===Groups containing oxygen===Compounds that contain C-O bonds each possess differing reactivity based upon the location and hybridization of the C-O bond, owing to the electron-withdrawing effect of sp-hybridized oxygen (carbonyl groups) and the donating effects of sp2-hybridized oxygen (alcohol groups).", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural formula Prefix Suffix Example Alcohol Hydroxyl ROH Hydroxyl hydroxy- '''-ol''' methanolMethanol Ketone Ketone RCOR' 75px -oyl- (-COR')oroxo- (=O) '''-one''' ButanoneButanone''(Methyl ethyl ketone)'' Aldehyde Aldehyde RCHO Aldehyde formyl- (-COH)oroxo- (=O) '''-al''' acetaldehydeAcetaldehyde''(Ethanal)'' Acyl halide Haloformyl RCOX Acyl halide carbonofluoridoyl-carbonochloridoyl-carbonobromidoyl-carbonoiodidoyl- -oyl '''fluoride''' -oyl '''chloride''' -oyl '''bromide''' -oyl '''iodide''' Acetyl chlorideAcetyl chloride''(Ethanoyl chloride)''Carbonate Carbonate ester ROCOOR' Carbonate (alkoxycarbonyl)oxy- alkyl '''carbonate''' triphosgeneTriphosgene''(bis(trichloromethyl) carbonate)'' Carboxylate Carboxylate RCOO− CarboxylateCarboxylate carboxylato- -oate Sodium acetateSodium acetate''(Sodium ethanoate)'' Carboxylic acid Carboxyl RCOOH Carboxylic acid carboxy- -oic '''acid''' Acetic acidAcetic acid''(Ethanoic acid)'' Ester Carboalkoxy RCOOR' 75px alkanoyloxy-oralkoxycarbonyl alkyl alkan'''oate''' Ethyl butyrateEthyl butyrate''(Ethyl butanoate)'' Hydroperoxide Hydroperoxy ROOH Hydroperoxy hydroperoxy- alkyl '''hydroperoxide''' ''tert''-Butyl hydroperoxide''tert''-Butyl hydroperoxide Peroxide Peroxy ROOR' Peroxy peroxy- alkyl '''peroxide''' Di-tert-butyl peroxideDi-tert-butyl peroxide Ether Ether ROR' Ether alkoxy- alkyl '''ether''' Diethyl etherDiethyl ether''(Ethoxyethane)'' Hemiacetal Hemiacetal R2CH(OR1)(OH) Hemiacetal alkoxy -ol -al alkyl '''hemiacetal''' Hemiketal Hemiketal RC(ORʺ)(OH)R' Hemiketal alkoxy -ol -one alkyl '''hemiketal''' Acetal Acetal RCH(OR')(OR\") Acetal dialkoxy- -al dialkyl '''acetal''' Ketal (or Acetal) Ketal (or Acetal) Ketal dialkoxy- -one dialkyl '''ketal''' Orthoester Orthoester Orthoester trialkoxy- Heterocycle (if cyclic) Methylenedioxy frameless methylenedioxy- -dioxole 75px1,2-Methylenedioxybenzene''(1,3-Benzodioxole)'' Orthocarbonate ester Orthocarbonate ester Orthocarbonate ester tetralkoxy- ''tetraalkyl'' '''orthocarbonate''' File:Tetramethylorthocarbonat.svgTetramethoxymethane Organic acid anhydride Carboxylic anhydride Carboxylic anhydride anhydride Butyric anhydrideButyric anhydride===Groups containing nitrogen===Compounds that contain nitrogen in this category may contain C-O bonds, such as in the case of amides.", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural formula Prefix Suffix Example Amide Carboxamide RCONR'R\" Amide carboxamido-orcarbamoyl- -amide acetamideAcetamide''(Ethanamide)''AmidineAmidineRC(NR)NR2132x132px amidino- -amidine86x86pxacetamidine(acetimidamide) Amines Primary amine RNH2 Primary amine amino- -amine methylamineMethylamine''(Methanamine)'' Secondary amine R'R\"NH Secondary amine amino- -amine dimethylamineDimethylamine Tertiary amine R3N Tertiary amine amino- -amine trimethylamineTrimethylamine 4° ammonium ion R4N+ Quaternary ammonium cation ammonio- -ammonium CholineCholineHydrazoneR'R\"CN2H283x83pxhydrazino- -hydrazineBenzophenone Imine Primary ketimine RC(=NH)R' Imine imino- -imine Secondary ketimine RC(=NR'')R' Imine imino- -imine Primary aldimine RC(=NH)H Imine imino- -imine EthanimineEthanimine Secondary aldimine RC(=NR')H Imine imino- -imine Imide Imide (RCO)2NR' Imide imido- -imide SuccinimideSuccinimide(Pyrrolidine-2,5-dione) Azide Azide RN3 Organoazide azido- alkyl '''azide''' Phenyl azidePhenyl azide(Azidobenzene) Azo compound Azo(Diimide) RN2R' Azo.pngl azo- -diazene Methyl orangeMethyl orange(p-dimethylamino-azobenzenesulfonic acid)Cyanates Cyanate ROCN Cyanate cyanato- alkyl '''cyanate'''Methyl cyanateMethyl cyanate Isocyanate RNCO Isocyanate isocyanato- alkyl '''isocyanate''' Methyl isocyanateMethyl isocyanate Nitrate Nitrate RONO2 Nitrate nitrooxy-, nitroxy- alkyl '''nitrate''' Amyl nitrateAmyl nitrate''(1-nitrooxypentane)''Nitrile Nitrile RCN R-\\!#N cyano- alkane'''nitrile'''alkyl '''cyanide''' BenzonitrileBenzonitrile''(Phenyl cyanide)'' Isonitrile RNC isocyano- alkane'''isonitrile'''alkyl '''isocyanide''' Methyl isocyanideNitriteNitrosooxy RONO Nitrite nitrosooxy- alkyl '''nitrite''' Amyl nitriteIsoamyl nitrite''(3-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane)'' Nitro compound Nitro RNO2 Nitro nitro- NitromethaneNitromethane Nitroso compound Nitroso RNO Nitroso nitroso- (Nitrosyl-) NitrosobenzeneNitrosobenzene Oxime Oxime RCH=NOH Oxime Oxime Acetone oximeAcetone oxime''(2-Propanone oxime)'' Pyridine derivative Pyridyl RC5H4N4-pyridyl group3-pyridyl group2-pyridyl group4-pyridyl(pyridin-4-yl)3-pyridyl(pyridin-3-yl)2-pyridyl(pyridin-2-yl) -pyridine NicotineNicotine Carbamate ester Carbamate RO(C=O)NR2 Carbamate (-carbamoyl)oxy- -carbamate ChlorprophamChlorpropham''(Isopropyl (3-chlorophenyl)carbamate)''===Groups containing sulfur===Compounds that contain sulfur exhibit unique chemistry due to sulfur's ability to form more bonds than oxygen, its lighter analogue on the periodic table.", "Substitutive nomenclature (marked as prefix in table) is preferred over functional class nomenclature (marked as suffix in table) for sulfides, disulfides, sulfoxides and sulfones.", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural formula Prefix Suffix Example Thiol Sulfhydryl RSH Sulfhydryl sulfanyl-(-SH) -'''thiol''' EthanethiolEthanethiol Sulfide(Thioether) Sulfide RSR' Sulfide group ''substituent'' sulfanyl-(-SR') di(''substituent'') '''sulfide'''Dimethyl sulfide(Methylsulfanyl)methane (prefix) orDimethyl sulfide (suffix) Disulfide Disulfide RSSR' Disulfide ''substituent'' disulfanyl-(-SSR') di(''substituent'') '''disulfide'''Dimethyl disulfide(Methyldisulfanyl)methane (prefix) orDimethyl disulfide (suffix) Sulfoxide Sulfinyl RSOR' Sulfinyl group -sulfinyl-(-SOR') di(''substituent'') '''sulfoxide''' DMSO(Methanesulfinyl)methane (prefix) orDimethyl sulfoxide (suffix) Sulfone Sulfonyl RSO2R' Sulfonyl group -sulfonyl-(-SO2R') di(''substituent'') '''sulfone''' Dimethyl sulfone(Methanesulfonyl)methane (prefix) orDimethyl sulfone (suffix) Sulfinic acid Sulfino RSO2H 75px sulfino-(-SO2H) -'''sulfinic acid''' Hypotaurine2-Aminoethanesulfinic acid Sulfonic acid Sulfo RSO3H Sulfonyl group sulfo-(-SO3H) -'''sulfonic acid''' Benzenesulfonic acidBenzenesulfonic acid Sulfonate ester Sulfo RSO3R' Sulfonic ester (-sulfonyl)oxy-oralkoxysulfonyl- ''R''' ''R''-'''sulfonate''' Methyl trifluoromethanesulfonateMethyl trifluoromethanesulfonate orMethoxysulfonyl trifluoromethane (prefix)Thiocyanate Thiocyanate RSCN Thiocyanate thiocyanato-(-SCN) ''substituent'' '''thiocyanate''' Phenyl thiocyanatePhenyl thiocyanate Isothiocyanate RNCS Isothiocyanate isothiocyanato-(-NCS) ''substituent'' '''isothiocyanate''' Allyl isothiocyanateAllyl isothiocyanate Thioketone Carbonothioyl RCSR' Thione -thioyl-(-CSR')orsulfanylidene-(=S) -'''thione''' DiphenylmethanethioneDiphenylmethanethione(Thiobenzophenone) Thial Carbonothioyl RCSH Thial methanethioyl-(-CSH)orsulfanylidene-(=S) -'''thial''' Thiocarboxylic acid Carbothioic ''S''-acid RC=OSH Thioic S-acid mercaptocarbonyl- -'''thioic''' ''S''-'''acid''' Thiobenzoic acidThiobenzoic acid''(benzothioic ''S''-acid)'' Carbothioic ''O''-acid RC=SOH Thioic O-acid hydroxy(thiocarbonyl)- -'''thioic''' ''O''-'''acid''' Thioester Thiolester RC=OSR' Thiolester ''S''-alkyl-alkane-'''thioate''' S-methyl thioacrylateS-methyl thioacrylate''(''S''-methyl prop-2-enethioate)'' Thionoester RC=SOR' Thionoester ''O''-alkyl-alkane-'''thioate''' Dithiocarboxylic acid Carbodithioic acid RCS2H Dithiocarboxylic acid dithiocarboxy- -'''dithioic acid''' Dithiobenzoic acidDithiobenzoic acid''(Benzenecarbodithioic acid)'' Dithiocarboxylic acid ester Carbodithio RC=SSR' Dithioate -'''dithioate'''===Groups containing phosphorus===Compounds that contain phosphorus exhibit unique chemistry due to the ability of phosphorus to form more bonds than nitrogen, its lighter analogue on the periodic table.", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural formula Prefix Suffix Example Phosphine(Phosphane) Phosphino R3P A tertiary phosphine phosphanyl- -phosphane MethylpropylphosphaneMethylpropylphosphane Phosphonic acid Phosphono RP(=O)(OH)2 Phosphono group phosphono- ''substituent'' '''phosphonic acid''' Benzylphosphonic acidBenzylphosphonic acid Phosphate Phosphate ROP(=O)(OH)2 Phosphate group phosphonooxy-or''O''-phosphono- (phospho-) ''substituent'' '''phosphate''' Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphateGlyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (suffix) Phosphocholine''O''-Phosphonocholine (prefix)(Phosphocholine)PhosphodiesterPhosphateHOPO(OR)2Phosphodiester(alkoxy)hydroxyphosphoryloxy-or''O''-(alkoxy)hydroxyphosphoryl-di(''substituent'') hydrogen '''phosphate'''orphosphoric acid di(''substituent'') '''ester''' DNA ''O''‑(2‑Guanidinoethoxy)hydroxyphosphoryl‑‑serine (prefix)(Lombricine)===Groups containing boron===Compounds containing boron exhibit unique chemistry due to their having partially filled octets and therefore acting as Lewis acids.", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural formula Prefix Suffix Example Boronic acid Borono RB(OH)2 center Borono- ''substituent'''''boronic acid''' Boronic ester Boronate RB(OR)2 center O-bis(alkoxy)alkylboronyl- ''substituent'''''boronic acid'''di(''substituent'') '''ester''' Borinic acid Borino R2BOH center Hydroxyborino- di(''substituent'')'''borinic acid''' Borinic ester Borinate R2BOR center O-alkoxydialkylboronyl- di(''substituent'')'''borinic acid'''''substituent'' '''ester''' === Groups containing metals ===+Chemical classStructural formulaPrefixSuffixExampleAlkyllithiumRLi(tri/di)alkyl- -lithium71x71pxmethyllithiumAlkylmagnesium halideRMgX (X=Cl, Br, I) -magnesium halide97x97pxmethylmagnesium chlorideAlkylaluminiumAl2R6 -aluminium109x109pxtrimethylaluminiumSilyl etherR3SiOR -silyl etherFile:Trimethylsilyl triflate.svgtrimethylsilyl triflate Fluorine is too electronegative to be bonded to magnesium; it becomes an ionic salt instead.===Names of radicals or moieties===These names are used to refer to the moieties themselves or to radical species, and also to form the names of halides and substituents in larger molecules.When the parent hydrocarbon is unsaturated, the suffix (\"-yl\", \"-ylidene\", or \"-ylidyne\") replaces \"-ane\" (e.g.", "\"ethane\" becomes \"ethyl\"); otherwise, the suffix replaces only the final \"-e\" (e.g.", "\"ethyne\" becomes \"ethynyl\").When used to refer to moieties, multiple single bonds differ from a single multiple bond.", "For example, a methylene bridge (methanediyl) has two single bonds, whereas a methylene group (methylidene) has one double bond.", "Suffixes can be combined, as in methylidyne (triple bond) vs. methylylidene (single bond and double bond) vs. methanetriyl (three double bonds).There are some retained names, such as methylene for methanediyl, 1,x-phenylene for phenyl-1,x-diyl (where x is 2, 3, or 4), carbyne for methylidyne, and trityl for triphenylmethyl.", "Chemical class Group Formula Structural formula Prefix Suffix Example Single bond R• Ylo- -yl Double bond R: ?", "-ylidene Triple bond R⫶ ?", "-ylidyne Carboxylic acyl radical Acyl R−C(=O)• ?", "-oyl" ], [ "See also", "* :Category:Functional groups* Group contribution method" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* IUPAC Blue Book (organic nomenclature)* * Functional group video" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fractal" ], [ "Introduction", "Mandelbrot set at the cardioid left boundaryThe Mandelbrot set: its boundary is a fractal curve with Hausdorff dimension 2.", "(Note that the colored sections of the image are not actually part of the Mandelbrot Set, but rather they are based on how quickly the function that produces it diverges.", ")\|200x200pxMandelbrot set with 12 encirclements200x200pxIn mathematics, a '''fractal''' is a geometric shape containing detailed structure at arbitrarily small scales, usually having a fractal dimension strictly exceeding the topological dimension.", "Many fractals appear similar at various scales, as illustrated in successive magnifications of the Mandelbrot set.", "This exhibition of similar patterns at increasingly smaller scales is called self-similarity, also known as expanding symmetry or unfolding symmetry; if this replication is exactly the same at every scale, as in the Menger sponge, the shape is called affine self-similar.", "Fractal geometry lies within the mathematical branch of measure theory.One way that fractals are different from finite geometric figures is how they scale.", "Doubling the edge lengths of a filled polygon multiplies its area by four, which is two (the ratio of the new to the old side length) raised to the power of two (the conventional dimension of the filled polygon).", "Likewise, if the radius of a filled sphere is doubled, its volume scales by eight, which is two (the ratio of the new to the old radius) to the power of three (the conventional dimension of the filled sphere).", "However, if a fractal's one-dimensional lengths are all doubled, the spatial content of the fractal scales by a power that is not necessarily an integer and is in general greater than its conventional dimension.", "This power is called the fractal dimension of the geometric object, to distinguish it from the conventional dimension (which is formally called the topological dimension).Analytically, many fractals are nowhere differentiable.", "An infinite fractal curve can be conceived of as winding through space differently from an ordinary line – although it is still topologically 1-dimensional, its fractal dimension indicates that it locally fills space more efficiently than an ordinary line.Sierpinski carpet (to level 6), a fractal with a topological dimension of 1 and a Hausdorff dimension of 1.893A line segment is similar to a proper part of itself, but hardly a fractal.Starting in the 17th century with notions of recursion, fractals have moved through increasingly rigorous mathematical treatment to the study of continuous but not differentiable functions in the 19th century by the seminal work of Bernard Bolzano, Bernhard Riemann, and Karl Weierstrass, and on to the coining of the word ''fractal'' in the 20th century with a subsequent burgeoning of interest in fractals and computer-based modelling in the 20th century.There is some disagreement among mathematicians about how the concept of a fractal should be formally defined.", "Mandelbrot himself summarized it as \"beautiful, damn hard, increasingly useful.", "That's fractals.\"", "More formally, in 1982 Mandelbrot defined ''fractal'' as follows: \"A fractal is by definition a set for which the Hausdorff–Besicovitch dimension strictly exceeds the topological dimension.\"", "Later, seeing this as too restrictive, he simplified and expanded the definition to this: \"A fractal is a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into parts, each of which is (at least approximately) a reduced-size copy of the whole.\"", "Still later, Mandelbrot proposed \"to use ''fractal'' without a pedantic definition, to use ''fractal dimension'' as a generic term applicable to ''all'' the variants\".The consensus among mathematicians is that theoretical fractals are infinitely self-similar iterated and detailed mathematical constructs, of which many examples have been formulated and studied.", "Fractals are not limited to geometric patterns, but can also describe processes in time.", "Fractal patterns with various degrees of self-similarity have been rendered or studied in visual, physical, and aural media and found in nature, technology, art, and architecture.", "Fractals are of particular relevance in the field of chaos theory because they show up in the geometric depictions of most chaotic processes (typically either as attractors or as boundaries between basins of attraction)." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"fractal\" was coined by the mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot in 1975.Mandelbrot based it on the Latin , meaning \"broken\" or \"fractured\", and used it to extend the concept of theoretical fractional dimensions to geometric patterns in nature." ], [ "Introduction", "200x200pxA fractal \"tree\" to eleven iterationsThe word \"fractal\" often has different connotations for the lay public as opposed to mathematicians, where the public is more likely to be familiar with fractal art than the mathematical concept.", "The mathematical concept is difficult to define formally, even for mathematicians, but key features can be understood with a little mathematical background.The feature of \"self-similarity\", for instance, is easily understood by analogy to zooming in with a lens or other device that zooms in on digital images to uncover finer, previously invisible, new structure.", "If this is done on fractals, however, no new detail appears; nothing changes and the same pattern repeats over and over, or for some fractals, nearly the same pattern reappears over and over.", "Self-similarity itself is not necessarily counter-intuitive (e.g., people have pondered self-similarity informally such as in the infinite regress in parallel mirrors or the homunculus, the little man inside the head of the little man inside the head ...).", "The difference for fractals is that the pattern reproduced must be detailed.This idea of being detailed relates to another feature that can be understood without much mathematical background: Having a fractal dimension greater than its topological dimension, for instance, refers to how a fractal scales compared to how geometric shapes are usually perceived.", "A straight line, for instance, is conventionally understood to be one-dimensional; if such a figure is rep-tiled into pieces each 1/3 the length of the original, then there are always three equal pieces.", "A solid square is understood to be two-dimensional; if such a figure is rep-tiled into pieces each scaled down by a factor of 1/3 in both dimensions, there are a total of 32 = 9 pieces.We see that for ordinary self-similar objects, being n-dimensional means that when it is rep-tiled into pieces each scaled down by a scale-factor of 1/''r'', there are a total of ''r''''n'' pieces.", "Now, consider the Koch curve.", "It can be rep-tiled into four sub-copies, each scaled down by a scale-factor of 1/3.So, strictly by analogy, we can consider the \"dimension\" of the Koch curve as being the unique real number ''D'' that satisfies 3''D'' = 4.This number is called the ''fractal dimension'' of the Koch curve; it is not the conventionally perceived dimension of a curve.", "In general, a key property of fractals is that the fractal dimension differs from the ''conventionally understood'' dimension (formally called the topological dimension).3D computer-generated fractalThis also leads to understanding a third feature, that fractals as mathematical equations are \"nowhere differentiable\".", "In a concrete sense, this means fractals cannot be measured in traditional ways.", "To elaborate, in trying to find the length of a wavy non-fractal curve, one could find straight segments of some measuring tool small enough to lay end to end over the waves, where the pieces could get small enough to be considered to conform to the curve in the normal manner of measuring with a tape measure.", "But in measuring an infinitely \"wiggly\" fractal curve such as the Koch snowflake, one would never find a small enough straight segment to conform to the curve, because the jagged pattern would always re-appear, at arbitrarily small scales, essentially pulling a little more of the tape measure into the total length measured each time one attempted to fit it tighter and tighter to the curve.", "The result is that one must need infinite tape to perfectly cover the entire curve, i.e.", "the snowflake has an infinite perimeter." ], [ "History", "A 208x208pxCantor (ternary) setThe history of fractals traces a path from chiefly theoretical studies to modern applications in computer graphics, with several notable people contributing canonical fractal forms along the way.", "A common theme in traditional African architecture is the use of fractal scaling, whereby small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.According to Pickover, the mathematics behind fractals began to take shape in the 17th century when the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz pondered recursive self-similarity (although he made the mistake of thinking that only the straight line was self-similar in this sense).In his writings, Leibniz used the term \"fractional exponents\", but lamented that \"Geometry\" did not yet know of them.", "Indeed, according to various historical accounts, after that point few mathematicians tackled the issues and the work of those who did remained obscured largely because of resistance to such unfamiliar emerging concepts, which were sometimes referred to as mathematical \"monsters\".", "Thus, it was not until two centuries had passed that on July 18, 1872 Karl Weierstrass presented the first definition of a function with a graph that would today be considered a fractal, having the non-intuitive property of being everywhere continuous but nowhere differentiable at the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences.In addition, the quotient difference becomes arbitrarily large as the summation index increases.", "Not long after that, in 1883, Georg Cantor, who attended lectures by Weierstrass, published examples of subsets of the real line known as Cantor sets, which had unusual properties and are now recognized as fractals.", "Also in the last part of that century, Felix Klein and Henri Poincaré introduced a category of fractal that has come to be called \"self-inverse\" fractals.A 200x200pxA 200x200pxOne of the next milestones came in 1904, when Helge von Koch, extending ideas of Poincaré and dissatisfied with Weierstrass's abstract and analytic definition, gave a more geometric definition including hand-drawn images of a similar function, which is now called the Koch snowflake.", "Another milestone came a decade later in 1915, when Wacław Sierpiński constructed his famous triangle then, one year later, his carpet.", "By 1918, two French mathematicians, Pierre Fatou and Gaston Julia, though working independently, arrived essentially simultaneously at results describing what is now seen as fractal behaviour associated with mapping complex numbers and iterative functions and leading to further ideas about attractors and repellors (i.e., points that attract or repel other points), which have become very important in the study of fractals.Very shortly after that work was submitted, by March 1918, Felix Hausdorff expanded the definition of \"dimension\", significantly for the evolution of the definition of fractals, to allow for sets to have non-integer dimensions.", "The idea of self-similar curves was taken further by Paul Lévy, who, in his 1938 paper ''Plane or Space Curves and Surfaces Consisting of Parts Similar to the Whole'', described a new fractal curve, the Lévy C curve.A strange attractor that exhibits multifractal scaling\|200x200px200x200pxIFS\|200x200pxDifferent researchers have postulated that without the aid of modern computer graphics, early investigators were limited to what they could depict in manual drawings, so lacked the means to visualize the beauty and appreciate some of the implications of many of the patterns they had discovered (the Julia set, for instance, could only be visualized through a few iterations as very simple drawings).", "That changed, however, in the 1960s, when Benoit Mandelbrot started writing about self-similarity in papers such as ''How Long Is the Coast of Britain?", "Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension'', which built on earlier work by Lewis Fry Richardson.In 1975, Mandelbrot solidified hundreds of years of thought and mathematical development in coining the word \"fractal\" and illustrated his mathematical definition with striking computer-constructed visualizations.", "These images, such as of his canonical Mandelbrot set, captured the popular imagination; many of them were based on recursion, leading to the popular meaning of the term \"fractal\".In 1980, Loren Carpenter gave a presentation at the SIGGRAPH where he introduced his software for generating and rendering fractally generated landscapes." ], [ "Definition and characteristics", "One often cited description that Mandelbrot published to describe geometric fractals is \"a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into parts, each of which is (at least approximately) a reduced-size copy of the whole\"; this is generally helpful but limited.", "Authors disagree on the exact definition of ''fractal'', but most usually elaborate on the basic ideas of self-similarity and the unusual relationship fractals have with the space they are embedded in.One point agreed on is that fractal patterns are characterized by fractal dimensions, but whereas these numbers quantify complexity (i.e., changing detail with changing scale), they neither uniquely describe nor specify details of how to construct particular fractal patterns.", "In 1975 when Mandelbrot coined the word \"fractal\", he did so to denote an object whose Hausdorff–Besicovitch dimension is greater than its topological dimension.", "However, this requirement is not met by space-filling curves such as the Hilbert curve.Because of the trouble involved in finding one definition for fractals, some argue that fractals should not be strictly defined at all.", "According to Falconer, fractals should be only generally characterized by a gestalt of the following features;* Self-similarity, which may include::* Exact self-similarity: identical at all scales, such as the Koch snowflake:* Quasi self-similarity: approximates the same pattern at different scales; may contain small copies of the entire fractal in distorted and degenerate forms; e.g., the Mandelbrot set's satellites are approximations of the entire set, but not exact copies.", ":* Statistical self-similarity: repeats a pattern stochastically so numerical or statistical measures are preserved across scales; e.g., randomly generated fractals like the well-known example of the coastline of Britain for which one would not expect to find a segment scaled and repeated as neatly as the repeated unit that defines fractals like the Koch snowflake.", ":* Qualitative self-similarity: as in a time series:* Multifractal scaling: characterized by more than one fractal dimension or scaling rule* Fine or detailed structure at arbitrarily small scales.", "A consequence of this structure is fractals may have emergent properties (related to the next criterion in this list).", "* Irregularity locally and globally that cannot easily be described in the language of traditional Euclidean geometry other than as the limit of a recursively defined sequence of stages.", "For images of fractal patterns, this has been expressed by phrases such as \"smoothly piling up surfaces\" and \"swirls upon swirls\";''see Common techniques for generating fractals''.As a group, these criteria form guidelines for excluding certain cases, such as those that may be self-similar without having other typically fractal features.", "A straight line, for instance, is self-similar but not fractal because it lacks detail, and is easily described in Euclidean language without a need for recursion." ], [ "Common techniques for generating fractals", "Self-similar branching pattern modeled in silico using L-systems principles\|alt=\|201x201pxImages of fractals can be created by fractal generating programs.", "Because of the butterfly effect, a small change in a single variable can have an unpredictable outcome.", "* ''Iterated function systems (IFS)'' – use fixed geometric replacement rules; may be stochastic or deterministic; e.g., Koch snowflake, Cantor set, Haferman carpet, Sierpinski carpet, Sierpinski gasket, Peano curve, Harter-Heighway dragon curve, T-square, Menger sponge* ''Strange attractors'' – use iterations of a map or solutions of a system of initial-value differential or difference equations that exhibit chaos (e.g., see multifractal image, or the logistic map)* ''L-systems'' – use string rewriting; may resemble branching patterns, such as in plants, biological cells (e.g., neurons and immune system cells), blood vessels, pulmonary structure, etc.", "or turtle graphics patterns such as space-filling curves and tilings* ''Escape-time fractals'' – use a formula or recurrence relation at each point in a space (such as the complex plane); usually quasi-self-similar; also known as \"orbit\" fractals; e.g., the Mandelbrot set, Julia set, Burning Ship fractal, Nova fractal and Lyapunov fractal.", "The 2d vector fields that are generated by one or two iterations of escape-time formulae also give rise to a fractal form when points (or pixel data) are passed through this field repeatedly.", "* ''Random fractals'' – use stochastic rules; e.g., Lévy flight, percolation clusters, self avoiding walks, fractal landscapes, trajectories of Brownian motion and the Brownian tree (i.e., dendritic fractals generated by modeling diffusion-limited aggregation or reaction-limited aggregation clusters).A fractal generated by a finite subdivision rule for an alternating link\|202x202px''Finite subdivision rules'' – use a recursive topological algorithm for refining tilings and they are similar to the process of cell division.", "The iterative processes used in creating the Cantor set and the Sierpinski carpet are examples of finite subdivision rules, as is barycentric subdivision." ], [ "Applications", "===Simulated fractals===Fractal patterns have been modeled extensively, albeit within a range of scales rather than infinitely, owing to the practical limits of physical time and space.", "Models may simulate theoretical fractals or natural phenomena with fractal features.", "The outputs of the modelling process may be highly artistic renderings, outputs for investigation, or benchmarks for fractal analysis.", "Some specific applications of fractals to technology are listed elsewhere.", "Images and other outputs of modelling are normally referred to as being \"fractals\" even if they do not have strictly fractal characteristics, such as when it is possible to zoom into a region of the fractal image that does not exhibit any fractal properties.", "Also, these may include calculation or display artifacts which are not characteristics of true fractals.Modeled fractals may be sounds, digital images, electrochemical patterns, circadian rhythms, etc.Fractal patterns have been reconstructed in physical 3-dimensional space and virtually, often called \"in silico\" modeling.", "Models of fractals are generally created using fractal-generating software that implements techniques such as those outlined above.", "As one illustration, trees, ferns, cells of the nervous system, blood and lung vasculature, and other branching patterns in nature can be modeled on a computer by using recursive algorithms and L-systems techniques.The recursive nature of some patterns is obvious in certain examples—a branch from a tree or a frond from a fern is a miniature replica of the whole: not identical, but similar in nature.", "Similarly, random fractals have been used to describe/create many highly irregular real-world objects, such as coastlines and mountains.", "A limitation of modeling fractals is that resemblance of a fractal model to a natural phenomenon does not prove that the phenomenon being modeled is formed by a process similar to the modeling algorithms.===Natural phenomena with fractal features===Approximate fractals found in nature display self-similarity over extended, but finite, scale ranges.", "The connection between fractals and leaves, for instance, is currently being used to determine how much carbon is contained in trees.", "Phenomena known to have fractal features include: Actin cytoskeleton* Algae* Animal coloration patterns* Blood vessels and pulmonary vessels* Brownian motion (generated by a one-dimensional Wiener process).", "* Clouds and rainfall areas* Coastlines* Craters* Crystals* DNA* Dust grains* Earthquakes* Fault lines* Geometrical optics* Heart rates* Heart sounds* Lake shorelines and areas* Lightning bolts* Mountain-goat horns* Neurons* Polymers* Percolation* Mountain ranges* Ocean waves* Pineapple* Proteins* Psychedelic ExperiencePurkinje cells Rings of Saturn* River networks* Romanesco broccoli* Snowflakes* Soil poresSurfaces in turbulent flows TreesFile:Frost patterns 2.jpg\|Frost crystals occurring naturally on cold glass form fractal patternsFile:Optical Billiard Spheres dsweet.jpeg\|Fractal basin boundary in a geometrical optical systemFile:Glue1 800x600.jpg\|A fractal is formed when pulling apart two glue-covered acrylic sheetsFile:Square1.jpg\|High-voltage breakdown within a block of acrylic glass creates a fractal Lichtenberg figureFile:Romanesco broccoli (Brassica oleracea).jpg\|Romanesco broccoli, showing self-similar form approximating a natural fractalFile:Fractal defrosting patterns on Mars.jpg\|Fractal defrosting patterns, polar Mars.", "The patterns are formed by sublimation of frozen CO2.Width of image is about a kilometer.File:Brefeldia maxima plasmodium on wood.jpg\|Slime mold ''Brefeldia maxima'' growing fractally on woodFile:Dendrit.jpg\|Psilomelane dendrites in the Solnhofen Limestone===Fractals in cell biology===Fractals often appear in the realm of living organisms where they arise through branching processes and other complex pattern formation.", "Ian Wong and co-workers have shown that migrating cells can form fractals by clustering and branching.", "Nerve cells function through processes at the cell surface, with phenomena that are enhanced by largely increasing the surface to volume ratio.", "As a consequence nerve cells often are found to form into fractal patterns.", "These processes are crucial in cell physiology and different pathologies.Multiple subcellular structures also are found to assemble into fractals.", "Diego Krapf has shown that through branching processes the actin filaments in human cells assemble into fractal patterns.", "Similarly Matthias Weiss showed that the endoplasmic reticulum displays fractal features.", "The current understanding is that fractals are ubiquitous in cell biology, from proteins, to organelles, to whole cells.===In creative works===Since 1999 numerous scientific groups have performed fractal analysis on over 50 paintings created by Jackson Pollock by pouring paint directly onto horizontal canvasses.Recently, fractal analysis has been used to achieve a 93% success rate in distinguishing real from imitation Pollocks.", "Cognitive neuroscientists have shown that Pollock's fractals induce the same stress-reduction in observers as computer-generated fractals and Nature's fractals.Decalcomania, a technique used by artists such as Max Ernst, can produce fractal-like patterns.", "It involves pressing paint between two surfaces and pulling them apart.Cyberneticist Ron Eglash has suggested that fractal geometry and mathematics are prevalent in African art, games, divination, trade, and architecture.", "Circular houses appear in circles of circles, rectangular houses in rectangles of rectangles, and so on.", "Such scaling patterns can also be found in African textiles, sculpture, and even cornrow hairstyles.", "Hokky Situngkir also suggested the similar properties in Indonesian traditional art, batik, and ornaments found in traditional houses.Ethnomathematician Ron Eglash has discussed the planned layout of Benin city using fractals as the basis, not only in the city itself and the villages but even in the rooms of houses.", "He commented that \"When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganised and thus primitive.", "It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn't even discovered yet.", "\"In a 1996 interview with Michael Silverblatt, David Foster Wallace explained that the structure of the first draft of ''Infinite Jest'' he gave to his editor Michael Pietsch was inspired by fractals, specifically the Sierpinski triangle (a.k.a.", "Sierpinski gasket), but that the edited novel is \"more like a lopsided Sierpinsky Gasket\".Some works by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher, such as Circle Limit III, contain shapes repeated to infinity that become smaller and smaller as they get near to the edges, in a pattern that would always look the same if zoomed in.Aesthetics and Psychological Effects of Fractal Based Design: Highly prevalent in nature, fractal patterns possess self-similar components that repeat at varying size scales.", "The perceptual experience of human-made environments can be impacted with inclusion of these natural patterns.", "Previous work has demonstrated consistent trends in preference for and complexity estimates of fractal patterns.", "However, limited information has been gathered on the impact of other visual judgments.", "Here we examine the aesthetic and perceptual experience of fractal ‘global-forest’ designs already installed in humanmade spaces and demonstrate how fractal pattern components are associated with positive psychological experiences that can be utilized to promote occupant well-being.", "These designs are composite fractal patterns consisting of individual fractal ‘tree-seeds’ which combine to create a ‘global fractal forest.’ The local ‘tree-seed’ patterns, global configuration of tree-seed locations, and overall resulting ‘global-forest’ patterns have fractal qualities.", "These designs span multiple mediums yet are all intended to lower occupant stress without detracting from the function and overall design of the space.", "In this series of studies, we first establish divergent relationships between various visual attributes, with pattern complexity, preference, and engagement ratings increasing with fractal complexity compared to ratings of refreshment and relaxation which stay the same or decrease with complexity.", "Subsequently, we determine that the local constituent fractal (‘tree-seed’) patterns contribute to the perception of the overall fractal design, and address how to balance aesthetic and psychological effects (such as individual experiences of perceived engagement and relaxation) in fractal design installations.", "This set of studies demonstrates that fractal preference is driven by a balance between increased arousal (desire for engagement and complexity) and decreased tension (desire for relaxation or refreshment).", "Installations of these composite mid-high complexity ‘global-forest’ patterns consisting of ‘tree-seed’ components balance these contrasting needs, and can serve as a practical implementation of biophilic patterns in human-made environments to promote occupant well-being.File:Animated fractal mountain.gif\|A fractal that models the surface of a mountain (animation)File:FRACTAL-3d-FLOWER.jpg\|3D recursive imageFile:Fractal-BUTTERFLY.jpg\|Recursive fractal butterfly imageFile:Apophysis-100303-104.jpg\|A fractal flame===Physiological responses===Humans appear to be especially well-adapted to processing fractal patterns with fractal dimension between 1.3 and 1.5.When humans view fractal patterns with fractal dimension between 1.3 and 1.5, this tends to reduce physiological stress.===Applications in technology===* Fractal antennasFractal transistor Fractal heat exchangers* Digital imaging* Architecture* Urban growth* Classification of histopathology slides* Fractal landscape or Coastline complexity* Detecting 'life as we don't know it' by fractal analysis* Enzymes (Michaelis–Menten kinetics)* Generation of new music* Signal and image compression* Creation of digital photographic enlargements* Fractal in soil mechanics* Computer and video game design* Computer Graphics* Organic environments* Procedural generation* Fractography and fracture mechanics* Small angle scattering theory of fractally rough systems* T-shirts and other fashion* Generation of patterns for camouflage, such as MARPAT* Digital sundial* Technical analysis of price series* Fractals in networks* Medicine* Neuroscience* Diagnostic Imaging* Pathology* Geology* Geography* Archaeology* Soil mechanics* Seismology* Search and rescue* Morton order space filling curves for GPU cache coherency in texture mapping, rasterisation and indexing of turbulence data." ], [ "See also", "* **************** **************" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Barnsley, Michael F.; and Rising, Hawley; ''Fractals Everywhere''.", "Boston: Academic Press Professional, 1993.", "* Duarte, German A.; ''Fractal Narrative.", "About the Relationship Between Geometries and Technology and Its Impact on Narrative Spaces''.", "Bielefeld: Transcript, 2014.", "* Falconer, Kenneth; ''Techniques in Fractal Geometry''.", "John Wiley and Sons, 1997.", "* Jürgens, Hartmut; Peitgen, Heinz-Otto; and Saupe, Dietmar; ''Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science''.", "New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992.", "* Mandelbrot, Benoit B.; ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''.", "New York: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1982.", "* Peitgen, Heinz-Otto; and Saupe, Dietmar; eds.", "; ''The Science of Fractal Images''.", "New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988.", "* Pickover, Clifford A.; ed.", "; ''Chaos and Fractals: A Computer Graphical Journey – A 10 Year Compilation of Advanced Research''.", "Elsevier, 1998.", "* Jones, Jesse; ''Fractals for the Macintosh'', Waite Group Press, Corte Madera, CA, 1993..* Lauwerier, Hans; ''Fractals: Endlessly Repeated Geometrical Figures'', Translated by Sophia Gill-Hoffstadt, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1991., cloth.", "paperback.", "\"This book has been written for a wide audience...\" Includes sample BASIC programs in an appendix.", "* * Wahl, Bernt; Van Roy, Peter; Larsen, Michael; and Kampman, Eric; ''Exploring Fractals on the Macintosh'', Addison Wesley, 1995.", "* Lesmoir-Gordon, Nigel; ''The Colours of Infinity: The Beauty, The Power and the Sense of Fractals''.", "2004.", "(The book comes with a related DVD of the Arthur C. Clarke documentary introduction to the fractal concept and the Mandelbrot set.", ")* Liu, Huajie; ''Fractal Art'', Changsha: Hunan Science and Technology Press, 1997, .", "* Gouyet, Jean-François; ''Physics and Fractal Structures'' (Foreword by B. Mandelbrot); Masson, 1996., and New York: Springer-Verlag, 1996.. Out-of-print.", "Available in PDF version at.", "" ], [ "External links", " * \" Hunting the Hidden Dimension\", PBS ''NOVA'', first aired August 24, 2011* Benoit Mandelbrot: Fractals and the Art of Roughness (), TED, February 2010* Technical Library on Fractals for controlling fluid* Equations of self-similar fractal measure based on the fractional-order calculus（2007）" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fluid" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics, a '''fluid''' is a liquid, gas, or other material that may continuously move and deform ('''''flow''''') under an applied shear stress, or external force.", "They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.", "Although the term ''fluid'' generally includes both the liquid and gas phases, its definition varies among branches of science.", "Definitions of ''solid'' vary as well, and depending on field, some substances can have both fluid and solid properties.", "Non-Newtonian fluids like Silly Putty appear to behave similar to a solid when a sudden force is applied.", "Substances with a very high viscosity such as pitch appear to behave like a solid (see pitch drop experiment) as well.", "In particle physics, the concept is extended to include fluidic matters other than liquids or gases.", "A fluid in medicine or biology refers to any liquid constituent of the body (body fluid), whereas \"liquid\" is not used in this sense.", "Sometimes liquids given for fluid replacement, either by drinking or by injection, are also called fluids (e.g.", "\"drink plenty of fluids\").", "In hydraulics, fluid is a term which refers to liquids with certain properties, and is broader than (hydraulic) oils.==Physics== Fluids display properties such as:* lack of resistance to permanent deformation, resisting only relative rates of deformation in a dissipative, frictional manner, and* the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the shape of the container).These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a shear stress in static equilibrium.", "By contrast, solids respond to shear either with a spring-like restoring force—meaning that deformations are reversible—or they require a certain initial stress before they deform (see plasticity).Solids respond with restoring forces to both shear stresses and to normal stresses, both compressive and tensile.", "By contrast, ideal fluids only respond with restoring forces to normal stresses, called pressure: fluids can be subjected both to compressive stress—corresponding to positive pressure—and to tensile stress, corresponding to negative pressure.", "Solids and liquids both have tensile strengths, which when exceeded in solids createsirreversible deformation and fracture, and in liquids cause the onset of cavitation.", "Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form.", "In the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension.", "In response to surface tension, the ability of liquids to flow results in behaviour differing from that of solids, though at equilibrium both tend to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals.", "Gases, lacking free surfaces, freely diffuse." ], [ "Modelling", "In a solid, shear stress is a function of strain, but in a fluid, shear stress is a function of strain rate.", "A consequence of this behavior is Pascal's law which describes the role of pressure in characterizing a fluid's state.", "The behavior of fluids can be described by the Navier–Stokes equations—a set of partial differential equations which are based on:* continuity (conservation of mass),* conservation of linear momentum,* conservation of angular momentum,* conservation of energy.The study of fluids is fluid mechanics, which is subdivided into fluid dynamics and fluid statics depending on whether the fluid is in motion.===Classification of fluids===Depending on the relationship between shear stress and the rate of strain and its derivatives, fluids can be characterized as one of the following:Newtonian fluids: where stress is directly proportional to rate of strainNon-Newtonian fluids: where stress is not proportional to rate of strain, its higher powers and derivatives.Newtonian fluids follow Newton's law of viscosity and may be called viscous fluids.Fluids may be classified by their compressibility:Compressible fluid: A fluid that causes volume reduction or density change when pressure is applied to the fluid or when the fluid becomes supersonic.", "Incompressible fluid: A fluid that does not vary in volume with changes in pressure or flow velocity (i.e., ρ=constant) such as water or oil.Newtonian and incompressible fluids do not actually exist, but are assumed to be for theoretical settlement.", "Virtual fluids that completely ignore the effects of viscosity and compressibility are called perfect fluids." ], [ "See also", "MatterLiquidGasSupercritical fluid" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "FAQ" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''frequently asked questions''' ('''FAQ''') list is often used in articles, websites, email lists, and online forums where common questions tend to recur, for example through posts or queries by new users related to common knowledge gaps.", "The purpose of a FAQ is generally to provide information on frequent questions or concerns; however, the format is a useful means of organizing information, and text consisting of questions and their answers may thus be called a FAQ regardless of whether the questions are actually ''frequently'' asked.Since the acronym ''FAQ'' originated in textual media, its pronunciation varies.", "FAQ can be pronounced as an initialism, \"F-A-Q\", or as an acronym, \"FAQ\".", "Web designers often label a single list of questions as a \"FAQ\", such as on Google Search, while using \"FAQs\" to denote multiple lists of questions such as on United States Treasury sites.", "Use of \"FAQ\" to refer to a single frequently asked question, in and of itself, is less common." ], [ "Origins", "While the name may be recent, the FAQ format itself is quite old.", "For example, Matthew Hopkins wrote ''The Discovery of Witches'' in 1648 as a list of questions and answers, introduced as \"Certaine Queries answered ...\" .", "Many old catechisms are in a question-and-answer (Q&A) format.", "''Summa Theologica'', written by Thomas Aquinas in the second half of the 13th century, is a series of common questions about Christianity to which he wrote a series of replies.===On the Internet===The \"FAQ\" is an Internet textual tradition originating from the technical limitations of early mailing lists from NASA in the early 1980s.", "The first FAQ developed over several pre-Web years, starting from 1982 when storage was expensive.", "On ARPANET's SPACE mailing list, the presumption was that new users would download archived past messages through FTP.", "In practice this rarely happened, and the users tended to post questions to the mailing list instead of searching its archives.", "Repeating the \"right\" answers became tedious, and went against developing netiquette.", "A series of different measures were set up by loosely affiliated groups of computer system administrators, from regularly posted messages to netlib-like query email daemons.", "The acronym ''FAQ'' was developed between 1982 and 1985 by Eugene Miya of NASA for the SPACE mailing list.The format was then picked up on other mailing lists and Usenet newsgroups.Posting frequency changed to monthly, and finally weekly and daily across a variety of mailing lists and newsgroups.The first person to post a weekly FAQ was Jef Poskanzer to the Usenet net.graphics / comp.graphics newsgroups.Eugene Miya experimented with the first daily FAQ." ], [ "Modern developments", "=== Non-traditional FAQs ===In some cases, informative documents not in the traditional FAQ style have also been described as FAQs, particularly the video game FAQ, which is often a detailed description of gameplay, including tips, secrets, and beginning-to-end guidance.", "Rarely are videogame FAQs in a question-and-answer format, although they may contain a short section of questions and answers.Over time, the accumulated FAQs across all Usenet newsgroups sparked the creation of the \".answers\" moderated newsgroups such as comp.answers, misc.answers and sci.answers for crossposting and collecting FAQ across respective comp.", ", misc.", ", sci.", " newsgroups.=== In web design ===The FAQ has become an important component of websites, either as a stand-alone page or as a website section with multiple subpages per question or topic.", "Embedded links to FAQ pages have become commonplace in website navigation bars, bodies, or footers.", "The FAQ page is an important consideration in web design, in order to achieve several goals of customer service and search engine optimization (SEO), including* reducing the workload of in-person customer service employees* improving site navigation* increasing the visibility of the website by matching/optimizing for specific search terms* linking to or integrating within product pages." ], [ "Criticism", "Some content providers discourage the use of FAQs in place of restructuring content under logical headings.", "For example, the UK Government Digital Service does not use FAQs because the service believes that their form primarily serves writers' needs and creates more work for readers." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Original USENET examples* FAQ definition, Jargon7767819960* Frequently Asked Questions* Frequently Asked Questions And Answer" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fibonacci sequence" ], [ "Introduction", "A tiling with squares whose side lengths are successive Fibonacci numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 and 21In mathematics, the '''Fibonacci sequence''' is a sequence in which each number is the sum of the two preceding ones.", "Numbers that are part of the Fibonacci sequence are known as '''Fibonacci numbers''', commonly denoted .", "The sequence commonly starts from 0 and 1, although some authors start the sequence from 1 and 1 or sometimes (as did Fibonacci) from 1 and 2.Starting from 0 and 1, the sequence begins: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, ....The Fibonacci numbers were first described in Indian mathematics as early as 200 BC in work by Pingala on enumerating possible patterns of Sanskrit poetry formed from syllables of two lengths.", "They are named after the Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci, who introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics in his 1202 book .Fibonacci numbers appear unexpectedly often in mathematics, so much so that there is an entire journal dedicated to their study, the ''Fibonacci Quarterly''.", "Applications of Fibonacci numbers include computer algorithms such as the Fibonacci search technique and the Fibonacci heap data structure, and graphs called Fibonacci cubes used for interconnecting parallel and distributed systems.", "They also appear in biological settings, such as branching in trees, the arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruit sprouts of a pineapple, the flowering of an artichoke, and the arrangement of a pine cone's bracts, though they do not occur in all species.Fibonacci numbers are also strongly related to the golden ratio: Binet's formula expresses the -th Fibonacci number in terms of and the golden ratio, and implies that the ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers tends to the golden ratio as increases.", "Fibonacci numbers are also closely related to Lucas numbers, which obey the same recurrence relation and with the Fibonacci numbers form a complementary pair of Lucas sequences." ], [ "Definition", "The Fibonacci spiral: an approximation of the golden spiral created by drawing circular arcs connecting the opposite corners of squares in the Fibonacci tiling (see preceding image)The Fibonacci numbers may be defined by the recurrence relationandfor .Under some older definitions, the value is omitted, so that the sequence starts with and the recurrence is valid for .", "The first 20 Fibonacci numbers are:: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181" ], [ "History", "===India===Thirteen () ways of arranging long and short syllables in a cadence of length six.", "Eight () end with a short syllable and five () end with a long syllable.The Fibonacci sequence appears in Indian mathematics, in connection with Sanskrit prosody.", "In the Sanskrit poetic tradition, there was interest in enumerating all patterns of long (L) syllables of 2 units duration, juxtaposed with short (S) syllables of 1 unit duration.", "Counting the different patterns of successive L and S with a given total duration results in the Fibonacci numbers: the number of patterns of duration units is .Knowledge of the Fibonacci sequence was expressed as early as Pingala ( 450 BC–200 BC).", "Singh cites Pingala's cryptic formula ''misrau cha'' (\"the two are mixed\") and scholars who interpret it in context as saying that the number of patterns for beats () is obtained by adding one S to the cases and one L to the cases.", "Bharata Muni also expresses knowledge of the sequence in the ''Natya Shastra'' (c. 100 BC–c.", "350 AD).However, the clearest exposition of the sequence arises in the work of Virahanka (c. 700 AD), whose own work is lost, but is available in a quotation by Gopala (c. 1135):Variations of two earlier meters is the variation... For example, for a meter of length four, variations of meters of two and three being mixed, five happens.", "works out examples 8, 13, 21...", "In this way, the process should be followed in all ''mātrā-vṛttas'' prosodic combinations.Hemachandra (c. 1150) is credited with knowledge of the sequence as well, writing that \"the sum of the last and the one before the last is the number ... of the next mātrā-vṛtta.", "\"===Europe===A page of Fibonacci's from the Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze showing (in box on right) 13 entries of the Fibonacci sequence: the indices from present to XII (months) as Latin ordinals and Roman numerals and the numbers (of rabbit pairs) as Hindu-Arabic numerals starting with 1, 2, 3, 5 and ending with 377.The Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book (''The Book of Calculation'', 1202) by Fibonacci where it is used to calculate the growth of rabbit populations.", "Fibonacci considers the growth of an idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that: a newly born breeding pair of rabbits are put in a field; each breeding pair mates at the age of one month, and at the end of their second month they always produce another pair of rabbits; and rabbits never die, but continue breeding forever.", "Fibonacci posed the puzzle: how many pairs will there be in one year?", "* At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still only 1 pair.", "* At the end of the second month they produce a new pair, so there are 2 pairs in the field.", "* At the end of the third month, the original pair produce a second pair, but the second pair only mate to gestate for a month, so there are 3 pairs in all.", "* At the end of the fourth month, the original pair has produced yet another new pair, and the pair born two months ago also produces their first pair, making 5 pairs.At the end of the -th month, the number of pairs of rabbits is equal to the number of mature pairs (that is, the number of pairs in month ) plus the number of pairs alive last month (month ).", "The number in the -th month is the -th Fibonacci number.The name \"Fibonacci sequence\" was first used by the 19th-century number theorist Édouard Lucas.In a growing idealized population, the number of rabbit pairs form the Fibonacci sequence.", "At ''the end of the n''th month, the number of pairs is equal to ''Fn.''" ], [ "Relation to the golden ratio", "===Closed-form expression ===Like every sequence defined by a linear recurrence with constant coefficients, the Fibonacci numbers have a closed-form expression.", "It has become known as '''Binet's formula''', named after French mathematician Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, though it was already known by Abraham de Moivre and Daniel Bernoulli:whereis the golden ratio, and is its conjugate:Since , this formula can also be written asTo see the relation between the sequence and these constants, note that and are both solutions of the equation and thus so the powers of and satisfy the Fibonacci recursion.", "In other words,It follows that for any values and , the sequence defined bysatisfies the same recurrence,If and are chosen so that and then the resulting sequence must be the Fibonacci sequence.", "This is the same as requiring and satisfy the system of equations:which has solutionproducing the required formula.Taking the starting values and to be arbitrary constants, a more general solution is:where=== Computation by rounding ===Since for all , the number is the closest integer to .", "Therefore, it can be found by rounding, using the nearest integer function:In fact, the rounding error is very small, being less than 0.1 for , and less than 0.01 for .", "This formula is easily inverted to find an index of a Fibonacci number :Instead using the floor function gives the largest index of a Fibonacci number that is not greater than :where , , and .=== Magnitude ===Since ''Fn'' is asymptotic to , the number of digits in is asymptotic to .", "As a consequence, for every integer there are either 4 or 5 Fibonacci numbers with decimal digits.More generally, in the base representation, the number of digits in is asymptotic to === Limit of consecutive quotients ===Johannes Kepler observed that the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers converges.", "He wrote that \"as 5 is to 8 so is 8 to 13, practically, and as 8 is to 13, so is 13 to 21 almost\", and concluded that these ratios approach the golden ratio This convergence holds regardless of the starting values and , unless .", "This can be verified using Binet's formula.", "For example, the initial values 3 and 2 generate the sequence 3, 2, 5, 7, 12, 19, 31, 50, 81, 131, 212, 343, 555, ... .", "The ratio of consecutive terms in this sequence shows the same convergence towards the golden ratio.In general, , because the ratios between consecutive Fibonacci numbers approaches .", ": Successive tilings of the plane and a graph of approximations to the golden ratio calculated by dividing each Fibonacci number by the previous=== Decomposition of powers ===Since the golden ratio satisfies the equationthis expression can be used to decompose higher powers as a linear function of lower powers, which in turn can be decomposed all the way down to a linear combination of and 1.The resulting recurrence relationships yield Fibonacci numbers as the linear coefficients:This equation can be proved by induction on :For , it is also the case that and it is also the case thatThese expressions are also true for if the Fibonacci sequence ''Fn'' is extended to negative integers using the Fibonacci rule === Identification ===Binet's formula provides a proof that a positive integer is a Fibonacci number if and only if at least one of or is a perfect square.", "This is because Binet's formula, which can be written as , can be multiplied by and solved as a quadratic equation in via the quadratic formula:Comparing this to , it follows that: In particular, the left-hand side is a perfect square." ], [ "Matrix form", "A 2-dimensional system of linear difference equations that describes the Fibonacci sequence isalternatively denotedwhich yields .", "The eigenvalues of the matrix are and corresponding to the respective eigenvectorsandAs the initial value isit follows that the th term isFrom this, the th element in the Fibonacci seriesmay be read off directly as a closed-form expression:Equivalently, the same computation may be performed by diagonalization of through use of its eigendecomposition:where and The closed-form expression for the th element in the Fibonacci series is therefore given bywhich again yieldsThe matrix has a determinant of −1, and thus it is a 2 × 2 unimodular matrix.This property can be understood in terms of the continued fraction representation for the golden ratio:The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive convergents of the continued fraction for , and the matrix formed from successive convergents of any continued fraction has a determinant of +1 or −1.The matrix representation gives the following closed-form expression for the Fibonacci numbers:For a given , this matrix can be computed in arithmetic operations, using the exponentiation by squaring method.Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yields Cassini's identity,Moreover, since for any square matrix , the following identities can be derived (they are obtained from two different coefficients of the matrix product, and one may easily deduce the second one from the first one by changing into ),In particular, with ,These last two identities provide a way to compute Fibonacci numbers recursively in arithmetic operations.", "This matches the time for computing the -th Fibonacci number from the closed-form matrix formula, but with fewer redundant steps if one avoids recomputing an already computed Fibonacci number (recursion with memoization)." ], [ "Combinatorial identities", "=== Combinatorial proofs ===Most identities involving Fibonacci numbers can be proved using combinatorial arguments using the fact that can be interpreted as the number of (possibly empty) sequences of 1s and 2s whose sum is .", "This can be taken as the definition of with the conventions , meaning no such sequence exists whose sum is −1, and , meaning the empty sequence \"adds up\" to 0.In the following, is the cardinality of a set:: : : : : : In this manner the recurrence relationmay be understood by dividing the sequences into two non-overlapping sets where all sequences either begin with 1 or 2:Excluding the first element, the remaining terms in each sequence sum to or and the cardinality of each set is or giving a total of sequences, showing this is equal to .In a similar manner it may be shown that the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers up to the -th is equal to the -th Fibonacci number minus 1.In symbols:This may be seen by dividing all sequences summing to based on the location of the first 2.Specifically, each set consists of those sequences that start until the last two sets each with cardinality 1.Following the same logic as before, by summing the cardinality of each set we see that: ... where the last two terms have the value .", "From this it follows that .A similar argument, grouping the sums by the position of the first 1 rather than the first 2 gives two more identities:andIn words, the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers with odd index up to is the -th Fibonacci number, and the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers with even index up to is the -th Fibonacci number minus 1.A different trick may be used to proveor in words, the sum of the squares of the first Fibonacci numbers up to is the product of the -th and -th Fibonacci numbers.", "To see this, begin with a Fibonacci rectangle of size and decompose it into squares of size ; from this the identity follows by comparing areas:260x260px=== Symbolic method ===The sequence is also considered using the symbolic method.", "More precisely, this sequence corresponds to a specifiable combinatorial class.", "The specification of this sequence is .", "Indeed, as stated above, the -th Fibonacci number equals the number of combinatorial compositions (ordered partitions) of using terms 1 and 2.It follows that the ordinary generating function of the Fibonacci sequence, , is the rational function === Induction proofs ===Fibonacci identities often can be easily proved using mathematical induction.For example, reconsiderAdding to both sides gives: and so we have the formula for Similarly, add to both sides ofto give=== Binet formula proofs ===The Binet formula isThis can be used to prove Fibonacci identities.For example, to prove that note that the left hand side multiplied by becomesas required, using the facts and to simplify the equations." ], [ "Other identities", "Numerous other identities can be derived using various methods.", "Here are some of them:=== Cassini's and Catalan's identities ===Cassini's identity states thatCatalan's identity is a generalization:=== d'Ocagne's identity ===where is the -th Lucas number.", "The last is an identity for doubling ; other identities of this type areby Cassini's identity.These can be found experimentally using lattice reduction, and are useful in setting up the special number field sieve to factorize a Fibonacci number.More generally,or alternativelyPutting in this formula, one gets again the formulas of the end of above section Matrix form." ], [ "Generating function", "The generating function of the Fibonacci sequence is the power seriesThis series is convergent for any complex number satisfying and its sum has a simple closed form:This can be proved by multiplying by :where all terms involving for cancel out because of the defining Fibonacci recurrence relation.The partial fraction decomposition is given bywhere is the golden ratio and is its conjugate.The related function is the generating function for the negafibonacci numbers, and satisfies the functional equationUsing equal to any of 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, etc.", "lays out the first Fibonacci numbers in the decimal expansion of .", "For example," ], [ "Reciprocal sums", "Infinite sums over reciprocal Fibonacci numbers can sometimes be evaluated in terms of theta functions.", "For example, the sum of every odd-indexed reciprocal Fibonacci number can be written asand the sum of squared reciprocal Fibonacci numbers asIf we add 1 to each Fibonacci number in the first sum, there is also the closed formand there is a ''nested'' sum of squared Fibonacci numbers giving the reciprocal of the golden ratio,The sum of all even-indexed reciprocal Fibonacci numbers iswith the Lambert series since So the reciprocal Fibonacci constant isMoreover, this number has been proved irrational by Richard André-Jeannin.", "'''Millin's series''' gives the identitywhich follows from the closed form for its partial sums as tends to infinity:" ], [ "Primes and divisibility", "=== Divisibility properties ===Every third number of the sequence is even (a multiple of ) and, more generally, every -th number of the sequence is a multiple of ''Fk''.", "Thus the Fibonacci sequence is an example of a divisibility sequence.", "In fact, the Fibonacci sequence satisfies the stronger divisibility propertywhere is the greatest common divisor function.In particular, any three consecutive Fibonacci numbers are pairwise coprime because both and .", "That is,: for every .Every prime number divides a Fibonacci number that can be determined by the value of modulo 5.If is congruent to 1 or 4 modulo 5, then divides , and if is congruent to 2 or 3 modulo 5, then, divides .", "The remaining case is that , and in this case divides ''Fp''.These cases can be combined into a single, non-piecewise formula, using the Legendre symbol:=== Primality testing ===The above formula can be used as a primality test in the sense that ifwhere the Legendre symbol has been replaced by the Jacobi symbol, then this is evidence that is a prime, and if it fails to hold, then is definitely not a prime.", "If is composite and satisfies the formula, then is a ''Fibonacci pseudoprime''.", "When is largesay a 500-bit numberthen we can calculate efficiently using the matrix form.", "ThusHere the matrix power is calculated using modular exponentiation, which can be adapted to matrices.=== Fibonacci primes ===A ''Fibonacci prime'' is a Fibonacci number that is prime.", "The first few are:: 2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, ...Fibonacci primes with thousands of digits have been found, but it is not known whether there are infinitely many.", "is divisible by , so, apart from , any Fibonacci prime must have a prime index.", "As there are arbitrarily long runs of composite numbers, there are therefore also arbitrarily long runs of composite Fibonacci numbers.No Fibonacci number greater than is one greater or one less than a prime number.The only nontrivial square Fibonacci number is 144.Attila Pethő proved in 2001 that there is only a finite number of perfect power Fibonacci numbers.", "In 2006, Y. Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, and S. Siksek proved that 8 and 144 are the only such non-trivial perfect powers.1, 3, 21, and 55 are the only triangular Fibonacci numbers, which was conjectured by Vern Hoggatt and proved by Luo Ming.No Fibonacci number can be a perfect number.", "More generally, no Fibonacci number other than 1 can be multiply perfect, and no ratio of two Fibonacci numbers can be perfect.=== Prime divisors ===With the exceptions of 1, 8 and 144 (, and ) every Fibonacci number has a prime factor that is not a factor of any smaller Fibonacci number (Carmichael's theorem).", "As a result, 8 and 144 ( and ) are the only Fibonacci numbers that are the product of other Fibonacci numbers.The divisibility of Fibonacci numbers by a prime is related to the Legendre symbol which is evaluated as follows:If is a prime number thenFor example,It is not known whether there exists a prime such thatSuch primes (if there are any) would be called Wall–Sun–Sun primes.Also, if is an odd prime number then:'''Example 1.'''", ", in this case and we have:'''Example 2.'''", ", in this case and we have:'''Example 3.'''", ", in this case and we have:'''Example 4.'''", ", in this case and we have:For odd , all odd prime divisors of are congruent to 1 modulo 4, implying that all odd divisors of (as the products of odd prime divisors) are congruent to 1 modulo 4.For example,All known factors of Fibonacci numbers for all are collected at the relevant repositories.=== Periodicity modulo ''n'' ===If the members of the Fibonacci sequence are taken mod , the resulting sequence is periodic with period at most .", "The lengths of the periods for various form the so-called Pisano periods.", "Determining a general formula for the Pisano periods is an open problem, which includes as a subproblem a special instance of the problem of finding the multiplicative order of a modular integer or of an element in a finite field.", "However, for any particular , the Pisano period may be found as an instance of cycle detection." ], [ "Generalizations", "The Fibonacci sequence is one of the simplest and earliest known sequences defined by a recurrence relation, and specifically by a linear difference equation.", "All these sequences may be viewed as generalizations of the Fibonacci sequence.", "In particular, Binet's formula may be generalized to any sequence that is a solution of a homogeneous linear difference equation with constant coefficients.Some specific examples that are close, in some sense, to the Fibonacci sequence include:* Generalizing the index to negative integers to produce the negafibonacci numbers.", "* Generalizing the index to real numbers using a modification of Binet's formula.", "* Starting with other integers.", "Lucas numbers have , , and .", "Primefree sequences use the Fibonacci recursion with other starting points to generate sequences in which all numbers are composite.", "* Letting a number be a linear function (other than the sum) of the 2 preceding numbers.", "The Pell numbers have .", "If the coefficient of the preceding value is assigned a variable value , the result is the sequence of Fibonacci polynomials.", "* Not adding the immediately preceding numbers.", "The Padovan sequence and Perrin numbers have .", "* Generating the next number by adding 3 numbers (tribonacci numbers), 4 numbers (tetranacci numbers), or more.", "The resulting sequences are known as ''n-Step Fibonacci numbers''." ], [ "Applications", "=== Mathematics ===The Fibonacci numbers are the sums of the diagonals (shown in red) of a left-justified Pascal's triangle.The Fibonacci numbers occur as the sums of binomial coefficients in the \"shallow\" diagonals of Pascal's triangle:This can be proved by expanding the generating functionand collecting like terms of .To see how the formula is used, we can arrange the sums by the number of terms present:: which is , where we are choosing the positions of twos from terms.Use of the Fibonacci sequence to count compositionsThese numbers also give the solution to certain enumerative problems, the most common of which is that of counting the number of ways of writing a given number as an ordered sum of 1s and 2s (called compositions); there are ways to do this (equivalently, it's also the number of domino tilings of the rectangle).", "For example, there are ways one can climb a staircase of 5 steps, taking one or two steps at a time:: The figure shows that 8 can be decomposed into 5 (the number of ways to climb 4 steps, followed by a single-step) plus 3 (the number of ways to climb 3 steps, followed by a double-step).", "The same reasoning is applied recursively until a single step, of which there is only one way to climb.The Fibonacci numbers can be found in different ways among the set of binary strings, or equivalently, among the subsets of a given set.", "* The number of binary strings of length without consecutive s is the Fibonacci number .", "For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4, there are without consecutive s—they are 0000, 0001, 0010, 0100, 0101, 1000, 1001, and 1010.Such strings are the binary representations of Fibbinary numbers.", "Equivalently, is the number of subsets of without consecutive integers, that is, those for which for every .", "A bijection with the sums to is to replace 1 with 0 and 2 with 10, and drop the last zero.", "* The number of binary strings of length without an odd number of consecutive s is the Fibonacci number .", "For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4, there are without an odd number of consecutive s—they are 0000, 0011, 0110, 1100, 1111.Equivalently, the number of subsets of without an odd number of consecutive integers is .", "A bijection with the sums to is to replace 1 with 0 and 2 with 11.", "* The number of binary strings of length without an even number of consecutive s or s is .", "For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4, there are without an even number of consecutive s or s—they are 0001, 0111, 0101, 1000, 1010, 1110.There is an equivalent statement about subsets.", "* Yuri Matiyasevich was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by a Diophantine equation, which led to his solving Hilbert's tenth problem.", "* The Fibonacci numbers are also an example of a complete sequence.", "This means that every positive integer can be written as a sum of Fibonacci numbers, where any one number is used once at most.", "* Moreover, every positive integer can be written in a unique way as the sum of ''one or more'' distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers.", "This is known as Zeckendorf's theorem, and a sum of Fibonacci numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation.", "The Zeckendorf representation of a number can be used to derive its Fibonacci coding.", "* Starting with 5, every second Fibonacci number is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer sides, or in other words, the largest number in a Pythagorean triple, obtained from the formula The sequence of Pythagorean triangles obtained from this formula has sides of lengths (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (16,30,34), (39,80,89), ... .", "The middle side of each of these triangles is the sum of the three sides of the preceding triangle.", "* The Fibonacci cube is an undirected graph with a Fibonacci number of nodes that has been proposed as a network topology for parallel computing.", "* Fibonacci numbers appear in the ring lemma, used to prove connections between the circle packing theorem and conformal maps.=== Computer science ===Balance factors green; heights red.The keys in the left spine are Fibonacci numbers.", "* The Fibonacci numbers are important in computational run-time analysis of Euclid's algorithm to determine the greatest common divisor of two integers: the worst case input for this algorithm is a pair of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.", "* Fibonacci numbers are used in a polyphase version of the merge sort algorithm in which an unsorted list is divided into two lists whose lengths correspond to sequential Fibonacci numbers—by dividing the list so that the two parts have lengths in the approximate proportion .", "A tape-drive implementation of the polyphase merge sort was described in ''The Art of Computer Programming''.", "* A Fibonacci tree is a binary tree whose child trees (recursively) differ in height by exactly 1.So it is an AVL tree, and one with the fewest nodes for a given height — the \"thinnest\" AVL tree.", "These trees have a number of vertices that is a Fibonacci number minus one, an important fact in the analysis of AVL trees.", "* Fibonacci numbers are used by some pseudorandom number generators.", "* Fibonacci numbers arise in the analysis of the Fibonacci heap data structure.", "* A one-dimensional optimization method, called the Fibonacci search technique, uses Fibonacci numbers.", "* The Fibonacci number series is used for optional lossy compression in the IFF 8SVX audio file format used on Amiga computers.", "The number series compands the original audio wave similar to logarithmic methods such as μ-law.", "* Some Agile teams use a modified series called the \"Modified Fibonacci Series\" in planning poker, as an estimation tool.", "Planning Poker is a formal part of the Scaled Agile Framework.", "* Fibonacci coding* Negafibonacci coding=== Nature ===Yellow chamomile head showing the arrangement in 21 (blue) and 13 (cyan) spirals.", "Such arrangements involving consecutive Fibonacci numbers appear in a wide variety of plants.Fibonacci sequences appear in biological settings, such as branching in trees, arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruitlets of a pineapple, the flowering of artichoke, the arrangement of a pine cone, and the family tree of honeybees.", "Kepler pointed out the presence of the Fibonacci sequence in nature, using it to explain the (golden ratio-related) pentagonal form of some flowers.", "Field daisies most often have petals in counts of Fibonacci numbers.", "In 1830, K. F. Schimper and A. Braun discovered that the parastichies (spiral phyllotaxis) of plants were frequently expressed as fractions involving Fibonacci numbers.Przemysław Prusinkiewicz advanced the idea that real instances can in part be understood as the expression of certain algebraic constraints on free groups, specifically as certain Lindenmayer grammars.Illustration of Vogel's model for A model for the pattern of florets in the head of a sunflower was proposed by in 1979.This has the formwhere is the index number of the floret and is a constant scaling factor; the florets thus lie on Fermat's spiral.", "The divergence angle, approximately 137.51°, is the golden angle, dividing the circle in the golden ratio.", "Because this ratio is irrational, no floret has a neighbor at exactly the same angle from the center, so the florets pack efficiently.", "Because the rational approximations to the golden ratio are of the form , the nearest neighbors of floret number are those at for some index , which depends on , the distance from the center.", "Sunflowers and similar flowers most commonly have spirals of florets in clockwise and counter-clockwise directions in the amount of adjacent Fibonacci numbers, typically counted by the outermost range of radii.Fibonacci numbers also appear in the pedigrees of idealized honeybees, according to the following rules:* If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a male or drone bee.", "* If, however, an egg was fertilized by a male, it hatches a female.Thus, a male bee always has one parent, and a female bee has two.", "If one traces the pedigree of any male bee (1 bee), he has 1 parent (1 bee), 2 grandparents, 3 great-grandparents, 5 great-great-grandparents, and so on.", "This sequence of numbers of parents is the Fibonacci sequence.", "The number of ancestors at each level, , is the number of female ancestors, which is , plus the number of male ancestors, which is .", "This is under the unrealistic assumption that the ancestors at each level are otherwise unrelated.The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence.", "(After Hutchison, L. \"Growing the Family Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships\".", ")It has been noticed that the number of possible ancestors on the human X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation also follows the Fibonacci sequence.", "A male individual has an X chromosome, which he received from his mother, and a Y chromosome, which he received from his father.", "The male counts as the \"origin\" of his own X chromosome (), and at his parents' generation, his X chromosome came from a single parent .", "The male's mother received one X chromosome from her mother (the son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome .", "The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother, and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her parents, so three great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome .", "Five great-great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome , etc.", "(This assumes that all ancestors of a given descendant are independent, but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually a population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.", ")===Other===* In optics, when a beam of light shines at an angle through two stacked transparent plates of different materials of different refractive indexes, it may reflect off three surfaces: the top, middle, and bottom surfaces of the two plates.", "The number of different beam paths that have reflections, for , is the -th Fibonacci number.", "(However, when , there are three reflection paths, not two, one for each of the three surfaces.", ")* Fibonacci retracement levels are widely used in technical analysis for financial market trading.", "* Since the conversion factor 1.609344 for miles to kilometers is close to the golden ratio, the decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors.", "This method amounts to a radix 2 number register in golden ratio base being shifted.", "To convert from kilometers to miles, shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence instead.", "* The measured values of voltages and currents in the infinite resistor chain circuit (also called the resistor ladder or infinite series-parallel circuit) follow the Fibonacci sequence.", "The intermediate results of adding the alternating series and parallel resistances yields fractions composed of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.", "The equivalent resistance of the entire circuit equals the golden ratio.", "* Brasch et al.", "2012 show how a generalized Fibonacci sequence also can be connected to the field of economics.", "In particular, it is shown how a generalized Fibonacci sequence enters the control function of finite-horizon dynamic optimisation problems with one state and one control variable.", "The procedure is illustrated in an example often referred to as the Brock–Mirman economic growth model.", "* Mario Merz included the Fibonacci sequence in some of his artworks beginning in 1970.", "* Joseph Schillinger (1895–1943) developed a system of composition which uses Fibonacci intervals in some of its melodies; he viewed these as the musical counterpart to the elaborate harmony evident within nature.", "See also ." ], [ "See also", "* * * * " ], [ "References", "=== Explanatory footnotes ====== Citations ======Works cited=== .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* * .", "" ], [ "External links", " * Periods of Fibonacci Sequences Mod m at MathPages* Scientists find clues to the formation of Fibonacci spirals in nature* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fontainebleau" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fontainebleau''' ( , , ) is a commune in the metropolitan area of Paris, France.", "It is located south-southeast of the centre of Paris.", "Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department, and it is the seat of the ''arrondissement'' of Fontainebleau.", "The commune has the largest land area in the Île-de-France region; it is the only one to cover a larger area than Paris itself.", "The commune is closest to Seine-et-Marne Prefecture, Melun.Fontainebleau, together with the neighbouring commune of Avon and three other smaller communes, form an urban area of 36,724 inhabitants (2018).", "This urban area is a satellite of Paris.Fontainebleau is renowned for the large and scenic forest of Fontainebleau, a favourite weekend getaway for Parisians, as well as for the historic Château de Fontainebleau, which once belonged to the kings of France.", "It is also the home of INSEAD, one of the world's most elite business schools.Inhabitants of Fontainebleau are sometimes called ''Bellifontains''." ], [ "History", "===Name===Fontaine Belle-Eau, the spring which gave its name to Fontainebleau According to the official chateau history, \"Fontainebleau\" took its name in the 16th century from the \"Fontaine Belle-Eau\", a natural fresh water spring located in the English garden not far from the chateau.", "The name means \"Spring of beautiful water\".", "In the 19th century the spring was rebuilt to flow into an octagonal stone basin.", "Before the 16th century, Fontainebleau was recorded in the Latinised forms ''Fons Bleaudi'', ''Fons Bliaudi'', and ''Fons Blaadi'' in the 12th and 13th centuries, and as ''Fontem blahaud'' in 1137.In the 17th century it was also sometimes called by the fanciful Latin ''Fons Bellaqueus'' This the origin of the name ''Bellifontains'' sometimes used for residents.A popular legend says that the spring and forest took their names from a favorite hunting dog of King Louis IX named \"Blaud\" or \"Blau\".", "According to the legend, during a hunt the dog became separated from the King, who finally found him by the spring.", "According to another source, the name comes from the medieval compound noun of ''fontaine'', meaning spring and fountain, and ''blitwald'', consisting of the Germanic personal name Blit and the Germanic word for forest.===Origins===This hamlet was endowed with a royal hunting lodge and a chapel by Louis VII in the middle of the twelfth century.", "A century later, Louis IX, also called Saint Louis, who held Fontainebleau in high esteem and referred to it as \"his wilderness\", had a country house and a hospital constructed there.Philip the Fair was born there in 1268 and died there in 1314.In all, thirty-four sovereigns, from Louis VI, the Fat, (1081–1137) to Napoleon III (1808–1873), spent time at Fontainebleau.The connection between the town of Fontainebleau and the French monarchy was reinforced with the transformation of the royal country house into a true royal palace, the Palace of Fontainebleau.", "This was accomplished by the great builder-king, Francis I (1494–1547), who, in the largest of his many construction projects, reconstructed, expanded, and transformed the royal château at Fontainebleau into a residence that became his favourite, as well as the residence of his mistress, Anne, duchess of Étampes.From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, every monarch, from Francis I to Louis XV, made important renovations at the Palace of Fontainebleau, including demolitions, reconstructions, additions, and embellishments of various descriptions, all of which endowed it with a character that is a bit heterogeneous, but harmonious nonetheless.Fontainebleau palace garden fountain and ''Grand canal''On 18 October 1685, Louis XIV signed the ''Edict of Fontainebleau'' there.", "Also known as the ''Revocation of the Edict of Nantes'', this royal fiat reversed the permission granted to the Huguenots in 1598 to worship publicly in specified locations and hold certain other privileges.", "The result was that a large number of Protestants were forced to convert to the Catholic faith, killed, or forced into exile, mainly in the Low Countries, Prussia and in England.The 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, a secret agreement between France and Spain concerning the Louisiana territory in North America, was concluded here.", "Also, preliminary negotiations, held before the 1763 Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years' War, were at Fontainebleau.During the French Revolution, Fontainebleau was temporarily renamed Fontaine-la-Montagne, meaning \"Fountain by the Mountain\".", "(The mountain referred to is the series of rocky formations located in the forest of Fontainebleau.", ")On 29 October 1807, Manuel Godoy, chancellor to the Spanish king, Charles IV and Napoleon signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which authorized the passage of French troops through Spanish territories so that they might invade Portugal.On 20 June 1812, Pope Pius VII arrived at the château of Fontainebleau, after a secret transfer from Savona, accompanied by his personal physician, Balthazard Claraz.", "In poor health, the Pope was the prisoner of Napoleon, and he remained in his genteel prison at Fontainebleau for nineteen months.", "From June 1812 until 23 January 1814, the Pope never left his apartments.On 20 April 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte, shortly before his first abdication, bid farewell to the Old Guard, the renowned ''grognards'' (gripers) who had served with him since his first campaigns, in the \"White Horse Courtyard\" (la cour du Cheval Blanc) at the Palace of Fontainebleau.", "(The courtyard has since been renamed the \"Courtyard of Goodbyes\".)", "According to contemporary sources, the occasion was very moving.", "The 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau stripped Napoleon of his powers (but not his title as Emperor of the French) and sent him into exile on Elba.Until the 19th century, Fontainebleau was a village and a suburb of Avon.", "Later, it developed as an independent residential city.Historical reenactment in Fontainebleau of the bicentenary of Napoleon's Farewell to the Old Guard, 20 April 2014.Napoleon is going down the famous stairs of Fontainebleau castle to meet with the Old Guard.For the 1924 Summer Olympics, the town played host to the riding portion of the modern pentathlon event.", "This event took place near a golf course.In July and August 1946, the town hosted the Franco-Vietnamese Conference, intended to find a solution to the long-contested struggle for Vietnam's independence from France, but the conference ended in failure.Fontainebleau also hosted the general staff of the Allied Forces in Central Europe (Allied Forces Center or AFCENT) and the land forces command (LANDCENT); the air forces command (AIRCENT) was located nearby at Camp Guynemer.", "These facilities were in place from the inception of NATO until France's partial withdrawal from NATO in 1967 when the United States returned those bases to French control.", "NATO moved AFCENT to Brunssum in the Netherlands and AIRCENT to Ramstein in West Germany.", "(The Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, also known as SHAPE, was located at Rocquencourt, west of Paris, quite a distance from Fontainebleau).In 2008, the men's World Championship of Real Tennis (Jeu de Paume) was held in the tennis court of the Chateau.", "The real tennis World Championship is the oldest in sport and Fontainebleau has one of only two active courts in France." ], [ "Population" ], [ "Tourism", "Fontainebleau is a popular tourist destination; each year, 300,000 people visit the palace and more than 13 million people visit the forest.===Fontainebleau forest===The forest of Fontainebleau surrounds the town and dozens of nearby villages.", "It is protected by France's ''Office National des Forêts'', and it is recognised as a French national park.", "It is managed in order that its wild plants and trees, such as the rare service tree of Fontainebleau, and its populations of birds, mammals, and butterflies, can be conserved.", "It is a former royal hunting park often visited by hikers and horse riders.", "The forest is also well regarded for bouldering and is particularly popular among climbers, as it is the biggest developed area of that kind in the world.===Royal Château de Fontainebleau===The Royal Château de Fontainebleau is a large palace where the kings of France took their ease.", "It is also the site where the French royal court, from 1528 onwards, entertained the body of new ideas that became known as the Renaissance.Town centre===INSEAD===The European (and historic) campus of the INSEAD business school is located at the edge of Fontainebleau, by the Lycee Francois Couperin.", "INSEAD students live in local accommodations around the Fontainebleau area, and especially in the surrounding towns.===Other notables===The graves of G. I. Gurdjieff and Katherine Mansfield can be found in the cemetery at Avon." ], [ "Transport", "Fontainebleau is served by two stations on the Transilien Paris–Lyon rail line: Fontainebleau–Avon and Thomery.", "Fontainebleau–Avon station, the station closest to the centre of Fontainebleau, is located near the dividing-line between the commune of Fontainebleau and the commune of Avon, on the Avon side of the border." ], [ "Hospital", "Fontainebleau has a campus of the Centre hospitalier Sud Seine et Marne." ], [ "Notable people", "* Aga Khan IV, international business magnate* Alfonso XIII, king of Spain, after his abdicationArnold Bennett (1867- 1931), writer, lived in Fontainebleau from 1908 to 1912 Rosa Bonheur, a 19th-century artist* Gabrièle Buffet-Picabia (1881–1985), art critic, first wife of painter Francis Picabia was born in Fontainebleau* Christina, Queen of Sweden; her lover, Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi, was murdered in Fontainebleau* Claude-François Denencourt, inventor of modern hiking and nature tourism* Jean-Claude Gorgy, French playwright born in Fontainebleu* Joseph Charles Hippolyte Crosse (1826–1898), conchologist, lived and died at Château d'Argeville, near Fontainebleau* Ernst August, Prince of Hanover and Caroline, Princess of Hanover* Lin Fengmian, Chinese painter who advocated the synthesis of Western techniques and Eastern traditions and later became known as the father of modern Chinese painting, brushed up on his French in Fontainebleau before moving on to study art at the Ecole Nationale Superieure des Beaux-Arts of Paris* Francis I of France, built a large part of the palace* Francis II of France, born in Fontainebleau* Henry III of France, born in Fontainebleau* Henry IV of France, built a part of the palace* Anna Elizabeth Klumpke, an early twentieth-century artist* Pierre Levassor (1808–1870), actor* Pascal Lecocq, born in 1958, fine art painter, study at École Comairas (1973–1977) and exhibit for the 1st time in 1977 ;* Louis XIII, king of France, born in Fontainebleau* Louis XIV of France, built a part of the palace* Louis XV, king of France, built a part of the palace* Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, king and queen of France, built a part of the palace* Mark Maggiori, lead vocalist of Pleymo* Katherine Mansfield (1888–1923), New Zealander short story writer, died in Fontainebleau* Oscar Milosz, poet, novelist, dramatist and Lithuanian diplomat died in Fontainebleau in 1939.", "* Louis Victoire Lux de Montmorin-Saint-Hérem (1762–1792), French military man* Napoleon* Napoleon III* Pope Pius VII, lived (as a prisoner of Napoleon) in the palace* Philip IV of France, born and died in Fontainebleau* Django Reinhardt, died near Fontainebleau, in Samois-sur-Seine* Robert Louis Stevenson, a Scottish novelist, poet, essayist, and travel writer* Romain Thievin, racing driver, born in Fontainebleau* Lilian Thuram, football player, World Cup and European Championship winner" ], [ "Twinning", "Fontainebleau is twinned with the following cities:* Konstanz, Germany, since 28 May 1960* Richmond-upon-Thames, England, United Kingdom, since 1977* Siem Reap, Cambodia, since 11 June 2000* Nanjing, China* Lodi, Italy since 2011* Sintra, Portugal since 2016* Alba Iulia, Romania since 2023" ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Chateau de Fontainebleau Fontaine de Diane 02.jpg\|The fountain of Diana File:FontainebleauTower.jpg\|Bell TowerFile:TrinityChapel.jpg\|The Trinity Chapel at the Palace of FontainebleauFile:La salle du Trône (Château de Fontainebleau).jpg\|The throne room at the Palace of Fontainebleau" ], [ "See also", "* Communauté d'agglomération du Pays de Fontainebleau* Fontainebleau rock climbing* * Milly-la-Forêt* Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)* Prehistoric rock engravings of the Fontainebleau forest=== Bibliography ===Jean-Francois Hebert and Thierry Sarmant, \"Fontainebleau- Milles anes d'histoire de France\", Texto, (2020) The Works of Robert Louis Stevenson, Miscellanies, Volume III, Edinburgh, Longmans Green and Co, 1895 \"Fontainebleau : Village Communities of Painters\" p.201-226" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fighter aircraft" ], [ "Introduction", "F-16 Fighting Falcon (left), P-51D Mustang (bottom), F-86 Sabre (top), and F-22 Raptor (right) fly in a formation representing four generations of American fighters.", "'''Fighter aircraft''' (early on also ''pursuit aircraft'') are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat.", "In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace.", "Domination of the airspace above a battlefield permits bombers and attack aircraft to engage in tactical and strategic bombing of enemy targets.The key performance features of a fighter include not only its firepower but also its high speed and maneuverability relative to the target aircraft.", "The success or failure of a combatant's efforts to gain air superiority hinges on several factors including the skill of its pilots, the tactical soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters, and the numbers and performance of those fighters.Many modern fighter aircraft also have secondary capabilities such as ground attack and some types, such as fighter-bombers, are designed from the outset for dual roles.", "Other fighter designs are highly specialized while still filling the main air superiority role, and these include the interceptor, heavy fighter, and night fighter." ], [ "History", "Airco DH.2 \"pusher\" scoutSince World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare.Fighters continued to be developed throughout World War I, to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance over the battlefield.", "Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were biplanes built with a wooden frame covered with fabric, and a maximum airspeed of about .", "As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important, all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations.", "Between the wars, wood was largely replaced in part or whole by metal tubing, and finally aluminum stressed skin structures (monocoque) began to predominate.By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of machine guns or cannons and some were capable of speeds approaching .", "Most fighters up to this point had one engine, but a number of twin-engine fighters were built; however they were found to be outmatched against single-engine fighters and were relegated to other tasks, such as night fighters equipped with primitive radar sets.By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed.", "Since the weight of the turbojet engine was far less than a piston engine, having two engines was no longer a handicap and one or two were used, depending on requirements.", "This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, and G-suits to counter the much greater forces being applied to the pilot during maneuvers.In the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since due to ever increasing air-to-air weapon ranges, pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for the opposition.", "Subsequently, radar capabilities grew enormously and are now the primary method of target acquisition.", "Wings were made thinner and swept back to reduce transonic drag, which required new manufacturing methods to obtain sufficient strength.", "Skins were no longer sheet metal riveted to a structure, but milled from large slabs of alloy.", "The sound barrier was broken, and after a few false starts due to required changes in controls, speeds quickly reached Mach 2, past which aircraft cannot maneuver sufficiently to avoid attack.Air-to-air missiles largely replaced guns and rockets in the early 1960s since both were believed unusable at the speeds being attained, however the Vietnam War showed that guns still had a role to play, and most fighters built since then are fitted with cannon (typically between in caliber) in addition to missiles.", "Most modern combat aircraft can carry at least a pair of air-to-air missiles.In the 1970s, turbofans replaced turbojets, improving fuel economy enough that the last piston engine support aircraft could be replaced with jets, making multi-role combat aircraft possible.", "Honeycomb structures began to replace milled structures, and the first composite components began to appear on components subjected to little stress.The USAF Lockheed Martin F-35AWith the steady improvements in computers, defensive systems have become increasingly efficient.", "To counter this, stealth technologies have been pursued by the United States, Russia, India and China.", "The first step was to find ways to reduce the aircraft's reflectivity to radar waves by burying the engines, eliminating sharp corners and diverting any reflections away from the radar sets of opposing forces.", "Various materials were found to absorb the energy from radar waves, and were incorporated into special finishes that have since found widespread application.", "Composite structures have become widespread, including major structural components, and have helped to counterbalance the steady increases in aircraft weight—most modern fighters are larger and heavier than World War II medium bombers.Because of the importance of air superiority, since the early days of aerial combat armed forces have constantly competed to develop technologically superior fighters and to deploy these fighters in greater numbers, and fielding a viable fighter fleet consumes a substantial proportion of the defense budgets of modern armed forces.The global combat aircraft market was worth $45.75 billion in 2017 and is projected by Frost & Sullivan at $47.2 billion in 2026: 35% modernization programs and 65% aircraft purchases, dominated by the Lockheed Martin F-35 with 3,000 deliveries over 20 years." ], [ "Classification", "A fighter aircraft is primarily designed for air-to-air combat.", "A given type may be designed for specific combat conditions, and in some cases for additional roles such as air-to-ground fighting.", "Historically the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force referred to them as \"scouts\" until the early 1920s, while the U.S. Army called them \"pursuit\" aircraft until the late 1940s.", "The UK changed to calling them fighters in the 1920s, while the US Army did so in the 1940s.", "A short-range fighter designed to defend against incoming enemy aircraft is known as an interceptor.Recognized classes of fighter include:* Air superiority fighter* Fighter-bomber* Heavy fighter* Interceptor* Light fighter* All-weather fighter (including the night fighter)* Reconnaissance fighter* Strategic fighter (including the escort fighter and strike fighter)Of these, the Fighter-bomber, reconnaissance fighter and strike fighter classes are dual-role, possessing qualities of the fighter alongside some other battlefield role.", "Some fighter designs may be developed in variants performing other roles entirely, such as ground attack or unarmed reconnaissance.", "This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, or other reasons.The Sopwith Camel and other \"fighting scouts\" of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work.", "In World War II, the USAAF and RAF often favored fighters over dedicated light bombers or dive bombers, and types such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and Hawker Hurricane that were no longer competitive as aerial combat fighters were relegated to ground attack.", "Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations though they had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons.", "The F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U.S. Navy, but it was canceled.", "This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for \"attack\" or \"strike\" operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs and incendiaries.", "Versatile multi role fighter-bombers such as the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types.Some of the most expensive fighters such as the US Grumman F-14 Tomcat, McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor and Russian Sukhoi Su-27 were employed as all-weather interceptors as well as air superiority fighter aircraft, while commonly developing air-to-ground roles late in their careers.", "An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target (or intercept) bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate.As a part of military nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use, along with a number to indicate the specific aircraft.", "The letters used to designate a fighter differ in various countries.", "In the English-speaking world, \"F\" is often now used to indicate a fighter (e.g.", "Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II or Supermarine Spitfire F.22), though \"P\" used to be used in the US for pursuit (e.g.", "Curtiss P-40 Warhawk), a translation of the French \"C\" (Dewoitine D.520 C.1) for ''Chasseur'' while in Russia \"I\" was used for ''Istrebitel'', or exterminator (Polikarpov I-16).=== Air superiority fighter ===As fighter types have proliferated, the air superiority fighter emerged as a specific role at the pinnacle of speed, maneuverability, and air-to-air weapon systems – able to hold its own against all other fighters and establish its dominance in the skies above the battlefield.===Interceptor===The interceptor is a fighter designed specifically to intercept and engage approaching enemy aircraft.", "There are two general classes of interceptor: relatively lightweight aircraft in the point-defence role, built for fast reaction, high performance and with a short range, and heavier aircraft with more comprehensive avionics and designed to fly at night or in all weathers and to operate over longer ranges.", "Originating during World War I, by 1929 this class of fighters had become known as the interceptor.=== Night and all-weather fighters ===The equipment necessary for daytime flight is inadequate when flying at night or in poor visibility.", "The night fighter was developed during World War I with additional equipment to aid the pilot in flying straight, navigating and finding the target.", "From modified variants of the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c in 1915, the night fighter has evolved into the highly capable all-weather fighter.===Strategic fighters===The strategic fighter is a fast, heavily armed and long-range type, able to act as an escort fighter protecting bombers, to carry out offensive sorties of its own as a penetration fighter and maintain standing patrols at significant distance from its home base.Bombers are vulnerable due to their low speed, large size and poor maneuvrability.", "The escort fighter was developed during World War II to come between the bombers and enemy attackers as a protective shield.", "The primary requirement was for long range, with several heavy fighters given the role.", "However they too proved unwieldy and vulnerable, so as the war progressed techniques such as drop tanks were developed to extend the range of more nimble conventional fighters.The penetration fighter is typically also fitted for the ground-attack role, and so is able to defend itself while conducting attack sorties." ], [ "Piston engine fighters", "=== 1914–1918: World War I ===SPAD S.A.2, with gunner in \"basket\" up frontThe word \"fighter\" was first used to describe a two-seat aircraft carrying a machine gun (mounted on a pedestal) and its operator as well as the pilot.", "Although the term was coined in the United Kingdom, the first examples were the French Voisin pushers beginning in 1910, and a Voisin III would be the first to shoot down another aircraft, on 5 October 1914.However at the outbreak of World War I, front-line aircraft were mostly unarmed and used almost exclusively for reconnaissance.", "On 15 August 1914, Miodrag Tomić encountered an enemy airplane while on a reconnaissance flight over Austria-Hungary which fired at his aircraft with a revolver, so Tomić fired back.", "It was believed to be the first exchange of fire between aircraft.", "Within weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian aircraft were armed.Another type of military aircraft formed the basis for an effective \"fighter\" in the modern sense of the word.", "It was based on small fast aircraft developed before the war for air racing such with the Gordon Bennett Cup and Schneider Trophy.", "The military scout airplane was not expected to carry serious armament, but rather to rely on speed to \"scout\" a location, and return quickly to report, making it a flying horse.", "British scout aircraft, in this sense, included the Sopwith Tabloid and Bristol Scout.", "The French and the Germans didn't have an equivalent as they used two seaters for reconnaissance, such as the Morane-Saulnier L, but would later modify pre-war racing aircraft into armed single seaters.", "It was quickly found that these were of little use since the pilot couldn't record what he saw while also flying, while military leaders usually ignored what the pilots reported.Attempts were made with handheld weapons such as pistols and rifles and even light machine guns, but these were ineffective and cumbersome.", "The next advance came with the fixed forward-firing machine gun, so that the pilot pointed the entire aircraft at the target and fired the gun, instead of relying on a second gunner.", "Roland Garros bolted metal deflector plates to the propeller so that it would not shoot itself out of the sky and a number of Morane-Saulnier Ns were modified.", "The technique proved effective, however the deflected bullets were still highly dangerous.Soon after the commencement of the war, pilots armed themselves with pistols, carbines, grenades, and an assortment of improvised weapons.", "Many of these proved ineffective as the pilot had to fly his airplane while attempting to aim a handheld weapon and make a difficult deflection shot.", "The first step in finding a real solution was to mount the weapon on the aircraft, but the propeller remained a problem since the best direction to shoot is straight ahead.", "Numerous solutions were tried.", "A second crew member behind the pilot could aim and fire a swivel-mounted machine gun at enemy airplanes; however, this limited the area of coverage chiefly to the rear hemisphere, and effective coordination of the pilot's maneuvering with the gunner's aiming was difficult.", "This option was chiefly employed as a defensive measure on two-seater reconnaissance aircraft from 1915 on.", "Both the SPAD S.A and the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.9 added a second crewman ahead of the engine in a pod but this was both hazardous to the second crewman and limited performance.", "The Sopwith L.R.T.Tr.", "similarly added a pod on the top wing with no better luck.Jules Védrines in his Nieuport 16, armed with a Lewis, after clearing the front line of German observation balloons with the first rocket attack in historyAn alternative was to build a \"pusher\" scout such as the Airco DH.2, with the propeller mounted behind the pilot.", "The main drawback was that the high drag of a pusher type's tail structure made it slower than a similar \"tractor\" aircraft.A better solution for a single seat scout was to mount the machine gun (rifles and pistols having been dispensed with) to fire forwards but outside the propeller arc.", "Wing guns were tried but the unreliable weapons available required frequent clearing of jammed rounds and misfires and remained impractical until after the war.", "Mounting the machine gun over the top wing worked well and was used long after the ideal solution was found.", "The Nieuport 11 of 1916 used this system with considerable success, however, this placement made aiming and reloading difficult but would continue to be used throughout the war as the weapons used were lighter and had a higher rate of fire than synchronized weapons.", "The British Foster mounting and several French mountings were specifically designed for this kind of application, fitted with either the Hotchkiss or Lewis Machine gun, which due to their design were unsuitable for synchronizing.", "The need to arm a tractor scout with a forward-firing gun whose bullets passed through the propeller arc was evident even before the outbreak of war and inventors in both France and Germany devised mechanisms that could time the firing of the individual rounds to avoid hitting the propeller blades.", "Franz Schneider, a Swiss engineer, had patented such a device in Germany in 1913, but his original work was not followed up.", "French aircraft designer Raymond Saulnier patented a practical device in April 1914, but trials were unsuccessful because of the propensity of the machine gun employed to hang fire due to unreliable ammunition.", "In December 1914, French aviator Roland Garros asked Saulnier to install his synchronization gear on Garros' Morane-Saulnier Type L parasol monoplane.", "Unfortunately the gas-operated Hotchkiss machine gun he was provided had an erratic rate of fire and it was impossible to synchronize it with the propeller.", "As an interim measure, the propeller blades were fitted with metal wedges to protect them from ricochets.", "Garros' modified monoplane first flew in March 1915 and he began combat operations soon after.", "Garros scored three victories in three weeks before he himself was downed on 18 April and his airplane, along with its synchronization gear and propeller was captured by the Germans.", "Meanwhile, the synchronization gear (called the ''Stangensteuerung'' in German, for \"pushrod control system\") devised by the engineers of Anthony Fokker's firm was the first system to enter service.", "It would usher in what the British called the \"Fokker scourge\" and a period of air superiority for the German forces, making the Fokker ''Eindecker'' monoplane a feared name over the Western Front, despite its being an adaptation of an obsolete pre-war French Morane-Saulnier racing airplane, with poor flight characteristics and a by now mediocre performance.", "The first ''Eindecker'' victory came on 1 July 1915, when ''Leutnant'' Kurt Wintgens, of ''Feldflieger Abteilung 6'' on the Western Front, downed a Morane-Saulnier Type L. His was one of five Fokker M.5K/MG prototypes for the ''Eindecker'', and was armed with a synchronized aviation version of the Parabellum MG14 machine gun.", "The success of the ''Eindecker'' kicked off a competitive cycle of improvement among the combatants, both sides striving to build ever more capable single-seat fighters.", "The Albatros D.I and Sopwith Pup of 1916 set the classic pattern followed by fighters for about twenty years.", "Most were biplanes and only rarely monoplanes or triplanes.", "The strong box structure of the biplane provided a rigid wing that allowed the accurate control essential for dogfighting.", "They had a single operator, who flew the aircraft and also controlled its armament.", "They were armed with one or two Maxim or Vickers machine guns, which were easier to synchronize than other types, firing through the propeller arc.", "Gun breeches were in front of the pilot, with obvious implications in case of accidents, but jams could be cleared in flight, while aiming was simplified.A replica German Fokker Dr.IThe use of metal aircraft structures was pioneered before World War I by Breguet but would find its biggest proponent in Anthony Fokker, who used chrome-molybdenum steel tubing for the fuselage structure of all his fighter designs, while the innovative German engineer Hugo Junkers developed two all-metal, single-seat fighter monoplane designs with cantilever wings: the strictly experimental Junkers J 2 private-venture aircraft, made with steel, and some forty examples of the Junkers D.I, made with corrugated duralumin, all based on his experience in creating the pioneering Junkers J 1 all-metal airframe technology demonstration aircraft of late 1915.While Fokker would pursue steel tube fuselages with wooden wings until the late 1930s, and Junkers would focus on corrugated sheet metal, Dornier was the first to build a fighter (the Dornier-Zeppelin D.I) made with pre-stressed sheet aluminum and having cantilevered wings, a form that would replace all others in the 1930s.", "As collective combat experience grew, the more successful pilots such as Oswald Boelcke, Max Immelmann, and Edward Mannock developed innovative tactical formations and maneuvers to enhance their air units' combat effectiveness.Allied and – before 1918 – German pilots of World War I were not equipped with parachutes, so in-flight fires or structural failures were often fatal.", "Parachutes were well-developed by 1918 having previously been used by balloonists, and were adopted by the German flying services during the course of that year.", "The well known and feared Manfred von Richthofen, the \"Red Baron\", was wearing one when he was killed, but the allied command continued to oppose their use on various grounds.In April 1917, during a brief period of German aerial supremacy a British pilot's average life expectancy was calculated to average 93 flying hours, or about three weeks of active service.", "More than 50,000 airmen from both sides died during the war.=== 1919–1938: Inter-war period ===Fighter development stagnated between the wars, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom, where budgets were small.", "In France, Italy and Russia, where large budgets continued to allow major development, both monoplanes and all metal structures were common.", "By the end of the 1920s, however, those countries overspent themselves and were overtaken in the 1930s by those powers that hadn't been spending heavily, namely the British, the Americans and the Germans.Given limited budgets, air forces were conservative in aircraft design, and biplanes remained popular with pilots for their agility, and remained in service long after they ceased to be competitive.", "Designs such as the Gloster Gladiator, Fiat CR.42 Falco, and Polikarpov I-15 were common even in the late 1930s, and many were still in service as late as 1942.Up until the mid-1930s, the majority of fighters in the US, the UK, Italy and Russia remained fabric-covered biplanes.Fighter armament eventually began to be mounted inside the wings, outside the arc of the propeller, though most designs retained two synchronized machine guns directly ahead of the pilot, where they were more accurate (that being the strongest part of the structure, reducing the vibration to which the guns were subjected).", "Shooting with this traditional arrangement was also easier because the guns shot directly ahead in the direction of the aircraft's flight, up to the limit of the guns range; unlike wing-mounted guns which to be effective required to be harmonised, that is, preset to shoot at an angle by ground crews so that their bullets would converge on a target area a set distance ahead of the fighter.", "Rifle-caliber calibre guns remained the norm, with larger weapons either being too heavy and cumbersome or deemed unnecessary against such lightly built aircraft.", "It was not considered unreasonable to use World War I-style armament to counter enemy fighters as there was insufficient air-to-air combat during most of the period to disprove this notion.Nieuport-Delage NiD.52, which in various forms would be used through the 20s and into the 1930s by various European air arms, including that of the French and Spanish.", "The rotary engine, popular during World War I, quickly disappeared, its development having reached the point where rotational forces prevented more fuel and air from being delivered to the cylinders, which limited horsepower.", "They were replaced chiefly by the stationary radial engine though major advances led to inline engines gaining ground with several exceptional engines—including the V-12 Curtiss D-12.Aircraft engines increased in power several-fold over the period, going from a typical in the Fokker D.VII of 1918 to in the Curtiss P-36 of 1936.The debate between the sleek in-line engines versus the more reliable radial models continued, with naval air forces preferring the radial engines, and land-based forces often choosing inlines.", "Radial designs did not require a separate (and vulnerable) radiator, but had increased drag.", "Inline engines often had a better power-to-weight ratio.Some air forces experimented with \"heavy fighters\" (called \"destroyers\" by the Germans).", "These were larger, usually twin-engined aircraft, sometimes adaptations of light or medium bomber types.", "Such designs typically had greater internal fuel capacity (thus longer range) and heavier armament than their single-engine counterparts.", "In combat, they proved vulnerable to more agile single-engine fighters.The primary driver of fighter innovation, right up to the period of rapid re-armament in the late 1930s, were not military budgets, but civilian aircraft racing.", "Aircraft designed for these races introduced innovations like streamlining and more powerful engines that would find their way into the fighters of World War II.", "The most significant of these was the Schneider Trophy races, where competition grew so fierce, only national governments could afford to enter.At the very end of the inter-war period in Europe came the Spanish Civil War.", "This was just the opportunity the German ''Luftwaffe'', Italian ''Regia Aeronautica'', and the Soviet Union's ''Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily'' needed to test their latest aircraft.", "Each party sent numerous aircraft types to support their sides in the conflict.", "In the dogfights over Spain, the latest Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters did well, as did the Soviet Polikarpov I-16.The later German design was earlier in its design cycle, and had more room for development and the lessons learned led to greatly improved models in World War II.", "The Russians failed to keep up and despite newer models coming into service, I-16s remaining the most common Soviet front-line fighter into 1942 despite being outclassed by the improved Bf 109s in World War II.", "For their part, the Italians developed several monoplanes such as the Fiat G.50 Freccia, but being short on funds, were forced to continue operating obsolete Fiat CR.42 Falco biplanes.From the early 1930s the Japanese were at war against both the Chinese Nationalists and the Russians in China, and used the experience to improve both training and aircraft, replacing biplanes with modern cantilever monoplanes and creating a cadre of exceptional pilots.", "In the United Kingdom, at the behest of Neville Chamberlain (more famous for his 'peace in our time' speech), the entire British aviation industry was retooled, allowing it to change quickly from fabric covered metal framed biplanes to cantilever stressed skin monoplanes in time for the war with Germany, a process that France attempted to emulate, but too late to counter the German invasion.", "The period of improving the same biplane design over and over was now coming to an end, and the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire started to supplant the Gloster Gladiator and Hawker Fury biplanes but many biplanes remained in front-line service well past the start of World War II.", "While not a combatant in Spain, they too absorbed many of the lessons in time to use them.The Spanish Civil War also provided an opportunity for updating fighter tactics.", "One of the innovations was the development of the \"finger-four\" formation by the German pilot Werner Mölders.", "Each fighter squadron (German: ''Staffel'') was divided into several flights (''Schwärme'') of four aircraft.", "Each ''Schwarm'' was divided into two ''Rotten'', which was a pair of aircraft.", "Each ''Rotte'' was composed of a leader and a wingman.", "This flexible formation allowed the pilots to maintain greater situational awareness, and the two ''Rotten'' could split up at any time and attack on their own.", "The finger-four would be widely adopted as the fundamental tactical formation during World War Two, including by the British and later the Americans.=== 1939–1945: World War II === Messerschmitt Bf 109E warbird demonstrator World War II featured fighter combat on a larger scale than any other conflict to date.", "German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel noted the effect of airpower: \"Anyone who has to fight, even with the most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage…\" Throughout the war, fighters performed their conventional role in establishing air superiority through combat with other fighters and through bomber interception, and also often performed roles such as tactical air support and reconnaissance.Fighter design varied widely among combatants.", "The Japanese and Italians favored lightly armed and armored but highly maneuverable designs such as the Japanese Nakajima Ki-27, Nakajima Ki-43 and Mitsubishi A6M Zero and the Italian Fiat G.50 Freccia and Macchi MC.200.In contrast, designers in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Soviet Union, and the United States believed that the increased speed of fighter aircraft would create ''g''-forces unbearable to pilots who attempted maneuvering dogfights typical of the First World War, and their fighters were instead optimized for speed and firepower.", "In practice, while light, highly maneuverable aircraft did possess some advantages in fighter-versus-fighter combat, those could usually be overcome by sound tactical doctrine, and the design approach of the Italians and Japanese made their fighters ill-suited as interceptors or attack aircraft.==== European theater ====During the invasion of Poland and the Battle of France, Luftwaffe fighters—primarily the Messerschmitt Bf 109—held air superiority, and the Luftwaffe played a major role in German victories in these campaigns.", "During the Battle of Britain, however, British Hurricanes and Spitfires proved roughly equal to Luftwaffe fighters.", "Additionally Britain's radar-based Dowding system directing fighters onto German attacks and the advantages of fighting above Britain's home territory allowed the RAF to deny Germany air superiority, saving the UK from possible German invasion and dealing the Axis a major defeat early in the Second World War.", "On the Eastern Front, Soviet fighter forces were overwhelmed during the opening phases of Operation Barbarossa.", "This was a result of the tactical surprise at the outset of the campaign, the leadership vacuum within the Soviet military left by the Great Purge, and the general inferiority of Soviet designs at the time, such as the obsolescent Polikarpov I-15 biplane and the I-16.More modern Soviet designs, including the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3, LaGG-3 and Yakolev Yak-1, had not yet arrived in numbers and in any case were still inferior to the Messerschmitt Bf 109.As a result, during the early months of these campaigns, Axis air forces destroyed large numbers of Red Air Force aircraft on the ground and in one-sided dogfights.", "In the later stages on the Eastern Front, Soviet training and leadership improved, as did their equipment.", "By 1942 Soviet designs such as the Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-5 had performance comparable to the German Bf 109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190.Also, significant numbers of British, and later U.S., fighter aircraft were supplied to aid the Soviet war effort as part of Lend-Lease, with the Bell P-39 Airacobra proving particularly effective in the lower-altitude combat typical of the Eastern Front.", "The Soviets were also helped indirectly by the American and British bombing campaigns, which forced the Luftwaffe to shift many of its fighters away from the Eastern Front in defense against these raids.", "The Soviets increasingly were able to challenge the Luftwaffe, and while the Luftwaffe maintained a qualitative edge over the Red Air Force for much of the war, the increasing numbers and efficacy of the Soviet Air Force were critical to the Red Army's efforts at turning back and eventually annihilating the Wehrmacht.", "A Supermarine Spitfire, typical World War II fighter optimized for high level speeds and good climb rates.Meanwhile, air combat on the Western Front had a much different character.", "Much of this combat focused on the strategic bombing campaigns of the RAF and the USAAF against German industry intended to wear down the Luftwaffe.", "Axis fighter aircraft focused on defending against Allied bombers while Allied fighters' main role was as bomber escorts.", "The RAF raided German cities at night, and both sides developed radar-equipped night fighters for these battles.", "The Americans, in contrast, flew daylight bombing raids into Germany delivering the Combined Bomber Offensive.", "Unescorted Consolidated B-24 Liberators and Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers, however, proved unable to fend off German interceptors (primarily Bf 109s and Fw 190s).", "With the later arrival of long range fighters, particularly the North American P-51 Mustang, American fighters were able to escort far into Germany on daylight raids and by ranging ahead attrited the Luftwaffe to establish control of the skies over Western Europe.By the time of Operation Overlord in June 1944, the Allies had gained near complete air superiority over the Western Front.", "This cleared the way both for intensified strategic bombing of German cities and industries, and for the tactical bombing of battlefield targets.", "With the Luftwaffe largely cleared from the skies, Allied fighters increasingly served as ground attack aircraft.Allied fighters, by gaining air superiority over the European battlefield, played a crucial role in the eventual defeat of the Axis, which ''Reichmarshal'' Hermann Göring, commander of the German ''Luftwaffe'' summed up when he said: \"When I saw Mustangs over Berlin, I knew the jig was up.", "\"==== Pacific theater ====Major air combat during the war in the Pacific began with the entry of the Western Allies following Japan's attack against Pearl Harbor.", "The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service primarily operated the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, and the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service flew the Nakajima Ki-27 and the Nakajima Ki-43, initially enjoying great success, as these fighters generally had better range, maneuverability, speed and climb rates than their Allied counterparts.", "Additionally, Japanese pilots were well trained and many were combat veterans from Japan's campaigns in China.", "They quickly gained air superiority over the Allies, who at this stage of the war were often disorganized, under-trained and poorly equipped, and Japanese air power contributed significantly to their successes in the Philippines, Malaysia and Singapore, the Dutch East Indies and Burma.By mid-1942, the Allies began to regroup and while some Allied aircraft such as the Brewster Buffalo and the P-39 Airacobra were hopelessly outclassed by fighters like Japan's Mitsubishi A6M Zero, others such as the Army's Curtiss P-40 Warhawk and the Navy's Grumman F4F Wildcat possessed attributes such as superior firepower, ruggedness and dive speed, and the Allies soon developed tactics (such as the Thach Weave) to take advantage of these strengths.", "These changes soon paid dividends, as the Allied ability to deny Japan air superiority was critical to their victories at Coral Sea, Midway, Guadalcanal and New Guinea.", "In China, the Flying Tigers also used the same tactics with some success, although they were unable to stem the tide of Japanese advances there.By 1943, the Allies began to gain the upper hand in the Pacific Campaign's air campaigns.", "Several factors contributed to this shift.", "First, the Lockheed P-38 Lightning and second-generation Allied fighters such as the Grumman F6 Hellcat and later the Vought F4 Corsair, the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and the North American P-51 Mustang, began arriving in numbers.", "These fighters outperformed Japanese fighters in all respects except maneuverability.", "Other problems with Japan's fighter aircraft also became apparent as the war progressed, such as their lack of armor and light armament, which had been typical of all pre-war fighters worldwide, but the problem was particularly difficult to rectify on the Japanese designs.", "This made them inadequate as either bomber-interceptors or ground-attack aircraft, roles Allied fighters were still able to fill.", "Most importantly, Japan's training program failed to provide enough well-trained pilots to replace losses.", "In contrast, the Allies improved both the quantity and quality of pilots graduating from their training programs.", "By mid-1944, Allied fighters had gained air superiority throughout the theater, which would not be contested again during the war.", "The extent of Allied quantitative and qualitative superiority by this point in the war was demonstrated during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, a lopsided Allied victory in which Japanese fliers were shot down in such numbers and with such ease that American fighter pilots likened it to a great 'turkey shoot'.", "Late in the war, Japan began to produce new fighters such as the Nakajima Ki-84 and the Kawanishi N1K to replace the Zero, but only in small numbers, and by then Japan lacked the trained pilots or sufficient fuel to mount an effective challenge to Allied attacks.", "During the closing stages of the war, Japan's fighter arm could not seriously challenge raids over Japan by American Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, and was largely reduced to Kamikaze attacks.==== Technological innovations ====Grumman F4F-3 Wildcat, early 1942Fighter technology advanced rapidly during the Second World War.", "Piston-engines, which powered the vast majority of World War II fighters, grew more powerful: at the beginning of the war fighters typically had engines producing between and , while by the end of the war many could produce over .", "For example, the Spitfire, one of the few fighters in continuous production throughout the war, was in 1939 powered by a Merlin II, while variants produced in 1945 were equipped with the Rolls-Royce Griffon 61.Nevertheless, these fighters could only achieve modest increases in top speed due to problems of compressibility created as aircraft and their propellers approached the sound barrier, and it was apparent that propeller-driven aircraft were approaching the limits of their performance.", "German jet and rocket-powered fighters entered combat in 1944, too late to impact the war's outcome.", "The same year the Allies' only operational jet fighter, the Gloster Meteor, also entered service.m World War II fighters also increasingly featured monocoque construction, which improved their aerodynamic efficiency while adding structural strength.", "Laminar flow wings, which improved high speed performance, also came into use on fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, while the Messerschmitt Me 262 and the Messerschmitt Me 163 featured swept wings that dramatically reduced drag at high subsonic speeds.", "Armament also advanced during the war.", "The rifle-caliber machine guns that were common on prewar fighters could not easily down the more rugged warplanes of the era.", "Air forces began to replace or supplement them with cannons, which fired explosive shells that could blast a hole in an enemy aircraft – rather than relying on kinetic energy from a solid bullet striking a critical component of the aircraft, such as a fuel line or control cable, or the pilot.", "Cannons could bring down even heavy bombers with just a few hits, but their slower rate of fire made it difficult to hit fast-moving fighters in a dogfight.", "Eventually, most fighters mounted cannons, sometimes in combination with machine guns.", "The British epitomized this shift.", "Their standard early war fighters mounted eight caliber machine guns, but by mid-war they often featured a combination of machine guns and cannons, and late in the war often only cannons.", "The Americans, in contrast, had problems producing a cannon design, so instead placed multiple heavy machine guns on their fighters.", "Fighters were also increasingly fitted with bomb racks and air-to-surface ordnance such as bombs or rockets beneath their wings, and pressed into close air support roles as fighter-bombers.", "Although they carried less ordnance than light and medium bombers, and generally had a shorter range, they were cheaper to produce and maintain and their maneuverability made it easier for them to hit moving targets such as motorized vehicles.", "Moreover, if they encountered enemy fighters, their ordnance (which reduced lift and increased drag and therefore decreased performance) could be jettisoned and they could engage enemy fighters, which eliminated the need for fighter escorts that bombers required.Heavily armed fighters such as Germany's Focke-Wulf Fw 190, Britain's Hawker Typhoon and Hawker Tempest, and America's Curtiss P-40, F4 Corsair, P-47 Thunderbolt and P-38 Lightning all excelled as fighter-bombers, and since the Second World War ground attack has become an important secondary capability of many fighters.World War II also saw the first use of airborne radar on fighters.", "The primary purpose of these radars was to help night fighters locate enemy bombers and fighters.", "Because of the bulkiness of these radar sets, they could not be carried on conventional single-engined fighters and instead were typically retrofitted to larger heavy fighters or light bombers such as Germany's Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Junkers Ju 88, Britain's de Havilland Mosquito and Bristol Beaufighter, and America's Douglas A-20, which then served as night fighters.", "The Northrop P-61 Black Widow, a purpose-built night fighter, was the only fighter of the war that incorporated radar into its original design.", "Britain and America cooperated closely in the development of airborne radar, and Germany's radar technology generally lagged slightly behind Anglo-American efforts, while other combatants developed few radar-equipped fighters.=== 1946–present: Post–World War II period ===North American P-51D Mustang during WWIISeveral prototype fighter programs begun early in 1945 continued on after the war and led to advanced piston-engine fighters that entered production and operational service in 1946.A typical example is the Lavochkin La-9 'Fritz', which was an evolution of the successful wartime Lavochkin La-7 'Fin'.", "Working through a series of prototypes, the La-120, La-126 and La-130, the Lavochkin design bureau sought to replace the La-7's wooden airframe with a metal one, as well as fit a laminar flow wing to improve maneuver performance, and increased armament.", "The La-9 entered service in August 1946 and was produced until 1948; it also served as the basis for the development of a long-range escort fighter, the La-11 'Fang', of which nearly 1200 were produced 1947–51.Over the course of the Korean War, however, it became obvious that the day of the piston-engined fighter was coming to a close and that the future would lie with the jet fighter.This period also witnessed experimentation with jet-assisted piston engine aircraft.", "La-9 derivatives included examples fitted with two underwing auxiliary pulsejet engines (the La-9RD) and a similarly mounted pair of auxiliary ramjet engines (the La-138); however, neither of these entered service.", "One that did enter service – with the U.S. Navy in March 1945 – was the Ryan FR-1 Fireball; production was halted with the war's end on VJ-Day, with only 66 having been delivered, and the type was withdrawn from service in 1947.The USAAF had ordered its first 13 mixed turboprop-turbojet-powered pre-production prototypes of the Consolidated Vultee XP-81 fighter, but this program was also canceled by VJ Day, with 80% of the engineering work completed." ], [ "Rocket-powered fighters", "The first rocket-powered aircraft was the Lippisch Ente, which made a successful maiden flight in March 1928.The only pure rocket aircraft ever mass-produced was the Messerschmitt Me 163B ''Komet'' in 1944, one of several German World War II projects aimed at developing high speed, point-defense aircraft.", "Later variants of the Me 262 (C-1a and C-2b) were also fitted with \"mixed-power\" jet/rocket powerplants, while earlier models were fitted with rocket boosters, but were not mass-produced with these modifications.The USSR experimented with a rocket-powered interceptor in the years immediately following World War II, the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-270.Only two were built.In the 1950s, the British developed mixed-power jet designs employing both rocket and jet engines to cover the performance gap that existed in turbojet designs.", "The rocket was the main engine for delivering the speed and height required for high-speed interception of high-level bombers and the turbojet gave increased fuel economy in other parts of flight, most notably to ensure the aircraft was able to make a powered landing rather than risking an unpredictable gliding return.The Saunders-Roe SR.53 was a successful design, and was planned for production when economics forced the British to curtail most aircraft programs in the late 1950s.", "Furthermore, rapid advancements in jet engine technology rendered mixed-power aircraft designs like Saunders-Roe's SR.53 (and the following SR.177) obsolete.", "The American Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor –the first U.S. fighter to exceed Mach 1 in level flight– met a similar fate for the same reason, and no hybrid rocket-and-jet-engine fighter design has ever been placed into service.The only operational implementation of mixed propulsion was Rocket-Assisted Take Off (RATO), a system rarely used in fighters, such as with the zero-length launch, RATO-based takeoff scheme from special launch platforms, tested out by both the United States and the Soviet Union, and made obsolete with advancements in surface-to-air missile technology." ], [ "Jet-powered fighters", "The Messerschmitt Me 262 was one of the fastest aircraft of WWII and the first mass produced aircraft to use jet engine technology.It has become common in the aviation community to classify jet fighters by \"generations\" for historical purposes.", "No official definitions of these generations exist; rather, they represent the notion of stages in the development of fighter-design approaches, performance capabilities, and technological evolution.", "Different authors have packed jet fighters into different generations.", "For example, Richard P. Hallion of the Secretary of the Air Force's Action Group classified the F-16 as a sixth-generation jet fighter.The timeframes associated with each generation remain inexact and are only indicative of the period during which their design philosophies and technology employment enjoyed a prevailing influence on fighter design and development.", "These timeframes also encompass the peak period of service entry for such aircraft.=== 1940s–1950s: First-generation ===The first generation of jet fighters comprised the initial, subsonic jet-fighter designs introduced late in World War II (1939–1945) and in the early post-war period.", "They differed little from their piston-engined counterparts in appearance, and many employed unswept wings.", "Guns and cannon remained the principal armament.", "The need to obtain a decisive advantage in maximum speed pushed the development of turbojet-powered aircraft forward.", "Top speeds for fighters rose steadily throughout World War II as more powerful piston engines developed, and they approached transonic flight-speeds where the efficiency of propellers drops off, making further speed increases nearly impossible.The first jets developed during World War II and saw combat in the last two years of the war.", "Messerschmitt developed the first operational jet fighter, the Me 262A, primarily serving with the Luftwaffe's JG 7, the world's first jet-fighter wing.", "It was considerably faster than contemporary piston-driven aircraft, and in the hands of a competent pilot, proved quite difficult for Allied pilots to defeat.", "The Luftwaffe never deployed the design in numbers sufficient to stop the Allied air campaign, and a combination of fuel shortages, pilot losses, and technical difficulties with the engines kept the number of sorties low.", "Nevertheless, the Me 262 indicated the obsolescence of piston-driven aircraft.", "Spurred by reports of the German jets, Britain's Gloster Meteor entered production soon after, and the two entered service around the same time in 1944.Meteors commonly served to intercept the V-1 flying bomb, as they were faster than available piston-engined fighters at the low altitudes used by the flying bombs.", "Nearer the end of World War II, the first military jet-powered light-fighter design, the Luftwaffe intended the Heinkel He 162A ''Spatz'' (sparrow) to serve as a simple jet fighter for German home defense, with a few examples seeing squadron service with JG 1 by April 1945.By the end of the war almost all work on piston-powered fighters had ended.", "A few designs combining piston- and jet-engines for propulsion – such as the Ryan FR Fireball – saw brief use, but by the end of the 1940s virtually all new fighters were jet-powered.Despite their advantages, the early jet-fighters were far from perfect.", "The operational lifespan of turbines were very short and engines were temperamental, while power could be adjusted only slowly and acceleration was poor (even if top speed was higher) compared to the final generation of piston fighters.", "Many squadrons of piston-engined fighters remained in service until the early to mid-1950s, even in the air forces of the major powers (though the types retained were the best of the World War II designs).", "Innovations including ejection seats, air brakes and all-moving tailplanes became widespread in this period.The Gloster Meteor was Britain's first jet fighter and the Allies' only jet aircraft used during World War II\|leftThe Americans began using jet fighters operationally after World War II, the wartime Bell P-59 having proven a failure.", "The Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star (soon re-designated F-80) was more prone to wave drag than the swept-wing Me 262, but had a cruise speed () as high as the maximum speed attainable by many piston-engined fighters.", "The British designed several new jets, including the distinctive single-engined twin boom de Havilland Vampire which Britain sold to the air forces of many nations.The British transferred the technology of the Rolls-Royce Nene jet-engine to the Soviets, who soon put it to use in their advanced Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighter, which used fully swept wings that allowed flying closer to the speed of sound than straight-winged designs such as the F-80.The MiG-15s' top speed of proved quite a shock to the American F-80 pilots who encountered them in the Korean War, along with their armament of two cannons and a single cannon.", "Nevertheless, in the first jet-versus-jet dogfight, which occurred during the Korean War on 8 November 1950, an F-80 shot down two North Korean MiG-15s.The Americans responded by rushing their own swept-wing fighter – the North American F-86 Sabre – into battle against the MiGs, which had similar transsonic performance.", "The two aircraft had different strengths and weaknesses, but were similar enough that victory could go either way.", "While the Sabres focused primarily on downing MiGs and scored favorably against those flown by the poorly-trained North Koreans, the MiGs in turn decimated US bomber formations and forced the withdrawal of numerous American types from operational service.The world's navies also transitioned to jets during this period, despite the need for catapult-launching of the new aircraft.", "The U.S. Navy adopted the Grumman F9F Panther as their primary jet fighter in the Korean War period, and it was one of the first jet fighters to employ an afterburner.", "The de Havilland Sea Vampire became the Royal Navy's first jet fighter.", "Radar was used on specialized night-fighters such as the Douglas F3D Skyknight, which also downed MiGs over Korea, and later fitted to the McDonnell F2H Banshee and swept-wing Vought F7U Cutlass and McDonnell F3H Demon as all-weather / night fighters.", "Early versions of Infra-red (IR) air-to-air missiles (AAMs) such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder and radar-guided missiles such as the AIM-7 Sparrow whose descendants remain in use , were first introduced on swept-wing subsonic Demon and Cutlass naval fighters.=== 1950s–1960s: Second-generation ===English Electric LightningTechnological breakthroughs, lessons learned from the aerial battles of the Korean War, and a focus on conducting operations in a nuclear warfare environment shaped the development of second-generation fighters.", "Technological advances in aerodynamics, propulsion and aerospace building-materials (primarily aluminum alloys) permitted designers to experiment with aeronautical innovations such as swept wings, delta wings, and area-ruled fuselages.", "Widespread use of afterburning turbojet engines made these the first production aircraft to break the sound barrier, and the ability to sustain supersonic speeds in level flight became a common capability amongst fighters of this generation.Fighter designs also took advantage of new electronics technologies that made effective radars small enough to carry aboard smaller aircraft.", "Onboard radars permitted detection of enemy aircraft beyond visual range, thereby improving the handoff of targets by longer-ranged ground-based warning- and tracking-radars.", "Similarly, advances in guided-missile development allowed air-to-air missiles to begin supplementing the gun as the primary offensive weapon for the first time in fighter history.", "During this period, passive-homing infrared-guided (IR) missiles became commonplace, but early IR missile sensors had poor sensitivity and a very narrow field of view (typically no more than 30°), which limited their effective use to only close-range, tail-chase engagements.", "Radar-guided (RF) missiles were introduced as well, but early examples proved unreliable.", "These semi-active radar homing (SARH) missiles could track and intercept an enemy aircraft \"painted\" by the launching aircraft's onboard radar.", "Medium- and long-range RF air-to-air missiles promised to open up a new dimension of \"beyond-visual-range\" (BVR) combat, and much effort concentrated on further development of this technology.The prospect of a potential third world war featuring large mechanized armies and nuclear-weapon strikes led to a degree of specialization along two design approaches: interceptors, such as the English Electric Lightning and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F; and fighter-bombers, such as the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and the Sukhoi Su-7B.", "Dogfighting, ''per se'', became de-emphasized in both cases.", "The interceptor was an outgrowth of the vision that guided missiles would completely replace guns and combat would take place at beyond-visual ranges.", "As a result, strategists designed interceptors with a large missile-payload and a powerful radar, sacrificing agility in favor of high speed, altitude ceiling and rate of climb.", "With a primary air-defense role, emphasis was placed on the ability to intercept strategic bombers flying at high altitudes.", "Specialized point-defense interceptors often had limited range and few, if any, ground-attack capabilities.", "Fighter-bombers could swing between air-superiority and ground-attack roles, and were often designed for a high-speed, low-altitude dash to deliver their ordnance.", "Television- and IR-guided air-to-surface missiles were introduced to augment traditional gravity bombs, and some were also equipped to deliver a nuclear bomb.===1960s–1970s: Third-generation jet fighters===leftThe third generation witnessed continued maturation of second-generation innovations, but it is most marked by renewed emphases on maneuverability and on traditional ground-attack capabilities.", "Over the course of the 1960s, increasing combat experience with guided missiles demonstrated that combat would devolve into close-in dogfights.", "Analog avionics began to appear, replacing older \"steam-gauge\" cockpit instrumentation.", "Enhancements to the aerodynamic performance of third-generation fighters included flight control surfaces such as canards, powered slats, and blown flaps.", "A number of technologies would be tried for vertical/short takeoff and landing, but thrust vectoring would be successful on the Harrier.Growth in air-combat capability focused on the introduction of improved air-to-air missiles, radar systems, and other avionics.", "While guns remained standard equipment (early models of F-4 being a notable exception), air-to-air missiles became the primary weapons for air-superiority fighters, which employed more sophisticated radars and medium-range RF AAMs to achieve greater \"stand-off\" ranges, however, kill probabilities proved unexpectedly low for RF missiles due to poor reliability and improved electronic countermeasures (ECM) for spoofing radar seekers.", "Infrared-homing AAMs saw their fields of view expand to 45°, which strengthened their tactical usability.", "Nevertheless, the low dogfight loss-exchange ratios experienced by American fighters in the skies over Vietnam led the U.S. Navy to establish its famous \"TOPGUN\" fighter-weapons school, which provided a graduate-level curriculum to train fleet fighter-pilots in advanced Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) and Dissimilar air combat training (DACT) tactics and techniques.This era also saw an expansion in ground-attack capabilities, principally in guided missiles, and witnessed the introduction of the first truly effective avionics for enhanced ground attack, including terrain-avoidance systems.", "Air-to-surface missiles (ASM) equipped with electro-optical (E-O) contrast seekers – such as the initial model of the widely used AGM-65 Maverick – became standard weapons, and laser-guided bombs (LGBs) became widespread in an effort to improve precision-attack capabilities.", "Guidance for such precision-guided munitions (PGM) was provided by externally-mounted targeting pods, which were introduced in the mid-1960s.The third generation also led to the development of new automatic-fire weapons, primarily chain-guns that use an electric motor to drive the mechanism of a cannon.", "This allowed a plane to carry a single multi-barrel weapon (such as the Vulcan), and provided greater accuracy and rates of fire.", "Powerplant reliability increased, and jet engines became \"smokeless\" to make it harder to sight aircraft at long distances.Dedicated ground-attack aircraft (like the Grumman A-6 Intruder, SEPECAT Jaguar and LTV A-7 Corsair II) offered longer range, more sophisticated night-attack systems or lower cost than supersonic fighters.", "With variable-geometry wings, the supersonic F-111 introduced the Pratt & Whitney TF30, the first turbofan equipped with afterburner.", "The ambitious project sought to create a versatile common fighter for many roles and services.", "It would serve well as an all-weather bomber, but lacked the performance to defeat other fighters.", "The McDonnell F-4 Phantom was designed to capitalize on radar and missile technology as an all-weather interceptor, but emerged as a versatile strike-bomber nimble enough to prevail in air combat, adopted by the U.S. Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps.", "Despite numerous shortcomings that would not be fully addressed until newer fighters, the Phantom claimed 280 aerial kills (more than any other U.S. fighter) over Vietnam.", "With range and payload capabilities that rivaled that of World War II bombers such as B-24 Liberator, the Phantom would become a highly successful multirole aircraft.=== 1970s–2000s: Fourth-generation ===U.S.", "Air Force McDonnell F-15 EagleFourth-generation fighters continued the trend towards multirole configurations, and were equipped with increasingly sophisticated avionics- and weapon-systems.", "Fighter designs were significantly influenced by the Energy-Maneuverability (E-M) theory developed by Colonel John Boyd and mathematician Thomas Christie, based upon Boyd's combat experience in the Korean War and as a fighter-tactics instructor during the 1960s.", "E-M theory emphasized the value of aircraft-specific energy maintenance as an advantage in fighter combat.", "Boyd perceived maneuverability as the primary means of getting \"inside\" an adversary's decision-making cycle, a process Boyd called the \"OODA loop\" (for \"Observation-Orientation-Decision-Action\").", "This approach emphasized aircraft designs capable of performing \"fast transients\" – quick changes in speed, altitude, and direction – as opposed to relying chiefly on high speed alone.E-M characteristics were first applied to the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, but Boyd and his supporters believed these performance parameters called for a small, lightweight aircraft with a larger, higher-lift wing.", "The small size would minimize drag and increase the thrust-to-weight ratio, while the larger wing would minimize wing loading; while the reduced wing loading tends to lower top speed and can cut range, it increases payload capacity and the range reduction can be compensated for by increased fuel in the larger wing.", "The efforts of Boyd's \"Fighter mafia\" would result in the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon (now Lockheed Martin's).The F-16's maneuverability was further enhanced by its slight aerodynamic instability.", "This technique, called \"relaxed static stability\" (RSS), was made possible by introduction of the \"fly-by-wire\" (FBW) flight-control system (FLCS), which in turn was enabled by advances in computers and in system-integration techniques.", "Analog avionics, required to enable FBW operations, became a fundamental requirement, but began to be replaced by digital flight-control systems in the latter half of the 1980s.", "Likewise, Full Authority Digital Engine Controls (FADEC) to electronically manage powerplant performance was introduced with the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan.", "The F-16's sole reliance on electronics and wires to relay flight commands, instead of the usual cables and mechanical linkage controls, earned it the sobriquet of \"the electric jet\".", "Electronic FLCS and FADEC quickly became essential components of all subsequent fighter designs.", "A MiG-31 of the leftOther innovative technologies introduced in fourth-generation fighters included pulse-Doppler fire-control radars (providing a \"look-down/shoot-down\" capability), head-up displays (HUD), \"hands on throttle-and-stick\" (HOTAS) controls, and multi-function displays (MFD), all essential equipment .", "Aircraft designers began to incorporate composite materials in the form of bonded-aluminum honeycomb structural elements and graphite epoxy laminate skins to reduce weight.", "Infrared search-and-track (IRST) sensors became widespread for air-to-ground weapons delivery, and appeared for air-to-air combat as well.", "\"All-aspect\" IR AAM became standard air superiority weapons, which permitted engagement of enemy aircraft from any angle (although the field of view remained relatively limited).", "The first long-range active-radar-homing RF AAM entered service with the AIM-54 Phoenix, which solely equipped the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, one of the few variable-sweep-wing fighter designs to enter production.", "Even with the tremendous advancement of air-to-air missiles in this era, internal guns were standard equipment.Another revolution came in the form of a stronger reliance on ease of maintenance, which led to standardization of parts, reductions in the numbers of access panels and lubrication points, and overall parts reduction in more complicated equipment like the engines.", "Some early jet fighters required 50 man-hours of work by a ground crew for every hour the aircraft was in the air; later models substantially reduced this to allow faster turn-around times and more sorties in a day.", "Some modern military aircraft only require 10-man-hours of work per hour of flight time, and others are even more efficient.Aerodynamic innovations included variable-camber wings and exploitation of the vortex lift effect to achieve higher angles of attack through the addition of leading-edge extension devices such as strakes.Unlike interceptors of the previous eras, most fourth-generation air-superiority fighters were designed to be agile dogfighters (although the Mikoyan MiG-31 and Panavia Tornado ADV are notable exceptions).", "The continually rising cost of fighters, however, continued to emphasize the value of multirole fighters.", "The need for both types of fighters led to the \"high/low mix\" concept, which envisioned a high-capability and high-cost core of dedicated air-superiority fighters (like the F-15 and Su-27) supplemented by a larger contingent of lower-cost multi-role fighters (such as the F-16 and MiG-29).", "An F/A-18C HornetMost fourth-generation fighters, such as the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, HAL Tejas, JF-17 and Dassault Mirage 2000, are true multirole warplanes, designed as such from the start.", "This was facilitated by multimode avionics that could switch seamlessly between air and ground modes.", "The earlier approaches of adding on strike capabilities or designing separate models specialized for different roles generally became ''passé'' (with the Panavia Tornado being an exception in this regard).", "Attack roles were generally assigned to dedicated ground-attack aircraft such as the Sukhoi Su-25 and the A-10 Thunderbolt II.A typical US Air Force fighter wing of the period might contain a mix of one air superiority squadron (F-15C), one strike fighter squadron (F-15E), and two multirole fighter squadrons (F-16C).", "Perhaps the most novel technology introduced for combat aircraft was ''stealth'', which involves the use of special \"low-observable\" (L-O) materials and design techniques to reduce the susceptibility of an aircraft to detection by the enemy's sensor systems, particularly radars.", "The first stealth aircraft introduced were the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk attack aircraft (introduced in 1983) and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber (first flew in 1989).", "Although no stealthy fighters per se appeared among the fourth generation, some radar-absorbent coatings and other L-O treatments developed for these programs are reported to have been subsequently applied to fourth-generation fighters.==== 1990s–2000s: 4.5-generation ====The end of the Cold War in 1992 led many governments to significantly decrease military spending as a \"peace dividend\".", "Air force inventories were cut.", "Research and development programs working on \"fifth-generation\" fighters took serious hits.", "Many programs were canceled during the first half of the 1990s, and those that survived were \"stretched out\".", "While the practice of slowing the pace of development reduces annual investment expenses, it comes at the penalty of increased overall program and unit costs over the long-term.", "In this instance, however, it also permitted designers to make use of the tremendous achievements being made in the fields of computers, avionics and other flight electronics, which had become possible largely due to the advances made in microchip and semiconductor technologies in the 1980s and 1990s.", "This opportunity enabled designers to develop fourth-generation designs – or redesigns – with significantly enhanced capabilities.", "These improved designs have become known as \"Generation 4.5\" fighters, recognizing their intermediate nature between the 4th and 5th generations, and their contribution in furthering development of individual fifth-generation technologies.The primary characteristics of this sub-generation are the application of advanced digital avionics and aerospace materials, modest signature reduction (primarily RF \"stealth\"), and highly integrated systems and weapons.", "These fighters have been designed to operate in a \"network-centric\" battlefield environment and are principally multirole aircraft.", "Key weapons technologies introduced include beyond-visual-range (BVR) AAMs; Global Positioning System (GPS)–guided weapons, solid-state phased-array radars; helmet-mounted sights; and improved secure, jamming-resistant datalinks.", "Thrust vectoring to further improve transient maneuvering capabilities has also been adopted by many 4.5th generation fighters, and uprated powerplants have enabled some designs to achieve a degree of \"supercruise\" ability.", "Stealth characteristics are focused primarily on frontal-aspect radar cross section (RCS) signature-reduction techniques including radar-absorbent materials (RAM), L-O coatings and limited shaping techniques.", "\"Half-generation\" designs are either based on existing airframes or are based on new airframes following similar design theory to previous iterations; however, these modifications have introduced the structural use of composite materials to reduce weight, greater fuel fractions to increase range, and signature reduction treatments to achieve lower RCS compared to their predecessors.", "Prime examples of such aircraft, which are based on new airframe designs making extensive use of carbon-fiber composites, include the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, Saab JAS 39 Gripen, and HAL Tejas Mark 1A.", "A Dassault Rafale over RIAT in 2009\|leftApart from these fighter jets, most of the 4.5 generation aircraft are actually modified variants of existing airframes from the earlier fourth generation fighter jets.", "Such fighter jets are generally heavier and examples include the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, which is an evolution of the F/A-18 Hornet, the F-15E Strike Eagle, which is a ground-attack/multi-role variant of the F-15 Eagle, the Su-30SM and Su-35S modified variants of the Sukhoi Su-27, and the MiG-35 upgraded version of the Mikoyan MiG-29.The Su-30SM/Su-35S and MiG-35 feature thrust vectoring engine nozzles to enhance maneuvering.", "The upgraded version of F-16 is also considered a member of the 4.5 generation aircraft.Generation 4.5 fighters first entered service in the early 1990s, and most of them are still being produced and evolved.", "It is quite possible that they may continue in production alongside fifth-generation fighters due to the expense of developing the advanced level of stealth technology needed to achieve aircraft designs featuring very low observables (VLO), which is one of the defining features of fifth-generation fighters.", "Of the 4.5th generation designs, the Strike Eagle, Super Hornet, Typhoon, Gripen, and Rafale have been used in combat.The U.S. government has defined 4.5 generation fighter aircraft as those that \"(1) have advanced capabilities, including— (A) AESA radar; (B) high capacity data-link; and (C) enhanced avionics; and (2) have the ability to deploy current and reasonably foreseeable advanced armaments.", "\"=== 2000s–2020s: Fifth-generation ===Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22 Raptor at the 2008 Joint Services Open House airshowCurrently the cutting edge of fighter design, fifth-generation fighters are characterized by being designed from the start to operate in a network-centric combat environment, and to feature extremely low, all-aspect, multi-spectral signatures employing advanced materials and shaping techniques.", "They have multifunction AESA radars with high-bandwidth, low-probability of intercept (LPI) data transmission capabilities.", "The infra-red search and track sensors incorporated for air-to-air combat as well as for air-to-ground weapons delivery in the 4.5th generation fighters are now fused in with other sensors for Situational Awareness IRST or SAIRST, which constantly tracks all targets of interest around the aircraft so the pilot need not guess when he glances.", "These sensors, along with advanced avionics, glass cockpits, helmet-mounted sights (not currently on F-22), and improved secure, jamming-resistant LPI datalinks are highly integrated to provide multi-platform, multi-sensor data fusion for vastly improved situational awareness while easing the pilot's workload.", "Avionics suites rely on extensive use of very high-speed integrated circuit (VHSIC) technology, common modules, and high-speed data buses.", "Overall, the integration of all these elements is claimed to provide fifth-generation fighters with a \"first-look, first-shot, first-kill capability\".A key attribute of fifth-generation fighters is a small radar cross-section.", "Great care has been taken in designing its layout and internal structure to minimize RCS over a broad bandwidth of detection and tracking radar frequencies; furthermore, to maintain its VLO signature during combat operations, primary weapons are carried in internal weapon bays that are only briefly opened to permit weapon launch.", "Furthermore, stealth technology has advanced to the point where it can be employed without a tradeoff with aerodynamics performance, in contrast to previous stealth efforts.", "Some attention has also been paid to reducing IR signatures, especially on the F-22.Detailed information on these signature-reduction techniques is classified, but in general includes special shaping approaches, thermoset and thermoplastic materials, extensive structural use of advanced composites, conformal sensors, heat-resistant coatings, low-observable wire meshes to cover intake and cooling vents, heat ablating tiles on the exhaust troughs (seen on the Northrop YF-23), and coating internal and external metal areas with radar-absorbent materials and paint (RAM/RAP).The AESA radar offers unique capabilities for fighters (and it is also quickly becoming essential for Generation 4.5 aircraft designs, as well as being retrofitted onto some fourth-generation aircraft).", "In addition to its high resistance to ECM and LPI features, it enables the fighter to function as a sort of \"mini-AWACS\", providing high-gain electronic support measures (ESM) and electronic warfare (EW) jamming functions.", "Other technologies common to this latest generation of fighters includes integrated electronic warfare system (INEWS) technology, integrated communications, navigation, and identification (CNI) avionics technology, centralized \"vehicle health monitoring\" systems for ease of maintenance, fiber optics data transmission, stealth technology and even hovering capabilities.", "Maneuver performance remains important and is enhanced by thrust-vectoring, which also helps reduce takeoff and landing distances.", "Supercruise may or may not be featured; it permits flight at supersonic speeds without the use of the afterburner – a device that significantly increases IR signature when used in full military power.", "A Sukhoi Su-57 of the Russian Air ForceSuch aircraft are sophisticated and expensive.", "The fifth generation was ushered in by the Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22 Raptor in late 2005.The U.S. Air Force originally planned to acquire 650 F-22s, but now only 187 will be built.", "As a result, its unit flyaway cost (FAC) is around US$150 million.", "To spread the development costs – and production base – more broadly, the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program enrolls eight other countries as cost- and risk-sharing partners.", "Altogether, the nine partner nations anticipate procuring over 3,000 Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighters at an anticipated average FAC of $80–85 million.", "The F-35, however, is designed to be a family of three aircraft, a conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) fighter, a short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) fighter, and a Catapult Assisted Take Off But Arrested Recovery (CATOBAR) fighter, each of which has a different unit price and slightly varying specifications in terms of fuel capacity (and therefore range), size and payload.Other countries have initiated fifth-generation fighter development projects.", "In December 2010, it was discovered that China is developing the 5th generation fighter Chengdu J-20.The J-20 took its maiden flight in January 2011.The Shenyang FC-31 took its maiden flight on 31 October 2012, and developed a carrier-based version based on Chinese aircraft carriers.", "United Aircraft Corporation with Russia's Mikoyan LMFS and Sukhoi Su-75 Checkmate plan, Sukhoi Su-57 became the first fifth-generation fighter jets in service with the Russian Aerospace Forces on 2020, and launch missiles in the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2022.Japan is exploring its technical feasibility to produce fifth-generation fighters.", "India is developing the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), a medium weight stealth fighter jet designated to enter into serial production by late 2030s.", "India also had initiated a joint fifth generation heavy fighter with Russia called the FGFA.", "May, the project is suspected to have not yielded desired progress or results for India and has been put on hold or dropped altogether.", "Other countries considering fielding an indigenous or semi-indigenous advanced fifth generation aircraft include South Korea, Sweden, Turkey and Pakistan.=== 2020s–present: Sixth-generation ===As of November 2018, France, Germany, China, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States have announced the development of a sixth-generation aircraft program.France and Germany will develop a joint sixth-generation fighter to replace their current fleet of Dassault Rafales, Eurofighter Typhoons, and Panavia Tornados by 2035.The overall development will be led by a collaboration of Dassault and Airbus, while the engines will reportedly be jointly developed by Safran and MTU Aero Engines.", "Thales and MBDA are also seeking a stake in the project.", "Spain officially joined the Franco-German project to develop a Next-Generation Fighter (NGF) that will form part of a broader Future Combat Air Systems (FCAS) with the signing of a letter of intent (LOI) on February 14, 2019.Currently at the concept stage, the first sixth-generation jet fighter is expected to enter service in the United States Navy in 2025–30 period.", "The USAF seeks a new fighter for the 2030–50 period named the \"Next Generation Tactical Aircraft\" (\"Next Gen TACAIR\").", "The US Navy looks to replace its F/A-18E/F Super Hornets beginning in 2025 with the Next Generation Air Dominance air superiority fighter.The United Kingdom's proposed stealth fighter is being developed by a European consortium called ''Team Tempest'', consisting of BAE Systems, Rolls-Royce, Leonardo S.p.A. and MBDA.", "The aircraft is intended to enter service in 2035." ], [ "Weapons", "M61 20 mm gun installation on West German Lockheed F-104G StarfighterFighters were typically armed with guns only for air to air combat up through the late 1950s, though unguided rockets for mostly air to ground use and limited air to air use were deployed in WWII.", "From the late 1950s forward guided missiles came into use for air to air combat.", "Throughout this history fighters which by surprise or maneuver attain a good firing position have achieved the kill about one third to one half the time, no matter what weapons were carried.", "The only major historic exception to this has been the low effectiveness shown by guided missiles in the first one to two decades of their existence.From WWI to the present, fighter aircraft have featured machine guns and automatic cannons as weapons, and they are still considered as essential back-up weapons today.", "The power of air-to-air guns has increased greatly over time, and has kept them relevant in the guided missile era.", "In WWI two rifle (approximately 0.30) caliber machine guns was the typical armament, producing a weight of fire of about per second.", "In WWII rifle caliber machine guns also remained common, though usually in larger numbers or supplemented with much heavier 0.50 caliber machine guns or cannons.", "The standard WWII American fighter armament of six 0.50-cal (12.7mm) machine guns fired a bullet weight of approximately 3.7 kg/sec (8.1 lbs/sec), at a muzzle velocity of 856 m/s (2,810 ft/s).", "British and German aircraft tended to use a mix of machine guns and autocannon, the latter firing explosive projectiles.", "Later British fighters were exclusively cannon-armed, the US were not able to produce a reliable cannon in high numbers and most fighters remained equipped only with heavy machine guns despite the US Navy pressing for a change to 20mm.Post war 20–30 mm revolver cannon and rotary cannon were introduced.", "The modern M61 Vulcan 20 mm rotary cannon that is standard on current American fighters fires a projectile weight of about 10 kg/s (22 lb/s), nearly three times that of six 0.50-cal machine guns, with higher velocity of 1,052 m/s (3450 ft/s) supporting a flatter trajectory, and with exploding projectiles.", "Modern fighter gun systems also feature ranging radar and lead computing electronic gun sights to ease the problem of aim point to compensate for projectile drop and time of flight (target lead) in the complex three dimensional maneuvering of air-to-air combat.", "However, getting in position to use the guns is still a challenge.", "The range of guns is longer than in the past but still quite limited compared to missiles, with modern gun systems having a maximum effective range of approximately 1,000 meters.", "High probability of kill also requires firing to usually occur from the rear hemisphere of the target.", "Despite these limits, when pilots are well trained in air-to-air gunnery and these conditions are satisfied, gun systems are tactically effective and highly cost efficient.", "The cost of a gun firing pass is far less than firing a missile, and the projectiles are not subject to the thermal and electronic countermeasures than can sometimes defeat missiles.", "When the enemy can be approached to within gun range, the lethality of guns is approximately a 25% to 50% chance of \"kill per firing pass\".The range limitations of guns, and the desire to overcome large variations in fighter pilot skill and thus achieve higher force effectiveness, led to the development of the guided air-to-air missile.", "There are two main variations, heat-seeking (infrared homing), and radar guided.", "Radar missiles are typically several times heavier and more expensive than heat-seekers, but with longer range, greater destructive power, and ability to track through clouds.AIM-9 Sidewinder (underwing pylon) and AIM-120 AMRAAM (wingtip) carried by lightweight F-16 fighterThe highly successful AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking (infrared homing) short-range missile was developed by the United States Navy in the 1950s.", "These small missiles are easily carried by lighter fighters, and provide effective ranges of approximately 10 to 35 km (~6 to 22 miles).", "Beginning with the AIM-9L in 1977, subsequent versions of Sidewinder have added all-aspect capability, the ability to use the lower heat of air to skin friction on the target aircraft to track from the front and sides.", "The latest (2003 service entry) AIM-9X also features \"off-boresight\" and \"lock on after launch\" capabilities, which allow the pilot to make a quick launch of a missile to track a target anywhere within the pilot's vision.", "The AIM-9X development cost was U.S. $3 billion in mid to late 1990s dollars, and 2015 per unit procurement cost is $0.6 million each.", "The missile weighs 85.3 kg (188 lbs), and has a maximum range of 35 km (22 miles) at higher altitudes.", "Like most air-to-air missiles, lower altitude range can be as limited as only about one third of maximum due to higher drag and less ability to coast downward.The effectiveness of infrared homing missiles was only 7% early in the Vietnam War, but improved to approximately 15%–40% over the course of the war.", "The AIM-4 Falcon used by the USAF had kill rates of approximately 7% and was considered a failure.", "The AIM-9B Sidewinder introduced later achieved 15% kill rates, and the further improved AIM-9D and J models reached 19%.", "The AIM-9G used in the last year of the Vietnam air war achieved 40%.", "Israel used almost totally guns in the 1967 Six-Day War, achieving 60 kills and 10 losses.", "However, Israel made much more use of steadily improving heat-seeking missiles in the 1973 Yom Kippur War.", "In this extensive conflict Israel scored 171 of 261 total kills with heat-seeking missiles (65.5%), 5 kills with radar guided missiles (1.9%), and 85 kills with guns (32.6%).", "The AIM-9L Sidewinder scored 19 kills out of 26 fired missiles (73%) in the 1982 Falklands War.", "But, in a conflict against opponents using thermal countermeasures, the United States only scored 11 kills out of 48 fired (Pk = 23%) with the follow-on AIM-9M in the 1991 Gulf War.Radar guided missiles fall into two main missile guidance types.", "In the historically more common semi-active radar homing case the missile homes in on radar signals transmitted from launching aircraft and reflected from the target.", "This has the disadvantage that the firing aircraft must maintain radar lock on the target and is thus less free to maneuver and more vulnerable to attack.", "A widely deployed missile of this type was the AIM-7 Sparrow, which entered service in 1954 and was produced in improving versions until 1997.In more advanced active radar homing the missile is guided to the vicinity of the target by internal data on its projected position, and then \"goes active\" with an internally carried small radar system to conduct terminal guidance to the target.", "This eliminates the requirement for the firing aircraft to maintain radar lock, and thus greatly reduces risk.", "A prominent example is the AIM-120 AMRAAM, which was first fielded in 1991 as the AIM-7 replacement, and which has no firm retirement date .", "The current AIM-120D version has a maximum high altitude range of greater than 160 km (>99 miles), and cost approximately $2.4 million each (2016).", "As is typical with most other missiles, range at lower altitude may be as little as one third that of high altitude.In the Vietnam air war radar missile kill reliability was approximately 10% at shorter ranges, and even worse at longer ranges due to reduced radar return and greater time for the target aircraft to detect the incoming missile and take evasive action.", "At one point in the Vietnam war, the U.S. Navy fired 50 AIM-7 Sparrow radar guided missiles in a row without a hit.", "Between 1958 and 1982 in five wars there were 2,014 combined heat-seeking and radar guided missile firings by fighter pilots engaged in air-to-air combat, achieving 528 kills, of which 76 were radar missile kills, for a combined effectiveness of 26%.", "However, only four of the 76 radar missile kills were in the beyond-visual-range mode intended to be the strength of radar guided missiles.", "The United States invested over $10 billion in air-to-air radar missile technology from the 1950s to the early 1970s.", "Amortized over actual kills achieved by the U.S. and its allies, each radar guided missile kill thus cost over $130 million.", "The defeated enemy aircraft were for the most part older MiG-17s, −19s, and −21s, with new cost of $0.3 million to $3 million each.", "Thus, the radar missile investment over that period far exceeded the value of enemy aircraft destroyed, and furthermore had very little of the intended BVR effectiveness.MBDA Meteor, an ARH BVR AAM used on the Eurofighter Typhoon, Saab JAS 39 Gripen, Lockheed Martin F-35, and Dassault Rafale\|alt=However, continuing heavy development investment and rapidly advancing electronic technology led to significant improvement in radar missile reliabilities from the late 1970s onward.", "Radar guided missiles achieved 75% Pk (9 kills out of 12 shots) in operations in the Gulf War in 1991.The percentage of kills achieved by radar guided missiles also surpassed 50% of total kills for the first time by 1991.Since 1991, 20 of 61 kills worldwide have been beyond-visual-range using radar missiles.", "Discounting an accidental friendly fire kill, in operational use the AIM-120D (the current main American radar guided missile) has achieved 9 kills out of 16 shots for a 56% Pk.", "Six of these kills were BVR, out of 13 shots, for a 46% BVR Pk.", "Though all these kills were against less capable opponents who were not equipped with operating radar, electronic countermeasures, or a comparable weapon themselves, the BVR Pk was a significant improvement from earlier eras.", "However, a current concern is electronic countermeasures to radar missiles, which are thought to be reducing the effectiveness of the AIM-120D.", "Some experts believe that the European Meteor missile, the Russian R-37M, and the Chinese PL-15 are more resistant to countermeasures and more effective than the AIM-120D.Now that higher reliabilities have been achieved, both types of missiles allow the fighter pilot to often avoid the risk of the short-range dogfight, where only the more experienced and skilled fighter pilots tend to prevail, and where even the finest fighter pilot can simply get unlucky.", "Taking maximum advantage of complicated missile parameters in both attack and defense against competent opponents does take considerable experience and skill, but against surprised opponents lacking comparable capability and countermeasures, air-to-air missile warfare is relatively simple.", "By partially automating air-to-air combat and reducing reliance on gun kills mostly achieved by only a small expert fraction of fighter pilots, air-to-air missiles now serve as highly effective force multipliers." ], [ "See also", "* List of fighter aircraft* List of United States fighter aircraft* Warbird" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * **Munson, Kenneth (1976).", "''Fighters Attack and Training Aircraft 1914-1919'', Revised Edn, Blandford.", "****** " ], [ "External links", " Fighter generations comparison chart on theaviationist.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 25" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===138 – Roman emperor Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius as his son, effectively making him his successor.", " 628 – Khosrow II, the last great Shah of the Sasanian Empire (Iran), is overthrown by his son Kavadh II.", "1336 – Four thousand defenders of Pilenai commit mass suicide rather than be taken captive by the Teutonic Knights.===1601–1900===1705 – George Frideric Handel's opera ''Nero'' premiered in Hamburg.", "1836 – Samuel Colt is granted a United States patent for his revolver firearm.", "1843 – Lord George Paulet occupies the Kingdom of Hawaii in the name of Great Britain in the Paulet affair.", "1870 – Hiram Rhodes Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, becoming the first African American ever to sit in Congress.", "1875 – Guangxu Emperor of Qing dynasty China begins his reign, under Empress Dowager Cixi's regency.===1901–present===1912 – Marie-Adélaïde, the eldest of six daughters of Guillaume IV, becomes the first reigning Grand Duchess of Luxembourg.", "1916 – World War I: In the Battle of Verdun, a German unit captures Fort Douaumont, keystone of the French defences, without a fight.", "1918 – World War I: German forces capture Tallinn to virtually complete the occupation of Estonia.", "1921 – Georgian capital Tbilisi falls to the invading Russian forces after heavy fighting and the Russians declare the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic.", "1932 – Hitler, having been stateless for seven years, obtains German citizenship when he is appointed a Brunswick state official by Dietrich Klagges, a fellow Nazi.", "As a result, Hitler is able to run for Reichspräsident in the 1932 election.", "1933 – Launch of the at Newport News, Virginia.", "It is the first purpose-built aircraft carrier to be commissioned by the US Navy.", "1939 – As part of British air raid precautions, the first of 2.5 million Anderson shelters is constructed in a garden in Islington, north London.", "1941 – The outlawed Communist Party of the Netherlands organises a general strike in German-occupied Amsterdam to protest against Nazi persecution of Dutch Jews.", "1947 – The formal abolition of Prussia is proclaimed by the Allied Control Council, the Prussian government having already been abolished by the ''Preußenschlag'' of 1932.", " 1947 – Soviet NKVD forces in Hungary abduct Béla Kovács—secretary-general of the majority Independent Smallholders' Party—and deport him to the USSR in defiance of Parliament.", "His arrest is an important turning point in the Communist takeover of Hungary.", "1948 – In a coup d'état led by Klement Gottwald, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia takes control of government in Prague to end the Third Czechoslovak Republic.", "1951 – The first Pan American Games are officially opened in Buenos Aires by Argentine President Juan Perón.", "1956 – In his speech ''On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences'', Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union, denounces Stalin.", "1980 – The government of Suriname is overthrown by a military coup led by Dési Bouterse.", "1986 – People Power Revolution: President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos flees the nation after 20 years of rule; Corazon Aquino becomes the Philippines' first female president.", "1991 – Disbandment of the Warsaw Pact at a meeting of its members in Budapest.", "1994 – American-Israeli extremist Baruch Goldstein commits a mass shooting at the Cave of the Patriarchs mausoleum, leaving 29 dead and over 100 injured before he was disarmed and beaten to death by survivors.", "1999 – Alitalia Flight 1553 crashes at Genoa Cristoforo Colombo Airport in Genoa, Italy, killing four." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1259 – Infanta Branca of Portugal, daughter of King Afonso III of Portugal and Urraca of Castile (d. 1321)1337 – Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg (d. 1383)1475 – Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, last male member of the House of York (d. 1499)1540 – Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, English aristocrat and courtier (d. 1614)1543 – Sharaf Khan Bidlisi, Emir of Bitlis (d. 1603)1591 – Friedrich Spee, German poet and author (d. 1635)===1601–1900===1643 – Ahmed II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1695) 1663 – Peter Anthony Motteux, French-English author, playwright and translator (d. 1718)1670 – Maria Margarethe Kirch, German astronomer and mathematician (d. 1720)1682 – Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Italian anatomist and pathologist (d. 1771)1707 – Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright and composer (d. 1793)1714 – René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (d. 1792)1728 – John Wood, the Younger, English architect, designed the Royal Crescent (d. 1782)1752 – John Graves Simcoe, English-Canadian general and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada (d. 1806)1755 – François René Mallarmé, French lawyer and politician (d. 1835)1778 – José de San Martín, Argentinian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (d. 1850)1806 – Emma Catherine Embury, American author and poet (d. 1863)1809 – John Hart, English-Australian politician, 10th Premier of South Australia (d. 1873)1812 – Carl Christian Hall, Danish lawyer and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 1888)1816 – Giovanni Morelli, Italian historian and critic (d. 1891)1833 – John St. John, American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of Kansas (d. 1916)1841 – Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French painter and sculptor (d. 1919)1842 – Karl May, German author, poet, and playwright (d. 1912)1845 – George Reid, Scottish-Australian lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1918)1855 – Cesário Verde, Portuguese poet and author (d. 1886)1856 – Karl Gotthard Lamprecht, German historian and academic (d. 1915)* 1856 – Mathias Zdarsky, Czech-Austrian skier, painter, and sculptor (d. 1940)1857 – Robert Bond, Canadian politician; first Prime Minister of Newfoundland (d. 1927)1860 – William Ashley, English historian and academic (d. 1927)1865 – Andranik, Armenian general (d. 1927)1866 – Benedetto Croce, Italian philosopher and politician (d. 1952)1869 – Phoebus Levene, Russian-American biochemist and physician (d. 1940)1873 – Enrico Caruso, Italian-American tenor; the most popular operatic tenor of the early 20th century and the first great recording star.", "(d. 1921)1877 – Erich von Hornbostel, Austrian musicologist and scholar (d. 1935)1881 – William Z.", "Foster, American union leader and politician (d. 1961)* 1881 – Alexei Rykov, Russian politician, Premier of Russia (d. 1938)1883 – Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone (d. 1981)1885 – Princess Alice of Battenberg, mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (d. 1969)1888 – John Foster Dulles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 52nd United States Secretary of State (d. 1959)1890 – Myra Hess, English pianist and educator (d. 1965)1894 – Meher Baba, Indian spiritual master (d. 1969)1898 – William Astbury, physicist and molecular biologist (d. 1961)===1901–present===1901 – Vince Gair, Australian politician, 27th Premier of Queensland (d. 1980) 1901 – Zeppo Marx, American comedian (the youngest of the Marx Brothers) and theatrical agent (d. 1979)1903 – King Clancy, Canadian ice hockey player, referee, and coach; rated one of the 100 greatest NHL players (d. 1986)1905 – Perry Miller, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1963)1906 – Mary Coyle Chase, American journalist and playwright; author of ''Harvey'' (d. 1981)1907 – Sabahattin Ali, Turkish journalist, author, and poet (d. 1948)1908 – Mary Locke Petermann, cellular biochemist (d. 1975) 1908 – Frank G. Slaughter, American physician and author (d. 2001)1910 – Millicent Fenwick, American journalist and politician (d. 1992)1913 – Jim Backus, American actor and screenwriter; the voice of ''Mr.", "Magoo'' (d. 1989)* 1913 – Gert Fröbe, German actor; title role in ''Goldfinger'' (d. 1988)1915 – S. Rajaratnam, 1st Senior Minister of Singapore (d. 2006)1917 – Anthony Burgess, English author, playwright, and critic (d. 1993)1918 – Bobby Riggs, American tennis player; winner of three major titles, 1939–1941 (d. 1995)1919 – Monte Irvin, American baseball player and executive (d. 2016)1920 – Philip Habib, American academic and diplomat, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (d. 1992)1921 – Pierre Laporte, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec (d. 1970)* 1921 – Andy Pafko, American baseball player and manager (d. 2013)1922 – Molly Reilly, Canadian aviator (d. 1980)1924 – Hugh Huxley, English-American biologist and academic (d. 2013)1925 – Shehu Shagari, former President of Nigeria (d. 2018) 1925 – Lisa Kirk, American actress and singer (d. 1990)1926 – Masatoshi Gündüz Ikeda, Japanese-Turkish mathematician and academic; developed algebraic number theory (d. 2003)1927 – Ralph Stanley, American bluegrass singer and banjo player; member of International Bluegrass Music Hall of Fame (d. 2016)1928 – Paul Elvstrøm, Danish yachtsman; winner of four Olympic gold medals, 1948–1960 (d. 2016) 1928 – A. Leon Higginbotham, Jr., prominent African-American civil rights advocate, author, and federal court judge (d. 1998)* 1928 – Larry Gelbart, American author and screenwriter; creator and producer of ''MASH'' TV series (d. 2009) 1928 – Richard G. Stern, American author and academic (d. 2013)* 1930 – Wendy Beckett, British nun and art critic for BBC TV with great success in the 1990s (d. 2018)1932 – Tony Brooks, English racing driver; six Formula One victories, second in 1959 World Championship (d. 2022) 1932 – Faron Young, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist; member of Country Music Hall of Fame (d. 1996) 1934 – Tony Lema, American golfer; winner of the 1964 Open Championship (d. 1966) 1935 – Oktay Sinanoglu, Turkish physical chemist and molecular biophysicist; two-time nominee for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 2015) 1937 – Tom Courtenay, award-winning English actor 1937 – Bob Schieffer, American political author, journalist and TV interviewer1938 – Herb Elliott, Australian 1500 metres runner; 1960 Olympic champion and world record holder 1938 – Farokh Engineer, Indian international cricketer; successful as batsman and wicketkeeper1940 – Ron Santo, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2010)1941 – David Puttnam, English film producer and academic1943 – George Harrison, English singer-songwriter, guitarist and film producer; lead guitarist of The Beatles (d. 2001)1944 – François Cevert, French racing driver (d. 1973)1946 – Jean Todt, French racing driver and team manager; FIA President, 2009–20211947 – Lee Evans, American sprinter and athletics coach; two gold medals and world 400m record at 1968 Olympics (d. 2021)1949 – Ric Flair, American professional wrestler 1949 – Amin Maalouf, Lebanese-French journalist and author1950 – Francisco Fernández Ochoa, Spanish skier; 1972 Olympic slalom champion (d. 2006) 1950 – Neil Jordan, Irish film director, screenwriter and author* 1950 – Néstor Kirchner, Argentinian politician; 51st President of Argentina, 2003–2007 (d. 2010)1951 – Don Quarrie, Jamaican sprinter and coach; four Olympic medals and two world records1952 – Joey Dunlop, Northern Irish motorcycle road racing champion; holds record for most wins (26) at the Isle of Man TT (d. 2000)1953 – José María Aznar, Spanish politician; Prime Minister of Spain, 1996–20041957 – Raymond McCreesh, Irish Republican, hunger striker (d. 1981)1957 – Tharman Shanmugaratnam, Singaporean economist and politician; 5th Senior Minister and 9th President of Singapore1958 – Kurt Rambis, American basketball player and coach; four-time NBA Finals champion1962 – Birgit Fischer, German kayaker; winner of eight Olympic gold medals1963 – Paul O'Neill, American baseball player and sportscaster; five-time World Series champion1965 – Carrot Top, American comedian1966 – Téa Leoni, American actress1967 – Ed Balls, British politician; Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer1968 – Oumou Sangaré, Grammy Award-winning Malian Wassoulou musician1971 – Sean Astin, American actor, director and producer1974 – Dominic Raab, British politician; First Secretary of State and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs1975 – Chelsea Handler, American comedian, actress, author, and television host1976 – Rashida Jones, American actress and writer1981 – Park Ji-sung, South Korean footballer; the most successful Asian player with 19 career trophies1982 – Maria Kanellis, American professional wrestler, actress, and model* 1982 – Flavia Pennetta, Italian tennis player; winner of the 2015 US Open1986 – Jameela Jamil, English actress and presenter1988 – Tom Marshall, English photo colouriser and artist1989 – Kana Hanazawa, Japanese voice actress and singer1992 – Jorge Soler, Cuban baseball player 1994 – Fred VanVleet, American basketball player1995 – Viktoriya Tomova, Bulgarian tennis player1999 – Gianluigi Donnarumma, Italian international footballer; youngest goalkeeper to play for Italy 1999 – Rocky, South Korean singer, dancer and songwriter" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 806 – Tarasios, patriarch of Constantinople* 891 – Fujiwara no Mototsune, Japanese regent (b.", "836)1522 – William Lily, English scholar and educator (b.", "1468)1536 – Berchtold Haller, German-Swiss theologian and reformer (b.", "1492)1547 – Vittoria Colonna, marchioness of Pescara (b.", "1490)===1601–1900===1601 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1566)1634 – Albrecht von Wallenstein, Austrian general and politician (b.", "1583)1636 – Santorio Santorio, Italian biologist (b.", "1561)1655 – Daniël Heinsius, Flemish poet and scholar (b.", "1580)1682 – Alessandro Stradella, Italian composer (b.", "1639)1710 – Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, French soldier and explorer (b.", "1639)1713 – Frederick I of Prussia (b.", "1657)1723 – Christopher Wren, English architect, designed St Paul's Cathedral (b.", "1632)1756 – Eliza Haywood, English actress and poet (b.", "1693)1796 – Samuel Seabury, American bishop (b.", "1729)1805 – Thomas Pownall, English politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (b.", "1722)1819 – Francisco Manoel de Nascimento, Portuguese-French poet and educator (b.", "1734)1822 – William Pinkney, American politician and diplomat, 7th United States Attorney General (b.", "1764)1841 – Philip P. Barbour, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 12th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b.", "1783)1850 – Daoguang Emperor of China (b.", "1782)1852 – Thomas Moore, Irish poet and lyricist (b.", "1779)1865 – Otto Ludwig, German author, playwright, and critic (b.", "1813)1870 – Henrik Hertz, Danish poet and playwright (b.", "1797)1877 – Jung Bahadur Rana, Nepalese ruler (b.", "1816)1878 – Townsend Harris, American merchant, politician, and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Japan (b.", "1804)1899 – Paul Reuter, German-English journalist and businessman, founded Reuters (b.", "1816)===1901–present===1906 – Anton Arensky, Russian pianist and composer (b.", "1861)1910 – Worthington Whittredge, American painter and educator (b.", "1820)1911 – Friedrich Spielhagen, German author, theorist, and translator (b.", "1829)1912 – William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (b.", "1852)1914 – John Tenniel, English illustrator (b.", "1820)1915 – Charles Edwin Bessey, American botanist, author, and academic (b.", "1845)1920 – Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy, French archaeologist and engineer (b.", "1844)1928 – William O'Brien, Irish journalist and politician (b.", "1852)1934 – Elizabeth Gertrude Britton, American botanist and academic (b.", "1857) 1934 – John McGraw, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1873)1945 – Mário de Andrade, Brazilian author, poet, and photographer (b.", "1893)1950 – George Minot, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1885)1953 – Sergei Winogradsky, Ukrainian-Russian microbiologist and ecologist (b.", "1856)1954 – Joseph Beech, American Methodist missionary and educator (b.", "1867)1957 – Mark Aldanov, Russian author and critic (b.", "1888) 1957 – Bugs Moran, American mob boss (b.", "1893)1963 – Melville J. Herskovits, American anthropologist and academic (b.", "1895)1964 – Alexander Archipenko, Ukrainian sculptor and illustrator (b.", "1887)* 1964 – Grace Metalious, American author (b.", "1924)1970 – Mark Rothko, Latvian-American painter and academic (b.", "1903)1971 – Theodor Svedberg, Swedish chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1884)1972 – Gottfried Fuchs, German-Canadian Olympic soccer player (b.", "1889)1975 – Elijah Muhammad, American religious leader (b.", "1897)1978 – Daniel James, Jr., American general and pilot (b.", "1920)1980 – Robert Hayden, American poet and academic (b.", "1913)1983 – Tennessee Williams, American playwright, and poet (b.", "1911)1996 – Haing S. Ngor, Cambodian-American physician and author (b.", "1940)1997 – Andrei Sinyavsky, Russian journalist and publisher (b.", "1925)1998 – W. O. Mitchell, Canadian author and playwright (b.", "1914)1999 – Glenn T. Seaborg, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1912)2001 – A. R. Ammons, American poet and critic (b.", "1926)* 2001 – Don Bradman, Australian international cricketer; holder of world record batting average (b.", "1908)2005 – Peter Benenson, English lawyer, founded Amnesty International (b.", "1921)2008 – Hans Raj Khanna, Indian judge and advocate; upholder of civil liberties (b.", "1912) 2010 – Ihsan Dogramaci, Turkish pediatrician and academic (b.", "1915)2012 – Louisiana Red, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1932)2015 – Harve Bennett, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1930)2015 – Ariel Camacho, Mexican musician and singer-songwriter; (b.", "1992)2015 – Eugenie Clark, American biologist and academic; noted ichthyologist (b.", "1922)2017 – Bill Paxton, American actor and filmmaker (b.", "1955)2020 – Dmitry Yazov, last Marshal of the Soviet Union (b.", "1924)2022 – Farrah Forke, American actress (b.", "1968)* 2022 – Shirley Hughes, English author and illustrator (b.", "1927)2023 – Gordon Pinsent, Canadian actor, director and screenwriter (b.", "1930)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast days:Æthelberht of KentBlessed Ciriaco María Sancha y HervásGerland of AgrigentoJohn Roberts, writer and missionary (Anglican Communion)Hamburg ''Matthiae-mahl'', feast of Hanseatic League cities on the mediaeval first day of springBlessed Maria Adeodata PisaniBlessed Robert of Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud AbbeySaint Walpurga (she was canonised on 1 May c. 870 and Walpurgis Night is celebrated 30 April)*February 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)''Kitano Baika-sai'' or \"Plum Blossom Festival\" (Kitano Tenman-gu Shrine, Kyoto, Japan)Memorial Day for the Victims of the Communist Dictatorships (Hungary)National Day (Kuwait)People Power Day (Philippines)Revolution Day in SurinameSoviet Occupation Day (Georgia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Finite-state machine" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''finite-state machine''' ('''FSM''') or '''finite-state automaton''' ('''FSA''', plural: ''automata''), '''finite automaton''', or simply a '''state machine''', is a mathematical model of computation.", "It is an abstract machine that can be in exactly one of a finite number of ''states'' at any given time.", "The FSM can change from one state to another in response to some inputs; the change from one state to another is called a ''transition''.", "An FSM is defined by a list of its states, its initial state, and the inputs that trigger each transition.", "Finite-state machines are of two types—deterministic finite-state machines and non-deterministic finite-state machines.", "For any non-deterministic finite-state machine, an equivalent deterministic one can be constructed.The behavior of state machines can be observed in many devices in modern society that perform a predetermined sequence of actions depending on a sequence of events with which they are presented.", "Simple examples are: vending machines, which dispense products when the proper combination of coins is deposited; elevators, whose sequence of stops is determined by the floors requested by riders; traffic lights, which change sequence when cars are waiting; combination locks, which require the input of a sequence of numbers in the proper order.The finite-state machine has less computational power than some other models of computation such as the Turing machine.", "The computational power distinction means there are computational tasks that a Turing machine can do but an FSM cannot.", "This is because an FSM's memory is limited by the number of states it has.", "A finite-state machine has the same computational power as a Turing machine that is restricted such that its head may only perform \"read\" operations, and always has to move from left to right.", "FSMs are studied in the more general field of automata theory." ], [ "Example: coin-operated turnstile", "State diagram for a turnstileA turnstileAn example of a simple mechanism that can be modeled by a state machine is a turnstile.", "A turnstile, used to control access to subways and amusement park rides, is a gate with three rotating arms at waist height, one across the entryway.", "Initially the arms are locked, blocking the entry, preventing patrons from passing through.", "Depositing a coin or token in a slot on the turnstile unlocks the arms, allowing a single customer to push through.", "After the customer passes through, the arms are locked again until another coin is inserted.Considered as a state machine, the turnstile has two possible states: ''Locked'' and ''Unlocked''.", "There are two possible inputs that affect its state: putting a coin in the slot ''coin'' and pushing the arm ''push''.", "In the locked state, pushing on the arm has no effect; no matter how many times the input ''push'' is given, it stays in the locked state.", "Putting a coin in – that is, giving the machine a ''coin'' input – shifts the state from ''Locked'' to ''Unlocked''.", "In the unlocked state, putting additional coins in has no effect; that is, giving additional ''coin'' inputs does not change the state.", "A customer pushing through the arms gives a ''push'' input and resets the state to ''Locked''.The turnstile state machine can be represented by a state-transition table, showing for each possible state, the transitions between them (based upon the inputs given to the machine) and the outputs resulting from each input::: Current State Input Next State OutputLocked coin Unlocked Unlocks the turnstile so that the customer can push through.", "push Locked NoneUnlocked coin Unlocked None push Locked When the customer has pushed through, locks the turnstile.The turnstile state machine can also be represented by a directed graph called a state diagram ''(above)''.", "Each state is represented by a node (''circle'').", "Edges (''arrows'') show the transitions from one state to another.", "Each arrow is labeled with the input that triggers that transition.", "An input that doesn't cause a change of state (such as a ''coin'' input in the ''Unlocked'' state) is represented by a circular arrow returning to the original state.", "The arrow into the ''Locked'' node from the black dot indicates it is the initial state." ], [ "Concepts and terminology", "A ''state'' is a description of the status of a system that is waiting to execute a ''transition''.", "A transition is a set of actions to be executed when a condition is fulfilled or when an event is received.For example, when using an audio system to listen to the radio (the system is in the \"radio\" state), receiving a \"next\" stimulus results in moving to the next station.", "When the system is in the \"CD\" state, the \"next\" stimulus results in moving to the next track.", "Identical stimuli trigger different actions depending on the current state.In some finite-state machine representations, it is also possible to associate actions with a state:* an entry action: performed ''when entering'' the state, and* an exit action: performed ''when exiting'' the state." ], [ "Representations", "Fig.", "1 UML state chart example (a toaster oven)Fig.", "2 SDL state machine exampleFig.", "3 Example of a simple finite-state machine=== State/Event table ===Several state-transition table types are used.", "The most common representation is shown below: the combination of current state (e.g.", "B) and input (e.g.", "Y) shows the next state (e.g.", "C).", "The complete action's information is not directly described in the table and can only be added using footnotes.", "An FSM definition including the full action's information is possible using state tables (see also virtual finite-state machine).+ State-transition table State A State B State C Input X ... ... ...", "Input Y ... State C ...", "Input Z ... ... ...=== UML state machines ===The Unified Modeling Language has a notation for describing state machines.", "UML state machines overcome the limitations of traditional finite-state machines while retaining their main benefits.", "UML state machines introduce the new concepts of hierarchically nested states and orthogonal regions, while extending the notion of actions.", "UML state machines have the characteristics of both Mealy machines and Moore machines.", "They support actions that depend on both the state of the system and the triggering event, as in Mealy machines, as well as entry and exit actions, which are associated with states rather than transitions, as in Moore machines.=== SDL state machines ===The Specification and Description Language is a standard from ITU that includes graphical symbols to describe actions in the transition:* send an event* receive an event* start a timer* cancel a timer* start another concurrent state machine* decisionSDL embeds basic data types called \"Abstract Data Types\", an action language, and an execution semantic in order to make the finite-state machine executable.=== Other state diagrams ===There are a large number of variants to represent an FSM such as the one in figure 3." ], [ "Usage", "In addition to their use in modeling reactive systems presented here, finite-state machines are significant in many different areas, including electrical engineering, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, biology, mathematics, video game programming, and logic.", "Finite-state machines are a class of automata studied in automata theory and the theory of computation.In computer science, finite-state machines are widely used in modeling of application behavior (control theory), design of hardware digital systems, software engineering, compilers, network protocols, and computational linguistics." ], [ "Classification", "Finite-state machines can be subdivided into acceptors, classifiers, transducers and sequencers.=== Acceptors ===Fig.", "4: Acceptor FSM: parsing the string \"nice\".Fig.", "5: Representation of an acceptor; this example shows one that determines whether a binary number has an even number of 0s, where ''S''1 is an ''accepting state'' and ''S''2 is a ''non accepting state''.", "'''Acceptors''' (also called ''detectors'' or '''recognizers''') produce binary output, indicating whether or not the received input is accepted.", "Each state of an acceptor is either ''accepting'' or ''non accepting''.", "Once all input has been received, if the current state is an accepting state, the input is accepted; otherwise it is rejected.", "As a rule, input is a sequence of symbols (characters); actions are not used.", "The start state can also be an accepting state, in which case the acceptor accepts the empty string.", "The example in figure 4 shows an acceptor that accepts the string \"nice\".", "In this acceptor, the only accepting state is state 7.A (possibly infinite) set of symbol sequences, called a formal language, is a regular language if there is some acceptor that accepts ''exactly'' that set.", "For example, the set of binary strings with an even number of zeroes is a regular language (cf.", "Fig.", "5), while the set of all strings whose length is a prime number is not.An acceptor could also be described as defining a language that would contain every string accepted by the acceptor but none of the rejected ones; that language is ''accepted'' by the acceptor.", "By definition, the languages accepted by acceptors are the regular languages.The problem of determining the language accepted by a given acceptor is an instance of the algebraic path problem—itself a generalization of the shortest path problem to graphs with edges weighted by the elements of an (arbitrary) semiring.An example of an accepting state appears in Fig.", "5: a deterministic finite automaton (DFA) that detects whether the binary input string contains an even number of 0s.", "''S''1 (which is also the start state) indicates the state at which an even number of 0s has been input.", "S1 is therefore an accepting state.", "This acceptor will finish in an accept state, if the binary string contains an even number of 0s (including any binary string containing no 0s).", "Examples of strings accepted by this acceptor are ε (the empty string), 1, 11, 11..., 00, 010, 1010, 10110, etc.=== Classifiers ==='''Classifiers''' are a generalization of acceptors that produce ''n''-ary output where ''n'' is strictly greater than two.=== Transducers ===Fig.", "6 Transducer FSM: Moore model exampleFig.", "7 Transducer FSM: Mealy model example''Transducers'' produce output based on a given input and/or a state using actions.", "They are used for control applications and in the field of computational linguistics.In control applications, two types are distinguished:;Moore machine: The FSM uses only entry actions, i.e., output depends only on state.", "The advantage of the Moore model is a simplification of the behaviour.", "Consider an elevator door.", "The state machine recognizes two commands: \"command_open\" and \"command_close\", which trigger state changes.", "The entry action (E:) in state \"Opening\" starts a motor opening the door, the entry action in state \"Closing\" starts a motor in the other direction closing the door.", "States \"Opened\" and \"Closed\" stop the motor when fully opened or closed.", "They signal to the outside world (e.g., to other state machines) the situation: \"door is open\" or \"door is closed\".", ";Mealy machine: The FSM also uses input actions, i.e., output depends on input and state.", "The use of a Mealy FSM leads often to a reduction of the number of states.", "The example in figure 7 shows a Mealy FSM implementing the same behaviour as in the Moore example (the behaviour depends on the implemented FSM execution model and will work, e.g., for virtual FSM but not for event-driven FSM).", "There are two input actions (I:): \"start motor to close the door if command_close arrives\" and \"start motor in the other direction to open the door if command_open arrives\".", "The \"opening\" and \"closing\" intermediate states are not shown.=== Sequencers ===''Sequencers'' (also called ''generators'') are a subclass of acceptors and transducers that have a single-letter input alphabet.", "They produce only one sequence, which can be seen as an output sequence of acceptor or transducer outputs.=== Determinism ===A further distinction is between ''deterministic'' (DFA) and ''non-deterministic'' (NFA, GNFA) automata.", "In a deterministic automaton, every state has exactly one transition for each possible input.", "In a non-deterministic automaton, an input can lead to one, more than one, or no transition for a given state.", "The powerset construction algorithm can transform any nondeterministic automaton into a (usually more complex) deterministic automaton with identical functionality.A finite-state machine with only one state is called a \"combinatorial FSM\".", "It only allows actions upon transition ''into'' a state.", "This concept is useful in cases where a number of finite-state machines are required to work together, and when it is convenient to consider a purely combinatorial part as a form of FSM to suit the design tools." ], [ "Alternative semantics", "There are other sets of semantics available to represent state machines.", "For example, there are tools for modeling and designing logic for embedded controllers.", "They combine hierarchical state machines (which usually have more than one current state), flow graphs, and truth tables into one language, resulting in a different formalism and set of semantics.", "These charts, like Harel's original state machines, support hierarchically nested states, orthogonal regions, state actions, and transition actions." ], [ "Mathematical model", "In accordance with the general classification, the following formal definitions are found.A ''deterministic finite-state machine'' or ''deterministic finite-state acceptor'' is a quintuple , where:* is the input alphabet (a finite non-empty set of symbols);* is a finite non-empty set of states;* is an initial state, an element of ;* is the state-transition function: (in a nondeterministic finite automaton it would be , i.e.", "would return a set of states);* is the set of final states, a (possibly empty) subset of .For both deterministic and non-deterministic FSMs, it is conventional to allow to be a partial function, i.e.", "does not have to be defined for every combination of and .", "If an FSM is in a state , the next symbol is and is not defined, then can announce an error (i.e.", "reject the input).", "This is useful in definitions of general state machines, but less useful when transforming the machine.", "Some algorithms in their default form may require total functions.A finite-state machine has the same computational power as a Turing machine that is restricted such that its head may only perform \"read\" operations, and always has to move from left to right.", "That is, each formal language accepted by a finite-state machine is accepted by such a kind of restricted Turing machine, and vice versa.A ''finite-state transducer'' is a sextuple , where:* is the input alphabet (a finite non-empty set of symbols);* is the output alphabet (a finite non-empty set of symbols);* is a finite non-empty set of states;* is the initial state, an element of ;* is the state-transition function: ;* is the output function.If the output function depends on the state and input symbol () that definition corresponds to the ''Mealy model'', and can be modelled as a Mealy machine.", "If the output function depends only on the state () that definition corresponds to the ''Moore model'', and can be modelled as a Moore machine.", "A finite-state machine with no output function at all is known as a semiautomaton or transition system.If we disregard the first output symbol of a Moore machine, , then it can be readily converted to an output-equivalent Mealy machine by setting the output function of every Mealy transition (i.e.", "labeling every edge) with the output symbol given of the destination Moore state.", "The converse transformation is less straightforward because a Mealy machine state may have different output labels on its incoming transitions (edges).", "Every such state needs to be split in multiple Moore machine states, one for every incident output symbol." ], [ "Optimization", "Optimizing an FSM means finding a machine with the minimum number of states that performs the same function.", "The fastest known algorithm doing this is the Hopcroft minimization algorithm.", "Other techniques include using an implication table, or the Moore reduction procedure.", "Additionally, acyclic FSAs can be minimized in linear time." ], [ "Implementation", "=== Hardware applications ===Fig.", "9 The circuit diagram for a 4-bit TTL counter, a type of state machineIn a digital circuit, an FSM may be built using a programmable logic device, a programmable logic controller, logic gates and flip flops or relays.", "More specifically, a hardware implementation requires a register to store state variables, a block of combinational logic that determines the state transition, and a second block of combinational logic that determines the output of an FSM.", "One of the classic hardware implementations is the Richards controller.In a ''Medvedev machine'', the output is directly connected to the state flip-flops minimizing the time delay between flip-flops and output.Through state encoding for low power state machines may be optimized to minimize power consumption.=== Software applications ===The following concepts are commonly used to build software applications with finite-state machines:* Automata-based programming* Event-driven finite-state machine* Virtual finite-state machine* State design pattern=== Finite-state machines and compilers ===Finite automata are often used in the frontend of programming language compilers.", "Such a frontend may comprise several finite-state machines that implement a lexical analyzer and a parser.Starting from a sequence of characters, the lexical analyzer builds a sequence of language tokens (such as reserved words, literals, and identifiers) from which the parser builds a syntax tree.", "The lexical analyzer and the parser handle the regular and context-free parts of the programming language's grammar." ], [ "See also", "* Abstract state machines* Alternating finite automaton* Communicating finite-state machine* Control system* Control table* Decision tables* DEVS* Hidden Markov model* Petri net* Pushdown automaton* Quantum finite automaton* SCXML* Semiautomaton* Semigroup action* Sequential logic* State diagram* Synchronizing word* Transformation semigroup* Transition system* Tree automaton* Turing machine* UML state machine" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== General ===* * Wagner, F., \"Modeling Software with Finite State Machines: A Practical Approach\", Auerbach Publications, 2006, .", "* ITU-T, ''Recommendation Z.100 Specification and Description Language (SDL)''* Samek, M., ''Practical Statecharts in C/C++'', CMP Books, 2002, .", "* Samek, M., ''Practical UML Statecharts in C/C++, 2nd Edition'', Newnes, 2008, .", "* Gardner, T., ''Advanced State Management'' , 2007* Cassandras, C., Lafortune, S., \"Introduction to Discrete Event Systems\".", "Kluwer, 1999, .", "* Timothy Kam, ''Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Functional Optimization''.", "Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, * Tiziano Villa, ''Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Logic Optimization''.", "Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, * Carroll, J., Long, D., '' Theory of Finite Automata with an Introduction to Formal Languages''.", "Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1989.", "* Kohavi, Z., ''Switching and Finite Automata Theory''.", "McGraw-Hill, 1978.", "* Gill, A., ''Introduction to the Theory of Finite-state Machines''.", "McGraw-Hill, 1962.", "* Ginsburg, S., ''An Introduction to Mathematical Machine Theory''.", "Addison-Wesley, 1962.=== Finite-state machines (automata theory) in theoretical computer science ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Abstract state machines in theoretical computer science ===* === Machine learning using finite-state algorithms ===* === Hardware engineering: state minimization and synthesis of sequential circuits ===* * * * === Finite Markov chain processes ===::\"We may think of a Markov chain as a process that moves successively through a set of states ''s1'', ''s2'', …, ''sr''.", "… if it is in state ''si'' it moves on to the next stop to state ''sj'' with probability ''pij''.", "These probabilities can be exhibited in the form of a transition matrix\" (Kemeny (1959), p. 384)Finite Markov-chain processes are also known as subshifts of finite type.", "* * Chapter 6 \"Finite Markov Chains\"." ], [ "External links", "* * ''Modeling a Simple AI behavior using a Finite State Machine'' Example of usage in Video Games* Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing description of Finite-State Machines* NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures description of Finite-State Machines* A brief overview of state machine types, comparing theoretical aspects of Mealy, Moore, Harel & UML state machines." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Functional programming" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, '''functional programming''' is a programming paradigm where programs are constructed by applying and composing functions.", "It is a declarative programming paradigm in which function definitions are trees of expressions that map values to other values, rather than a sequence of imperative statements which update the running state of the program.In functional programming, functions are treated as first-class citizens, meaning that they can be bound to names (including local identifiers), passed as arguments, and returned from other functions, just as any other data type can.", "This allows programs to be written in a declarative and composable style, where small functions are combined in a modular manner.Functional programming is sometimes treated as synonymous with purely functional programming, a subset of functional programming which treats all functions as deterministic mathematical functions, or pure functions.", "When a pure function is called with some given arguments, it will always return the same result, and cannot be affected by any mutable state or other side effects.", "This is in contrast with impure procedures, common in imperative programming, which can have side effects (such as modifying the program's state or taking input from a user).", "Proponents of purely functional programming claim that by restricting side effects, programs can have fewer bugs, be easier to debug and test, and be more suited to formal verification.Functional programming has its roots in academia, evolving from the lambda calculus, a formal system of computation based only on functions.", "Functional programming has historically been less popular than imperative programming, but many functional languages are seeing use today in industry and education, including Common Lisp, Scheme, Clojure, Wolfram Language, Racket, Erlang, Elixir, OCaml, Haskell, and F#.", "Functional programming is also key to some languages that have found success in specific domains, like JavaScript in the Web, R in statistics, J, K and Q in financial analysis, and XQuery/XSLT for XML.", "Domain-specific declarative languages like SQL and Lex/Yacc use some elements of functional programming, such as not allowing mutable values.", "In addition, many other programming languages support programming in a functional style or have implemented features from functional programming, such as C++11, C#, Kotlin, Perl, PHP, Python, Go, Rust, Raku, Scala, and Java (since Java 8)." ], [ "History", "The lambda calculus, developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church, is a formal system of computation built from function application.", "In 1937 Alan Turing proved that the lambda calculus and Turing machines are equivalent models of computation, showing that the lambda calculus is Turing complete.", "Lambda calculus forms the basis of all functional programming languages.", "An equivalent theoretical formulation, combinatory logic, was developed by Moses Schönfinkel and Haskell Curry in the 1920s and 1930s.Church later developed a weaker system, the simply-typed lambda calculus, which extended the lambda calculus by assigning a data type to all terms.", "This forms the basis for statically typed functional programming.The first high-level functional programming language, Lisp, was developed in the late 1950s for the IBM 700/7000 series of scientific computers by John McCarthy while at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).", "Lisp functions were defined using Church's lambda notation, extended with a label construct to allow recursive functions.", "Lisp first introduced many paradigmatic features of functional programming, though early Lisps were multi-paradigm languages, and incorporated support for numerous programming styles as new paradigms evolved.", "Later dialects, such as Scheme and Clojure, and offshoots such as Dylan and Julia, sought to simplify and rationalise Lisp around a cleanly functional core, while Common Lisp was designed to preserve and update the paradigmatic features of the numerous older dialects it replaced.Information Processing Language (IPL), 1956, is sometimes cited as the first computer-based functional programming language.", "It is an assembly-style language for manipulating lists of symbols.", "It does have a notion of ''generator'', which amounts to a function that accepts a function as an argument, and, since it is an assembly-level language, code can be data, so IPL can be regarded as having higher-order functions.", "However, it relies heavily on the mutating list structure and similar imperative features.Kenneth E. Iverson developed APL in the early 1960s, described in his 1962 book ''A Programming Language'' ().", "APL was the primary influence on John Backus's FP.", "In the early 1990s, Iverson and Roger Hui created J.", "In the mid-1990s, Arthur Whitney, who had previously worked with Iverson, created K, which is used commercially in financial industries along with its descendant Q.In the mid-1960s, Peter Landin invented SECD machine, the first abstract machine for a functional programming language, described a correspondence between ALGOL 60 and the lambda calculus, and proposed the ISWIM programming language.John Backus presented FP in his 1977 Turing Award lecture \"Can Programming Be Liberated From the von Neumann Style?", "A Functional Style and its Algebra of Programs\".", "He defines functional programs as being built up in a hierarchical way by means of \"combining forms\" that allow an \"algebra of programs\"; in modern language, this means that functional programs follow the principle of compositionality.", "Backus's paper popularized research into functional programming, though it emphasized function-level programming rather than the lambda-calculus style now associated with functional programming.The 1973 language ML was created by Robin Milner at the University of Edinburgh, and David Turner developed the language SASL at the University of St Andrews.", "Also in Edinburgh in the 1970s, Burstall and Darlington developed the functional language NPL.", "NPL was based on Kleene Recursion Equations and was first introduced in their work on program transformation.", "Burstall, MacQueen and Sannella then incorporated the polymorphic type checking from ML to produce the language Hope.", "ML eventually developed into several dialects, the most common of which are now OCaml and Standard ML.In the 1970s, Guy L. Steele and Gerald Jay Sussman developed Scheme, as described in the Lambda Papers and the 1985 textbook ''Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs''.", "Scheme was the first dialect of lisp to use lexical scoping and to require tail-call optimization, features that encourage functional programming.In the 1980s, Per Martin-Löf developed intuitionistic type theory (also called ''constructive'' type theory), which associated functional programs with constructive proofs expressed as dependent types.", "This led to new approaches to interactive theorem proving and has influenced the development of subsequent functional programming languages.The lazy functional language, Miranda, developed by David Turner, initially appeared in 1985 and had a strong influence on Haskell.", "With Miranda being proprietary, Haskell began with a consensus in 1987 to form an open standard for functional programming research; implementation releases have been ongoing as of 1990.More recently it has found use in niches such as parametric CAD in the OpenSCAD language built on the CGAL framework, although its restriction on reassigning values (all values are treated as constants) has led to confusion among users who are unfamiliar with functional programming as a concept.Functional programming continues to be used in commercial settings." ], [ "Concepts", "A number of concepts and paradigms are specific to functional programming, and generally foreign to imperative programming (including object-oriented programming).", "However, programming languages often cater to several programming paradigms, so programmers using \"mostly imperative\" languages may have utilized some of these concepts.=== First-class and higher-order functions ===Higher-order functions are functions that can either take other functions as arguments or return them as results.", "In calculus, an example of a higher-order function is the differential operator , which returns the derivative of a function .Higher-order functions are closely related to first-class functions in that higher-order functions and first-class functions both allow functions as arguments and results of other functions.", "The distinction between the two is subtle: \"higher-order\" describes a mathematical concept of functions that operate on other functions, while \"first-class\" is a computer science term for programming language entities that have no restriction on their use (thus first-class functions can appear anywhere in the program that other first-class entities like numbers can, including as arguments to other functions and as their return values).Higher-order functions enable partial application or currying, a technique that applies a function to its arguments one at a time, with each application returning a new function that accepts the next argument.", "This lets a programmer succinctly express, for example, the successor function as the addition operator partially applied to the natural number one.=== Pure functions ===Pure functions (or expressions) have no side effects (memory or I/O).", "This means that pure functions have several useful properties, many of which can be used to optimize the code:* If the result of a pure expression is not used, it can be removed without affecting other expressions.", "* If a pure function is called with arguments that cause no side-effects, the result is constant with respect to that argument list (sometimes called referential transparency or idempotence), i.e., calling the pure function again with the same arguments returns the same result.", "(This can enable caching optimizations such as memoization.", ")* If there is no data dependency between two pure expressions, their order can be reversed, or they can be performed in parallel and they cannot interfere with one another (in other terms, the evaluation of any pure expression is thread-safe).", "* If the entire language does not allow side-effects, then any evaluation strategy can be used; this gives the compiler freedom to reorder or combine the evaluation of expressions in a program (for example, using deforestation).While most compilers for imperative programming languages detect pure functions and perform common-subexpression elimination for pure function calls, they cannot always do this for pre-compiled libraries, which generally do not expose this information, thus preventing optimizations that involve those external functions.", "Some compilers, such as gcc, add extra keywords for a programmer to explicitly mark external functions as pure, to enable such optimizations.", "Fortran 95 also lets functions be designated ''pure''.", "C++11 added constexpr keyword with similar semantics.=== Recursion ===Iteration (looping) in functional languages is usually accomplished via recursion.", "Recursive functions invoke themselves, letting an operation be repeated until it reaches the base case.", "In general, recursion requires maintaining a stack, which consumes space in a linear amount to the depth of recursion.", "This could make recursion prohibitively expensive to use instead of imperative loops.", "However, a special form of recursion known as tail recursion can be recognized and optimized by a compiler into the same code used to implement iteration in imperative languages.", "Tail recursion optimization can be implemented by transforming the program into continuation passing style during compiling, among other approaches.The Scheme language standard requires implementations to support proper tail recursion, meaning they must allow an unbounded number of active tail calls.", "Proper tail recursion is not simply an optimization; it is a language feature that assures users that they can use recursion to express a loop and doing so would be safe-for-space.", "Moreover, contrary to its name, it accounts for all tail calls, not just tail recursion.", "While proper tail recursion is usually implemented by turning code into imperative loops, implementations might implement it in other ways.", "For example, Chicken intentionally maintains a stack and lets the stack overflow.", "However, when this happens, its garbage collector will claim space back, allowing an unbounded number of active tail calls even though it does not turn tail recursion into a loop.Common patterns of recursion can be abstracted away using higher-order functions, with catamorphisms and anamorphisms (or \"folds\" and \"unfolds\") being the most obvious examples.", "Such recursion schemes play a role analogous to built-in control structures such as loops in imperative languages.Most general purpose functional programming languages allow unrestricted recursion and are Turing complete, which makes the halting problem undecidable, can cause unsoundness of equational reasoning, and generally requires the introduction of inconsistency into the logic expressed by the language's type system.", "Some special purpose languages such as Coq allow only well-founded recursion and are strongly normalizing (nonterminating computations can be expressed only with infinite streams of values called codata).", "As a consequence, these languages fail to be Turing complete and expressing certain functions in them is impossible, but they can still express a wide class of interesting computations while avoiding the problems introduced by unrestricted recursion.", "Functional programming limited to well-founded recursion with a few other constraints is called total functional programming.=== Strict versus non-strict evaluation ===Functional languages can be categorized by whether they use ''strict (eager)'' or ''non-strict (lazy)'' evaluation, concepts that refer to how function arguments are processed when an expression is being evaluated.", "The technical difference is in the denotational semantics of expressions containing failing or divergent computations.", "Under strict evaluation, the evaluation of any term containing a failing subterm fails.", "For example, the expression: print length(2+1, 32, 1/0, 5-4)fails under strict evaluation because of the division by zero in the third element of the list.", "Under lazy evaluation, the length function returns the value 4 (i.e., the number of items in the list), since evaluating it does not attempt to evaluate the terms making up the list.", "In brief, strict evaluation always fully evaluates function arguments before invoking the function.", "Lazy evaluation does not evaluate function arguments unless their values are required to evaluate the function call itself.The usual implementation strategy for lazy evaluation in functional languages is graph reduction.", "Lazy evaluation is used by default in several pure functional languages, including Miranda, Clean, and Haskell.", "argues for lazy evaluation as a mechanism for improving program modularity through separation of concerns, by easing independent implementation of producers and consumers of data streams.", "Launchbury 1993 describes some difficulties that lazy evaluation introduces, particularly in analyzing a program's storage requirements, and proposes an operational semantics to aid in such analysis.", "Harper 2009 proposes including both strict and lazy evaluation in the same language, using the language's type system to distinguish them.=== Type systems ===Especially since the development of Hindley–Milner type inference in the 1970s, functional programming languages have tended to use typed lambda calculus, rejecting all invalid programs at compilation time and risking false positive errors, as opposed to the untyped lambda calculus, that accepts all valid programs at compilation time and risks false negative errors, used in Lisp and its variants (such as Scheme), as they reject all invalid programs at runtime when the information is enough to not reject valid programs.", "The use of algebraic datatypes makes manipulation of complex data structures convenient; the presence of strong compile-time type checking makes programs more reliable in absence of other reliability techniques like test-driven development, while type inference frees the programmer from the need to manually declare types to the compiler in most cases.Some research-oriented functional languages such as Coq, Agda, Cayenne, and Epigram are based on intuitionistic type theory, which lets types depend on terms.", "Such types are called dependent types.", "These type systems do not have decidable type inference and are difficult to understand and program with.", "But dependent types can express arbitrary propositions in higher-order logic.", "Through the Curry–Howard isomorphism, then, well-typed programs in these languages become a means of writing formal mathematical proofs from which a compiler can generate certified code.", "While these languages are mainly of interest in academic research (including in formalized mathematics), they have begun to be used in engineering as well.", "Compcert is a compiler for a subset of the C programming language that is written in Coq and formally verified.A limited form of dependent types called generalized algebraic data types (GADT's) can be implemented in a way that provides some of the benefits of dependently typed programming while avoiding most of its inconvenience.", "GADT's are available in the Glasgow Haskell Compiler, in OCaml and in Scala, and have been proposed as additions to other languages including Java and C#.=== Referential transparency ===Functional programs do not have assignment statements, that is, the value of a variable in a functional program never changes once defined.", "This eliminates any chances of side effects because any variable can be replaced with its actual value at any point of execution.", "So, functional programs are referentially transparent.Consider C assignment statement x=x 10, this changes the value assigned to the variable x.", "Let us say that the initial value of x was 1, then two consecutive evaluations of the variable x yields 10 and 100 respectively.", "Clearly, replacing x=x * 10 with either 10 or 100 gives a program a different meaning, and so the expression ''is not'' referentially transparent.", "In fact, assignment statements are never referentially transparent.Now, consider another function such as int plusone(int x) {return x+1;} ''is'' transparent, as it does not implicitly change the input x and thus has no such side effects.Functional programs exclusively use this type of function and are therefore referentially transparent.===Data structures===Purely functional data structures are often represented in a different way to their imperative counterparts.", "For example, the array with constant access and update times is a basic component of most imperative languages, and many imperative data-structures, such as the hash table and binary heap, are based on arrays.", "Arrays can be replaced by maps or random access lists, which admit purely functional implementation, but have logarithmic access and update times.", "Purely functional data structures have persistence, a property of keeping previous versions of the data structure unmodified.", "In Clojure, persistent data structures are used as functional alternatives to their imperative counterparts.", "Persistent vectors, for example, use trees for partial updating.", "Calling the insert method will result in some but not all nodes being created." ], [ "Comparison to imperative programming", "Functional programming is very different from imperative programming.", "The most significant differences stem from the fact that functional programming avoids side effects, which are used in imperative programming to implement state and I/O.", "Pure functional programming completely prevents side-effects and provides referential transparency.Higher-order functions are rarely used in older imperative programming.", "A traditional imperative program might use a loop to traverse and modify a list.", "A functional program, on the other hand, would probably use a higher-order \"map\" function that takes a function and a list, generating and returning a new list by applying the function to each list item.=== Imperative vs. functional programming ===The following two examples (written in JavaScript) achieve the same effect: they multiply all even numbers in an array by 10 and add them all, storing the final sum in the variable \"result\".Traditional Imperative Loop:const numList = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10;let result = 0;for (let i = 0; i Functional Programming with higher-order functions:const result = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 .filter(n => n % 2 === 0) .map(a => a * 10) .reduce((a, b) => a + b, 0);=== Simulating state ===There are tasks (for example, maintaining a bank account balance) that often seem most naturally implemented with state.", "Pure functional programming performs these tasks, and I/O tasks such as accepting user input and printing to the screen, in a different way.The pure functional programming language Haskell implements them using monads, derived from category theory.", "Monads offer a way to abstract certain types of computational patterns, including (but not limited to) modeling of computations with mutable state (and other side effects such as I/O) in an imperative manner without losing purity.", "While existing monads may be easy to apply in a program, given appropriate templates and examples, many students find them difficult to understand conceptually, e.g., when asked to define new monads (which is sometimes needed for certain types of libraries).Functional languages also simulate states by passing around immutable states.", "This can be done by making a function accept the state as one of its parameters, and return a new state together with the result, leaving the old state unchanged.Impure functional languages usually include a more direct method of managing mutable state.", "Clojure, for example, uses managed references that can be updated by applying pure functions to the current state.", "This kind of approach enables mutability while still promoting the use of pure functions as the preferred way to express computations.Alternative methods such as Hoare logic and uniqueness have been developed to track side effects in programs.", "Some modern research languages use effect systems to make the presence of side effects explicit.=== Efficiency issues ===Functional programming languages are typically less efficient in their use of CPU and memory than imperative languages such as C and Pascal.", "This is related to the fact that some mutable data structures like arrays have a very straightforward implementation using present hardware.", "Flat arrays may be accessed very efficiently with deeply pipelined CPUs, prefetched efficiently through caches (with no complex pointer chasing), or handled with SIMD instructions.", "It is also not easy to create their equally efficient general-purpose immutable counterparts.", "For purely functional languages, the worst-case slowdown is logarithmic in the number of memory cells used, because mutable memory can be represented by a purely functional data structure with logarithmic access time (such as a balanced tree).", "However, such slowdowns are not universal.", "For programs that perform intensive numerical computations, functional languages such as OCaml and Clean are only slightly slower than C according to The Computer Language Benchmarks Game.", "For programs that handle large matrices and multidimensional databases, array functional languages (such as J and K) were designed with speed optimizations.Immutability of data can in many cases lead to execution efficiency by allowing the compiler to make assumptions that are unsafe in an imperative language, thus increasing opportunities for inline expansion.Lazy evaluation may also speed up the program, even asymptotically, whereas it may slow it down at most by a constant factor (however, it may introduce memory leaks if used improperly).", "Launchbury 1993 discusses theoretical issues related to memory leaks from lazy evaluation, and O'Sullivan ''et al.''", "2008 give some practical advice for analyzing and fixing them.However, the most general implementations of lazy evaluation making extensive use of dereferenced code and data perform poorly on modern processors with deep pipelines and multi-level caches (where a cache miss may cost hundreds of cycles) .=== Functional programming in non-functional languages ===It is possible to use a functional style of programming in languages that are not traditionally considered functional languages.", "For example, both D and Fortran 95 explicitly support pure functions.JavaScript, Lua, Python and Go had first class functions from their inception.", "Python had support for \"lambda\", \"map\", \"reduce\", and \"filter\" in 1994, as well as closures in Python 2.2, though Python 3 relegated \"reduce\" to the functools standard library module.", "First-class functions have been introduced into other mainstream languages such as PHP 5.3, Visual Basic 9, C# 3.0, C++11, and Kotlin.In PHP, anonymous classes, closures and lambdas are fully supported.", "Libraries and language extensions for immutable data structures are being developed to aid programming in the functional style.In Java, anonymous classes can sometimes be used to simulate closures; however, anonymous classes are not always proper replacements to closures because they have more limited capabilities.", "Java 8 supports lambda expressions as a replacement for some anonymous classes.In C#, anonymous classes are not necessary, because closures and lambdas are fully supported.", "Libraries and language extensions for immutable data structures are being developed to aid programming in the functional style in C#.Many object-oriented design patterns are expressible in functional programming terms: for example, the strategy pattern simply dictates use of a higher-order function, and the visitor pattern roughly corresponds to a catamorphism, or fold.Similarly, the idea of immutable data from functional programming is often included in imperative programming languages, for example the tuple in Python, which is an immutable array, and Object.freeze() in JavaScript." ], [ "Comparison to logic programming", "Logic programming can be viewed as a generalisation of functional programming, in which functions are a special case of relations.For example, the function, mother(X) = Y, (every X has only one mother Y) can be represented by the relation mother(X, Y).", "Whereas functions have a strict input-output pattern of arguments, relations can be queried with any pattern of inputs and outputs.", "Consider the following logic program:mother(charles, elizabeth).mother(harry, diana).The program can be queried, like a functional program, to generate mothers from children:?- mother(harry, X).X = diana.", "?- mother(charles, X).X = elizabeth.But it can also be queried ''backwards'', to generate children:?- mother(X, elizabeth).X = charles.", "?- mother(X, diana).X = harry.It can even be used to generate all instances of the mother relation:?- mother(X, Y).X = charles,Y = elizabeth.X = harry,Y = diana.Compared with relational syntax, functional syntax is a more compact notation for nested functions.", "For example, the definition of maternal grandmother in functional syntax can be written in the nested form:maternal_grandmother(X) = mother(mother(X)).The same definition in relational notation needs to be written in the unnested form:maternal_grandmother(X, Y) :- mother(X, Z), mother(Z, Y).Here :- means ''if'' and , means ''and''.However, the difference between the two representations is simply syntactic.", "In Ciao Prolog, relations can be nested, like functions in functional programming:grandparent(X) := parent(parent(X)).parent(X) := mother(X).parent(X) := father(X).mother(charles) := elizabeth.father(charles) := phillip.mother(harry) := diana.father(harry) := charles.", "?- grandparent(X,Y).X = harry,Y = elizabeth.X = harry,Y = phillip.Ciao transforms the function-like notation into relational form and executes the resulting logic program using the standard Prolog execution strategy." ], [ "Applications", "=== Spreadsheets ===Spreadsheets can be considered a form of pure, zeroth-order, strict-evaluation functional programming system.", "However, spreadsheets generally lack higher-order functions as well as code reuse, and in some implementations, also lack recursion.", "Several extensions have been developed for spreadsheet programs to enable higher-order and reusable functions, but so far remain primarily academic in nature.=== Academia ===Functional programming is an active area of research in the field of programming language theory.", "There are several peer-reviewed publication venues focusing on functional programming, including the International Conference on Functional Programming, the Journal of Functional Programming, and the Symposium on Trends in Functional Programming.=== Industry ===Functional programming has been employed in a wide range of industrial applications.", "For example, Erlang, which was developed by the Swedish company Ericsson in the late 1980s, was originally used to implement fault-tolerant telecommunications systems, but has since become popular for building a range of applications at companies such as Nortel, Facebook, Électricité de France and WhatsApp.", "Scheme, a dialect of Lisp, was used as the basis for several applications on early Apple Macintosh computers and has been applied to problems such as training-simulation software and telescope control.", "OCaml, which was introduced in the mid-1990s, has seen commercial use in areas such as financial analysis, driver verification, industrial robot programming and static analysis of embedded software.", "Haskell, though initially intended as a research language, has also been applied in areas such as aerospace systems, hardware design and web programming.Other functional programming languages that have seen use in industry include Scala, F#, Wolfram Language, Lisp, Standard ML and Clojure.Functional \"platforms\" have been popular in finance for risk analytics (particularly with large investment banks).", "Risk factors are coded as functions that form interdependent graphs (categories) to measure correlations in market shifts, similar in manner to Gröbner basis optimizations but also for regulatory frameworks such as Comprehensive Capital Analysis and Review.", "Given the use of OCaml and Caml variations in finance, these systems are sometimes considered related to a categorical abstract machine.", "Functional programming is heavily influenced by category theory.=== Education ===Many universities teach functional programming.", "Some treat it as an introductory programming concept while others first teach imperative programming methods.Outside of computer science, functional programming is used to teach problem-solving, algebraic and geometric concepts.", "It has also been used to teach classical mechanics, as in the book ''Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics''." ], [ "See also", "* Purely functional programming* Comparison of programming paradigms* Eager evaluation* List of functional programming topics* Nested function* Inductive functional programming* Functional reactive programming" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Cousineau, Guy and Michel Mauny.", "''The Functional Approach to Programming''.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.", "* Curry, Haskell Brooks and Feys, Robert and Craig, William.", "''Combinatory Logic''.", "Volume I. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1958.", "* * Dominus, Mark Jason. ''", "Higher-Order Perl''.", "Morgan Kaufmann.", "2005.", "* * Graham, Paul.", "''ANSI Common LISP''.", "Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.", "* MacLennan, Bruce J.", "''Functional Programming: Practice and Theory''.", "Addison-Wesley, 1990.", "** * Pratt, Terrence W. and Marvin Victor Zelkowitz.", "''Programming Languages: Design and Implementation''.", "3rd ed.", "Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.", "* Salus, Peter H. ''Functional and Logic Programming Languages''.", "Vol.", "4 of Handbook of Programming Languages.", "Indianapolis, Indiana: Macmillan Technical Publishing, 1998.", "* Thompson, Simon.", "''Haskell: The Craft of Functional Programming''.", "Harlow, England: Addison-Wesley Longman Limited, 1996." ], [ "External links", "* * An introduction* ''Functional programming in Python'' (by David Mertz): part 1, part 2, part 3" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 29" ], [ "Introduction", "'''February 29''' is a ''leap day'' (or \"leap year day\"), an intercalary date added periodically to create leap years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.", "It is the 60th day of a leap year in both calendars, and 306 days remain until the end of the leap year.", "It is also the last day of February in leap years with the exception of 1712 in Sweden.", "It is also the last day of meteorological winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the last day of meteorological summer in the Southern Hemisphere in leap years.In the Gregorian calendar (the standard civil calendar used in most of the world), February 29 is added in each year that is an integer multiple of four (except for years evenly divisible by 100, but not by 400).", "The Julian calendar — since 1923 a liturgical calendar — has a February 29 every fourth year without exception.", "(Consequently, February 29 in the Julian calendar falls 13 days later than February 29 in the Gregorian, until the year 2100.)" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===888 – Odo, count of Paris, is crowned king of West Francia (France) by Archbishop Walter of Sens at Compiègne.", "1504 – Christopher Columbus uses his knowledge of a lunar eclipse that night to convince Jamaican natives to provide him with supplies.===1601–1900===1644 – Abel Tasman's second Pacific voyage begins as he leaves Batavia in command of three ships.", "1704 – In Queen Anne's War, French forces and Native Americans stage a raid on Deerfield, Massachusetts Bay Colony, killing 56 villagers and taking more than 100 captive.", "1712 – February 29 is followed by February 30 in Sweden, in a move to abolish the Swedish calendar for a return to the Julian calendar.", "1720 – Ulrika Eleonora, Queen of Sweden abdicates in favour of her husband, who becomes King Frederick I on March 24.", "1768 – Polish nobles form the Bar Confederation.", "1796 – The Jay Treaty between the United States and Great Britain comes into force, facilitating ten years of peaceful trade between the two nations.", "1892 – St. Petersburg, Florida is incorporated.===1901–present===1908 – James Madison University is founded at Harrisonburg, Virginia in the United States as The State Normal and Industrial School for Women by the Virginia General Assembly.", "1912 – The Piedra Movediza (Moving Stone) of Tandil falls and breaks.", "1916 – Tokelau is annexed by the United Kingdom.", "* 1916 – In South Carolina, the minimum working age for factory, mill and mine workers is raised from 12 to 14 years old.", "1920 – The Czechoslovak National Assembly adopts the Constitution.", "1936 – The February 26 Incident in Tokyo ends.", "1940 – For her performance as Mammy in ''Gone with the Wind'', Hattie McDaniel becomes the first African American to win an Academy Award.", " 1940 – Finland initiates Winter War peace negotiations.", "* 1940 – In a ceremony held in Berkeley, California, physicist Ernest Lawrence receives the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics from Sweden's consul general in San Francisco.", "1944 – The Admiralty Islands are invaded in Operation Brewer, led by American general Douglas MacArthur, in World War II.", "1960 – The 5.7 Agadir earthquake shakes coastal Morocco with a maximum perceived intensity of X (''Extreme''), destroying Agadir and leaving 12,000 dead and another 12,000 injured.", "1972 – South Korea withdraws 11,000 of its 48,000 troops from Vietnam as part of Nixon's Vietnamization policy in the Vietnam War.", "1980 – Gordie Howe of the Hartford Whalers makes NHL history as he scores his 800th goal.", "1984 – Pierre Trudeau announces his retirement as Liberal Party leader and Prime Minister of Canada.", "1988 – South African archbishop Desmond Tutu is arrested along with 100 other clergymen during a five-day anti-apartheid demonstration in Cape Town.", "* 1988 – Svend Robinson becomes the first member of the House of Commons of Canada to come out as gay.", "1992 – First day of Bosnia and Herzegovina independence referendum.", "1996 – Faucett Flight 251 crashes in the Andes; all 123 passengers and crew are killed.", "* 1996 – The Siege of Sarajevo officially ends.", "2000 – Chechens attack a guard post near Ulus Kert, eventually killing 84 Russian paratroopers during the Second Chechen War.", "2004 – Jean-Bertrand Aristide is removed as president of Haiti following a coup.", "2008 – The United Kingdom's Ministry of Defence withdraws Prince Harry from a tour of Afghanistan after news of his deployment is leaked to foreign media.", " 2008 – Misha Defonseca admits to fabricating her memoir, ''Misha: A Mémoire of the Holocaust Years'', in which she claims to have lived with a pack of wolves in the woods during the Holocaust.", "2012 – North Korea agrees to suspend uranium enrichment and nuclear and long-range missile tests in return for US food aid.", "2016 – At least 40 people are killed and 58 others wounded following a suicide bombing by ISIL at a Shi'ite funeral in the city of Miqdadiyah, Diyala.", "2020 – Joe Biden wins the South Carolina primary election.", " 2020 – During a demonstration, pro-government colectivos shoot at disputed President and Speaker of the National Assembly Juan Guaidó and his supporters in Barquisimeto, Venezuela, leaving five injured.", "* 2020 – The United States and the Taliban sign the Doha Agreement for bringing peace to Afghanistan." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1468 – Pope Paul III (d. 1549)1528 – Albert V, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1579)* 1528 – Domingo Báñez, Spanish theologian (d. 1604)1572 – Edward Cecil, 1st Viscount Wimbledon (d. 1638)1576 – Antonio Neri, Florentine priest and glassmaker (d. 1614)===1601–1900===1640 – Benjamin Keach, Particular Baptist preacher and author whose name is given to Keach's Catechism (d. 1704)1692 – John Byrom, English poet and educator (d. 1763)1724 – Eva Marie Veigel, Austrian-English dancer (d. 1822)1736 – Ann Lee, English-American religious leader, founder of the Shakers (d. 1784)1792 – Gioachino Rossini, Italian composer (d. 1868)1812 – James Milne Wilson, Scottish-Australian soldier and politician, eighth Premier of Tasmania (d. February 29, 1880)1828 – Emmeline B.", "Wells, American journalist, poet and activist (d. 1921)1836 – Dickey Pearce, American baseball player and manager (d. 1908)1840 – Theodor Leber, German ophthalmologist (d.1917)1852 – Frank Gavan Duffy, Irish-Australian lawyer and judge, fourth Chief Justice of Australia (d. 1936)1852 – Prince George Maximilianovich, 6th Duke of Leuchtenberg (d. 1912)1860 – Herman Hollerith, American statistician and businessman, co-founder of the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (d. 1929)1884 – Richard S. Aldrich, American lawyer and politician (d. 1941)1892 – Augusta Savage, American sculptor (d. 1962)1896 – Morarji Desai, Indian civil servant and politician, fourth Prime Minister of India (d. 1995) 1896 – William A. Wellman, American actor, director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1975)===1901–present===1904 – Jimmy Dorsey, American saxophonist, composer and bandleader (d. 1957) 1904 – Pepper Martin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1965)1908 – Balthus, French-Swiss painter and illustrator (d. 2001) 1908 – Dee Brown, American historian and author (d. 2002)* 1908 – Alf Gover, English cricketer and coach (d. 2001)* 1908 – Louie Myfanwy Thomas, Welsh writer (d. 1968)1912 – Kamil Tolon, Turkish industrialist (d. 1978)1916 – James B. Donovan, American lawyer (d. 1970)* 1916 – Leonard Shoen, founder of U-Haul Corp. (d. 1999)1920 – Fyodor Abramov, Russian author and critic (d. 1983)1920 – Arthur Franz, American actor (d. 2006)1920 – James Mitchell, American actor and dancer (d. 2010)1920 – Michèle Morgan, French-American actress and singer (d. 2016)1920 – Rolland W. Redlin, American lawyer and politician (d. 2011)1924 – David Beattie, New Zealand judge and politician, 14th Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 2001)1924 – Carlos Humberto Romero, Salvadoran politician, President of El Salvador (d. 2017)1924 – Al Rosen, American baseball player and manager (d. 2015)1928 – Joss Ackland, English actor (d. 2023)1928 – Jean Adamson, British writer and illustrator (''Topsy and Tim'')1928 – Vance Haynes, American archaeologist, geologist and author1928 – Michael Henshall, English Anglican suffragan bishop (d. 2017)1928 – Seymour Papert, South African mathematician and computer scientist, co-creator of the Logo programming language (d. 2016)1928 – Tempest Storm, born Annie Banks, \"The Queen Of Exotic Dancers\", American burlesque performer and actress (d. 2021)1932 – Gene H. Golub, American mathematician and academic (d. 2007) 1932 – Masten Gregory, American race car driver (d. 1985)* 1932 – Reri Grist, American soprano and actress* 1932 – Jaguar, Brazilian cartoonist* 1932 – Gavin Stevens, Australian cricketer1936 – Nh.", "Dini, Indonesian writer (d. 2018) 1936 – Jack R. Lousma, American colonel, astronaut and politician* 1936 – Henri Richard, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2020)* 1936 – Alex Rocco, American actor (d. 2015)1940 – Sonja Barend, Dutch talk show host1944 – Dennis Farina, American police officer and actor (d. 2013)1944 – Nicholas Frayling, English priest and academic1944 – Phyllis Frelich, American actress (d. 2014)1944 – Steve Mingori, American baseball player (d. 2008)1944 – Paolo Eleuteri Serpieri, Italian author and illustrator1944 – Lennart Svedberg, Swedish ice hockey player (d.", "1972).", "1944 – Saeed Poursamimi, Iranian actor1948 – Hermione Lee, English author, critic and academic1948 – Manoel Maria, Brazilian footballer1948 – Patricia A. McKillip, American author (d. 2022)1952 – Tim Powers, American author and educator* 1952 – Raisa Smetanina, Russian cross-country skier* 1952 – Bart Stupak, American police officer and politician1956 – Jonathan Coleman, English-Australian radio and television host (d. 2021) 1956 – Bob Speller, Canadian businessman and politician, 30th Canadian Minister of Agriculture* 1956 – Aileen Wuornos, American serial killer (executed 2002)1960 – Khaled, Algerian singer-songwriter1960 – Richard Ramirez, American serial killer and sex offender (d. 2013)1964 – Dave Brailsford, English cyclist and coach1964 – Lyndon Byers, Canadian ice hockey player and radio host1964 – Mervyn Warren, American tenor, composer and producer1968 – Chucky Brown, American basketball player and coach1968 – Gareth Farr, New Zealand composer and percussionist1968 – Pete Fenson, American curler1968 – Bryce Paup, American football player and coach1968 – Howard Tayler, American author and illustrator1968 – Eugene Volokh, Ukrainian-American lawyer and educator1968 – Frank Woodley, Australian actor, producer and screenwriter1972 – Sylvie Lubamba, Italian showgirl1972 – Mike Pollitt, English footballer and coach1972 – Antonio Sabàto Jr., Italian-American model and actor1972 – Pedro Sánchez, Prime Minister of Spain1972 – Dave Williams, American singer (d. 2002)1972 – Saul Williams, American singer-songwriter1972 – Pedro Zamora, Cuban-American activist and educator (d. 1994)1976 – Vonteego Cummings, American basketball player1976 – Katalin Kovács, Hungarian sprint kayaker 1976 – Terrence Long, American baseball player* 1976 – Ja Rule, American rapper and actor1980 – Çağdaş Atan, Turkish footballer and coach 1980 – Simon Gagné, Canadian ice hockey player* 1980 – Rubén Plaza, Spanish cyclist* 1980 – Clinton Toopi, New Zealand rugby league player* 1980 – Taylor Twellman, American soccer player and sportscaster* 1980 – Peter Scanavino, American actor (''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'')1984 – Darren Ambrose, English footballer 1984 – Rica Imai, Japanese model and actress* 1984 – Cullen Jones, American swimmer* 1984 – Nuria Martínez, Spanish basketball player* 1984 – Lena Raine, American video game composer and producer* 1984 – Rakhee Thakrar, English actress* 1984 – Cam Ward, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Mark Foster, American singer, songwriter and musician1988 – Lena Gercke, German model and television host 1988 – Benedikt Höwedes, German footballer* 1988 – Brent Macaffer, Australian Rules footballer* 1988 – Hannah Mills, Welsh sports sailor1992 – Sean Abbott, Australian cricketer 1992 – Eric Kendricks, American football player* 1992 – Jessica Long, American paralympic swimmer* 1992 – Jessie T. Usher, American actor1996 – Nelson Asofa-Solomona, New Zealand rugby league player 1996 – Reece Prescod, British sprinter* 1996 – Claudia Williams, New Zealand tennis player2000 – Tyrese Haliburton, American basketball player 2000 – Ferran Torres, Spanish footballer2004 – Lydia Jacoby, American swimmer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 468 – Pope Hilarius* 992 – Oswald of Worcester, Anglo-Saxon archbishop and saint (b.", "925)1460 – Albert III, Duke of Bavaria-Munich (b.", "1401)1528 – Patrick Hamilton, Scottish Protestant reformer and martyr (b.", "1504)1592 – Alessandro Striggio, Italian composer and diplomat (b.", "1536/1537)1600 – Caspar Hennenberger, German pastor, historian and cartographer (b.", "1529)===1601–1900===1604 – John Whitgift, English archbishop and academic (b.", "1530)1712 – Johann Conrad Peyer, Swiss anatomist (b.", "1653)1744 – John Theophilus Desaguliers, French-English physicist and philosopher (b.", "1683)1792 – Johann Andreas Stein, German piano builder (b.", "1728)1820 – Johann Joachim Eschenburg, German historian and critic (b.", "1743)1848 – Louis-François Lejeune, French general, painter and lithographer (b.", "1775)1856 – Auguste Chapdelaine, French Christian missionary (b.", "1814)1868 – Ludwig I of Bavaria (b.", "1786)1880 – James Milne Wilson, Scottish-Australian soldier and politician, 8th Premier of Tasmania (b. February 29, 1812)===1901–present===1904 – Patrick O'Sullivan, Irish-Australian politician (b.", "1818)* 1904 – Henri Joseph Anastase Perrotin, French astronomer (b.", "1845)1908 – Pat Garrett, American sheriff (b.", "1850) 1908 – John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow, Scottish-Australian politician, 1st Governor-General of Australia (b.", "1860)1916 – John Nanson, English-Australian journalist and politician (b.", "1863)1920 – Ernie Courtney, American baseball player (b.", "1875)1924 – Frederic Chapple, Australian educator (b.", "1845)1928 – Adolphe Appia, Swiss architect and theorist (b.", "1862)* 1928 – Ina Coolbrith, American poet and librarian (b.", "1841)1932 – Arthur Mills Lea, Australian entomologist (b.", "1868) 1932 – Giuseppe Vitali, Italian mathematician (b.", "1875)1940 – E. F. Benson, English archaeologist and author (b.", "1867)1944 – Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, Finnish lawyer, judge and politician, 3rd President of Finland (b.", "1861)1948 – Robert Barrington-Ward, English lawyer and journalist (b.", "1891)1952 – Sarah Ann Jenyns, Australian entrepreneur (b.", "1865)1956 – Elpidio Quirino, Filipino lawyer and politician, 6th President of the Philippines (b.", "1890)1960 – Melvin Purvis, American police officer and FBI agent (b.", "1903)* 1960 – Walter Yust, American journalist and author (b.", "1894)1964 – Frank Albertson, American actor and singer (b.", "1909)1968 – Tore Ørjasæter, Norwegian poet and educator (b.", "1886)1972 – Tom Davies, American football player and coach (b.", "1896)1976 – Florence P. Dwyer, American politician (b.", "1902)1980 – Yigal Allon, Israeli general and politician, Prime Minister of Israel (b.", "1918) 1980 – Gil Elvgren, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1914)1984 – Ludwik Starski, Polish screenwriter and songwriter (b.", "1903)1992 – Ruth Pitter, English poet and author (b.", "1897)1996 – Frank Daniel, Czech-American director, producer and screenwriter (b.", "1926) 1996 – Wes Farrell, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1939)* 1996 – Ralph Rowe, American baseball player, coach and manager (b.", "1924)2000 – Dennis Danell, American guitarist (b.", "1961)2004 – Kagamisato Kiyoji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 42nd Yokozuna (b.", "1923)* 2004 – Jerome Lawrence, American playwright and author (b.", "1915)* 2004 – Harold Bernard St. John, Barbadian lawyer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Barbados (b.", "1931)* 2004 – Lorrie Wilmot, South African cricketer (b.", "1943)2008 – Janet Kagan, American author (b.", "1946) 2008 – Erik Ortvad, Danish painter and illustrator (b.", "1917)* 2008 – Akira Yamada, Japanese scholar and philosopher (b.", "1922)2012 – Davy Jones, English singer, guitarist and actor (b.", "1945) 2012 – Sheldon Moldoff, American illustrator (b.", "1920)* 2012 – P. K. Narayana Panicker, Indian social leader (b.", "1930)2016 – Wenn V. Deramas, Filipino director and screenwriter (b.", "1966) 2016 – Gil Hill, American police officer, actor and politician (b.", "1931)* 2016 – Josefin Nilsson, Swedish singer (b.", "1969)* 2016 – Mumtaz Qadri, Pakistani assassin, executed (b.", "1985)* 2016 – Louise Rennison, English author (b.", "1951)2020 – Dieter Laser, German actor (b.", "1942) 2020 – Éva Székely, Hungarian Hall of Fame swimmer and 1952 Olympic champion (b.", "1927)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* As a Christian feast day:Saint John CassianFebruary 29 in the Orthodox churchRare Disease Day (in leap years; celebrated in common years on February 28)Bachelor's Day (Ireland, United Kingdom)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 29" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Scott Key" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Scott Key''' (August 1, 1779January 11, 1843) was an American lawyer, author, and amateur poet from Frederick, Maryland, best known as the author of the text of the U.S. national anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\".", "Key observed the British bombardment of Fort McHenry in 1814 during the War of 1812.He was inspired upon seeing the American flag still flying over the fort at dawn and wrote the poem \"Defence of Fort M'Henry\"; it was published within a week with the suggested tune of the popular song \"To Anacreon in Heaven\".", "The song with Key's lyrics became known as \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" and slowly gained in popularity as an unofficial anthem, finally achieving official status more than a century later under President Herbert Hoover as the national anthem.", "Key was a lawyer in Maryland and Washington, D.C. for four decades and worked on important cases, including the Burr conspiracy trial, and he argued numerous times before the Supreme Court.", "He was nominated for District Attorney for the District of Columbia by President Andrew Jackson, where he served from 1833 to 1841.Key was a devout Episcopalian.Key owned slaves from 1800, during which time abolitionists ridiculed his words, claiming that America was more like the \"Land of the Free and Home of the Oppressed\".", "As District Attorney, he suppressed abolitionists, and in 1836 lost a case against Reuben Crandall where he accused the defendant's abolitionist publications of instigating slaves to rebel.", "He was also a leader of the American Colonization Society which sent formerly enslaved people to Africa.", "He freed some of his enslaved people in the 1830s, paying one as his farm foreman to supervise his other slaves.", "He publicly criticized slavery and gave free legal representation to some enslaved people seeking freedom, but he also represented owners of runaway slaves.", "At the time of his death he owned eight human beings." ], [ "Early life", "Mary Tayloe Lloyd, early 1800sMaryland Historical Society plaque marking Key's birthplaceKey was born into an affluent family.", "Key's father John Ross Key was a lawyer, a commissioned officer in the Continental Army, and a judge of English descent.", "His mother Ann Phoebe Dagworthy Charlton was born (February 6, 1756 – 1830), to Arthur Charlton, a tavern keeper, and his wife, Eleanor Harrison of Frederick in the colony of Maryland.Key grew up on the family plantation Terra Rubra in Frederick County, Maryland, which is now Carroll County.", "He graduated from St.John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, in 1796 and read law under his uncle Philip Barton Key who was loyal to the British Crown during the War of Independence.", "He married Mary Tayloe Lloyd on January 1, 1802, daughter of Edward Lloyd IV of Wye House and Elizabeth Tayloe, daughter of John Tayloe II of Mount Airy and sister of John Tayloe III of The Octagon House.", "The couple raised their 11 children in their Georgetown residence, the Key House." ], [ "\"The Star-Spangled Banner\"", "During the War of 1812, following the Burning of Washington in August 1814, on September 7, 1814, Key and American Agent for Prisoners of War, Colonel John Stuart Skinner dined aboard as the guests of Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane, Rear Admiral George Cockburn, and Major General Robert Ross.", "Skinner and Key were there to plead for the release of Dr. William Beanes, an elderly resident of Upper Marlboro, Maryland, and a friend of Key, who had been captured in his home on August 28, 1814.Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of some British soldiers (stragglers withdrawing after the Washington campaign) who were pillaging homes.", "Skinner, Key, and the released Beanes were allowed to return to their own truce ship, under guard, but not allowed to leave the fleet because they had become familiar with the strength and position of the British units and their intention to launch an attack upon Baltimore.", "Key was unable to do anything but watch the 25-hour bombardment of the American forces at Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore from dawn of September 13 through the morning of the 14th, 1814.Fort McHenry looking towards the position of the British ships (with the Francis Scott Key Bridge in the distance on the upper left)At dawn, Key was able to see a large American flag waving over the fort, and he started writing a poem about his experience, on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket.", "On September 16, Key, Skinner and Beanes were released from the fleet.", "When they arrived in Baltimore that evening, Key completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, His finished manuscript was untitled and unsigned.", "When printed as a broadside the next day, it was given the title \"Defence of Fort M'Henry” with the notation: \"Tune – Anacreon in Heaven\" This was a popular tune that Key had already used as a setting for his 1805 song \"When the Warrior Returns\", celebrating American heroes of the First Barbary War.", "It was soon published in newspapers first in Baltimore and then across the nation, and given the new title The Star-Spangled Banner.", "It was somewhat difficult to sing, yet it became increasingly popular, competing with \"Hail, Columbia\" (1796) as the de facto national anthem by the time of the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War.", "The song was finally adopted as the American national anthem more than a century after its first publication by Act of Congress in1931 signed by President Herbert Hoover." ], [ "Legal career", "Key law office on Court Street in Frederick, MarylandKey was a leading attorney in Frederick, Maryland, and Washington, D.C., for many years, with an extensive real estate and trial practice.", "He and his family settled in Georgetown in 1805 or 1806, near the new national capital.", "He assisted his uncle Philip Barton Key in the sensational conspiracy trial of Aaron Burr and in the expulsion of Senator John Smith of Ohio.", "He made the first of his many arguments before the United States Supreme Court in 1807.In 1808, he assisted President Thomas Jefferson's attorney general in ''United Statesv.Peters''.In 1829, Key assisted in the prosecution of Tobias Watkins, former U.S. Treasury auditor under President John Quincy Adams, for misappropriating public funds.", "He also handled the Petticoat affair concerning Secretary of War John Eaton, and he served as the attorney for Sam Houston in 1832 during his trial for assaulting Representative William Stanbery of Ohio.", "After years as an adviser to President Jackson, Key was nominated by the President to District Attorney for the District of Columbia in 1833.He served from 1833 to 1841 while also handling his own private legal cases.", "In 1835, he prosecuted Richard Lawrence for his attempt to assassinate President Jackson at the top steps of the Capitol, the first attempt to kill an American president." ], [ "Key and slavery", "Key purchased his first slave in 1800 or 1801 and owned six enslaved people in 1820.He freed seven in the 1830s, and owned eight when he died.", "One of his freed slaves continued to work for him for wages as his farm's foreman, supervising several slaves.", "Key also represented several slaves seeking their freedom, as well as several slave-owners seeking return of their runaway slaves.", "Key was one of the executors of John Randolph of Roanoke's will, which freed his 400 enslaved people, and Key fought to enforce the will for the next decade and to provide the freedmen and women with land to support themselves.Key is known to have publicly criticized slavery's cruelties, and a newspaper editorial stated that \"he often volunteered to defend the downtrodden sons and daughters of Africa.\"", "The editor said that Key \"convinced me that slavery was wrong—radically wrong\".A quote increasingly credited to Key stating that free black people are \"a distinct and inferior race of people, which all experience proves to be the greatest evil that afflicts a community\" is erroneous.", "The quote is taken from an 1838 letter that Key wrote to Reverend Benjamin Tappan of Maine who had sent Key a questionnaire about the attitudes of Southern religious institutions about slavery.", "Rather than representing a statement by Key identifying his personal thoughts, the words quoted are offered by Key to describe the attitudes of others who assert that formerly enslaved Black people could not remain in the U.S. as paid laborers.", "This was the official policy of the American Colonization Society.", "Key was an ACS leader and fundraiser for the organization, but he himself did not send the men and women he freed to Africa upon their emancipation.", "The original confusion around this quote arises from ambiguities in the 1937 biography of Key by Edward S. Delaplaine.Key was a founding member and active leader of the American Colonization Society (ACS), whose primary goal was to send free black people to Africa.", "Though many free black people were born in the United States by this time, historians argue that upper-class American society, of which Key was a part, could never \"envision a multiracial society\".", "The ACS was not supported by most abolitionists or free black people of the time, but the organization's work would eventually lead to the creation of Liberia in 1847.===Anti-abolitionism===In the early 1830s American thinking on slavery changed quite abruptly.", "Considerable opposition to the American Colonization Society's project emerged.", "Led by newspaper editor and publisher Wm.", "Lloyd Garrison, a growing portion of the population noted that only a very small number of free black people were actually moved, and they faced brutal conditions in West Africa, with very high mortality.", "Free Black people made it clear that few of them wanted to move, and if they did, it would be to Canada, Mexico, or Central America, not Africa.", "The leaders of the American Colonization Society, including Key, were predominantly slave owners.", "The Society was intended to preserve slavery, rather than eliminate it.", "In the words of philanthropist Gerrit Smith, it was \"quite as much an Anti-Abolition, as Colonization Society\".", "\"This Colonization Society had, by an invisible process, half conscious, half unconscious, been transformed into a serviceable organ and member of the Slave Power.", "\"The alternative to the colonization of Africa, project of the American Colonization Society, was the total and immediate abolition of slavery in the United States.", "This Key was firmly against, with or without slave owner compensation, and he used his position as District Attorney to attack abolitionists.", "In 1833, he secured a grand jury indictment against Benjamin Lundy, editor of the anti-slavery publication ''Genius of Universal Emancipation'', and his printer William Greer, for libel after Lundy published an article that declared, \"There is neither mercy nor justice for colored people in this district of Columbia\".", "Lundy's article, Key said in the indictment, \"was intended to injure, oppress, aggrieve, and vilify the good name, fame, credit & reputation of the Magistrates and constables\" of Washington.", "Lundy left town rather than face trial; Greer was acquitted.====Prosecution of Reuben Crandall====In a larger unsuccessful prosecution, in August 1836 Key obtained an indictment against Reuben Crandall, brother of controversial Connecticut teacher Prudence Crandall, who had recently moved to Washington, D.C.", "It accused Crandall of \"seditious libel\" after two marshals (who operated as slave catchers in their off hours) found Crandall had a trunk full of anti-slavery publications in his Georgetown residence/office, five days after the Snow riot, caused by rumors that a mentally ill slave had attempted to kill an elderly white woman.", "In an April 1837 trial that attracted nationwide attention and that congressmen attended, Key charged that Crandall's publications instigated slaves to rebel.", "Crandall's attorneys acknowledged he opposed slavery, but denied any intent or actions to encourage rebellion.", "Evidence was introduced that the anti-slavery publications were packing materials used by his landlady in shipping his possessions to him.", "He had not \"published\" anything; he had given one copy to one man who had asked for it.Key, in his final address to the jury said:The jury acquitted Crandall of all charges.", "This public and humiliating defeat, as well as family tragedies in 1835, diminished Key's political ambition.", "He resigned as District Attorney in 1840.He remained a staunch proponent of African colonization and a strong critic of the abolition movement until his death.Crandall died shortly after his acquittal of pneumonia contracted in the Washington jail." ], [ "Religion", "Key was a devout and prominent Episcopalian.", "In his youth, he almost became an Episcopal priest rather than a lawyer.", "Throughout his life he sprinkled biblical references in his correspondence.", "He was active in All Saints Parish in Frederick, Maryland, near his family's home.", "He also helped found or financially support several parishes in the new national capital, including St. John's Episcopal Church in Georgetown, Trinity Episcopal Church in present-day Judiciary Square, and Christ Church in Alexandria (at the time, in the District of Columbia).From 1818 until his death in 1843, Key was associated with the American Bible Society.", "He successfully opposed an abolitionist resolution presented to that group around 1838.Key also helped found two Episcopal seminaries, one in Baltimore and the other across the Potomac River in Alexandria (the Virginia Theological Seminary).", "Key also published a prose work called ''The Power of Literature, and Its Connection with Religion'', in 1834." ], [ "Death and legacy", "The Howard family vault at Saint Paul's Cemetery, Baltimore, MarylandOn January 11, 1843, Key died at the home of his daughter Elizabeth Howard in Baltimore from pleurisy at age 63.He was initially interred in Old Saint Paul's Cemetery in the vault of John Eager Howard but in 1866, his body was moved to his family plot in Frederick at Mount Olivet Cemetery.The Key Monument Association erected a memorial in 1898 and the remains of both Francis Scott Key and his wife, Mary Tayloe Lloyd, were placed in a crypt in the base of the monument.Despite several efforts to preserve it, the Francis Scott Key residence was ultimately dismantled in1947.The residence had been located at 351618MStreet in Georgetown.Though Key had written poetry from time to time, often with heavily religious themes, these works were not collected and published until 14years after his death.", "Two of his religious poems used as Christian hymns include \"Before the Lord We Bow\" and \"Lord, with Glowing Heart I'd Praise Thee\".In1806, Key's sister, Anne Phoebe Charlton Key, married Roger B. Taney, who would later become Chief Justice of the United States.", "In 1846 one daughter, Alice, married U.S.", "Senator George H. Pendleton and another, Ellen Lloyd, married Simon F. Blunt.", "In1859, Key's son Philip Barton Key II, who also served as United States Attorney for the District of Columbia, was shot and killed by Daniel Sicklesa U.S.Representative from New York who would serve as a general in the American Civil Warafter he discovered that Philip Barton Key was having an affair with his wife.", "Sickles was acquitted in the first use of the temporary insanity defense.", "In1861, Key's grandson Francis Key Howard was imprisoned in Fort McHenry with the Mayor of Baltimore George William Brown and other locals deemed to be Confederate sympathizers.Key was a distant cousin and the namesake of F. Scott Fitzgerald, whose full name was Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald.", "His direct descendants include geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan, guitarist Dana Key, and American fashion designer and socialite Pauline de Rothschild." ], [ "Monuments and memorials", "Francis Scott Key Monument as it stood in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, until it was toppled in June 2020.The empty plinth is now surrounded by 350 black steel sculptures that honor 350 Africans kidnapped from Angola and transported across the Atlantic on slave ships.", "* Francis Scott Key Monument in Baltimore.", "The monument was defaced in 2017 with the words \"Racist Anthem\" and covered in red paint.", "* Two bridges are named in his honor.", "The first is between the Rosslyn section of Arlington County, Virginia, and Georgetown in Washington, D.C. Key's Georgetown home, which was dismantled in 1947 (as part of construction for the Whitehurst Freeway), was located on M Street NW, in the area between the Key Bridge and the intersection of M Street and Whitehurst Freeway.", "The location is illustrated on a sign in the Francis Scott Key park.", "* The other bridge is part of the Baltimore Beltway crossing the outer harbor of Baltimore, and is located at the approximate point where the British anchored to shell Fort McHenry.", "* St. John's College, Annapolis, from which Key graduated in 1796, has an auditorium named in his honor.", "* Francis Scott Key was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970.", "* He is buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Frederick, the same resting place as that of Thomas Johnson, the first governor of Maryland, and friend Barbara Fritchie, who allegedly waved the American flag out of her home in defiance of Stonewall Jackson's march through the city during the Civil War.", "* Francis Scott Key Hall at the University of Maryland, College Park is named in his honor.", "The George Washington University also has a residence hall in Key's honor at the corner of 20th and F Streets.", "* Francis Scott Key High School in rural Carroll County, Maryland.", "* Francis Scott Key Middle School in Houston, Texas* Francis Scott Key Elementary School (several, including California, Maryland, Virginia, Washington, D.C.); Francis Scott Key School in Philadelphia.", "* Francis Scott Key Mall in Frederick, Frederick County, Maryland.", "* The Frederick Keys minor league baseball team – a Baltimore affiliate – is named after Key.", "* The World War II Liberty ship was named in his honor.", "* The US Navy named a submarine in his honor, the .", "* A monument to Key was commissioned by San Francisco businessman James Lick, who donated some $60,000 for a sculpture of Key to be raised in Golden Gate Park.", "The nation's first memorial to Francis Scott Key, the travertine monument was executed by sculptor William W. Story in Rome in 1885–87.The city of San Francisco allocated some to renovate the Key monument, and repairs had been finished on the monument.", "The statue was toppled by protesters on June 19, 2020.It has been replaced by 350 black steel sculptures—each high—that honor the first 350 Africans kidnapped and forced onto a slave ship headed across the Atlantic from Angola in 1619.The sculptor is Dana King.Defaced Francis Scott Key Monument in Baltimore, 2017" ], [ "See also", "* In God We Trust* War of 1812" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* 2014 biography, '' What So Proudly We Hailed: Francis Scott Key, A Life''* * * * * Short biography* Francis Scott Key biography at Cyber Hymnal* Preservation of the Residence of Francis Scott Key, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University.", "This pamphlet was written by the Columbia Historical Society in an effort to save the Francis Scott Key home from destruction in the 1940s.", "* ''Booknotes'' interview with Irvin Molotsky on ''The Flag, The Poet and The Song'', September 9, 2001.", "* \"Francis Scott Key's OTHER Verse\" – selections from Key's other poetry and verse." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "FSU" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FSU''' may refer to:Florida State University, a large public research university in Tallahassee, FloridaFerris State University, MichiganFrostburg State University, MarylandFayetteville State University, North CarolinaFairmont State University, West VirginiaFitchburg State University, MassachusettsFramingham State University, MassachusettsFriends Stand United, street gangFinance Sector Union, Australian trade unionFinancial Services Union, Irish trade unionFédération Syndicale Unitaire, French trade unionFormer Soviet Union, collective term for the fifteen countries that formed the Soviet Union until 1991Fuse-Switch-Unit, opposite of SFU, relating to the order an electrical fuse is inserted in a circuit" ], [ "See also", "California State University, Fresno, also known as Fresno State University*University of Jena, also known as Friedrich Schiller University, Thuringia, Germany" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Formal language" ], [ "Introduction", "historical example from Chomsky 1957)In logic, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a '''formal language''' consists of words whose letters are taken from an alphabet and are well-formed according to a specific set of rules called a formal grammar.The alphabet of a formal language consists of symbols, letters, or tokens that concatenate into strings called words.", "Words that belong to a particular formal language are sometimes called ''well-formed words'' or ''well-formed formulas''.", "A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar such as a regular grammar or context-free grammar, which consists of its formation rules.In computer science, formal languages are used among others as the basis for defining the grammar of programming languages and formalized versions of subsets of natural languages in which the words of the language represent concepts that are associated with meanings or semantics.", "In computational complexity theory, decision problems are typically defined as formal languages, and complexity classes are defined as the sets of the formal languages that can be parsed by machines with limited computational power.", "In logic and the foundations of mathematics, formal languages are used to represent the syntax of axiomatic systems, and mathematical formalism is the philosophy that all of mathematics can be reduced to the syntactic manipulation of formal languages in this way.The field of '''formal language theory''' studies primarily the purely syntactical aspects of such languages—that is, their internal structural patterns.", "Formal language theory sprang out of linguistics, as a way of understanding the syntactic regularities of natural languages." ], [ "History", "In the 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz imagined and described the characteristica universalis, a universal and formal language which utilised pictographs.", "Later, Carl Friedrich Gauss investigated the problem of Gauss codes.Gottlob Frege attempted to realize Leibniz's ideas, through a notational system first outlined in ''Begriffsschrift'' (1879) and more fully developed in his 2-volume Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (1893/1903).", "This described a \"formal language of pure language.", "\"In the first half of the 20th century, several developments were made with relevance to formal languages.", "Axel Thue published four papers relating to words and language between 1906 and 1914.The last of these introduced what Emil Post later termed 'Thue Systems', and gave an early example of an undecidable problem.", "Post would later use this paper as the basis for a 1947 proof \"that the word problem for semigroups was recursively insoluble\", and later devised the canonical system for the creation of formal languages.In 1907, Leonardo Torres Quevedo introduced a formal language for the description of mechanical drawings (mechanical devices), in Vienna.", "He published \"Sobre un sistema de notaciones y símbolos destinados a facilitar la descripción de las máquinas\" (\"On a system of notations and symbols intended to facilitate the description of machines\").", "Heinz Zemanek rated it as an equivalent to a programming language for the numerical control of machine tools.Noam Chomsky devised an abstract representation of formal and natural languages, known as the Chomsky hierarchy.", "In 1959 John Backus developed the Backus-Naur form to describe the syntax of a high level programming language, following his work in the creation of FORTRAN.", "Peter Naur was the secretary/editor for the ALGOL60 Report in which he used Backus–Naur form to describe the Formal part of ALGOL60." ], [ "Words over an alphabet", "An ''alphabet'', in the context of formal languages, can be any set; its elements are called ''letters''.", "An alphabet may contain an infinite number of elements; however, most definitions in formal language theory specify alphabets with a finite number of elements, and many results apply only to them.", "It often makes sense to use an alphabet in the usual sense of the word, or more generally any finite character encoding such as ASCII or Unicode.A '''word''' over an alphabet can be any finite sequence (i.e., string) of letters.", "The set of all words over an alphabet Σ is usually denoted by Σ* (using the Kleene star).", "The length of a word is the number of letters it is composed of.", "For any alphabet, there is only one word of length 0, the ''empty word'', which is often denoted by e, ε, λ or even Λ.", "By concatenation one can combine two words to form a new word, whose length is the sum of the lengths of the original words.", "The result of concatenating a word with the empty word is the original word.In some applications, especially in logic, the alphabet is also known as the ''vocabulary'' and words are known as ''formulas'' or ''sentences''; this breaks the letter/word metaphor and replaces it by a word/sentence metaphor." ], [ "Definition", "A formal language ''L'' over an alphabet Σ is a subset of Σ, that is, a set of words over that alphabet.", "Sometimes the sets of words are grouped into expressions, whereas rules and constraints may be formulated for the creation of 'well-formed expressions'.In computer science and mathematics, which do not usually deal with natural languages, the adjective \"formal\" is often omitted as redundant.While formal language theory usually concerns itself with formal languages that are described by some syntactical rules, the actual definition of the concept \"formal language\" is only as above: a (possibly infinite) set of finite-length strings composed from a given alphabet, no more and no less.", "In practice, there are many languages that can be described by rules, such as regular languages or context-free languages.", "The notion of a formal grammar may be closer to the intuitive concept of a \"language\", one described by syntactic rules.", "By an abuse of the definition, a particular formal language is often thought of as being equipped with a formal grammar that describes it." ], [ "Examples", "The following rules describe a formal language over the alphabet Σ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, +, =}: Every nonempty string that does not contain \"+\" or \"=\" and does not start with \"0\" is in .", "* The string \"0\" is in .", "* A string containing \"=\" is in if and only if there is exactly one \"=\", and it separates two valid strings of .", "* A string containing \"+\" but not \"=\" is in if and only if every \"+\" in the string separates two valid strings of .", "* No string is in other than those implied by the previous rules.Under these rules, the string \"23+4=555\" is in , but the string \"=234=+\" is not.", "This formal language expresses natural numbers, well-formed additions, and well-formed addition equalities, but it expresses only what they look like (their syntax), not what they mean (semantics).", "For instance, nowhere in these rules is there any indication that \"0\" means the number zero, \"+\" means addition, \"23+4=555\" is false, etc.=== Constructions ===For finite languages, one can explicitly enumerate all well-formed words.", "For example, we can describe a language as just = {a, b, ab, cba}.", "The degenerate case of this construction is the '''empty language''', which contains no words at all ( = ∅).However, even over a finite (non-empty) alphabet such as Σ = {a, b} there are an infinite number of finite-length words that can potentially be expressed: \"a\", \"abb\", \"ababba\", \"aaababbbbaab\", ....", "Therefore, formal languages are typically infinite, and describing an infinite formal language is not as simple as writing ''L'' = {a, b, ab, cba}.", "Here are some examples of formal languages:* = Σ, the set of ''all'' words over Σ; = {a}* = {a''n''}, where ''n'' ranges over the natural numbers and \"a''n''\" means \"a\" repeated ''n'' times (this is the set of words consisting only of the symbol \"a\");* the set of syntactically correct programs in a given programming language (the syntax of which is usually defined by a context-free grammar);* the set of inputs upon which a certain Turing machine halts; or* the set of maximal strings of alphanumeric ASCII characters on this line, i.e., the set {the, set, of, maximal, strings, alphanumeric, ASCII, characters, on, this, line, i, e}." ], [ "Language-specification formalisms", "Formal languages are used as tools in multiple disciplines.", "However, formal language theory rarely concerns itself with particular languages (except as examples), but is mainly concerned with the study of various types of formalisms to describe languages.", "For instance, a language can be given as* those strings generated by some formal grammar;* those strings described or matched by a particular regular expression;* those strings accepted by some automaton, such as a Turing machine or finite-state automaton;* those strings for which some decision procedure (an algorithm that asks a sequence of related YES/NO questions) produces the answer YES.Typical questions asked about such formalisms include:* What is their expressive power?", "(Can formalism ''X'' describe every language that formalism ''Y'' can describe?", "Can it describe other languages?", ")* What is their recognizability?", "(How difficult is it to decide whether a given word belongs to a language described by formalism ''X''?", ")* What is their comparability?", "(How difficult is it to decide whether two languages, one described in formalism ''X'' and one in formalism ''Y'', or in ''X'' again, are actually the same language?", ").Surprisingly often, the answer to these decision problems is \"it cannot be done at all\", or \"it is extremely expensive\" (with a characterization of how expensive).", "Therefore, formal language theory is a major application area of computability theory and complexity theory.", "Formal languages may be classified in the Chomsky hierarchy based on the expressive power of their generative grammar as well as the complexity of their recognizing automaton.", "Context-free grammars and regular grammars provide a good compromise between expressivity and ease of parsing, and are widely used in practical applications." ], [ "Operations on languages", "Certain operations on languages are common.", "This includes the standard set operations, such as union, intersection, and complement.", "Another class of operation is the element-wise application of string operations.Examples: suppose and are languages over some common alphabet .", "* The ''concatenation'' consists of all strings of the form where is a string from and is a string from .", "* The ''intersection'' of and consists of all strings that are contained in both languages* The ''complement'' of with respect to consists of all strings over that are not in .", "* The Kleene star: the language consisting of all words that are concatenations of zero or more words in the original language;* ''Reversal'': Let ''ε'' be the empty word, then , and for each non-empty word (where are elements of some alphabet), let ,** then for a formal language , .", "* String homomorphismSuch string operations are used to investigate closure properties of classes of languages.", "A class of languages is closed under a particular operation when the operation, applied to languages in the class, always produces a language in the same class again.", "For instance, the context-free languages are known to be closed under union, concatenation, and intersection with regular languages, but not closed under intersection or complement.", "The theory of trios and abstract families of languages studies the most common closure properties of language families in their own right.", ":Closure properties of language families ( Op where both and are in the language family given by the column).", "After Hopcroft and Ullman.", "Operation Regular DCFL CFL IND CSL recursive REUnion Intersection Complement Concatenation Kleene star (String) homomorphism ε-free (string) homomorphism Substitution Inverse homomorphism Reverse Intersection with a regular language" ], [ "Applications", "=== Programming languages ===A compiler usually has two distinct components.", "A lexical analyzer, sometimes generated by a tool like lex, identifies the tokens of the programming language grammar, e.g.", "identifiers or keywords, numeric and string literals, punctuation and operator symbols, which are themselves specified by a simpler formal language, usually by means of regular expressions.", "At the most basic conceptual level, a parser, sometimes generated by a parser generator like yacc, attempts to decide if the source program is syntactically valid, that is if it is well formed with respect to the programming language grammar for which the compiler was built.Of course, compilers do more than just parse the source code – they usually translate it into some executable format.", "Because of this, a parser usually outputs more than a yes/no answer, typically an abstract syntax tree.", "This is used by subsequent stages of the compiler to eventually generate an executable containing machine code that runs directly on the hardware, or some intermediate code that requires a virtual machine to execute.=== Formal theories, systems, and proofs ===syntactic divisions within a formal system.", "Strings of symbols may be broadly divided into nonsense and well-formed formulas.", "The set of well-formed formulas is divided into theorems and non-theorems.In mathematical logic, a ''formal theory'' is a set of sentences expressed in a formal language.A ''formal system'' (also called a ''logical calculus'', or a ''logical system'') consists of a formal language together with a deductive apparatus (also called a ''deductive system'').", "The deductive apparatus may consist of a set of transformation rules, which may be interpreted as valid rules of inference, or a set of axioms, or have both.", "A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions.", "Although a formal language can be identified with its formulas, a formal system cannot be likewise identified by its theorems.", "Two formal systems and may have all the same theorems and yet differ in some significant proof-theoretic way (a formula A may be a syntactic consequence of a formula B in one but not another for instance).A ''formal proof'' or ''derivation'' is a finite sequence of well-formed formulas (which may be interpreted as sentences, or propositions) each of which is an axiom or follows from the preceding formulas in the sequence by a rule of inference.", "The last sentence in the sequence is a theorem of a formal system.", "Formal proofs are useful because their theorems can be interpreted as true propositions.====Interpretations and models====Formal languages are entirely syntactic in nature, but may be given semantics that give meaning to the elements of the language.", "For instance, in mathematical logic, the set of possible formulas of a particular logic is a formal language, and an interpretation assigns a meaning to each of the formulas—usually, a truth value.The study of interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics.", "In mathematical logic, this is often done in terms of model theory.", "In model theory, the terms that occur in a formula are interpreted as objects within mathematical structures, and fixed compositional interpretation rules determine how the truth value of the formula can be derived from the interpretation of its terms; a ''model'' for a formula is an interpretation of terms such that the formula becomes true." ], [ "See also", "* Combinatorics on words* Formal method* Free monoid* Grammar framework* Mathematical notation* String (computer science)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===; Works cited* ; General references* A. G. Hamilton, ''Logic for Mathematicians'', Cambridge University Press, 1978, .", "* Seymour Ginsburg, ''Algebraic and automata theoretic properties of formal languages'', North-Holland, 1975, .", "* Michael A. Harrison, ''Introduction to Formal Language Theory'', Addison-Wesley, 1978.", "* * Grzegorz Rozenberg, Arto Salomaa, ''Handbook of Formal Languages: Volume I-III'', Springer, 1997, .", "* Patrick Suppes, ''Introduction to Logic'', D. Van Nostrand, 1957, ." ], [ "External links", "*University of Maryland, Formal Language Definitions James Power, \"Notes on Formal Language Theory and Parsing\" , 29 November 2002.", "* Drafts of some chapters in the \"Handbook of Formal Language Theory\", Vol.", "1–3, G. Rozenberg and A. Salomaa (eds.", "), Springer Verlag, (1997): Alexandru Mateescu and Arto Salomaa, \"Preface\" in Vol.1, pp.", "v–viii, and \"Formal Languages: An Introduction and a Synopsis\", Chapter 1 in Vol.", "1, pp.", "1–39 Sheng Yu, \"Regular Languages\", Chapter 2 in Vol.", "1 Jean-Michel Autebert, Jean Berstel, Luc Boasson, \"Context-Free Languages and Push-Down Automata\", Chapter 3 in Vol.", "1 Christian Choffrut and Juhani Karhumäki, \"Combinatorics of Words\", Chapter 6 in Vol.", "1 Tero Harju and Juhani Karhumäki, \"Morphisms\", Chapter 7 in Vol.", "1, pp.", "439–510 Jean-Eric Pin, \"Syntactic semigroups\", Chapter 10 in Vol.", "1, pp.", "679–746 M. Crochemore and C. Hancart, \"Automata for matching patterns\", Chapter 9 in Vol.", "2 Dora Giammarresi, Antonio Restivo, \"Two-dimensional Languages\", Chapter 4 in Vol.", "3, pp.", "215–267" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Free to Choose" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Free to Choose: A Personal Statement''''' is a 1980 book by economists Milton and Rose D. Friedman, accompanied by a ten-part series broadcast on public television, that advocates free market principles.", "It was primarily a response to an earlier landmark book and television series ''The Age of Uncertainty'', by the noted economist John Kenneth Galbraith." ], [ "Overview", "''Free to Choose: A Personal Statement'' maintains that the free market works best for all members of a society, provides examples of how the free market engenders prosperity, and maintains that it can solve problems where other approaches have failed.", "Published in January 1980, the 297 page book contains 10 chapters.", "The book was on top of the United States best sellers list for 5 weeks.PBS broadcast the programs, beginning in January 1980.It was filmed at the invitation of Robert Chitester, the owner of WQLN-TV.", "It was based on a 15-part series of taped public lectures and question-and-answer sessions.", "The general format was that of Milton Friedman visiting and narrating a number of success and failure stories in history, which he attributes to free-market capitalism or the lack thereof (e.g., Hong Kong is commended for its free markets, while India is excoriated for relying on centralized planning especially for its protection of its traditional textile industry).", "Following the primary show, Friedman would engage in discussion moderated by Robert McKenzie with a number of selected debaters drawn from trade unions, academy and the business community, such as Donald Rumsfeld (then of G.D. Searle & Company) and Frances Fox Piven of City University of New York.", "The interlocutors would offer objections to or support for the proposals put forward by Friedman, who would in turn respond.", "After the final episode, Friedman sat down for an interview with Lawrence Spivak.===Guest debaters===Guest debaters included:* Gregory Anrig (Commissioner of Massachusetts Department of Education) – Episode 6* Jagdish Bhagwati (economist) – Episode 2* Samuel Bowles (economist) – Vol.", "3 Episode 5* William H. Brady (Founder and President of W.H.", "Brady Co.) – Episode 8* Clarence J.", "Brown (politician) – Episode 9* Joan Claybrook (Administrator of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) – Episode 7* Barber Conable (politician, President of the World Bank) – Episode 1* John Coons (law professor, school choice activist) – Episode 6* Robert Crandall (Brookings Institution economist) – Episode 7* Richard Deason (IBEW union leader) – Episode 2* James R. Dumpson (bureaucrat, social worker, academic) – Episode 4* Otmar Emminger (President of Deutsche Bundesbank) – Episode 9* Bob Galvin (CEO of Motorola, Inc.) – Episode 1* Ernest Green (U.S. Assistant Secretary of Labor) – Episode 8* Michael Harrington (author, academic, activist) – Episode 1* Nicholas von Hoffman (journalist, political commentator/columnist) – Episode 3* Helen Hughes (economist) – Episode 2* Peter Jay (economist, journalist, diplomat) – Episodes 3, 5* Robert Lampman (economist) – Episode 4* Richard Landau (medical professor) – Episode 7* Robert Lekachman (economist) – Episode 3* William McChesney Martin (former Chairman of the Federal Reserve) – Episode 9* Helen Bohen O'Bannon (economist, bureaucrat, social worker) – Episode 4* Kathleen O'Reilly (Consumer Federation of America consumer advocate) – Episode 7* Russell W. Peterson (chemist, politician) – Episode 1* Frances Fox Piven (academic) – Episode 5* Donald Rumsfeld (politician, President of G. D. Searle & Company) – Episode 2* Albert Shanker (President of United Federation of Teachers and American Federation of Teachers teachers' unions) – Episode 6* Thomas Shannon (Executive Director of the National School Boards Association) – Episode 6* Thomas Sowell (economist, author, columnist) – Episodes 4, 5* Beryl Wayne Sprinkel (Executive Vice President of Harris Bank) – Episode 9* Peter Temin (economist) – Episode 3* Lynn R. Williams (International Secretary of United Steelworkers) – Episode 8* Walter E. Williams (economist, political commentator) – Episode 8===1990 rebroadcast===The series was rebroadcast in 1990 with Linda Chavez moderating the episodes.", "Arnold Schwarzenegger, George Shultz, Ronald Reagan, David D. Friedman, and Steve Allen, each give personal introductions for one episode.", "This time, after the documentary segment, Milton Friedman sits down with a single discussion participant to debate the points raised in the episode." ], [ "Positions advocated", "The Friedmans advocate ''laissez-faire'' economic policies, often criticizing interventionist government policies and their cost in personal freedoms and economic efficiency in the United States and abroad.", "They argue that international free trade has been restricted through tariffs and protectionism while domestic free trade and freedom have been limited through high taxation and regulation.", "They cite the 19th-century United Kingdom, the United States before the Great Depression, and modern Hong Kong as ideal examples of a minimalist economic policy.", "They contrast the economic growth of Japan after the Meiji Restoration and the economic stagnation of India after its independence from the British Empire, and argue that India has performed worse despite its superior economic potential due to its centralized planning.", "They argue that even countries with command economies, including the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, have been forced to adopt limited market mechanisms in order to operate.", "The authors argue against government taxation on gas and tobacco and government regulation of the public school systems.", "The Friedmans argue that the Federal Reserve exacerbated the Great Depression by neglecting to prevent the decline of the money supply in the years leading up to it.", "They further argue that the American public falsely perceived the Depression to be a result of a failure of capitalism rather than the government, and that the Depression allowed the Federal Reserve Board to centralize its control of the monetary system despite its responsibility for it.", "On the subject of welfare, the Friedmans argue that the United States has maintained a higher degree of freedom and productivity by avoiding the nationalizations and extensive welfare systems of Western European countries such as the United Kingdom and Sweden.", "However, they also argue that welfare practices since the New Deal under \"the HEW empire\" have been harmful.", "They argue that public assistance programs have become larger than originally envisioned and are creating \"wards of the state\" as opposed to \"self-reliant individuals.\"", "They also argue that the Social Security System is fundamentally flawed, that urban renewal and public housing programs have contributed to racial inequality and diminished quality of low-income housing, and that Medicare and Medicaid are responsible for rising healthcare prices in the United States.", "They suggest completely replacing the welfare state with a negative income tax as a less harmful alternative.", "The Friedmans also argue that declining academic performance in the United States is the result of increasing government control of the American education system tracing back to the 1840s, but suggest a voucher system as a politically feasible solution.", "They blame the 1970s recession and lower quality of consumer goods on extensive business regulations since the 1960s, and advocate abolishing the Food and Drug Administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, Amtrak, and Conrail.", "They argue that the energy crisis would be resolved by abolishing the Department of Energy and price floors on crude oil.", "They recommend replacing the Environmental Protection Agency and environmental regulation with an effluent charge.", "They criticize labor unions for raising prices and lowering demand by enforcing high wage levels, and for contributing to unemployment by limiting jobs.", "They argue that inflation is caused by excessive government spending, the Federal Reserve's attempts to control interest rates, and full employment policy.", "They call for tighter control of Fed money supply despite the fact that it will result in a temporary period of high unemployment and low growth due to the interruption of the wage-price spiral.", "In the final chapter, they take note of recent current events that seem to suggest a return to free-market principles in academic thought and public opinion, and argue in favor of an \"economic Bill of Rights\" to cement the changes." ], [ "Video chapters (1980 version)", "# The Power of the Market# The Tyranny of Control# Anatomy of Crisis# From Cradle to Grave# Created Equal# What's Wrong with Our Schools?# Who Protects the Consumer?# Who Protects the Worker?# How to Cure Inflation# How to Stay Free" ], [ "Video chapters (1990 version)", "# The Power of the Market – Introduction by Arnold Schwarzenegger# The Tyranny of Control – Introduction by George Shultz# Freedom and Prosperity (featured only in the 1990 version) – Introduction by Ronald Reagan# The Failure of Socialism (original title: \"What's Wrong With Our Schools?\")", "– Introduction by David D. Friedman# Created Equal – Introduction by Steve Allen" ], [ "See also", "* Bob Chitester* ''The Age of Uncertainty''* ''The Commanding Heights''" ], [ "References", "* Angus Burgin, ''Age of Certainty: Galbraith, Friedman, and the Public Life of Economic Ideas''.", "In: Tiago Mata/Steven G. Medema (eds.", "), ''The Economist as Public Intellectual'' (''History of Political Economy'', annual supplement), Durham 2013, pp.", "191–219* Sören Brandes, '' \"Free to choose\": Die Popularisierung des Neoliberalismus in Milton Friedmans Fernsehserie (1980/90)'', in: ''Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History'' 12, no.", "3 (special issue \"Marketization\", edited by Ralf Ahrens, Marcus Böick, Marcel vom Lehn), December 2015, pp.", "526–33" ], [ "External links", "* Streaming of the original 1980 television series ''Free to Choose'' as well as an updated 1990 version.", "* ''Free To Choose'' Media page* ''Jeremy Arendt's Video Collections from PBS Broadcast''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Albert Park Circuit" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Albert Park Circuit''' is a motorsport street circuit around Albert Park Lake in the suburb of Albert Park in Melbourne.", "It is used annually as a circuit for the Formula One Australian Grand Prix, the supporting Supercars Championship Melbourne SuperSprint and other associated support races.", "The circuit has an FIA Grade 1 license.Although the entire track consists of normally public roads, each sector includes medium to high-speed characteristics more commonly associated with dedicated racetracks facilitated by grass and gravel run-off safety zones that are reconstructed annually.", "However, the circuit also has characteristics of a street circuit's enclosed nature due to concrete barriers annually built along the Lakeside Drive curve, in particular, where run-off is not available due to the proximity of the lake shore." ], [ "Design", "A satellite view of the circuit just before race weekend 2018The circuit uses everyday sections of road that circle Albert Park Lake, a small man-altered lake (originally a large lagoon formed as part of the ancient Yarra River course) just south of the Central Business District of Melbourne.", "The road sections that are used were rebuilt before the inaugural event in 1996 to ensure consistency and smoothness.", "As a result, compared to other circuits that are held on public roads, the Albert Park track has quite a smooth surface.", "Before 2007 there existed only a few other places on the Formula 1 calendar with a body of water close to the track.", "Many of the new tracks, such as Valencia, Singapore and Abu Dhabi are close to a body of water.The course is considered to be quite fast and relatively easy to drive, drivers having commented that the consistent placement of corners allows them to easily learn the circuit and achieve competitive times.", "However, the flat terrain around the lake, coupled with a track design that features few true straights, means that the track is not conducive to overtaking or easy spectating unless in possession of a grandstand seat.Each year, most of the trackside fencing, pedestrian overpasses, grandstands, and other motorsport infrastructure are erected approximately two months before the Grand Prix weekend and removed within 6 weeks after the event.", "The land around the circuit (including a large aquatic centre, a golf course, a Lakeside Stadium, some restaurants, and rowing boathouses) has restricted access during that entire period.", "Dissent is still prevalent among nearby residents and users of those other facilities, and some still maintain a silent protest against the event.", "Nevertheless, the event is reasonably popular in Melbourne and Australia (with a large European population and a general interest in motorsport).", "Middle Park, the home of South Melbourne FC was demolished in 1994 due to expansion at Albert Park.The Grand Prix regularly draws crowds of over 270,000 spectators, with the 2022 drawing a record crowd of 419,114, including 128,294 on the main raceday.", "There has never been a night race at Albert Park, although the 2009 and 2010 events both started at 5:00 p.m. local time.", "The current contract for the Grand Prix at the circuit concludes in 2035.Following the postponement of the Australian Grand Prix in 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the track underwent layout changes, the most notable part was the modification of the turn 9–10 complex from a heavy right-left corner to a fast-sweeping right-left corner into turns 11 and 12.Further modifications included the widening of the pit lane by and the reprofiling of turn 13.Also, some corners were widened such as turn 1, turn 3, turn 6, turn 7, and turn 15; and it is expected that these modifications will reduce qualifying lap times by as much as five seconds." ], [ "Everyday access", "The Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit old layout in December 2017, while open to the publicDuring the nine months of the year when the track is not required for Grand Prix preparation or the race weekend, most of the track can be driven by ordinary street-registered vehicles either clockwise or anti-clockwise.Only the sections between turns 3, 4, and 5, then 5 and 6, differ significantly from the race track configuration.", "Turn 4 is replaced by a car park access road running directly from turns 3 to 5.Between turns 5 and 6, the road is blocked.", "It is possible to drive from turn 5 on to Albert Road and back on to the track at turn 7 though three sets of lights control the flow of this option.", "The only set of lights on the actual track is halfway between turns 12 and 13, where drivers using Queens Road are catered for.", "The chicanes at turns 11 and 12 are considerably more open than that used in the Grand Prix, using the escape roads.", "Turn 9 is also a car park and traffic is directed down another escape road.The speed limit is generally , while some short sections have a speed limit of , which is still slower than an F1 car under pit lane speed restrictions.", "The back of the track, turns 7 to 13 inclusive, is known as Lakeside Drive.", "Double lines separate the two-way traffic along most of Lakeside Drive with short road islands approximately every which means overtaking is illegal here.", "Black Swans live and breed in Albert Park, and frequently cross the road causing traffic delays, sometimes with up to five cygnets (young swans).Approximately 80% of the track edge is lined with short parkland-style chain-linked fencing leaving normal drivers less room for error than F1 drivers have during race weekend.", "There is however substantial shoulder room between the outside of each lane and the fencing, which is used as parking along Aughtie Drive during the other nine months." ], [ "History", "===Albert Park Circuit (1953–1958)===Prior to World War II, attempts were made to use Albert Park for motor racing.", "The first was in 1934 but failed due to opposition, and a second attempt for a motorcycle race in 1937 similarly failed.", "Finally in 1953 the Light Car Club of Australia were able to secure use of the circuit for that year's Australian Grand Prix.Start of the 1953 Australian Grand Prix.Albert Park is the only venue to host the Australian Grand Prix in both World Championship and non-World Championship formats with an earlier configuration of the current circuit used for the race on two occasions during the 1950s.", "During this time racing was conducted in an anti-clockwise direction as opposed to the current circuit which runs clockwise.Known as the Albert Park Circuit, the original course hosted a total of six race meetings:* 21 November 1953 – featuring the 1953 Australian Grand Prix, won by Doug Whiteford (Talbot-Lago T26C)* 26 and 27 March 1955 – the first Moomba meeting, which involved an alliance with the Moomba festival and The Argus newspaper, featuring the Moomba TT, won by Doug Whiteford (Triumph TR2) and the Argus Trophy, also won by Doug Whiteford (Talbot-Lago)Albert Park circuit main straight, pictured from above teams' garages in 2022* 11 March and 18 March 1956 – the second Moomba meeting, featuring the 1956 Moomba TT won by Tony Gaze (HWM Jaguar), and on the second weekend the 1956 Argus Trophy, won by Reg Hunt (Maserati 250F)* 25 November & 2 December 1956 – featuring the 1956 Australian Tourist Trophy, won by Stirling Moss (Maserati 300S), and on the second weekend the 1956 Australian Grand Prix, also won by Stirling Moss (Maserati 250F)* 17 and 24 March 1957 – the third Moomba meeting – featuring the Victorian Tourist Trophy won by Doug Whiteford (Maserati 300S), and the Victorian Trophy, won by Lex Davison (Ferrari 500).", "The Victorian Trophy was retrospectively designated as the second round of the 1957 Australian Drivers' Championship* 23 and 30 November 1958 – featuring the 1958 Victorian Tourist Trophy, won by Doug Whiteford (Maserati 300S), and, on the second weekend, the 1958 Melbourne Grand Prix, (a round of the 1958 Australian Drivers' Championship), won by Stirling Moss (Cooper Coventry Climax)The November 1958 meeting was the last on the original incarnation of the circuit, as it closed shortly after." ], [ "Events", "The 2014 Australian Grand Prix, viewed from the Eureka Skydeck; Current:* March: Formula One ''Australian Grand Prix'', FIA Formula 2 Championship, FIA Formula 3 Championship, Supercars Championship ''Melbourne SuperSprint'', Porsche Carrera Cup Australia Championship; Former:* Aussie Racing Cars (2007–2009)* Australian Drivers' Championship (1957–1958, 1996)* Australian Mini Challenge (2009–2010)* Australian Formula 4 Championship (2019)* Australian Formula Ford Championship (2009–2010, 2012)* Australian GT Championship (2008–2010, 2016–2019)* Ferrari Challenge Asia-Pacific (2018–2019)* Porsche Supercup (1999)* S5000 Australian Drivers' Championship (2022)* Supercars Championship ''Supercars Challenge'' (1996–2006, 2008–2017)* V8 Ute Racing Series (2005–2007)" ], [ "Race lap records", "As of April 2023, the fastest official race lap records at the Albert Park Circuit are listed as: Category Driver Vehicle Time Date Grand Prix Circuit (2021–present): 5.278 km Formula One Sergio Pérez Red Bull RB19 '''1:20.235''' 2 April 2023 FIA F2 Frederik Vesti Dallara F2 2018 '''1:30.712''' 2 April 2023 FIA F3 Grégoire Saucy Dallara F3 2019 '''1:34.405''' 2 April 2023 S5000 Aaron Cameron Ligier JS F3-S5000 '''1:40.3696''' 8 April 2022 Supercars Championship Scott Pye Holden Commodore (ZB) '''1:46.006''' 9 April 2022 Porsche Carrera Cup Max Vidau Porsche 911 (992) GT3 Cup '''1:47.9868''' 1 April 2023 Grand Prix Circuit (1996–2020): 5.303 km Formula One Michael Schumacher Ferrari F2004 '''1:24.125''' 7 March 2004 Formula Holden Todd Kelly Reynard 92D '''1:49.246''' March 1998 Formula 3 Bruno Senna Dallara F304 '''1:50.8640''' 30 March 2006 Formula 5000 Ken Smith Lola T430 '''1:54.6975''' 28 March 2010 GT3 Craig Baird Mercedes-AMG GT3 '''1:54.7311''' 22 March 2018 Group 7 Michael Lyons March 717 '''1:55.541''' 17 March 2013 Supercars Championship Chaz Mostert Ford Mustang S550 '''1:55.7280''' 15 March 2019 Porsche Carrera Cup Cooper Murray Porsche 911 (991 II) GT3 Cup '''1:58.3294''' 16 March 2019 Ferrari Challenge Renaldi Hutasoit Ferrari 488 Challenge '''2:00.0713''' 25 March 2018 Nations Cup Paul Stokell Lamborghini Diablo GTR '''2:00.685''' 8 March 2003 Formula 4 Jayden Ojeda Mygale M14-F4 '''2:02.1683''' 17 March 2019 Super Touring Jim Richards Volvo 850 '''2:03.547''' 8 March 1997 Formula Ford Chaz Mostert Spectrum 012 '''2:04.4805''' 27 March 2010 GT4 Ryan Simpson McLaren 570S GT4 '''2:05.9644''' 15 March 2019 Group A Terry Lawlor Nissan Skyline R32 GT-R '''2:07.9622''' 15 March 2015 Aussie Racing Cars James Small Holden Commodore-Yamaha '''2:16.0196''' 15 March 2008 Australian Mini Challenge Chris Alajajian Mini John Cooper Works Challenge '''2:17.7962''' 29 March 2009 Group C Milton Seferis Holden VH Commodore SS '''2:18.9539''' 14 March 2015 Pickup truck racing Grant Johnson Holden Commodore Ute '''2:22.3877''' 1 April 2006 Original Circuit (1953–1958): 5.027 km Formula Libre Stirling Moss Cooper T45 '''1:50.0''' 30 November 1958 Sports car racing Stirling Moss Maserati 300S '''1:55.8''' 25 November 1956" ], [ "See also", "Adelaide Street Circuit" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Albert Park at Official Formula 1 website* Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit Guide* Albert Park Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit on Google Maps (Current Formula 1 Tracks)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Monaco Grand Prix" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Monaco Grand Prix''' () is a Formula One motor racing event held annually on the Circuit de Monaco, in late May or early June.", "Run since 1929, it is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world, and is one of the races—along with the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans—that form the Triple Crown of Motorsport.", "It is the only Grand Prix that does not adhere to the FIA's mandated minimum race distance for F1 races.The race is held on a narrow course laid out in the streets of Monaco, with many elevation changes and tight corners as well as the tunnel, making it one of the most demanding circuits in Formula One.", "In spite of the relatively low average speeds, the Monaco circuit is a dangerous place to race due to how narrow the track is, and the race often involves the intervention of a safety car.", "The first Monaco Grand Prix took place on 14 April 1929, and the race eventually became part of the pre-Second World War European Championship and was included in the first World Championship of Drivers in 1950.It was twice designated the European Grand Prix, in 1955 and 1963, when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe.", "Graham Hill was known as \"''Mr.", "Monaco''\" due to his five Monaco wins in the 1960s.", "Ayrton Senna won the race more times than any other driver, with six victories, winning five races consecutively between 1989 and 1993.The circuit has been called \"an exceptional location of glamour and prestige\".", "The Formula One event is usually held on the last weekend of May and is known as one of the largest weekends in motor racing, as the Formula One race occurs on the same Sunday as the Indianapolis 500 (IndyCar Series) and the Coca-Cola 600 (NASCAR Cup Series)." ], [ "History", "===Origins===William Grover-Williams at the 1929 Monaco Grand PrixLike many European races, the Monaco Grand Prix predates the current World Championship.", "The principality's first Grand Prix was organised in 1929 by Antony Noghès, under the auspices of Prince Louis II, through the Automobile Club de Monaco (ACM), of which he was president.", "The ACM organised the Rallye Automobile Monte Carlo, and in 1928 applied to the ''Association Internationale des Automobiles Clubs Reconnus'' (AIACR), the international governing body of motorsport, to be upgraded from a regional French club to full national status.", "Their application was refused due to the lack of a major motorsport event held wholly within Monaco's boundaries.", "The rally could not be considered, as it mostly used the roads of other European countries.To attain full national status, Noghès proposed the creation of an automobile Grand Prix in the streets of Monte Carlo.", "He obtained the official sanction of Prince Louis II and the support of Monégasque ''Grand Prix'' driver Louis Chiron.", "Chiron thought Monaco's topography was well-suited to setting up a race track.The first race, held on 14 April 1929, was won by William Grover-Williams (using the pseudonym \"Williams\"), driving a works Bugatti Type 35B.", "It was an invitation-only event, but not all of those who were invited decided to attend.", "The leading Maserati and Alfa Romeo drivers decided not to compete, but Bugatti was well represented.", "Mercedes sent their leading driver, Rudolf Caracciola.", "Starting fifteenth, Caracciola drove a fighting race, taking his SSK into the lead before wasting minutes on refuelling and a tyre change to finish second.", "Another driver who competed using a pseudonym was \"Georges Philippe\", the Baron Philippe de Rothschild.", "Chiron was unable to compete, having a prior commitment to compete in the Indianapolis 500.Caracciola's SSK was refused permission to race the following year, but Chiron did compete (in the works Bugatti Type 35C), when he was beaten by privateer René Dreyfus and his Bugatti Type 35B, and finished second.", "Chiron took victory in the 1931 race driving a Bugatti.", ", he remains the only native of Monaco to have won the event.===Pre-war===The race quickly grew in importance after its inception.", "Because of the high number of races which were being termed 'Grands Prix', the AIACR formally recognised the most important race of each of its affiliated national automobile clubs as International Grands Prix, or ''Grandes Épreuves'', and in 1933 Monaco was ranked as such alongside the French, Belgian, Italian, and Spanish Grands Prix.", "That year's race was the first Grand Prix in which grid positions were decided, as they are now, by practice time rather than the established method of balloting.", "The race saw Achille Varzi and Tazio Nuvolari exchange the lead many times before the race settled in Varzi's favour on the final lap when Nuvolari's car caught fire.The race became a round of the new European Championship in 1936, when stormy weather and a broken oil line led to a series of crashes, eliminating the Mercedes-Benzes of Chiron, Fagioli, and von Brauchitsch, as well as Bernd Rosemeyer's ''Typ C'' for newcomer Auto Union; Rudolf Caracciola, proving the truth of his nickname, ''Regenmeister'' (Rainmaster), went on to win.", "In 1937, von Brauchitsch duelled Caracciola before coming out on top.", "It was the last prewar ''Grand Prix'' at Monaco, for in 1938, the lack of profits for organisers, and demand for nearly £500 (approximately £ adjusted to inflation) in appearance money per top entrant led AIACR to cancel the event, while looming war overtook it in 1939, and the Second World War ended organised racing in Europe until 1945.===Post-war Grand Prix===Racing in Europe started again on 9 September 1945 at the Bois de Boulogne Park in the city of Paris, four months and one day after the end of the war in Europe.", "However, the Monaco Grand Prix was not run between 1945 and 1947 due to financial reasons.", "In 1946, a new premier racing category, Grand Prix, was defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the successor of the AIACR, based on the pre-war voiturette class.", "A Monaco Grand Prix was run to this formula in 1948, won by the future world champion Nino Farina in a Maserati 4CLT.===Formula One=======Early championship days====The 1949 event was cancelled due to the death of Prince Louis II; it was included in the new Formula One World Drivers' Championship the following year.", "The race provided future five-time world champion Juan Manuel Fangio with his first win in a World Championship race, as well as third place for the 51-year-old Louis Chiron, his best result in the World Championship era.", "However, there was no race in 1951 due to budgetary concerns and a lack of regulations in the sport.", "1952 was the first of the two years in which the World Drivers' Championship was run to less powerful Formula Two regulations.", "The race was run to sports car rules instead, and it did not form part of the World Championship.No races were held in 1953 or 1954 due to the fact that the car regulations were not finalized.The Monaco Grand Prix returned in 1955, again as part of the Formula One World Championship, and this would begin a streak of 64 consecutive years in which the race was held.", "In the 1955 race, Maurice Trintignant won in Monte Carlo for the first time and Chiron again scored points and at 56 became the oldest driver to compete in a Formula One Grand Prix.", "It was not until 1957, when Fangio won again, that the Grand Prix saw a double winner.", "Between 1954 and 1961 Fangio's former Mercedes colleague, Stirling Moss, went one better, as did Trintignant, who won the race again in 1958 driving a Cooper.", "The 1961 race saw Moss fend off three works Ferrari 156s in a year-old privateer Rob Walker Racing Team Lotus 18 to take his third Monaco victory.====Graham Hill's era====Graham Hill won five of his 14 Grands Prix at Monaco.Britain's Graham Hill won the race five times in the 1960s and became known as \"King of Monaco\" and \"Mr. Monaco\".", "He first won in 1963, and then won the next two years.", "In the 1965 race, he took pole position and led from the start, but went up an escape road on lap 25 to avoid hitting a slow backmarker.", "Re-joining in fifth place, Hill set several new lap records on the way to winning.", "The race was also notable for Jim Clark's absence (he was participating in the Indianapolis 500), and for Paul Hawkins's Lotus ending up in the harbour.", "Hill's teammate, Briton Jackie Stewart, won in 1966 and New Zealander Denny Hulme won in 1967, but Hill won the next two years, the 1969 event being his final Formula One championship victory, by which time he was a double Formula One world champion.====Track alterations, safety, and increasing business interests====By the start of the 1970s, efforts by Jackie Stewart saw several Formula One events cancelled because of safety concerns.", "For the 1969 event, Armco barriers were placed at specific points for the first time in the circuit's history.", "Before that, the circuit's conditions were (aside from the removal of people's production cars parked on the side of the road) virtually identical to everyday road use.", "If a driver went off, he had a chance to crash into whatever was next to the track (buildings, trees, lamp posts, glass windows, and even a train station), and in Alberto Ascari's and Paul Hawkins's cases, the harbour water, because the concrete road the course used had no Armco to protect the drivers from going off the track and into the Mediterranean.", "The circuit gained more Armco in specific points for the next two races, and by 1972, the circuit was almost completely Armco-lined.", "For the first time in its history, the Monaco circuit was altered in 1972, as the pits were moved next to the waterfront straight between the chicane and Tabac, and the chicane was moved further forward right before Tabac, becoming the junction point between the pits and the course.", "The course was changed again for the 1973 race.", "The Rainier III Nautical Stadium was constructed where the straight that went behind the pits was, and the circuit introduced a double chicane that went around the new swimming pool (this chicane complex is known today as \"Swimming Pool\").", "This created space for a whole new pit facility, and in 1976 the course was altered yet again; the Sainte Devote corner was made slower and a chicane was placed right before the pit straight.By the early 1970s, as Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone started to marshal the collective bargaining power of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), Monaco was prestigious enough to become an early bone of contention.", "Historically, the number of cars permitted in a race was decided by the race organiser, in this case the ACM, which had always set a low number of around 16.In 1972, Ecclestone started to negotiate deals which relied on FOCA guaranteeing at least 18 entrants for every race.", "A stand-off over this issue left the 1972 race in jeopardy until the ACM gave in and agreed that 26 cars could participate – the same number permitted at most other circuits.", "Two years later, in 1974, the ACM got the numbers back down to 18.Because of its tight confines, slow average speeds, and punishing nature, Monaco has often thrown up unexpected results.", "In the 1982 race, René Arnoux led the first 15 laps before retiring.", "Alain Prost then led until four laps from the end, when he spun off on the wet track, hit the barriers and lost a wheel, giving Riccardo Patrese the lead.", "Patrese himself spun with only a lap and a half to go, letting Didier Pironi through to the front, followed by Andrea de Cesaris.", "On the last lap, Pironi ran out of fuel in the tunnel, but De Cesaris also ran out of fuel before he could overtake.", "In the meantime, Patrese had bump-started his car and went through to score his first Grand Prix win.In 1983, the ACM became entangled in the disagreements between Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA) and FOCA.", "The ACM, with the agreement of Bernie Ecclestone, negotiated an individual television rights deal with ABC in the United States.", "This broke an agreement enforced by FISA for a single central negotiation of television rights.", "Jean-Marie Balestre, president of FISA, announced that the Monaco Grand Prix would not form part of the Formula One world championship in 1985.The ACM fought their case in the French courts.", "They won the case and the race was eventually reinstated.====Era of Prost/Senna dominance ====For the decade from 1984 to 1993, the race was won by only two drivers, arguably the two best drivers in Formula One at the time – Frenchman Alain Prost and Brazilian Ayrton Senna.", "Prost, already a winner of the support race for Formula Three cars in 1979, took his first Monaco win at the 1984 race.", "The race started 45 minutes late after heavy rain.", "Prost led briefly before Nigel Mansell overtook him on lap 11.Mansell crashed out five laps later, letting Prost back into the lead.", "On lap 27, Prost led from Ayrton Senna's Toleman and Stefan Bellof's Tyrrell.", "Senna was catching Prost, and Bellof was catching both of them in the only naturally aspirated car in the race.", "However, on lap 31, the race was controversially stopped due to conditions deemed to be undriveable.", "Later, FISA fined the clerk of the course, Jacky Ickx, $6,000 and suspended his licence for not consulting the stewards before stopping the race.", "The drivers received only half of the points that would usually be awarded, as the race had been stopped before two-thirds of the intended race distance had been completed.Prost won 1985 after polesitter Senna retired with a blown Renault engine in his Lotus after over-revving it at the start, and Michele Alboreto in the Ferrari retook the lead twice, but he went off the track at Sainte-Devote, where Brazilian Nelson Piquet and Italian Riccardo Patrese had a huge accident only a few laps previously and oil and debris littered the track.", "Prost passed Alboreto, who retook the Frenchman, and then he punctured a tyre after running over bodywork debris from the Piquet/Patrese accident, which dropped him to 4th.", "He was able to pass his Roman countrymen Andrea De Cesaris and Elio de Angelis, but finished 2nd behind Prost.", "The French Prost dominated 1986 after starting from pole position, a race where the Nouvelle Chicane had been changed on the grounds of safety.Senna holds the record for the most victories in Monaco, with six, including five consecutive wins between 1989 and 1993, as well as eight podium finishes in ten starts.", "His 1987 win was the first time a car with an active suspension had won a Grand Prix.", "He won this race after Briton Nigel Mansell in a Williams-Honda went out with a broken exhaust.", "His win was very popular with the people of Monaco, and when he was arrested on the Monday following the race for riding a motorcycle without wearing a helmet, he was released by the officers after they realised who he was.", "Senna dominated 1988 and was able to get ahead of his teammate Prost while the Frenchman was held up for most of the race by Austrian Gerhard Berger in a Ferrari.", "By the time Prost got past Berger, he pushed as hard as he could and set a lap some 6 seconds faster than Senna's; Senna then set 2 fastest laps, and while pushing as hard as possible, he touched the barrier at the Portier corner and crashed into the Armco separating the road from the Mediterranean.", "Senna was so upset that he went back to his Monaco flat and was not heard from until the evening.", "Prost went on to win for the fourth time.Senna dominated 1989 while Prost was stuck behind backmarker René Arnoux and others; the Brazilian also dominated 1990 and 1991.At the 1992 event Nigel Mansell, who had won all five races held to that point in the season, took pole and dominated the race in his Williams FW14B-Renault.", "However, with seven laps remaining, Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits, emerging behind Senna's McLaren-Honda, who was on worn tyres.", "Mansell, on fresh tyres, set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna's and closed from 5.2 to 1.9 seconds in only two laps.", "The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past, finishing just two-tenths of a second behind the Brazilian.", "It was Senna's fifth win at Monaco, equalling Graham Hill's record.", "Senna had a poor start to the 1993 event, crashing in practice and qualifying 3rd behind pole-sitter Prost and the rising German star Michael Schumacher.", "Both of them beat Senna to the first corner, but Prost had to serve a time penalty for jumping the start and Schumacher retired after suspension problems, so Senna took his sixth win to break Graham Hill's record for most wins at the Monaco Grand Prix.", "Runner-up Damon Hill commented, \"If my father was around now, he would be the first to congratulate Ayrton.", "\"====Modern times====Formation lap for the 1996 Monaco Grand PrixThe 1994 race was an emotional and tragic affair.", "It came two weeks after the race at Imola in which Austrian Roland Ratzenberger and Ayrton Senna both died in crashes on successive days.", "During the Monaco event, Austrian Karl Wendlinger had an accident in his Sauber in the tunnel; he went into a coma and was to miss the rest of the season.", "The German Michael Schumacher won the 1994 Monaco event.", "Schumacher also won the 1995 event.", "The 1996 race saw Michael Schumacher take pole position before crashing out on the first lap after being overtaken by Damon Hill.", "Hill led the first 40 laps before his engine expired in the tunnel.", "Jean Alesi took the lead but suffered suspension failure 20 laps later.", "Olivier Panis, who started in 14th place, moved into the lead and stayed there until the end of the race, being pushed all the way by David Coulthard.", "It was Panis's only win, and the last for his Ligier team.", "Only three cars crossed the finish line, but seven were classified.Seven-time world champion Schumacher would eventually win the race five times, matching Graham Hill's record.", "In his appearance at the 2006 event, he attracted criticism when, while provisionally holding pole position and with the qualifying session drawing to a close, he stopped his car at the Rascasse hairpin, blocking the track and obliging competitors to slow down.", "Although Schumacher claimed it was the unintentional result of a genuine car failure, the FIA disagreed and he was sent to the back of the grid.In July 2010, Bernie Ecclestone announced that a 10-year deal had been reached with the race organisers, keeping the race on the calendar until at least 2020.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the FIA announced the 2020 Monaco Grand Prix's postponement, along with the two other races scheduled for May 2020, to help prevent the spread of the virus.However, later the same day the Automobile Club de Monaco confirmed that the Grand Prix was instead cancelled, making 2020 the first time the Grand Prix was not run since 1954.It returned in 2021, on 23 May, where Max Verstappen won his first Monaco Grand Prix.", "The 2022 event saw the Monégasque driver, Charles Leclerc of Scuderia Ferrari, achieve his first Monaco Grand Prix pole position at the Circuit de Monaco (he had taken pole the previous year but could not start due to driveshaft failure).", "However, a critical strategical error meant Leclerc would drop to fourth, with Verstappen's teammate Sergio Pérez winning the race.", "The race was delayed due to heavy rain; two formation laps were completed before the start procedure was suspended and further delayed an hour from its 15:00 local time intended start.", "In addition to a red flag due to a big crash from Mick Schumacher, this dropped the laps completed from the intended 78 to 64.In September 2022 the Grand Prix signed a new race contract to remain on the F1 calendar until the 2025 season." ], [ "Circuit", "the 2016 Formula One raceThe Circuit de Monaco consists of the city streets of Monte Carlo and La Condamine, which includes the famous harbour.", "It is unique in having been held on the same circuit every time it has been run over such a long period – only the Italian Grand Prix, which has been held at Autodromo Nazionale Monza during every Formula One regulated year except 1980, has a similarly lengthy and close relationship with a single circuit.The race circuit has many elevation changes, tight corners, and a narrow course that makes it one of the most demanding tracks in Formula One racing.", ", two drivers have crashed and ended up in the harbour, the most famous being Alberto Ascari in 1955.Despite the fact that the course has had minor changes several times during its history, it is still considered the ultimate test of driving skills in Formula One, and if it were not already an existing Grand Prix, it would not be permitted to be added to the schedule for safety reasons.", "Even in 1929, ''La Vie Automobile'' magazine offered the opinion that \"Any respectable traffic system would have covered the track with > sign posts left, right and centre\".Triple Formula One champion Nelson Piquet was fond of saying that racing at Monaco was \"like trying to cycle round your living room\", but added that \"a win here was worth two anywhere else\".Notably, the course includes a tunnel.", "The contrast of daylight and gloom when entering/exiting the tunnel presents \"challenges not faced elsewhere\", as the drivers have to \"adjust their vision as they emerge from the tunnel at the fastest point of the track and brake for the chicane in the daylight.", "\".The fastest-ever qualifying lap was set by Lewis Hamilton in qualifying (Q3) for the 2019 Monaco Grand Prix, at a time of 1:10.166.===Viewing areas===During the Grand Prix weekend, spectators crowd around the Monaco Circuit.", "There are a number of temporary grandstands built around the circuit, mostly around the harbour area.", "The rich and famous spectators often arrive on their boats and the yachts through the harbour.", "Balconies around Monaco become viewing areas for the race as well.", "Many hotels and residents cash in on the bird's eye views of the race." ], [ "Organization", "2017Previously, the ceremony was held in the Royal BoxThe Monaco Grand Prix is organised each year by the ''Automobile Club de Monaco'' which also runs the Monte Carlo Rally and previously ran the Junior Monaco Kart Cup.The Monaco Grand Prix differs in several ways from other Grands Prix.", "The practice session for the race was traditionally held on the Thursday preceding the race instead of Friday.", "This allows the streets to be opened to the public again on Friday.", "From the 2022 event onwards the first two Formula One practice sessions will now be held on Friday, bringing the running schedule for Formula One in line with other Grands Prix.", "Support races will still be run on Thursday.", "Until the late 1990s the race started at 3:30 p.m. local time – an hour and a half later than other European Formula One races.", "In recent years the race has fallen in line with the other Formula One races for the convenience of television viewers.", "Also, earlier the event was traditionally held on the week of Ascension Day.", "For many years, the numbers of cars admitted to Grands Prix was at the discretion of the race organisers – Monaco had the smallest grids, ostensibly because of its narrow and twisting track.", "Only 18 cars were permitted to start the 1975 Monaco Grand Prix, compared to 23 to 26 cars at all other rounds that year.The erecting of the circuit takes six weeks, and the removal after the race takes three weeks.", "Until 2017, there was no proper podium at the race.", "Instead, a section of the track was closed after the race to act as parc fermé, a place where the cars are held for official inspection.", "The first three drivers in the race left their cars there and walked directly to the royal box where the 'podium' ceremony was held, which was considered a custom for the race.", "The trophies were handed out before the national anthems for the winning driver and team are played, as opposed to other Grands Prix where the anthems are played first." ], [ "Fame", "The Monaco Grand Prix is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world alongside the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans.", "These three races are considered to form a ''Triple Crown'' of the three most famous motor races in the world.", "As of 2023, Graham Hill is the only driver to have won the Triple Crown, by winning all three races.", "The practice session for Monaco overlaps with that for the Indianapolis 500, and the races themselves sometimes clash.", "As the two races take place on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean and form part of different championships, it is difficult for one driver to compete effectively in both during his career.", "Juan Pablo Montoya and Fernando Alonso are the only active drivers to have won two of the three events.In awarding its first gold medal for motorsport to Prince Rainier III, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) characterised the Monaco Grand Prix as contributing \"an exceptional location of glamour and prestige\" to motorsport.", "The Grand Prix has been run under the patronage of three generations of Monaco's royal family: Louis II, Rainier III and Albert II, all of whom have taken a close interest in the race.", "A large part of the principality's income comes from tourists attracted by the warm climate and the famous casino, but it is also a tax haven and is home to many millionaires, including several Formula One drivers.Monaco has produced four native Formula One drivers - Louis Chiron, André Testut, Olivier Beretta, and Charles Leclerc - but its tax status has made it home to many drivers over the years, including Gilles Villeneuve and Ayrton Senna.", "Of the Formula One contenders, several have property in the principality, including Jenson Button and David Coulthard, who was part owner of a hotel there.", "Because of the small size of the town and the location of the circuit, drivers whose races end early can usually get back to their apartments in minutes.", "Ayrton Senna famously retired to his apartment after crashing out of the lead of the 1988 race.", "In the 2006 race, after retiring due to a mechanical failure while in second place, Kimi Räikkönen retired to his yacht, which was parked in the harbour.The Grand Prix attracts big-name celebrities each year who come to experience the glamour and prestige of the event.", "Big parties are held in the nightclubs on the Grand Prix weekend, and the Port Hercule fills up with party-goers joining in the celebrations.", "'''Criticism from drivers and commentators'''In the 21st century, several commentators and F1 drivers have called the Grand Prix the most boring race of all circuits, both to drive and to watch as a spectator.", "Criticism has been directed towards how few overtake attempts are performed, as well as how frequently the driver who sets the pole position wins.", "Fernando Alonso has said that the race is \"the most boring race ever,\" and Lewis Hamilton stated that the 2022 Grand Prix \"wasn't really racing.\"" ], [ "Winners", "===Repeat winners (drivers)===''Drivers '''in bold''' are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.", "''Ayrton Senna won the race a record six times.", "Wins Driver Years won 6 Ayrton Senna 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 5 Graham Hill 1963, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1969 Michael Schumacher 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001 4 '''''' Alain Prost 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988 3 Stirling Moss 1956, 1960, 1961 Jackie Stewart 1966, 1971, 1973 Nico Rosberg 2013, 2014, 2015 '''Lewis Hamilton''' 2008, 2016, 2019 2 Juan Manuel Fangio 1950, 1957 Maurice Trintignant 1955, 1958 Niki Lauda 1975, 1976 Jody Scheckter 1977, 1979 David Coulthard 2000, 2002 '''Fernando Alonso''' 2006, 2007 Mark Webber 2010, 2012 Sebastian Vettel 2011, 2017 '''Max Verstappen''' 2021, 2023Sources:===Repeat winners (constructors)===''Teams '''in bold''' are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.", "''''A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.", "''''A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.''", "Wins ConstructorYears won 15 '''McLaren''' 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2008 10 '''Ferrari''' 1952, 1955, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2017 8 '''Mercedes''' 1935, 1936, 1937, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 20197 Lotus 1960, 1961, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1974, 1987 '''Red Bull''' 2010, 2011, 2012, 2018, 2021, 2022, 2023 5 BRM 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1972 4 Bugatti 1929, 1930, 1931, 1933 3 '''Alfa Romeo''' 1932, 1934, 1950 Maserati 1948, 1956, 1957 Cooper 1958, 1959, 1962 Tyrrell 1971, 1973, 1978 '''Williams''' 1980, 1983, 2003 2 Brabham 1967, 1982 Benetton 1994, 1995 '''''' Renault 2004, 2006Sources:===Repeat winners (engine manufacturers)===''Manufacturers '''in bold''' are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.", "''''A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.", "''''A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.''", "Wins ManufacturerYears won 15 '''Mercedes''' 1935, 1936, 1937, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2019 14 Ford 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1993, 1994 10 '''Ferrari''' 1952, 1955, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1997, 1999, 2001, 20177 '''Honda'''1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 2021 6 '''''' '''Renault'''1995, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2011, 20125 Climax 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962 BRM1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1972 4 Bugatti1929, 1930, 1931, 1933 3 Alfa Romeo 1932, 1934, 1950 Maserati 1948, 1956, 1957 TAG *1984, 1985, 1986Sources: Between 1998 and 2005 built by Ilmor, funded by Mercedes Built by Cosworth, funded by Ford Built by Porsche===By year===''A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.", "''''A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship.", "''Nico Rosberg won the Monaco Grand Prix three times in a row from 2013 to 2015, racing for Mercedes.", "Year DriverConstructorReport 1929 William Grover-Williams Bugatti Report 1930 René Dreyfus Bugatti Report 1931 Louis Chiron Bugatti Report 1932 Tazio Nuvolari Alfa Romeo Report 1933 Achille Varzi Bugatti Report 1934 Guy Moll Alfa Romeo Report 1935 Luigi Fagioli Mercedes Report 1936 Rudolf Caracciola Mercedes Report 1937 Manfred von Brauchitsch Mercedes Report 1938–1947 ''Not held from 1939 to 1944 due to World War II, and in 1938, and 1945 to 1947 due to financial reasons'' 1948 Giuseppe Farina Maserati Report 1949 ''Not held due to the death of Prince Louis II'' Juan Manuel Fangio Alfa Romeo Report 1951 ''Not held due to budgetary concerns and a lack of regulations in Formula One'' 1952 Vittorio Marzotto Ferrari Report 1953–1954 ''Not held due to the fact that car regulations were not finalized in Formula One'' Maurice Trintignant Ferrari Report Stirling Moss Maserati Report Juan Manuel Fangio Maserati Report Maurice Trintignant Cooper-Climax Report Jack Brabham Cooper-Climax Report Stirling Moss Lotus-Climax Report Stirling Moss Lotus-Climax Report Bruce McLaren Cooper-Climax Report Graham Hill BRM Report Graham Hill BRM Report Graham Hill BRM Report Jackie Stewart BRM Report Denny Hulme Brabham-Repco Report Graham Hill Lotus-Ford Report Graham Hill Lotus-Ford Report Jochen Rindt Lotus-Ford Report Jackie Stewart Tyrrell-Ford Report Jean-Pierre Beltoise BRM Report Jackie Stewart Tyrrell-Ford Report Ronnie Peterson Lotus-Ford Report Niki Lauda Ferrari Report Niki Lauda Ferrari Report Jody Scheckter Wolf-Ford Report '''''' Patrick Depailler Tyrrell-Ford Report Jody Scheckter Ferrari Report Carlos Reutemann Williams-Ford Report Gilles Villeneuve Ferrari Report Riccardo Patrese Brabham-Ford Report Keke Rosberg Williams-Ford Report '''''' Alain Prost McLaren-TAG Report '''''' Alain Prost McLaren-TAG Report '''''' Alain Prost McLaren-TAG Report Ayrton Senna Lotus-Honda Report '''''' Alain Prost McLaren-Honda Report Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report Ayrton Senna McLaren-Ford Report Michael Schumacher Benetton-Ford Report Michael Schumacher Benetton-Renault Report '''''' Olivier Panis Ligier-Mugen-Honda Report Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report Mika Häkkinen McLaren-Mercedes Report Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report David Coulthard McLaren-Mercedes Report Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report David Coulthard McLaren-Mercedes Report Juan Pablo Montoya Williams-BMW Report Jarno Trulli Renault Report Kimi Räikkönen McLaren-Mercedes Report Fernando Alonso Renault Report Fernando Alonso McLaren-Mercedes Report Lewis Hamilton McLaren-Mercedes Report Jenson Button Brawn-Mercedes Report Mark Webber Red Bull-Renault Report Sebastian Vettel Red Bull-Renault Report Mark Webber Red Bull-Renault Report Nico Rosberg Mercedes Report Nico Rosberg Mercedes Report Nico Rosberg Mercedes Report Lewis Hamilton Mercedes Report Sebastian Vettel Ferrari Report Daniel Ricciardo Red Bull Racing-TAG Heuer Report Lewis Hamilton Mercedes Report 2020 ''Not held due to the COVID-19 pandemic'' Max Verstappen Red Bull Racing-Honda Report Sergio Pérez Red Bull Racing-RBPT Report Max Verstappen Red Bull Racing-Honda RBPT ReportSources:" ], [ "Previous circuit configurations", "Image:Circuit de Monaco 1950.png\|1929–1971Image:Circuit de Monaco 1972.png\|1972Image:Circuit de Monaco 1973.png\|1973–1975Image:Circuit de Monaco 1976.png\|1976–1985Image:Circuit de Monaco 1986.png\|1986–1996" ], [ "See also", " Triple Crown of Motorsport" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "**Kettlewell, Mike.", "\"Monaco: Road Racing on the Riviera\", in Northey, Tom, editor.", "''World of Automobiles'', Volume 12, pp.", "1381–4.London: Orbis, 1974." ], [ "External links", " Automobile Club de Monaco* Grand Prix de Monaco* Satellite Map of Monaco Grand Prix track* Monte Carlo Formula 1 statistics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fission" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fission''', a splitting of something into two or more parts, may refer to:* Fission (biology), the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts into separate entities resembling the original* Nuclear fission, when the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts* Fission (band), a Swedish death metal band* ''Fission'' (album), by Jens Johansson" ], [ "See also", "* Fusion (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fusion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fusion''', or synthesis, is the process of combining two or more distinct entities into a new whole.", "'''Fusion''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "===Physics===Nuclear fusion, multiple atomic nuclei combining to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particlesFusion power, power generation using controlled nuclear fusion reactionsCold fusion, a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at or near room temperatureHeat fusion, a welding process for joining two pieces of a thermoplastic materialMelting, or transitioning from solid to liquid form===Biology and medicine=== Binaural fusion, the cognitive process of combining the auditory information received by both ears* Binocular fusion, the cognitive process in binocular vision of combining the visual information received by both eyes* Cell fusion, a process in which several uninuclear cells combine to form a multinuclear cell* Gene fusion, a genetic event and molecular biology technique* Lipid bilayer fusion, a part of several cellular processes* Spinal fusion, a surgical technique used to combine two or more vertebrae* Tooth fusion, a dental abnormality in which two teeth are joined===Computing=======Computing techniques====* Image fusion, a process of combining relevant information from two or more images into a single image* Loop fusion, a compiler program-optimization transformation that replaces multiple loops with a single one* Sensor fusion, the combining of sensory data from disparate sources====Application software====* Fusion 360, a 3D CAD, CAM and CAE program by Autodesk* Blackmagic Fusion, a visual effects package* BT Fusion, a defunct UK voice-over-IP service* Lucidworks Fusion, a search engine platform* NetObjects Fusion, a web design program====Middleware and operating system components====* Compiz Fusion, a community-maintained set of plugins for the Compiz Window Manager* IBRIX Fusion, a parallel file system* Oracle Fusion Middleware, a portfolio of standards-based software products that spans multiple services* VMware Fusion, a virtual machine software product" ], [ "Arts and media", "===Comics===* ''Fusion'' (Eclipse Comics)* Fusion (Marvel Comics), a name of two fictional supervillains* ''Fusion'' (Marvel/Top Cow), a crossover between Marvel and Top Cow Productions===Film and television===\"Fusion\" (''Star Trek: Enterprise''), a first-season episode of ''Star Trek: Enterprise''Fusion (TV channel), an American cable and satellite news channel===Gaming===* ''Dancing Stage Fusion'', a 2004 music video game by Konami* ''Fuzion'', a merger of Interlock System and Hero System* ''Metroid Fusion'', a 2002 Game Boy Advance game* Philadelphia Fusion, a E-sports gaming team* ''Fusion'' (video game), 1988===Magazines===* ''Fusion'' (Kent State University)* ''Fusion'' (music magazine), an American music magazine, 1967 to 1974* ''Fusion Magazine'' (political magazine), founded and edited by Glenn Beck* ''Fusion Magazine'' (scientific magazine), predecessor to ''21st Century Science and Technology'' magazine===Music and dance===* Jazz fusion, genre that combines rock and jazz, starting in 1960s* Fusion dance, a type of partner dance that combines two or more dance styles* ''Fusion'' (Jimmy Giuffre 3 album), 1961* ''Fusion'' (Jeremy Steig album), 1972* ''Fusion'' (Sawthis album), 2006* Fusion Festival, a music festival in Lärz, Germany* Guardian (band), a Christian rock band formerly called Fusion" ], [ "Businesses and organizations", "===Non-profit and political organizations===* Fusion Party, a name for multiple political parties in American history* Fusion Party (Australia)* Fusion Energy Foundation, a defunct American non-profit think tank co-founded by Lyndon LaRouche in 1974* Fusion International, an Australian-based Christian organisation* Fusion of Haitian Social Democrats, a Haitian political party* Fusion – Sarvodaya ICT4D Movement, Information and Communications Technology for Development, Sri Lanka===Sports teams===* Cleveland Fusion, a women's American football team in the NWFA* Fort Wayne Fusion, Arena football team* Miami Fusion, a professional soccer club in Fort Lauderdale* Philadelphia Fusion, an American esports team===Other organizations===* Fusion Academy, a private alternative school in several U.S. cities* Fusion Media Group, a division of Univision Communications" ], [ "Law and politics", "* Fusion of powers, a feature of some parliamentary forms of government* Fusionism (politics), the combination of libertarianism and various types of conservatism* Electoral fusion, an arrangement where two or more political parties support a common candidate* Fusion of law and equity, combining the rules of equity and common law into one set of rules* Fusion of the legal profession, the elimination of the distinction between barristers and solicitors" ], [ "Products", "* AMD Fusion, a combined microprocessor and GPU design, now branded as AMD Accelerated Processing Unit* Ford Fusion (Americas), a mid-sized car produced by Ford Motor Company* Ford Fusion (Europe), a mini MPV produced by Ford Motor Company* Schumacher Fusion, a radio-controlled car* Gillette Fusion, a safety razor by Gillette* Fusion, a brand name of computer hardware used by Arctic" ], [ "Other uses", "* Fusion (phonetics), the merger of phonological features of two speech segments into one feature* Fusion cuisine, the combination of elements of various culinary traditions* Fusional language or inflected language, a type of language* Information fusion, the merging of information from disparate sources" ], [ "See also", "Fuse (disambiguation)Fusing (disambiguation)Cold fusion (disambiguation)Fission (disambiguation), opposite of fusion" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Four color theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "Example of a four-colored mapA four-colored map of the states of the United States (ignoring lakes and oceans)In mathematics, the '''four color theorem''', or the '''four color map theorem''', states that no more than four colors are required to color the regions of any map so that no two adjacent regions have the same color.", "''Adjacent'' means that two regions share a common boundary of non-zero length (i.e., not merely a corner where three or more regions meet).", "It was the first major theorem to be proved using a computer.", "Initially, this proof was not accepted by all mathematicians because the computer-assisted proof was infeasible for a human to check by hand.", "The proof has gained wide acceptance since then, although some doubts remain.The theorem is a stronger version of the five color theorem, which can be shown using a significantly simpler argument.", "Although the weaker five color theorem was proven already in the 1800s, the four color theorem resisted until 1976 when it was proven by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken.", "This came after many false proofs and mistaken counterexamples in the preceding decades.The Appel-Haken proof proceeds by analyzing a very large number of reducible configurations.", "This was improved upon in 1997 by Robertson, Sanders, Seymour, and Thomas who have managed to decrease the number of such configurations to 633 - still an extremely long case analysis.", "In 2005, the theorem was verified by Georges Gonthier using a general-purpose theorem-proving software." ], [ "Precise formulation of the theorem", "In graph-theoretic terms, the theorem states that for loopless planar graph , its chromatic number is .The intuitive statement of the four color theorem – \"given any separation of a plane into contiguous regions, the regions can be colored using at most four colors so that no two adjacent regions have the same color\" – needs to be interpreted appropriately to be correct.First, regions are adjacent if they share a boundary segment; two regions that share only isolated boundary points are not considered adjacent.", "(Otherwise, a map in a shape of a pie chart would make an arbitrarily large number of regions 'adjacent' to each other at a common corner, and require arbitrarily large number of colors as a result.)", "Second, bizarre regions, such as those with finite area but infinitely long perimeter, are not allowed; maps with such regions can require more than four colors.", "(To be safe, we can restrict to regions whose boundaries consist of finitely many straight line segments.", "It is allowed that a region has enclaves, that is it entirely surrounds one or more other regions.)", "Note that the notion of \"contiguous region\" (technically: connected open subset of the plane) is not the same as that of a \"country\" on regular maps, since countries need not be contiguous (they may have exclaves, e.g., the Cabinda Province as part of Angola, Nakhchivan as part of Azerbaijan, Kaliningrad as part of Russia, France with its overseas territories, and Alaska as part of the United States are not contiguous).", "If we required the entire territory of a country to receive the same color, then four colors are not always sufficient.", "For instance, consider a simplified map:200pxIn this map, the two regions labeled ''A'' belong to the same country.", "If we wanted those regions to receive the same color, then five colors would be required, since the two ''A'' regions together are adjacent to four other regions, each of which is adjacent to all the others.", "Forcing two separate regions to have the same color can be modelled by adding a 'handle' joining them outside the plane.200pxSuch construction makes the problem equivalent to coloring a map on a torus (a surface of genus 1), which requires up to 7 colors for an arbitrary map.A similar construction also applies if a single color is used for multiple disjoint areas, as for bodies of water on real maps, or there are more countries with disjoint territories.", "In such cases more colors might be required with a growing genus of a resulting surface.", "(See the section Generalizations below.", ")A map with four regions, and the corresponding planar graph with four vertices.A simpler statement of the theorem uses graph theory.", "The set of regions of a map can be represented more abstractly as an undirected graph that has a vertex for each region and an edge for every pair of regions that share a boundary segment.", "This graph is planar: it can be drawn in the plane without crossings by placing each vertex at an arbitrarily chosen location within the region to which it corresponds, and by drawing the edges as curves without crossings that lead from one region's vertex, across a shared boundary segment, to an adjacent region's vertex.", "Conversely any planar graph can be formed from a map in this way.", "In graph-theoretic terminology, the four-color theorem states that the vertices of every planar graph can be colored with at most four colors so that no two adjacent vertices receive the same color, or for short::Every planar graph is four-colorable.==History=====Early proof attempts===Letter of De Morgan to William Rowan Hamilton, 23 Oct. 1852As far as is known, the conjecture was first proposed on October 23, 1852, when Francis Guthrie, while trying to color the map of counties of England, noticed that only four different colors were needed.", "At the time, Guthrie's brother, Frederick, was a student of Augustus De Morgan (the former advisor of Francis) at University College London.", "Francis inquired with Frederick regarding it, who then took it to De Morgan (Francis Guthrie graduated later in 1852, and later became a professor of mathematics in South Africa).", "According to De Morgan:A student of mine Guthrie asked me to day to give him a reason for a fact which I did not know was a fact—and do not yet.", "He says that if a figure be any how divided and the compartments differently colored so that figures with any portion of common boundary ''line'' are differently colored—four colors may be wanted but not more—the following is his case in which four colors ''are'' wanted.", "Query cannot a necessity for five or more be invented…\"F.G.\", perhaps one of the two Guthries, published the question in ''The Athenaeum'' in 1854, and De Morgan posed the question again in the same magazine in 1860.Another early published reference by in turn credits the conjecture to De Morgan.There were several early failed attempts at proving the theorem.", "De Morgan believed that it followed from a simple fact about four regions, though he didn't believe that fact could be derived from more elementary facts.This arises in the following way.", "We never need four colours in a neighborhood unless there be four counties, each of which has boundary lines in common with each of the other three.", "Such a thing cannot happen with four areas unless one or more of them be inclosed by the rest; and the colour used for the inclosed county is thus set free to go on with.", "Now this principle, that four areas cannot each have common boundary with all the other three without inclosure, is not, we fully believe, capable of demonstration upon anything more evident and more elementary; it must stand as a postulate.One proposed proof was given by Alfred Kempe in 1879, which was widely acclaimed; another was given by Peter Guthrie Tait in 1880.It was not until 1890 that Kempe's proof was shown incorrect by Percy Heawood, and in 1891, Tait's proof was shown incorrect by Julius Petersen—each false proof stood unchallenged for 11 years.In 1890, in addition to exposing the flaw in Kempe's proof, Heawood proved the five color theorem and generalized the four color conjecture to surfaces of arbitrary genus.Tait, in 1880, showed that the four color theorem is equivalent to the statement that a certain type of graph (called a snark in modern terminology) must be non-planar.In 1943, Hugo Hadwiger formulated the Hadwiger conjecture, a far-reaching generalization of the four-color problem that still remains unsolved.===Proof by computer===During the 1960s and 1970s, German mathematician Heinrich Heesch developed methods of using computers to search for a proof.", "Notably he was the first to use discharging for proving the theorem, which turned out to be important in the unavoidability portion of the subsequent Appel–Haken proof.", "He also expanded on the concept of reducibility and, along with Ken Durre, developed a computer test for it.", "Unfortunately, at this critical juncture, he was unable to procure the necessary supercomputer time to continue his work.Others took up his methods, including his computer-assisted approach.", "While other teams of mathematicians were racing to complete proofs, Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken at the University of Illinois announced, on June 21, 1976, that they had proved the theorem.", "They were assisted in some algorithmic work by John A. Koch.If the four-color conjecture were false, there would be at least one map with the smallest possible number of regions that requires five colors.", "The proof showed that such a minimal counterexample cannot exist, through the use of two technical concepts:# An ''unavoidable set'' is a set of configurations such that every map that satisfies some necessary conditions for being a minimal non-4-colorable triangulation (such as having minimum degree 5) must have at least one configuration from this set.# A ''reducible configuration'' is an arrangement of countries that cannot occur in a minimal counterexample.", "If a map contains a reducible configuration, the map can be reduced to a smaller map.", "This smaller map has the condition that if it can be colored with four colors, this also applies to the original map.", "This implies that if the original map cannot be colored with four colors the smaller map cannot either and so the original map is not minimal.Using mathematical rules and procedures based on properties of reducible configurations, Appel and Haken found an unavoidable set of reducible configurations, thus proving that a minimal counterexample to the four-color conjecture could not exist.", "Their proof reduced the infinitude of possible maps to 1,834 reducible configurations (later reduced to 1,482) which had to be checked one by one by computer and took over a thousand hours.", "This reducibility part of the work was independently double checked with different programs and computers.", "However, the unavoidability part of the proof was verified in over 400 pages of microfiche, which had to be checked by hand with the assistance of Haken's daughter Dorothea Blostein .Appel and Haken's announcement was widely reported by the news media around the world, and the math department at the University of Illinois used a postmark stating \"Four colors suffice.\"", "At the same time the unusual nature of the proof—it was the first major theorem to be proved with extensive computer assistance—and the complexity of the human-verifiable portion aroused considerable controversy.In the early 1980s, rumors spread of a flaw in the Appel–Haken proof.", "Ulrich Schmidt at RWTH Aachen had examined Appel and Haken's proof for his master's thesis that was published in 1981.He had checked about 40% of the unavoidability portion and found a significant error in the discharging procedure .", "In 1986, Appel and Haken were asked by the editor of ''Mathematical Intelligencer'' to write an article addressing the rumors of flaws in their proof.", "They replied that the rumors were due to a \"misinterpretation of Schmidt's results\" and obliged with a detailed article.", "Their magnum opus, ''Every Planar Map is Four-Colorable'', a book claiming a complete and detailed proof (with a microfiche supplement of over 400 pages), appeared in 1989; it explained and corrected the error discovered by Schmidt as well as several further errors found by others .===Simplification and verification===Since the proving of the theorem, a new approach has led to both a shorter proof and a more efficient algorithm for 4-coloring maps.", "In 1996, Neil Robertson, Daniel P. Sanders, Paul Seymour, and Robin Thomas created a quadratic-time algorithm (requiring only O(''n''2) time, where ''n'' is the number of vertices), improving on a quartic-time algorithm based on Appel and Haken's proof.", "The new proof, based on the same ideas, is similar to Appel and Haken's but more efficient because it reduces the complexity of the problem and requires checking only 633 reducible configurations.", "Both the unavoidability and reducibility parts of this new proof must be executed by a computer and are impractical to check by hand.", "In 2001, the same authors announced an alternative proof, by proving the snark conjecture.", "This proof remains unpublished, however.In 2005, Benjamin Werner and Georges Gonthier formalized a proof of the theorem inside the Coq proof assistant.", "This removed the need to trust the various computer programs used to verify particular cases; it is only necessary to trust the Coq kernel." ], [ "Summary of proof ideas", "The following discussion is a summary based on the introduction to ''Every Planar Map is Four Colorable'' .", "Although flawed, Kempe's original purported proof of the four color theorem provided some of the basic tools later used to prove it.", "The explanation here is reworded in terms of the modern graph theory formulation above.Kempe's argument goes as follows.", "First, if planar regions separated by the graph are not ''triangulated'', i.e.", "do not have exactly three edges in their boundaries, we can add edges without introducing new vertices in order to make every region triangular, including the unbounded outer region.", "If this triangulated graph is colorable using four colors or fewer, so is the original graph since the same coloring is valid if edges are removed.", "So it suffices to prove the four color theorem for triangulated graphs to prove it for all planar graphs, and without loss of generality we assume the graph is triangulated.Suppose ''v'', ''e'', and ''f'' are the number of vertices, edges, and regions (faces).", "Since each region is triangular and each edge is shared by two regions, we have that 2''e'' = 3''f''.", "This together with Euler's formula, ''v'' − ''e'' + ''f'' = 2, can be used to show that 6''v'' − 2''e'' = 12.Now, the ''degree'' of a vertex is the number of edges abutting it.", "If ''v''''n'' is the number of vertices of degree ''n'' and ''D'' is the maximum degree of any vertex,:But since 12 > 0 and 6 − ''i'' ≤ 0 for all ''i'' ≥ 6, this demonstrates that there is at least one vertex of degree 5 or less.If there is a graph requiring 5 colors, then there is a ''minimal'' such graph, where removing any vertex makes it four-colorable.", "Call this graph ''G''.", "Then ''G'' cannot have a vertex of degree 3 or less, because if ''d''(''v'') ≤ 3, we can remove ''v'' from ''G'', four-color the smaller graph, then add back ''v'' and extend the four-coloring to it by choosing a color different from its neighbors.A graph containing a Kempe chain consisting of alternating blue and red verticesKempe also showed correctly that ''G'' can have no vertex of degree 4.As before we remove the vertex ''v'' and four-color the remaining vertices.", "If all four neighbors of ''v'' are different colors, say red, green, blue, and yellow in clockwise order, we look for an alternating path of vertices colored red and blue joining the red and blue neighbors.", "Such a path is called a Kempe chain.", "There may be a Kempe chain joining the red and blue neighbors, and there may be a Kempe chain joining the green and yellow neighbors, but not both, since these two paths would necessarily intersect, and the vertex where they intersect cannot be colored.", "Suppose it is the red and blue neighbors that are not chained together.", "Explore all vertices attached to the red neighbor by red-blue alternating paths, and then reverse the colors red and blue on all these vertices.", "The result is still a valid four-coloring, and ''v'' can now be added back and colored red.This leaves only the case where ''G'' has a vertex of degree 5; but Kempe's argument was flawed for this case.", "Heawood noticed Kempe's mistake and also observed that if one was satisfied with proving only five colors are needed, one could run through the above argument (changing only that the minimal counterexample requires 6 colors) and use Kempe chains in the degree 5 situation to prove the five color theorem.In any case, to deal with this degree 5 vertex case requires a more complicated notion than removing a vertex.", "Rather the form of the argument is generalized to considering ''configurations'', which are connected subgraphs of ''G'' with the degree of each vertex (in G) specified.", "For example, the case described in degree 4 vertex situation is the configuration consisting of a single vertex labelled as having degree 4 in ''G''.", "As above, it suffices to demonstrate that if the configuration is removed and the remaining graph four-colored, then the coloring can be modified in such a way that when the configuration is re-added, the four-coloring can be extended to it as well.", "A configuration for which this is possible is called a ''reducible configuration''.", "If at least one of a set of configurations must occur somewhere in G, that set is called ''unavoidable''.", "The argument above began by giving an unavoidable set of five configurations (a single vertex with degree 1, a single vertex with degree 2, ..., a single vertex with degree 5) and then proceeded to show that the first 4 are reducible; to exhibit an unavoidable set of configurations where every configuration in the set is reducible would prove the theorem.Because ''G'' is triangular, the degree of each vertex in a configuration is known, and all edges internal to the configuration are known, the number of vertices in ''G'' adjacent to a given configuration is fixed, and they are joined in a cycle.", "These vertices form the ''ring'' of the configuration; a configuration with ''k'' vertices in its ring is a ''k''-ring configuration, and the configuration together with its ring is called the ''ringed configuration''.", "As in the simple cases above, one may enumerate all distinct four-colorings of the ring; any coloring that can be extended without modification to a coloring of the configuration is called ''initially good''.", "For example, the single-vertex configuration above with 3 or less neighbors were initially good.", "In general, the surrounding graph must be systematically recolored to turn the ring's coloring into a good one, as was done in the case above where there were 4 neighbors; for a general configuration with a larger ring, this requires more complex techniques.", "Because of the large number of distinct four-colorings of the ring, this is the primary step requiring computer assistance.Finally, it remains to identify an unavoidable set of configurations amenable to reduction by this procedure.", "The primary method used to discover such a set is the method of discharging.", "The intuitive idea underlying discharging is to consider the planar graph as an electrical network.", "Initially positive and negative \"electrical charge\" is distributed amongst the vertices so that the total is positive.Recall the formula above::Each vertex is assigned an initial charge of 6-deg(''v'').", "Then one \"flows\" the charge by systematically redistributing the charge from a vertex to its neighboring vertices according to a set of rules, the ''discharging procedure''.", "Since charge is preserved, some vertices still have positive charge.", "The rules restrict the possibilities for configurations of positively charged vertices, so enumerating all such possible configurations gives an unavoidable set.As long as some member of the unavoidable set is not reducible, the discharging procedure is modified to eliminate it (while introducing other configurations).", "Appel and Haken's final discharging procedure was extremely complex and, together with a description of the resulting unavoidable configuration set, filled a 400-page volume, but the configurations it generated could be checked mechanically to be reducible.", "Verifying the volume describing the unavoidable configuration set itself was done by peer review over a period of several years.A technical detail not discussed here but required to complete the proof is ''immersion reducibility''." ], [ "False disproofs", "The four color theorem has been notorious for attracting a large number of false proofs and disproofs in its long history.", "At first, ''The New York Times'' refused, as a matter of policy, to report on the Appel–Haken proof, fearing that the proof would be shown false like the ones before it.", "Some alleged proofs, like Kempe's and Tait's mentioned above, stood under public scrutiny for over a decade before they were refuted.", "But many more, authored by amateurs, were never published at all.Generally, the simplest, though invalid, counterexamples attempt to create one region which touches all other regions.", "This forces the remaining regions to be colored with only three colors.", "Because the four color theorem is true, this is always possible; however, because the person drawing the map is focused on the one large region, they fail to notice that the remaining regions can in fact be colored with three colors.This trick can be generalized: there are many maps where if the colors of some regions are selected beforehand, it becomes impossible to color the remaining regions without exceeding four colors.", "A casual verifier of the counterexample may not think to change the colors of these regions, so that the counterexample will appear as though it is valid.Perhaps one effect underlying this common misconception is the fact that the color restriction is not transitive: a region only has to be colored differently from regions it touches directly, not regions touching regions that it touches.", "If this were the restriction, planar graphs would require arbitrarily large numbers of colors.Other false disproofs violate the assumptions of the theorem, such as using a region that consists of multiple disconnected parts, or disallowing regions of the same color from touching at a point." ], [ "Three-coloring", "Proof without words that a map of US states needs at least four colors.While every planar map can be colored with four colors, it is NP-complete in complexity to decide whether an arbitrary planar map can be colored with just three colors.A cubic map can be colored with only three colors if and only if each interior region has an even number of neighboring regions.", "In the US states map example, landlocked Missouri ('''MO''') has eight neighbors (an even number): it must be differently colored from all of them, but the neighbors can alternate colors, thus this part of the map needs only three colors.", "However, landlocked Nevada ('''NV''') has five neighbors (an odd number): one of the neighbors must be differently colored from it and all the others, thus four colors are needed here." ], [ "Generalizations", "===Infinite graphs===By joining the single arrows together and the double arrows together, one obtains a torus with seven mutually touching regions; therefore seven colors are necessary.This construction shows the torus divided into the maximum of seven regions, each one of which touches every other.The four color theorem applies not only to finite planar graphs, but also to infinite graphs that can be drawn without crossings in the plane, and even more generally to infinite graphs (possibly with an uncountable number of vertices) for which every finite subgraph is planar.", "To prove this, one can combine a proof of the theorem for finite planar graphs with the De Bruijn–Erdős theorem stating that, if every finite subgraph of an infinite graph is ''k''-colorable, then the whole graph is also ''k''-colorable .", "This can also be seen as an immediate consequence of Kurt Gödel's compactness theorem for first-order logic, simply by expressing the colorability of an infinite graph with a set of logical formulae.===Higher surfaces===One can also consider the coloring problem on surfaces other than the plane.", "The problem on the sphere or cylinder is equivalent to that on the plane.", "For closed (orientable or non-orientable) surfaces with positive genus, the maximum number ''p'' of colors needed depends on the surface's Euler characteristic χ according to the formula:where the outermost brackets denote the floor function.Alternatively, for an orientable surface the formula can be given in terms of the genus of a surface, ''g'':::This formula, the Heawood conjecture, was proposed by P. J. Heawood in 1890 and, after contributions by several people, proved by Gerhard Ringel and J. W. T. Youngs in 1968.The only exception to the formula is the Klein bottle, which has Euler characteristic 0 (hence the formula gives p = 7) but requires only 6 colors, as shown by Philip Franklin in 1934.For example, the torus has Euler characteristic χ = 0 (and genus ''g'' = 1) and thus ''p'' = 7, so no more than 7 colors are required to color any map on a torus.", "This upper bound of 7 is sharp: certain toroidal polyhedra such as the Szilassi polyhedron require seven colors.A Möbius strip requires six colors as do 1-planar graphs (graphs drawn with at most one simple crossing per edge) .", "If both the vertices and the faces of a planar graph are colored, in such a way that no two adjacent vertices, faces, or vertex-face pair have the same color, then again at most six colors are needed .7 colour torus.svg\|A radially symmetric 7-colored torus – regions of the same colour wrap around along dotted linesTietze genus 2 colouring.svg\|An 8-coloured double torus (genus-two surface) – bubbles denote unique combination of two regionsKlein bottle colouring.svg\|A 6-colored Klein bottleTietze Moebius.svg\|Tietze's subdivision of a Möbius strip into six mutually adjacent regions, requiring six colors.", "The vertices and edges of the subdivision form an embedding of Tietze's graph onto the strip.Szilassi polyhedron 3D model.svg\|Interactive Szilassi polyhedron model with each of 7 faces adjacent to every other – in the SVG image, move the mouse to rotate itVisual proof mutually touching solids.svg\|Proof without words that the number of colours needed is unbounded in three or more dimensionsFor graphs whose vertices are represented as pairs of points on two distinct surfaces, with edges drawn as non-crossing curves on one of the two surfaces, the chromatic number can be at least 9 and is at most 12, but more precise bounds are not known; this is Gerhard Ringel's Earth–Moon problem.===Solid regions===There is no obvious extension of the coloring result to three-dimensional solid regions.", "By using a set of ''n'' flexible rods, one can arrange that every rod touches every other rod.", "The set would then require ''n'' colors, or ''n''+1 including the empty space that also touches every rod.", "The number ''n'' can be taken to be any integer, as large as desired.", "Such examples were known to Fredrick Guthrie in 1880.Even for axis-parallel cuboids (considered to be adjacent when two cuboids share a two-dimensional boundary area) an unbounded number of colors may be necessary (; )." ], [ "Relation to other areas of mathematics", "Dror Bar-Natan gave a statement concerning Lie algebras and Vassiliev invariants which is equivalent to the four color theorem." ], [ "Use outside of mathematics", "Despite the motivation from coloring political maps of countries, the theorem is not of particular interest to cartographers.", "According to an article by the math historian Kenneth May, \"Maps utilizing only four colors are rare, and those that do usually require only three.", "Books on cartography and the history of mapmaking do not mention the four-color property\".", "The theorem also does not guarantee the usual cartographic requirement that non-contiguous regions of the same country (such as the exclave Alaska and the rest of the United States) be colored identically." ], [ "See also", "* Apollonian networkFive color theorem Graph coloring* Grötzsch's theorem: triangle-free planar graphs are 3-colorable.", "* Hadwiger–Nelson problem: how many colors are needed to color the plane so that no two points at unit distance apart have the same color?" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * ** * .", "* * .", " * * * * * ** * ** .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * List of generalizations of the four color theorem on MathOverflow" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fahrenheit 451" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Fahrenheit 451''''' is a 1953 dystopian novel by American writer Ray Bradbury.", "It presents a future American society where books have been outlawed and \"firemen\" burn any that are found.", "The novel follows in the viewpoint of Guy Montag, a fireman who soon becomes disillusioned with his role of censoring literature and destroying knowledge, eventually quitting his job and committing himself to the preservation of literary and cultural writings.", "''Fahrenheit 451'' was written by Bradbury during the Second Red Scare and the McCarthy era, inspired by the book burnings in Nazi Germany and by ideological repression in the Soviet Union.", "Bradbury's claimed motivation for writing the novel has changed multiple times.", "In a 1956 radio interview, Bradbury said that he wrote the book because of his concerns about the threat of burning books in the United States.", "In later years, he described the book as a commentary on how mass media reduces interest in reading literature.", "In a 1994 interview, Bradbury cited political correctness as an allegory for the censorship in the book, calling it \"the real enemy these days\" and labelling it as \"thought control and freedom of speech control.", "\"The writing and theme within ''Fahrenheit 451'' was explored by Bradbury in some of his previous short stories.", "Between 1947 and 1948, Bradbury wrote \"Bright Phoenix\", a short story about a librarian who confronts a \"Chief Censor\", who burns books.", "An encounter Bradbury had in 1949 with the police inspired him to write the short story \"The Pedestrian\" in 1951.In \"The Pedestrian\", a man going for a nighttime walk in his neighborhood is harassed and detained by the police.", "In the society of \"The Pedestrian\", citizens are expected to watch television as a leisurely activity, a detail that would be included in ''Fahrenheit 451''.", "Elements of both \"Bright Phoenix\" and \"The Pedestrian\" would be combined into ''The Fireman'', a novella published in ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' in 1951.Bradbury was urged by Stanley Kauffmann, a publisher at Ballantine Books, to make ''The Fireman'' into a full novel.", "Bradbury finished the manuscript for ''Fahrenheit 451'' in 1953, and the novel was published later that year.Upon its release, ''Fahrenheit 451'' was a critical success, albeit with notable outliers.", "The novel's subject matter led to its censorship in apartheid South Africa and various schools in the United States.", "In 1954, ''Fahrenheit 451'' won the American Academy of Arts and Letters Award in Literature and the Commonwealth Club of California Gold Medal.", "It later won the Prometheus \"Hall of Fame\" Award in 1984 and a \"Retro\" Hugo Award in 2004.Bradbury was honored with a Spoken Word Grammy nomination for his 1976 audiobook version.", "The novel has also been adapted into films, stage plays, and video games.", "Film adaptations of the novel include a 1966 film directed by François Truffaut starring Oskar Werner as Guy Montag, an adaptation that was met with mixed critical reception, and a 2018 television film directed by Ramin Bahrani starring Michael B. Jordan as Montag that also received a mixed critical reception.", "Bradbury himself published a stage play version in 1979 and helped develop a 1984 interactive fiction video game of the same name, as well as a collection of his short stories titled ''A Pleasure to Burn''.", "Two BBC Radio dramatizations were also produced." ], [ "Historical and biographical context", "The Nazi book burnings horrified Ray Bradbury and inspired him to write ''Fahrenheit 451''Shortly after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the conclusion of World War II, the United States focused its concern on the Soviet atomic bomb project and the expansion of communism.", "The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), formed in 1938 to investigate American citizens and organizations suspected of having communist ties, held hearings in 1947 to investigate alleged communist influence in Hollywood movie-making.", "These hearings resulted in the blacklisting of the so-called \"Hollywood Ten\", a group of influential screenwriters and directors.The year HUAC began investigating Hollywood is often considered the beginning of the Cold War, as in March 1947, the Truman Doctrine was announced.", "By about 1950, the Cold War was in full swing, and the American public's fear of nuclear warfare and communist influence was at a feverish level.The government's interference in the affairs of artists and creative types infuriated Bradbury; he was bitter and concerned about the workings of his government, and a late 1949 nighttime encounter with an overzealous police officer would inspire Bradbury to write \"The Pedestrian\", a short story which would go on to become \"The Fireman\" and then ''Fahrenheit 451''.", "The rise of Senator Joseph McCarthy's hearings hostile to accused communists, beginning in 1950, deepened Bradbury's contempt for government overreach.The Golden Age of Radio occurred between the early 1920s to the late 1950s, during Bradbury's early life, while the transition to the Golden Age of Television began right around the time he started to work on the stories that would eventually lead to ''Fahrenheit 451''.", "Bradbury saw these forms of media as a threat to the reading of books, indeed as a threat to society, as he believed they could act as a distraction from important affairs.", "This contempt for mass media and technology would express itself through Mildred and her friends and is an important theme in the book.Bradbury's lifelong passion for books began at an early age.", "After he graduated from high school, his family could not afford for him to attend college, so Bradbury began spending time at the Los Angeles Public Library where he educated himself.", "As a frequent visitor to his local libraries in the 1920s and 1930s, he recalls being disappointed because they did not stock popular science fiction novels, like those of H. G. Wells, because, at the time, they were not deemed literary enough.", "Between this and learning about the destruction of the Library of Alexandria, a great impression was made on Bradbury about the vulnerability of books to censure and destruction.", "Later, as a teenager, Bradbury was horrified by the Nazi book burnings and later by Joseph Stalin's campaign of political repression, the \"Great Purge\", in which writers and poets, among many others, were arrested and often executed." ], [ "Plot summary", "===\"The Hearth and the Salamander\"===In a distant future, Guy Montag is a fireman employed to burn outlawed books, along with the houses they are hidden in.", "One fall night while returning from work, he meets his new neighbor Clarisse McClellan, a teenage girl whose free-thinking ideals and liberating spirit cause him to question his life and perceived happiness.", "Montag returns home to find that his wife Mildred has overdosed on sleeping pills, and he calls for medical attention.", "Two EMTs later pump her stomach and change her blood.", "After they leave to rescue another overdose victim, Montag overhears Clarisse and her family talking about their illiterate society.", "Shortly afterward, Montag's mind is bombarded with Clarisse's subversive thoughts and the memory of Mildred's near-death.", "Over the next few days, Clarisse meets Montag each night as he walks home.", "Clarisse's simple pleasures and interests make her an outcast among her peers, and she is forced to go to therapy for her behavior.", "Montag always looks forward to the meetings, but one day, Clarisse goes missing.In the following days, while he and other firemen are ransacking the book-filled house of an old woman and drenching it in kerosene, Montag steals a book.", "The woman refuses to leave her house and her books, choosing instead to light a match and burn herself alive.", "Jarred by the suicide, Montag returns home and hides the book under his pillow.", "Later, Montag asks Mildred if she has heard anything about Clarisse.", "She reveals that Clarisse's family moved away after Clarisse was hit by a speeding car and died four days ago.", "Dismayed by her failure to mention this earlier, Montag uneasily tries to fall asleep.", "Outside he suspects the presence of \"The Mechanical Hound\", an eight-legged robotic dog-like creature that resides in the firehouse and aids the firemen in hunting book hoarders.Montag awakens ill the next morning.", "Mildred tries to care for her husband but finds herself more involved in the \"parlor wall\" entertainment in the living room – large televisions filling the walls.", "Montag suggests he should take a break from being a fireman, and Mildred panics over the thought of losing the house and her parlor wall \"family\".", "Captain Beatty, Montag's fire chief, visits Montag to see how he is doing.", "Sensing his concerns, Beatty recounts the history of how books had lost their value and how the firemen were adapted for their current role: over decades, people began to embrace new media (like film and television), sports, and an ever-quickening pace of life.", "Books were abridged or degraded to accommodate shorter attention spans.", "At the same time, advances in technology resulted in nearly all buildings being made with fireproof materials, and firemen preventing fires were no longer necessary.", "The government then instead turned the firemen into officers of society's peace of mind: instead of putting out fires, they were charged with starting them, specifically to burn books, which were condemned as sources of confusing and depressing thoughts that complicated people's lives.", "After an awkward exchange between Mildred and Montag over the book hidden under his pillow, Beatty becomes suspicious and casually adds a passing threat before leaving; he says that if a fireman had a book, he would be asked to burn it within the following twenty-four hours.", "If he refused, the other firemen would come and burn it for him.", "The encounter leaves Montag utterly shaken.Montag later reveals to Mildred that, over the last year, he has accumulated books that are hidden in their ceiling.", "In a panic, Mildred grabs a book and rushes to throw it in the kitchen incinerator, but Montag subdues her and says they are going to read the books to see if they have value.", "If they do not, he promises the books will be burned and their lives will return to normal.===\"The Sieve and the Sand\"===Mildred refuses to go along with Montag's plan, questioning why she or anyone else should care about books.", "Montag goes on a rant about Mildred's suicide attempt, Clarisse's disappearance and death, the woman who burned herself, and the imminent war that goes ignored by the masses.", "He suggests that perhaps the books of the past have messages that can save society from its own destruction.", "Even still, Mildred remains unconvinced.Conceding that Mildred is a lost cause, Montag will need help to understand the books.", "He remembers an old man named Faber, an English professor before books were banned, whom he once met in a park.", "Montag visits Faber's home carrying a copy of the Bible, the book he stole at the woman's house.", "Once there, after multiple attempts to ask, Montag forces the scared and reluctant Faber into helping him by methodically ripping pages from the Bible.", "Faber concedes and gives Montag a homemade earpiece communicator so that he can offer constant guidance.At home, Mildred's friends, Mrs. Bowles and Mrs. Phelps, arrive to watch the \"parlor walls\".", "Not interested in this entertainment, Montag turns off the walls and tries to engage the women in meaningful conversation, only for them to reveal just how indifferent, ignorant, and callous they truly are.", "Enraged, Montag shows them a book of poetry.", "This confuses the women and alarms Faber, who is listening remotely.", "Mildred tries to dismiss Montag's actions as a tradition firemen act out once a year: they find an old book and read it as a way to make fun of how silly the past is.", "Montag proceeds to recite a poem (specifically ''Dover Beach''), causing Mrs. Phelps to cry.", "Soon, the two women leave.Montag hides his books in the backyard before returning to the firehouse late at night.", "There, Montag hands Beatty a book to cover for the one he believes Beatty knows he stole the night before, which is tossed into the trash.", "Beatty reveals that, despite his disillusionment, he was once an enthusiastic reader.", "A fire alarm sounds and Beatty picks up the address from the dispatcher system.", "They drive in the fire truck to the unexpected destination: Montag's house.===\"Burning Bright\"===Beatty orders Montag to destroy his house with a flamethrower, rather than the more powerful \"salamander\" that is usually used by the fire team, and tells him that his wife and her friends reported him.", "Montag watches as Mildred walks out of the house, too traumatized about losing her parlor wall 'family' to even acknowledge her husband's existence or the situation going on around her, and catches a taxi.", "Montag complies, destroying the home piece by piece, but Beatty discovers his earpiece and plans to hunt down Faber.", "Montag threatens Beatty with the flamethrower and, after Beatty taunts him, Montag burns Beatty alive.", "As Montag tries to escape the scene, the Mechanical Hound attacks him, managing to inject his leg with an anesthetic.", "He destroys the Hound with the flamethrower and limps away.", "While escaping, he concludes that Beatty had wanted to die a long time ago and had purposely goaded Montag as well as provided him with a weapon.Montag runs towards Faber's house.", "En route, he crosses a road as a car attempts to run him over, but he manages to evade the vehicle, almost suffering the same fate as Clarisse and losing his knee.", "Faber urges him to make his way to the countryside and contact a group of exiled book-lovers who live there.", "Faber will be leaving on a bus heading to St. Louis, Missouri, where he and Montag can rendezvous later.", "Meanwhile, another Mechanical Hound is released to track down and kill Montag, with news helicopters following it to create a public spectacle.", "After wiping his scent from around the house in hopes of thwarting the Hound, Montag leaves.", "He escapes the manhunt by wading into a river and floating downstream, where he meets the book-lovers.", "They predicted Montag's arrival while watching the TV.The drifters are all former intellectuals.", "They have each memorized books should the day arrive that society comes to an end, with the survivors learning to embrace the literature of the past.", "Wanting to contribute to the group, Montag finds that he partially memorized the Book of Ecclesiastes, discovering that the group has a special way of unlocking photographic memory.", "While discussing about their learnings, Montag and the group watch helplessly as bombers fly overhead and annihilate the city with nuclear weapons: the war has begun and ended in the same night.", "While Faber would have left on the early bus, everyone else (possibly including Mildred) is killed.", "Injured and dirtied, Montag and the group manage to survive the shockwave.When the war is over, the exiles return to the city to rebuild society." ], [ "Characters", "Character development and personality are key to any novel.", "The characters in ''Fahrenheit 451'' are multi-dimensional in many aspects.", "Characters not only develop because of who they are, but by what they have been through, and also external surroundings.", "In the article \"Distortion of 'Self-Image': Effects of Mental Delirium in Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury\", states that \"the Self is the conscious image of one's cognition or mental identity, an element that evaluates external factors such as the environment or other's self.\"", "(Jerrin, Beeto, Bhuvaneswari).", "'''Guy Montag''' is the protagonist and a fireman who presents the dystopian world in which he lives first through the eyes of a worker loyal to it, then as a man in conflict about it, and eventually as someone resolved to be free of it.", "Throughout most of the book, Montag lacks knowledge and believes only what he hears.", "Clarisse McClellan inspires Montag's change, even though they do not know each other for very long.", "'''Clarisse McClellan''' is a teenage girl one month short of her 17th birthday who is Montag's neighbor.", "She walks with Montag on his trips home from work.", "A modern critic has described her as an example of the Manic Pixie Dream Girl, as Clarisse is an unusual sort of person compared to the others inhabiting the bookless, hedonistic society: outgoing, naturally cheerful, unorthodox, and intuitive.", "She is unpopular among peers and disliked by teachers for asking \"why\" instead of \"how\" and focusing on nature rather than on technology.", "A few days after her first meeting with Montag, she disappears without any explanation; Mildred tells Montag (and Captain Beatty confirms) that Clarisse was hit by a speeding car and that her family moved away following her death.", "It is implied that Beatty may have assassinated Clarisse.", "In the afterword of a later edition, Bradbury notes that the film adaptation changed the ending so that Clarisse (who, in the film, is now a 20-year-old schoolteacher who was fired for being unorthodox) was living with the exiles.", "Bradbury, far from being displeased by this, was so happy with the new ending that he wrote it into his later stage edition.", "'''Mildred \"Millie\" Montag''' is Guy Montag's wife.", "She is addicted to sleeping pills, absorbed in the shallow dramas played on her \"parlor walls\" (large, flat-panel televisions), and indifferent to the oppressive society around her.", "She is described in the book as \"thin as a praying mantis from dieting, her hair burnt by chemicals to a brittle straw, and her flesh like white bacon.\"", "Despite her husband's attempts to break her from the spell society has on her, Mildred continues to be shallow and indifferent.", "After Montag scares her friends away by reading ''Dover Beach'', and finding herself unable to live with someone who has been hoarding books, Mildred betrays Montag by reporting him to the firemen and abandoning him, and presumably dies when the city is bombed.", "'''Captain Beatty''' is Montag's boss and the book's main antagonist.", "Once an avid reader, he has come to hate books due to their unpleasant content and contradicting facts and opinions.", "After he forces Montag to burn his own house, Montag kills him with a flamethrower.", "In a scene written years later by Bradbury for the ''Fahrenheit 451'' play, Beatty invites Montag to his house where he shows him walls of books left to molder on their shelves.", "'''Stoneman '''and '''Black''' are Montag's coworkers at the firehouse.", "They do not have a large impact on the story and function only to show the reader the contrast between the firemen who obediently do as they are told and someone like Montag, who formerly took pride in his job but subsequently realizes how damaging it is to society.", "Black is later framed by Montag for possessing books.", "'''Faber''' is a former English professor.", "He has spent years regretting that he did not defend books when he saw the moves to ban them.", "Montag turns to him for guidance, remembering him from a chance meeting in a park sometime earlier.", "Faber at first refuses to help Montag and later realizes Montag is only trying to learn about books, not destroy them.", "He secretly communicates with Montag through an electronic earpiece and helps Montag escape the city, then gets on a bus to St. Louis and escapes the city himself before it is bombed.", "Bradbury notes in his afterword that Faber is part of the name of a German manufacturer of pencils, Faber-Castell but it is also the name of a famous publishing company, Faber and Faber.'''Mrs.", "Ann Bowles '''and '''Mrs.", "Clara Phelps''' are Mildred's friends and representative of the anti-intellectual, hedonistic mainstream society presented in the novel.", "During a social visit to Montag's house, they brag about ignoring the bad things in their lives and have a cavalier attitude towards the upcoming war, their husbands, their children, and politics.", "Mrs. Phelps' husband Pete was called in to fight in the upcoming war (and believes that he'll be back in a week because of how quick the war will be) and thinks having children serves no purpose other than to ruin lives.", "Mrs. Bowles is a three-times-married single mother.", "Her first husband divorced her, her second died in a jet accident, and her third committed suicide by shooting himself in the head.", "She has two children who do not like or respect her due to her permissive, often negligent and abusive parenting; Mrs. Bowles brags that her kids beat her up, and she's glad she can hit back.", "When Montag reads ''Dover Beach'' to them, he strikes a chord in Mrs. Phelps, who starts crying over how hollow her life is.", "Mrs. Bowles chastises Montag for reading \"silly awful hurting words\".", "'''Granger''' is the leader of a group of wandering intellectual exiles who memorize books in order to preserve their contents." ], [ "Title", "The title page of the book explains the title as follows: ''Fahrenheit 451—The temperature at which book paper catches fire and burns...''.", "On inquiring about the temperature at which paper would catch fire, Bradbury had been told that was the autoignition temperature of paper.", "In various studies, scientists have placed the autoignition temperature at a range of temperatures between , depending on the type of paper." ], [ "Writing and development", "''Fahrenheit 451'' developed out of a series of ideas Bradbury had visited in previously written stories.", "For many years, he tended to single out \"The Pedestrian\" in interviews and lectures as sort of a proto-''Fahrenheit 451''.", "In the Preface of his 2006 anthology ''Match to Flame: The Fictional Paths to Fahrenheit 451'' he states that this is an oversimplification.", "The full genealogy of ''Fahrenheit 451'' given in ''Match to Flame'' is involved.", "The following covers the most salient aspects.Between 1947 and 1948, Bradbury wrote the short story \"Bright Phoenix\" (not published until the May 1963 issue of ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'') about a librarian who confronts a book-burning \"Chief Censor\" named Jonathan Barnes.In late 1949, Bradbury was stopped and questioned by a police officer while walking late one night.", "When asked \"What are you doing?", "\", Bradbury wisecracked, \"Putting one foot in front of another.\"", "This incident inspired Bradbury to write the 1951 short story \"The Pedestrian\".In \"The Pedestrian\", Leonard Mead is harassed and detained by the city's remotely operated police cruiser (there's only one) for taking nighttime walks, something that has become extremely rare in this future-based setting: everybody else stays inside and watches television (\"viewing screens\").", "Alone and without an alibi, Mead is taken to the \"Psychiatric Center for Research on Regressive Tendencies\" for his peculiar habit.", "''Fahrenheit 451'' would later echo this theme of an authoritarian society distracted by broadcast media.Bradbury expanded the book-burning premise of \"Bright Phoenix\" and the totalitarian future of \"The Pedestrian\" into \"The Fireman\", a novella published in the February 1951 issue of ''Galaxy Science Fiction''.", "\"The Fireman\" was written in the basement of UCLA's Powell Library on a typewriter that he rented for a fee of ten cents per half hour.", "The first draft was 25,000 words long and was completed in nine days.Urged by a publisher at Ballantine Books to double the length of his story to make a novel, Bradbury returned to the same typing room and made the story 25,000 words longer, again taking just nine days.", "The title \"Fahrenheit 451\" came to him on January 22.The final manuscript was ready in mid-August, 1953.The resulting novel, which some considered as a fix-up (despite being an expanded rewrite of one single novella), was published by Ballantine in 1953.===Supplementary material===Bradbury has supplemented the novel with various front and back matter, including a 1979 coda, a 1982 afterword, a 1993 foreword, and several introductions." ], [ "Publication history", "The first U.S. printing was a paperback version from October 1953 by The Ballantine Publishing Group.", "Shortly after the paperback, a hardback version was released that included a special edition of 200 signed and numbered copies bound in asbestos.", "These were technically collections because the novel was published with two short stories, \"The Playground\" and \"And the Rock Cried Out\", which have been omitted from later printings.", "A few months later, the novel was serialized in the March, April, and May 1954 issues of nascent ''Playboy'' magazine.===Expurgation===Starting in January 1967, ''Fahrenheit 451'' was subject to expurgation by its publisher, Ballantine Books with the release of the \"Bal-Hi Edition\" aimed at high school students.", "Among the changes made by the publisher were the censorship of the words \"hell\", \"damn\", and \"abortion\"; the modification of seventy-five passages; and the changing of two incidents.In the first incident a drunk man was changed to a \"sick man\", while the second involved cleaning fluff out of a human navel, which instead became \"cleaning ears\" in the other.", "For a while both the censored and uncensored versions were available concurrently but by 1973 Ballantine was publishing only the censored version.", "That continued until 1979, when it came to Bradbury's attention:In 1979, one of Bradbury's friends showed him an expurgated copy of the book.", "Bradbury demanded that Ballantine Books withdraw that version and replace it with the original, and in 1980 the original version once again became available.", "In this reinstated work, in the Author's Afterword, Bradbury relates to the reader that it is not uncommon for a publisher to expurgate an author's work, but he asserts that he himself will not tolerate the practice of manuscript \"mutilation\".The \"Bal-Hi\" editions are now referred to by the publisher as the \"Revised Bal-Hi\" editions.===Non-print publications===An audiobook version read by Bradbury himself was released in 1976 and received a Spoken Word Grammy nomination.", "Another audiobook was released in 2005 narrated by Christopher Hurt.", "The e-book version was released in December 2011." ], [ "Reception", "In 1954, ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' reviewer Groff Conklin placed the novel \"among the great works of the imagination written in English in the last decade or more.\"", "The ''Chicago Sunday Tribune''s August Derleth described the book as \"a savage and shockingly prophetic view of one possible future way of life\", calling it \"compelling\" and praising Bradbury for his \"brilliant imagination\".", "Over half a century later, Sam Weller wrote, \"upon its publication, ''Fahrenheit 451'' was hailed as a visionary work of social commentary.\"", "Today, ''Fahrenheit 451'' is still viewed as an important cautionary tale about conformity and the evils of government censorship.When the novel was first published, there were those who did not find merit in the tale.", "Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas were less enthusiastic, faulting the book for being \"simply padded, occasionally with startlingly ingenious gimmickry, ... often with coruscating cascades of verbal brilliance but too often merely with words.\"", "Reviewing the book for ''Astounding Science Fiction'', P. Schuyler Miller characterized the title piece as \"one of Bradbury's bitter, almost hysterical diatribes,\" while praising its \"emotional drive and compelling, nagging detail.\"", "Similarly, ''The New York Times'' was unimpressed with the novel and further accused Bradbury of developing a \"virulent hatred for many aspects of present-day culture, namely, such monstrosities as radio, TV, most movies, amateur and professional sports, automobiles, and other similar aberrations which he feels debase the bright simplicity of the thinking man's existence.", "\"''Fahrenheit 451'' was number seven on the list of \"Top Check Outs OF ALL TIME\" by the New York Public Library===Censorship/banning incidents===In the years since its publication, ''Fahrenheit 451'' has occasionally been banned, censored, or redacted in some schools at the behest of parents or teaching staff either unaware of or indifferent to the inherent irony in such censorship.", "Notable incidents include:In Apartheid South Africa, the book was burned along with thousands of banned publications between the 1950s and 1970s.", "In 1987, ''Fahrenheit 451'' was given \"third tier\" status by the Bay County School Board in Panama City, Florida, under superintendent Leonard Hall's new three-tier classification system.", "Third tier was meant for books to be removed from the classroom for \"a lot of vulgarity\".", "After a resident class-action lawsuit, a media stir, and student protests, the school board abandoned their tier-based censorship system and approved all the currently used books.", "In 1992, Venado Middle School in Irvine, California, gave copies of ''Fahrenheit 451'' to students with all \"obscene\" words blacked out.", "Parents contacted the local media and succeeded in reinstalling the uncensored copies.", "In 2006, parents of a 10th-grade high school student in Montgomery County, Texas, demanded the book be banned from their daughter's English class reading list.", "Their daughter was assigned the book during Banned Books Week, but stopped reading several pages in due to what she considered the offensive language and description of the burning of the Bible.", "In addition, the parents protested the violence, portrayal of Christians, and depictions of firemen in the novel." ], [ "Themes", "Discussions about ''Fahrenheit 451'' often center on its story foremost as a warning against state-based censorship.", "Indeed, when Bradbury wrote the novel during the McCarthy era, he was concerned about censorship in the United States.", "During a radio interview in 1956, Bradbury said:I wrote this book at a time when I was worried about the way things were going in this country four years ago.", "Too many people were afraid of their shadows; there was a threat of book burning.", "Many of the books were being taken off the shelves at that time.", "And of course, things have changed a lot in four years.", "Things are going back in a very healthy direction.", "But at the time I wanted to do some sort of story where I could comment on what would happen to a country if we let ourselves go too far in this direction, where then all thinking stops, and the dragon swallows his tail, and we sort of vanish into a limbo and we destroy ourselves by this sort of action.As time went by, Bradbury tended to dismiss censorship as a chief motivating factor for writing the story.", "Instead he usually claimed that the real messages of ''Fahrenheit 451'' were about the dangers of an illiterate society infatuated with mass media and the threat of minority and special interest groups to books.", "In the late 1950s, Bradbury recounted:In writing the short novel ''Fahrenheit 451'', I thought I was describing a world that might evolve in four or five decades.", "But only a few weeks ago, in Beverly Hills one night, a husband and wife passed me, walking their dog.", "I stood staring after them, absolutely stunned.", "The woman held in one hand a small cigarette-package-sized radio, its antenna quivering.", "From this sprang tiny copper wires which ended in a dainty cone plugged into her right ear.", "There she was, oblivious to man and dog, listening to far winds and whispers and soap-opera cries, sleep-walking, helped up and down curbs by a husband who might just as well not have been there.", "This was ''not'' fiction.This story echoes Mildred's \"Seashell ear-thimbles\" (i.e., a brand of in-ear headphones) that act as an emotional barrier between her and Montag.", "In a 2007 interview, Bradbury maintained that people misinterpret his book and that ''Fahrenheit 451'' is really a statement on how mass media like television marginalizes the reading of literature.", "Regarding minorities, he wrote in his 1979 Coda:'There is more than one way to burn a book.", "And the world is full of people running about with lit matches.", "Every minority, be it Baptist/Unitarian, Irish/Italian/Octogenarian/Zen Buddhist, Zionist/Seventh-day Adventist, Women's Lib/Republican, Mattachine/Four Square Gospel feels it has the will, the right, the duty to douse the kerosene, light the fuse.", "... Fire-Captain Beatty, in my novel ''Fahrenheit 451'', described how the books were burned first by minorities, each ripping a page or a paragraph from this book, then that, until the day came when the books were empty and the minds shut and the libraries closed forever.", "... Only six weeks ago, I discovered that, over the years, some cubby-hole editors at Ballantine Books, fearful of contaminating the young, had, bit by bit, censored some seventy-five separate sections from the novel.", "Students, reading the novel, which, after all, deals with censorship and book-burning in the future, wrote to tell me of this exquisite irony.", "Judy-Lynn del Rey, one of the new Ballantine editors, is having the entire book reset and republished this summer with all the damns and hells back in place.Book-burning censorship, Bradbury would argue, was a side-effect of these two primary factors; this is consistent with Captain Beatty's speech to Montag about the history of the firemen.", "According to Bradbury, it is the people, not the state, who are the culprit in ''Fahrenheit 451''.", "Fahrenheit's censorship is not the result of an authoritarian program to retain power, but the result of a fragmented society seeking to accommodate its challenges by deploying the power of entertainment and technology.", "As Captain Beatty explains (p. 55): \"...The bigger your market, Montag, the less you handle controversy, remember that!", "All the minor minorities with their navels to be kept clean.\"...", "\"It didn't come from the Government down.", "There was no dictum, no declaration, no censorship, to start with, no!", "Technology, mass exploitation, and minority pressure carried the trick, thank God.", "\"A variety of other themes in the novel besides censorship have been suggested.", "Two major themes are resistance to conformity and control of individuals via technology and mass media.", "Bradbury explores how the government is able to use mass media to influence society and suppress individualism through book burning.", "The characters Beatty and Faber point out that the American population is to blame.", "Due to their constant desire for a simplistic, positive image, books must be suppressed.", "Beatty blames the minority groups, who would take offense to published works that displayed them in an unfavorable light.", "Faber went further to state that, rather than the government banning books, the American population simply stopped reading on their own.", "He notes that the book burnings themselves became a form of entertainment for the general public.In a 1994 interview, Bradbury stated that ''Fahrenheit 451'' was more relevant during this time than in any other, stating that, \"it works even better because we have political correctness now.", "Political correctness is the real enemy these days.", "The black groups want to control our thinking and you can't say certain things.", "The homosexual groups don't want you to criticize them.", "It's thought control and freedom of speech control.\"" ], [ "Predictions for the future", "''Fahrenheit 451'' is set in an unspecified city and time, though it is written as if set in a distant future.", "The earliest editions make clear that it takes place no earlier than the year 2022 due to a reference to an atomic war taking place during that year.Bradbury described himself as \"a ''preventer'' of futures, not a predictor of them.\"", "He did not believe that book burning was an inevitable part of the future; he wanted to warn against its development.", "In a later interview, when asked if he believes that teaching ''Fahrenheit 451'' in schools will prevent his totalitarian vision of the future, Bradbury replied in the negative.", "Rather, he states that education must be at the kindergarten and first-grade level.", "If students are unable to read then, they will be unable to read ''Fahrenheit 451''.As to technology, Sam Weller notes that Bradbury \"predicted everything from flat-panel televisions to earbud headphones and twenty-four-hour banking machines.\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "===Television===''Playhouse 90'' broadcast \"A Sound of Different Drummers\" on CBS in 1957, written by Robert Alan Aurthur.", "The play combined plot ideas from ''Fahrenheit 451'' and ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "Bradbury sued and eventually won on appeal.===Film===A film adaptation written and directed by François Truffaut and starring Oskar Werner and Julie Christie was released in 1966.A film adaptation directed by Ramin Bahrani and starring Michael B. Jordan, Michael Shannon, Sofia Boutella, and Lilly Singh was released in 2018 for HBO.===Theater===In the late 1970s Bradbury adapted his book into a play.", "At least part of it was performed at the Colony Theatre in Los Angeles in 1979, but it was not in print until 1986 and the official world premiere was only in November 1988 by the Fort Wayne, Indiana Civic Theatre.", "The stage adaptation diverges considerably from the book and seems influenced by Truffaut's movie.", "For example, fire chief Beatty's character is fleshed out and is the wordiest role in the play.", "As in the movie, Clarisse does not simply disappear but in the finale meets up with Montag as a book character (she as Robert Louis Stevenson, he as Edgar Allan Poe).The UK premiere of Bradbury's stage adaptation was not until 2003 in Nottingham, while it took until 2006 before the Godlight Theatre Company produced and performed its New York City premiere at 59E59 Theaters.", "After the completion of the New York run, the production then transferred to the Edinburgh Festival where it was a 2006 Edinburgh Festival ''Pick of the Fringe''.The Off-Broadway theatre The American Place Theatre presented a one man show adaptation of ''Fahrenheit 451'' as a part of their 2008–2009 Literature to Life season.", "''Fahrenheit 451'' inspired the Birmingham Repertory Theatre production ''Time Has Fallen Asleep in the Afternoon Sunshine'', which was performed at the Birmingham Central Library in April 2012.===Radio===In 1982, Gregory Evans' radio dramatization of the novel was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 starring Michael Pennington as Montag.", "It was broadcast eight more times on BBC Radio 4 Extra, twice each in 2010, 2012, 2013, and 2015.BBC Radio's second dramatization, by David Calcutt, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 2003, starring Stephen Tomlin in the same role.===Music===In 1984 the new wave band ''Scortilla'' released the song Fahrenheit 451 inspired by the book by R. Bradbury and the film by F. Truffaut.===Computer games===In 1984, the novel was adapted into a computer text adventure game of the same name by the software company Trillium, serving as a sequel to the events of the novel, and co-written by Len Neufeld and Bradbury himself.===Comics===In June 2009, a graphic novel edition of the book was published.", "Entitled ''Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451: The Authorized Adaptation'', the paperback graphic adaptation was illustrated by Tim Hamilton.", "The introduction in the novel is written by Bradbury himself." ], [ "Cultural references", "Michael Moore's 2004 documentary ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' refers to Bradbury's novel and the September 11 attacks, emphasized by the film's tagline \"The temperature where freedom burns\".", "The film takes a critical look at the presidency of George W. Bush, the War on Terror, and its coverage in the news media, and became the highest grossing documentary of all time.", "Bradbury was upset by what he considered the appropriation of his title, and wanted the film renamed.", "Moore filmed a subsequent documentary about the election of Donald Trump called ''Fahrenheit 11/9'' in 2018.In 2015, the Internet Engineering Steering Group approved the publication of ''An HTTP Status Code to Report Legal Obstacles'', now '''', which specifies that websites forced to block resources for legal reasons should return a status code of 451 when users request those resources.Guy Montag (as Gui Montag), is used in the 1998 real-time strategy game ''Starcraft'' as a terran firebat hero." ], [ "See also", "* ''Brave New World''* Burning of books and burying of scholars* Dystopia* Firefighter arson* ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Jerrin, Neil Beeto, and G. Bhuvaneswari.", "\"Distortion of 'Self-Image': Effects of Mental Delirium in Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury.\"", "Theory & Practice in Language Studies, vol.", "12, no.", "8, Aug. 2022, pp.", "1634–40.EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1208.21" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Xavier" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Xavier''', SJ (born '''Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta'''; Latin: ''Franciscus Xaverius''; Basque: ''Frantzisko Xabierkoa''; French: ''François Xavier''; Spanish: ''Francisco Javier''; Portuguese: ''Francisco Xavier''; 7 April 15063 December 1552), venerated as '''Saint Francis Xavier''', was a Spanish Catholic missionary and saint who co-founded the Society of Jesus and, as a representative of the Portuguese Empire, led the first Christian mission to Japan.Born in the town of Xavier, Spain, he was a companion of Ignatius of Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits who took vows of poverty and chastity at Montmartre, Paris in 1534.He led an extensive mission into Asia, mainly the Portuguese Empire in the East, and was influential in evangelization work, most notably in early modern India.", "He was extensively involved in the missionary activity in Portuguese India.", "In 1546, Francis Xavier proposed the establishment of the Goan Inquisition in a letter addressed to the Portuguese King, John III.", "While some sources claim that he actually asked for a special minister whose sole office would be to further Christianity in Goa, others disagree with this assertion.", "As a representative of the king of Portugal, he was also the first major Christian missionary to venture into Borneo, the Maluku Islands, Japan, and other areas.", "In those areas, struggling to learn the local languages and in the face of opposition, he had less success than he had enjoyed in India.", "Xavier was about to extend his mission to Ming China, when he died on Shangchuan Island.He was beatified by Pope Paul V on 25 October 1619 and canonized by Pope Gregory XV on 12 March 1622.In 1624, he was made co-patron of Navarre.", "Known as the \"Apostle of the Indies\", \"Apostle of the Far East\", \"Apostle of China\" and \"Apostle of Japan\", he is considered to be one of the greatest missionaries since Paul the Apostle.", "In 1927, Pope Pius XI published the decree \"Apostolicorum in Missionibus\" naming Francis Xavier, along with Thérèse of Lisieux, co-patron of all foreign missions.", "He is now co-patron saint of Navarre, with Fermin.", "The Day of Navarre in Navarre, Spain, marks the anniversary of Francis Xavier's death, on 3 December." ], [ "Early life", "castle of the Xavier family was later acquired by the Society of Jesus.Francis Xavier was born in the Castle of Xavier, in the Kingdom of Navarre, on 7 April 1506 into an influential noble family.", "He was the youngest son of Don Juan de Jasso y Atondo, Lord of Idocín, president of the Royal Council of the Kingdom of Navarre, and seneschal of the Castle of Xavier (a doctor in law by the University of Bologna, belonging to a prosperous noble family of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, later privy counsellor and finance minister to King John III of Navarre) and Doña María de Azpilcueta y Aznárez, sole heiress to the Castle of Xavier (related to the theologian and philosopher Martín de Azpilcueta).", "His brother Miguel de Jasso (later known as Miguel de Javier) became Lord of Xavier and Idocín at the death of his parents (a direct ancestor of the Counts of Javier).", "Basque and Romance were his two mother tongues.In 1512, Ferdinand, King of Aragon and regent of Castile, invaded Navarre, initiating a war that lasted over 18 years.", "Three years later, Francis's father died when Francis was only nine years old.", "In 1516, Francis's brothers participated in a failed Navarrese-French attempt to expel the Spanish invaders from the kingdom.", "The Spanish Governor, Cardinal Cisneros, confiscated the family lands, demolished the outer wall, the gates, and two towers of the family castle, and filled in the moat.", "In addition, the height of the keep was reduced by half.", "Only the family residence inside the castle was left.", "In 1522, one of Francis's brothers participated with 200 Navarrese nobles in dogged but failed resistance against the Castilian Count of Miranda in Amaiur, Baztan, the last Navarrese territorial position south of the Pyrenees.In 1525, Francis went to study in Paris at the Collège Sainte-Barbe, University of Paris, where he spent the next eleven years.", "In the early days he acquired some reputation as an athlete and a high-jumper.In 1529, Francis shared lodgings with his friend Pierre Favre.", "A new student, Ignatius of Loyola, came to room with them.", "At 38, Ignatius was much older than Pierre and Francis, who were both 23 at the time.", "Ignatius convinced Pierre to become a priest, but was unable to convince Francis, who had aspirations of worldly advancement.", "At first, Francis regarded the new lodger as a joke and was sarcastic about his efforts to convert students.", "When Pierre left their lodgings to visit his family and Ignatius was alone with Francis, he was able to slowly break down Francis's resistance.", "According to most biographies Ignatius is said to have posed the question: \"What will it profit a man to gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?\"", "However, according to James Broderick such method is not characteristic of Ignatius and there is no evidence that he employed it at all.In 1530, Francis received the degree of Master of Arts, and afterwards taught Aristotelian philosophy at Beauvais College, University of Paris." ], [ "Missionary work", "Church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, ParisOn 15 August 1534, seven students met in a crypt beneath the Church of Saint Denis (now Saint Pierre de Montmartre), on the hill of Montmartre, overlooking Paris.", "They were Francis, Ignatius of Loyola, Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla from Spain, Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal.", "They made private vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience to the Pope, and also vowed to go to the Holy Land to convert infidels.", "Francis began his study of theology in 1534 and was ordained on 24 June 1537.In 1539, after long discussions, Ignatius drew up a formula for a new religious order, the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits).", "Ignatius's plan for the order was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540.In 1540, King John of Portugal had Pedro Mascarenhas, Portuguese ambassador to the Holy See, request Jesuit missionaries to spread the faith in his new possessions in India, where the king believed that Christian values were eroding among the Portuguese.", "After successive appeals to the Pope asking for missionaries for the East Indies under the Padroado agreement, John III was encouraged by Diogo de Gouveia, rector of the Collège Sainte-Barbe, to recruit the newly graduated students who had established the Society of Jesus.Francisco Xavier taking leave of John III of Portugal for an expeditionIgnatius promptly appointed Nicholas Bobadilla and Simão Rodrigues.", "At the last moment, however, Bobadilla became seriously ill. With some hesitance and uneasiness, Ignatius asked Francis to go in Bobadilla's place.", "Thus, Francis Xavier began his life as the first Jesuit missionary almost accidentally.Leaving Rome on 15 March 1540, in the Ambassador's train, Francis took with him a breviary, a catechism, and by Croatian humanist Marko Marulić, a Latin book that had become popular in the Counter-Reformation.", "According to a 1549 letter of F. Balthasar Gago from Goa, it was the only book that Francis read or studied.", "Francis reached Lisbon in June 1540 and, four days after his arrival, he and Rodrigues were summoned to a private audience with the King and the Queen.Francis Xavier devoted much of his life to missions in Asia, mainly in four centres: Malacca, Amboina and Ternate (in the Maluku Islands of Indonesia), Japan, and off-shore China.", "His growing information about new places indicated to him that he had to go to what he understood were centres of influence for the whole region.", "China loomed large from his days in India.", "Japan was particularly attractive because of its culture.", "For him, these areas were interconnected; they could not be evangelised separately.===Goa and India===''Saint Francis Xavier preaching in Goa'' (1610), by André ReinosoFrancis Xavier left Lisbon on 7 April 1541, his thirty-fifth birthday, along with two other Jesuits and the new viceroy Martim Afonso de Sousa, on board the ''Santiago''.", "As he departed, Francis was given a brief from the pope appointing him apostolic nuncio to the East.", "From August until March 1542 he remained in Portuguese Mozambique, and arrived in Goa, then capital of Portuguese India, on 6 May 1542, thirteen months after leaving Lisbon.The Portuguese, following quickly on the great voyages of discovery, had established themselves at Goa thirty years earlier.", "Francis's primary mission, as ordered by King John III, was to restore Christianity among the Portuguese settlers.", "According to Teotonio R. DeSouza, recent critical accounts indicate that apart from the posted civil servants, \"the great majority of those who were dispatched as 'discoverers' were the riff-raff of Portuguese society, picked up from Portuguese jails.\"", "Nor did the soldiers, sailors, or merchants come to do missionary work, and Imperial policy permitted the outflow of disaffected nobility.", "Many of the arrivals formed liaisons with local women and adopted Indian culture.", "Missionaries often wrote against the \"scandalous and undisciplined\" behaviour of their fellow Christians.The Christian population had churches, clergy, and a bishop, but there were few preachers and no priests beyond the walls of Goa.", "Xavier decided that he must begin by instructing the Portuguese themselves, and gave much of his time to the teaching of children.", "The first five months he spent in preaching and ministering to the sick in the hospitals.", "After that, he walked through the streets ringing a bell to summon the children and servants to catechism.", "He was invited to head Saint Paul's College, a pioneer seminary for the education of secular priests, which became the first Jesuit headquarters in Asia.", "'''Conversion efforts'''Conversion of the Paravars by Francis Xavier in South India, in a 19th-century coloured lithographXavier soon learned that along the Pearl Fishery Coast, which extends from Cape Comorin on the southern tip of India to the island of Mannar, off Ceylon (Sri Lanka), there was a Jāti of people called Paravas.", "Many of them had been baptised ten years before, merely to please the Portuguese who had helped them against the Moors, but remained uninstructed in the faith.", "Accompanied by several native clerics from the seminary at Goa, he set sail for Cape Comorin in October 1542.He taught those who had already been baptised and preached to those who weren't.", "His efforts with the high-caste Brahmins remained unavailing.", "The Brahmin and Muslim authorities in Travancore opposed Xavier with violence; time and again his hut was burned down over his head, and once he saved his life only by hiding among the branches of a large tree.He devoted almost three years to the work of preaching to the people of southern India and Ceylon, converting many.", "He built nearly 40 churches along the coast, including St. Stephen's Church, Kombuthurai, mentioned in his letters dated 1544.During this time, he was able to visit the tomb of Thomas the Apostle in Mylapore (now part of Madras/Chennai then in Portuguese India).", "He set his sights eastward in 1545 and planned a missionary journey to Makassar on the island of Celebes (today's Indonesia).As the first Jesuit in India, Francis had difficulty achieving much success in his missionary trips.", "His successors, such as de Nobili, Matteo Ricci, and Beschi, attempted to convert the noblemen first as a means to influence more people, while Francis had initially interacted most with the lower classes; (later though, in Japan, Francis changed tack by paying tribute to the Emperor and seeking an audience with him).Voyages of Saint Francis Xavier===Southeast Asia===''Saint Francis Xavier Inspiring Portuguese Troops Against the Acehnese Pirates'' by André Reinoso (1619)In the spring of 1545 Xavier started for Portuguese Malacca.", "He laboured there for the last months of that year.", "About January 1546, Xavier left Malacca for the Maluku Islands, where the Portuguese had some settlements.", "For a year and a half, he preached the Gospel there.", "He went first to Ambon Island, where he stayed until mid-June.", "He then visited the other Maluku Islands, including Ternate, Baranura, and Morotai.", "Shortly after Easter 1547, he returned to Ambon Island; a few months later he returned to Malacca.", "While there, Malacca was attacked by the Acehnese from Sumatra, and through preaching Xavier inspired the Portuguese to seek battle, achieving a victory at the Battle of Perlis River, despite being heavily outnumbered.===Japan===''Virgin Mary with Infant Jesus and Her Fifteen Mysteries'' by an unknown Japanese artist (c. 1600).", "Bottom center: Ignatius of Loyola (left) and Francis Xavier (right)In Malacca in December 1547, Francis Xavier met a Japanese man named Anjirō.", "Anjirō had heard of Francis in 1545 and had travelled from Kagoshima to Malacca to meet him.", "Having been charged with murder, Anjirō had fled Japan.", "He told Francis extensively about his former life, and the customs and culture of his homeland.", "Anjirō became the first Japanese Christian and adopted the name 'Paulo de Santa Fé'.", "He later helped Xavier as a mediator and interpreter for the mission to Japan that now seemed much more possible.In January 1548 Francis returned to Goa to attend to his responsibilities as superior of the mission there.", "The next 15 months were occupied with various journeys and administrative measures.", "He left Goa on 15 April 1549, stopped at Malacca, and visited Canton.", "He was accompanied by Anjiro, two other Japanese men, Father Cosme de Torrès and Brother Juan Fernández.", "He had taken with him presents for the \"King of Japan\" since he was intending to introduce himself as the Apostolic Nuncio.Europeans had already come to Japan; the Portuguese had landed in 1543 on the island of Tanegashima, where they introduced matchlock firearms to Japan.From Amboina, he wrote to his companions in Europe: \"I asked a Portuguese merchant, ... who had been for many days in Anjirō's country of Japan, to give me ... some information on that land and its people from what he had seen and heard.", "...All the Portuguese merchants coming from Japan tell me that if I go there I shall do great service for God our Lord, more than with the pagans of India, for they are a very reasonable people.\"", "(To His Companions Residing in Rome, From Cochin, 20 January 1548, no.", "18, p. 178).Francis Xavier reached Japan on 27 July 1549, with Anjiro and three other Jesuits, but he was not permitted to enter any port his ship arrived at until 15 August, when he went ashore at Kagoshima, the principal port of Satsuma Province on the island of Kyūshū.", "As a representative of the Portuguese king, he was received in a friendly manner.", "Shimazu Takahisa (1514–1571), ''daimyō'' of Satsuma, gave a friendly reception to Francis on 29 September 1549, but in the following year he forbade the conversion of his subjects to Christianity under penalty of death; Christians in Kagoshima could not be given any catechism in the following years.", "The Portuguese missionary Pedro de Alcáçova would later write in 1554:Francis was the first Jesuit to go to Japan as a missionary.", "He brought with him paintings of the Madonna and the Madonna and Child.", "These paintings were used to help teach the Japanese about Christianity.", "There was a huge language barrier as Japanese was unlike other languages the missionaries had previously encountered.", "For a long time, Francis struggled to learn the language.", "He was hosted by Anjirō's family until October 1550.From October to December 1550, he resided in Yamaguchi.", "Shortly before Christmas, he left for Kyoto but failed to meet with the Emperor.", "He returned to Yamaguchi in March 1551, where the daimyo of the province gave him permission to preach.Having learned that evangelical poverty did not have the appeal in Japan that it had in Europe and in India, he decided to change his approach.", "Hearing after a time that a Portuguese ship had arrived at a port in the province of Bungo in Kyushu and that the prince there would like to see him, Xavier now set out southward.", "The Jesuit, in a fine cassock, surplice, and stole, was attended by thirty gentlemen and as many servants, all in their best clothes.", "Five of them bore on cushions valuable articles, including a portrait of Our Lady and a pair of velvet slippers, these not gifts for the prince, but solemn offerings to Xavier, to impress the onlookers with his eminence.", "Handsomely dressed, with his companions acting as attendants, he presented himself before Oshindono, the ruler of Nagate, and as a representative of the great kingdom of Portugal, offered him letters and presents: a musical instrument, a watch, and other attractive objects which had been given him by the authorities in India for the emperor.For forty-five years the Jesuits were the only missionaries in Asia, but the Franciscans began proselytizing in Asia, as well.", "Christian missionaries were later forced into exile, along with their assistants.", "However, some were able to stay behind.", "Christianity was then kept underground so as to not be persecuted.The Japanese people were not easily converted; many of the people were already Buddhist or Shinto.", "Francis tried to combat the disposition of some of the Japanese that a God who had created everything, including evil, could not be good.", "Despite Francis's different religion, he felt that they were good people, much like Europeans, and could be converted.Xavier was welcomed by the Shingon monks since he used the word ''Dainichi'' for the Christian God; attempting to adapt the concept to local traditions.", "As Xavier learned more about the religious nuances of the word, he changed to ''Deusu'' from the Latin and Portuguese ''Deus''.", "The monks later realised that Xavier was preaching a rival religion and grew more resistant towards his attempts at conversion.The Altar of St. Francis Xavier Parish in Nasugbu, Batangas, Philippines.", "Saint Francis is the principal patron of the town, together with Our Lady of Escalera.With the passage of time, his sojourn in Japan could be considered somewhat fruitful as attested by congregations established in Hirado, Yamaguchi, and Bungo.", "Xavier worked for more than two years in Japan and saw his successor-Jesuits established.", "He then decided to return to India.", "Historians debate the exact path by which he returned, but from evidence attributed to the captain of his ship, he may have travelled through Tanegeshima and Minato, and avoided Kagoshima because of the hostility of the daimyo.===China===During his trip from Japan back to India, a tempest forced him to stop on an island near Guangzhou, Guangdong, China, where he met Diogo Pereira, a rich merchant and an old friend from Cochin.", "Pereira showed him a letter from Portuguese prisoners in Guangzhou, asking for a Portuguese ambassador to speak to the Chinese Emperor on their behalf.", "Later during the voyage, he stopped at Malacca on 27 December 1551 and was back in Goa by January 1552.On 17 April he set sail with Diogo Pereira on the ''Santa Cruz'' for China.", "He planned to introduce himself as Apostolic Nuncio and Pereira as the ambassador of the King of Portugal.", "But then he realized that he had forgotten his testimonial letters as an Apostolic Nuncio.", "Back in Malacca, he was confronted by the captain Álvaro de Ataíde da Gama who now had total control over the harbour.", "The captain refused to recognize his title of Nuncio, asked Pereira to resign from his title of ambassador, named a new crew for the ship, and demanded the gifts for the Chinese Emperor be left in Malacca.In late August 1552, the ''Santa Cruz'' reached the Chinese island of Shangchuan, 14 km away from the southern coast of mainland China, near Taishan, Guangdong, 200 km south-west of what later became Hong Kong.", "At this time, he was accompanied only by a Jesuit student, Álvaro Ferreira, a Chinese man called António, and a Malabar servant called Christopher.", "Around mid-November, he sent a letter saying that a man had agreed to take him to the mainland in exchange for a large sum of money.", "Having sent back Álvaro Ferreira, he remained alone with António.", "He died from a fever at Shangchuan, Taishan, China, on 3 December 1552, while he was waiting for a boat that would take him to mainland China." ], [ "Burials and relics", "Casket of Saint Francis Xavier in the Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa, IndiaXavier was first buried on a beach at Shangchuan Island, Taishan, Guangdong.", "His body was taken from the island in February 1553 and temporarily buried in St. Paul's Church in Portuguese Malacca on 22 March 1553.An open grave in the church now marks the place of Xavier's burial.", "Pereira came back from Goa, removed the corpse shortly after 15 April 1553, and moved it to his house.", "On 11 December 1553, Xavier's body was shipped to Goa.The mostly-incorruptible body is now in the Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa, where it was placed in a glass container encased in a silver casket on 2 December 1637.This casket, constructed by Goan silversmiths between 1636 and 1637, was an exemplary blend of Italian and Indian aesthetic sensibilities.", "There are 32 silver plates on all four sides of the casket, depicting different episodes from the life of Xavier:Francis lies on the ground with his arms and legs tied, but the cords break miraculously.", "Francis kisses the ulcer of a patient in a Venetian hospital.", "He is visited by Jerom as he lies ailing in the hospital of Vicenza.", "A vision about his future apostolate.", "A vision about his sister's prophecy about his fate.", "He saves the secretary of the Portuguese Ambassador while crossing the Alps.", "He lifts a sick man who dies after receiving communion but is freed from fever.", "He baptises in Travancore.", "He resuscitates a boy who died in a well at Cape Comorin.", "He cures miraculously a man full of sores.", "He drives away the Badagas in Travancore.", "He resuscitates three persons: a man who was buried at Coulao; a boy about to be buried at Multao; and a child.", "He takes money from his empty pockets and gives it to a Portuguese at Malyapore.", "A miraculous cure.", "A crab restores his crucifix which had fallen into the sea.", "He preaches in the island of Moro.", "He preaches in the sea of Malacca and announces the victory against the enemies.", "He converts a Portuguese soldier.", "He helps the dying Vicar of Malacca.", "Francis kneels down and on his shoulders there rests a child whom he restores to health.", "He goes from Amanguchi to Macao walking.", "He cures a mute or unable to speak and paralytic man in Amanguchi.", "He cures a deaf Japanese person.", "He prays in the ship during a storm.", "He baptises three kings in Cochin.", "He cures a religious in the college of St.", "Paul.", "Due to the lack of water, he sweetens the seawater during a voyage.", "The agony of Francis at Sancian.", "After his death, he is seen by a lady according to his promise.", "The body dressed in sacerdotal vestments is exposed for public veneration.", "Francis levitates as he distributes communion in the College of St.", "Paul.", "The body is placed in a niche at Chaul with lighted candles.", "On the top of this casket, there is a cross with two angels.", "One is holding a burning heart and the other a legend which says, \"Satis est Domine, satis est.\"", "(''It's enough Lord, it's enough'')The right forearm, which Xavier used to bless and baptise his converts, was detached by Superior General Claudio Acquaviva in 1614.It has been displayed since in a silver reliquary at the main Jesuit church in Rome, Il Gesù.Another of Xavier's arm bones was brought to Macau where it was kept in a silver reliquary.", "The relic was destined for Japan but religious persecution there persuaded the church to keep it in Macau's Cathedral of St. Paul.", "It was subsequently moved to St. Joseph's and in 1978 to the Chapel of St. Francis Xavier on Coloane Island.", "More recently the relic was moved to St. Joseph's Church.A relict from the right hand of St Francis Xavier is on display at St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney.In 2006, on the 500th anniversary of his birth, the Xavier Tomb Monument and Chapel on Shangchuan Island, in ruins after years of neglect under communist rule in China, was restored with support from the alumni of Wah Yan College, a Jesuit high school in Hong Kong.From December 2017 to February 2018, Catholic Christian Outreach (CCO) in cooperation with the Jesuits, and the Archdiocese of Ottawa (Canada) brought Xavier's right forearm to tour throughout Canada.", "The faithful, especially university students participating with CCO at Rise Up 2017 in Ottawa, venerated the relics.", "The tour continued to every city where CCO and/or the Jesuits are present in Canada: Quebec City, St. John's, Halifax, St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish (neither CCO nor the Jesuits are present here), Kingston, Toronto, Winnipeg, Saskatoon, Regina, Calgary, Vancouver, Victoria, and Montreal before returning to Ottawa.", "The relic was then returned to Rome with a Mass of Thanksgiving celebrated by Archbishop Terrence Prendergast at the Church of the Gesu." ], [ "Veneration", "===Beatification and canonization===Francis Xavier was beatified by Paul V on 25 October 1619, and was canonized by Gregory XV on 12 March 1622, at the same time as Ignatius Loyola.", "Pius XI proclaimed him the \"Patron of Catholic Missions\".", "His feast day is 3 December.===Pilgrimage centres===Stained glass church window in Béthanie, Hong Kong, of St Francis Xavier baptizing a Chinese man====Goa====Goan Catholics celebrating the feast of Saint Francis Xavier at Bom Jesus Basilica Saint Francis Xavier's relics are kept in a silver casket, elevated inside the Bom Jesus Basilica and are exposed (being brought to ground level) generally every ten years, but this is discretionary.", "The sacred relics went on display starting on 22 November 2014 at the XVII Solemn Exposition.", "The display closed on 4 January 2015.The previous exposition, the sixteenth, was held from 21 November 2004 to 2 January 2005.Relics of Saint Francis Xavier are also found in the Espirito Santo (Holy Spirit) Church, Margão, in Sanv Fransiku Xavierachi Igorz (Church of St. Francis Xavier), Batpal, Canacona, Goa, and at St. Francis Xavier Chapel, Portais, Panjim.====Other places====Other pilgrimage centres include Xavier's birthplace in Navarra; the Church of the Gesù, Rome; Malacca (where he was buried for two years, before being brought to Goa); and Sancian (place of death).Xavier is a major venerated saint in both Sonora and the neighbouring U.S. state of Arizona.", "In Magdalena de Kino in Sonora, Mexico, in the Church of Santa María Magdalena, there is a reclining statue of San Francisco Xavier brought by pioneer Jesuit missionary Padre Eusebio Kino in the early 18th century.", "The statue is said to be miraculous and is the object of pilgrimage for many in the region.", "Also the Mission San Xavier del Bac is a pilgrimage site.", "The mission is an active parish church ministering to the people of the San Xavier District, Tohono O'odham Nation, and nearby Tucson, Arizona.Francis Xavier is honored in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 3 December.===Novena of Grace===Fumaroles at Mt.", "Unzen, JapanThe Novena of Grace is a popular devotion to Francis Xavier, typically prayed either on the nine days before 3 December, or on 4 March through 12 March (the anniversary of Pope Gregory XV's canonisation of Xavier in 1622).", "It began with the Italian Jesuit missionary Marcello Mastrilli.", "Before he could travel to the Far East, Mastrilli was gravely injured in a freak accident after a festive celebration dedicated to the Immaculate Conception in Naples.", "Delirious and on the verge of death, Mastrilli saw Xavier, who he later said asked him to choose between travelling or death by holding the respective symbols, to which Mastrilli answered, \"I choose that which God wills.\"", "Upon regaining his health, Mastrilli made his way via Goa and the Philippines to Satsuma, Japan.", "The Tokugawa shogunate beheaded the missionary in October 1637, after undergoing three days of tortures involving the volcanic sulphurous fumes from Mt.", "Unzen, known as the ''Hell mouth'' or \"pit\" that had supposedly caused an earlier missionary to renounce his faith." ], [ "Legacy", "''The Vision of St. Francis Xavier'', by Giovanni Battista GaulliFrancis Xavier became widely noteworthy for his missionary work, both as an organiser and as a pioneer; he reputedly converted more people than anyone else had done since Paul the Apostle.", "In 2006 Pope Benedict XVI said of both Ignatius of Loyola and Francis Xavier: \"not only their history which was interwoven for many years from Paris and Rome, but a unique desire – a unique passion, it could be said – moved and sustained them through different human events: the passion to give to God-Trinity a glory always greater and to work for the proclamation of the Gospel of Christ to the peoples who had been ignored.\"", "His personal efforts most affected religious practice in India and in the East Indies (Indonesia, Malaysia, Timor).", "India still has numerous Jesuit missions and many more schools.", "Xavier also worked to propagate Christianity in China and Japan.", "However, following the persecutions (1587 onwards) instituted by Toyotomi Hideyoshi and the subsequent closing of Japan to foreigners (1633 onwards), the Christians of Japan had to go underground to preserve an independent Christian culture.", "Likewise, while Xavier inspired many missionaries to China, Chinese Christians also were forced underground there and developed their own Christian culture.A small chapel designed by Achille-Antoine Hermitte was completed in 1869 over Xavier's death-place on Shangchuan Island, Canton.", "It was damaged and restored several times; the most recent restoration in 2006 marked the 500th anniversary of the saint's birth.Francis Xavier is the patron saint of his native Navarre, which celebrates his feast day on 3 December as a government holiday.", "In addition to Roman Catholic Masses remembering Xavier on that day (now known as the Day of Navarra), celebrations in the surrounding weeks honour the region's cultural heritage.", "Furthermore, in the 1940s, devoted Catholics instituted the Javierada, an annual day-long pilgrimage (often on foot) from the capital at Pamplona to Xavier, where the Jesuits built a basilica and museum and restored Francis Xavier's family's castle.=== Personal names ===Gereja Katedral Santa Perawan Maria Diangkat Ke Surga'', in Jakarta, IndonesiaStatue of Saint Francis Xavier, at St. Francis Xavier Catholic Church, in Superior, Wisconsin, United StatesMonument to the Discoveries in Lisbon, PortugalAs the foremost saint from Navarre and one of the main Jesuit saints, Francis Xavier is much venerated in Spain and the Hispanic countries where ''Francisco Javier'' or ''Javier'' are common male given names.", "The alternative spelling ''Xavier'' is also popular in the Basque Country, Portugal, Catalonia, Brazil, France, Belgium, and southern Italy.", "In India, the spelling ''Xavier'' is almost always used, and the name is quite common among Christians, especially in Goa and in the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.", "The names ''Francisco Xavier'', ''António Xavier'', ''João Xavier'', ''Caetano Xavier'', ''Domingos Xavier'' and so forth, were very common till quite recently in Goa.", "''Fransiskus Xaverius'' is commonly used as a name for Indonesian Catholics, usually abbreviated as FX.", "In Austria and Bavaria the name is spelt as ''Xaver'' (pronounced ) and often used in addition to Francis as ''Franz-Xaver'' ().", "In Polish the name becomes ''Ksawery''.", "Many Catalan men are named for him, often using the two-name combination ''Francesc Xavier''.", "In English-speaking countries, \"Xavier\" until recently was likely to follow \"Francis\"; in the 2000s, however, \"Xavier\" by itself became more popular than \"Francis\", and after 2001 featured as one of the hundred most common male baby names in the US.", "Furthermore, the Sevier family name, possibly most famous in the United States for John Sevier (1745–1815), originated from the name \"Xavier\".=== Church dedications ===Many churches all over the world, often founded by Jesuits, have been named in honour of Xavier.", "The many in the United States include the historic St. Francis Xavier Shrine at Warwick, Maryland (founded 1720), and the Basilica of St. Francis Xavier in Dyersville, Iowa.", "Note also the American educational teaching order, the Xaverian Brothers, and the Mission San Xavier del Bac in Tucson, Arizona (founded in 1692, and known for its Spanish Colonial architecture).===In art===* Rubens (1577–1640) painted ''St Francis Xavier Raising the Dead'' for a Jesuit church in Antwerp, in which he depicted one of St Francis's many miracles.", "* The Charles Bridge in Prague, Czech Republic, features a statue of Francis Xavier.", "* In front of Oita Station of Oita City, in Oita Prefecture (previously known as Bungo Province) in Japan, there stands a statue of Francis Xavier.", "* The monument Padrão dos Descobrimentos in Belém (Lisbon), Portugal, features a Francis Xavier image.=== Music ===* Marc-Antoine Charpentier, ''In honorem Sancti Xaverij canticum'' H. 355, for soloists, chorus, flutes, strings and continuo (1688 ?", ")* Marc-Antoine Charpentier, ''Canticum de Sto Xavierio'' H. 355a, for soloists, chorus, flutes, oboes, strings and continuo (1690).=== Missions ===Shortly before leaving for the East, Xavier issued a famous instruction to Father Gaspar Barazeuz who was leaving to go to Ormuz (a kingdom on an island in the Persian Gulf, formerly attached to the Empire of Persia, now part of Iran), that he should mix with sinners:Modern scholars assess the number of people converted to Christianity by Francis Xavier at around 30,000.While some of Xavier's methods have subsequently come under criticism, he has also earned praise.", "He insisted that missionaries adapt to many of the customs, and most certainly to the language, of the culture they wish to evangelise.", "And unlike later missionaries, Xavier supported an educated native clergy.", "Though for a time it seemed that persecution had subsequently destroyed his work in Japan, Protestant missionaries three centuries later discovered that approximately 100,000 Christians still practised the faith in the Nagasaki area.Francis Xavier's work initiated permanent change in eastern Indonesia, and he became known as the \"Apostle of the Indies\" – in 1546–1547 he worked in the Maluku Islands among the people of Ambon, Ternate, and Morotai (or Moro), and laid the foundations for a permanent mission.", "After he left the Maluku Islands, others carried on his work, and by the 1560s there were 10,000 Roman Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon.", "By the 1590s, there were 50,000 to 60,000.===Role in the Goa Inquisition===In 1546, Francis Xavier proposed the establishment of the Goa Inquisition in a letter addressed to the Portuguese King, John III.", "Xavier addresses the King as the 'Vicar of Christ', owing to his royal patronage over Christianity in the East Indies.", "In a letter dated 20 January 1548, he requests the king to be tough on the Portuguese governor in India so that he may be active in propagating the faith.", "Xavier also wrote to the Portuguese king asking for protection in regards to new converts who were being harassed by Portuguese commandants.", "Francis Xavier died in 1552 without ever living to see the commencement of the Goa Inquisition.===Educational institutions===St.", "Xavier's School, KolkataA number of educational institutions are named after him, including:* St. Xavier's High School, Fort* St. Xavier's College, Mumbai* Xaverian College, Manchester, England* Xavier High School (New York City)* Xavier School — San Juan City, Philippines* Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines* St. Francis Xavier University - Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada* St. Francis Xavier Catholic Secondary School - Milton, Ontario, Canada* St. Francis Xavier Catholic Secondary School - Mississauga, Ontario, Canada * St. Xavier's Institution - Georgetown, Penang, Malaysia* Xavier College - Melbourne, Victoria, Australia* St. Xavier's College, Kolkata* St. Xavier's School, Kolkata" ], [ "See also", "* Catholicism in China* Catholicism in Japan * Catholicism in India * Catholicism in Indonesia* Christianity in China* Christianity in Japan * Christianity in India * Christianity in Indonesia* Goa Inquisition* History of Roman Catholicism in Japan* Jesuit China missions* List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868* Mission San Xavier del Bac — San Xavier District, Tohono O'odham Nation, Arizona * Xaverian Brothers — religious order in America* Saint Francis Xavier, patron saint archive" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* This article incorporates material from the ''Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion''* * * * ** George M. Moraes (1952): ''St.", "Francis Xavier, Apostolic Nuncio (1542-52)'', Bombay, Konkan Institute of Arts and Science, 35p.", "* Jou, Albert (1984).", "''The Saint on a Mission''.", "Anand Press, Anand, India.", "* Pinch, William R., \"The Corpse and Cult of St. Francis Xavier, 1552–1623\", in Mathew N. Schmalz and Peter Gottschalk ed.", "''Engaging South Asian Religions: Boundaries, Appropriations, and Resistances'' (New York, State University of New York Press, 2011)===Further reading===* * * Andrew Dickson White (1896 first edition.", "A classic work constantly reprinted) ''A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom'', See chapter 13, part 2, ''Growth of Legends of Healing: the life of Saint Francis Xavier as a typical example''." ], [ "External links", "* Official website of Basilica of Bom Jesus, Old Goa The Shrine of Saint Francis Xavier* Basilica of Bom Jesus, Old Goa The Shrine of Saint Francis Xavier* ''The Life of St. Francis Xavier''* ''The life and letters of St. Francis Xavier'' Francis Xavier, Saint, 1506–1552 Coleridge, Henry James, 1822–1893 London: Burns and Oates, (1872)* ''Saint François Xavier'' * Picture of Shangchuan island.", "The chapel marks the location of his death* The Miracles of St Francis Xavier by John Hardon, SJ* Brief History of Saint Francis Xavier * Colonnade Statue St Peter's Square* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fossil" ], [ "Introduction", "Montage of multiple fossils.", "Clockwise from top left: ''Onychocrinus'' and ''Palaeosinopa''; bottom row: ''Gryphaea'' and ''Harpactocarcinus''A '''fossil''' (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age.", "Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved in amber, hair, petrified wood and DNA remnants.", "The totality of fossils is known as the ''fossil record''.Paleontology is the study of fossils: their age, method of formation, and evolutionary significance.", "Specimens are usually considered to be fossils if they are over 10,000 years old.", "The oldest fossils are around 3.48 billion years old to 4.1 billion years old.", "The observation in the 19th century that certain fossils were associated with certain rock strata led to the recognition of a geological timescale and the relative ages of different fossils.", "The development of radiometric dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed scientists to quantitatively measure the absolute ages of rocks and the fossils they host.There are many processes that lead to '''fossilization''', including permineralization, casts and molds, authigenic mineralization, replacement and recrystallization, adpression, carbonization, and bioimmuration.Fossils vary in size from one-micrometre (1 µm) bacteria to dinosaurs and trees, many meters long and weighing many tons.", "A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially mineralized during life, such as the bones and teeth of vertebrates, or the chitinous or calcareous exoskeletons of invertebrates.", "Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces (coprolites).", "These types of fossil are called trace fossils or ''ichnofossils'', as opposed to ''body fossils''.", "Some fossils are biochemical and are called ''chemofossils'' or biosignatures." ], [ "Reliability", "Though the fossil record is incomplete, numerous studies have demonstrated that there is enough information available to give us a good understanding of the pattern of diversification of life on Earth.", "In addition, the record can predict and fill gaps such as the discovery of Tiktaalik in the arctic of Canada." ], [ "Fossilization processes", "The process of '''fossilization''' varies according to tissue type and external conditions:=== Permineralization ===Permineralized bryozoan from the Devonian of WisconsinPermineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried.", "The empty spaces within an organism (spaces filled with liquid or gas during life) become filled with mineral-rich groundwater.", "Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces.", "This process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell.", "Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils.", "For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death, otherwise the remains are destroyed by scavengers or decomposition.", "The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil.", "Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues.", "This is a form of diagenesis.=== Casts and molds === bivalve from the Logan Formation, Lower Carboniferous, OhioIn some cases, the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed.", "The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an ''external mold''.", "If this void is later filled with sediment, the resulting ''cast'' resembles what the organism looked like.", "An endocast, or ''internal mold'', is the result of sediments filling an organism's interior, such as the inside of a bivalve or snail or the hollow of a skull.", "Endocasts are sometimes termed , especially when bivalves are preserved this way.=== Authigenic mineralization ===This is a special form of cast and mold formation.", "If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, resulting in a nodule forming around it.", "If this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved.", "Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, US, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.=== Replacement and recrystallization ===Silicified (replaced with silica) fossils from the Road Canyon Formation (Middle Permian of Texas)Recrystallized scleractinian coral (aragonite to calcite) from the Jurassic of southern IsraelReplacement occurs when the shell, bone, or other tissue is replaced with another mineral.", "In some cases mineral replacement of the original shell occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material.", "A shell is said to be ''recrystallized'' when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, as from aragonite to calcite.=== Adpression (compression-impression) ===Compression fossils, such as those of fossil ferns, are the result of chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's tissues.", "In this case the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a geochemically altered state.", "This chemical change is an expression of diagenesis.", "Often what remains is a carbonaceous film known as a phytoleim, in which case the fossil is known as a compression.", "Often, however, the phytoleim is lost and all that remains is an impression of the organism in the rock—an impression fossil.", "In many cases, however, compressions and impressions occur together.", "For instance, when the rock is broken open, the phytoleim will often be attached to one part (compression), whereas the counterpart will just be an impression.", "For this reason, one term covers the two modes of preservation: ''adpression''.=== Soft tissue, cell and molecular preservation ===Because of their antiquity, an unexpected exception to the alteration of an organism's tissues by chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules during fossilization has been the discovery of soft tissue in dinosaur fossils, including blood vessels, and the isolation of proteins and evidence for DNA fragments.", "In 2014, Mary Schweitzer and her colleagues reported the presence of iron particles (goethite-aFeO(OH)) associated with soft tissues recovered from dinosaur fossils.", "Based on various experiments that studied the interaction of iron in haemoglobin with blood vessel tissue they proposed that solution hypoxia coupled with iron chelation enhances the stability and preservation of soft tissue and provides the basis for an explanation for the unforeseen preservation of fossil soft tissues.", "However, a slightly older study based on eight taxa ranging in time from the Devonian to the Jurassic found that reasonably well-preserved fibrils that probably represent collagen were preserved in all these fossils and that the quality of preservation depended mostly on the arrangement of the collagen fibers, with tight packing favoring good preservation.", "There seemed to be no correlation between geological age and quality of preservation, within that timeframe.=== Carbonization and coalification ===Fossils that are carbonized or coalified consist of the organic remains which have been reduced primarily to the chemical element carbon.", "Carbonized fossils consist of a thin film which forms a silhouette of the original organism, and the original organic remains were typically soft tissues.", "Coalified fossils consist primarily of coal, and the original organic remains were typically woody in composition.File:Probable leech from the Waukesha Biota.jpg\|Carbonized fossil of a cycloneuralian worm that was once misidentified as leech from the Silurian Waukesha Biota of Wisconsin.File:Lycopod axis.jpg\|Partially coalified axis (branch) of a lycopod from the Devonian of Wisconsin.=== Bioimmuration ===The star-shaped holes (''Catellocaula vallata'') in this Upper Ordovician bryozoan represent a soft-bodied organism preserved by bioimmuration in the bryozoan skeleton.Bioimmuration occurs when a skeletal organism overgrows or otherwise subsumes another organism, preserving the latter, or an impression of it, within the skeleton.", "Usually it is a sessile skeletal organism, such as a bryozoan or an oyster, which grows along a substrate, covering other sessile sclerobionts.", "Sometimes the bioimmured organism is soft-bodied and is then preserved in negative relief as a kind of external mold.", "There are also cases where an organism settles on top of a living skeletal organism that grows upwards, preserving the settler in its skeleton.", "Bioimmuration is known in the fossil record from the Ordovician to the Recent." ], [ "Types", "Examples of index fossils=== Index ===Index fossils (also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or zone fossils) are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages).", "They work on the premise that, although different sediments may look different depending on the conditions under which they were deposited, they may include the remains of the same species of fossil.", "The shorter the species' time range, the more precisely different sediments can be correlated, and so rapidly evolving species' fossils are particularly valuable.", "The best index fossils are common, easy to identify at species level and have a broad distribution—otherwise the likelihood of finding and recognizing one in the two sediments is poor.=== Trace ===Trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows, but also include coprolites (fossil feces) and marks left by feeding.", "Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilized hard parts, and they reflect animal behaviours.", "Many traces date from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been capable of making them.", "Whilst exact assignment of trace fossils to their makers is generally impossible, traces may for example provide the earliest physical evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals (comparable to earthworms).Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they give evidence for the animal's behaviour (in this case, diet) rather than morphology.", "They were first described by William Buckland in 1829.Prior to this they were known as \"fossil fir cones\" and \"bezoar stones.\"", "They serve a valuable purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation and diet of extinct organisms.", "Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to over 60 centimetres.File:CambrianRusophycus.jpg\|Cambrian trace fossils including ''Rusophycus'', made by a trilobiteFile:Coprolite.jpg\|A coprolite of a carnivorous dinosaur found in southwestern SaskatchewanFile:Climactichnites wilsoni, densely packed.jpg\|Densely packed, subaerial or nearshore trackways (''Climactichnites wilsoni'') made by a putative, slug-like mollusk on a Cambrian tidal flat=== Transitional ===A ''transitional fossil'' is any fossilized remains of a life form that exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and its derived descendant group.", "This is especially important where the descendant group is sharply differentiated by gross anatomy and mode of living from the ancestral group.", "Because of the incompleteness of the fossil record, there is usually no way to know exactly how close a transitional fossil is to the point of divergence.", "These fossils serve as a reminder that taxonomic divisions are human constructs that have been imposed in hindsight on a continuum of variation.=== Microfossils ===Microfossils about 1 mmMicrofossil is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye.", "A commonly applied cutoff point between \"micro\" and \"macro\" fossils is 1 mm.", "Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters foraminifera and coccolithophores) or component parts (such as small teeth or spores) of larger animals or plants.", "Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of paleoclimate information, and are also commonly used by biostratigraphers to assist in the correlation of rock units.=== Resin ===The wasp ''Leptofoenus pittfieldae'' trapped in Dominican amber, from 20 to 16 million years ago.", "It is known only from this specimen.Fossil resin (colloquially called amber) is a natural polymer found in many types of strata throughout the world, even the Arctic.", "The oldest fossil resin dates to the Triassic, though most dates to the Cenozoic.", "The excretion of the resin by certain plants is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation for protection from insects and to seal wounds.", "Fossil resin often contains other fossils called inclusions that were captured by the sticky resin.", "These include bacteria, fungi, other plants, and animals.", "Animal inclusions are usually small invertebrates, predominantly arthropods such as insects and spiders, and only extremely rarely a vertebrate such as a small lizard.", "Preservation of inclusions can be exquisite, including small fragments of DNA.=== Derived or reworked ===Eroded Jurassic plesiosaur vertebral centrum found in the Lower Cretaceous Faringdon Sponge Gravels in Faringdon, England.", "An example of a ''remanié'' fossil.A ''derived'', ''reworked'' or is a fossil found in rock that accumulated significantly later than when the fossilized animal or plant died.", "Reworked fossils are created by erosion exhuming (freeing) fossils from the rock formation in which they were originally deposited and their redeposition in a younger sedimentary deposit.=== Wood ===Fossil wood is wood that is preserved in the fossil record.", "Wood is usually the part of a plant that is best preserved (and most easily found).", "Fossil wood may or may not be petrified.", "The fossil wood may be the only part of the plant that has been preserved; therefore such wood may get a special kind of botanical name.", "This will usually include \"xylon\" and a term indicating its presumed affinity, such as ''Araucarioxylon'' (wood of ''Araucaria'' or some related genus), ''Palmoxylon'' (wood of an indeterminate palm), or ''Castanoxylon'' (wood of an indeterminate chinkapin).=== Subfossil ===A subfossil dodo skeletonThe term subfossil can be used to refer to remains, such as bones, nests, or fecal deposits, whose fossilization process is not complete, either because the length of time since the animal involved was living is too short or because the conditions in which the remains were buried were not optimal for fossilization.", "Subfossils are often found in caves or other shelters where they can be preserved for thousands of years.", "The main importance of subfossil vs. fossil remains is that the former contain organic material, which can be used for radiocarbon dating or extraction and sequencing of DNA, protein, or other biomolecules.", "Additionally, isotope ratios can provide much information about the ecological conditions under which extinct animals lived.", "Subfossils are useful for studying the evolutionary history of an environment and can be important to studies in paleoclimatology.Subfossils are often found in depositionary environments, such as lake sediments, oceanic sediments, and soils.", "Once deposited, physical and chemical weathering can alter the state of preservation, and small subfossils can also be ingested by living organisms.", "Subfossil remains that date from the Mesozoic are exceptionally rare, are usually in an advanced state of decay, and are consequently much disputed.", "The vast bulk of subfossil material comes from Quaternary sediments, including many subfossilized chironomid head capsules, ostracod carapaces, diatoms, and foraminifera.Theba geminata''For remains such as molluscan seashells, which frequently do not change their chemical composition over geological time, and may occasionally even retain such features as the original color markings for millions of years, the label 'subfossil' is applied to shells that are understood to be thousands of years old, but are of Holocene age, and therefore are not old enough to be from the Pleistocene epoch.=== Chemical fossils ===Chemical fossils, or chemofossils, are chemicals found in rocks and fossil fuels (petroleum, coal, and natural gas) that provide an organic signature for ancient life.", "Molecular fossils and isotope ratios represent two types of chemical fossils.", "The oldest traces of life on Earth are fossils of this type, including carbon isotope anomalies found in zircons that imply the existence of life as early as 4.1 billion years ago." ], [ "Dating", "=== Estimating dates ===Paleontology seeks to map out how life evolved across geologic time.", "A substantial hurdle is the difficulty of working out fossil ages.", "Beds that preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for radiometric dating.", "This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than about 50 million years old an absolute age, and can be accurate to within 0.5% or better.", "Although radiometric dating requires careful laboratory work, its basic principle is simple: the rates at which various radioactive elements decay are known, and so the ratio of the radioactive element to its decay products shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the rock.", "Radioactive elements are common only in rocks with a volcanic origin, and so the only fossil-bearing rocks that can be dated radiometrically are volcanic ash layers, which may provide termini for the intervening sediments.==== Stratigraphy ====Consequently, palaeontologists rely on stratigraphy to date fossils.", "Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the \"layer-cake\" that is the sedimentary record.", "Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers, with each layer younger than the one underneath it.", "If a fossil is found between two layers whose ages are known, the fossil's age is claimed to lie between the two known ages.", "Because rock sequences are not continuous, but may be broken up by faults or periods of erosion, it is very difficult to match up rock beds that are not directly adjacent.", "However, fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can be used to match isolated rocks: this technique is called ''biostratigraphy''.", "For instance, the conodont ''Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus'' has a short range in the Middle Ordovician period.", "If rocks of unknown age have traces of ''E.", "pseudoplanus'', they have a mid-Ordovician age.", "Such index fossils must be distinctive, be globally distributed and occupy a short time range to be useful.", "Misleading results are produced if the index fossils are incorrectly dated.", "Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy can in general provide only relative dating (''A'' was before ''B''), which is often sufficient for studying evolution.", "However, this is difficult for some time periods, because of the problems involved in matching rocks of the same age across continents.", "Family-tree relationships also help to narrow down the date when lineages first appeared.", "For instance, if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated \"family tree\" says A was an ancestor of B and C, then A must have evolved earlier.It is also possible to estimate how long ago two living clades diverged, in other words approximately how long ago their last common ancestor must have lived, by assuming that DNA mutations accumulate at a constant rate.", "These \"molecular clocks\", however, are fallible, and provide only approximate timing: for example, they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that feature in the Cambrian explosion first evolved, and estimates produced by different techniques may vary by a factor of two.=== Limitations ===Some of the most remarkable gaps in the fossil record (as of October 2013) show slanting toward organisms with hard parts.Organisms are only rarely preserved as fossils in the best of circumstances, and only a fraction of such fossils have been discovered.", "This is illustrated by the fact that the number of species known through the fossil record is less than 5% of the number of known living species, suggesting that the number of species known through fossils must be far less than 1% of all the species that have ever lived.", "Because of the specialized and rare circumstances required for a biological structure to fossilize, only a small percentage of life-forms can be expected to be represented in discoveries, and each discovery represents only a snapshot of the process of evolution.", "The transition itself can only be illustrated and corroborated by transitional fossils, which will never demonstrate an exact half-way point.The fossil record is strongly biased toward organisms with hard-parts, leaving most groups of soft-bodied organisms with little to no role.", "It is replete with the mollusks, the vertebrates, the echinoderms, the brachiopods and some groups of arthropods." ], [ "Sites", "=== Lagerstätten ===Fossil sites with exceptional preservation—sometimes including preserved soft tissues—are known as Lagerstätten—German for \"storage places\".", "These formations may have resulted from carcass burial in an anoxic environment with minimal bacteria, thus slowing decomposition.", "Lagerstätten span geological time from the Cambrian period to the present.", "Worldwide, some of the best examples of near-perfect fossilization are the Cambrian Maotianshan Shales and Burgess Shale, the Devonian Hunsrück Slates, the Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone, and the Carboniferous Mazon Creek localities." ], [ "Stromatolites", " Lower Proterozoic stromatolites from Bolivia, South AmericaStromatolites are layered accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria.", "Stromatolites provide some of the most ancient fossil records of life on Earth, dating back more than 3.5 billion years ago.Stromatolites were much more abundant in Precambrian times.", "While older, Archean fossil remains are presumed to be colonies of cyanobacteria, younger (that is, Proterozoic) fossils may be primordial forms of the eukaryote chlorophytes (that is, green algae).", "One genus of stromatolite very common in the geologic record is ''Collenia''.", "The earliest stromatolite of confirmed microbial origin dates to 2.724 billion years ago.A 2009 discovery provides strong evidence of microbial stromatolites extending as far back as 3.45 billion years ago.Stromatolites are a major constituent of the fossil record for life's first 3.5 billion years, peaking about 1.25 billion years ago.", "They subsequently declined in abundance and diversity, which by the start of the Cambrian had fallen to 20% of their peak.", "The most widely supported explanation is that stromatolite builders fell victims to grazing creatures (the Cambrian substrate revolution), implying that sufficiently complex organisms were common over 1 billion years ago.The connection between grazer and stromatolite abundance is well documented in the younger Ordovician evolutionary radiation; stromatolite abundance also increased after the end-Ordovician and end-Permian extinctions decimated marine animals, falling back to earlier levels as marine animals recovered.", "Fluctuations in metazoan population and diversity may not have been the only factor in the reduction in stromatolite abundance.", "Factors such as the chemistry of the environment may have been responsible for changes.While prokaryotic cyanobacteria themselves reproduce asexually through cell division, they were instrumental in priming the environment for the evolutionary development of more complex eukaryotic organisms.", "Cyanobacteria (as well as extremophile Gammaproteobacteria) are thought to be largely responsible for increasing the amount of oxygen in the primeval Earth's atmosphere through their continuing photosynthesis.", "Cyanobacteria use water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to create their food.", "A layer of mucus often forms over mats of cyanobacterial cells.", "In modern microbial mats, debris from the surrounding habitat can become trapped within the mucus, which can be cemented by the calcium carbonate to grow thin laminations of limestone.", "These laminations can accrete over time, resulting in the banded pattern common to stromatolites.", "The domal morphology of biological stromatolites is the result of the vertical growth necessary for the continued infiltration of sunlight to the organisms for photosynthesis.", "Layered spherical growth structures termed oncolites are similar to stromatolites and are also known from the fossil record.", "Thrombolites are poorly laminated or non-laminated clotted structures formed by cyanobacteria common in the fossil record and in modern sediments.The Zebra River Canyon area of the Kubis platform in the deeply dissected Zaris Mountains of southwestern Namibia provides an extremely well exposed example of the thrombolite-stromatolite-metazoan reefs that developed during the Proterozoic period, the stromatolites here being better developed in updip locations under conditions of higher current velocities and greater sediment influx." ], [ "Astrobiology", "It has been suggested that biominerals could be important indicators of extraterrestrial life and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on the planet Mars.", "Furthermore, organic components (biosignatures) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and biotic reactions.On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the ''Curiosity'' and ''Opportunity'' rovers on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.", "The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective." ], [ "Pseudofossils", "An example of a pseudofossil: Manganese dendrites on a limestone bedding plane from Solnhofen, Germany; scale in mm''Pseudofossils'' are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by geologic processes rather than biologic processes.", "They can easily be mistaken for real fossils.", "Some pseudofossils, such as geological dendrite crystals, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals.", "Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and moss agates, which look like moss or plant leaves.", "Concretions, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be dinosaur eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well." ], [ "History of the study of fossils", "Gathering fossils dates at least to the beginning of recorded history.", "The fossils themselves are referred to as the fossil record.", "The fossil record was one of the early sources of data underlying the study of evolution and continues to be relevant to the history of life on Earth.", "Paleontologists examine the fossil record to understand the process of evolution and the way particular species have evolved.=== Ancient civilizations ===Fossils have been visible and common throughout most of natural history, and so documented human interaction with them goes back as far as recorded history, or earlier.There are many examples of paleolithic stone knives in Europe, with fossil echinoderms set precisely at the hand grip, going all the way back to ''Homo heidelbergensis'' and Neanderthals.", "These ancient peoples also drilled holes through the center of those round fossil shells, apparently using them as beads for necklaces.The ancient Egyptians gathered fossils of species that resembled the bones of modern species they worshipped.", "The god Set was associated with the hippopotamus, therefore fossilized bones of hippo-like species were kept in that deity's temples.", "Five-rayed fossil sea urchin shells were associated with the deity Sopdu, the Morning Star, equivalent of Venus in Roman mythology.Ceratopsian skulls are common in the Dzungarian Gate mountain pass in Asia, an area once famous for gold mines, as well as its endlessly cold winds.", "This has been attributed to legends of both gryphons and the land of Hyperborea.Fossils appear to have directly contributed to the mythology of many civilizations, including the ancient Greeks.", "Classical Greek historian Herodotos wrote of an area near Hyperborea where gryphons protected golden treasure.", "There was indeed gold mining in that approximate region, where beaked ''Protoceratops'' skulls were common as fossils.A later Greek scholar, Aristotle, eventually realized that fossil seashells from rocks were similar to those found on the beach, indicating the fossils were once living animals.", "He had previously explained them in terms of vaporous exhalations, which Persian polymath Avicenna modified into the theory of petrifying fluids ().", "Recognition of fossil seashells as originating in the sea was built upon in the 14th century by Albert of Saxony, and accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century.Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder wrote of \"tongue stones\", which he called glossopetra.", "These were fossil shark teeth, thought by some classical cultures to look like the tongues of people or snakes.", "He also wrote about the horns of Ammon, which are fossil ammonites, whence the group of shelled octopus-cousins ultimately draws its modern name.", "Pliny also makes one of the earlier known references to toadstones, thought until the 18th century to be a magical cure for poison originating in the heads of toads, but which are fossil teeth from ''Lepidotes'', a Cretaceous ray-finned fish.The Plains tribes of North America are thought to have similarly associated fossils, such as the many intact pterosaur fossils naturally exposed in the region, with their own mythology of the thunderbird.There is no such direct mythological connection known from prehistoric Africa, but there is considerable evidence of tribes there excavating and moving fossils to ceremonial sites, apparently treating them with some reverence.In Japan, fossil shark teeth were associated with the mythical tengu, thought to be the razor-sharp claws of the creature, documented some time after the 8th century AD.In medieval China, the fossil bones of ancient mammals including ''Homo erectus'' were often mistaken for \"dragon bones\" and used as medicine and aphrodisiacs.", "In addition, some of these fossil bones are collected as \"art\" by scholars, who left scripts on various artifacts, indicating the time they were added to a collection.", "One good example is the famous scholar Huang Tingjian of the Song Dynasty during the 11th century, who kept a specific seashell fossil with his own poem engraved on it.", "In his ''Dream Pool Essays'' published in 1088, Song dynasty Chinese scholar-official Shen Kuo hypothesized that marine fossils found in a geological stratum of mountains located hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean was evidence that a prehistoric seashore had once existed there and shifted over centuries of time.", "His observation of petrified bamboos in the dry northern climate zone of what is now Yan'an, Shaanxi province, China, led him to advance early ideas of gradual climate change due to bamboo naturally growing in wetter climate areas.In medieval Christendom, fossilized sea creatures on mountainsides were seen as proof of the biblical deluge of Noah's Ark.", "After observing the existence of seashells in mountains, the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes (c. 570 – 478 BC) speculated that the world was once inundated in a great flood that buried living creatures in drying mud.In 1027, the Persian Avicenna explained fossils' stoniness in ''The Book of Healing'':From the 13th century to the present day, scholars pointed out that the fossil skulls of Deinotherium giganteum, found in Crete and Greece, might have been interpreted as being the skulls of the Cyclopes of Greek mythology, and are possibly the origin of that Greek myth.", "Their skulls appear to have a single eye-hole in the front, just like their modern elephant cousins, though in fact it's actually the opening for their trunk.Fossil shells from the cretaceous era sea urchin, Micraster, were used in medieval times as both shepherd's crowns to protect houses, and as painted fairy loaves by bakers to bring luck to their bread-making.In Norse mythology, echinoderm shells (the round five-part button left over from a sea urchin) were associated with the god Thor, not only being incorporated in thunderstones, representations of Thor's hammer and subsequent hammer-shaped crosses as Christianity was adopted, but also kept in houses to garner Thor's protection.These grew into the shepherd's crowns of English folklore, used for decoration and as good luck charms, placed by the doorway of homes and churches.", "In Suffolk, a different species was used as a good-luck charm by bakers, who referred to them as fairy loaves, associating them with the similarly shaped loaves of bread they baked.=== Early modern explanations ===More scientific views of fossils emerged during the Renaissance.", "Leonardo da Vinci concurred with Aristotle's view that fossils were the remains of ancient life.", "For example, Leonardo noticed discrepancies with the biblical flood narrative as an explanation for fossil origins:Georges Cuvier's 1812 skeletal reconstruction of ''Anoplotherium commune'' based on fossil remains of the extinct artiodactyl from Montmartre in Paris, FranceIn 1666, Nicholas Steno examined a shark, and made the association of its teeth with the \"tongue stones\" of ancient Greco-Roman mythology, concluding that those were not in fact the tongues of venomous snakes, but the teeth of some long-extinct species of shark.Robert Hooke (1635–1703) included micrographs of fossils in his ''Micrographia'' and was among the first to observe fossil forams.", "His observations on fossils, which he stated to be the petrified remains of creatures some of which no longer existed, were published posthumously in 1705.William Smith (1769–1839), an English canal engineer, observed that rocks of different ages (based on the law of superposition) preserved different assemblages of fossils, and that these assemblages succeeded one another in a regular and determinable order.", "He observed that rocks from distant locations could be correlated based on the fossils they contained.", "He termed this the principle of ''faunal succession''.", "This principle became one of Darwin's chief pieces of evidence that biological evolution was real.Georges Cuvier came to believe that most if not all the animal fossils he examined were remains of extinct species.", "This led Cuvier to become an active proponent of the geological school of thought called catastrophism.", "Near the end of his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants he said:''Ichthyosaurus'' and ''Plesiosaurus'' from the 1834 Czech edition of Cuvier's ''Discours sur les revolutions de la surface du globe''Interest in fossils, and geology more generally, expanded during the early nineteenth century.", "In Britain, Mary Anning's discoveries of fossils, including the first complete ichthyosaur and a complete plesiosaurus skeleton, sparked both public and scholarly interest.=== Linnaeus and Darwin ===Early naturalists well understood the similarities and differences of living species leading Linnaeus to develop a hierarchical classification system still in use today.", "Darwin and his contemporaries first linked the hierarchical structure of the tree of life with the then very sparse fossil record.", "Darwin eloquently described a process of descent with modification, or evolution, whereby organisms either adapt to natural and changing environmental pressures, or they perish.When Darwin wrote ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'', the oldest animal fossils were those from the Cambrian Period, now known to be about 540 million years old.", "He worried about the absence of older fossils because of the implications on the validity of his theories, but he expressed hope that such fossils would be found, noting that: \"only a small portion of the world is known with accuracy.\"", "Darwin also pondered the sudden appearance of many groups (i.e.", "phyla) in the oldest known Cambrian fossiliferous strata.=== After Darwin ===Since Darwin's time, the fossil record has been extended to between 2.3 and 3.5 billion years.", "Most of these Precambrian fossils are microscopic bacteria or microfossils.", "However, macroscopic fossils are now known from the late Proterozoic.", "The Ediacara biota (also called Vendian biota) dating from 575 million years ago collectively constitutes a richly diverse assembly of early multicellular eukaryotes.The fossil record and faunal succession form the basis of the science of biostratigraphy or determining the age of rocks based on embedded fossils.", "For the first 150 years of geology, biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the relative age of rocks.", "The geologic time scale was developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by the early paleontologists and stratigraphers.Since the early years of the twentieth century, absolute dating methods, such as radiometric dating (including potassium/argon, argon/argon, uranium series, and, for very recent fossils, radiocarbon dating) have been used to verify the relative ages obtained by fossils and to provide absolute ages for many fossils.", "Radiometric dating has shown that the earliest known stromatolites are over 3.4 billion years old.=== Modern era ===Paleontology has joined with evolutionary biology to share the interdisciplinary task of outlining the tree of life, which inevitably leads backwards in time to Precambrian microscopic life when cell structure and functions evolved.", "Earth's deep time in the Proterozoic and deeper still in the Archean is only \"recounted by microscopic fossils and subtle chemical signals.\"", "Molecular biologists, using phylogenetics, can compare protein amino acid or nucleotide sequence homology (i.e., similarity) to evaluate taxonomy and evolutionary distances among organisms, with limited statistical confidence.", "The study of fossils, on the other hand, can more specifically pinpoint when and in what organism a mutation first appeared.", "Phylogenetics and paleontology work together in the clarification of science's still dim view of the appearance of life and its evolution.Phacopid trilobite ''Eldredgeops rana crassituberculata''.", "The genus is named after Niles Eldredge.Crinoid columnals (''Isocrinus nicoleti'') from the Middle Jurassic Carmel Formation at Mount Carmel Junction, UtahNiles Eldredge's study of the ''Phacops'' trilobite genus supported the hypothesis that modifications to the arrangement of the trilobite's eye lenses proceeded by fits and starts over millions of years during the Devonian.", "Eldredge's interpretation of the ''Phacops'' fossil record was that the aftermaths of the lens changes, but not the rapidly occurring evolutionary process, were fossilized.", "This and other data led Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge to publish their seminal paper on punctuated equilibrium in 1971.Synchrotron X-ray tomographic analysis of early Cambrian bilaterian embryonic microfossils yielded new insights of metazoan evolution at its earliest stages.", "The tomography technique provides previously unattainable three-dimensional resolution at the limits of fossilization.", "Fossils of two enigmatic bilaterians, the worm-like ''Markuelia'' and a putative, primitive protostome, ''Pseudooides'', provide a peek at germ layer embryonic development.", "These 543-million-year-old embryos support the emergence of some aspects of arthropod development earlier than previously thought in the late Proterozoic.", "The preserved embryos from China and Siberia underwent rapid diagenetic phosphatization resulting in exquisite preservation, including cell structures.", "This research is a notable example of how knowledge encoded by the fossil record continues to contribute otherwise unattainable information on the emergence and development of life on Earth.", "For example, the research suggests ''Markuelia'' has closest affinity to priapulid worms, and is adjacent to the evolutionary branching of Priapulida, Nematoda and Arthropoda.Despite significant advances in uncovering and identifying paleontological specimens, it is generally accepted that the fossil record is vastly incomplete.", "Approaches for measuring the completeness of the fossil record have been developed for numerous subsets of species, including those grouped taxonomically, temporally, environmentally/geographically, or in sum.", "This encompasses the subfield of taphonomy and the study of biases in the paleontological record." ], [ "Art", "According to one hypothesis, a Corinthian vase from the 6th century is the oldest artistic record of a vertebrate fossil, perhaps a Miocene giraffe combined with elements from other species.", "However, a subsequent study using artificial intelligence and expert evaluations reject this idea, because mammals do not have the eye bones shown in the painted monster.", "Morphologically, the vase painting correspond to a carnivorous reptile of the Varanidae family that still lives in regions occupied by the ancient Greek." ], [ "Trading and collecting", "Fossil trading is the practice of buying and selling fossils.", "This is many times done illegally with artifacts stolen from research sites, costing many important scientific specimens each year.", "The problem is quite pronounced in China, where many specimens have been stolen.Fossil collecting (sometimes, in a non-scientific sense, fossil hunting) is the collection of fossils for scientific study, hobby, or profit.", "Fossil collecting, as practiced by amateurs, is the predecessor of modern paleontology and many still collect fossils and study fossils as amateurs.", "Professionals and amateurs alike collect fossils for their scientific value." ], [ "As medicine", "The use of fossils to address health issues is rooted in traditional medicine and include the use of fossils as talismans.", "The specific fossil to use to alleviate or cure an illness is often based on its resemblance to the symptoms or affected organ.", "The usefulness of fossils as medicine is almost entirely a placebo effect, though fossil material might conceivably have some antacid activity or supply some essential minerals.", "The use of dinosaur bones as \"dragon bones\" has persisted in Traditional Chinese medicine into modern times, with mid-Cretaceous dinosaur bones being used for the purpose in Ruyang County during the early 21st century." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Marine fossils found high in the Himalayas.", "Collection of the Abbot of Dhankar Gompa, HP, India.jpg\|Marine fossils found high in the Himalayas.", "Collection of the Abbot of Dhankar Gompa, HP, IndiaFile:Amonite Cropped.jpg\|Three small ammonite fossils, each approximately 1.5 cm acrossFile:Priscacara liops Green River Formation.jpg\|Eocene fossil fish ''Priscacara liops'' from the Green River Formation of WyomingFile:Trilobite2.jpg\|A permineralized trilobite, ''Asaphus kowalewskii''File:Carcharodontosaurus and Megalodon teeth.jpg\|Megalodon and ''Carcharodontosaurus'' teeth.", "The latter was found in the Sahara Desert.File:The fossils from Cretaceous age found in Lebanon.jpg\|Fossil shrimp (Cretaceous)File:PetrifiedWood.jpg\|Petrified wood in Petrified Forest National Park, ArizonaFile:Petrified Araucaria cone from patagonia-Edit3.jpg\|Petrified cone of ''Araucaria mirabilis'' from Patagonia, Argentina dating from the Jurassic Period (approx.", "210 Ma)File:CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG\|A fossil gastropod from the Pliocene of Cyprus.", "A serpulid worm is attached.File:OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg\|Silurian Orthoceras fossilFile:Eocene fossil flower, Clare Family Florissant Fossil Quarry, Florissant, Colorado, USA - 20100807.jpg\|Eocene fossil flower from Florissant, ColoradoFile:RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG\|''Micraster'' echinoid fossil from EnglandFile:Productid Permian Texas.JPG\|Productid brachiopod ventral valve; Roadian, Guadalupian (Middle Permian); Glass Mountains, Texas.File:Fossil agatized coral Florida.JPG\|Agatized coral from the Hawthorn Group (Oligocene–Miocene), Florida.", "An example of preservation by replacement.File:Fossils from Gotland beaches.jpg\|Fossils from beaches of the Baltic Sea island of Gotland, placed on paper with 7 mm (0.28 inch) squaresFile:Dinosaur footprints in ToroToro Bolivia.jpg\|Dinosaur footprints from Torotoro National Park in Bolivia." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " \"Grand Canyon cliff collapse reveals 313 million-year-old fossil footprints\" 21 August 2020, ''CNN''* \"Hints of fossil DNA discovered in dinosaur skull\" by Michael Greshko, 3 March 2020, ''National Geographic''* \"Fossils for Kids \| Learn all about how fossils are formed, the types of fossils and more!\"", "Video (2:23), 27 January 2020, ''Clarendon Learning''* \"Fossil & their formation\" Video (9:55), 15 November 2019, ''Khan Academy''* \"How are dinosaur fossils formed?", "by Lisa Hendry, ''Natural History Museum, London''* \"Fossils 101\" Video (4:27), 22 August 2019, ''National Geographic''* \"How to Spot the Fossils Hiding in Plain Sight\" by Jessica Leigh Hester, 23 February 2018, ''Atlas Obscura''* \"It's extremely hard to become a fossil\" , by Olivia Judson, 30 December 2008, ''The New York Times''* \"Bones Are Not the Only Fossils\" , by Olivia Judson, 4 March 2008, ''The New York Times''" ], [ "External links", "* * The Virtual Fossil Museum throughout Time and Evolution* Paleoportal, geology and fossils of the United States* The Fossil Record, a complete listing of the families, orders, class and phyla found in the fossil record (archived 3 May 2012)* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act '''of 1974 ('''FERPA''' or the '''Buckley Amendment''') is a United States federal law that governs the access to educational information and records by public entities such as potential employers, publicly funded educational institutions, and foreign governments.", "The act is also referred to as the ''Buckley Amendment'', for one of its proponents, Senator James L. Buckley of New York.FERPA is a U.S. federal law that regulates access and disclosure of student education records.", "It grants parents access to their child's records, allows amendments, and controls disclosure.", "After a student turns 18, their consent is generally required for disclosure.", "The law applies to institutions receiving U.S. Department of Education funds and provides privacy rights to students 18 years or older, or those in post-secondary institutions.", "Disclosure is permitted to parents of dependent students, and medical records are usually protected under FERPA rather than HIPAA.", "The law has faced criticism for concealing non-educational public records." ], [ "Overview", "FERPA gives parents access to their child's education records, an opportunity to seek to have the records amended, and some control over the disclosure of information from the records.", "With several exceptions, schools must have a student's consent prior to the disclosure of education records after that student is 18 years old.", "The law applies only to educational agencies and institutions that receive funds under a program administered by the U.S. Department of Education.Other regulations under this Act, effective starting January 3, 2012, allow for greater disclosures of personal and directory student identifying information and regulate disclosure of student IDs and e-mail addresses.", "For example, schools may provide external companies with a student's personally identifiable information without the student's consent.", "Conversely, tying student directory information to other information may result in a violation, as the combination creates an education record.Examples of situations affected by FERPA include school employees divulging information to anyone other than the student about the student's grades or behavior, and school work posted on a bulletin board with a grade.", "Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student's education record.This privacy policy also governs how state agencies transmit testing data to federal agencies, such as the Education Data Exchange Network.This U.S. federal law also gave students 18 years of age or older, or students of any age if enrolled in any post-secondary educational institution, the right of privacy regarding grades, enrollment, and even billing information unless the school has specific permission from the student to share that specific type of information.FERPA also permits a school to disclose personally identifiable information from education records of an \"eligible student\" (a student age 18 or older or enrolled in a postsecondary institution at any age) to his or her parents if the student is a dependent \"student\" as that term is defined in Section 152 of the Internal Revenue Code.", "Generally, if either parent has claimed the student as a dependent on the parent's most recent U.S. Federal income tax return, the school may non-consensually disclose the student's education records to both parents.The law allowed students who apply to an educational institution such as graduate school permission to view recommendations submitted by others as part of the application.", "On standard application forms, students are given the option to waive this right.FERPA specifically excludes employees of an educational institution if they are not students.FERPA is now a guide to communicating higher education issues and privacy issues that include sexual assault and campus safety.", "It provides a framework on addressing needs of certain populations in higher education." ], [ "Access to public records", "The citing of FERPA to conceal public records that are not \"educational\" in nature has been widely criticized, including criticism by the Act's primary Senate sponsor.", "For example, in the ''Owasso Independent School District v. Falvo'' case, an important part of the debate was determining the relationship between peer-grading and \"education records\" as defined in FERPA.", "The plaintiffs argued \"that allowing students to score each other's tests ... as the teachers explain the correct answers to the entire class ... embarrassed ... children\", but they lost in a summary judgment by the district court.", "The Court of Appeals, ruled that students placing grades on the work of other students made such work into an \"education record.\"", "Thus, peer-grading was determined as a violation of FERPA privacy policies because students had access to other students' academic performance without full consent.", "However, on appeal to the Supreme Court, it was unanimously ruled that peer-grading was not a violation of FERPA.", "This is because a grade written on a student's work does not become an \"education record\" until the teacher writes the final grade into a grade book." ], [ "Student medical records", "Legal experts have debated the issue of whether student medical records (e.g.", "records of therapy sessions with a therapist at an on-campus counseling center) might be released to the school administration under certain triggering events, such as when a student sued his college or university.Usually, student medical treatment records will remain under the protection of FERPA, not the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).", "This is due to the \"FERPA Exception\" written within HIPAA." ], [ "See also", "* ''Gonzaga University v. Doe''* Liability and student records''Owasso Independent School District v. Falvo''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " 2004 CFR Title 34, Volume 1* Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)* G-T loses appeal of OSU pay records denial* Inside Higher Ed's News" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Forgetting" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Forgetting''' or '''disremembering''' is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or long-term memory.", "It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage.", "Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults.", "Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal.", "This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long-term memory.Forgetting curves (amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed.", "The most recent evidence suggests that a power function provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function." ], [ "Overview", "Failing to retrieve an event does not mean that this specific event has been forever forgotten.", "Research has shown that there are a few health behaviors that to some extent can prevent forgetting from happening so often.", "One of the simplest ways to keep the brain healthy and prevent forgetting is to stay active and exercise.", "Staying active is important because overall it keeps the body healthy.", "When the body is healthy the brain is healthy and less inflamed as well.", "Older adults who were more active were found to have had less episodes of forgetting compared to those older adults who were less active.", "A healthy diet can also contribute to a healthier brain and aging process which in turn results in less frequent forgetting." ], [ "History", "One of the first to study the mechanisms of forgetting was the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885).", "Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter nonsense syllable words—two consonants and one vowel in the middle.", "He then measured his own capacity to relearn a given list of words after a variety of given time period.", "He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off.", "Although his methods were primitive, his basic premises have held true today and have been reaffirmed by more methodologically sound methods.", "The Ebbinghaus ''forgetting curve'' is the name of his results which he plotted out and made 2 conclusions.", "The first being that much of what we forget is lost soon after it is originally learned.", "The second being that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off.Around the same time Ebbinghaus developed the forgetting curve, psychologist Sigmund Freud theorized that people intentionally forgot things in order to push bad thoughts and feelings deep into their unconscious, a process he called \"repression\".There is debate as to whether (or how often) memory repression really occurs and mainstream psychology holds that true memory repression occurs only very rarely.One process model for memory was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in the 1960s as a way to explain the operation of memory.", "This modal model of memory, also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, suggests there are three types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.", "Each type of memory is separate in its capacity and duration.", "In the modal model, how quickly information is forgotten is related to the type of memory where that information is stored.", "Information in the first stage, sensory memory, is forgotten after only a few seconds.", "In the second stage, short-term memory, information is forgotten after about 20 years.", "While information in long-term memory can be remembered for minutes or even decades, it may be forgotten when the retrieval processes for that information fail.Concerning unwanted memories, modern terminology divides motivated forgetting into unconscious repression (which is disputed) and conscious thought suppression." ], [ "Measurements", "Forgetting can be measured in different ways all of which are based on recall:===Recall===For this type of measurement, a participant has to identify material that was previously learned.", "The participant is asked to remember a list of material.", "Later on they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list.", "The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.====Free recall and variants====Free recall is a basic paradigm used to study human memory.", "In a free recall task, a subject is presented a list of to-be-remembered items, one at a time.", "For example, an experimenter might read a list of 20 words aloud, presenting a new word to the subject every 4 seconds.", "At the end of the presentation of the list, the subject is asked to recall the items (e.g., by writing down as many items from the list as possible).", "It is called a free recall task because the subject is free to recall the items in any order that he or she desires.=====Prompted (cued) recall=====Prompted recall is a slight variation of free recall that consists of presenting hints or prompts to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be produced.", "Usually these prompts are stimuli that were not there during the training period.", "Thus in order to measure the degree of forgetting, one can see how many prompts the subject misses or the number of prompts required to produce the behavior.====Relearning method====This method measures forgetting by the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance.", "German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) used this method on himself.", "He memorized lists of nonsensical syllables until he could repeat the list two times without error.", "After a certain interval, he relearned the list and saw how long it would take him to do this task.", "If it took fewer times, then there had been less forgetting.", "His experiment was one of the first to study forgetting.====Recognition====Participants are given a list of words and that they have to remember.", "Then they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list.", "The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten." ], [ "Theories", "The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as follows:=== Cue-dependent forgetting ===Cue-dependent forgetting (also, context-dependent forgetting) or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded.", "Encoding is the first step in creating and remembering a memory.", "How well something has been encoded in the memory can be measured by completing specific tests of retrieval.", "Examples of these tests would be explicit ones like cued recall or implicit tests like word fragment completion.", "Cue-dependent forgetting is one of five cognitive psychology theories of forgetting.", "This theory states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind.", "A good metaphor for this is searching for a book in a library without the reference number, title, author or even subject.", "The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely.", "Furthermore, a good retrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information.", "If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word.", "Information is available however, just not readily available without these cues.", "Depending on the age of a person, retrieval cues and skills may not work as well.", "This is usually common in older adults but that is not always the case.", "When information is encoded into the memory and retrieved with a technique called spaced retrieval, this helps older adults retrieve the events stored in the memory better.", "There is also evidence from different studies that show age related changes in memory.", "These specific studies have shown that episodic memory performance does in fact decline with age and have made known that older adults produce vivid rates of forgetting when two items are combined and not encoded.=== Organic causes ===Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of forgetting.", "These theories encompass the loss of information already retained in long-term memory or the inability to encode new information again.", "Examples include Alzheimer's, amnesia, dementia, consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central nervous system due to aging.=== Interference theories ===Interference theory refers to the idea that when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two.", "This essentially states that memory's information may become confused or combined with other information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or disruption of memories.", "In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an overstimulating environment.", "Interference theory exists in three branches: '''Proactive, Retroactive and Output'''.", "Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other.", "Retroactive interference is when new information (memories) interferes with older information.", "On the other hand, proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of new information.", "This is sometimes thought to occur especially when memories are similar.", "Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information.", "Another reason why retrieval failure occurs is due to encoding failure.", "The information never made it to long-term memory storage.", "According to the level of processing theory, how well information is encoded depends on the level of processing a piece of information receives.", "Certain parts of information are better encoded than others; for example, information this visual imagery or that has a survival value is more easily transferred to the long-term memory storage.", "This theory shows a contradiction: an extremely intelligent individual is expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality.", "For this reason, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which will cause interferences and impair their ability to recall specific information.", "Based on current research, testing interference has only been carried out by recalling from a list of words rather than using situation from daily lives, thus it is hard to generalize the findings for this theory.It has been found that interference related tasks decreased memory performance by up to 20%, with negative effects at all interference time points and large variability between participants concerning both the time point and the size of maximal interference.", "Furthermore, fast learners seem to be more affected by interference than slow learners.", "People are also less likely to recall items when intervening stimuli are presented within the first ten minutes after learning.", "Recall performance is better without interference.", "Peripheral processes such as encoding time, recognition memory and motor execution decline with age.", "However proactive interference is similar.", "Suggesting contrary to earlier reports that the inhibitory processes observed with this paradigm remain intact in older adults.=== Trace decay theory ===Decay theory states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical \"memory trace\" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used.", "Decay theory states the reason we eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with time.", "If we do not attempt to look back at an event, the greater the interval time between the time when the event from happening and the time when we try to remember, the memory will start to fade.", "Time is the greatest impact in remembering an event.Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short-term and long-term memory system, and assumes that the memories leave a trace in the brain.", "According to this theory, short-term memory (STM) can only retain information for a limited amount of time, around 15 to 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed.", "If it is not rehearsed, the information will start to gradually fade away and decay.", "Donald Hebb proposed that incoming information causes a series of neurons to create a neurological memory trace in the brain which would result in change in the morphological and/or chemical changes in the brain and would fade with time.", "Repeated firing causes a structural change in the synapses.", "Rehearsal of repeated firing maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made.", "Therefore, forgetting happens as a result of automatic decay of the memory trace in brain.", "This theory states that the events between learning and recall have no effects on recall; the important factor that affects is the duration that the information has been retained.", "Hence, as longer time passes more of traces are subject to decay and as a result the information is forgotten.One major problem about this theory is that in real-life situation, the time between encoding a piece of information and recalling it, is going to be filled with all different kinds of events that might happen to the individual.", "Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that forgetting is a result of only the time duration.", "It is also important to consider the effectiveness of this theory.", "Although it seems very plausible, it is about impossible to test.", "It is difficult to create a situation where there is a blank period of time between presenting the material and recalling it later.This theory is supposedly contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades.", "\"Flashbulb memories\" are another piece of seemingly contradicting evidence.", "It is believed that certain memories \"trace decay\" while others do not.", "Sleep is believed to play a key role in halting trace decay, although the exact mechanism of this is unknown.Physical and chemical changes in our brain lead to a memory trace, and this is based on the idea of the trace theory of memory.", "Information that gets into our short-term memory lasts a few seconds (15–20 seconds), and it fades away if it is not rehearsed or practiced as the neurochemical memory trace disappears rapidly.", "According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, what occurs between the creation of new memories and the recall of these memories is not influenced by the recall.", "However, the time between these events (memory formation and recalling) decides whether the information can be kept or forgotten.", "As there is an inverse correlation that if the time is short, more information can be recalled.", "On the other hand, if the time is long less information can be recalled or more information will be forgotten.", "This theory can be criticized for not sharing ideas on how some memories can stay and others can fade, though there was a long time between the formation and recall.", "Newness to something plays a crucial role in this situation.", "For instance, people are more likely to recall their very first day abroad than all of the intervening days between it and living there.", "Emotions also play a crucial role in this situation." ], [ "Impairments and lack of forgetting", "Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content.", "Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as amnesia caused by an accident.An inability to forget can cause distress, as with post-traumatic stress disorder and hyperthymesia (in which people have an extremely detailed autobiographical memory)." ], [ "Social forgetting", "Psychologists have called attention to \"social aspects of forgetting\".", "Though often loosely defined, social amnesia is generally considered to be the opposite of collective memory.", "\"Social amnesia\" was first discussed by Russell Jacoby, yet his use of the term was restricted to a narrow approach, which was limited to what he perceived to be a relative neglect of psychoanalytical theory in psychology.", "The cultural historian Peter Burke suggested that \"it may be worth investigating the social organization of forgetting, the rules of exclusion, suppression or repression, and the question of who wants whom to forget what\".", "In an in-depth historical study spanning two centuries, Guy Beiner proposed the term \"social forgetting\", which he distinguished from crude notions of \"collective amnesia\" and \"total oblivion\", arguing that \"social forgetting is to be found in the interface of public silence and more private remembrance\".", "The philosopher Walter Benjamin sees social forgetting closely linked to the question of present-day interests, arguing that \"every image of the past that is not recognized by the present as one of its own concerns threatens to disappear irretrievably\".", "Building on this, the sociologist David Leupold argued in the context of competing national narratives that what is suppressed and forgotten in one national narrative \"might appear at the core of past narrations by the other\" - thus often leading to diametrically opposed, mutually exclusive accounts on the past." ], [ "See also", "* Amnesia* Cue-dependent forgetting* Experience curve effects* Educational psychology* Hyperthymesia* Language attrition* Lotus tree* Memory* Pseudodementia* Repressed memory* Tip of the tongue" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * McLeod, S. A.", "(2008).", "Simply Psychology; .", "Retrieved 19 February 2012, from Simply Psychology" ], [ "External links", "* The End of Forgetting An article by Jeffrey Rosen* Forgetting: High School Psychology* Causes of Forgetting & Learning* Forgetting is Key to a Healthy Mind" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fay Wray" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Vina Fay Wray''' (September 15, 1907 – August 8, 2004) was a Canadian-American actress best known for starring as Ann Darrow in the 1933 film ''King Kong''.", "Through an acting career that spanned nearly six decades, Wray attained international recognition as an actress in horror films.", "She has been dubbed one of the early \"scream queens\".After appearing in minor film roles, Wray gained media attention after being selected as one of the \"WAMPAS Baby Stars\" in 1926.This led to her being contracted to Paramount Pictures as a teenager, where she made more than a dozen feature films.", "After leaving Paramount, she signed deals with various film companies, being cast in her first horror film roles, in addition to many other types of roles, including in ''The Bowery'' (1933) and ''Viva Villa!''", "(1934), both of which starred Wallace Beery.", "For RKO Radio Pictures, Inc., Wray starred in the film she is most identified with, ''King Kong'' (1933).", "After the success of ''King Kong'', she made numerous appearances in both film and television, retiring in 1980." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life===The Wedding March''Wray was born on a ranch near Cardston, Alberta, to parents who were members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Elvina Marguerite Jones, who was from Salt Lake City, Utah, and Joseph Heber Wray, who was from Kingston upon Hull, England.", "She was one of six children and was a granddaughter of LDS pioneer Daniel Webster Jones.", "Her ancestors came from England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.", "Wray was never baptized a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.Her family returned to the United States a few years after she was born; they moved to Salt Lake City in 1912 and moved to Lark, Utah, in 1914.In 1919, the Wray family returned to Salt Lake City, and then relocated to Hollywood, where Fay attended Hollywood High School.===Early acting career===Phillips Holmes, William Powell, and Fay Wray in ''Pointed Heels'' (1929)Cesar Romero, Wray, director Richard Thorpe, and cinematographer George Robinson (in background) on the set of ''Cheating Cheaters'' (1934)In 1923, Wray appeared in her first film at the age of 16, when she landed a role in a short historical film sponsored by a local newspaper.", "In the 1920s, Wray landed a major role in the silent film ''The Coast Patrol'' (1925), as well as uncredited bit parts at the Hal Roach Studios.In 1926, the Western Association of Motion Picture Advertisers selected Wray as one of the \"WAMPAS Baby Stars\", a group of women whom they believed to be on the threshold of movie stardom.", "She was at the time under contract to Universal Studios, mostly co-starring in low-budget Westerns opposite Buck Jones.The following year, Wray was signed to a contract with Paramount Pictures.", "In 1926, director Erich von Stroheim cast her as the main female lead in his film ''The Wedding March'', released by Paramount two years later.", "While the film was noted for its high budget and production values, it was a financial failure.", "It also gave Wray her first lead role.", "Wray stayed with Paramount to make more than a dozen films and made the transition from silent films to \"talkies\".===Horror films and ''King Kong''===King Kong''Trailer for the 1938 re-release of ''King Kong'' (1:31)After leaving Paramount, Wray signed with other film studios.", "Under these deals, Wray was cast in several horror films, including ''Doctor X'' (1932) and ''Mystery of the Wax Museum'' (1933).", "However, her best known films were produced under her deal with RKO Radio Pictures.", "Her first film with RKO was ''The Most Dangerous Game'' (1932), co-starring Joel McCrea.", "The production was filmed at night on the same jungle sets that were being used for ''King Kong'' during the day, and with Wray and Robert Armstrong starring in both movies.", "''The Most Dangerous Game'' was followed by the release of Wray's best remembered film, ''King Kong''.", "According to Wray, Jean Harlow had been RKO's original choice, but because MGM put Harlow under exclusive contract during the pre-production phase of the film, she became unavailable.", "Wray was approached by director Merian C. Cooper to play the blonde captive of King Kong; the role of Ann Darrow for which she was paid $10,000 ($ in dollars) to portray.", "The film was a commercial success and Wray was reportedly proud that the film saved RKO from bankruptcy.===Later career===1930 publicity photograph1953 cast of ''Pride of the Family'': Bobby Hyatt, Wray, Paul Hartman, and Natalie WoodWray continued to star in films, including ''The Richest Girl in the World'', but by the early 1940s, her appearances became less frequent.", "She retired in 1942 after her second marriage but due to financial exigencies she soon resumed her acting career, and over the next three decades, Wray appeared in several films and appeared frequently on television.", "Wray portrayed Catherine Morrison in the 1953–54 sitcom ''The Pride of the Family'' with Natalie Wood playing her daughter.", "Wray appeared in ''Queen Bee'', released in 1955.Wray appeared in three episodes of ''Perry Mason'': \"The Case of the Prodigal Parent\" (1958); \"The Case of the Watery Witness\" (1959), as murder victim Lorna Thomas; and \"The Case of the Fatal Fetish\" (1965), as voodoo practitioner Mignon Germaine.", "In 1959, Wray was cast as Tula Marsh in the episode \"The Second Happiest Day\" of ''Playhouse 90''.", "Other roles around this time were in the episodes \"Dip in the Pool\" (1958) and \"The Morning After\" of CBS's ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents''.", "In 1960, she appeared as Clara in an episode of ''77 Sunset Strip'', \"Who Killed Cock Robin?\"", "Another 1960 role was that of Mrs. Staunton, with Gigi Perreau as her daughter, in the episode \"Flight from Terror\" of ''The Islanders''.Wray appeared in a 1961 episode of ''The Real McCoys'' titled \"Theatre in the Barn\".", "In 1963, she played Mrs. Brubaker in ''The Eleventh Hour'' episode \"You're So Smart, Why Can't You Be Good?\".", "She ended her acting career with the 1980 made-for-television film ''Gideon's Trumpet''.Wray holding her autobiography titled ''On the Other Hand''In 1988, she published her autobiography ''On the Other Hand''.", "In her later years, Wray continued to make public appearances.", "In 1991, she was crowned Queen of the Beaux Arts Ball, presiding with King Herbert Huncke.She was approached by James Cameron to play the part of Rose Dawson Calvert for his blockbuster ''Titanic'' (1997) with Kate Winslet to play her younger self, but she turned down the role, which was subsequently portrayed by Gloria Stuart in an Oscar-nominated performance.", "She was a special guest at the 70th Academy Awards, where the show's host Billy Crystal introduced her as the \"Beauty who charmed the Beast.\"", "She was the only 1920s Hollywood actress in attendance that evening.", "On October 3, 1998, she appeared at the Pine Bluff Film Festival, which showed ''The Wedding March'' with live orchestral accompaniment.In January 2003, the 95-year-old Wray appeared at the 2003 Palm Beach International Film Festival to celebrate the Rick McKay documentary film ''Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There'', where she was honored with a \"Legend in Film\" award.", "In her later years, she visited the Empire State Building frequently; in 1991, she was a guest of honor at the building's 60th anniversary, and in May 2004, she made one of her last public appearances at the ESB.", "Her final public appearance was at the premiere of the documentary film ''Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There'' in June 2004." ], [ "Personal life", "Wray married three times – to writers John Monk Saunders and Robert Riskin and the neurosurgeon Sanford Rothenberg (January 28, 1919 – January 4, 1991).", "She had three children: Susan Saunders, Victoria Riskin, and Robert Riskin Jr.After returning to the US after finishing ''The Clairvoyant'' she became a naturalized citizen of the United States in May 1935.===Death===Star on Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6349 Hollywood Blvd.Wray died in her sleep of natural causes in the night of August 8, 2004, in her apartment on Fifth Avenue Manhattan.", "She is interred at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood, California.Two days after her death, the lights of the Empire State Building were lowered for 15 minutes in her memory." ], [ "Honors", "Fay Wray Fountain, Cardston, AlbertaIn 1989, Wray was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award.", "Wray was honored with a Legend in Film award at the 2003 Palm Beach International Film Festival.", "For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Wray was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6349 Hollywood Blvd.", "She received a star posthumously on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto on June 5, 2005.A small park near Lee's Creek on Main Street in Cardston, Alberta, her birthplace, was named Fay Wray Park in her honor.", "The small sign at the edge of the park on Main Street has a silhouette of King Kong on it, remembering her role in ''King Kong''.", "A large oil portrait of Wray by Alberta artist Neil Boyle is on display in the Empress Theatre in Fort Macleod, Alberta.", "In May 2006, Wray became one of the first four entertainers to be honored by Canada Post by being featured on a postage stamp." ], [ "Partial filmography", "''Gasoline Love'' (1923 short subject)''Just A Good Guy'' (1924) as Girl Getting Into Car ''The Coast Patrol'' (1925) as Beth Slocum''Sure-Mike'' (1925 short) as Salesgirl at Department Store''What Price Goofy'' (1925 short) as Concerned Girl with Perfume (uncredited)''Isn't Life Terrible?''", "(1925 short) as Potential Pen-Buyer (uncredited)''Thundering Landlords'' (1925 short) as The Wife''Chasing the Chaser'' (1925 short) as Nursemaid''Madame Sans Jane'' (1925 short)''No Father to Guide Him'' (1925 short) as Beach House Cashier (uncredited)''Unfriendly Enemies'' (1925 short) as The Girl''Your Own Back Yard'' (1925 short) as Woman in Quarrelsome Couple''A Lover's Oath'' (1925) (uncredited) lost film''Moonlight and Noses'' (1925 short) as Miss Sniff, the Professor's Daughter''Should Sailors Marry?''", "(1925 short) as Herself''Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ'' (1925) as Slave Girl (unconfirmed, uncredited)''WAMPAS Baby Stars of 1926'' (1926 short) as Herself''One Wild Time'' (1926 short)''Don Key (A Son of a Burro)'' (1926 short)''The Man in the Saddle'' (1926) as Pauline Stewart lost film''Don't Shoot'' (1926 short) as Nancy Burton''The Wild Horse Stampede'' (1926) as Jessie Hayden''The Saddle Tramp'' (1926 short)''The Show Cowpuncher'' (1926 short)''Lazy Lightning'' (1926) as Lila Rogers''Loco Luck'' (1927) as Molly Vernon''A One Man Game'' (1927) as Roberta''Spurs and Saddles'' (1927) as Mildred Orth''A Trip Through the Paramount Studio'' (1927 short) as Herself''The Legion of the Condemned'' (1928) as Christine Charteris lost film''Street of Sin'' (1928) as Elizabeth lost film''The First Kiss'' (1928) as Anna Lee lost film''The Wedding March'' (1928) as Mitzi / Mitzerl Schrammell''The Four Feathers'' (1929) as Ethne Eustace''Thunderbolt'' (1929) as Ritzie''Pointed Heels'' (1929) as Lora Nixon''Behind the Make-Up'' (1930) as Marie Gardoni''Paramount on Parade'' (1930) as Sweetheart (Dream Girl)''The Texan'' (1930) as Consuelo''The Border Legion'' (1930) as Joan Randall''The Sea God'' (1930) as Daisy''The Honeymoon'' (1930, unreleased) as Mitzi''Captain Thunder'' (1930) as Ynez''Stub Man'' (1931)''The Slippery Pearls'' (1931 short) as Herself''Dirigible'' (1931) as Helen Pierce''The Conquering Horde'' (1931) as Taisie Lockhart''Not Exactly Gentlemen'' (1931) as Lee Carleton''The Finger Points'' (1931) as Marcia Collins''The Lawyer's Secret'' (1931) as Kay Roberts''The Unholy Garden'' (1931) as Camille de Jonghe''Hollywood on Parade'' (1932 short subject) as Herself''Stowaway'' (1932) as Mary Foster''Doctor X'' (1932) as Joanne Xavier''The Most Dangerous Game'' (1932) as Eve Trowbridge''The Vampire Bat'' (1933) as Ruth Bertin''Mystery of the Wax Museum'' (1933) as Charlotte Duncan''King Kong'' (1933) as Ann Darrow''Below the Sea'' (1933) as Diana''Ann Carver's Profession'' (1933) as Ann Carver Graham''The Woman I Stole'' (1933) as Vida Carew''Shanghai Madness'' (1933) as Wildeth Christie''The Big Brain'' (1933) as Cynthia Glennon''One Sunday Afternoon'' (1933) as Virginia Brush''The Bowery'' (1933) as Lucy Calhoun* ''Master of Men'' (1933) as Kay Walling''Madame Spy'' (1934) as Marie Franck''The Countess of Monte Cristo'' (1934) as Janet Krueger''Once to Every Woman'' (1934) as Mary Fanshane''Viva Villa!''", "(1934) as Teresa''Black Moon'' (1934) as Gail Hamilton''The Affairs of Cellini'' (1934) as Angela''The Richest Girl in the World'' (1934) as Sylvia Lockwood''Cheating Cheaters'' (1934) as Nan Brockton''Woman in the Dark'' (1934) as Louise Loring''Mills of the Gods'' (1934) as Jean Hastings''The Clairvoyant'' (1935) (US title: The Evil Mind) as Rene''Bulldog Jack'' (1935) as Ann Manders''Come Out of the Pantry'' (1935) as Hilda Beach-Howard''White Lies'' (1935) as Joan Mitchell''When Knights Were Bold'' (1936) as Lady Rowena''Roaming Lady'' (1936) as Joyce Reid''They Met in a Taxi'' (1936) as Mary Trenton''It Happened in Hollywood'' (1937) as Gloria Gay''Murder in Greenwich Village'' (1937) as Kay Cabot aka Lucky''The Jury's Secret'' (1938) as Linda Ware''Smashing the Spy Ring'' (1938) as Eleanor Dunlap''Navy Secrets'' (1939) as Carol Mathews – Posing as Carol Evans''Wildcat Bus'' (1940) as Ted Dawson''Adam Had Four Sons'' (1941) as Molly Stoddard''Melody for Three'' (1941) as Mary Stanley''Not a Ladies' Man'' (1942) as Hester Hunter''This Is the Life'' (1944, co-author of play with Sinclair Lewis) ''Treasure of the Golden Condor'' (1953) as Annette, Marquise de St. Malo''Small Town Girl'' (1953) as Mrs. Kimbell''The Cobweb'' (1955) as Edna Devanal''Queen Bee'' (1955) as Sue McKinnon''Hell on Frisco Bay'' (1956) as Kay Stanley''Rock, Pretty Baby'' (1956) as Beth Daley''Crime of Passion'' (1957) as Alice Pope''Tammy and the Bachelor'' (1957) as Mrs. Brent''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' (1958) (Season 3 Episode 35: \"Dip in the Pool\") as Mrs. Renshaw''Summer Love'' (1958) as Beth Daley''Dragstrip Riot'' (1958) as Norma Martin / Mrs. Martin''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' (1959) (Season 4 Episode 14: \"The Morning After\") as Mrs. Nelson''Wagon Train'' (1962) as Mrs. Edward's, The Cole Crawford Story''Gideon's Trumpet'' (1980) as Edna Curtis''Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's'' (1997 documentary) as Herself''Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There'' (2003 documentary) as Herself" ], [ "Cultural references", "In ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'', Fay Wray is referenced by name in two songs.", "At the beginning of the movie, \"Science Fiction/Double Feature\" contains \"Then something went wrong / For Fay Wray and King Kong / They got caught in a celluloid jam\", and near the end extraterrestrial transvestite mad scientist Frank N. Furter sings in the song, \"Don't Dream It\": \"Whatever happened to Fay Wray?", "/ That delicate satin-draped frame / As it clung to her thigh / How I started to cry / 'Cause I wanted to be dressed just the same\".", "Mentioned in the chorus of the Jimmy Ray song, \"Are You Jimmy Ray?", "\"Type O Negative, on their album ''Bloody Kisses'', has a track titled \"Fay Wray Come Out to Play.", "\"Mentioned repeatedly in Thomas Pynchon's ''Gravity's Rainbow.", "'' Fay Wray is briefly mentioned in the Bruce Cockburn song \"Mama Just Wants to Barrelhouse All Night Long\" on the 1973 ''Night Vision'' album in its second verse: \"I hear the city singing like a siren choir / Some fool tried to set this town on fire / TV preacher screams 'come on along' / I feel like Fay Wray face to face with King Kong / But Mama just wants to barrelhouse all night long.", "\"* Fay Wray has been mentioned in the ''Peanuts'' comic strip a couple of times, mostly involving characters Snoopy and Woodstock in reenacting the iconic scenes from ''King Kong''.", "The first one was in a September 11, 1976 strip with Snoopy playing as King Kong while holding Woodstock as Ann Darrow (with a brief mention of her co-star Bruce Cabot); and in an August 29, 1976 Sunday strip format where Snoopy is dreaming that his nose is the Empire State Building and Woodstock, as King Kong, is climbing atop of it in real time.", "Waking up from it, Snoopy complains afterwards that \"Fay Wray didn't even show up\" in it." ], [ "See also", "* Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Fay Wray at Turner Classic Movies* * Fay Wray at Northern Stars website* Fay Wray speaking at UCLA 11/18/1970" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Forgetting curve" ], [ "Introduction", "A representation of the forgetting curve showing retained information halving after each dayThe '''forgetting curve''' hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time.", "This curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it.", "A related concept is the '''strength of memory''' that refers to the durability that memory traces in the brain.", "The stronger the memory, the longer period of time that a person is able to recall it.", "A typical graph of the forgetting curve purports to show that humans tend to halve their memory of newly learned knowledge in a matter of days or weeks unless they consciously review the learned material.The forgetting curve supports one of the seven kinds of memory failures: transience, which is the process of forgetting that occurs with the passage of time." ], [ "History", "The forgetting curve, with original data from EbbinghausFrom 1880 to 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus ran a limited, incomplete study on himself and published his hypothesis in 1885 as '''' (later translated into English as ''Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology'').", "Ebbinghaus studied the memorisation of nonsense syllables, such as \"WID\" and \"ZOF\" (CVCs or Consonant–Vowel–Consonant) by repeatedly testing himself after various time periods and recording the results.", "He plotted these results on a graph creating what is now known as the \"forgetting curve\".", "Ebbinghaus investigated the rate of forgetting, but not the effect of spaced repetition on the increase in retrievability of memories.Ebbinghaus's publication also included an equation to approximate his forgetting curve:Here, represents 'Savings' expressed as a percentage, and represents time in minutes, counting from one minute before end of learning.", "The constants c and k are 1.25 and 1.84 respectively.", "Savings is defined as the relative amount of time saved on the second learning trial as a result of having had the first.", "A savings of 100% would indicate that all items were still known from the first trial.", "A 75% savings would mean that relearning missed items required 25% as long as the original learning session (to learn all items).", "'Savings' is thus, analogous to retention rate.In 2015, an attempt to replicate the forgetting curve with one study subject has shown the experimental results similar to Ebbinghaus' original data.Ebbinghaus' experiment has significantly contributed to experimental psychology.", "He was the first to carry out a series of well-designed experiments on the subject of forgetting, and he was one of the first to choose artificial stimuli in the research of experimental psychology.", "Since his introduction of nonsense syllables, a large number of experiments in experimental psychology has been based on highly controlled artificial stimuli." ], [ "Increasing rate of learning", "Hermann Ebbinghaus hypothesized that the speed of forgetting depends on a number of factors such as the difficulty of the learned material (e.g.", "how meaningful it is), its representation and other physiological factors such as stress and sleep.", "He further hypothesized that the basal forgetting rate differs little between individuals.", "He concluded that the difference in performance can be explained by mnemonic representation skills.He went on to hypothesize that basic training in mnemonic techniques can help overcome those differences in part.", "He asserted that the best methods for increasing the strength of memory are:# better memory representation (e.g.", "with mnemonic techniques)# repetition based on active recall (especially spaced repetition).Forgetting Curve with Spaced RepetitionHis premise was that each repetition in learning increases the optimum interval before the next repetition is needed (for near-perfect retention, initial repetitions may need to be made within days, but later they can be made after years).", "He discovered that information is easier to recall when it's built upon things you already know, and the forgetting curve was flattened by every repetition.", "It appeared that by applying frequent training in learning, the information was solidified by repeated recalling.Later research also suggested that, other than the two factors Ebbinghaus proposed, higher original learning would also produce slower forgetting.", "The more information was originally learned, the slower the forgetting rate would be.Spending time each day to remember information will greatly decrease the effects of the forgetting curve.", "Some learning consultants claim reviewing material in the first 24 hours after learning information is the optimum time to actively recall the content and reset the forgetting curve.", "Evidence suggests waiting 10–20% of the time towards when the information will be needed is the optimum time for a single review.Some memories remain free from the detrimental effects of interference and do not necessarily follow the typical forgetting curve as various noise and outside factors influence what information would be remembered.", "There is debate among supporters of the hypothesis about the shape of the curve for events and facts that are more significant to the subject.", "Some supporters, for example, suggest that memories of shocking events such as the Kennedy Assassination or 9/11 are vividly imprinted in memory (flashbulb memory).", "Others have compared contemporaneous written recollections with recollections recorded years later, and found considerable variations as the subject's memory incorporates after-acquired information.", "There is considerable research in this area as it relates to eyewitness identification testimony, and eyewitness accounts are found demonstrably unreliable." ], [ "Equations", "Many equations have since been proposed to approximate forgetting, perhaps the simplest being an exponential curve described by the equationwhere is retrievability (a measure of how easy it is to retrieve a piece of information from memory), is stability of memory (determines how fast falls over time in the absence of training, testing or other recall), and is time.Simple equations such as this one were not found to provide a good fit to the available data." ], [ "See also", "* * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " * * Bremer, Rod.", "The Manual – A guide to the Ultimate Study Method (USM) (Amazon Digital Services).", "Loftus, Geoffrey R. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition11.2 (Apr 1985): 397–406.", "http://www.trainingindustry.com/wiki/entries/forgetting-curve.aspx https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-the-eyes-have-it/https://qz.com/1213768/the-forgetting-curve-explains-why-humans-struggle-to-memorize/*https://www.growthengineering.co.uk/what-is-the-forgetting-curve/" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Field-programmable gate array" ], [ "Introduction", "Stratix IV FPGA from AlteraA Spartan FPGA from XilinxA '''field-programmable gate array''' ('''FPGA''') is a type of configurable integrated circuit that can be programmed or reprogrammed after manufacturing.", "FPGAs are part of a broader set of logic devices referred to as programmable logic devices (PLDs).", "They consist of an array of programmable logic blocks and interconnects that can be configured to perform various digital functions.", "FPGAs are commonly used in applications where flexibility, speed, and parallel processing capabilities are required, such as in telecommunications, automotive, aerospace, and industrial sectors.FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware description language (HDL), similar to that used for an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).", "Circuit diagrams were previously used to specify the configuration.The logic blocks of an FPGA can be configured to perform complex combinational functions, or act as simple logic gates like AND and XOR.", "In most FPGAs, logic blocks also include memory elements, which may be simple flip-flops or more complete blocks of memory.", "Many FPGAs can be reprogrammed to implement different logic functions, allowing flexible reconfigurable computing as performed in computer software.FPGAs also have a role in embedded system development due to their capability to start system software development simultaneously with hardware, enable system performance simulations at a very early phase of the development, and allow various system trials and design iterations before finalizing the system architecture.FPGAs are also commonly used during the development of ASICs to speed up the simulation process." ], [ "History", "The FPGA industry sprouted from programmable read-only memory (PROM) and programmable logic devices (PLDs).", "PROMs and PLDs both had the option of being programmed in batches in a factory or in the field (field-programmable).Altera was founded in 1983 and delivered the industry's first reprogrammable logic device in 1984 – the EP300 – which featured a quartz window in the package that allowed users to shine an ultra-violet lamp on the die to erase the EPROM cells that held the device configuration.Xilinx produced the first commercially viable field-programmable gate array in 1985the XC2064.The XC2064 had programmable gates and programmable interconnects between gates, the beginnings of a new technology and market.", "The XC2064 had 64 configurable logic blocks (CLBs), with two three-input lookup tables (LUTs).In 1987, the Naval Surface Warfare Center funded an experiment proposed by Steve Casselman to develop a computer that would implement 600,000 reprogrammable gates.", "Casselman was successful and a patent related to the system was issued in 1992.Altera and Xilinx continued unchallenged and quickly grew from 1985 to the mid-1990s when competitors sprouted up, eroding a significant portion of their market share.", "By 1993, Actel (later Microsemi, now Microchip) was serving about 18 percent of the market.The 1990s were a period of rapid growth for FPGAs, both in circuit sophistication and the volume of production.", "In the early 1990s, FPGAs were primarily used in telecommunications and networking.", "By the end of the decade, FPGAs found their way into consumer, automotive, and industrial applications.By 2013, Altera (31 percent), Actel (10 percent) and Xilinx (36 percent) together represented approximately 77 percent of the FPGA market.Companies like Microsoft have started to use FPGAs to accelerate high-performance, computationally intensive systems (like the data centers that operate their Bing search engine), due to the performance per watt advantage FPGAs deliver.", "Microsoft began using FPGAs to accelerate Bing in 2014, and in 2018 began deploying FPGAs across other data center workloads for their Azure cloud computing platform.===Growth===The following timelines indicate progress in different aspects of FPGA design.====Gates====* 1987: 9,000 gates, Xilinx* 1992: 600,000, Naval Surface Warfare Department* Early 2000s: millions* 2013: 50 million, Xilinx====Market size====* 1985: First commercial FPGA : Xilinx XC2064* 1987: $14 million* : >$385 million* 2005: $1.9 billion* 2010 estimates: $2.75 billion* 2013: $5.4 billion* 2020 estimate: $9.8 billion====Design starts====A ''design start'' is a new custom design for implementation on an FPGA.", "* 2005: 80,000* 2008: 90,000" ], [ "Design", "Contemporary FPGAs have ample logic gates and RAM blocks to implement complex digital computations.", "FPGAs can be used to implement any logical function that an ASIC can perform.", "The ability to update the functionality after shipping, partial re-configuration of a portion of the design and the low non-recurring engineering costs relative to an ASIC design (notwithstanding the generally higher unit cost), offer advantages for many applications.As FPGA designs employ very fast I/O rates and bidirectional data buses, it becomes a challenge to verify correct timing of valid data within setup time and hold time.", "Floor planning helps resource allocation within FPGAs to meet these timing constraints.Some FPGAs have analog features in addition to digital functions.", "The most common analog feature is a programmable slew rate on each output pin, allowing the engineer to set low rates on lightly loaded pins that would otherwise ring or couple unacceptably, and to set higher rates on heavily loaded high-speed channels that would otherwise run too slowly.", "Also common are quartz-crystal oscillator driver circuitry, on-chip RC oscillators, and phase-locked loops with embedded voltage-controlled oscillators used for clock generation and management as well as for high-speed serializer-deserializer (SERDES) transmit clocks and receiver clock recovery.", "Fairly common are differential comparators on input pins designed to be connected to differential signaling channels.", "A few mixed signal FPGAs have integrated peripheral analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs) with analog signal conditioning blocks, allowing them to operate as a system-on-a-chip (SoC).", "Such devices blur the line between an FPGA, which carries digital ones and zeros on its internal programmable interconnect fabric, and field-programmable analog array (FPAA), which carries analog values on its internal programmable interconnect fabric.=== Logic blocks ===Simplified example illustration of a logic cell (LUT – Lookup table, FA – Full adder, DFF – D-type flip-flop)The most common FPGA architecture consists of an array of logic blocks called configurable logic blocks (CLBs) or logic array blocks (LABs) (depending on vendor), I/O pads, and routing channels.", "Generally, all the routing channels have the same width (number of signals).", "Multiple I/O pads may fit into the height of one row or the width of one column in the array.", "\"An application circuit must be mapped into an FPGA with adequate resources.", "While the number of logic blocks and I/Os required is easily determined from the design, the number of routing channels needed may vary considerably even among designs with the same amount of logic.", "For example, a crossbar switch requires much more routing than a systolic array with the same gate count.", "Since unused routing channels increase the cost (and decrease the performance) of the FPGA without providing any benefit, FPGA manufacturers try to provide just enough channels so that most designs that will fit in terms of lookup tables (LUTs) and I/Os can be routed.", "This is determined by estimates such as those derived from Rent's rule or by experiments with existing designs.", "\"In general, a logic block consists of a few logical cells.", "A typical cell consists of a 4-input LUT, a full adder (FA) and a D-type flip-flop.", "The LUT might be split into two 3-input LUTs.", "In ''normal mode'' those are combined into a 4-input LUT through the first multiplexer (mux).", "In ''arithmetic'' mode, their outputs are fed to the adder.", "The selection of mode is programmed into the second mux.", "The output can be either synchronous or asynchronous, depending on the programming of the third mux.", "In practice, the entire adder or parts of it are stored as functions into the LUTs in order to save space.=== Hard blocks ===Modern FPGA families expand upon the above capabilities to include higher-level functionality fixed in silicon.", "Having these common functions embedded in the circuit reduces the area required and gives those functions increased performance compared to building them from logical primitives.", "Examples of these include multipliers, generic DSP blocks, embedded processors, high-speed I/O logic and embedded memories.Higher-end FPGAs can contain high-speed multi-gigabit transceivers and ''hard IP cores'' such as processor cores, Ethernet medium access control units, PCI or PCI Express controllers, and external memory controllers.", "These cores exist alongside the programmable fabric, but they are built out of transistors instead of LUTs so they have ASIC-level performance and power consumption without consuming a significant amount of fabric resources, leaving more of the fabric free for the application-specific logic.", "The multi-gigabit transceivers also contain high-performance signal conditioning circuitry along with high-speed serializers and deserializers, components that cannot be built out of LUTs.", "Higher-level physical layer (PHY) functionality such as line coding may or may not be implemented alongside the serializers and deserializers in hard logic, depending on the FPGA.=== Soft core ===A Xilinx Zynq-7000 All Programmable System on a ChipAn alternate approach to using hard macro processors is to make use of soft processor IP cores that are implemented within the FPGA logic.", "Nios II, MicroBlaze and Mico32 are examples of popular softcore processors.", "Many modern FPGAs are programmed at ''run time'', which has led to the idea of reconfigurable computing or reconfigurable systems – CPUs that reconfigure themselves to suit the task at hand.", "Additionally, new non-FPGA architectures are beginning to emerge.", "Software-configurable microprocessors such as the Stretch S5000 adopt a hybrid approach by providing an array of processor cores and FPGA-like programmable cores on the same chip.=== Integration ===In 2012 the coarse-grained architectural approach was taken a step further by combining the logic blocks and interconnects of traditional FPGAs with embedded microprocessors and related peripherals to form a complete system on a programmable chip.", "Examples of such hybrid technologies can be found in the Xilinx Zynq-7000 all Programmable SoC, which includes a 1.0 GHz dual-core ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore processor embedded within the FPGA's logic fabric, or in the Altera Arria V FPGA, which includes an 800 MHz dual-core ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore.", "The Atmel FPSLIC is another such device, which uses an AVR processor in combination with Atmel's programmable logic architecture.", "The Microsemi SmartFusion devices incorporate an ARM Cortex-M3 hard processor core (with up to 512 kB of flash and 64 kB of RAM) and analog peripherals such as a multi-channel analog-to-digital converters and digital-to-analog converters in their flash memory-based FPGA fabric.=== Clocking ===Most of the logic inside of an FPGA is synchronous circuitry that requires a clock signal.", "FPGAs contain dedicated global and regional routing networks for clock and reset, typically implemented as an H tree, so they can be delivered with minimal skew.", "FPGAs may contain analog phase-locked loop or delay-locked loop components to synthesize new clock frequencies and manage jitter.", "Complex designs can use multiple clocks with different frequency and phase relationships, each forming separate clock domains.", "These clock signals can be generated locally by an oscillator or they can be recovered from a data stream.", "Care must be taken when building clock domain crossing circuitry to avoid metastability.", "Some FPGAs contain dual port RAM blocks that are capable of working with different clocks, aiding in the construction of building FIFOs and dual port buffers that bridge clock domains.=== 3D architectures ===To shrink the size and power consumption of FPGAs, vendors such as Tabula and Xilinx have introduced 3D or stacked architectures.", "Following the introduction of its 28 nm 7-series FPGAs, Xilinx said that several of the highest-density parts in those FPGA product lines will be constructed using multiple dies in one package, employing technology developed for 3D construction and stacked-die assemblies.Xilinx's approach stacks several (three or four) active FPGA dies side by side on a silicon interposer – a single piece of silicon that carries passive interconnect.", "The multi-die construction also allows different parts of the FPGA to be created with different process technologies, as the process requirements are different between the FPGA fabric itself and the very high speed 28 Gbit/s serial transceivers.", "An FPGA built in this way is called a ''heterogeneous FPGA''.Altera's heterogeneous approach involves using a single monolithic FPGA die and connecting other dies and technologies to the FPGA using Intel's embedded multi_die interconnect bridge (EMIB) technology." ], [ "Programming", "To define the behavior of the FPGA, the user provides a design in a hardware description language (HDL) or as a schematic design.", "The HDL form is more suited to work with large structures because it's possible to specify high-level functional behavior rather than drawing every piece by hand.", "However, schematic entry can allow for easier visualization of a design and its component modules.Using an electronic design automation tool, a technology-mapped netlist is generated.", "The netlist can then be fit to the actual FPGA architecture using a process called ''place and route'', usually performed by the FPGA company's proprietary place-and-route software.", "The user will validate the results using timing analysis, simulation, and other verification and validation techniques.", "Once the design and validation process is complete, the binary file generated, typically using the FPGA vendor's proprietary software, is used to (re-)configure the FPGA.", "This file is transferred to the FPGA via a serial interface (JTAG) or to an external memory device such as an EEPROM.The most common HDLs are VHDL and Verilog.", "National Instruments' LabVIEW graphical programming language (sometimes referred to as ''G'') has an FPGA add-in module available to target and program FPGA hardware.", "Verilog was created to simplify the process making HDL more robust and flexible.", "Verilog has a C-like syntax, unlike VHDL.To simplify the design of complex systems in FPGAs, there exist libraries of predefined complex functions and circuits that have been tested and optimized to speed up the design process.", "These predefined circuits are commonly called ''intellectual property (IP) cores'', and are available from FPGA vendors and third-party IP suppliers.", "They are rarely free, and typically released under proprietary licenses.", "Other predefined circuits are available from developer communities such as OpenCores (typically released under free and open source licenses such as the GPL, BSD or similar license), and other sources.", "Such designs are known as open-source hardware.In a typical design flow, an FPGA application developer will simulate the design at multiple stages throughout the design process.", "Initially the RTL description in VHDL or Verilog is simulated by creating test benches to simulate the system and observe results.", "Then, after the synthesis engine has mapped the design to a netlist, the netlist is translated to a gate-level description where simulation is repeated to confirm the synthesis proceeded without errors.", "Finally the design is laid out in the FPGA at which point propagation delays can be added and the simulation run again with these values back-annotated onto the netlist.More recently, OpenCL (Open Computing Language) is being used by programmers to take advantage of the performance and power efficiencies that FPGAs provide.", "OpenCL allows programmers to develop code in the C programming language and target FPGA functions as OpenCL kernels using OpenCL constructs.", "For further information, see high-level synthesis and C to HDL.Most FPGAs rely on an SRAM-based approach to be programmed.", "These FPGAs are in-system programmable and re-programmable, but require external boot devices.", "For example, flash memory or EEPROM devices may often load contents into internal SRAM that controls routing and logic.", "The SRAM approach is based on CMOS.Rarer alternatives to the SRAM approach include:* Fuse: one-time programmable.", "Bipolar.", "Obsolete.", "* Antifuse: one-time programmable.", "CMOS.", "Examples: Actel SX and Axcelerator families; Quicklogic Eclipse II family.", "* PROM: programmable read-only memory technology.", "One-time programmable because of plastic packaging.", "Obsolete.", "* EPROM: erasable programmable read-only memory technology.", "One-time programmable but with window, can be erased with ultraviolet (UV) light.", "CMOS.", "Obsolete.", "* EEPROM: electrically erasable programmable read-only memory technology.", "Can be erased, even in plastic packages.", "Some but not all EEPROM devices can be in-system programmed.", "CMOS.", "* Flash: flash-erase EPROM technology.", "Can be erased, even in plastic packages.", "Some but not all flash devices can be in-system programmed.", "Usually, a flash cell is smaller than an equivalent EEPROM cell and is, therefore, less expensive to manufacture.", "CMOS.", "Example: Actel ProASIC family." ], [ "Manufacturers", "In 2016, long-time industry rivals Xilinx (now part of AMD) and Altera (now an Intel subsidiary) were the FPGA market leaders.", "At that time, they controlled nearly 90 percent of the market.Both Xilinx (now AMD) and Altera (now Intel) provide proprietary electronic design automation software for Windows and Linux (ISE/Vivado and Quartus) which enables engineers to design, analyze, simulate, and synthesize (compile) their designs.", "In March 2010, Tabula announced their FPGA technology that uses time-multiplexed logic and interconnect that claims potential cost savings for high-density applications.", "On March 24, 2015, Tabula officially shut down.On June 1, 2015, Intel announced it would acquire Altera for approximately $16.7 billion and completed the acquisition on December 30, 2015.On October 27, 2020, AMD announced it would acquire Xilinx and completed the acquisition valued at about $50 billion in February 2022.Other manufacturers include:* Achronix, manufacturing SRAM based FPGAS with 1.5 GHz fabric speedAltium, provides system-on-FPGA hardware-software design environment.", " Efinix offers small to medium-sized FPGAs.", "They combine logic and routing interconnects into a configurable XLR cell.", "* GOWIN Semiconductors, manufacturing small and medium-sized SRAM and Flash-based FPGAs.", "They also offer pin-compatible replacements for a few Xilinx, Altera and Lattice products.", "* Lattice Semiconductor, which manufactures low-power SRAM-based FPGAs featuring integrated configuration flash, instant-on and live reconfiguration*SiliconBlue Technologies, which provides extremely low-power SRAM-based FPGAs with optional integrated nonvolatile configuration memory; acquired by Lattice in 2011Microchip:Microsemi (previously Actel), producing antifuse, flash-based, mixed-signal FPGAs; acquired by Microchip in 2018 Atmel, a second source of some Altera-compatible devices; also FPSLIC mentioned above; acquired by Microchip in 2016* QuickLogic, which manufactures Ultra Low Power Sensor Hubs, extremely low powered, low-density SRAM-based FPGAs, with display bridges MIPI & RGB inputs, MIPI, RGB and LVDS outputs" ], [ "Applications", "An FPGA can be used to solve any problem which is computable.", "This is trivially proven by the fact that FPGAs can be used to implement a soft microprocessor, such as the Xilinx MicroBlaze or Altera Nios II.", "Their advantage lies in that they are significantly faster for some applications because of their parallel nature and optimality in terms of the number of gates used for certain processes.FPGAs originally began as competitors to CPLDs to implement glue logic for printed circuit boards.", "As their size, capabilities, and speed increased, FPGAs took over additional functions to the point where some are now marketed as full systems on chips (SoCs).", "Particularly with the introduction of dedicated multipliers into FPGA architectures in the late 1990s, applications which had traditionally been the sole reserve of digital signal processor hardware (DSPs) began to incorporate FPGAs instead.The evolution of FPGAs has motivated an increase in the use of these devices, whose architecture allows the development of hardware solutions optimized for complex tasks, such as 3D MRI image segmentation, 3D discrete wavelet transform, tomographic image reconstruction, or PET/MRI systems.", "The developed solutions can perform intensive computation tasks with parallel processing, are dynamically reprogrammable, and have a low cost, all while meeting the hard real-time requirements associated with medical imaging.Another trend in the use of FPGAs is hardware acceleration, where one can use the FPGA to accelerate certain parts of an algorithm and share part of the computation between the FPGA and a generic processor.", "The search engine Bing is noted for adopting FPGA acceleration for its search algorithm in 2014., FPGAs are seeing increased use as AI accelerators including Microsoft's so-termed \"Project Catapult\" and for accelerating artificial neural networks for machine learning applications.Traditionally, FPGAs have been reserved for specific vertical applications where the volume of production is small.", "For these low-volume applications, the premium that companies pay in hardware cost per unit for a programmable chip is more affordable than the development resources spent on creating an ASIC.", ", new cost and performance dynamics have broadened the range of viable applications.Where personal computer peripherals exist in niche markets or are struggling to make inroads into a mass market (sometimes despite heavy promotion), it can be more cost-effective to utilise FPGAs for small production runs (e.g.", "1,000 units).", "Examples include exotic products such as e.g.", "ArVid, a VHS tape archiver (only some versions of which were FPGA-based) and Gigabyte Technology's i-RAM budget pseudo-SSD drive, which used a Xilinx FPGA.", "Often a custom-made chip would be cheaper if made in larger quantities, but FPGAs may be chosen to quickly bring a product to market.", "Again, to the extent the availability of lower-cost FPGAs is increasing, it can become justifiable to include them even in larger production runs.Other uses for FPGAs include:* Space (with radiation hardening)* Hardware security modules* High-frequency trading* Retrocomputing (e.g.", "the MARS and MiSTer FPGA projects)=== Usage by United States Military ===FPGAs play a crucial role in modern military communications, especially in systems like the Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS) and in devices from companies such as Thales and Harris Corporation.", "Their flexibility and programmability make them ideal for military communications, offering customizable and secure signal processing.", "In the JTRS, used by the US military, FPGAs provide adaptability and real-time processing, crucial for meeting various communication standards and encryption methods.", "Thales leverages FPGA technology in designing communication devices that fulfill the rigorous demands of military use, including rapid reconfiguration and robust security.", "Similarly, Harris Corporation, now part of L3Harris Technologies, incorporates FPGAs in its defense and commercial communication solutions, enhancing signal processing and system security.==== L3Harris ====# '''Rapidly Adaptable Standards-compliant Radio (RASOR™):''' A Modular Open System Approach (MOSA) solution supporting over 50 data links and waveforms.# '''ASPEN Technology Platform:''' Consists of proven hardware modules with programmable software and FPGA options for advanced, configurable data links.# '''AN/PRC-117F(C) Radios:''' Supported the U.S. Air Force Electronic Systems Command, strengthening Harris' role as a full-spectrum communications system supplier.==== Thales ====# '''SYNAPS Radio Family:''' Utilizes Software Defined Radio (SDR) technology, typically involving FPGA for enhanced flexibility and performance.# '''AN/PRC-148 (Multiband Inter/Intra Team Radio - MBITR):''' A small-form-factor, multiband, multi-mode SDR used in Afghanistan and Iraq.# '''JTRS Cluster 2 Handheld Radio:''' Currently in development, recently completed a successful early operational assessment." ], [ "Security", "FPGAs have both advantages and disadvantages as compared to ASICs or secure microprocessors, concerning hardware security.", "FPGAs' flexibility makes malicious modifications during fabrication a lower risk.", "Previously, for many FPGAs, the design bitstream was exposed while the FPGA loads it from external memory (typically on every power-on).", "All major FPGA vendors now offer a spectrum of security solutions to designers such as bitstream encryption and authentication.", "For example, Altera and Xilinx offer AES encryption (up to 256-bit) for bitstreams stored in an external flash memory.", "Physical unclonable functions (PUFs) are integrated circuits that have their own unique signatures, due to processing, and can also be used to secure FPGAs while taking up very little hardware space.", "FPGAs that store their configuration internally in nonvolatile flash memory, such as Microsemi's ProAsic 3 or Lattice's XP2 programmable devices, do not expose the bitstream and do not need encryption.", "In addition, flash memory for a lookup table provides single event upset protection for space applications.", "Customers wanting a higher guarantee of tamper resistance can use write-once, antifuse FPGAs from vendors such as Microsemi.With its Stratix 10 FPGAs and SoCs, Altera introduced a Secure Device Manager and physical unclonable functions to provide high levels of protection against physical attacks.In 2012 researchers Sergei Skorobogatov and Christopher Woods demonstrated that some FPGAs can be vulnerable to hostile intent.", "They discovered a critical backdoor vulnerability had been manufactured in silicon as part of the Actel/Microsemi ProAsic 3 making it vulnerable on many levels such as reprogramming crypto and access keys, accessing unencrypted bitstream, modifying low-level silicon features, and extracting configuration data.In 2020 a critical vulnerability (named \"Starbleed\") was discovered in all Xilinx 7series FPGAs that rendered bitstream encryption useless.", "There is no workaround.", "Xilinx did not produce a hardware revision.", "Ultrascale and later devices, already on the market at the time, were not affected." ], [ "Similar technologies", "Historically, FPGAs have been slower, less energy efficient and generally achieved less functionality than their fixed ASIC counterparts.", "A study from 2006 showed that designs implemented on FPGAs need on average 40 times as much area, draw 12 times as much dynamic power, and run at one third the speed of corresponding ASIC implementations.", "Advantages of FPGAs include the ability to re-program when already deployed (i.e.", "\"in the field\") to fix bugs, and often include shorter time to market and lower non-recurring engineering costs.", "Vendors can also take a middle road via FPGA prototyping: developing their prototype hardware on FPGAs, but manufacture their final version as an ASIC so that it can no longer be modified after the design has been committed.", "This is often also the case with new processor designs.", "Some FPGAs have the capability of partial re-configuration that lets one portion of the device be re-programmed while other portions continue running.The primary differences between complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs) and FPGAs are architectural.", "A CPLD has a comparatively restrictive structure consisting of one or more programmable sum-of-products logic arrays feeding a relatively small number of clocked registers.", "As a result, CPLDs are less flexible but have the advantage of more predictable timing delays and FPGA architectures, on the other hand, are dominated by interconnect.", "This makes them far more flexible (in terms of the range of designs that are practical for implementation on them) but also far more complex to design for, or at least requiring more complex electronic design automation (EDA) software.", "In practice, the distinction between FPGAs and CPLDs is often one of size as FPGAs are usually much larger in terms of resources than CPLDs.", "Typically only FPGAs contain more complex embedded functions such as adders, multipliers, memory, and serializer/deserializers.", "Another common distinction is that CPLDs contain embedded flash memory to store their configuration while FPGAs usually require external non-volatile memory (but not always).", "When a design requires simple instant-on (logic is already configured at power-up) CPLDs are generally preferred.", "For most other applications FPGAs are generally preferred.", "Sometimes both CPLDs and FPGAs are used in a single system design.", "In those designs, CPLDs generally perform glue logic functions and are responsible for \"booting\" the FPGA as well as controlling reset and boot sequence of the complete circuit board.", "Therefore, depending on the application it may be judicious to use both FPGAs and CPLDs in a single design." ], [ "See also", "* FPGA Mezzanine Card* List of HDL simulators" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Mencer, Oskar et al.", "(2020).", "\"The history, status, and future of FPGAs\".", "Communications of the ACM.", "ACM.", "Vol.", "63, No.", "10.doi:10.1145/3410669" ], [ "External links", "* * Migrating from MCU to FPGA" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Free-running sleep" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Free-running sleep''' is a rare sleep pattern whereby the sleep schedule of a person shifts later every day.", "It occurs as the sleep disorder non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder or artificially as part of experiments used in the study of circadian and other rhythms in biology.", "Study subjects are shielded from all time cues, often by a constant light protocol, by a constant dark protocol or by the use of light/dark conditions to which the organism cannot entrain such as the ultrashort protocol of one hour dark and two hours light.", "Also, limited amounts of food may be made available at short intervals so as to avoid entrainment to mealtimes.", "Subjects are thus forced to live by their internal circadian \"clocks\"." ], [ "Background", "The individual's or animal's circadian phase can be known only by the monitoring of some kind of output of the circadian system, the internal \"body clock\".", "The researcher can precisely determine, for example, the daily cycles of gene activity, body temperature, blood pressure, hormone secretion and/or sleep and activity/alertness.", "Alertness in humans can be determined by many kinds of verbal and non-verbal tests, whereas alertness in animals can usually be assessed by observing physical activity (for example, of wheel-running in rodents).When animals or people ''free-run'', experiments can be done to see what sort of signals, known as zeitgebers, are effective in entrainment.", "Also, much work has been done to see how long or short a circadian cycle can be entrained to various organisms.", "For example, some animals can be entrained to a 22-hour day, but they can not be entrained to a 20-hour day.", "In recent studies funded by the U.S. space industry, it has been shown that most humans can be entrained to a 23.5-hour day and to a 24.65-hour day.The effect of unintended time cues is called ''masking'' and can totally confound experimental results.", "Examples of masking are morning rush traffic audible to the subjects, or researchers or maintenance staff visiting subjects on a regular schedule." ], [ "In humans", "Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder, also referred to as ''free-running disorder'' (FRD) or ''Non-24'', is one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders in humans.", "It affects more than half of people who are totally blind and a smaller number of sighted individuals.Among blind people, the cause is the inability to register, and therefore to entrain to, light cues.", "The many blind people who do entrain to the 24-hour light/dark cycle have eyes with functioning retinas including operative non-visual light-sensitive cells, ipRGCs.", "These ganglion cells, which contain melanopsin, convey their signals to the \"circadian clock\" via the retinohypothalamic tract (branching off from the optic nerve), linking the retina to the pineal gland.Among sighted individuals, Non-24 usually first appears in the teens or early twenties.", "As with delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPS or DSPD), in the absence of neurological damage due to trauma or stroke, cases almost never appear after the age of 30.Non-24 affects more sighted males than sighted females.", "A quarter of sighted individuals with Non-24 also have an associated psychiatric condition, and a quarter of them have previously shown symptoms of DSPS." ], [ "See also", "* Circadian rhythm* Circadian rhythm sleep disorder" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A collection of articles about sleep by Piotr A. Wozniak, July 2000" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fenrir" ], [ "Introduction", "Fenrir and Naglfar on the Tullstorp Runestone.", "The inscription mentions the name ''Ulfr'' (\"wolf\"), and the name ''Kleppir''/''Glippir''.", "The last name is not fully understood, but may have represented ''Glæipiʀ'' which is similar to ''Gleipnir'' which was the rope with which the Fenrir wolf was bound.", "The two male names may have inspired the theme depicted on the runestone.", "'''Fenrir''' or '''Fenrisúlfr''' is an antagonistic being in Norse mythology under the shape of a monstrous wolf.", "Fenrir, along with Hel and the World Serpent, is a child of Loki and female jötunn Angrboða.", "He is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the ''Prose Edda'' and ''Heimskringla'', composed in the 13th century.", "In both the ''Poetic Edda'' and ''Prose Edda'', Fenrir is the father of the wolves Sköll and Hati Hróðvitnisson, is a son of Loki and is foretold to kill the god Odin during the events of Ragnarök, but will in turn be killed by Odin's son Víðarr.In the ''Prose Edda'', additional information is given about Fenrir, including that, due to the gods' knowledge of prophecies foretelling great trouble from Fenrir and his rapid growth, the gods bound him and as a result Fenrir bit off the right hand of the god Týr.", "Depictions of Fenrir have been identified on various objects and scholarly theories have been proposed regarding Fenrir's relation to other canine beings in Norse mythology.", "Fenrir has been the subject of artistic depictions and he appears in literature." ], [ "Etymology", "Old Norse '''Fenrir''' can roughly be translated as 'fen-dweller', with '''Fenrisúlfr''' (often translated as \"Fenris-wolf\") meaning \"Fenrir's wolf\", possibly indicating the wolf as a ''hamr'' (magical shape) of Fenrir.Other names for the beast includes '''Hróðvitnir''' and '''Vánagandr''', the former roughly meaning 'fame-wolf', with ''vitnir'' being a noa-name for wolf, possibly cognate to , \"penalty, punishment\", meaning something akin to criminal, alternatively the opposite based on other vitnir-compounds, such as punisher (“penalty giver”) and law-abiding (“penalty avoider”).", "Vánagandr on the other hand is a poetic title, meaning something akin to “the river Ván”, though, referencing the being of the river Ván.", "The word \"gandr\" can mean a variety of things in Old Norse, but mainly refers to elongated \"living\" entities and or supernatural beings, such as, among other things, fjord and river." ], [ "''Poetic Edda'' attestations", "''Fenrir and Odin'' (1895) by Lorenz FrølichFenrir is mentioned in three stanzas of the poem ''Völuspá'' and in two stanzas of the poem ''Vafþrúðnismál''.=== ''Völuspá'' ===In stanza 40 of the poem ''Völuspá'', a völva divulges to Odin that, in the east, an old woman sat in the forest Járnviðr \"and bred there the broods of Fenrir.", "There will come from them all one of that number to be a moon-snatcher in troll's skin.\"", "Further into the poem the völva foretells that Odin will be consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök:An illustration of Víðarr stabbing Fenrir while holding his jaws apart (1908) by W. G. Collingwood, inspired by the Gosforth Cross.In the stanza that follows the völva describes that Odin's \"tall child of Triumph's Sire\" (Odin's son Víðarr) will then come to \"strike at the beast of slaughter\" and with his hands he will drive a sword into the heart of \"Hveðrungr's son\", avenging the death of his father.=== ''Vafþrúðnismál'' ===In the first of two stanzas mentioning Fenrir in ''Vafþrúðnismál'' Odin poses a question to the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir:In the stanza that follows Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól (here referred to as ''Álfröðull'') will bear a daughter before Fenrir attacks her, and that this daughter shall continue the paths of her deceased mother through the heavens." ], [ "''Prose Edda'' attestations", "In the ''Prose Edda'', Fenrir is mentioned in three books: ''Gylfaginning'', ''Skáldskaparmál'' and ''Háttatal''.=== ''Gylfaginning'' ======= ''Gylfaginning'' chapters 13 and 25 ====John Bauer, depicting Týr putting his hand in Fenrir's mouth.In chapter 13 of the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Gylfaginning'', Fenrir is first mentioned in a stanza quoted from ''Völuspá''.", "Fenrir is first mentioned in prose in chapter 25, where the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) about the god Týr.", "High says that one example of Týr's bravery is that when the Æsir were luring Fenrir (referred to here as ''Fenrisúlfr'') to place the fetter Gleipnir on the wolf, Týr placed his hand within the wolf's mouth as a pledge.", "This was done at Fenrir's own request because he did not trust that the Æsir would let him go.", "As a result, when the Æsir refused to release him, he bit off Týr's hand at a location \"now called the wolf-joint\" (the wrist), causing Týr to be one-handed and \"not considered to be a promoter of settlements between people.", "\"==== ''Gylfaginning'' chapter 34 ====''Loki's Brood'' (1905) by Emil Doepler.In chapter 34, High describes Loki, and says that Loki had three children with a woman named Angrboða located in the land of Jötunheimr; Fenrisúlfr, the serpent Jörmungandr, and the female being Hel.", "High continues that, once the gods found that these three children were being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr, and when the gods \"traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them\" the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children, partially due to the nature of the mother of the children, yet worse so due to the nature of their father.", "''Loki's Children'' (1906) by Lorenz Frølich, depicting Odin dealing with Loki's children.High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him.", "Upon their arrival, Odin threw Jörmungandr into \"that deep sea that lies round all lands\", and then threw Hel into Niflheim, and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds.", "However, the Æsir brought up the wolf \"at home\", and only Týr had the courage to approach Fenrir, and give Fenrir food.", "The gods noticed that Fenrir was growing rapidly every day, and since all prophecies foretold that Fenrir was destined to cause them harm, the gods formed a plan.", "The gods prepared three fetters: The first, greatly strong, was called Leyding.", "They brought Leyding to Fenrir and suggested that the wolf try his strength with it.", "Fenrir judged that it was not beyond his strength, and so let the gods do what they wanted with it.", "At Fenrir's first kick the bind snapped, and Fenrir loosened himself from Leyding.", "The gods made a second fetter, twice as strong, and named it Dromi.", "The gods asked Fenrir to try the new fetter, and that should he break this feat of engineering, Fenrir would achieve great fame for his strength.", "Fenrir considered that, while the fetter was very strong, his strength had grown since he broke Leyding; and also that he would have to take some risks if he were to become famous.", "Fenrir allowed them to place the fetter.When the Æsir exclaimed that they were ready, Fenrir shook himself, knocked the fetter to the ground, strained hard, and kicking with his feet, snapped the fetter – breaking it into pieces that flew far into the distance.", "High says that, as a result, to \"loose from Leyding\" or to \"strike out of Dromi\" have become sayings for when something is achieved with great effort.", "The Æsir started to fear that they would not be able to bind Fenrir, and so Odin sent Freyr's messenger Skírnir down into the land of Svartálfaheimr to \"some dwarfs\" and had them make a fetter called Gleipnir.", "The dwarves constructed Gleipnir from six mythical ingredients.", "After an exchange between Gangleri and High, High continues that the fetter was smooth and soft as a silken ribbon, yet strong and firm.", "The messenger brought the ribbon to the Æsir, and they thanked him heartily for completing the task.The Æsir went out on to the lake Amsvartnir sent for Fenrir to accompany them, and continued to the island Lyngvi (Old Norse \"a place overgrown with heather\").", "The gods showed Fenrir the silken fetter Gleipnir, told him to tear it, stated that it was much stronger than it appeared, passed it among themselves, used their hands to pull it, and yet it did not tear.", "However, they said that Fenrir would be able to tear it, to which Fenrir replied:The Æsir said Fenrir would quickly tear apart a thin silken strip, noting that Fenrir earlier broke great iron binds, and added that if Fenrir wasn't able to break slender Gleipnir then Fenrir is nothing for the gods to fear, and as a result would be freed.", "Fenrir responded:With this statement, all of the Æsir look to one another, finding themselves in a dilemma.", "Everyone refused to place their hand in Fenrir's mouth until Týr put out his right hand and placed it into the wolf's jaws.", "When Fenrir kicked, Gleipnir caught tightly, and the more Fenrir struggled, the stronger the band grew.", "At this, everyone laughed, except Týr, who there lost his right hand.", "When the gods knew that Fenrir was fully bound, they took a cord called Gelgja (Old Norse \"fetter\") hanging from Gleipnir, inserted the cord through a large stone slab called Gjöll (Old Norse \"scream\"), and the gods fastened the stone slab deep into the ground.", "After, the gods took a great rock called Thviti (Old Norse \"hitter, batterer\"), and thrust it even further into the ground as an anchoring peg.", "Fenrir reacted violently; he opened his jaws very wide, and tried to bite the gods.", "Then the gods thrust a sword into his mouth.", "Its hilt touched the lower jaw and its point the upper one; by means of it the jaws of the wolf were spread apart and the wolf gagged.", "Fenrir \"howled horribly\", saliva ran from his mouth, and this saliva formed the river Ván (Old Norse \"hope\").", "There Fenrir will lie until Ragnarök.File:Fenrir bound manuscript image.jpg\|A 17th-century manuscript illustration of the bound Fenrir, the river Ván flowing from his jawsGangleri comments that Loki created a \"pretty terrible family\" though important, and asks why the Æsir did not just kill Fenrir there since they expected great malice from him.", "High replies that \"so greatly did the gods respect their holy places and places of sanctuary that they did not want to defile them with the wolf's blood even though the prophecies say that he will be the death of Odin.", "\"==== ''Gylfaginning'' chapters 38 and 51 ====''Odin and Fenris'' (1909) by Dorothy HardyIn chapter 38, High says that there are many men in Valhalla, and many more who will arrive, yet they will \"seem too few when the wolf comes\".", "In chapter 51, High foretells that as part of the events of Ragnarök, after Fenrir's son Sköll has swallowed the sun and his other son Hati Hróðvitnisson has swallowed the moon, the stars will disappear from the sky.", "The earth will shake violently, trees will be uprooted, mountains will fall, and all binds will snap – Fenrisúlfr will be free.", "Fenrisúlfr will go forth with his mouth opened wide, his upper jaw touching the sky and his lower jaw the earth, and flames will burn from his eyes and nostrils.", "Later, Fenrisúlfr will arrive at the field Vígríðr with his sibling Jörmungandr.", "With the forces assembled there, an immense battle will take place.", "During this, Odin will ride to fight Fenrisúlfr.", "During the battle, Fenrisúlfr will eventually swallow Odin, killing him, and Odin's son Víðarr will move forward and kick one foot into the lower jaw of the wolf.", "This foot will bear a legendary shoe \"for which the material has been collected throughout all time\".", "With one hand, Víðarr will take hold of the wolf's upper jaw and tear apart his mouth, killing Fenrisúlfr.", "High follows this prose description by citing various quotes from ''Völuspá'' in support, some of which mention Fenrir.File:Fenrir (Manual of Mythology).jpg\|''Fenrir'' (1874) by A. FlemingFile:Odin und Fenriswolf Freyr und Surt.jpg\|''Odin and Fenriswolf, Freyr and Surt'' (1905) by Emil Doepler=== ''Skáldskaparmál'' and ''Háttatal'' ===In the Epilogue section of the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Skáldskaparmál'', a euhemerized monologue equates Fenrisúlfr to Pyrrhus, attempting to rationalize that \"it killed Odin, and Pyrrhus could be said to be a wolf according to their religion, for he paid no respect to places of sanctuary when he killed the king in the temple in front of Thor's altar.\"", "In chapter 2, \"wolf's enemy\" is cited as a kenning for Odin as used by the 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson.", "In chapter 9, \"feeder of the wolf\" is given as a kenning for Týr and, in chapter 11, \"slayer of Fenrisúlfr\" is presented as a kenning for Víðarr.", "In chapter 50, a section of ''Ragnarsdrápa'' by the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason is quoted that refers to Hel, the being, as \"the monstrous wolf's sister\".", "In chapter 75, names for wargs and wolves are listed, including both \"Hróðvitnir\" and \"Fenrir\".", "\"Fenrir\" appears twice in verse as a common noun for a \"wolf\" or \"warg\" in chapter 58 of ''Skáldskaparmál'', and in chapter 56 of the book ''Háttatal''.", "Additionally, the name \"Fenrir\" can be found among a list of jötnar in chapter 75 of ''Skáldskaparmál''.=== ''Heimskringla'' ===At the end of the ''Heimskringla'' saga ''Hákonar saga góða'', the poem ''Hákonarmál'' by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is presented.", "The poem is about the fall of King Haakon I of Norway; although he is Christian, he is taken by two valkyries to Valhalla, and is there received as one of the Einherjar.", "Towards the end of the poem, a stanza relates sooner will the bonds of Fenrir snap than as good a king as Haakon shall stand in his place:" ], [ "Archaeological record", "=== Thorwald's Cross ===Thorwald's Cross at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man''Thorwald's Cross'', a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man, depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder.", "Rundata dates it to 940, while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century.", "This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök.", "On the reverse of the stone is another image parallel to it that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan.", "These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as \"syncretic art\"; a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs.=== Gosforth Cross ===The mid-11th century ''Gosforth Cross'', located in Cumbria, England, has been described as depicting a combination of scenes from the Christian Judgement Day and the pagan Ragnarök.", "The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style, including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, one of whose feet is thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, while a hand is placed against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir.", "This depiction has been theorized as a metaphor for Christ's defeat of Satan.File:Gosforth Cross Víðarr.jpg\|Víðarrs fight against Fenrir at ragnarök possibly depicted on the Gosforth Cross.=== Ledberg stone ===The 11th century ''Ledberg stone'' in Sweden, similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök.", "Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position.", "The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as \"mysterious\", and \"an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world\".File:Fenris Ledbergsstenen 20041231 (cropped, tilted -90deg).jpg\|Ledberg stone possibly depicting Fenrir devouring Odin.=== Other ===An illustration of an image on a bracteate found in Trollhättan, Västergötland, Sweden.", "The image is considered as a depiction of Týr tricking Fenrir.", "Drawing by Gunnar Creutz.If the images on the Tullstorp Runestone are correctly identified as depicting Ragnarök, then Fenrir is shown above the ship Naglfar.Meyer Schapiro theorizes a connection between the \"Hell Mouth\" that appears in medieval Christian iconography and Fenrir.", "According to Schapiro, \"the Anglo-Saxon taste for the Hell Mouth was perhaps influenced by the northern pagan myth of the Crack of Doom and the battle with the wolf, who devoured Odin.", "\"Scholars propose that a variety of objects from the archaeological record depict Týr.", "For example, a Migration Period gold bracteate from Trollhättan, Sweden, features a person receiving a bite on the hand from a beast, which may depict Týr and Fenrir.", "A Viking Age hogback in Sockburn, County Durham, North East England may depict Týr and Fenrir." ], [ "Theories", "Fenrir bites off the hand of a sword-wielding Týr in an illustration on an 18th-century Icelandic manuscriptIn reference to Fenrir's presentation in the ''Prose Edda'', Andy Orchard theorizes that \"the hound (or wolf)\" Garmr, Sköll, and Hati Hróðvitnisson were originally simply all Fenrir, stating that \"Snorri, characteristically, is careful to make distinctions, naming the wolves who devour the sun and moon as Sköll and Hati, and describing an encounter between Garm and Týr (who, one would have thought, might like to get his hand on Fenrir) at Ragnarök.", "\"John Lindow says that it is unclear why the gods decide to raise Fenrir as opposed to his siblings Hel and Jörmungandr in ''Gylfaginning'' chapter 35, theorizing that it may be \"because Odin had a connection with wolves?", "Because Loki was Odin's blood brother?\"", "Referring to the same chapter, Lindow comments that neither of the phrases that Fenrir's binding result in have left any other traces.", "Lindow compares Fenrir's role to his father Loki and Fenrir's sibling Jörmungandr, in that they all spend time with the gods, are bound or cast out by them, return \"at the end of the current mythic order to destroy them, only to be destroyed himself as a younger generation of gods, one of them his slayer, survives into the new world order.\"", "He also points to Fenrir's binding as part of a recurring theme of the bound monster, where an enemy of the gods is bound, but destined to break free at Ragnarok.Indo-European parallels have been proposed between myths of Fenrir and the Persian demon Ahriman.", "The Yashts refer to a story where Taxma Urupi rode Angra Mainyu as a horse for thirty years.", "An elaboration of this allusion is found only in a late Parsi commentary.", "The ruler Taxmoruw (Taxma Urupi) managed to lasso Ahriman (Angra Mainyu) and keep him tied up while taking him for a ride three times a day.", "After thirty years, Ahriman outwitted and swallowed Taxmoruw.", "In a sexual encounter with Ahriman, Jamshid, Taxmoruw's brother, inserted his hand into Ahriman's anus and pulled out his brother's corpse.", "His hand withered from contact with the diabolic innards.", "The suggested parallels with Fenrir myths are the binding of an evil being by a ruler figure and the subsequent swallowing of the ruler figure by the evil being (Odin and Fenrir), trickery involving the thrusting of a hand into a monster's orifice and the affliction of the inserted limb (Týr and Fenrir).Ethologist Valerius Geist wrote that Fenrir's maiming and ultimate killing of Odin, who had previously nurtured him, was likely based on true experiences of wolf-behaviour, seeing as wolves are genetically encoded to rise up in the pack hierarchy and have, on occasion, been recorded to rebel against, and kill, their parents.", "Geist states that \"apparently, even the ancients knew that wolves may turn on their parents and siblings and kill them.\"" ], [ "Modern influence", "Fenrir appears in modern literature in the poem \"Om Fenrisulven og Tyr\" (1819) by Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger (collected in ''Nordens Guder''), the novel ''Der Fenriswolf'' by K. H. Strobl, and ''Til kamp mod dødbideriet'' (1974) by E. K. Reich and E. Larsen.Fenrir has been depicted in the artwork ''Odin and Fenris'' (1909) and ''The Binding of Fenris'' (around 1900) by Dorothy Hardy, ''Odin und Fenriswolf'' and ''Fesselung des Fenriswolfe'' (1901) by Emil Doepler, and is the subject of the metal sculpture ''Fenrir'' by Arne Vinje Gunnerud located on the island of Askøy, Norway.Fenrir is a highly durable mech option in Pixonic's game ''War Robots'' (released as \"Walking War Robots\" in 2014).Fenrir appears as an antagonist in the 2020 videogame ''Assassin's Creed Valhalla'', with a story adapted from the events found in ''Prose Edda''.Fenrir appears in the 2022 game ''God of War Ragnarök''." ], [ "See also", "* List of wolves" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* Crumlin-Pedersen, Ole & Thye, Birgitte Munch (eds.)", "(1995).", "''The Ship as Symbol in Prehistoric and Medieval Scandinavia: Papers from an International Research Seminar at the Danish National Museum, Copenhagen, 5–7 May 1994''.", "Nationalmuseet.", "Davidson, Hilda Ellis.", "1993.", "''The Lost Beliefs of Northern Europe''.", "Routledge.", "* Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.)", "(1995).", "''Edda''.", "Everyman.", "* Hollander, Lee Milton (Trans.)", "(2007). ''", "Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway ''.", "University of Texas Press **McKinnell, John.", "2005.", "''Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend''.", "D.S.", "Brewer.", "**Rundata 2.0 for Windows.", "" ], [ "External links", "* MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Fenrir from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Final Fantasy" ], [ "Introduction", " is a fantasy anthology media franchise created by Hironobu Sakaguchi which is owned and developed and published by Square Enix (formerly Square).", "The franchise centers on a series of fantasy role-playing video games.", "The first game in the series was released in 1987, with 16 numbered main entries having been released to date.The franchise has since branched into other video game genres such as tactical role-playing, action role-playing, massively multiplayer online role-playing, racing, third-person shooter, fighting, and rhythm, as well as branching into other media, including films, anime, manga, and novels.", "''Final Fantasy'' is mostly an anthology series with primary installments being stand-alone role-playing games, each with different settings, plots and main characters; however, the franchise is linked by several recurring elements, including game mechanics and recurring character names.", "Each plot centers on a particular group of heroes who are battling a great evil, but also explores the characters' internal struggles and relationships.", "Character names are frequently derived from the history, languages, pop culture, and mythologies of cultures worldwide.", "The mechanics of each game involve similar battle systems and maps.", "''Final Fantasy'' has been both critically and commercially successful.", "Several entries are regarded as some of the greatest video games, with the series selling more than copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling video game franchises of all time.", "The series is well known for its innovation, visuals, such as the inclusion of full-motion videos, photorealistic character models, and music by Nobuo Uematsu.", "It has popularized many features now common in role-playing games, also popularizing the genre as a whole in markets outside Japan." ], [ "Media", "=== Games ===The first installment of the series was released in Japan on December 18, 1987.Subsequent games are numbered and given a story unrelated to previous games, so the numbers refer to volumes rather than to sequels.", "Many ''Final Fantasy'' games have been localized for markets in North America, Europe, and Australia on numerous video game consoles, personal computers (PC), and mobile phones.", "As of June 2023, the series includes the main installments from ''Final Fantasy'' to ''Final Fantasy XVI'', as well as direct sequels and spin-offs, both released and confirmed as being in development.", "Most of the older games have been remade or re-released on multiple platforms.==== Main series ====Three ''Final Fantasy'' installments were released on the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES).", "''Final Fantasy'' was released in Japan in 1987 and in North America in 1990.It introduced many concepts to the console RPG genre, and has since been remade on several platforms.", "''Final Fantasy II'', released in 1988 in Japan, has been bundled with ''Final Fantasy'' in several re-releases.", "The last of the NES installments, ''Final Fantasy III'', was released in Japan in 1990, but was not released elsewhere until a Nintendo DS remake came out in 2006.The Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) also featured three installments of the main series, all of which have been re-released on several platforms.", "''Final Fantasy IV'' was released in 1991; in North America, it was released as ''Final Fantasy II''.", "It introduced the \"Active Time Battle\" system.", "''Final Fantasy V'', released in 1992 in Japan, was the first game in the series to spawn a sequel: a short anime series, ''Final Fantasy: Legend of the Crystals''.", "''Final Fantasy VI'' was released in Japan in 1994, titled ''Final Fantasy III'' in North America.The PlayStation console saw the release of three main ''Final Fantasy'' games.", "''Final Fantasy VII'' (1997) moved away from the two-dimensional (2D) graphics used in the first six games to three-dimensional (3D) computer graphics; the game features polygonal characters on pre-rendered backgrounds.", "It also introduced a more modern setting, a style that was carried over to the next game.", "It was also the second in the series to be released in Europe, with the first being ''Final Fantasy Mystic Quest''.", "''Final Fantasy VIII'' was published in 1999, and was the first to consistently use realistically proportioned characters and feature a vocal piece as its theme music.", "''Final Fantasy IX'', released in 2000, returned to the series' roots, by revisiting a more traditional ''Final Fantasy'' setting, rather than the more modern worlds of ''VII'' and ''VIII''.Three main installments, as well as one online game, were published for the PlayStation 2.", "''Final Fantasy X'' (2001) introduced full 3D areas and voice acting to the series, and was the first to spawn a sub-sequel (''Final Fantasy X-2'', published in 2003).", "The first massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) in the series, ''Final Fantasy XI'', was released on the PS2 and PC in 2002, and later on the Xbox 360.It introduced real-time battles instead of random encounters.", "''Final Fantasy XII'', published in 2006, also includes real-time battles in large, interconnected playfields.", "The game is also the first in the main series to utilize a world used in a previous game, namely the land of Ivalice, which was previously featured in ''Final Fantasy Tactics'' and ''Vagrant Story''.In 2009, ''Final Fantasy XIII'' was released in Japan, and in North America and Europe the following year, for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.It is the flagship installment of the ''Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy'' series and became the first mainline game to spawn two sub-sequels (''XIII-2'' and ''Lightning Returns'').", "It was also the first game released in Chinese and high definition along with being released on two consoles at once.", "''Final Fantasy XIV'', a MMORPG, was released worldwide on Microsoft Windows in 2010, but it received heavy criticism when it was launched, prompting Square Enix to rerelease the game as ''Final Fantasy XIV: A Realm Reborn'', this time to the PlayStation 3 as well, in 2013.", "''Final Fantasy XV'' is an action role-playing game that was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in 2016.Originally a ''XIII'' spin-off titled ''Versus XIII'', ''XV'' uses the mythos of the ''Fabula Nova Crystallis'' series, although in many other respects the game stands on its own and has since been distanced from the series by its developers.", "The latest mainline entry, ''Final Fantasy XVI'', was released in 2023 for PlayStation 5.==== Remakes, sequels and spin-offs ====''Final Fantasy'' has spawned numerous spin-offs and metaseries.", "Several are, in fact, not ''Final Fantasy'' games, but were rebranded for North American release.", "Examples include the ''SaGa'' series, rebranded ''The Final Fantasy Legend'', and its two sequels, ''Final Fantasy Legend II'' and ''III''.", "''Final Fantasy Mystic Quest'' was specifically developed for a United States audience, and ''Final Fantasy Tactics'' is a tactical RPG that features many references and themes found in the series.", "The spin-off ''Chocobo'' series, ''Crystal Chronicles'' series, and ''Kingdom Hearts'' series also include multiple ''Final Fantasy'' elements.", "In 2003, the ''Final Fantasy'' series' first sub-sequel, ''Final Fantasy X-2'', was released.", "''Final Fantasy XIII'' was originally intended to stand on its own, but the team wanted to explore the world, characters and mythos more, resulting in the development and release of two sequels in 2011 and 2013 respectively, creating the series' first official trilogy.", "''Dissidia Final Fantasy'' was released in 2009, a fighting game that features heroes and villains from the first ten games of the main series.", "It was followed by a prequel in 2011, a sequel in 2015 and a mobile spin-off in 2017.Other spin-offs have taken the form of subseries—''Compilation of Final Fantasy VII'', ''Ivalice Alliance'', and ''Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy''.", "In 2022, Square Enix released an action-role playing title ''Stranger of Paradise: Final Fantasy Origin'' developed in collaboration with Team Ninja, which takes place in an alternate, reimagined reality based on the setting of the original ''Final Fantasy'' game, depicting a prequel story that explores the origins of the antagonist Chaos and the emergence of the four Warriors of Light.", "Enhanced 3D remakes of ''Final Fantasy III'' and ''IV'' were released in 2006 and 2007 respectively.", "The first installment of the ''Final Fantasy VII Remake'' project was released on the PlayStation 4 in 2020.=== Other media =======Film and television====Square Enix has expanded the ''Final Fantasy'' series into various media.", "Multiple anime and computer-generated imagery (CGI) films have been produced that are based either on individual ''Final Fantasy'' games or on the series as a whole.", "The first was an original video animation (OVA), ''Final Fantasy: Legend of the Crystals'', a sequel to ''Final Fantasy V''.", "The story was set in the same world as the game, although 200 years in the future.", "It was released as four 30-minute episodes, first in Japan in 1994 and later in the United States by Urban Vision in 1998.In 2001, Square Pictures released its first feature film, ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within''.", "The film is set on a future Earth invaded by alien life forms.", "''The Spirits Within'' was the first animated feature to seriously attempt to portray photorealistic CGI humans, but was considered a box office bomb and garnered mixed reviews.A 25-episode anime television series, ''Final Fantasy: Unlimited'', was released in 2001 based on the common elements of the ''Final Fantasy'' series.", "It was broadcast in Japan by TV Tokyo and released in North America by ADV Films.In 2005, ''Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children'', a feature length direct-to-DVD CGI film, and ''Last Order: Final Fantasy VII'', a non-canon OVA, were released as part of the ''Compilation of Final Fantasy VII''.", "''Advent Children'' was animated by Visual Works, which helped the company create CG sequences for the games.", "The film, unlike ''The Spirits Within'', became a commercial success.", "''Last Order'', on the other hand, was released in Japan in a special DVD bundle package with ''Advent Children''.", "''Last Order'' sold out quickly and was positively received by Western critics, though fan reaction was mixed over changes to established story scenes.Two animated tie-ins for ''Final Fantasy XV'' were released as part of a larger multimedia project dubbed the ''Final Fantasy XV'' Universe.", "''Brotherhood'' is a series of five 10-to-20-minute-long episodes developed by A-1 Pictures and Square Enix detailing the backstories of the main cast.", "''Kingsglaive'', a CGI film released prior to the game in Summer 2016, is set during the game's opening and follows new and secondary characters.", "In 2019, Square Enix released a short anime, produced by Satelight Inc, called ''Final Fantasy XV: Episode Ardyn – Prologue'' on their YouTube channel which acts as the background story for the final piece of DLC for ''Final Fantasy XV'' giving insight into Ardyn's past.Square Enix also released ''Final Fantasy XIV: Dad of Light'' in 2017, an 8-episode Japanese soap opera based, featuring a mix of live-action scenes and ''Final Fantasy XIV'' gameplay footage.As of June 2019, Sony Pictures Television is working on a first ever live-action adaptation of the series with Hivemind and Square Enix.", "Jason F. Brown, Sean Daniel and Dinesh Shamdasani for Hivemind are the producers while Ben Lustig and Jake Thornton were attached as writers and executive producers for the series.====Other media====Several video games have either been adapted into or have had spin-offs in the form of manga and novels.", "The first was the novelization of ''Final Fantasy II'' in 1989, and was followed by a manga adaptation of ''Final Fantasy III'' in 1992.The past decade has seen an increase in the number of non-video game adaptations and spin-offs.", "''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' has been adapted into a novel, the spin-off game ''Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles'' has been adapted into a manga, and ''Final Fantasy XI'' had a novel and manga set in its continuity.", "Seven novellas based on the ''Final Fantasy VII'' universe have also been released.", "The ''Final Fantasy: Unlimited'' story was partially continued in novels and a manga after the anime series ended.", "The ''Final Fantasy X'' and ''XIII'' series have also had novellas and audio dramas released.", "''Final Fantasy Tactics Advance'' has been adapted into a radio drama, and ''Final Fantasy: Unlimited'' has received a radio drama sequel.A trading card game named ''Final Fantasy Trading Card Game'' is produced by Square Enix and Hobby Japan, first released Japan in 2012 with an English version in 2016.The game has been compared to ''Magic: the Gathering'', and a tournament circuit for the game also takes place." ], [ "Common elements", "Although most ''Final Fantasy'' installments are independent, many gameplay elements recur throughout the series.", "Most games contain elements of fantasy and science fiction and feature recycled names often inspired from various cultures' history, languages and mythology, including Asian, European, and Middle-Eastern.", "Examples include weapon names like Excalibur and Masamune—derived from Arthurian legend and the Japanese swordsmith Masamune respectively—as well as the spell names Holy, Meteor, and Ultima.", "Beginning with ''Final Fantasy IV'', the main series adopted its current logo style that features the same typeface and an emblem designed by Japanese artist Yoshitaka Amano.", "The emblem relates to a game's plot and typically portrays a character or object in the story.", "Subsequent remakes of the first three games have replaced the previous logos with ones similar to the rest of the series.=== Plot and themes ===''Final Fantasy V'' is similar to the earlier games in the series, in that the heroes must attempt to retrieve crystals to save the world from an ancient evil.The central conflict in many ''Final Fantasy'' games focuses on a group of characters battling an evil, and sometimes ancient, antagonist that dominates the game's world.", "Stories frequently involve a sovereign state in rebellion, with the protagonists taking part in the rebellion.", "The heroes are often destined to defeat the evil, and occasionally gather as a direct result of the antagonist's malicious actions.", "Another staple of the series is the existence of two villains; the main villain is not always who it appears to be, as the primary antagonist may actually be subservient to another character or entity.", "The main antagonist introduced at the beginning of the game is not always the final enemy, and the characters must continue their quest beyond what appears to be the final fight.Stories in the series frequently emphasize the internal struggles, passions, and tragedies of the characters, and the main plot often recedes into the background as the focus shifts to their personal lives.", "Games also explore relationships between characters, ranging from love to rivalry.", "Other recurring situations that drive the plot include amnesia, a hero corrupted by an evil force, mistaken identity, and self-sacrifice.", "Magical orbs and crystals are recurring in-game items that are frequently connected to the themes of the games' plots.", "Crystals often play a central role in the creation of the world, and a majority of the ''Final Fantasy'' games link crystals and orbs to the planet's life force.", "As such, control over these crystals drives the main conflict.", "The classical elements are also a recurring theme in the series related to the heroes, villains, and items.", "Other common plot and setting themes include the Gaia hypothesis, an apocalypse, and conflicts between advanced technology and nature.=== Characters ===The series features a number of recurring character archetypes.", "Most famously, every game since ''Final Fantasy II'', including subsequent remakes of the original ''Final Fantasy'', features a character named Cid.", "Cid's appearance, personality, goals, and role in the game (non-playable ally, party member, villain) vary dramatically.", "However, two characteristics many versions of Cid have in common are being a scientist or engineer, and being tied in some way to an airship the party eventually acquires.", "Every Cid has at least one of these two traits.Biggs and Wedge, inspired by two ''Star Wars'' characters of the same name, appear in numerous games as minor characters, sometimes as comic relief.", "The later games in the series feature several males with effeminate characteristics.", "Recurring creatures include Chocobos, Moogles, and Cactuars.", "Chocobos are large, often flightless birds that appear in several installments as a means of long-distance travel for characters.", "Moogles are white, stout creatures resembling teddy bears with wings and a single antenna.", "They serve different roles in games including mail delivery, weaponsmiths, party members, and saving the game.", "Cactuars are anthropomorphic cacti with ''haniwa''-like faces presented in a running or dashing pose.", "They usually appear as recurring enemy units, and also as summoned allies or friendly non-player characters in certain titles.", "Chocobo and Moogle appearances are often accompanied by specific musical themes that have been arranged differently for separate games.=== Gameplay ===In ''Final Fantasy'' games, players command a party of characters as they progress through the game's story by exploring the game world and defeating enemies.", "Enemies are typically encountered randomly through exploring, a trend which changed in ''Final Fantasy XI'' and ''XII''.", "The player issues combat orders—like \"Fight\", \"Magic\", and \"Item\"—to individual characters via a menu-driven interface while engaging in battles.", "Throughout the series, the games have used different battle systems.", "Prior to ''Final Fantasy XI'', battles were turn-based with the protagonists and antagonists on different sides of the battlefield.", "''Final Fantasy IV'' introduced the \"Active Time Battle\" (ATB) system that augmented the turn-based nature with a perpetual time-keeping system.", "Designed by Hiroyuki Ito, it injected urgency and excitement into combat by requiring the player to act before an enemy attacks, and was used until ''Final Fantasy X'', which implemented the \"Conditional Turn-Based\" (CTB) system.", "This new system returned to the previous turn-based system, but added nuances to offer players more challenge.", "''Final Fantasy XI'' adopted a real-time battle system where characters continuously act depending on the issued command.", "''Final Fantasy XII'' continued this gameplay with the \"Active Dimension Battle\" system.", "''Final Fantasy XIII''s combat system, designed by the same man who worked on ''X'', was meant to have an action-oriented feel, emulating the cinematic battles in ''Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children''.", "''Final Fantasy XV'' introduces a new \"Open Combat\" system.", "Unlike previous battle systems in the franchise, the \"Open Combat\" system (OCS) allows players to take on a fully active battle scenario, allowing for free range attacks and movement, giving a much more fluid feel of combat.", "This system also incorporates a \"Tactical\" Option during battle, which pauses active battle to allow use of items.Like most RPGs, the ''Final Fantasy'' installments use an experience level system for character advancement, in which experience points are accumulated by killing enemies.", "Character classes, specific jobs that enable unique abilities for characters, are another recurring theme.", "Introduced in the first game, character classes have been used differently in each game.", "Some restrict a character to a single job to integrate it into the story, while other games feature dynamic job systems that allow the player to choose from multiple classes and switch throughout the game.", "Though used heavily in many games, such systems have become less prevalent in favor of characters that are more versatile; characters still match an archetype, but are able to learn skills outside their class.Magic is another common RPG element in the series.", "The method by which characters gain magic varies between installments, but is generally divided into classes organized by color: \"White magic\", which focuses on spells that assist teammates; \"Black magic\", which focuses on harming enemies; \"Red magic\", which is a combination of white and black magic, \"Blue magic\", which mimics enemy attacks; and \"Green magic\" which focuses on applying status effects to either allies or enemies.", "Other types of magic frequently appear such as \"Time magic\", focusing on the themes of time, space, and gravity; and \"Summoning magic\", which evokes legendary creatures to aid in battle and is a feature that has persisted since ''Final Fantasy III''.", "Summoned creatures are often referred to by names like \"Espers\" or \"Eidolons\" and have been inspired by mythologies from Arabic, Hindu, Norse, and Greek cultures.Different means of transportation have appeared through the series.", "The most common is the airship for long range travel, accompanied by chocobos for travelling short distances, but others include sea and land vessels.", "Following ''Final Fantasy VII'', more modern and futuristic vehicle designs have been included." ], [ "Development and history", "=== Origin ===alt=A man sitting in a chair and speaking in a microphone.In the mid-1980s, Square entered the Japanese video game industry with simple RPGs, racing games, and platformers for Nintendo's Famicom Disk System.", "In 1987, Square designer Hironobu Sakaguchi chose to create a new fantasy role-playing game for the cartridge-based NES, and drew inspiration from popular fantasy games: Enix's ''Dragon Quest'', Nintendo's ''The Legend of Zelda'', and Origin Systems's ''Ultima'' series.", "Though often attributed to the company allegedly facing bankruptcy, Sakaguchi explained that the game was his personal last-ditch effort in the game industry and that its title, ''Final Fantasy'', stemmed from his feelings at the time; had the game not sold well, he would have quit the business and gone back to college.", "Despite his explanation, publications have also attributed the name to the company's hopes that the project would solve its financial troubles.", "In 2015, Sakaguchi explained the name's origin: the team wanted a title that would abbreviate to \"''FF''\", which would sound good in Japanese.", "The name was originally going to be ''Fighting Fantasy'', but due to concerns over trademark conflicts with the roleplaying gamebook series of the same name, they needed to settle for something else.", "As the English word \"Final\" was well-known in Japan, Sakaguchi settled on that.", "According to Sakaguchi, any title that created the \"''FF''\" abbreviation would have done.The game indeed reversed Square's lagging fortunes, and it became the company's flagship franchise.", "Following the success, Square immediately developed a second installment.", "Because Sakaguchi assumed ''Final Fantasy'' would be a stand-alone game, its story was not designed to be expanded by a sequel.", "The developers instead chose to carry over only thematic similarities from its predecessor, while some of the gameplay elements, such as the character advancement system, were overhauled.", "This approach has continued throughout the series; each major ''Final Fantasy'' game features a new setting, a new cast of characters, and an upgraded battle system.", "Video game writer John Harris attributed the concept of reworking the game system of each installment to Nihon Falcom's ''Dragon Slayer'' series, with which Square was previously involved as a publisher.", "The company regularly released new games in the main series, but the time between the releases of ''XI'' (2002), ''XII'' (2006), and ''XIII'' (2009) were much longer than previous games.", "Following ''Final Fantasy XIV'', Square Enix released ''Final Fantasy'' games either annually or biennially.", "This switch was to mimic the development cycles of Western games in the ''Call of Duty'', ''Assassin's Creed'' and ''Battlefield'' series, as well as maintain fan-interest.=== Design ===For the original ''Final Fantasy'', Sakaguchi required a larger production team than Square's previous games.", "He began crafting the game's story while experimenting with gameplay ideas.", "Once the gameplay system and game world size were established, Sakaguchi integrated his story ideas into the available resources.", "A different approach has been taken for subsequent games; the story is completed first and the game built around it.", "Designers have never been restricted by consistency, though most feel each game should have a minimum number of common elements.", "The development teams strive to create completely new worlds for each game, and avoid making new games too similar to previous ones.", "Game locations are conceptualized early in development and design details like building parts are fleshed out as a base for entire structures.The first five games were directed by Sakaguchi, who also provided the original concepts.", "He drew inspiration for game elements from anime films by Hayao Miyazaki; series staples like the airships and chocobos are inspired by elements in ''Castle in the Sky'' and ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'', respectively.", "Sakaguchi served as a producer for subsequent games until he left Square in 2001.Yoshinori Kitase took over directing the games until ''Final Fantasy VIII'', and has been followed by a new director for each new game.", "Hiroyuki Ito designed several gameplay systems, including ''Final Fantasy V''s \"Job System\", ''Final Fantasy VIII''s \"Junction System\" and the Active Time Battle concept, which was used from ''Final Fantasy IV'' until ''IX''.", "In designing the Active Time Battle system, Ito drew inspiration from Formula One racing; he thought it would be interesting if character types had different speeds after watching race cars pass each other.", "Ito also co-directed ''Final Fantasy VI'' with Kitase.", "Kenji Terada was the scenario writer for the first three games; Kitase took over as scenario writer for ''Final Fantasy V'' through ''VII''.", "Kazushige Nojima became the series' primary scenario writer from ''Final Fantasy VII'' until his resignation in October 2003; he has since formed his own company, Stellavista.", "Nojima partially or completely wrote the stories for ''Final Fantasy VII'', ''VIII'', ''X'', and its sequel ''X-2''.", "He also worked as the scenario writer for the spin-off series, ''Kingdom Hearts''.", "Daisuke Watanabe co-wrote the scenarios for ''Final Fantasy X'' and ''XII'', and was the main writer for the ''XIII'' games.", "''Final Fantasy VI'' artwork by Yoshitaka Amano, who provided designs for much of the series.Artistic design, including character and monster creations, was handled by Japanese artist Yoshitaka Amano from ''Final Fantasy'' through ''Final Fantasy VI''.", "Amano also handled title logo designs for all of the main series and the image illustrations from ''Final Fantasy VII'' onward.", "Tetsuya Nomura was chosen to replace Amano because Nomura's designs were more adaptable to 3D graphics.", "He worked with the series from ''Final Fantasy VII'' through ''X'', then came back for ''XIII'', and for the basic design of ''XV''.", "For ''Final Fantasy IX'' character designs were handled by Shukō Murase, Toshiyuki Itahana, and Shin Nagasawa.", "For ''Final Fantasy XV'', Roberto Ferrari was responsible for the character design.", "Nomura is also the character designer of the ''Kingdom Hearts'' series, ''Compilation of Final Fantasy VII'', and ''Fabula Nova Crystallis: Final Fantasy''.", "Other designers include Nobuyoshi Mihara and Akihiko Yoshida.", "Mihara was the character designer for ''Final Fantasy XI'', and Yoshida served as character designer for ''Final Fantasy Tactics'', the Square-produced ''Vagrant Story'', and ''Final Fantasy XII''.=== Graphics and technology ===Because of graphical limitations, the first games on the NES feature small sprite representations of the leading party members on the main world screen.", "Battle screens use more detailed, full versions of characters in a side-view perspective.", "This practice was used until ''Final Fantasy VI'', which uses detailed versions for both screens.", "The NES sprites are 26 pixels high and use a color palette of 4 colors.", "6 frames of animation are used to depict different character statuses like \"healthy\" and \"fatigued\".", "The SNES installments use updated graphics and effects, as well as higher quality audio than in previous games, but are otherwise similar to their predecessors in basic design.", "The SNES sprites are 2 pixels shorter, but have larger palettes and feature more animation frames: 11 colors and 40 frames respectively.", "The upgrade allowed designers to have characters be more detailed in appearance and express more emotions.", "The first game includes non-player characters (NPCs) the player could interact with, but they are mostly static in-game objects.", "Beginning with the second game, Square used predetermined pathways for NPCs to create more dynamic scenes that include comedy and drama.In 1995, Square showed an interactive SGI technical demonstration of ''Final Fantasy VI'' for the then next generation of consoles.", "The demonstration used Silicon Graphics's prototype Nintendo 64 workstations to create 3D graphics.", "Fans believed the demo was of a new ''Final Fantasy'' game for the Nintendo 64 console.", "1997 saw the release of ''Final Fantasy VII'' for the Sony PlayStation.", "The switch was due to a dispute with Nintendo over its use of faster but more expensive cartridges, as opposed to the slower and cheaper, but much higher capacity compact discs used on rival systems.", "''VII'' introduced 3D graphics with fully pre-rendered backgrounds.", "It was because of this switch to 3D that a CD-ROM format was chosen over a cartridge format.", "The switch also led to increased production costs and a greater subdivision of the creative staff for ''VII'' and subsequent 3D games in the series.", "''Final Fantasy VIII'', along with ''VII'' and ''IX'', used pre-rendered backgrounds.Starting with ''Final Fantasy VIII'', the series adopted a more photo-realistic look.", "Like ''VII'', full motion video (FMV) sequences would have video playing in the background, with the polygonal characters composited on top.", "''Final Fantasy IX'' returned to the more stylized design of earlier games in the series, although it still maintained, and in many cases slightly upgraded, most of the graphical techniques used in the previous two games.", "''Final Fantasy X'' was released on the PlayStation 2, and used the more powerful hardware to render graphics in real-time instead of using pre-rendered material to obtain a more dynamic look; the game features full 3D environments, rather than have 3D character models move about pre-rendered backgrounds.", "It is also the first ''Final Fantasy'' game to introduce voice acting, occurring throughout the majority of the game, even with many minor characters.", "This aspect added a whole new dimension of depth to the character's reactions, emotions, and development.Taking a temporary divergence, ''Final Fantasy XI'' used the PlayStation 2's online capabilities as an MMORPG.", "Initially released for the PlayStation 2 with a PC port arriving six months later, ''XI'' was also released on the Xbox 360 nearly four years after its original release in Japan.", "This was the first ''Final Fantasy'' game to use a free rotating camera.", "''Final Fantasy XII'' was released in 2006 for the PlayStation 2 and uses only half as many polygons as ''Final Fantasy X'', in exchange for more advanced textures and lighting.", "It also retains the freely rotating camera from ''XI''.", "''Final Fantasy XIII'' and ''XIV'' both make use of Crystal Tools, a middleware engine developed by Square Enix.=== Music ===Nobuo Uematsu, primary composer for the series''Final Fantasy'' games feature a variety of music, and frequently reuse themes.", "Most of the games open with a piece called \"Prelude\", which has evolved from a simple, 2-voice arpeggio in the early games to a complex, melodic arrangement in recent installments.", "Victories in combat are often accompanied by a victory fanfare, a theme that has become one of the most recognized pieces of music in the series.", "The basic theme that accompanies Chocobo appearances has been rearranged in a different musical style for most installments.", "Recurring secret bosses such as Gilgamesh are also used as opportunities to revive their musical themes.A theme known as the \"Final Fantasy Main Theme\" or \"March\", originally featured in the first game, often accompanies the ending credits.", "Although leitmotifs are common in the more character-driven installments, theme music is typically reserved for main characters and recurring plot elements.Nobuo Uematsu was the primary composer of the ''Final Fantasy'' series until his resignation from Square Enix in November 2004.Other notable composers who have worked on main entries in the series include Masashi Hamauzu, Hitoshi Sakimoto, and Yoko Shimomura.", "Uematsu was allowed to create much of the music with little direction from the production staff.", "Sakaguchi, however, would request pieces to fit specific game scenes including battles and exploring different areas of the game world.", "Once a game's major scenarios were completed, Uematsu would begin writing the music based on the story, characters, and accompanying artwork.", "He started with a game's main theme, and developed other pieces to match its style.", "In creating character themes, Uematsu read the game's scenario to determine the characters' personality.", "He would also ask the scenario writer for more details to scenes he was unsure about.", "Technical limitations were prevalent in earlier games; Sakaguchi would sometimes instruct Uematsu to only use specific notes.", "It was not until ''Final Fantasy IV'' on the SNES that Uematsu was able to add more subtlety to the music." ], [ "Reception", "Overall, the ''Final Fantasy'' series has been critically acclaimed and commercially successful, though each installment has seen different levels of success.", "The series has seen a steady increase in total sales; it sold over 10 million software units worldwide by early 1996, more than units by 1999, more than units and nearly revenue (between adjusted for inflation) by 2001, 45 million units by August 2003, 63 million by December 2005, and 85 million by July 2008.By June 2011, the series had sold over units, and by March 2014, it had sold over 110 million units.", "Its high sales numbers have ranked it as one of the best-selling video game franchises in the industry; in January 2007, the series was listed as number three, and later in July as number four.", "As of 2019, the series had sold over 149 million units worldwide.", "As of October 2021, the series had sold over 164 million units worldwide.", "By March 2022, the series reached cumulative global physical and digital sales of 173 million units.Several games within the series have become best-selling games.", "At the end of 2007, the seventh, eighth, and ninth best-selling RPGs were ''Final Fantasy VII'', ''VIII'', and ''X'' respectively.", "The original ''Final Fantasy VII'' has sold over 14.4 million copies worldwide, earning it the position of the best-selling ''Final Fantasy'' game.", "Within two days of ''Final Fantasy VIII''s North American release on September 9, 1999, it became the top-selling video game in the United States, a position it held for more than three weeks.", "''Final Fantasy X'' sold over 1.4 million Japanese units in pre-orders alone, which set a record for the fastest-selling console RPG.", "The MMORPG, ''Final Fantasy XI'', reached over 200,000 active daily players in March 2006 and had reached over half a million subscribers by July 2007.", "''Final Fantasy XII'' sold more than 1.7 million copies in its first week in Japan.", "By November 6, 2006—one week after its release—''XII'' had shipped approximately 1.5 million copies in North America.", "''Final Fantasy XIII'' became the fastest-selling game in the franchise, and sold one million units on its first day of sale in Japan.", "''Final Fantasy XIV: A Realm Reborn'', in comparison to its predecessor, was a runaway success, originally suffering from servers being overcrowded, and eventually gaining over one million unique subscribers within two months of its launch.The series has received critical acclaim for the quality of its visuals and soundtracks.", "In 1996, ''Next Generation'' ranked the series collectively as the 17th best game of all time, speaking very highly of its graphics, music and stories.", "In 1999, ''Next Generation'' listed the ''Final Fantasy'' series as number 16 on their \"Top 50 Games of All Time\", commenting that \"by pairing state-of-the-art technology with memorable, sometimes shamelessly melodramatic storylines, the series has successfully outlasted its competitors ... and improved with each new installation\".", "It was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006, making it the first franchise to win a star on the event (other winners were individual games, not franchises).", "WalkOfGame.com commented that the series has sought perfection as well as having been a risk taker in innovation.", "In 2006, GameFAQs held a contest for the best video game series ever, with ''Final Fantasy'' finishing as the runner-up to ''The Legend of Zelda''.", "In a 2008 public poll held by The Game Group plc, ''Final Fantasy'' was voted the best game series, with five games appearing in their \"Greatest Games of All Time\" list.Many ''Final Fantasy'' games have been included in various lists of top games.", "Several games have been listed on multiple IGN \"Top Games\" lists.", "Twelve games were listed on ''Famitsu'' 2006 \"Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time\", four of which were in the top ten, with ''Final Fantasy X'' and ''VII'' coming first and second, respectively.", "The series holds seven Guinness World Records in the ''Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008'', which include the \"Most Games in an RPG Series\" (13 main games, seven enhanced games, and 32 spin-off games), the \"Longest Development Period\" (the production of ''Final Fantasy XII'' took five years), and the \"Fastest-Selling Console RPG in a Single Day\" (''Final Fantasy X'').", "The 2009 edition listed two games from the series among the top 50 consoles games: ''Final Fantasy XII'' at number 8 and ''VII'' at number 20.In 2018, ''Final Fantasy VII'' was inducted as a member of the World Video Game Hall of Fame.However, the series has garnered some criticism.", "''IGN'' has commented that the menu system used by the games is a major detractor for many and is a \"significant reason why they haven't touched the series\".", "The site has also heavily criticized the use of random encounters in the series' battle systems.", "''IGN'' further stated that the various attempts to bring the series into film and animation have either been unsuccessful, unremarkable, or did not live up to the standards of the games.", "In 2007, ''Edge'' criticized the series for a number of related games that include the phrase \"''Final Fantasy''\" in their titles, which are considered inferior to previous games.", "It also commented that with the departure of Hironobu Sakaguchi, the series might be in danger of growing stale.Several individual ''Final Fantasy'' games have garnered extra attention; some for their positive reception and others for their negative reception.", "''Final Fantasy VII'' topped ''GamePro's'' \"26 Best RPGs of All Time\" list, as well as GameFAQs \"Best Game Ever\" audience polls in 2004 and 2005.Despite the success of ''VII'', it is sometimes criticized as being overrated.", "In 2003, GameSpy listed it as the seventh most overrated game of all time, while IGN presented views from both sides.", "''Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII'' shipped 392,000 units in its first week of release, but received review scores that were much lower than that of other ''Final Fantasy'' games.", "A delayed, negative review after the Japanese release of ''Dirge of Cerberus'' from Japanese gaming magazine ''Famitsu'' hinted at a controversy between the magazine and Square Enix.", "Though ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' was praised for its visuals, the plot was criticized and the film was considered a box office bomb.", "''Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles'' for the GameCube received overall positive review scores, but reviews stated that the use of Game Boy Advances as controllers was a big detractor.", "The predominantly negative reception of the original version of ''Final Fantasy XIV'' caused then-president Yoichi Wada to issue an official apology during a Tokyo press conference, stating that the brand had been \"greatly damaged\" by the game's reception.===Rankings and aggregators===Various video game publications have created rankings of the mainline ''Final Fantasy'' games.", "In the table below, the lower the number given, the better the game is in the view of the respective publication.", "By way of comparison, the ratings provided by ''Famitsu'' magazine and the review aggregator ''Metacritic'' are also given; in these rows, higher numbers indicate better reviews.", "Note that ''Metacritic'' ratings up until ''Final Fantasy VII'' largely represent retrospective reviews from online websites years after their initial release, rather than contemporary reviews from video game magazines at the time of their initial release.", "Publication ''I'' ''II'' ''III'' ''IV'' ''V'' ''VI'' ''VII'' ''VIII'' ''IX'' ''X'' ''XI'' ''XII'' ''XIII'' ''XIV'' ''XV''''Retro Gamer'' (2004) 2 1 ''GamePro'' (2008) 1 2 ''Stuff'' (2008) 2 1 ''Empire'' (2009) 1 2 ''Jeuxvideo'' (2011) 3 2 1 ''Kotaku'' (2013) 10 11 8 3 5 1 4 6 2 7 9 12 ''Popular Mechanics'' (2014) 2 1 3 ''Slant Magazine'' (2014) 3 1 4 2 ''Den of Geek'' (2016) 14 17 6 5 9 1 3 10 4 2 8 7 15 11 ''VentureBeat'' (2016) 12 14 13 10 3 2 5 9 1 7 15 4 11 8 6''Famitsu'' (2017) 9 8 7 1 11 5 3 2 6 4''GamesRadar+'' (2022) 17 7 13 2 1 10 8 14 18 3 21 4 15 ''Game Informer'' (2018) 4 3 1 2 5 ''IGN'' (2018) 7 12 8 4 5 1 6 11 3 9 2 10 ''Polygon'' (2018) 14 15 12 4 3 1 8 5 6 10 11 2 13 7 9''Rock, Paper, Shotgun'' (2018) 7 8 3 1 4 2 6 5''VG247'' (2018) 9 4 3 2 5 1 8 6 10 7 ''Digital Spy'' (2019) 12 13 10 6 7 4 3 11 2 1 5 8 9 ''Digital Trends'' (2019) 13 15 11 6 9 1 7 2 5 3 10 4 12 8 14 NHK (2020) 24 18 12 8 6 3 2 7 4 1 9 15 14 5 10 TV Asahi (2021) 8 7 4 3 1 10 5 2 9 6 ''Famitsu'' rating (out of 40) 34 35 36 36 34 37 38 37 38 39 38 40 39 39 38 ''Metacritic'' rating (out of 100) 79 79 77 85 83 92 92 90 94 92 85 92 83 83 85" ], [ "Legacy", "''Final Fantasy'' has been very influential in the history of video games and game mechanics.", "''Final Fantasy IV'' is considered a milestone for the genre, introducing a dramatic storyline with a strong emphasis on character development and personal relationships.", "In 1992, Nintendo's Shigeru Miyamoto noted the impact of ''Final Fantasy'' on Japanese role-playing games, stating ''Final Fantasy''s \"interactive cinematic approach\" with an emphasis on \"presentation and graphics\" was gradually becoming \"the most common style\" of Japanese RPG at the time.", "''Final Fantasy VII'', having been the first title of the series to be officially released in the PAL territories of Europe and Oceania, is credited as having the largest industry impact of the series, and with allowing console role-playing games to gain global mass-market appeal.", "''VII'' is considered to be one of the most important and influential video games of all time.The series affected Square's business on several levels.", "The commercial failure of ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' resulted in hesitation and delays from Enix during merger discussions with Square.", "Square's decision to produce games exclusively for the Sony PlayStation—a move followed by Enix's decision with the ''Dragon Quest'' series—severed their relationship with Nintendo.", "''Final Fantasy'' games were absent from Nintendo consoles, specifically the Nintendo 64, for seven years.", "Critics attribute the switch of strong third-party games like the ''Final Fantasy'' and ''Dragon Quest'' games to Sony's PlayStation, and away from the Nintendo 64, as one of the reasons behind PlayStation being the more successful of the two consoles.", "The release of the Nintendo GameCube, which used optical disc media, in 2001 caught the attention of Square.", "To produce games for the system, Square created the shell company The Game Designers Studio and released ''Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles'', which spawned its own metaseries within the main franchise.", "''Final Fantasy XI''s lack of an online method of subscription cancellation prompted the creation of legislation in Illinois that requires internet gaming services to provide such a method to the state's residents.The series' popularity has resulted in its appearance and reference in numerous facets of popular culture like anime, TV series, and webcomics.", "Music from the series has permeated into different areas of culture.", "''Final Fantasy IV''s \"Theme of Love\" was integrated into the curriculum of Japanese school children and has been performed live by orchestras and metal bands.", "In 2003, Uematsu co-founded The Black Mages, an instrumental rock group independent of Square that has released albums of arranged ''Final Fantasy'' tunes.", "Bronze medalists Alison Bartosik and Anna Kozlova performed their synchronized swimming routine at the 2004 Summer Olympics to music from ''Final Fantasy VIII''.", "Many of the soundtracks have also been released for sale.", "Numerous companion books, which normally provide in-depth game information, have been published.", "In Japan, they are published by Square and are called ''Ultimania'' books.The series has inspired numerous game developers.", "''Fable'' creator Peter Molyneux considers ''Final Fantasy VII'' to be the RPG that \"defined the genre\" for him.", "BioWare founder Greg Zeschuk cited ''Final Fantasy VII'' as \"the first really emotionally engaging game\" he played and said it had \"a big impact\" on BioWare's work.", "''The Witcher 3'' senior environmental artist Jonas Mattsson cited ''Final Fantasy'' as \"a huge influence\" and said it was \"the first RPG\" he played through.", "''Mass Effect'' art director Derek Watts cited ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' as a major influence on the visual design and art direction of the series.", "BioWare senior product manager David Silverman cited ''Final Fantasy XII''s gambit system as an influence on the gameplay of ''Dragon Age: Origins''.", "Ubisoft Toronto creative director Maxime Beland cited the original ''Final Fantasy'' as a major influence on him.", "Media Molecule's Constantin Jupp credited ''Final Fantasy VII'' with getting him into game design.", "Tim Schafer also cited ''Final Fantasy VII'' as one of his favourite games of all time." ], [ "See also", "* List of Final Fantasy video games* ''Dragon Quest'' – initially a competing series from Enix, continues to be produced alongside ''Final Fantasy'' after their merger with Square.", "* ''Kingdom Hearts'' – an action RPG series developed by Square Enix in collaboration with the American company Disney, including both Disney-related and Square Enix characters, including those of ''Final Fantasy''.", "* ''Granblue Fantasy'' – a 2013 video game featuring key staff from ''Final Fantasy''.", "* ''The Last Story'' – a 2012 video game featuring key staff from ''Final Fantasy''.", "* List of Square Enix video game franchises* List of Japanese role-playing game franchises" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * IGN Presents the History of ''Final Fantasy''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fatty acid" ], [ "Introduction", "Saturated fatty acids have perfectly straight chain structure.", "Unsaturated ones are typically bent, unless they have a trans configuration.In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a '''fatty acid''' is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated.", "Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 28.Fatty acids are a major component of the lipids (up to 70% by weight) in some species such as microalgae but in some other organisms are not found in their standalone form, but instead exist as three main classes of esters: triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesteryl esters.", "In any of these forms, fatty acids are both important dietary sources of fuel for animals and important structural components for cells." ], [ "History", "The concept of fatty acid (''acide gras'') was introduced in 1813 by Michel Eugène Chevreul, though he initially used some variant terms: ''graisse acide'' and ''acide huileux'' (\"acid fat\" and \"oily acid\")." ], [ "Types of fatty acids", "''trans'' isomer elaidic acid (top) and the ''cis'' isomer oleic acid (bottom)Fatty acids are classified in many ways: by length, by saturation vs unsaturation, by even vs odd carbon content, and by linear vs branched.===Length of fatty acids===* Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons (e.g.", "butyric acid).", "* Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6 to 12 carbons, which can form medium-chain triglycerides.", "* Long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons.", "* Very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons.===Saturated fatty acids===Saturated fatty acids have no C=C double bonds.", "They have the formula CH(CH)COOH, for different ''n''.", "An important saturated fatty acid is stearic acid (''n'' = 16), which when neutralized with sodium hydroxide is the most common form of soap.Arachidic acid, a saturated fatty acid+ Examples of saturated fatty acids Common name Chemical structure ''C'':''D'' Caprylic acid CH(CH)COOH 8:0 Capric acid CH(CH)COOH 10:0 Lauric acid CH(CH)COOH 12:0 Myristic acid CH(CH)COOH 14:0 Palmitic acid CH(CH)COOH 16:0 Stearic acid CH(CH)COOH 18:0 Arachidic acid CH(CH)COOH 20:0 Behenic acid CH(CH)COOH 22:0 Lignoceric acid CH(CH)COOH 24:0 Cerotic acid CH(CH)COOH 26:0===Unsaturated fatty acids===Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more C=C double bonds.", "The C=C double bonds can give either ''cis'' or ''trans'' isomers.", "; ''cis'' :A ''cis'' configuration means that the two hydrogen atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain.", "The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the ''cis'' isomer, causes the chain to bend and restricts the conformational freedom of the fatty acid.", "The more double bonds the chain has in the ''cis'' configuration, the less flexibility it has.", "When a chain has many ''cis'' bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations.", "For example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a \"kink\" in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend.", "α-Linolenic acid, with three double bonds, favors a hooked shape.", "The effect of this is that, in restricted environments, such as when fatty acids are part of a phospholipid in a lipid bilayer or triglycerides in lipid droplets, cis bonds limit the ability of fatty acids to be closely packed, and therefore can affect the melting temperature of the membrane or of the fat.", "Cis unsaturated fatty acids, however, increase cellular membrane fluidity, whereas trans unsaturated fatty acids do not.", "; ''trans'' : A ''trans'' configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on ''opposite'' sides of the chain.", "As a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids.In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each double bond has three (n-3), six (n-6), or nine (n-9) carbon atoms after it, and all double bonds have a cis configuration.", "Most fatty acids in the ''trans'' configuration (trans fats) are not found in nature and are the result of human processing (e.g., hydrogenation).", "Some trans fatty acids also occur naturally in the milk and meat of ruminants (such as cattle and sheep).", "They are produced, by fermentation, in the rumen of these animals.", "They are also found in dairy products from milk of ruminants, and may be also found in breast milk of women who obtained them from their diet.The geometric differences between the various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as well as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, play an important role in biological processes, and in the construction of biological structures (such as cell membranes).+ Examples of Unsaturated Fatty Acids Common name Chemical structure Δ ''C'':''D'' IUPAC ''n''−''x''Myristoleic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis''-Δ 14:1 14:1(9) ''n''−5Palmitoleic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis''-Δ 16:1 16:1(9) ''n''−7Sapienic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis''-Δ 16:1 16:1(6) ''n''−10Oleic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis''-Δ 18:1 18:1(9) ''n''−9Elaidic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''trans''-Δ 18:1 18:1(9t) ''n''−9Vaccenic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''trans''-Δ 18:1 18:1(11t) ''n''−7Linoleic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis'',''cis''-Δ,Δ 18:2 18:2(9,12) ''n''−6Linoelaidic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''trans'',''trans''-Δ,Δ 18:2 18:2(9t,12t) ''n''−6α-Linolenic acid CHCH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ,Δ,Δ 18:3 18:3(9,12,15) ''n''−3Arachidonic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH NIST ''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-ΔΔ,Δ,Δ 20:4 20:4(5,8,11,14) ''n''−6Eicosapentaenoic acid CHCH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ,Δ,Δ,Δ,Δ 20:5 20:5(5,8,11,14,17) ''n''−3Erucic acid CH(CH)'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis''-Δ 22:1 22:1(13) ''n''−9Docosahexaenoic acid CHCH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''CH'''CH=CH'''(CH)COOH ''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ,Δ,Δ,Δ,Δ,Δ 22:6 22:6(4,7,10,13,16,19) ''n''−3===Even- vs odd-chained fatty acids===Most fatty acids are even-chained, e.g.", "stearic (C18) and oleic (C18), meaning they are composed of an even number of carbon atoms.", "Some fatty acids have odd numbers of carbon atoms; they are referred to as odd-chained fatty acids (OCFA).", "The most common OCFA are the saturated C15 and C17 derivatives, pentadecanoic acid and heptadecanoic acid respectively, which are found in dairy products.", "On a molecular level, OCFAs are biosynthesized and metabolized slightly differently from the even-chained relatives.===Branching===Most common fatty acids are straight-chain compounds, with no additional carbon atoms bonded as side groups to the main hydrocarbon chain.", "Branched-chain fatty acids contain one or more methyl groups bonded to the hydrocarbon chain." ], [ "Nomenclature", "===Carbon atom numbering===unsaturated fatty acids with a ''cis'' configuration are actually \"kinked\" rather than straight as shown here.Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of carbon atoms, with a carboxyl group (–COOH) at one end, and a methyl group (–CH3) at the other end.The position of each carbon atom in the backbone of a fatty acid is usually indicated by counting from 1 at the −COOH end.", "Carbon number ''x'' is often abbreviated C-''x'' (or sometimes C''x''), with ''x'' = 1, 2, 3, etc.", "This is the numbering scheme recommended by the IUPAC.Another convention uses letters of the Greek alphabet in sequence, starting with the first carbon ''after'' the carboxyl group.", "Thus carbon α (alpha) is C-2, carbon β (beta) is C-3, and so forth.Although fatty acids can be of diverse lengths, in this second convention the last carbon in the chain is always labelled as ω (omega), which is the last letter in the Greek alphabet.", "A third numbering convention counts the carbons from that end, using the labels \"ω\", \"ω−1\", \"ω−2\".", "Alternatively, the label \"ω−''x''\" is written \"n−''x''\", where the \"n\" is meant to represent the number of carbons in the chain.In either numbering scheme, the position of a double bond in a fatty acid chain is always specified by giving the label of the carbon closest to the '''carboxyl''' end.", "Thus, in an 18 carbon fatty acid, a double bond between C-12 (or ω−6) and C-13 (or ω−5) is said to be \"at\" position C-12 or ω−6.The IUPAC naming of the acid, such as \"octadec-12-enoic acid\" (or the more pronounceable variant \"12-octadecanoic acid\") is always based on the \"C\" numbering.The notation Δ''x'',''y'',... is traditionally used to specify a fatty acid with double bonds at positions ''x'',''y'',.... (The capital Greek letter \"Δ\" (delta) corresponds to Roman \"D\", for '''D'''ouble bond).", "Thus, for example, the 20-carbon arachidonic acid is Δ5,8,11,14, meaning that it has double bonds between carbons 5 and 6, 8 and 9, 11 and 12, and 14 and 15.In the context of human diet and fat metabolism, unsaturated fatty acids are often classified by the position of the double bond closest between to the ω carbon (only), even in the case of multiple double bonds such as the essential fatty acids.", "Thus linoleic acid (18 carbons, Δ9,12), γ-linole'''n'''ic acid (18-carbon, Δ6,9,12), and arachidonic acid (20-carbon, Δ5,8,11,14) are all classified as \"ω−6\" fatty acids; meaning that their formula ends with –CH=CH–––––.Fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms are called odd-chain fatty acids, whereas the rest are even-chain fatty acids.", "The difference is relevant to gluconeogenesis.===Naming of fatty acids===The following table describes the most common systems of naming fatty acids.NomenclatureExamplesExplanationTrivialPalmitoleic acid'''Trivial names''' (or '''common names''') are non-systematic historical names, which are the most frequent naming system used in literature.", "Most common fatty acids have trivial names in addition to their ''systematic names'' (see below).", "These names frequently do not follow any pattern, but they are concise and often unambiguous.Systematiccis-9-octadec-9-enoic acid(9''Z'')-octadec-9-enoic acid'''Systematic names''' (or '''IUPAC names''') derive from the standard ''IUPAC Rules for the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry'', published in 1979, along with a recommendation published specifically for lipids in 1977.Carbon atom numbering begins from the carboxylic end of the molecule backbone.", "Double bonds are labelled with ''cis''-/''trans''- notation or ''E''-/''Z''- notation, where appropriate.", "This notation is generally more verbose than common nomenclature, but has the advantage of being more technically clear and descriptive.Δ''x''''cis''-Δ9, ''cis''-Δ12 octadecadienoic acidIn '''Δ''x''''' (or '''delta-''x''''') '''nomenclature''', each double bond is indicated by Δ''x'', where the double bond begins at the ''x''th carbon–carbon bond, counting from carboxylic end of the molecule backbone.", "Each double bond is preceded by a ''cis''- or ''trans''- prefix, indicating the configuration of the molecule around the bond.", "For example, linoleic acid is designated \"''cis''-Δ9, ''cis''-Δ12 octadecadienoic acid\".", "This nomenclature has the advantage of being less verbose than systematic nomenclature, but is no more technically clear or descriptive.", "''n''−''x'' (or ω−''x'')''n''−3(or ω−3)'''''n''−''x''''' ('''''n'' minus ''x'''''; also '''ω−''x''''' or '''omega-''x''''') '''nomenclature''' both provides names for individual compounds and classifies them by their likely biosynthetic properties in animals.", "A double bond is located on the ''x''th carbon–carbon bond, counting from the methyl end of the molecule backbone.", "For example, α-linolenic acid is classified as a ''n''−3 or omega-3 fatty acid, and so it is likely to share a biosynthetic pathway with other compounds of this type.", "The ω−''x'', omega-''x'', or \"omega\" notation is common in popular nutritional literature, but IUPAC has deprecated it in favor of ''n''−''x'' notation in technical documents.", "The most commonly researched fatty acid biosynthetic pathways are ''n''−3 and ''n''−6.Lipid numbers18:318:3n318:3, ''cis'',''cis'',''cis''-Δ9,Δ12,Δ1518:3(9,12,15)'''Lipid numbers''' take the form ''C'':''D'', where ''C'' is the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid and ''D'' is the number of double bonds in the fatty acid.", "If D is more than one, the double bonds are assumed to be interrupted by units, ''i.e.", "'', at intervals of 3 carbon atoms along the chain.", "For instance, α-linolenic acid is an 18:3 fatty acid and its three double bonds are located at positions Δ9, Δ12, and Δ15.This notation can be ambiguous, as some different fatty acids can have the same ''C'':''D'' numbers.", "Consequently, when ambiguity exists this notation is usually paired with either a Δ''x'' or ''n''−''x'' term.", "For instance, although α-linolenic acid and γ-linolenic acid are both 18:3, they may be unambiguously described as 18:3n3 and 18:3n6 fatty acids, respectively.", "For the same purpose, IUPAC recommends using a list of double bond positions in parentheses, appended to the C:D notation.", "For instance, IUPAC recommended notations for α- and γ-linolenic acid are 18:3(9,12,15) and 18:3(6,9,12), respectively.=== Free fatty acids ===When circulating in the plasma (plasma fatty acids), not in their ester, fatty acids are known as non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) or free fatty acids (FFAs).", "FFAs are always bound to a transport protein, such as albumin.FFAs also form from triglyceride food oils and fats by hydrolysis, contributing to the characteristic rancid odor.", "An analogous process happens in biodiesel with risk of part corrosion." ], [ "Production", "===Industrial===Fatty acids are usually produced industrially by the hydrolysis of triglycerides, with the removal of glycerol (see oleochemicals).", "Phospholipids represent another source.", "Some fatty acids are produced synthetically by hydrocarboxylation of alkenes.===By animals===In animals, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver, adipose tissue, and the mammary glands during lactation.Carbohydrates are converted into pyruvate by glycolysis as the first important step in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids.", "Pyruvate is then decarboxylated to form acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion.", "However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids occurs.", "This cannot occur directly.", "To obtain cytosolic acetyl-CoA, citrate (produced by the condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate) is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol.", "There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate.", "The oxaloacetate is returned to the mitochondrion as malate.", "The cytosolic acetyl-CoA is carboxylated by acetyl-CoA carboxylase into malonyl-CoA, the first committed step in the synthesis of fatty acids.Malonyl-CoA is then involved in a repeating series of reactions that lengthens the growing fatty acid chain by two carbons at a time.", "Almost all natural fatty acids, therefore, have even numbers of carbon atoms.", "When synthesis is complete the free fatty acids are nearly always combined with glycerol (three fatty acids to one glycerol molecule) to form triglycerides, the main storage form of fatty acids, and thus of energy in animals.", "However, fatty acids are also important components of the phospholipids that form the phospholipid bilayers out of which all the membranes of the cell are constructed (the cell wall, and the membranes that enclose all the organelles within the cells, such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus).The \"uncombined fatty acids\" or \"free fatty acids\" found in the circulation of animals come from the breakdown (or lipolysis) of stored triglycerides.", "Because they are insoluble in water, these fatty acids are transported bound to plasma albumin.", "The levels of \"free fatty acids\" in the blood are limited by the availability of albumin binding sites.", "They can be taken up from the blood by all cells that have mitochondria (with the exception of the cells of the central nervous system).", "Fatty acids can only be broken down in mitochondria, by means of beta-oxidation followed by further combustion in the citric acid cycle to CO and water.", "Cells in the central nervous system, although they possess mitochondria, cannot take free fatty acids up from the blood, as the blood–brain barrier is impervious to most free fatty acids, excluding short-chain fatty acids and medium-chain fatty acids.", "These cells have to manufacture their own fatty acids from carbohydrates, as described above, in order to produce and maintain the phospholipids of their cell membranes, and those of their organelles.====Variation between animal species====Studies on the cell membranes of mammals and reptiles discovered that mammalian cell membranes are composed of a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (DHA, omega-3 fatty acid) than reptiles.", "Studies on bird fatty acid composition have noted similar proportions to mammals but with 1/3rd less omega-3 fatty acids as compared to omega-6 for a given body size.", "This fatty acid composition results in a more fluid cell membrane but also one that is permeable to various ions ( & ), resulting in cell membranes that are more costly to maintain.", "This maintenance cost has been argued to be one of the key causes for the high metabolic rates and concomitant warm-bloodedness of mammals and birds.", "However polyunsaturation of cell membranes may also occur in response to chronic cold temperatures as well.", "In fish increasingly cold environments lead to increasingly high cell membrane content of both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, to maintain greater membrane fluidity (and functionality) at the lower temperatures." ], [ "Fatty acids in dietary fats", "The following table gives the fatty acid, vitamin E and cholesterol composition of some common dietary fats.+ Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Cholesterol Vitamin E g/100g g/100g g/100g mg/100g mg/100g '''''Animal fats'''''Duck fat 33.2 49.3 12.9 100 2.70 Lard 40.8 43.8 9.6 93 0.60Tallow 49.8 41.8 4.0 109 2.70 Butter 54.0 19.8 2.6 230 2.00 '''''Vegetable fats''''' Coconut oil 85.2 6.6 1.7 0 .66 Cocoa butter 60.0 32.9 3.0 0 1.8 Palm kernel oil 81.5 11.4 1.6 0 3.80 Palm oil 45.3 41.6 8.3 0 33.12 Cottonseed oil 25.5 21.3 48.1 0 42.77 Wheat germ oil 18.8 15.9 60.7 0 136.65 Soybean oil 14.5 23.2 56.5 0 16.29 Olive oil 14.0 69.7 11.2 0 5.10 Corn oil 12.7 24.7 57.8 0 17.24 Sunflower oil 11.9 20.2 63.0 0 49.00 Safflower oil 10.2 12.6 72.1 0 40.68 Hemp oil 10 15 75 0 12.34 Canola/Rapeseed oil 5.3 64.3 24.8 0 22.21" ], [ "Reactions of fatty acids", "Fatty acids exhibit reactions like other carboxylic acids, i.e.", "they undergo esterification and acid-base reactions.===Acidity===Fatty acids do not show a great variation in their acidities, as indicated by their respective p''K''a.", "Nonanoic acid, for example, has a p''K'' of 4.96, being only slightly weaker than acetic acid (4.76).", "As the chain length increases, the solubility of the fatty acids in water decreases, so that the longer-chain fatty acids have minimal effect on the pH of an aqueous solution.", "Near neutral pH, fatty acids exist at their conjugate bases, i.e.", "oleate, etc.Solutions of fatty acids in ethanol can be titrated with sodium hydroxide solution using phenolphthalein as an indicator.", "This analysis is used to determine the free fatty acid content of fats; i.e., the proportion of the triglycerides that have been hydrolyzed.Neutralization of fatty acids, one form of saponification (soap-making), is a widely practiced route to metallic soaps.===Hydrogenation and hardening===Hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids is widely practiced.", "Typical conditions involve 2.0–3.0 MPa of H pressure, 150 °C, and nickel supported on silica as a catalyst.", "This treatment affords saturated fatty acids.", "The extent of hydrogenation is indicated by the iodine number.", "Hydrogenated fatty acids are less prone toward rancidification.", "Since the saturated fatty acids are higher melting than the unsaturated precursors, the process is called hardening.", "Related technology is used to convert vegetable oils into margarine.", "The hydrogenation of triglycerides (vs fatty acids) is advantageous because the carboxylic acids degrade the nickel catalysts, affording nickel soaps.", "During partial hydrogenation, unsaturated fatty acids can be isomerized from ''cis'' to ''trans'' configuration.More forcing hydrogenation, i.e.", "using higher pressures of H and higher temperatures, converts fatty acids into fatty alcohols.", "Fatty alcohols are, however, more easily produced from fatty acid esters.In the Varrentrapp reaction certain unsaturated fatty acids are cleaved in molten alkali, a reaction which was, at one point of time, relevant to structure elucidation.===Auto-oxidation and rancidity===Unsaturated fatty acids and their esters undergo auto-oxidation, which involves replacement of a C-H bond with C-O bond.", "The process requires oxygen (air) and is accelerated by the presence of traces of metals, which serve as catalysts.", "Doubly unsaturated fatty acids are particularly prone to this reaction.", "Vegetable oils resist this process to a small degree because they contain antioxidants, such as tocopherol.", "Fats and oils often are treated with chelating agents such as citric acid to remove the metal catalysts.===Ozonolysis===Unsaturated fatty acids are susceptible to degradation by ozone.", "This reaction is practiced in the production of azelaic acid ((CH)(COH)) from oleic acid." ], [ "Circulation", "===Digestion and intake===Short- and medium-chain fatty acids are absorbed directly into the blood via intestine capillaries and travel through the portal vein just as other absorbed nutrients do.", "However, long-chain fatty acids are not directly released into the intestinal capillaries.", "Instead they are absorbed into the fatty walls of the intestine villi and reassemble again into triglycerides.", "The triglycerides are coated with cholesterol and protein (protein coat) into a compound called a chylomicron.From within the cell, the chylomicron is released into a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal, which merges into larger lymphatic vessels.", "It is transported via the lymphatic system and the thoracic duct up to a location near the heart (where the arteries and veins are larger).", "The thoracic duct empties the chylomicrons into the bloodstream via the left subclavian vein.", "At this point the chylomicrons can transport the triglycerides to tissues where they are stored or metabolized for energy.===Metabolism===Fatty acids are broken down to CO and water by the intra-cellular mitochondria through beta oxidation and the citric acid cycle.", "In the final step (oxidative phosphorylation), reactions with oxygen release a lot of energy, captured in the form of large quantities of ATP.", "Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose, but fatty acids release more energy per gram.", "Fatty acids (provided either by ingestion or by drawing on triglycerides stored in fatty tissues) are distributed to cells to serve as a fuel for muscular contraction and general metabolism.====Essential fatty acids====Fatty acids that are required for good health but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates, and therefore must be obtained from food, are called essential fatty acids.", "There are two series of essential fatty acids: one has a double bond three carbon atoms away from the methyl end; the other has a double bond six carbon atoms away from the methyl end.", "Humans lack the ability to introduce double bonds in fatty acids beyond carbons 9 and 10, as counted from the carboxylic acid side.", "Two essential fatty acids are linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).", "These fatty acids are widely distributed in plant oils.", "The human body has a limited ability to convert ALA into the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids — eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which can also be obtained from fish.", "Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are biosynthetic precursors to endocannabinoids with antinociceptive, anxiolytic, and neurogenic properties.===Distribution===Blood fatty acids adopt distinct forms in different stages in the blood circulation.", "They are taken in through the intestine in chylomicrons, but also exist in very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) and low density lipoproteins (LDL) after processing in the liver.", "In addition, when released from adipocytes, fatty acids exist in the blood as free fatty acids.It is proposed that the blend of fatty acids exuded by mammalian skin, together with lactic acid and pyruvic acid, is distinctive and enables animals with a keen sense of smell to differentiate individuals." ], [ "Skin", "The stratum corneum the outermost layer of the epidermis is composed of terminally differentiated and enucleated corneocytes within a lipid matrix.", "Together with cholesterol and ceramides, free fatty acids form a water-impermeable barrier that prevents evaporative water loss.", "Generally, the epidermal lipid matrix is composed of an equimolar mixture of ceramides (about 50% by weight), cholesterol (25%), and free fatty acids (15%).", "Saturated fatty acids 16 and 18 carbons in length are the dominant types in the epidermis, while unsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids of various other lengths are also present.", "The relative abundance of the different fatty acids in the epidermis is dependent on the body site the skin is covering.", "There are also characteristic epidermal fatty acid alterations that occur in psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and other inflammatory conditions." ], [ "Analysis", "The chemical analysis of fatty acids in lipids typically begins with an interesterification step that breaks down their original esters (triglycerides, waxes, phospholipids etc.)", "and converts them to methyl esters, which are then separated by gas chromatography or analyzed by gas chromatography and mid-infrared spectroscopy.Separation of unsaturated isomers is possible by silver ion complemented thin-layer chromatography.", "Other separation techniques include high-performance liquid chromatography (with short columns packed with silica gel with bonded phenylsulfonic acid groups whose hydrogen atoms have been exchanged for silver ions).", "The role of silver lies in its ability to form complexes with unsaturated compounds." ], [ "Industrial uses", "Fatty acids are mainly used in the production of soap, both for cosmetic purposes and, in the case of metallic soaps, as lubricants.", "Fatty acids are also converted, via their methyl esters, to fatty alcohols and fatty amines, which are precursors to surfactants, detergents, and lubricants.", "Other applications include their use as emulsifiers, texturizing agents, wetting agents, anti-foam agents, or stabilizing agents.Esters of fatty acids with simpler alcohols (such as methyl-, ethyl-, n-propyl-, isopropyl- and butyl esters) are used as emollients in cosmetics and other personal care products and as synthetic lubricants.", "Esters of fatty acids with more complex alcohols, such as sorbitol, ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, and polyethylene glycol are consumed in food, or used for personal care and water treatment, or used as synthetic lubricants or fluids for metal working." ], [ "See also", "* Fatty acid synthase* Fatty acid synthesis* Fatty aldehyde* List of saturated fatty acids* List of unsaturated fatty acids* List of carboxylic acids* Vegetable oil" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Lipid Library* ''Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids'' journal* Fatty blood acids" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fearless (1993 film)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Fearless''''' is a 1993 American drama film directed by Peter Weir and starring Jeff Bridges, Isabella Rossellini, Rosie Perez and John Turturro.", "It was written by Rafael Yglesias, adapted from his novel of the same name.Rosie Perez was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Carla Rodrigo.", "The film was also entered into the 44th Berlin International Film Festival.", "Jeff Bridges' role as Max Klein is widely regarded as one of the best performances of his career.", "The film's soundtrack features part of the first movement of Henryk Górecki's Symphony No.", "3, subtitled ''Symphony of Sorrowful Songs''.", "The film's screenwriter was inspired to write the script after he was in a car accident.", "Yglesias began writing the story after reading about United Airlines Flight 232, that crashed in Sioux City, Iowa, in 1989." ], [ "Plot", "Max Klein survives an airline crash.", "The plane plummets, but strangely Max is calm.", "His calm enables him to dispel fear in the flight cabin.", "He sits next to Byron Hummel, a young boy flying alone.", "Flight attendants move through the cabin, telling another passenger, Carla Rodrigo, traveling with an infant, to hold the infant in her lap as the plane plummets out of control, while telling other passengers to buckle into their seats.", "Max was telling his business partner, Jeff Gordon, of his fear of flying as they took off.In the aftermath of the crash, most passengers died.", "Among the few survivors, most are terribly injured.", "Max is unhurt.", "The crash site is chaotic, filled with first responders and other emergency personnel.", "Focusing on the survivors, a team of investigators from the FAA and the airline company conduct interviews.", "Max is repelled by all the chaos.", "He is disgusted by the investigators wanting to interview him.Max rents a car and starts driving home.", "Along the way he meets an old girlfriend from high school, Alison.", "They last met 20 years ago.", "At the restaurant Alison notices Max eating a strawberry.", "Max is allergic to strawberries.", "Max grins.", "He finishes the strawberry without an allergic reaction.", "The next morning, he is accosted by FBI investigators.", "They question his choice to not contact family to tell them he is fine.", "The airline representative offers him train tickets.", "Max asks for airline tickets.", "He wants to fly home, having no fear of air travel.", "The airline books him on the flight.", "They seat him next to Dr. Bill Perlman, the airline's psychiatrist.Dr.", "Perlman annoyingly tags behind Max back to his home, prodding him for information about the crash.", "Max is forced to snap back at the psychiatrist rudely, to be rid of him.", "Laura Klein, Max's wife, notices the strange behavior.", "Max seems different, changed somehow.", "Max's late business partner's wife, Nan Gordon, asks about Jeff's last moments.", "Max says Jeff died in the crash.The media call Max \"The Good Samaritan\" in news reports.", "The boy Max sat next to, Byron, publicly thanks him in television interviews, for the way he comforted passengers while the plane fell out of control during the crash.", "Max is a hero.Max avoids the press and becomes distant from Laura and his son Jonah.", "His persona is radically changed.", "He is preoccupied with his new perspective on life following his near-death experience.", "He begins drawing abstract pictures of the crash.", "As he survived without injury, he thinks himself invulnerable to death.", "Because of his confidence, Dr. Perlman encourages Max to meet with another survivor, Carla Rodrigo, whose infant was held in her lap while the plane fell.", "Carla struggles with survivor's guilt, and is traumatized for not holding onto him tightly enough, although she was following the flight attendant's instructions.", "Max and Carla develop a close friendship.", "He helps her to get past the trauma, to free herself from guilt, deliberately crashing his car to show that it was physically impossible for any person to hold onto anything due to the forces of the crash.Attorney Steven Brillstein encourages Max to exaggerate testimony, to maximize the settlement offer from the airline.", "Max reluctantly agrees when he is confronted with Nan's financial predicament as a widow.", "Cognitive dissonance spurs Max to a panic attack.", "He runs out of the office, to the roof of the building.", "He climbs onto the roof's edge.", "As Max stands on the ledge, looking down at the streets below, his panic subsides.", "He rejoices in fearlessness.", "Laura finds Max on the ledge.", "He is spinning around on the ledge with his overcoat billowing across his face.Brillstein arrives at the Klein home to celebrate the airline's settlement offer.", "He brings a fruit basket.", "Max eats one of the strawberries.", "This time he experiences an allergic reaction.", "Max is resuscitated by Laura and survives.", "He recovers his emotional connection to his family, to the world and to the reality of yet another chance at life." ], [ "Cast", "* Jeff Bridges as Max Klein* Isabella Rossellini as Laura Klein* Rosie Perez as Carla Rodrigo* Tom Hulce as Steven Brillstein* John Turturro as Dr. Bill Perlman* Benicio del Toro as Manny Rodrigo* Deirdre O'Connell as Nan Gordon* John de Lancie as Jeff Gordon* Debra Monk as Alison* William Newman as Elderly Man" ], [ "Aesthetic elements", "A book containing the painting ''The Ascent into the Empyrean'' by Hieronymus Bosch is shown, and it is said that the dying go into the light of heaven \"naked and alone\".", "Near the finale as Max lies on the ground, he relives moving from the fuselage of the aircraft and for a moment moves towards the tunnel of light that appears to be modeled on the painting." ], [ "Reception", "On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 84% based on reviews from 43 critics, with an average score of 7.8/10.The site's consensus states \"This underrated gem from director Peter Weir features an outstanding performance from Jeff Bridges as a man dealing with profound grief.\"", "Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of \"B+\" on an A+ to F scale.Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 3 out of 4 stars and wrote: \"\"Fearless\" is like a short story that shines a bright light, briefly, into a corner where you usually do not look.", "\"Vincent Canby of The New York Times said \"Mr. Bridges does well with a difficult role\", and Todd McCarthy ofVariety called it one of Bridges best performances.", "McCarthy was positive about the film calling it \"beautifully made in all respects\" but noted that as a mainstream film about profound issues and emotions some audiences will appreciate it but others may find it pretentious.", "Geoff Andrew of Time Out wrote: \"As often with Weir, there's considerably less here than meets the eye.\"" ], [ "Accolades", " Award Category Recipient Result 20/20 Awards Best Supporting Actress Rosie Perez Academy Awards Best Supporting Actress Awards Circuit Community Awards Best Actress in a Supporting Role Berlin International Film Festival Golden Bear Peter Weir Honourable Mention Rosie Perez Boston Society of Film Critics Awards Best Supporting Actress Chicago Film Critics Association Awards Best Actor Jeff Bridges Best Supporting Actress Rosie Perez Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards Best Supporting Actress Golden Camera Awards Best International Actress Isabella Rossellini Golden Globe Awards Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture Rosie Perez Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards Best Supporting Actress New York Film Critics Circle Awards Best Supporting Actress Southeastern Film Critics Association Awards Top Ten Films Turkish Film Critics Association Awards Best Foreign Film" ], [ "Home media", "With video and audio quality superseding previous home video releases, ''Fearless'' was released on Blu-ray Disc by the Warner Archive Collection in November 2013." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Franklin D. Roosevelt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franklin Delano Roosevelt''' (January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), commonly known as '''FDR''', was an American statesman and politician who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945.He was a member of the Democratic Party and is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.", "His initial two terms were centered on combating the Great Depression, while his third and fourth saw him shift his focus to America's involvement in World War II.", "A member of the Delano family and Roosevelt family, after attending university, Roosevelt began to practice law in New York City.", "He was elected a member of the New York State Senate from 1911 to 1913 and was then the assistant secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson during World War I. Roosevelt was James M. Cox's running mate on the Democratic Party's ticket in the 1920 U.S. presidential election, but Cox lost to Republican nominee Warren G. Harding.", "In 1921, Roosevelt contracted a paralytic illness that permanently paralyzed his legs.", "Partly through the encouragement of his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, he returned to public office as governor of New York from 1929 to 1933, during which he promoted programs to combat the Great Depression.", "In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide.During his first 100 days as president, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing the New Deal in response to the most significant economic crisis in American history.", "He also built the New Deal coalition, realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the mid-20th century.", "He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other programs.", "He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of Prohibition.", "In 1936, Roosevelt won a landslide reelection with the economy having improved from 1933, but the economy relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 and 1938.He was unable to expand the Supreme Court in 1937, the same year the conservative coalition was formed to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms.", "Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and Social Security.", "In 1940, he ran successfully for reelection, becoming the only American president to serve for more than two terms.With World War II looming after 1938 in addition to the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany, Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, while the U.S. remained officially neutral.", "Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, he obtained a declaration of war on Japan, Germany, and Italy.", "He worked closely with other national leaders in leading the Allies against the Axis powers.", "Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the American economy to support the war effort and implemented a Europe first strategy.", "He also initiated the development of the first atomic bomb and worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the United Nations and other post-war institutions, even coining the term \"United Nations\".", "Roosevelt won reelection in 1944 but died in 1945 after his physical health seriously and steadily declined during the war years.", "Since then, several of his actions have come under substantial criticism, including his ordering of the internment of Japanese Americans in concentration camps.", "Nonetheless, historical rankings consistently place him as one of the greatest American presidents." ], [ "Early life and marriage", "===Childhood===unbreeched Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years oldFranklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park, New York, to businessman James Roosevelt I and his second wife, Sara Ann Delano.", "His parents, who were sixth cousins, came from wealthy, established New York families—the Roosevelts, the Aspinwalls and the Delanos, respectively.", "Roosevelt's paternal ancestor migrated to New Amsterdam in the 17th century, and the Roosevelts succeeded as merchants and landowners.", "The Delano family patriarch, Philip Delano, traveled to the New World on the ''Fortune'' in 1621, and the Delanos thrived as merchants and shipbuilders in Massachusetts.", "Franklin had a half-brother, James Roosevelt \"Rosy\" Roosevelt, from his father's previous marriage.Roosevelt's father, James, graduated from Harvard Law School in 1851 but chose not to practice law after receiving an inheritance from his grandfather.", "James, a prominent Bourbon Democrat, once took Franklin to meet President Grover Cleveland, who said to him: \"My little man, I am making a strange wish for you.", "It is that you may never be President of the United States.\"", "Franklin's mother, the dominant influence in his early years, once declared, \"My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all.\"", "James, who was 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer James MacGregor Burns indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time.===Education and early career===As a child, Roosevelt learned to ride, shoot, and sail, and play polo, tennis, and golf.", "Frequent trips to Europe—beginning at age two and from age seven to fifteen—helped Roosevelt become conversant in German and French.", "Except for attending public school in Germany at age nine, Roosevelt was homeschooled by tutors until age 14.He then attended Groton School, an Episcopal boarding school in Groton, Massachusetts.", "He was not among the more popular Groton students, who were better athletes and had rebellious streaks.", "Its headmaster, Endicott Peabody, preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service.", "Peabody remained a strong influence throughout Roosevelt's life, officiating at his wedding and visiting him as president.Like most of his Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to Harvard College.", "He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity and the Fly Club, and served as a school cheerleader.", "Roosevelt was relatively undistinguished as a student or athlete, but he became editor-in-chief of ''The Harvard Crimson'' daily newspaper, which required ambition, energy, and the ability to manage others.", "He later said, \"I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong.", "\"Roosevelt's father died in 1900, causing him great distress.", "The following year, Roosevelt's fifth cousin Theodore Roosevelt became President of the United States.", "Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero.", "He graduated from Harvard in three years in 1903 with an A.B.", "in history.", "He remained there for a fourth year, taking graduate courses.Roosevelt entered Columbia Law School in 1904 but dropped out in 1907 after passing the New York Bar Examination.", "In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious law firm of Carter Ledyard & Milburn, working in the firm's admiralty law division.===Marriage, family, and marital affairs===Eleanor and Franklin with their first two children, 1908During his second year of college, Roosevelt met and proposed to Boston heiress Alice Sohier, who turned him down.", "Franklin then began courting his childhood acquaintance and fifth cousin once removed, Eleanor Roosevelt, a niece of Theodore Roosevelt.", "In 1903, Franklin proposed to Eleanor.", "Following resistance from Roosevelt's mother, Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt were married on March 17, 1905.Eleanor's father, Elliott, was deceased; Theodore, who was then president, gave away the bride.", "The young couple moved into Springwood.", "Franklin and Sara Roosevelt also provided a townhouse for the newlyweds in New York City, and Sara had a house built for herself alongside that townhouse.", "Eleanor never felt at home in the houses at Hyde Park or New York; however, she loved the family's vacation home on Campobello Island, which Sara also gave the couple.Burns indicates that young Franklin Roosevelt was self-assured and at ease in the upper class.", "On the other hand, Eleanor was shy and disliked social life.", "Initially, Eleanor stayed home to raise their children.", "As his father had done, Franklin left childcare to his wife, and Eleanor delegated the task to caregivers.", "She later said that she knew \"absolutely nothing about handling or feeding a baby.\"", "They had six children.", "Anna, James, and Elliott were born in 1906, 1907, and 1910, respectively.", "The couple's second son, Franklin, died in infancy in 1909.Another son, also named Franklin, was born in 1914, and the youngest, John, was born in 1916.Roosevelt had several extramarital affairs.", "He commenced an affair with Eleanor's social secretary, Lucy Mercer, soon after she was hired in 1914.That affair was discovered by Eleanor in 1918.Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected, and Mercer would not marry a divorced man with five children.", "Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and Franklin promised never to see Mercer again.", "Eleanor never forgave him for the affair, and their marriage shifted to become a political partnership.", "Eleanor soon established a separate home in Hyde Park at Val-Kill and devoted herself to social and political causes independent of her husband.", "The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Franklin asked Eleanor in 1942—in light of his failing health—to come live with him again, she refused.", "Roosevelt was not always aware of Eleanor's visits to the White House.", "For some time, Eleanor could not easily reach Roosevelt on the telephone without his secretary's help; Franklin, in turn, did not visit Eleanor's New York City apartment until late 1944.Franklin broke his promise to Eleanor regarding Lucy Mercer.", "He and Mercer maintained a formal correspondence and began seeing each other again by 1941.Roosevelt's son Elliott claimed that his father had a 20-year affair with his private secretary, Marguerite LeHand.", "Another son, James, stated that \"there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed\" between his father and Crown Princess Märtha of Norway, who resided in the White House during part of World War II.", "Aides referred to her at the time as \"the president's girlfriend\", and gossip linking the two romantically appeared in newspapers." ], [ "Early political career (1910–1920)", "===New York state senator (1910–1913)===Roosevelt in 1912Roosevelt cared little for the practice of law and told friends he planned to enter politics.", "Despite his admiration for cousin Theodore, Franklin shared his father's bond with the Democratic Party, and in preparation for the 1910 elections, the party recruited Roosevelt to run for a seat in the New York State Assembly.", "Roosevelt was a compelling recruit: he had the personality and energy for campaigning and the money to pay for his own campaign.", "But Roosevelt's campaign for the state assembly ended after the Democratic incumbent, Lewis Stuyvesant Chanler, chose to seek re-election.", "Rather than putting his political hopes on hold, Roosevelt ran for a seat in the state senate.", "The senate district, located in Dutchess, Columbia, and Putnam, was strongly Republican.", "Roosevelt feared that opposition from Theodore could end his campaign, but Theodore encouraged his candidacy despite their party differences.", "Acting as his own campaign manager, Roosevelt traveled throughout the senate district via automobile at a time when few could afford a car.", "Due to his aggressive campaign, his name gained recognition in the Hudson Valley, and in the Democratic landslide in the 1910 United States elections, Roosevelt won a surprising victory.Despite short legislative sessions, Roosevelt treated his new position as a full-time career.", "Taking his seat on January 1, 1911, Roosevelt soon became the leader of a group of \"Insurgents\" in opposition to the Tammany Hall machine that dominated the state Democratic Party.", "In the 1911 U.S. Senate election, which was determined in a joint session of the New York state legislature, Roosevelt and nineteen other Democrats caused a prolonged deadlock by opposing a series of Tammany-backed candidates.", "Tammany threw its backing behind James A. O'Gorman, a highly regarded judge whom Roosevelt found acceptable, and O'Gorman won the election in late March.", "Roosevelt in the process became a popular figure among New York Democrats.", "News articles and cartoons depicted \"the second coming of a Roosevelt\", sending \"cold shivers down the spine of Tammany\".Roosevelt also opposed Tammany Hall by supporting New Jersey Governor Woodrow Wilson's successful bid for the 1912 Democratic nomination.", "The election became a three-way contest when Theodore Roosevelt left the Republican Party to launch a third-party campaign against Wilson and sitting Republican President William Howard Taft.", "Franklin's decision to back Wilson over his cousin in the general election alienated some of his family, except Theodore.", "Roosevelt overcame a bout of typhoid fever that year and, with help from journalist Louis McHenry Howe, he was re-elected in the 1912 elections.", "After the election, he served as chairman of the Agriculture Committee; his success with farm and labor bills was a precursor to his later New Deal policies.", "He had then become more consistently progressive, in support of labor and social welfare programs.===Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1919)===Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1913Roosevelt's support of Wilson led to his appointment in March 1913 as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the second-ranking official in the Navy Department after Secretary Josephus Daniels who paid it little attention.", "Roosevelt had an affection for the Navy, was well-read on the subject, and was an ardent supporter of a large, efficient force.", "With Wilson's support, Daniels and Roosevelt instituted a merit-based promotion system and extended civilian control over the autonomous departments of the Navy.", "Roosevelt oversaw the Navy's civilian employees and earned the respect of union leaders for his fairness in resolving disputes.", "No strikes occurred during his seven-plus years in the office, as he gained valuable experience in labor issues, wartime management, naval issues, and logistics.In 1914, Roosevelt ran for the seat of retiring Republican Senator Elihu Root of New York.", "Though he had the backing of Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo and Governor Martin H. Glynn, he faced a formidable opponent in Tammany Hall's James W. Gerard.", "He also was without Wilson's support, as the president needed Tammany's forces for his legislation and 1916 re-election.", "Roosevelt was soundly defeated in the Democratic primary by Gerard, who in turn lost the general election to Republican James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.", "He learned that federal patronage alone, without White House support, could not defeat a strong local organization.", "After the election, he and Tammany Hall boss Charles Francis Murphy sought accommodation and became allies.Roosevelt refocused on the Navy Department as World War I broke out in Europe in August 1914.Though he remained publicly supportive of Wilson, Roosevelt sympathized with the Preparedness Movement, whose leaders strongly favored the Allied Powers and called for a military build-up.", "The Wilson administration initiated an expansion of the Navy after the sinking of the RMS Lusitania by a German submarine, and Roosevelt helped establish the United States Navy Reserve and the Council of National Defense.", "In April 1917, after Germany declared it would engage in unrestricted submarine warfare and attacked several U.S. ships, Congress approved Wilson's call for a declaration of war on Germany.Roosevelt requested that he be allowed to serve as a naval officer, but Wilson insisted that he continue as Assistant Secretary.", "For the next year, Roosevelt remained in Washington to coordinate the naval deployment, as the Navy expanded fourfold.", "In the summer of 1918, Roosevelt traveled to Europe to inspect naval installations and meet with French and British officials.", "In September, he returned to the United States on board the USS ''Leviathan''.", "On the 11-day voyage, pandemic influenza struck and killed many on board.", "Roosevelt became very ill with influenza and complicating pneumonia but recovered by the time the ship landed in New York.", "After Germany signed an armistice in November 1918, Daniels and Roosevelt supervised the demobilization of the Navy.", "Against the advice of older officers such as Admiral William Benson—who claimed he could not \"conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation\"—Roosevelt personally ordered the preservation of the Navy's Aviation Division.", "With the Wilson administration near an end, Roosevelt planned his next run for office.", "He approached Herbert Hoover about running for the 1920 Democratic presidential nomination, with Roosevelt as his running mate.===Campaign for vice president (1920)===Cox and Roosevelt in Ohio, 1920Roosevelt's plan for Hoover to run fell through after Hoover publicly declared himself to be a Republican, but Roosevelt decided to seek the 1920 vice presidential nomination.", "After Governor James M. Cox of Ohio won the party's presidential nomination at the 1920 Democratic National Convention, he chose Roosevelt as his running mate, and the convention nominated him by acclamation.", "Although his nomination surprised most people, he balanced the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a prohibitionist with a famous name.", "Roosevelt, then 38, resigned as Assistant Secretary after the Democratic convention and campaigned across the nation for the party ticket.During the campaign, Cox and Roosevelt defended the Wilson administration and the League of Nations, both of which were unpopular in 1920.Roosevelt personally supported U.S. membership in the League, but, unlike Wilson, he favored compromising with Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other \"Reservationists\".", "Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge defeated the Cox–Roosevelt ticket in the presidential election by a wide margin, carrying every state outside of the South.", "Roosevelt accepted the loss and later reflected that the relationships and goodwill that he built in the 1920 campaign proved to be a major asset in his 1932 campaign.", "The 1920 election also saw the first public participation of Eleanor Roosevelt who, with the support of Louis Howe, established herself as a valuable political player.", "After the election, Roosevelt returned to New York City, where he practiced law and served as a vice president of the Fidelity and Deposit Company." ], [ "Fallout from the Newport Sex Scandal (1921)", "Roosevelt's future political career came under threat when his role as head of Section A of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Navy in the Newport Sex Scandal became public knowledge.", "Secretary Daniels had created Section A, commonly known as the Newport Sex Squad, in 1919 to investigate homosexual activity at the U.S. naval base in Newport, Rhode Island.", "Investigations by both a naval board of inquiry and the U.S. Senate Committee on Naval Affairs revealed a pattern of entrapment and intimidation by forty-one operatives acting under Roosevelt's authority.", "In 1921, the Senate Committee's final report concluded that Roosevelt's \"direct supervision\" made him \"morally responsible\" for these abuses and even suggested that he was unfit to hold any public office.", "The front-page story on the report in ''The New York Times'' on July 23, 1921, featured the headline, \"Lay Navy Scandal to F. D. Roosevelt — Details Are Unprintable.\"" ], [ "Paralytic illness and political comeback (1921–1928)", "Fala and Ruthie Bie, the daughter of caretakers at his Hyde Park estate, February 1941 Roosevelt sought to build support for a political comeback in the 1922 elections, but his career was derailed by an illness which began less than three weeks after the U.S. Senate Committee on Naval Affairs issued its final report the Newport Sex Scandal.", "It began while the Roosevelts were vacationing at Campobello Island in August 1921.His main symptoms were fever; symmetric, ascending paralysis; facial paralysis; bowel and bladder dysfunction; numbness and hyperesthesia; and a descending pattern of recovery.", "Roosevelt was left permanently paralyzed from the waist down and was diagnosed with polio.", "A 2003 study strongly favored a diagnosis of Guillain–Barré syndrome, but historians have continued to describe his paralysis according to the initial diagnosis.Though his mother favored his retirement from public life, Roosevelt, his wife, and Roosevelt's close friend and adviser, Louis Howe, were all determined that he continue his political career.", "He convinced many people that he was improving, which he believed to be essential prior to running for office.", "He laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs, by swiveling his torso while supporting himself with a cane.", "He was careful never to be seen using his wheelchair in public, and great care was taken to prevent any portrayal in the press that would highlight his disability.", "However, his disability was well known before and during his presidency and became a major part of his image.", "He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons.Beginning in 1925, Roosevelt spent most of his time in the Southern United States, at first on his houseboat, the ''Larooco''.", "Intrigued by the potential benefits of hydrotherapy, he established a rehabilitation center at Warm Springs, Georgia, in 1926, assembling a staff of physical therapists and using most of his inheritance to purchase the Merriweather Inn.", "In 1938, he founded the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, leading to the development of polio vaccines.Roosevelt remained active in New York politics while also establishing contacts in the South, particularly in Georgia, in the 1920s.", "He issued an open letter endorsing Al Smith's successful campaign in New York's 1922 gubernatorial election, which both aided Smith and showed Roosevelt's continuing relevance as a political figure.", "Roosevelt and Smith came from different backgrounds and never fully trusted one another, but Roosevelt supported Smith's progressive policies, while Smith was happy to have Roosevelt's backing.Roosevelt gave presidential nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions; the speech at the 1924 convention marked a return to public life following his illness and convalescence.", "That year, the Democrats were badly divided between an urban wing, led by Smith, and a conservative, rural wing, led by William Gibbs McAdoo.", "On the 101st ballot, the nomination went to John W. Davis, a compromise candidate who suffered a landslide defeat in the 1924 presidential election.", "Like many throughout the United States, Roosevelt did not abstain from alcohol during the Prohibition era, but publicly he sought to find a compromise on Prohibition acceptable to both wings of the party.In 1925, Smith appointed Roosevelt to the Taconic State Park Commission, and his fellow commissioners chose him as chairman.", "In this role, he came into conflict with Robert Moses, a Smith protégé, who was the primary force behind the Long Island State Park Commission and the New York State Council of Parks.", "Roosevelt accused Moses of using the name recognition of prominent individuals including Roosevelt to win political support for state parks, but then diverting funds to the ones Moses favored on Long Island, while Moses worked to block the appointment of Howe to a salaried position as the Taconic commission's secretary.", "Roosevelt served on the commission until the end of 1928, and his contentious relationship with Moses continued as their careers progressed.In 1923 Edward Bok established the $100,000 American Peace Award for the best plan to deliver world peace.", "Roosevelt had leisure time and interest, and he drafted a plan for the contest.", "He never submitted it because Eleanor was selected as a judge for the prize.", "His plan called for a new world organization that would replace the League of Nations.", "Although Roosevelt had been the vice-presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket of 1920 that supported the League, by 1924 he was ready to scrap it.", "His draft of a \"Society of Nations\" accepted the reservations proposed by Henry Cabot Lodge in the 1919 Senate debate.", "The new Society would not become involved in the Western Hemisphere, where the Monroe doctrine held sway.", "It would not have any control over military forces.", "Although Roosevelt's plan was never made public, he thought about the problem a great deal and incorporated some of his 1924 ideas into the design for the United Nations in 1944–1945." ], [ "Governor of New York (1929–1932)", "Gov.", "Roosevelt with his predecessor Al Smith, 1930Smith, the Democratic presidential nominee in the 1928 election, asked Roosevelt to run for governor of New York in the 1928 state election.", "Roosevelt initially resisted, as he was reluctant to leave Warm Springs and feared a Republican landslide.", "Party leaders eventually convinced him only he could defeat the Republican gubernatorial nominee, New York Attorney General Albert Ottinger.", "He won the party's gubernatorial nomination by acclamation and again turned to Howe to lead his campaign.", "Roosevelt was joined on the campaign trail by associates Samuel Rosenman, Frances Perkins, and James Farley.", "While Smith lost the presidency in a landslide, and was defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was elected governor by a one-percent margin, and became a contender in the next presidential election.Roosevelt proposed the construction of hydroelectric power plants and addressed the ongoing farm crisis of the 1920s.", "Relations between Roosevelt and Smith suffered after he chose not to retain key Smith appointees like Moses.", "He and his wife Eleanor established an understanding for the rest of his career; she would dutifully serve as the governor's wife but would also be free to pursue her own agenda and interests.", "He also began holding \"fireside chats\", in which he directly addressed his constituents via radio, often pressuring the New York State Legislature to advance his agenda.In October 1929, the Wall Street Crash occurred and the Great Depression in the United States began.", "Roosevelt saw the seriousness of the situation and established a state employment commission.", "He also became the first governor to publicly endorse the idea of unemployment insurance.When Roosevelt began his run for a second term in May 1930, he reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: \"that progressive government by its very terms must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never-ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization.\"", "His platform called for aid to farmers, full employment, unemployment insurance, and old-age pensions.", "He was elected to a second term by a 14% margin.Roosevelt proposed an economic relief package and the establishment of the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to distribute those funds.", "Led first by Jesse I. Straus and then by Harry Hopkins, the agency assisted over one-third of New York's population between 1932 and 1938.Roosevelt also began an investigation into corruption in New York City among the judiciary, the police force, and organized crime, prompting the creation of the Seabury Commission.", "The Seabury investigations exposed an extortion ring, led many public officials to be removed from office, and made the decline of Tammany Hall inevitable.", "Roosevelt supported reforestation with the Hewitt Amendment in 1931, which gave birth to New York's State Forest system." ], [ "1932 presidential election", "Roosevelt in the early 1930sAs the 1932 presidential election approached, Roosevelt turned his attention to national politics, established a campaign team led by Howe and Farley, and a \"brain trust\" of policy advisers, primarily composed of Columbia University and Harvard University professors.", "Some were not so sanguine about his chances, such as Walter Lippmann, the dean of political commentators, who observed: \"He is a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be president.", "\"However, Roosevelt's efforts as governor to address the effects of the depression in his own state established him as the front-runner for the 1932 Democratic presidential nomination.", "Roosevelt rallied the progressive supporters of the Wilson administration while also appealing to many conservatives, establishing himself as the leading candidate in the South and West.", "The chief opposition to Roosevelt's candidacy came from Northeastern conservatives, Speaker of the House John Nance Garner of Texas and Al Smith, the 1928 Democratic presidential nominee.Roosevelt entered the convention with a delegate lead due to his success in the 1932 Democratic primaries, but most delegates entered the convention unbound to any particular candidate.", "On the first presidential ballot, Roosevelt received the votes of more than half but less than two-thirds of the delegates, with Smith finishing in a distant second place.", "Roosevelt then promised the vice-presidential nomination to Garner, who controlled the votes of Texas and California; Garner threw his support behind Roosevelt after the third ballot, and Roosevelt clinched the nomination on the fourth ballot.", "Roosevelt flew in from New York to Chicago after learning that he had won the nomination, becoming the first major-party presidential nominee to accept the nomination in person.", "His appearance was essential, to show himself as vigorous, despite his physical disability.In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared, \"I pledge you, I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people...", "This is more than a political campaign.", "It is a call to arms.\"", "Roosevelt promised securities regulation, tariff reduction, farm relief, government-funded public works, and other government actions to address the Great Depression.", "Reflecting changing public opinion, the Democratic platform included a call for the repeal of Prohibition; Roosevelt himself had not taken a public stand on the issue prior to the convention but promised to uphold the party platform.", "Otherwise, Roosevelt's primary campaign strategy was one of caution, intent upon avoiding mistakes that would distract from Hoover's failings on the economy.", "His statements attacked the incumbent and included no other specific policies or programs.After the convention, Roosevelt won endorsements from several progressive Republicans, including George W. Norris, Hiram Johnson, and Robert La Follette Jr.", "He also reconciled with the party's conservative wing, and even Al Smith was persuaded to support the Democratic ticket.", "Hoover's handling of the Bonus Army further damaged the incumbent's popularity, as newspapers across the country criticized the use of force to disperse assembled veterans.1932 electoral vote resultsRoosevelt won 57% of the popular vote and carried all but six states.", "Historians and political scientists consider the 1932–36 elections to be a political realignment.", "Roosevelt's victory was enabled by the creation of the New Deal coalition, small farmers, the Southern whites, Catholics, big-city political machines, labor unions, northern black Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals, and political liberals.", "The creation of the New Deal coalition transformed American politics and started what political scientists call the \"New Deal Party System\" or the Fifth Party System.", "Between the Civil War and 1929, Democrats had rarely controlled both houses of Congress and had won just four of seventeen presidential elections; from 1932 to 1979, Democrats won eight of twelve presidential elections and generally controlled both houses of Congress.===Transition and assassination attempt===Roosevelt was elected in November 1932 but like his predecessors did not take office until the following March.", "After the election, President Hoover sought to convince Roosevelt to renounce much of his campaign platform and to endorse the Hoover administration's policies.", "Roosevelt refused Hoover's request to develop a joint program to stop the economic decline, claiming that it would tie his hands and that Hoover had the power to act.During the transition, Roosevelt chose Howe as his chief of staff, and Farley as Postmaster General.", "Frances Perkins, as Secretary of Labor, became the first woman appointed to a cabinet position.", "William H. Woodin, a Republican industrialist close to Roosevelt, was chosen for Secretary of the Treasury, while Roosevelt chose Senator Cordell Hull of Tennessee as Secretary of State.", "Harold L. Ickes and Henry A. Wallace, two progressive Republicans, were selected for Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Agriculture, respectively.In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt by Giuseppe Zangara, who expressed a \"hate for all rulers.\"", "As he was attempting to shoot Roosevelt, Zangara was struck by a woman with her purse; he instead mortally wounded Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak, who was sitting alongside Roosevelt." ], [ "Presidency (1933–1945)", "As president, Roosevelt appointed powerful men to top positions in government.", "However, he made all of his administration's major decisions himself, regardless of any delays, inefficiencies, or resentments doing so may have caused.", "Analyzing the president's administrative style, Burns concludes:===First and second terms (1933–1941)===When Roosevelt was inaugurated on March 4, 1933, the U.S. was at the nadir of the worst depression in its history.", "A quarter of the workforce was unemployed, and farmers were in deep trouble as prices had fallen by 60%.", "Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929.Two million people were homeless.", "By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states—as well as the District of Columbia—had closed their banks.Historians categorized Roosevelt's program as \"relief, recovery, and reform.\"", "Relief was urgently needed by the unemployed.", "Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal, and reform was required of the financial and banking systems.", "Through Roosevelt's 30 \"fireside chats\", he presented his proposals directly to the American public as a series of radio addresses.", "Energized by his own victory over paralytic illness, he used persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit.====First New Deal (1933–1934)====On his second day in office, Roosevelt declared a four-day national \"bank holiday\", to end the run by depositors seeking to withdraw funds.", "He called for a special session of Congress on March 9, when Congress passed, almost sight unseen, the Emergency Banking Act.", "The act, first developed by the Hoover administration and Wall Street bankers, gave the president the power to determine the opening and closing of banks and authorized the Federal Reserve Banks to issue banknotes.", "The \"first 100 Days\" of the 73rd United States Congress saw an unprecedented amount of legislation and set a benchmark against which future presidents have been compared.", "When the banks reopened on Monday, March 15, stock prices rose by 15 percent and in the following weeks over $1 billion was returned to bank vaults, ending the bank panic.", "On March 22, Roosevelt signed the Cullen–Harrison Act, which brought Prohibition to a close.Collection of video clips of RooseveltRoosevelt saw the establishment of a number of agencies and measures designed to provide relief for the unemployed and others.", "The Federal Emergency Relief Administration, under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, distributed relief to state governments.", "The Public Works Administration (PWA), under Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, oversaw the construction of large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, and schools.", "The Rural Electrification Administration (REA) brought electricity for the first time to millions of rural homes.", "The most popular of all New Deal agencies—and Roosevelt's favorite—was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed men for rural projects.", "Roosevelt also expanded Hoover's Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which financed railroads and industry.", "Congress gave the Federal Trade Commission broad regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners.", "Roosevelt also set up the Agricultural Adjustment Administration to increase commodity prices, by paying farmers to leave land uncultivated and cut herds.", "In many instances, crops were plowed under and livestock killed, while many Americans died of hunger and were ill-clothed; critics labeled such policies \"utterly idiotic.", "\"Reform of the economy was the goal of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933.It sought to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to establish rules such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions.", "Industry leaders negotiated the rules with NIRA officials, who suspended antitrust laws in return for better wages.", "The Supreme Court in May 1935 declared NIRA unconstitutional, to Roosevelt's chagrin.", "He reformed financial regulations with the Glass–Steagall Act, creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to underwrite savings deposits.", "The act also limited affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms.", "In 1934, the Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate the trading of securities, while the Federal Communications Commission was established to regulate telecommunications.The NIRA included $3.3 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) of spending through the Public Works Administration to support recovery.", "Roosevelt worked with Senator Norris to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history—the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)—which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley.", "However, locals criticized the TVA for displacing thousands of people for these projects.", "The Soil Conservation Service trained farmers in the proper methods of cultivation, and with the TVA, Roosevelt became the father of soil conservation.", "Executive Order 6102 declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the U.S. Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce.", "The goal was to counter the deflation which was paralyzing the economy.Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the federal budget.", "This included a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40% cut in spending on veterans benefits.", "500,000 veterans and widows were removed from the pension rolls, and benefits were reduced for the remainder.", "Federal salaries were cut and spending on research and education was reduced.", "The veterans were well organized and strongly protested, so most benefits were restored or increased by 1934.Veterans groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars won their campaign to transform their benefits from payments due in 1945 to immediate cash when Congress overrode the President's veto and passed the Bonus Act in January 1936.It pumped sums equal to 2% of the GDP into the consumer economy and had a major stimulus effect.====Second New Deal (1935–1936)====Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act into law, August 14, 1935.Roosevelt expected that his party would lose seats in the 1934 Congressional elections, as the president's party had done in most previous midterm elections; the Democrats gained seats instead.", "Empowered by the public's vote of confidence, the first item on Roosevelt's agenda in the 74th Congress was the creation of a social insurance program.", "The Social Security Act established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor, and the sick.", "Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund, saying, \"We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits.", "With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program.\"", "Compared with the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative.", "But for the first time, the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children, and disabled people.", "Against Roosevelt's original intention for universal coverage, the act excluded farmers, domestic workers, and other groups, which made up about forty percent of the labor force.Roosevelt consolidated the various relief organizations, though some, like the PWA, continued to exist.", "After winning Congressional authorization for further funding of relief efforts, he established the Works Progress Administration (WPA).", "Under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, the WPA employed over three million people in its first year of operations.", "It undertook numerous massive construction projects in cooperation with local governments.", "It also set up the National Youth Administration and arts organizations.1936 re-election handbill for Roosevelt promoting his economic policyThe National Labor Relations Act guaranteed workers the right to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice.", "The act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and suppress repeated labor disturbances.", "The act did not compel employers to reach an agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor.", "The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass-production sector.", "When the Flint sit-down strike threatened the production of General Motors, Roosevelt broke with the precedent set by many former presidents and refused to intervene; the strike ultimately led to the unionization of both General Motors and its rivals in the American automobile industry.While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community.", "Conservative Democrats, led by Al Smith, fought back with the American Liberty League, savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with socialism.", "But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, strengthening Roosevelt for the 1936 landslide.", "By contrast, labor unions, energized by labor legislation, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's re-elections in 1936, 1940, and 1944.Burns suggests that Roosevelt's policy decisions were guided more by pragmatism than ideology and that he \"was like the general of a guerrilla army whose columns, fighting blindly in the mountains through dense ravines and thickets, suddenly converge, half by plan and half by coincidence, and debouch into the plain below.\"", "Roosevelt argued that such apparently haphazard methodology was necessary.", "\"The country needs and, unless I mistake its temper, the country demands bold, persistent experimentation,\" he wrote.", "\"It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another.", "But above all, try something.", "\"====Election of 1936====1936 electoral vote resultsEight million workers remained unemployed in 1936, and though economic conditions had improved since 1932, they remained sluggish.", "By 1936, Roosevelt had lost the backing he once held in the business community because of his support for the NLRB and the Social Security Act.", "The Republicans had few alternative candidates and nominated Kansas Governor Alf Landon, a little-known bland candidate whose chances were damaged by the public re-emergence of the still-unpopular Herbert Hoover.", "While Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs and continued to attack Hoover, Landon sought to win voters who approved of the goals of the New Deal but disagreed with its implementation.An attempt by Louisiana Senator Huey Long to organize a left-wing third party collapsed after Long's assassination in 1935.The remnants, helped by Father Charles Coughlin, supported William Lemke of the newly formed Union Party.", "Roosevelt won re-nomination with little opposition at the 1936 Democratic National Convention, while his allies overcame Southern resistance to abolish the long-established rule that required Democratic presidential candidates to win the votes of two-thirds of the delegates rather than a simple majority.In the election against Landon and a third-party candidate, Roosevelt won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont.", "The Democratic ticket won the highest proportion of the popular vote.", "Democrats expanded their majorities in Congress, controlling over three-quarters of the seats in each house.", "The election also saw the consolidation of the New Deal coalition; while the Democrats lost some of their traditional allies in big business, they were replaced by groups such as organized labor and African Americans, the latter of whom voted Democratic for the first time since the Civil War.", "Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but made major gains among the poor and minorities.", "He won 86 percent of the Jewish vote, 81 percent of Catholics, 80 percent of union members, 76 percent of Southerners, 76 percent of blacks in northern cities, and 75 percent of people on relief.", "Roosevelt carried 102 of the country's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more.====Supreme Court fight and second term legislation====The Supreme Court became Roosevelt's primary domestic focus during his second term after the court overturned many of his programs, including NIRA.", "The more conservative members of the court upheld the principles of the Lochner era, which saw numerous economic regulations struck down on the basis of freedom of contract.", "Roosevelt proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, which would have allowed him to appoint an additional Justice for each incumbent Justice over the age of 70; in 1937, there were six Supreme Court Justices over the age of 70.The size of the Court had been set at nine since the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1869, and Congress had altered the number of Justices six other times throughout U.S. history.", "Roosevelt's \"court packing\" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner since it upset the separation of powers.", "A bipartisan coalition of liberals and conservatives of both parties opposed the bill, and Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes broke with precedent by publicly advocating the defeat of the bill.", "Any chance of passing the bill ended with the death of Senate Majority Leader Joseph Taylor Robinson in July 1937.Starting with the 1937 case of ''West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish'', the court began to take a more favorable view of economic regulations.", "Historians have described this as, \"the switch in time that saved nine.\"", "That same year, Roosevelt appointed a Supreme Court Justice for the first time, and by 1941, had appointed seven of the court's nine justices.", "After ''Parrish'', the Court shifted its focus from judicial review of economic regulations to the protection of civil liberties.", "Four of Roosevelt's Supreme Court appointees, Felix Frankfurter, Robert H. Jackson,Hugo Black, and William O. Douglas, were particularly influential in reshaping the jurisprudence of the Court.With Roosevelt's influence on the wane following the failure of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, conservative Democrats joined with Republicans to block the implementation of further New Deal programs.", "Roosevelt did manage to pass some legislation, including the Housing Act of 1937, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which was the last major piece of New Deal legislation.", "The FLSA outlawed child labor, established a federal minimum wage, and required overtime pay for certain employees who work in excess of forty hours per week.", "He also passed the Reorganization Act of 1939 and subsequently created the Executive Office of the President, making it \"the nerve center of the federal administrative system.\"", "When the economy began to deteriorate again in mid-1937, Roosevelt launched a rhetorical campaign against big business and monopoly power, alleging that the recession was the result of a capital strike and even ordering the Federal Bureau of Investigation to look for a criminal conspiracy (they found none).", "He then asked Congress for $5 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) in relief and public works funding.", "This created as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938.Projects accomplished under the WPA ranged from new federal courthouses and post offices to facilities and infrastructure for national parks, bridges, and other infrastructure across the country, and architectural surveys and archaeological excavations—investments to construct facilities and preserve important resources.", "Beyond this, however, Roosevelt recommended to a special congressional session only a permanent national farm act, administrative reorganization, and regional planning measures, all of which were leftovers from a regular session.", "According to Burns, this attempt illustrated Roosevelt's inability to settle on a basic economic program.Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress, Roosevelt became involved in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform.", "Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one of the ten targeted.", "In the November 1938 elections, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats, with losses concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats.", "When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator Robert Taft formed a Conservative coalition with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to enact his domestic proposals.", "Despite their opposition to Roosevelt's domestic policies, many of these conservative Congressmen would provide crucial support for his foreign policy before and during World War II.====Conservation and the environment====Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate.", "Although he was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on Theodore Roosevelt's scale, his growth of the national systems was comparable.", "When Franklin was Governor of New York, the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration was essentially a state-level predecessor of the federal Civilian Conservation Corps, with 10,000 or more men building fire trails, combating soil erosion and planting tree seedlings in marginal farmland in New York.", "As President, Roosevelt was active in expanding, funding, and promoting the National Park and National Forest systems.", "Their popularity soared, from three million visitors a year at the start of the decade to 15.5 million in 1939.The Civilian Conservation Corps enrolled 3.4 million young men and built of trails, planted two billion trees, and upgraded of dirt roads.", "Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems.====GNP and unemployment rates====+Unemployment ratesYearLebergottDarby''1929''''3.2''''3.2''''1932''''23.6''''22.9''193324.920.6193421.716.0193520.114.2193616.99.9193714.39.1193819.012.5193917.211.3194014.69.5Government spending increased from 8.0% of the gross national product (GNP) under Hoover in 1932 to 10.2% in 1936.The national debt as a percentage of the GNP had more than doubled under Hoover from 16% to 40% of the GNP in early 1933.It held steady at close to 40% as late as fall 1941, then grew rapidly during the war.", "The GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war.", "That is, the economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940, and then grew 56% from 1940 to 1945 in five years of wartime.", "Unemployment fell dramatically during Roosevelt's first term.", "It increased in 1938 (\"a depression within a depression\") but continually declined after 1938.Total employment during Roosevelt's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3%.====Foreign policy (1933–1941)====Roosevelt with Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas and other dignitaries in Brazil, 1936The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the Good Neighbor Policy, which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy toward Latin America.", "The United States frequently intervened in Latin America following the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, and occupied several Latin American nations during the Banana Wars that occurred following the Spanish–American War of 1898.After Roosevelt took office, he withdrew U.S. forces from Haiti and reached new treaties with Cuba and Panama, ending their status as U.S. protectorates.", "In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries.", "Roosevelt also normalized relations with the Soviet Union, which the United States had refused to recognize since the 1920s.", "He hoped to renegotiate the Russian debt from World War I and open trade relations, but no progress was made on either issue and \"both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord.", "\"The rejection of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 marked the dominance of non-interventionism in American foreign policy.", "Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and Secretary of State Cordell Hull acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment.", "The isolationist movement was bolstered in the early to mid-1930s by Senator Gerald Nye and others who succeeded in their effort to stop the \"merchants of death\" in the U.S. from selling arms abroad.", "This effort took the form of the Neutrality Acts; the president was refused a provision he requested giving him the discretion to allow the sale of arms to victims of aggression.", "He largely acquiesced to Congress's non-interventionist policies in the early-to-mid 1930s.", "In the interim, Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini proceeded to overcome Ethiopia, and the Italians joined Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler in supporting General Francisco Franco and the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War.", "As that conflict drew to a close in early 1939, Roosevelt expressed regret in not aiding the Spanish Republicans.", "When Japan invaded China in 1937, isolationism limited Roosevelt's ability to aid China, despite atrocities like the Nanking Massacre and the USS ''Panay'' incident.The Roosevelts with King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, sailing from Washington, D.C., to Mount Vernon, Virginia, on the USS ''Potomac'' during the first U.S. visit of a reigning British monarch (June 9, 1939)Foreign trips of Roosevelt during his presidencyGermany annexed Austria in 1938, and soon turned its attention to its eastern neighbors.", "Roosevelt made it clear that, in the event of German aggression against Czechoslovakia, the U.S. would remain neutral.", "After completion of the Munich Agreement and the execution of Kristallnacht, American public opinion turned against Germany, and Roosevelt began preparing for a possible war with Germany.", "Relying on an interventionist political coalition of Southern Democrats and business-oriented Republicans, Roosevelt oversaw the expansion of U.S. airpower and war production capacity.When World War II began in September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland and Britain and France's declaration of war on Germany, Roosevelt sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily.", "Isolationist leaders like Charles Lindbergh and Senator William Borah successfully mobilized opposition to Roosevelt's proposed repeal of the Neutrality Act, but Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the sale of arms on a cash-and-carry basis.", "He also began a regular secret correspondence with Britain's First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, in September 1939—the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them.", "Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in May 1940.The Fall of France in June 1940 shocked the American public, and isolationist sentiment declined.", "In July 1940, Roosevelt appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, Henry L. Stimson and Frank Knox, as Secretaries of War and the Navy, respectively.", "Both parties gave support to his plans for a rapid build-up of the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany.", "In July 1940, a group of Congressmen introduced a bill that would authorize the nation's first peacetime draft, and with the support of the Roosevelt administration, the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 passed in September.", "The size of the army increased from 189,000 men at the end of 1939 to 1.4 million in mid-1941.In September 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by reaching the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 American destroyers to Britain.====Election of 1940====In the months prior to the July 1940 Democratic National Convention, there was much speculation as to whether Roosevelt would run for an unprecedented third term.", "The two-term tradition, although not yet enshrined in the Constitution, had been established by George Washington when he refused to run for a third term in 1796.Roosevelt refused to give a definitive statement, and he even indicated to some ambitious Democrats, such as James Farley, that he would not run for a third term and that they could seek the Democratic nomination.", "Farley and Vice President John Garner were not pleased with Roosevelt when he ultimately made the decision to break from Washington's precedent.", "As Germany swept through Western Europe and menaced Britain in mid-1940, Roosevelt decided that only he had the necessary experience and skills to see the nation safely through the Nazi threat.", "He was aided by the party's political bosses, who feared that no Democrat except Roosevelt could defeat Wendell Willkie, the popular Republican nominee.1940 electoral vote resultsAt the July 1940 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt easily swept aside challenges from Farley and Vice President Garner, who had turned against Roosevelt in his second term because of his liberal economic and social policies.", "To replace Garner on the ticket, Roosevelt turned to Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace of Iowa, a former Republican who strongly supported the New Deal and was popular in farm states.", "The choice was strenuously opposed by many of the party's conservatives, who felt Wallace was too radical and \"eccentric\" in his private life.", "But Roosevelt insisted that without Wallace on the ticket he would decline re-nomination, and Wallace won the vice-presidential nomination, defeating Speaker of the House William B. Bankhead and other candidates.A late August poll taken by Gallup found the race to be essentially tied, but Roosevelt's popularity surged in September following the announcement of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement.", "Willkie supported much of the New Deal as well as rearmament and aid to Britain but warned that Roosevelt would drag the country into another European war.", "Responding to Willkie's attacks, Roosevelt promised to keep the country out of the war.", "Over its last month, the campaign degenerated into a series of outrageous accusations and mud-slinging by the parties.", "Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote, 38 of the 48 states, and almost 85% of the electoral vote.===Third and fourth terms (1941–1945)===World War II dominated Roosevelt's attention, with far more time devoted to world affairs than ever before.", "Domestic politics and relations with Congress were largely shaped by his efforts to achieve total mobilization of the nation's economic, financial, and institutional resources for the war effort.", "Even relationships with Latin America and Canada were structured by wartime demands.", "Roosevelt maintained close personal control of all major diplomatic and military decisions, working closely with his generals and admirals, the war and Navy departments, the British, and even the Soviet Union.", "His key advisors on diplomacy were Harry Hopkins in the White House, Sumner Welles in the State Department, and Henry Morgenthau Jr. at Treasury.", "In military affairs, Roosevelt worked most closely with Secretary Henry L. Stimson at the War Department, Army Chief of Staff George Marshall, and Admiral William D. Leahy.====Lead-up to the war====By late 1940, re-armament was in high gear, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the \"Arsenal of Democracy\" for Britain and other countries.", "With his Four Freedoms speech in January 1941, Roosevelt laid out the case for an Allied battle for basic rights throughout the world.", "Assisted by Willkie, Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the Lend-Lease program, which directed massive military and economic aid to Britain and China.", "In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment.", "As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against Japan, Germany, and Italy, American isolationists such as Charles Lindbergh and the America First Committee vehemently attacked Roosevelt as an irresponsible warmonger.", "When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt agreed to extend Lend-Lease to the Soviets.", "Thus, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of \"all aid short of war.\"", "By July 1941, Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs to counter perceived propaganda efforts in Latin America by Germany and Italy.In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a secret bilateral meeting in which they drafted the Atlantic Charter, conceptually outlining global wartime and postwar goals.", "This would be the first of several wartime conferences; Churchill and Roosevelt would meet ten more times in person.", "Though Churchill pressed for an American declaration of war against Germany, Roosevelt believed that Congress would reject any attempt to bring the U.S. into the war.", "In September, a German submarine fired on the U.S. destroyer ''Greer'', and Roosevelt declared that the U.S. Navy would assume an escort role for Allied convoys in the Atlantic as far east as Britain and would fire upon German ships or U-boats of the Kriegsmarine if they entered the U.S. Navy zone.", "According to historian George Donelson Moss, Roosevelt \"misled\" Americans by reporting the Greer incident as an unprovoked German attack on a peaceful American ship.", "This \"shoot on sight\" policy effectively declared naval war on Germany and was favored by Americans by a margin of 2-to-1.====Pearl Harbor and declarations of war====Roosevelt and Winston Churchill aboard HMS ''Prince of Wales'' for 1941 Atlantic Charter meetingAfter the German invasion of Poland, the primary concern of both Roosevelt and his top military staff was on the war in Europe, but Japan also presented foreign policy challenges.", "Relations with Japan had continually deteriorated since its invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and worsened further with Roosevelt's support of China.", "With the war in Europe occupying the attention of the major colonial powers, Japanese leaders eyed vulnerable colonies such as the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and British Malaya.", "After Roosevelt announced a $100 million loan (equivalent to $ billion in ) to China in reaction to Japan's occupation of northern French Indochina, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy.", "The pact bound each country to defend the others against attack, and Germany, Japan, and Italy became known as the Axis powers.", "Overcoming those who favored invading the Soviet Union, the Japanese Army high command successfully advocated for the conquest of Southeast Asia to ensure continued access to raw materials.", "In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of French Indochina, Roosevelt cut off the sale of oil to Japan, depriving Japan of more than 95 percent of its oil supply.", "He also placed the Philippine military under American command and reinstated General Douglas MacArthur into active duty to command U.S. forces in the Philippines.The Japanese were incensed by the embargo and Japanese leaders became determined to attack the United States unless it lifted the embargo.", "The Roosevelt administration was unwilling to reverse the policy, and Secretary of State Hull blocked a potential summit between Roosevelt and Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe.", "After diplomatic efforts failed, the Privy Council of Japan authorized a strike against the United States.", "The Japanese believed that the destruction of the United States Asiatic Fleet (stationed in the Philippines) and the United States Pacific Fleet (stationed at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii) was vital to the conquest of Southeast Asia.", "On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, knocking out the main American battleship fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians.", "At the same time, separate Japanese task forces attacked Thailand, British Hong Kong, the Philippines, and other targets.", "Roosevelt called for war in his \"Infamy Speech\" to Congress, in which he said: \"Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.\"", "In a nearly unanimous vote, Congress declared war on Japan.", "After Pearl Harbor, antiwar sentiment in the United States largely evaporated overnight.", "On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States, which responded in kind.A majority of scholars have rejected the conspiracy theories that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the attack on Pearl Harbor, though this was contradicted by information contained in British-Australian author Jesse Fink's 2023 biography of Dick Ellis, ''The Eagle in the Mirror''.", "Ellis was an Australian-born intelligence officer for MI6 who helped William Donovan set up the Office of Strategic Services and served as deputy to William Stephenson at British Security Co-ordination in New York.", "In the book, Ellis is quoted as saying: ‘Stephenson was convinced from the information that was reaching him that this attack was imminent, and through Jimmy Roosevelt, President Roosevelt’s son, he passed this information to the President.", "Now whether the President at that time had other information which corroborated this... it’s impossible to say.", "'The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded.", "Senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, but they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Roosevelt had expected that the Japanese would attack either the Dutch East Indies or Thailand.", "====War plans====Territory controlled by the Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in June 1942In late December 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met at the Arcadia Conference, which established a joint strategy between the U.S. and Britain.Both agreed on a Europe first strategy that prioritized the defeat of Germany before Japan.", "The U.S. and Britain established the Combined Chiefs of Staff to coordinate military policy and the Combined Munitions Assignments Board to coordinate the allocation of supplies.", "An agreement was also reached to establish a centralized command in the Pacific theater called ABDA, named for the American, British, Dutch, and Australian forces in the theater.", "On January 1, 1942, the United States and the other Allied Powers issued the Declaration by United Nations, in which each nation pledged to defeat the Axis powers.In 1942, Roosevelt formed a new body, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which made the final decisions on American military strategy.", "Admiral Ernest J.", "King as Chief of Naval Operations commanded the Navy and Marines, while General George C. Marshall led the Army and was in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General Hap Arnold.", "The Joint Chiefs were chaired by Admiral William D. Leahy, the most senior officer in the military.", "Roosevelt avoided micromanaging the war and let his top military officers make most decisions.", "Roosevelt's civilian appointees handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians—not even the secretaries of War or Navy—had a voice in strategy.", "Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high-level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins, whose influence was bolstered by his control of the Lend-Lease funds.====Nuclear program====In August 1939, Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein sent the Einstein–Szilárd letter to Roosevelt, warning of the possibility of a German project to develop nuclear weapons.", "Szilard realized that the recently discovered process of nuclear fission could be used to create a weapon of mass destruction.", "Roosevelt feared the consequences of allowing Germany to have sole possession of the technology and authorized preliminary research into nuclear weapons.", "After Pearl Harbor, the Roosevelt administration secured funding to continue research and selected General Leslie Groves to oversee the Manhattan Project, which was charged with developing the first nuclear weapons.", "Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to jointly pursue the project, and Roosevelt helped ensure that American scientists cooperated with their British counterparts.====Wartime conferences====Roosevelt coined the term \"Four Policemen\" to refer to the \"Big Four\" Allied powers of World War II\" the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China.", "The \"Big Three\" of Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, together with Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the Eastern front; and Chinese, British and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific.", "The United States also continued to send aid via the Lend-Lease program to the Soviet Union and other countries.", "The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high-profile conferences as well as by contact through diplomatic and military channels.", "Beginning in May 1942, the Soviets urged an Anglo-American invasion of German-occupied France to divert troops from the Eastern front.", "Concerned that their forces were not yet ready, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to delay such an invasion until at least 1943 and instead focus on a landing in North Africa, known as Operation Torch.In November 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss strategy and post-war plans at the Tehran Conference, where Roosevelt met Stalin for the first time.", "Britain and the United States committed to opening a second front against Germany in 1944, while Stalin committed to entering the war against Japan at an unspecified date.", "Subsequent conferences at Bretton Woods and Dumbarton Oaks established the framework for the post-war international monetary system and the United Nations, an intergovernmental organization similar to the failed League of Nations.", "Taking up the Wilsonian mantle, Roosevelt pushed the establishment of the United Nations as his highest postwar priority.", "Roosevelt expected it would be controlled by Washington, Moscow, London and Beijing, and would resolve all major world problems.Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for a second time at the February 1945 Yalta Conference in Crimea.", "With the end of the war in Europe approaching, Roosevelt's primary focus was convincing Stalin to enter the war against Japan; the Joint Chiefs had estimated that an American invasion of Japan would cause as many as one million American casualties.", "In return, the Soviet Union was promised control of Asian territories such as Sakhalin Island.", "The three leaders agreed to hold a conference in 1945 to establish the United Nations, and they also agreed on the structure of the United Nations Security Council, which would be charged with ensuring international security.", "Roosevelt did not push for the immediate evacuation of Soviet soldiers from Poland, but he won the issuance of the Declaration on Liberated Europe, which promised free elections in countries that had been occupied by Germany.", "Germany itself would not be dismembered but would be jointly occupied by the United States, France, Britain, and the Soviet Union.", "Against Soviet pressure, Roosevelt and Churchill refused to consent to impose huge reparations and deindustrialization on Germany after the war.", "Roosevelt's role in the Yalta Conference has been controversial; critics charge that he naively trusted the Soviet Union to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, while supporters argue that there was little more that Roosevelt could have done for the Eastern European countries given the Soviet occupation and the need for cooperation with the Soviet Union.====Course of the war====The Allies invaded French North Africa in November 1942, securing the surrender of Vichy French forces within days of landing.", "At the January 1943 Casablanca Conference, the Allies agreed to defeat Axis forces in North Africa and then launch an invasion of Sicily, with an attack on France to take place in 1944.At the conference, Roosevelt also announced that he would only accept the unconditional surrender of Germany, Japan, and Italy.", "In February 1943, the Soviet Union won a major victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, and in May 1943, the Allies secured the surrender of over 250,000 German and Italian soldiers in North Africa, ending the North African Campaign.", "The Allies launched an invasion of Sicily in July 1943, capturing the island the following month.", "In September 1943, the Allies secured an armistice from Italian Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, but Germany quickly restored Mussolini to power.", "The Allied invasion of mainland Italy commenced in September 1943, but the Italian Campaign continued until 1945 as German and Italian troops resisted the Allied advance.The Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in December 1944To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt chose General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had successfully commanded a multinational coalition in North Africa and Sicily.", "Eisenhower launched Operation Overlord on June 6, 1944.Supported by 12,000 aircraft and the largest naval force ever assembled, the Allies successfully established a beachhead in Normandy and then advanced further into France.", "Though reluctant to back an unelected government, Roosevelt recognized Charles de Gaulle's Provisional Government of the French Republic as the de facto government of France in July 1944.After most of France had been liberated, Roosevelt granted formal recognition to de Gaulle's government in October 1944.Over the following months, the Allies liberated more territory and began the invasion of Germany.", "By April 1945, Nazi resistance was crumbling in the face of advances by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.In the opening weeks of the war, Japan conquered the Philippines and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia.", "The Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Midway.", "American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly strategy called island hopping or leapfrogging through the Pacific Islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded.", "In contrast to Hitler, Roosevelt took no direct part in the tactical naval operations, though he approved strategic decisions.", "Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan, but he always insisted on Germany first.", "The strength of the Japanese navy was decimated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and by April 1945 the Allies had re-captured much of their lost territory in the Pacific.====Home front====The home front was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concern.", "The military buildup spurred economic growth.", "Unemployment fell from 7.7 million in spring 1940 to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and to 1.5 million in fall 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million.", "There was a growing labor shortage, accelerating the second wave of the Great Migration of African Americans, farmers and rural populations to manufacturing centers.", "African Americans from the South went to California and other West Coast states for new jobs in the defense industry.", "To pay for increased government spending, in 1941 Roosevelt proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5% on all income over $100,000; when the proposal failed, he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100% on income over $25,000, which Congress rescinded.", "The Revenue Act of 1942 instituted top tax rates as high as 94% (after accounting for the excess profits tax), greatly increased the tax base, and instituted the first federal withholding tax.", "In 1944, Roosevelt requested that Congress enact legislation to tax all \"unreasonable\" profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures.", "Congress overrode Roosevelt's veto to pass a smaller revenue bill raising $2 billion.In 1942, war production increased dramatically but fell short of Roosevelt's goals, due in part to manpower shortages.", "The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes, especially in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944.Nonetheless, between 1941 and 1945, the United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition.", "The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union.", "The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration.", "One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse H. Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for the acquisition of rubber supplies and came to loggerheads over funding.", "Roosevelt resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies.", "In 1943, Roosevelt established the Office of War Mobilization to oversee the home front; the agency was led by James F. Byrnes, who came to be known as the \"assistant president\" due to his influence.bill of social and economic rights in the State of the Union address broadcast on January 11, 1944 (excerpt).Roosevelt's 1944 State of the Union Address advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a Second Bill of Rights.", "He stated that all Americans should have the right to \"adequate medical care\", \"a good education\", \"a decent home\", and a \"useful and remunerative job\".", "In the most ambitious domestic proposal of his third term, Roosevelt proposed the G.I.", "Bill, which would create a massive benefits program for returning soldiers.", "Benefits included post-secondary education, medical care, unemployment insurance, job counseling, and low-cost loans for homes and businesses.", "The G.I.", "Bill passed unanimously in both houses of Congress and was signed into law in June 1944.Of the fifteen million Americans who served in World War II, more than half benefitted from the educational opportunities provided for in the G.I.", "Bill.====Declining health====Roosevelt, a chain-smoker throughout his adult life, had been in declining health since at least 1940.In March 1944, shortly after his 62nd birthday, he underwent testing at Bethesda Hospital and was found to have hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease causing angina pectoris, and congestive heart failure.Hospital physicians and two outside specialists ordered Roosevelt to rest.", "His personal physician, Admiral Ross McIntire, created a daily schedule that banned business guests for lunch and incorporated two hours of rest daily.", "During the 1944 re-election campaign, McIntire denied several times that Roosevelt's health was poor; on October 12, for example, he announced that \"The President's health is perfectly OK.", "There are absolutely no organic difficulties at all.\"", "Roosevelt realized that his declining health could eventually make it impossible for him to continue as president, and in 1945 he told a confidant that he might resign from the presidency following the end of the war.====Election of 1944====1944 electoral vote resultsWhile some Democrats had opposed Roosevelt's nomination in 1940, the president faced little difficulty in securing his re-nomination at the 1944 Democratic National Convention.", "Roosevelt made it clear before the convention that he was seeking another term, and on the lone presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt won the vast majority of delegates, although a minority of Southern Democrats voted for Harry F. Byrd.", "Party leaders prevailed upon Roosevelt to drop Vice President Wallace from the ticket, believing him to be an electoral liability and a poor potential successor in case of Roosevelt's death.", "Roosevelt preferred Byrnes as Wallace's replacement but was convinced to support Senator Harry S. Truman of Missouri, who had earned renown for his investigation of war production inefficiency and was acceptable to the various factions of the party.", "On the second vice presidential ballot of the convention, Truman defeated Wallace to win the nomination.The Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the governor of New York, who had a reputation as a liberal in his party.", "They accused the Roosevelt administration of domestic corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency, but Dewey's most effective gambit was to raise discreetly the age issue.", "He assailed the President as a \"tired old man\" with \"tired old men\" in his cabinet, pointedly suggesting that the President's lack of vigor had produced a less than vigorous economic recovery.", "Roosevelt, as most observers could see from his weight loss and haggard appearance, was a tired man in 1944.But upon entering the campaign in earnest in late September 1944, Roosevelt displayed enough passion to allay most concerns and deflect Republican attacks.", "With the war still raging, he urged voters not to \"change horses in mid-stream.\"", "Labor unions, which had grown rapidly in the war, fully supported Roosevelt.", "Roosevelt and Truman won the 1944 election, defeating Dewey and his running mate John W. Bricker with 53.4% of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes.", "The president campaigned in favor of a strong United Nations, so his victory symbolized support for the nation's future participation in the international community.====Final months and death====When Roosevelt returned to the United States from the Yalta Conference, many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked.", "He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity.", "During March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, prisoners of war and other issues.", "When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting behind his back a separate peace with Hitler, Roosevelt replied: \"I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates.\"", "On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the Little White House at Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations.In the afternoon of April 12, 1945, in Warm Springs, Georgia, while sitting for a portrait by Elizabeth Shoumatoff, Roosevelt said: \"I have a terrific headache.\"", "He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom.", "The president's attending cardiologist, Howard Bruenn, diagnosed a massive intracerebral hemorrhage.", "At 3:35 p.m., Roosevelt died at the age of 63.The following morning, Roosevelt's body was placed in a flag-draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train for the trip back to Washington.", "Thousands flocked to the route to pay their respects.", "After a White House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported by train from Washington to his birthplace at Hyde Park.", "On April 15 he was buried, per his wish, in the rose garden of his Springwood estate.Roosevelt's declining physical health had been kept secret from the public.", "His death was met with shock and grief across the world.", "Germany surrendered during the 30-day mourning period, but Harry Truman (who had succeeded Roosevelt as president) ordered flags to remain at half-staff; he also dedicated Victory in Europe Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.", "World War II ended with the signed surrender of Japan in September." ], [ "Civil rights, repatriation, internment, and the Jews", "Official portrait of President Roosevelt by Frank O. Salisbury, Roosevelt was viewed as a hero by many African Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and he was highly successful in attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal coalition.", "From his first term until 1939, the Mexican Repatriation started by President Herbert Hoover continued under Roosevelt, which scholars today contend was a form of ethnic cleansing towards Mexican Americans.", "Roosevelt ended federal involvement in the deportations.", "After 1934, deportations fell by approximately 50 percent.", "However, Roosevelt did not attempt to suppress the deportations on a local or state level.", "Mexican Americans were the only group explicitly excluded from New Deal benefits.", "The deprival of due process for Mexican Americans is cited as a precedent for Roosevelt's internment of Japanese Americans in concentration camps during World War II.", "Roosevelt won strong support from Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans, but not Japanese Americans, as he presided over their internment during the war.", "African Americans and Native Americans fared well in two New Deal relief programs, the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Indian Reorganization Act, respectively.", "Sitkoff reports that the WPA \"provided an economic floor for the whole black community in the 1930s, rivaling both agriculture and domestic service as the chief source\" of income.===Lynching and civil rights===In contrast to Presidents Harding and Coolidge, Roosevelt stopped short of joining NAACP leaders in pushing for federal anti-lynching legislation.", "He asserted that such legislation was unlikely to pass and that his support for it would alienate Southern congressmen, though by 1940 even his conservative Texas vice-president, Garner, supported federal action against lynching.Roosevelt did not appoint or nominate a single African American as secretary or assistant secretary to his cabinet.", "About one hundred African Americans met informally, however, to provide the administration with advice on issues related to African Americans.", "Although sometimes described as a \"Black Cabinet,\" Roosevelt never officially acknowledged it as such nor did he make \"appointments\" to it.First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt vocally supported efforts designed to aid the African American community, including the Fair Labor Standards Act, which helped boost wages for nonwhite workers in the South.", "In 1941, Roosevelt established the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to implement Executive Order 8802, which prohibited racial and religious discrimination in employment among defense contractors.", "The FEPC was the first national program directed against employment discrimination, and it played a major role in opening up new employment opportunities to nonwhite workers.", "During World War II, the proportion of African American men employed in manufacturing positions rose significantly.", "In response to Roosevelt's policies, African Americans increasingly defected from the Republican Party during the 1930s and 1940s, becoming an important Democratic voting bloc in several Northern states.===Japanese Americans===The attack on Pearl Harbor raised concerns among the public regarding the possibility of sabotage by Japanese Americans.", "This suspicion was fed by long-standing racism against Japanese immigrants, as well as the findings of the Roberts Commission, which concluded that the attack on Pearl Harbor had been assisted by Japanese spies.", "On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which relocated 110,000 Japanese-American citizens and immigrants, most of whom lived on the Pacific Coast.", "They were forced to liquidate their properties and businesses and interned in hastily built camps in interior, harsh locations.", "Internment was consistent with the racial views expressed in Roosevelt's 1920s articles for the ''Macon Telegraph'' condemning \"the mingling of Asiatic blood with European or American blood\" and praising California's laws to bar Japanese immigrants from owning land as well his confidential suggestion in 1936 that Japanese Americans in Hawaii greeting Japanese ships or having any connection with their officers be put \"on a special list of those who would be the first to be placed in a concentration camp\" in the event of war.Roosevelt delegated the decision for internment to Secretary of War Stimson, who in turn relied on the judgment of Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy.", "The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the executive order in the 1944 case of ''Korematsu v. United States''.", "A much smaller number of German and Italian citizens were arrested or placed into internment camps.", "Unlike Japanese Americans, however, they were not sent to them on the sole basis of racial ancestry.===Jews===There is controversy among historians about Roosevelt's attitude to Jews and the Holocaust.", "Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. says Roosevelt \"did what he could do\" to help Jews; David Wyman says Roosevelt's record on Jewish refugees and their rescue is \"very poor\" and one of the worst failures of his presidency.", "In 1923, as a member of the Harvard University board of directors, Roosevelt decided there were too many Jewish students at Harvard and helped institute a quota to limit the number of Jews admitted.", "After Kristallnacht in 1938, Roosevelt had his ambassador to Germany recalled to Washington.", "He did not loosen immigration quotas but did allow German Jews already in the U.S. on visas to stay indefinitely.", "According to Rafael Medoff, Roosevelt could have saved 190,000 Jewish lives by telling his State Department to fill immigration quotas to the legal limit, but his administration discouraged and disqualified Jewish refugees based on its prohibitive requirements that left less than 25% of the quotas filled.Hitler chose to implement the \"Final Solution\"—the extermination of the European Jewish population—by January 1942, and American officials learned of the scale of the Nazi extermination campaign in the following months.", "Against the objections of the State Department, Roosevelt convinced the other Allied leaders to issue the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations, which condemned the ongoing Holocaust and warned to try its perpetrators as war criminals.", "In 1943, Roosevelt told U.S. government officials that there should be limits on Jews in various professions to \"eliminate the specific and understandable complaints which the Germans bore towards the Jews in Germany.\"", "The same year, Roosevelt was personally briefed by Polish Home Army intelligence agent Jan Karski who was an eyewitness of the Holocaust; pleading for action, Karski told him that 1.8 million Jews had already been exterminated.", "Karski recalled that Roosevelt \"did not ask one question about the Jews.\"", "In January 1944, Roosevelt established the War Refugee Board to aid Jews and other victims of Axis atrocities.", "Aside from these actions, Roosevelt believed that the best way to help the persecuted populations of Europe was to end the war as quickly as possible.", "Top military leaders and War Department leaders rejected any campaign to bomb the extermination camps or the rail lines leading to them, fearing it would be a diversion from the war effort.", "According to biographer Jean Edward Smith, there is no evidence that anyone ever proposed such a campaign to Roosevelt." ], [ "Legacy", "===Historical reputation===Roosevelt is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the history of the United States, as well as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.", "Historians and political scientists consistently rank Roosevelt, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln as the three greatest presidents, although the order varies.", "Reflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, \"which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future\", biographer Jean Edward Smith said in 2007, \"He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees.", "\"His commitment to the working class and unemployed in need of relief in the nation's longest recession made him a favorite of blue-collar workers, labor unions, and ethnic minorities.", "The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy for government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations.", "Roosevelt firmly established U.S. leadership on the world stage with his role in shaping and financing World War II.", "His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies.", "He also permanently increased the power of the president at the expense of Congress.His Second Bill of Rights became, according to historian Joshua Zeitz, \"the basis of the Democratic Party's aspirations for the better part of four decades.\"", "After his death, Eleanor continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally.", "Some junior New Dealers played leading roles in the presidencies of Truman, John Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson.", "Kennedy came from a Roosevelt-hating family.", "Historian William Leuchtenburg says that before 1960, \"Kennedy showed a conspicuous lack of inclination to identify himself as a New Deal liberal.\"", "He adds, as president, \"Kennedy never wholly embraced the Roosevelt tradition and at times he deliberately severed himself from it.\"", "By contrast, young Lyndon Johnson had been an enthusiastic New Dealer and a favorite of Roosevelt.", "Johnson modelled his presidency on Roosevelt's and relied heavily on New Deal lawyer Abe Fortas, as well as James H. Rowe, Anna M. Rosenberg, Thomas Gardiner Corcoran, and Benjamin V. Cohen.During his presidency, and continuing to a lesser extent afterwards, there has been much criticism of Roosevelt, some of it intense.", "Critics have questioned not only his policies, positions, and the consolidation of power that occurred due to his responses to the Depression and World War II but also his breaking with tradition by running for a third term as president.", "Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized Roosevelt's policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe, incarcerating the Japanese on the West Coast, and opposing anti-lynching legislation.Roosevelt was criticized by conservatives for his economic policies, especially the shift in tone from individualism to collectivism with the expansion of the welfare state and regulation of the economy.", "Those criticisms continued decades after his death.", "One factor in the revisiting of these issues was the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, who opposed the New Deal.===Memorials===Roosevelt's home in Hyde Park is now a National Historic Site and home to his Presidential library.", "Washington, D.C., hosts two memorials: the Roosevelt Memorial, located next to the Jefferson Memorial on the Tidal Basin, and a more modest memorial, a block of marble in front of the National Archives building suggested by Roosevelt himself, erected in 1965.Roosevelt's leadership in the March of Dimes is one reason he is commemorated on the American dime.", "Roosevelt has also appeared on several U.S. Postage stamps.", "On April 29, 1945, seventeen days after Roosevelt's death, the carrier USS ''Franklin D. Roosevelt'' was launched and served from 1945 to 1977.London's Westminster Abbey also has a stone tablet memorial to Roosevelt that was unveiled by Attlee and Churchill in 1948.Welfare Island was renamed after Roosevelt in September 1973.File:FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg\|1948 statue of Roosevelt in Grosvenor Square, LondonFile:FDR Memorial wall.jpg\|Engraving of the Four Freedoms at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, dedicated in 1997 in Washington, D.C." ], [ "See also", "* Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt* August Adolph Gennerich – his bodyguard* List of Allied World War II conferences* List of federal political sex scandals in the United States* Sunshine Special (automobile) – Roosevelt's limousine* Air Mail scandal" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * .", "* * ,* * * * * * * online free to borrow* * Dighe, Ranjit S. \"Saving private capitalism: The US bank holiday of 1933.\"", "''Essays in Economic & Business History'' 29 (2011) online* * * Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt The Apprenticeship'' (vol 1 1952) to 1918, online Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt The Ordeal'' (1954), covers 1919 to 1928, online Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt The Triumph'' (1956) covers 1929–32, online Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt Launching the New Deal'' (1973).", "* * * * * * * * .", "* .", "* * * * online free to borrow* .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ." ], [ "External links", "* Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, Washington, DC* Full text and audio of a number of Roosevelt's speeches – Miller Center of Public Affairs* * Franklin Delano Roosevelt: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress* ** \"Life Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', October 11, 1999* ''The Presidents: FDR'' – an ''American Experience'' documentary* ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Selections from His Writings''* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Four Freedoms" ], [ "Introduction", "Engraving of the Four Freedoms at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial in Washington, D.C.The '''Four Freedoms''' were goals articulated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on Monday, January 6, 1941.In an address known as the Four Freedoms speech (technically the '''1941 State of the Union address'''), he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people \"everywhere in the world\" ought to enjoy:# Freedom of speech# Freedom of worship# Freedom from want# Freedom from fearRoosevelt delivered his speech 11 months before the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that caused the United States to declare war on Japan, December 8, 1941.The State of the Union speech before Congress was largely about the national security of the United States and the threat to other democracies from world war.", "In the speech, he made a break with the long-held tradition of United States non-interventionism.", "He outlined the U.S. role in helping allies already engaged in warfare, especially Great Britain and China.In that context, he summarized the values of democracy behind the bipartisan consensus on international involvement that existed at the time.", "A famous quote from the speech prefaces those values: \"As men do not live by bread alone, they do not fight by armaments alone.\"", "In the second half of the speech, he lists the benefits of democracy, which include economic opportunity, employment, social security, and the promise of \"adequate health care\".", "The first two freedoms, of speech and religion, are protected by the First Amendment in the United States Constitution.", "His inclusion of the latter two freedoms went beyond the traditional Constitutional values protected by the U.S. Bill of Rights.", "Roosevelt endorsed a broader human right to economic security and anticipated what would become known decades later as the \"human security\" paradigm in studies of economic development.", "He also included the \"freedom from fear\" against national aggression and took it to the new United Nations he was setting up." ], [ "Historical context", "In the 1930s many Americans, arguing that the involvement in World War I had been a mistake, were adamantly against continued intervention in European affairs.", "With the Neutrality Acts established after 1935, U.S. law banned the sale of armaments to countries that were at war and placed restrictions on travel with belligerent vessels.When World War II began in September 1939, the neutrality laws were still in effect and ensured that no substantial support could be given to Britain and France.", "With the revision of the Neutrality Act in 1939, Roosevelt adopted a \"methods-short-of-war policy\" whereby supplies and armaments could be given to European Allies, provided no declaration of war could be made and no troops committed.", "By December 1940, Europe was largely at the mercy of Adolf Hitler and Germany's Nazi regime.", "With Germany's defeat of France in June 1940, Britain and its overseas Empire stood alone against the military alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan.", "Winston Churchill, as Prime Minister of Britain, called for Roosevelt and the United States to supply them with armaments in order to continue with the war effort.The 1939 New York World's Fair had celebrated Four Freedoms – religion, speech, press, and assembly – and commissioned Leo Friedlander to create sculptures representing them.", "Mayor of New York City Fiorello La Guardia described the resulting statues as the \"heart of the fair\".", "Later Roosevelt would declare his own \"Four Essential Freedoms\" and call on Walter Russell to create a ''Four Freedoms Monument'' that was eventually dedicated at Madison Square Garden in New York City.They also appeared on the reverse of the AM-lira, the Allied Military Currency note issue that was issued in Italy during WWII, by the Americans, that was in effect occupation currency, guaranteed by the American dollar." ], [ "Declarations", "The Four Freedoms Speech was given on January 6, 1941.Roosevelt's hope was to provide a rationale for why the United States should abandon the isolationist policies that emerged from World War I.", "In the address, Roosevelt critiqued Isolationism, saying: \"No realistic American can expect from a dictator's peace international generosity, or return of true independence, or world disarmament, or freedom of expression, or freedom of religion–or even good business.", "Such a peace would bring no security for us or for our neighbors.", "\"Those, who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety.", "\"The speech coincided with the introduction of the Lend-Lease Act, which promoted Roosevelt's plan to become the \"arsenal of democracy\" and support the Allies (mainly the British) with much-needed supplies.", "Furthermore, the speech established what would become the ideological basis for America's involvement in World War II, all framed in terms of individual rights and liberties that are the hallmark of American politics.The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following text, known as the \"Four Freedoms\":The four freedoms flag or \"United Nations Honor Flag\" 1943–1948later in the same speech the president went on to specify six basic goals:* Equality of opportunity for youth and for others.", "* Jobs for those who can work.", "* Security for those who need it.", "* The ending of special privilege for the few.", "* The preservation of civil liberties for all.", "* The enjoyment of the fruits of scientific progress in a wider and constantly rising standard of living." ], [ "Justification for war", "The declaration of the Four Freedoms as a justification for war would resonate through the remainder of the war, and for decades longer as a frame of remembrance.", "The Freedoms became the staple of America's war aims and the center of all attempts to rally public support for the war.", "With the creation of the Office of War Information (1942), as well as the famous paintings by Norman Rockwell, the Freedoms were advertised as values central to American life and examples of American exceptionalism." ], [ "Opposition", "The Four Freedoms Speech was popular, and the goals were influential in postwar politics.", "However, in 1941 the speech received heavy criticism from anti-war elements.", "Critics argued that the Four Freedoms were simply a charter for Roosevelt's New Deal, social reforms that had already created sharp divisions within Congress.", "Conservatives who opposed social programs and increased government intervention argued against Roosevelt's attempt to justify and depict the war as necessary for the defense of lofty goals.While the Freedoms did become a forceful aspect of American thought on the war, they were never the exclusive justification for the war.", "Polls and surveys conducted by the United States Office of War Information (OWI) revealed that self-defense and vengeance for the attack on Pearl Harbor were still the most prevalent reasons for war." ], [ "United Nations", "The concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the personal mission undertaken by former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt in 1948.She helped inspire the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolution 217A.", "Indeed, these Four Freedoms were explicitly incorporated into the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which reads: \"''Whereas'' disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy the freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed the highest aspiration of the common people.\"" ], [ "Disarmament", "FDR called for \"a world-wide reduction of armaments\" as a goal for \"the future days, which we seek to make secure\" but one that was \"attainable in our own time and generation.\"", "More immediately, though, he called for a massive build-up of U.S. arms production:" ], [ "Violation", "In a 1942 radio address, President Roosevelt declared the Four Freedoms embodied \"rights of men of every creed and every race, wherever they live.\"", "On February 19, 1942, he authorized Japanese American internment with Executive Order 9066.It allowed local military commanders to designate \"military areas\" as \"exclusion zones\", from which \"any or all persons may be excluded\".", "This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire Pacific coast, including all of California and much of Oregon, Washington, and Arizona, except for those in internment camps.", "By 1946, the United States had incarcerated 120,000 individuals of Japanese descent, of whom about 80,000 had been born in the United States." ], [ "Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park", "The Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park is a park designed by the architect Louis Kahn for the south point of Roosevelt Island.", "The park celebrates the famous speech, and text from the speech is inscribed on a granite wall in the final design of the park." ], [ "Awards", "The Roosevelt Institute honors outstanding individuals who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these ideals.", "The Four Freedoms Award medals are awarded at ceremonies at Hyde Park, New York and Middelburg, Netherlands during alternate years.", "The awards were first presented in 1982 on the centenary of President Roosevelt's birth as well as the bicentenary of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Netherlands.Among the laureates have been:* William Brennan* H.M. Juan Carlos of Spain* Jimmy Carter* Bill Clinton* The Dalai Lama* Mikhail Gorbachev* Averell Harriman* Václav Havel* H.R.H.", "Princess Juliana of the Netherlands* John F. Kennedy* Mike Mansfield* Paul Newman* Tip O'Neill* Shimon Peres* Coretta Scott King* Brent Scowcroft* Harry S. Truman* Liv Ullmann* Elie Wiesel* Joanne Woodward" ], [ "In popular culture", "* John Crowley's novel ''Four Freedoms'' (2009) is largely based on the themes of Roosevelt's speech.", "FDR commissioned sculptor Walter Russell to design a monument to be dedicated to the first hero of the war.", "The ''Four Freedoms Monument'' was created in 1941 and dedicated at Madison Square Garden, in New York City, in 1943.", " Artist Kindred McLeary painted ''America the Mighty'' (1941), also known as ''Defense of Human Freedoms'', in the State Department's Harry S. Truman Building.", "* Artist Hugo Ballin painted ''The Four Freedoms'' mural (1942) in the Council Chamber of the City Hall of Burbank, California.", "* New Jersey muralist Michael Lenson (1903–1972) painted ''The Four Freedoms'' mural (1943) for the Fourteenth Street School in Newark, New Jersey.", "* Muralist Anton Refregier painted the ''History of San Francisco'' murals (completed 1948) in the Rincon Center in San Francisco, California; panel 27 depicts the four freedoms.", "* Artist Mildred Nungester Wolfe painted a four-panel ''Four Freedoms'' mural (complete 1959) depicting the four freedoms for a country store in Richton, Mississippi.", "Those panels now hang in the Mississippi Museum of Art.", "* Allyn Cox painted four ''Four Freedoms'' murals (completed 1982) that hang in the Great Experiment Hall in the United States House of Representatives; each of the four panels depicts allegorical figures representing the four freedoms.", "* Since 1986, the fictional Four Freedoms Plaza has served as the headquarters for Marvel Comics superhero team Fantastic Four.", "* In the early 1990s, artist David McDonald reproduced Rockwell's ''Four Freedoms'' paintings as four large murals on the side of an old grocery building in downtown Silverton, Oregon.", "* In 2008, Florida International University's Wolfsonian museum hosted the ''Thoughts on Democracy'' exhibition that displayed posters created by 60 leading contemporary artists and designers, invited to create a new graphic design inspired by American illustrator Norman Rockwell's ''Four Freedoms'' posters." ], [ "Norman Rockwell's paintings", "Roosevelt's speech inspired a set of four paintings by Norman Rockwell.===Paintings===The members of the set, known collectively as ''The Four Freedoms'', were published in four consecutive issues of ''The Saturday Evening Post''.", "The four paintings subsequently were displayed around the US by the United States Department of the Treasury.File:\"Freedom of Speech\" - NARA - 513536.jpg\|''Freedom of Speech'' (Saturday, February 20, 1943) – from the ''Four Freedoms'' series by Norman Rockwell File:\"Freedom of Worship\" - NARA - 513537.jpg\|''Freedom of Worship'' (Saturday, February 27, 1943) – from the ''Four Freedoms'' series by Norman Rockwell File:\"Freedom From Want\" - NARA - 513539.jpg\|''Freedom from Want'' (Saturday, March 6, 1943) – from the ''Four Freedoms'' series by Norman Rockwell File:\"Freedom from Fear\" - NARA - 513538.jpg\|''Freedom from Fear'' (Saturday, March 13, 1943) – from the ''Four Freedoms'' series by Norman Rockwell ===Essays===Each painting was published with a matching essay on that particular \"Freedom\":* ''Freedom of Speech'', by Booth Tarkington (February 20, 1943).", "* ''Freedom of Worship'', by Will Durant (February 27, 1943).", "* ''Freedom from Want'', by Carlos Bulosan (March 6, 1943).", "* ''Freedom from Fear'', by Stephen Vincent Benét (March 13, 1943; the date of Benét's death).===Postage stamps===Rockwell's ''Four Freedoms'' paintings were reproduced as postage stamps by the United States Post Office in 1943, in 1946, and in 1994, the centenary of Rockwell's birth." ], [ "See also", "* Four boxes of liberty* Four Freedoms (European Union)* ''Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945'', a Pulitzer-winning history of the era.", "* Liberalism in the United States* Second Bill of Rights, proposed by FDR in his 1944 State of the Union Address* The Free Software Definition is often called \"the four freedoms\" within the free software community in reference to the speech and fundamental principles.", "* World War II Victory Medal (United States), which includes the Four Freedoms on its reverse." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Borgwardt, Elizabeth.", "\"FDR's Four Freedoms as a Human Rights Instrument.\"", "''OAH Magazine of History'' 22.2 (2008): 8-13.extract* Crowell, Laura.", "\"The building of the 'four freedoms' speech.\"", "''Communications Monographs'' 22.5 (1955): 266-283.", "* De Zayas, Alfred.", "\"The Relevance of Roosevelt's Four Freedoms Today.\"", "-62 ''Nordic Journal of International Law'' 61 (1992): 239+.", "* Dunn, Susan, ''A Blueprint for War: FDR and the Hundred Days That Mobilized America'' (2018) pp 73-101.", "* Engel, Jeffrey A., ed.", "''The four freedoms: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the evolution of an American idea'' (Oxford University Press, 2015); argues that Roosevelt's speech left a deep imprint in America, but the society largely failed to achieve his vision of freedom, p. 7.online review* Gutierrez, Robert.", "\"The Four Freedoms Viewed in Comparison to Traditional American Political Ideals.\"", "''Counterpoints,'' vol.", "271, 2007, pp.", "33–40.online* Inazu, John D. \"The Four Freedoms and the Future of Religious Liberty.\"", "''North Carolina Law Review'' 92 (2013): 787+ online.", "* Johnstone, Andrew.", "''Against Immediate Evil: American Internationalists and the Four Freedoms on the Eve of World War II'' (Cornell University Press, 2015).", "* Kaye, Harvey J.", "''The fight for four freedoms: what made FDR and the greatest generation truly great'' (Simon and Schuster, 2014); 8 essays by scholars.", "online* Posneer, Michael H. P\"The Four Freedoms Turn 70: Embracing an Integrated Approach to Human Rights.\"", "''Proceedings of the Annual Meeting (American Society of International Law)'' vol.", "105, 2011, pp.", "27–31.online* Rhodes, Jesse H. \"The Evolution of Roosevelt's Rhetorical Legacy: Presidential Rhetoric about Rights in Domestic and Foreign Affairs, 1933‐2011.\"", "''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 43.3 (2013): 562-591.online* Shulman, Mark R. \"The four freedoms: Good neighbors make good law and good policy in a time of insecurity.\"", "''Fordham Law Review'' 77 (2008): 555-581 online.", "* WESLEY, CHARLES H., et al.", "\"THE NEGRO HAS ALWAYS WANTED THE FOUR FREEDOMS.\"", "in ''What the Negro Wants,'' edited by Rayford W. Logan, (University of Notre Dame Press, 2001) pp.", "90–112.online===Rockwell's icons===* Kimble, James J.", "\"The illustrated four freedoms: FDR, Rockwell, and the margins of the rhetorical presidency.\"", "''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 45.1 (2015): 46-69.", "* Lynch III, Sylvio.", "''Morality and Aspiration: Some Conditions of Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms'' (PhD Diss.", "Bowling Green State University, 2020) online* Murray, Stuart, James McCabe, and John Frohnmayer.", "''Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms: Images that Inspire a Nation'' (Berkshire House, 1993) online.", "* Olson, Lester G. \"Portraits in praise of a people: A rhetorical analysis of Norman Rockwell's icons in Franklin D. Roosevelt's “four freedoms” campaign.\"", "''Quarterly Journal of Speech'' 69.1 (1983): 15-24." ], [ "External links", "* \"Four Freedoms\" Lesson plan for grades 9–12 from National Endowment for the Humanities* As a delivered text, enhanced audio, video excerpt at AmericanRhetoric.com.", "* Text and audio.", "* \"FDR4Freedoms Digital Resource\" The digital education resource of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park* \"Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park\"* 1941 Four Freedoms Speech (via YouTube)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "First-order logic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''First-order logic'''—also known as '''predicate logic''', '''quantificational logic''', and '''first-order predicate calculus'''—is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.", "First-order logic uses quantified variables over non-logical objects, and allows the use of sentences that contain variables, so that rather than propositions such as \"Socrates is a man\", one can have expressions in the form \"there exists x such that x is Socrates and x is a man\", where \"there exists''\"'' is a quantifier, while ''x'' is a variable.", "This distinguishes it from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers or relations; in this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic.A theory about a topic, such as set theory, a theory for groups, or a formal theory of arithmetic, is usually a first-order logic together with a specified domain of discourse (over which the quantified variables range), finitely many functions from that domain to itself, finitely many predicates defined on that domain, and a set of axioms believed to hold about them.", "\"Theory\" is sometimes understood in a more formal sense as just a set of sentences in first-order logic.The term \"first-order\" distinguishes first-order logic from higher-order logic, in which there are predicates having predicates or functions as arguments, or in which quantification over predicates, functions, or both, are permitted.", "In first-order theories, predicates are often associated with sets.", "In interpreted higher-order theories, predicates may be interpreted as sets of sets.There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound, i.e.", "all provable statements are true in all models, and complete, i.e.", "all statements which are true in all models are provable.", "Although the logical consequence relation is only semidecidable, much progress has been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic.", "First-order logic also satisfies several metalogical theorems that make it amenable to analysis in proof theory, such as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem.First-order logic is the standard for the formalization of mathematics into axioms, and is studied in the foundations of mathematics.", "Peano arithmetic and Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory are axiomatizations of number theory and set theory, respectively, into first-order logic.", "No first-order theory, however, has the strength to uniquely describe a structure with an infinite domain, such as the natural numbers or the real line.", "Axiom systems that do fully describe these two structures, i.e.", "categorical axiom systems, can be obtained in stronger logics such as second-order logic.The foundations of first-order logic were developed independently by Gottlob Frege and Charles Sanders Peirce.", "For a history of first-order logic and how it came to dominate formal logic, see José Ferreirós (2001)." ], [ "Introduction", "While propositional logic deals with simple declarative propositions, first-order logic additionally covers predicates and quantification.", "A predicate evaluates to true or false for an entity or entities in the domain of discourse.Consider the two sentences \"Socrates is a philosopher\" and \"Plato is a philosopher\".", "In propositional logic, these sentences themselves are viewed as the individuals of study, and might be denoted, for example, by variables such as ''p'' and ''q''.", "They are not viewed as an application of a predicate, such as , to any particular objects in the domain of discourse, instead viewing them as purely an utterance which is either true or false.", "However, in first-order logic, these two sentences may be couched as statements that a certain individual or non-logical object has a property.", "In this example, both sentences happen to have the common form for some individual , in the first sentence the value of the variable ''x'' is \"Socrates\", and in the second sentence it is \"Plato\".", "Due to the ability to speak about non-logical individuals along with the original logical connectives, first-order logic includes propositional logic.The truth of a formula such as \"''x'' is a philosopher\" depends on which object is denoted by ''x'' and on the interpretation of the predicate \"is a philosopher\".", "Consequently, \"''x'' is a philosopher\" alone does not have a definite truth value of true or false, and is akin to a sentence fragment.", "Relationships between predicates can be stated using logical connectives.", "For example, the first-order formula \"if ''x'' is a philosopher, then ''x'' is a scholar\", is a conditional statement with \"''x'' is a philosopher\" as its hypothesis, and \"''x'' is a scholar\" as its conclusion, which again needs specification of ''x'' in order to have a definite truth value.Quantifiers can be applied to variables in a formula.", "The variable ''x'' in the previous formula can be universally quantified, for instance, with the first-order sentence \"For every ''x'', if ''x'' is a philosopher, then ''x'' is a scholar\".", "The universal quantifier \"for every\" in this sentence expresses the idea that the claim \"if ''x'' is a philosopher, then ''x'' is a scholar\" holds for ''all'' choices of ''x''.The ''negation'' of the sentence \"For every ''x'', if ''x'' is a philosopher, then ''x'' is a scholar\" is logically equivalent to the sentence \"There exists ''x'' such that ''x'' is a philosopher and ''x'' is not a scholar\".", "The existential quantifier \"there exists\" expresses the idea that the claim \"''x'' is a philosopher and ''x'' is not a scholar\" holds for ''some'' choice of ''x''.The predicates \"is a philosopher\" and \"is a scholar\" each take a single variable.", "In general, predicates can take several variables.", "In the first-order sentence \"Socrates is the teacher of Plato\", the predicate \"is the teacher of\" takes two variables.An interpretation (or model) of a first-order formula specifies what each predicate means, and the entities that can instantiate the variables.", "These entities form the domain of discourse or universe, which is usually required to be a nonempty set.", "For example, in an interpretation with the domain of discourse consisting of all human beings and the predicate \"is a philosopher\" understood as \"was the author of the ''Republic''\", the sentence \"There exists ''x'' such that ''x'' is a philosopher\" is seen as being true, as witnessed by Plato.There are two key parts of first-order logic.", "The syntax determines which finite sequences of symbols are well-formed expressions in first-order logic, while the semantics determines the meanings behind these expressions." ], [ "Syntax", "Unlike natural languages, such as English, the language of first-order logic is completely formal, so that it can be mechanically determined whether a given expression is well formed.", "There are two key types of well-formed expressions: ''terms'', which intuitively represent objects, and ''formulas'', which intuitively express statements that can be true or false.", "The terms and formulas of first-order logic are strings of ''symbols'', where all the symbols together form the ''alphabet'' of the language.", "===Alphabet===As with all formal languages, the nature of the symbols themselves is outside the scope of formal logic; they are often regarded simply as letters and punctuation symbols.It is common to divide the symbols of the alphabet into ''logical symbols'', which always have the same meaning, and ''non-logical symbols'', whose meaning varies by interpretation.", "For example, the logical symbol always represents \"and\"; it is never interpreted as \"or\", which is represented by the logical symbol .", "However, a non-logical predicate symbol such as Phil(''x'') could be interpreted to mean \"''x'' is a philosopher\", \"''x'' is a man named Philip\", or any other unary predicate depending on the interpretation at hand.====Logical symbols====Logical symbols are a set of characters that vary by author, but usually include the following:* Quantifier symbols: for universal quantification, and for existential quantification* Logical connectives: for conjunction, for disjunction, for implication, for biconditional, for negation.", "Some authors use C''pq'' instead of and E''pq'' instead of , especially in contexts where → is used for other purposes.", "Moreover, the horseshoe may replace ; the triple-bar may replace ; a tilde (), N''p'', or F''p'' may replace ; a double bar , , or A''pq'' may replace ; and an ampersand , K''pq'', or the middle dot may replace , especially if these symbols are not available for technical reasons.", "(The aforementioned symbols C''pq'', E''pq'', N''p'', A''pq'', and K''pq'' are used in Polish notation.", ")* Parentheses, brackets, and other punctuation symbols.", "The choice of such symbols varies depending on context.", "* An infinite set of ''variables'', often denoted by lowercase letters at the end of the alphabet ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ... .", "Subscripts are often used to distinguish variables: * An ''equality symbol'' (sometimes, ''identity symbol'') (see below).Not all of these symbols are required in first-order logic.", "Either one of the quantifiers along with negation, conjunction (or disjunction), variables, brackets, and equality suffices.Other logical symbols include the following:* Truth constants: T, V, or for \"true\" and F, O, or for \"false\" (V and O are from Polish notation).", "Without any such logical operators of valence 0, these two constants can only be expressed using quantifiers.", "* Additional logical connectives such as the Sheffer stroke, D''pq'' (NAND), and exclusive or, J''pq''.====Non-logical symbols====Non-logical symbols represent predicates (relations), functions and constants.", "It used to be standard practice to use a fixed, infinite set of non-logical symbols for all purposes:* For every integer ''n'' ≥ 0, there is a collection of ''n''-''ary'', or ''n''-''place'', ''predicate symbols''.", "Because they represent relations between ''n'' elements, they are also called ''relation symbols''.", "For each arity ''n'', there is an infinite supply of them::''P''''n''0, ''P''''n''1, ''P''''n''2, ''P''''n''3, ... For every integer ''n'' ≥ 0, there are infinitely many ''n''-ary ''function symbols''::''f n''0, ''f n''1, ''f n''2, ''f n''3, ...When the arity of a predicate symbol or function symbol is clear from context, the superscript ''n'' is often omitted.In this traditional approach, there is only one language of first-order logic.", "This approach is still common, especially in philosophically oriented books.A more recent practice is to use different non-logical symbols according to the application one has in mind.", "Therefore, it has become necessary to name the set of all non-logical symbols used in a particular application.", "This choice is made via a ''signature''.Typical signatures in mathematics are {1, ×} or just {×} for groups, or {0, 1, +, ×, ::= \"\" \"'\" ::= \"x\" ::= \"c\" ::= \"f1\" ::= \"f2\" ::= \"f3\" ::= \"p1\" ::= \"p2\" ::= \"p3\" ::= \"(\" \")\" \"(\" \",\" \")\" \"(\" \",\" \",\" \")\" ::= \"TRUE\" \"FALSE\" \"=\" \"(\" \")\" \"(\" \",\" \")\" \"(\" \",\" \",\" \")\" ::= \"¬\" \"∧\" \"∨\" \"⇒\" \"⇔\" \"(\" \")\" \"∀\" \"∃\" The above context-free grammar in Backus-Naur form defines the language of syntactically valid first-order formulas with function symbols and predicate symbols up to arity 3.For higher arities, it needs to be adapted accordingly.", "The example formula ∀x ∃x' (¬x=c) ⇒ f2(x,x')=c' describes multiplicative inverses when f2', c, and c' are interpreted as multiplication, zero, and one, respectively.The formation rules define the terms and formulas of first-order logic.", "When terms and formulas are represented as strings of symbols, these rules can be used to write a formal grammar for terms and formulas.", "These rules are generally context-free (each production has a single symbol on the left side), except that the set of symbols may be allowed to be infinite and there may be many start symbols, for example the variables in the case of terms.====Terms====The set of ''terms'' is inductively defined by the following rules: ''Variables''.", "Any variable symbol is a term.", "* ''Functions''.", "If ''f'' is an ''n''-ary function symbol, and ''t''1, ..., ''t''''n'' are terms, then ''f''(''t''1,...,''t''''n'') is a term.", "In particular, symbols denoting individual constants are nullary function symbols, and thus are terms.Only expressions which can be obtained by finitely many applications of rules 1 and 2 are terms.", "For example, no expression involving a predicate symbol is a term.====Formulas====The set of ''formulas'' (also called ''well-formed formulas'' or ''WFFs'') is inductively defined by the following rules:# ''Predicate symbols''.", "If ''P'' is an ''n''-ary predicate symbol and ''t''1, ..., ''t''''n'' are terms then ''P''(''t''1,...,''t''''n'') is a formula.# ''Equality''.", "If the equality symbol is considered part of logic, and ''t''1 and ''t''2 are terms, then ''t''1 = ''t''2 is a formula.# ''Negation''.", "If is a formula, then is a formula.# ''Binary connectives''.", "If and are formulas, then () is a formula.", "Similar rules apply to other binary logical connectives.# ''Quantifiers''.", "If is a formula and ''x'' is a variable, then (for all x, holds) and (there exists x such that ) are formulas.Only expressions which can be obtained by finitely many applications of rules 1–5 are formulas.", "The formulas obtained from the first two rules are said to be ''atomic formulas''.For example::is a formula, if ''f'' is a unary function symbol, ''P'' a unary predicate symbol, and Q a ternary predicate symbol.", "However, is not a formula, although it is a string of symbols from the alphabet.The role of the parentheses in the definition is to ensure that any formula can only be obtained in one way—by following the inductive definition (i.e., there is a unique parse tree for each formula).", "This property is known as ''unique readability'' of formulas.", "There are many conventions for where parentheses are used in formulas.", "For example, some authors use colons or full stops instead of parentheses, or change the places in which parentheses are inserted.", "Each author's particular definition must be accompanied by a proof of unique readability.This definition of a formula does not support defining an if-then-else function ite(c, a, b), where \"c\" is a condition expressed as a formula, that would return \"a\" if c is true, and \"b\" if it is false.", "This is because both predicates and functions can only accept terms as parameters, but the first parameter is a formula.", "Some languages built on first-order logic, such as SMT-LIB 2.0, add this.====Notational conventions====For convenience, conventions have been developed about the precedence of the logical operators, to avoid the need to write parentheses in some cases.", "These rules are similar to the order of operations in arithmetic.", "A common convention is:* is evaluated first* and are evaluated next* Quantifiers are evaluated next* is evaluated last.Moreover, extra punctuation not required by the definition may be inserted—to make formulas easier to read.", "Thus the formula::might be written as::In some fields, it is common to use infix notation for binary relations and functions, instead of the prefix notation defined above.", "For example, in arithmetic, one typically writes \"2 + 2 = 4\" instead of \"=(+(2,2),4)\".", "It is common to regard formulas in infix notation as abbreviations for the corresponding formulas in prefix notation, cf.", "also term structure vs. representation.The definitions above use infix notation for binary connectives such as .", "A less common convention is Polish notation, in which one writes , and so on in front of their arguments rather than between them.", "This convention is advantageous in that it allows all punctuation symbols to be discarded.", "As such, Polish notation is compact and elegant, but rarely used in practice because it is hard for humans to read.", "In Polish notation, the formula::becomes ===Free and bound variables===In a formula, a variable may occur ''free'' or ''bound'' (or both).", "One formalization of this notion is due to Quine, first the concept of a variable occurrence is defined, then whether a variable occurrence is free or bound, then whether a variable symbol overall is free or bound.", "In order to distinguish different occurrences of the identical symbol ''x'', each occurrence of a variable symbol ''x'' in a formula φ is identified with the initial substring of φ up to the point at which said instance of the symbol ''x'' appears.p.297 Then, an occurrence of ''x'' is said to be bound if that occurrence of ''x'' lies within the scope of at least one of either or .", "Finally, ''x'' is bound in φ if all occurrences of ''x'' in φ are bound.pp.142--143Intuitively, a variable symbol is free in a formula if at no point is it quantified:pp.142--143 in , the sole occurrence of variable ''x'' is free while that of ''y'' is bound.", "The free and bound variable occurrences in a formula are defined inductively as follows.", "; Atomic formulas : If ''φ'' is an atomic formula, then ''x'' occurs free in ''φ'' if and only if ''x'' occurs in ''φ''.", "Moreover, there are no bound variables in any atomic formula.", "; Negation : ''x'' occurs free in ¬''φ'' if and only if ''x'' occurs free in ''φ''.", "''x'' occurs bound in ¬''φ'' if and only if ''x'' occurs bound in ''φ''; Binary connectives : ''x'' occurs free in (''φ'' → ''ψ'') if and only if ''x'' occurs free in either ''φ'' or ''ψ''.", "''x'' occurs bound in (''φ'' → ''ψ'') if and only if ''x'' occurs bound in either ''φ'' or ''ψ''.", "The same rule applies to any other binary connective in place of →.", "; Quantifiers : ''x'' occurs free in , if and only if x occurs free in ''φ'' and ''x'' is a different symbol from ''y''.", "Also, ''x'' occurs bound in , if and only if ''x'' is ''y'' or ''x'' occurs bound in ''φ''.", "The same rule holds with in place of .For example, in , ''x'' and ''y'' occur only bound, ''z'' occurs only free, and ''w'' is neither because it does not occur in the formula.Free and bound variables of a formula need not be disjoint sets: in the formula , the first occurrence of ''x'', as argument of ''P'', is free while the second one, as argument of ''Q'', is bound.A formula in first-order logic with no free variable occurrences is called a ''first-order sentence''.", "These are the formulas that will have well-defined truth values under an interpretation.", "For example, whether a formula such as Phil(''x'') is true must depend on what ''x'' represents.", "But the sentence will be either true or false in a given interpretation.===Example: ordered abelian groups===In mathematics, the language of ordered abelian groups has one constant symbol 0, one unary function symbol −, one binary function symbol +, and one binary relation symbol ≤.", "Then:The expressions +(''x'', ''y'') and +(''x'', +(''y'', −(''z''))) are ''terms''.", "These are usually written as ''x'' + ''y'' and ''x'' + ''y'' − ''z''.", "The expressions +(''x'', ''y'') = 0 and ≤(+(''x'', +(''y'', −(''z''))), +(''x'', ''y'')) are ''atomic formulas''.", "These are usually written as ''x'' + ''y'' = 0 and ''x'' + ''y'' − ''z'' ≤ ''x'' + ''y''.", "The expression is a ''formula'', which is usually written as This formula has one free variable, ''z''.The axioms for ordered abelian groups can be expressed as a set of sentences in the language.", "For example, the axiom stating that the group is commutative is usually written" ], [ "Semantics", "An interpretation of a first-order language assigns a denotation to each non-logical symbol (predicate symbol, function symbol, or constant symbol) in that language.", "It also determines a domain of discourse that specifies the range of the quantifiers.", "The result is that each term is assigned an object that it represents, each predicate is assigned a property of objects, and each sentence is assigned a truth value.", "In this way, an interpretation provides semantic meaning to the terms, predicates, and formulas of the language.", "The study of the interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics.", "What follows is a description of the standard or Tarskian semantics for first-order logic.", "(It is also possible to define game semantics for first-order logic, but aside from requiring the axiom of choice, game semantics agree with Tarskian semantics for first-order logic, so game semantics will not be elaborated herein.", ")===First-order structures===The most common way of specifying an interpretation (especially in mathematics) is to specify a ''structure'' (also called a ''model''; see below).", "The structure consists of a domain of discourse ''D'' and an interpretation function mapping non-logical symbols to predicates, functions, and constants.The domain of discourse ''D'' is a nonempty set of \"objects\" of some kind.", "Intuitively, given an interpretation, a first-order formula becomes a statement about these objects; for example, states the existence of some object in ''D'' for which the predicate ''P'' is true (or, more precisely, for which the predicate assigned to the predicate symbol ''P'' by the interpretation is true).", "For example, one can take ''D'' to be the set of integers.Non-logical symbols are interpreted as follows: The interpretation of an ''n''-ary function symbol is a function from ''D''''n'' to ''D''.", "For example, if the domain of discourse is the set of integers, a function symbol ''f'' of arity 2 can be interpreted as the function that gives the sum of its arguments.", "In other words, the symbol ''f'' is associated with the function which, in this interpretation, is addition.", "* The interpretation of a constant symbol (a function symbol of arity 0) is a function from ''D''0 (a set whose only member is the empty tuple) to ''D'', which can be simply identified with an object in ''D''.", "For example, an interpretation may assign the value to the constant symbol .", "* The interpretation of an ''n''-ary predicate symbol is a set of ''n''-tuples of elements of ''D'', giving the arguments for which the predicate is true.", "For example, an interpretation of a binary predicate symbol ''P'' may be the set of pairs of integers such that the first one is less than the second.", "According to this interpretation, the predicate ''P'' would be true if its first argument is less than its second argument.", "Equivalently, predicate symbols may be assigned Boolean-valued functions from ''D''''n'' to .===Evaluation of truth values===A formula evaluates to true or false given an interpretation and a '''variable assignment''' μ that associates an element of the domain of discourse with each variable.", "The reason that a variable assignment is required is to give meanings to formulas with free variables, such as .", "The truth value of this formula changes depending on the values that ''x'' and ''y'' denote.First, the variable assignment μ can be extended to all terms of the language, with the result that each term maps to a single element of the domain of discourse.", "The following rules are used to make this assignment:* ''Variables''.", "Each variable ''x'' evaluates to ''μ''(''x'')* ''Functions''.", "Given terms that have been evaluated to elements of the domain of discourse, and a ''n''-ary function symbol ''f'', the term evaluates to .Next, each formula is assigned a truth value.", "The inductive definition used to make this assignment is called the T-schema.", "* ''Atomic formulas (1)''.", "A formula is associated the value true or false depending on whether , where are the evaluation of the terms and is the interpretation of , which by assumption is a subset of .", "* ''Atomic formulas (2)''.", "A formula is assigned true if and evaluate to the same object of the domain of discourse (see the section on equality below).", "* ''Logical connectives''.", "A formula in the form , , etc.", "is evaluated according to the truth table for the connective in question, as in propositional logic.", "* ''Existential quantifiers''.", "A formula is true according to ''M'' and if there exists an evaluation of the variables that differs from at most regarding the evaluation of ''x'' and such that φ is true according to the interpretation ''M'' and the variable assignment .", "This formal definition captures the idea that is true if and only if there is a way to choose a value for ''x'' such that φ(''x'') is satisfied.", "* ''Universal quantifiers''.", "A formula is true according to ''M'' and if φ(''x'') is true for every pair composed by the interpretation ''M'' and some variable assignment that differs from at most on the value of ''x''.", "This captures the idea that is true if every possible choice of a value for ''x'' causes φ(''x'') to be true.If a formula does not contain free variables, and so is a sentence, then the initial variable assignment does not affect its truth value.", "In other words, a sentence is true according to ''M'' and if and only if it is true according to ''M'' and every other variable assignment .There is a second common approach to defining truth values that does not rely on variable assignment functions.", "Instead, given an interpretation ''M'', one first adds to the signature a collection of constant symbols, one for each element of the domain of discourse in ''M''; say that for each ''d'' in the domain the constant symbol ''c''''d'' is fixed.", "The interpretation is extended so that each new constant symbol is assigned to its corresponding element of the domain.", "One now defines truth for quantified formulas syntactically, as follows:* ''Existential quantifiers (alternate)''.", "A formula is true according to ''M'' if there is some ''d'' in the domain of discourse such that holds.", "Here is the result of substituting ''c''''d'' for every free occurrence of ''x'' in φ.", "* ''Universal quantifiers (alternate)''.", "A formula is true according to ''M'' if, for every ''d'' in the domain of discourse, is true according to ''M''.This alternate approach gives exactly the same truth values to all sentences as the approach via variable assignments.===Validity, satisfiability, and logical consequence===If a sentence φ evaluates to ''true'' under a given interpretation ''M'', one says that ''M'' ''satisfies'' φ; this is denoted .", "A sentence is ''satisfiable'' if there is some interpretation under which it is true.", "This is a bit different from the symbol from model theory, where denotes satisfiability in a model, i.e.", "\"there is a suitable assignment of values in 's domain to variable symbols of \".Satisfiability of formulas with free variables is more complicated, because an interpretation on its own does not determine the truth value of such a formula.", "The most common convention is that a formula φ with free variables , ..., is said to be satisfied by an interpretation if the formula φ remains true regardless which individuals from the domain of discourse are assigned to its free variables , ..., .", "This has the same effect as saying that a formula φ is satisfied if and only if its universal closure is satisfied.A formula is ''logically valid'' (or simply ''valid'') if it is true in every interpretation.", "These formulas play a role similar to tautologies in propositional logic.A formula φ is a ''logical consequence'' of a formula ψ if every interpretation that makes ψ true also makes φ true.", "In this case one says that φ is logically implied by ψ.===Algebraizations===An alternate approach to the semantics of first-order logic proceeds via abstract algebra.", "This approach generalizes the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebras of propositional logic.", "There are three ways of eliminating quantified variables from first-order logic that do not involve replacing quantifiers with other variable binding term operators:Cylindric algebra, by Alfred Tarski and colleagues;Polyadic algebra, by Paul Halmos;Predicate functor logic, mainly due to Willard Quine.These algebras are all lattices that properly extend the two-element Boolean algebra.Tarski and Givant (1987) showed that the fragment of first-order logic that has no atomic sentence lying in the scope of more than three quantifiers has the same expressive power as relation algebra.", "This fragment is of great interest because it suffices for Peano arithmetic and most axiomatic set theory, including the canonical ZFC.", "They also prove that first-order logic with a primitive ordered pair is equivalent to a relation algebra with two ordered pair projection functions.===First-order theories, models, and elementary classes===A ''first-order theory'' of a particular signature is a set of axioms, which are sentences consisting of symbols from that signature.", "The set of axioms is often finite or recursively enumerable, in which case the theory is called ''effective''.", "Some authors require theories to also include all logical consequences of the axioms.", "The axioms are considered to hold within the theory and from them other sentences that hold within the theory can be derived.A first-order structure that satisfies all sentences in a given theory is said to be a ''model'' of the theory.", "An ''elementary class'' is the set of all structures satisfying a particular theory.", "These classes are a main subject of study in model theory.Many theories have an ''intended interpretation'', a certain model that is kept in mind when studying the theory.", "For example, the intended interpretation of Peano arithmetic consists of the usual natural numbers with their usual operations.", "However, the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that most first-order theories will also have other, nonstandard models.A theory is ''consistent'' if it is not possible to prove a contradiction from the axioms of the theory.", "A theory is ''complete'' if, for every formula in its signature, either that formula or its negation is a logical consequence of the axioms of the theory.", "Gödel's incompleteness theorem shows that effective first-order theories that include a sufficient portion of the theory of the natural numbers can never be both consistent and complete.===Empty domains===The definition above requires that the domain of discourse of any interpretation must be nonempty.", "There are settings, such as inclusive logic, where empty domains are permitted.", "Moreover, if a class of algebraic structures includes an empty structure (for example, there is an empty poset), that class can only be an elementary class in first-order logic if empty domains are permitted or the empty structure is removed from the class.There are several difficulties with empty domains, however: Many common rules of inference are valid only when the domain of discourse is required to be nonempty.", "One example is the rule stating that implies when ''x'' is not a free variable in .", "This rule, which is used to put formulas into prenex normal form, is sound in nonempty domains, but unsound if the empty domain is permitted.", "* The definition of truth in an interpretation that uses a variable assignment function cannot work with empty domains, because there are no variable assignment functions whose range is empty.", "(Similarly, one cannot assign interpretations to constant symbols.)", "This truth definition requires that one must select a variable assignment function (μ above) before truth values for even atomic formulas can be defined.", "Then the truth value of a sentence is defined to be its truth value under any variable assignment, and it is proved that this truth value does not depend on which assignment is chosen.", "This technique does not work if there are no assignment functions at all; it must be changed to accommodate empty domains.Thus, when the empty domain is permitted, it must often be treated as a special case.", "Most authors, however, simply exclude the empty domain by definition." ], [ "Deductive systems", "A ''deductive system'' is used to demonstrate, on a purely syntactic basis, that one formula is a logical consequence of another formula.", "There are many such systems for first-order logic, including Hilbert-style deductive systems, natural deduction, the sequent calculus, the tableaux method, and resolution.", "These share the common property that a deduction is a finite syntactic object; the format of this object, and the way it is constructed, vary widely.", "These finite deductions themselves are often called ''derivations'' in proof theory.", "They are also often called ''proofs'' but are completely formalized unlike natural-language mathematical proofs.A deductive system is ''sound'' if any formula that can be derived in the system is logically valid.", "Conversely, a deductive system is ''complete'' if every logically valid formula is derivable.", "All of the systems discussed in this article are both sound and complete.", "They also share the property that it is possible to effectively verify that a purportedly valid deduction is actually a deduction; such deduction systems are called ''effective''.A key property of deductive systems is that they are purely syntactic, so that derivations can be verified without considering any interpretation.", "Thus, a sound argument is correct in every possible interpretation of the language, regardless of whether that interpretation is about mathematics, economics, or some other area.In general, logical consequence in first-order logic is only semidecidable: if a sentence A logically implies a sentence B then this can be discovered (for example, by searching for a proof until one is found, using some effective, sound, complete proof system).", "However, if A does not logically imply B, this does not mean that A logically implies the negation of B.", "There is no effective procedure that, given formulas A and B, always correctly decides whether A logically implies B.===Rules of inference===A ''rule of inference'' states that, given a particular formula (or set of formulas) with a certain property as a hypothesis, another specific formula (or set of formulas) can be derived as a conclusion.", "The rule is sound (or truth-preserving) if it preserves validity in the sense that whenever any interpretation satisfies the hypothesis, that interpretation also satisfies the conclusion.For example, one common rule of inference is the ''rule of substitution''.", "If ''t'' is a term and φ is a formula possibly containing the variable ''x'', then φ''t''/''x'' is the result of replacing all free instances of ''x'' by ''t'' in φ.", "The substitution rule states that for any φ and any term ''t'', one can conclude φ''t''/''x'' from φ provided that no free variable of ''t'' becomes bound during the substitution process.", "(If some free variable of ''t'' becomes bound, then to substitute ''t'' for ''x'' it is first necessary to change the bound variables of φ to differ from the free variables of ''t''.", ")To see why the restriction on bound variables is necessary, consider the logically valid formula φ given by , in the signature of (0,1,+,×,=) of arithmetic.", "If ''t'' is the term \"x + 1\", the formula φ''t''/''y'' is , which will be false in many interpretations.", "The problem is that the free variable ''x'' of ''t'' became bound during the substitution.", "The intended replacement can be obtained by renaming the bound variable ''x'' of φ to something else, say ''z'', so that the formula after substitution is , which is again logically valid.The substitution rule demonstrates several common aspects of rules of inference.", "It is entirely syntactical; one can tell whether it was correctly applied without appeal to any interpretation.", "It has (syntactically defined) limitations on when it can be applied, which must be respected to preserve the correctness of derivations.", "Moreover, as is often the case, these limitations are necessary because of interactions between free and bound variables that occur during syntactic manipulations of the formulas involved in the inference rule.===Hilbert-style systems and natural deduction===A deduction in a Hilbert-style deductive system is a list of formulas, each of which is a ''logical axiom'', a hypothesis that has been assumed for the derivation at hand or follows from previous formulas via a rule of inference.", "The logical axioms consist of several axiom schemas of logically valid formulas; these encompass a significant amount of propositional logic.", "The rules of inference enable the manipulation of quantifiers.", "Typical Hilbert-style systems have a small number of rules of inference, along with several infinite schemas of logical axioms.", "It is common to have only modus ponens and universal generalization as rules of inference.Natural deduction systems resemble Hilbert-style systems in that a deduction is a finite list of formulas.", "However, natural deduction systems have no logical axioms; they compensate by adding additional rules of inference that can be used to manipulate the logical connectives in formulas in the proof.===Sequent calculus===The sequent calculus was developed to study the properties of natural deduction systems.", "Instead of working with one formula at a time, it uses ''sequents'', which are expressions of the form::where A1, ..., A''n'', B1, ..., B''k'' are formulas and the turnstile symbol is used as punctuation to separate the two halves.", "Intuitively, a sequent expresses the idea that implies .===Tableaux method===propositional formula Unlike the methods just described the derivations in the tableaux method are not lists of formulas.", "Instead, a derivation is a tree of formulas.", "To show that a formula A is provable, the tableaux method attempts to demonstrate that the negation of A is unsatisfiable.", "The tree of the derivation has at its root; the tree branches in a way that reflects the structure of the formula.", "For example, to show that is unsatisfiable requires showing that C and D are each unsatisfiable; this corresponds to a branching point in the tree with parent and children C and D.===Resolution===The resolution rule is a single rule of inference that, together with unification, is sound and complete for first-order logic.", "As with the tableaux method, a formula is proved by showing that the negation of the formula is unsatisfiable.", "Resolution is commonly used in automated theorem proving.The resolution method works only with formulas that are disjunctions of atomic formulas; arbitrary formulas must first be converted to this form through Skolemization.", "The resolution rule states that from the hypotheses and , the conclusion can be obtained.===Provable identities===Many identities can be proved, which establish equivalences between particular formulas.", "These identities allow for rearranging formulas by moving quantifiers across other connectives and are useful for putting formulas in prenex normal form.", "Some provable identities include:::::::: (where must not occur free in ): (where must not occur free in )" ], [ "Equality and its axioms", "There are several different conventions for using equality (or identity) in first-order logic.", "The most common convention, known as '''first-order logic with equality''', includes the equality symbol as a primitive logical symbol which is always interpreted as the real equality relation between members of the domain of discourse, such that the \"two\" given members are the same member.", "This approach also adds certain axioms about equality to the deductive system employed.", "These equality axioms are:* ''Reflexivity''.", "For each variable ''x'', ''x'' = ''x''.", "* ''Substitution for functions''.", "For all variables ''x'' and ''y'', and any function symbol ''f'',:''x'' = ''y'' → ''f''(..., ''x'', ...) = ''f''(..., ''y'', ...).", " ''Substitution for formulas''.", "For any variables ''x'' and ''y'' and any formula φ(''x''), if φ' is obtained by replacing any number of free occurrences of ''x'' in φ with ''y'', such that these remain free occurrences of ''y'', then::''x'' = ''y'' → (φ → φ').These are axiom schemas, each of which specifies an infinite set of axioms.", "The third schema is known as ''Leibniz's law'', \"the principle of substitutivity\", \"the indiscernibility of identicals\", or \"the replacement property\".", "The second schema, involving the function symbol ''f'', is (equivalent to) a special case of the third schema, using the formula::''x'' = ''y'' → (''f''(..., ''x'', ...) = ''z'' → ''f''(..., ''y'', ...) = ''z'').Many other properties of equality are consequences of the axioms above, for example: ''Symmetry''.", "If ''x'' = ''y'' then ''y'' = ''x''.", "* ''Transitivity''.", "If ''x'' = ''y'' and ''y'' = ''z'' then ''x'' = ''z''.===First-order logic without equality===An alternate approach considers the equality relation to be a non-logical symbol.", "This convention is known as ''first-order logic without equality''.", "If an equality relation is included in the signature, the axioms of equality must now be added to the theories under consideration, if desired, instead of being considered rules of logic.", "The main difference between this method and first-order logic with equality is that an interpretation may now interpret two distinct individuals as \"equal\" (although, by Leibniz's law, these will satisfy exactly the same formulas under any interpretation).", "That is, the equality relation may now be interpreted by an arbitrary equivalence relation on the domain of discourse that is congruent with respect to the functions and relations of the interpretation.When this second convention is followed, the term ''normal model'' is used to refer to an interpretation where no distinct individuals ''a'' and ''b'' satisfy ''a'' = ''b''.", "In first-order logic with equality, only normal models are considered, and so there is no term for a model other than a normal model.", "When first-order logic without equality is studied, it is necessary to amend the statements of results such as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem so that only normal models are considered.First-order logic without equality is often employed in the context of second-order arithmetic and other higher-order theories of arithmetic, where the equality relation between sets of natural numbers is usually omitted.===Defining equality within a theory===If a theory has a binary formula ''A''(''x'',''y'') which satisfies reflexivity and Leibniz's law, the theory is said to have equality, or to be a theory with equality.", "The theory may not have all instances of the above schemas as axioms, but rather as derivable theorems.", "For example, in theories with no function symbols and a finite number of relations, it is possible to define equality in terms of the relations, by defining the two terms ''s'' and ''t'' to be equal if any relation is unchanged by changing ''s'' to ''t'' in any argument.Some theories allow other ''ad hoc'' definitions of equality:* In the theory of partial orders with one relation symbol ≤, one could define ''s'' = ''t'' to be an abbreviation for ''s'' ≤ ''t'' ∧ ''t'' ≤ ''s''.", "* In set theory with one relation ∈, one may define ''s'' = ''t'' to be an abbreviation for .", "This definition of equality then automatically satisfies the axioms for equality.", "In this case, one should replace the usual axiom of extensionality, which can be stated as , with an alternative formulation , which says that if sets ''x'' and ''y'' have the same elements, then they also belong to the same sets." ], [ "Metalogical properties", "One motivation for the use of first-order logic, rather than higher-order logic, is that first-order logic has many metalogical properties that stronger logics do not have.", "These results concern general properties of first-order logic itself, rather than properties of individual theories.", "They provide fundamental tools for the construction of models of first-order theories.===Completeness and undecidability===Gödel's completeness theorem, proved by Kurt Gödel in 1929, establishes that there are sound, complete, effective deductive systems for first-order logic, and thus the first-order logical consequence relation is captured by finite provability.", "Naively, the statement that a formula φ logically implies a formula ψ depends on every model of φ; these models will in general be of arbitrarily large cardinality, and so logical consequence cannot be effectively verified by checking every model.", "However, it is possible to enumerate all finite derivations and search for a derivation of ψ from φ.", "If ψ is logically implied by φ, such a derivation will eventually be found.", "Thus first-order logical consequence is semidecidable: it is possible to make an effective enumeration of all pairs of sentences (φ,ψ) such that ψ is a logical consequence of φ.Unlike propositional logic, first-order logic is undecidable (although semidecidable), provided that the language has at least one predicate of arity at least 2 (other than equality).", "This means that there is no decision procedure that determines whether arbitrary formulas are logically valid.", "This result was established independently by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in 1936 and 1937, respectively, giving a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem posed by David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann in 1928.Their proofs demonstrate a connection between the unsolvability of the decision problem for first-order logic and the unsolvability of the halting problem.There are systems weaker than full first-order logic for which the logical consequence relation is decidable.", "These include propositional logic and monadic predicate logic, which is first-order logic restricted to unary predicate symbols and no function symbols.", "Other logics with no function symbols which are decidable are the guarded fragment of first-order logic, as well as two-variable logic.", "The Bernays–Schönfinkel class of first-order formulas is also decidable.", "Decidable subsets of first-order logic are also studied in the framework of description logics.===The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem===The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory of cardinality λ has an infinite model, then it has models of every infinite cardinality greater than or equal to λ.", "One of the earliest results in model theory, it implies that it is not possible to characterize countability or uncountability in a first-order language with a countable signature.", "That is, there is no first-order formula φ(''x'') such that an arbitrary structure M satisfies φ if and only if the domain of discourse of M is countable (or, in the second case, uncountable).The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem implies that infinite structures cannot be categorically axiomatized in first-order logic.", "For example, there is no first-order theory whose only model is the real line: any first-order theory with an infinite model also has a model of cardinality larger than the continuum.", "Since the real line is infinite, any theory satisfied by the real line is also satisfied by some nonstandard models.", "When the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is applied to first-order set theories, the nonintuitive consequences are known as Skolem's paradox.===The compactness theorem===The compactness theorem states that a set of first-order sentences has a model if and only if every finite subset of it has a model.", "This implies that if a formula is a logical consequence of an infinite set of first-order axioms, then it is a logical consequence of some finite number of those axioms.", "This theorem was proved first by Kurt Gödel as a consequence of the completeness theorem, but many additional proofs have been obtained over time.", "It is a central tool in model theory, providing a fundamental method for constructing models.The compactness theorem has a limiting effect on which collections of first-order structures are elementary classes.", "For example, the compactness theorem implies that any theory that has arbitrarily large finite models has an infinite model.", "Thus, the class of all finite graphs is not an elementary class (the same holds for many other algebraic structures).There are also more subtle limitations of first-order logic that are implied by the compactness theorem.", "For example, in computer science, many situations can be modeled as a directed graph of states (nodes) and connections (directed edges).", "Validating such a system may require showing that no \"bad\" state can be reached from any \"good\" state.", "Thus, one seeks to determine if the good and bad states are in different connected components of the graph.", "However, the compactness theorem can be used to show that connected graphs are not an elementary class in first-order logic, and there is no formula φ(''x'',''y'') of first-order logic, in the logic of graphs, that expresses the idea that there is a path from ''x'' to ''y''.", "Connectedness can be expressed in second-order logic, however, but not with only existential set quantifiers, as also enjoys compactness.===Lindström's theorem===Per Lindström showed that the metalogical properties just discussed actually characterize first-order logic in the sense that no stronger logic can also have those properties (Ebbinghaus and Flum 1994, Chapter XIII).", "Lindström defined a class of abstract logical systems, and a rigorous definition of the relative strength of a member of this class.", "He established two theorems for systems of this type:* A logical system satisfying Lindström's definition that contains first-order logic and satisfies both the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem must be equivalent to first-order logic.", "* A logical system satisfying Lindström's definition that has a semidecidable logical consequence relation and satisfies the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem must be equivalent to first-order logic." ], [ "Limitations", "Although first-order logic is sufficient for formalizing much of mathematics and is commonly used in computer science and other fields, it has certain limitations.", "These include limitations on its expressiveness and limitations of the fragments of natural languages that it can describe.For instance, first-order logic is undecidable, meaning a sound, complete and terminating decision algorithm for provability is impossible.", "This has led to the study of interesting decidable fragments, such as C2: first-order logic with two variables and the counting quantifiers and .===Expressiveness===The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory has any infinite model, then it has infinite models of every cardinality.", "In particular, no first-order theory with an infinite model can be categorical.", "Thus, there is no first-order theory whose only model has the set of natural numbers as its domain, or whose only model has the set of real numbers as its domain.", "Many extensions of first-order logic, including infinitary logics and higher-order logics, are more expressive in the sense that they do permit categorical axiomatizations of the natural numbers or real numbers.", "This expressiveness comes at a metalogical cost, however: by Lindström's theorem, the compactness theorem and the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem cannot hold in any logic stronger than first-order.===Formalizing natural languages===First-order logic is able to formalize many simple quantifier constructions in natural language, such as \"every person who lives in Perth lives in Australia\".", "Hence, first-order logic is used as a basis for knowledge representation languages, such as FO(.", ").Still, there are complicated features of natural language that cannot be expressed in first-order logic.", "\"Any logical system which is appropriate as an instrument for the analysis of natural language needs a much richer structure than first-order predicate logic\".", "Type Example Comment If John is self-satisfied, then there is at least one thing he has in common with Peter.", "Example requires a quantifier over predicates, which cannot be implemented in single-sorted first-order logic: .", "Quantification over properties Santa Claus has all the attributes of a sadist.", "Example requires quantifiers over predicates, which cannot be implemented in single-sorted first-order logic: .", "Predicate adverbial John is walking quickly.", "Example cannot be analysed as ;predicate adverbials are not the same kind of thing as second-order predicates such as colour.", "Relative adjective Jumbo is a small elephant.", "Example cannot be analysed as ;predicate adjectives are not the same kind of thing as second-order predicates such as colour.", "Predicate adverbial modifier John is walking very quickly.", "Relative adjective modifier Jumbo is terribly small.", "An expression such as \"terribly\", when applied to a relative adjective such as \"small\", results in a new composite relative adjective \"terribly small\".", "Prepositions Mary is sitting next to John.", "The preposition \"next to\" when applied to \"John\" results in the predicate adverbial \"next to John\"." ], [ "Restrictions, extensions, and variations", "There are many variations of first-order logic.", "Some of these are inessential in the sense that they merely change notation without affecting the semantics.", "Others change the expressive power more significantly, by extending the semantics through additional quantifiers or other new logical symbols.", "For example, infinitary logics permit formulas of infinite size, and modal logics add symbols for possibility and necessity.===Restricted languages===First-order logic can be studied in languages with fewer logical symbols than were described above:* Because can be expressed as , and can be expressed as , either of the two quantifiers and can be dropped.", "* Since can be expressed as and can be expressed as , either or can be dropped.", "In other words, it is sufficient to have and , or and , as the only logical connectives.", "* Similarly, it is sufficient to have only and as logical connectives, or to have only the Sheffer stroke (NAND) or the Peirce arrow (NOR) operator.", "* It is possible to entirely avoid function symbols and constant symbols, rewriting them via predicate symbols in an appropriate way.", "For example, instead of using a constant symbol one may use a predicate (interpreted as ) and replace every predicate such as with .", "A function such as will similarly be replaced by a predicate interpreted as .", "This change requires adding additional axioms to the theory at hand, so that interpretations of the predicate symbols used have the correct semantics.Restrictions such as these are useful as a technique to reduce the number of inference rules or axiom schemas in deductive systems, which leads to shorter proofs of metalogical results.", "The cost of the restrictions is that it becomes more difficult to express natural-language statements in the formal system at hand, because the logical connectives used in the natural language statements must be replaced by their (longer) definitions in terms of the restricted collection of logical connectives.", "Similarly, derivations in the limited systems may be longer than derivations in systems that include additional connectives.", "There is thus a trade-off between the ease of working within the formal system and the ease of proving results about the formal system.It is also possible to restrict the arities of function symbols and predicate symbols, in sufficiently expressive theories.", "One can in principle dispense entirely with functions of arity greater than 2 and predicates of arity greater than 1 in theories that include a pairing function.", "This is a function of arity 2 that takes pairs of elements of the domain and returns an ordered pair containing them.", "It is also sufficient to have two predicate symbols of arity 2 that define projection functions from an ordered pair to its components.", "In either case it is necessary that the natural axioms for a pairing function and its projections are satisfied.===Many-sorted logic===Ordinary first-order interpretations have a single domain of discourse over which all quantifiers range.", "''Many-sorted first-order logic'' allows variables to have different ''sorts'', which have different domains.", "This is also called ''typed first-order logic'', and the sorts called ''types'' (as in data type), but it is not the same as first-order type theory.", "Many-sorted first-order logic is often used in the study of second-order arithmetic.When there are only finitely many sorts in a theory, many-sorted first-order logic can be reduced to single-sorted first-order logic.One introduces into the single-sorted theory a unary predicate symbol for each sort in the many-sorted theory and adds an axiom saying that these unary predicates partition the domain of discourse.", "For example, if there are two sorts, one adds predicate symbols and and the axiom::.Then the elements satisfying are thought of as elements of the first sort, and elements satisfying as elements of the second sort.", "One can quantify over each sort by using the corresponding predicate symbol to limit the range of quantification.", "For example, to say there is an element of the first sort satisfying formula φ(''x''), one writes::.===Additional quantifiers===Additional quantifiers can be added to first-order logic.", "* Sometimes it is useful to say that \" holds for exactly one ''x''\", which can be expressed as .", "This notation, called uniqueness quantification, may be taken to abbreviate a formula such as .", "''First-order logic with extra quantifiers'' has new quantifiers ''Qx'',..., with meanings such as \"there are many ''x'' such that ...\".", "Also see branching quantifiers and the plural quantifiers of George Boolos and others.", " ''Bounded quantifiers'' are often used in the study of set theory or arithmetic.===Infinitary logics===Infinitary logic allows infinitely long sentences.", "For example, one may allow a conjunction or disjunction of infinitely many formulas, or quantification over infinitely many variables.", "Infinitely long sentences arise in areas of mathematics including topology and model theory.Infinitary logic generalizes first-order logic to allow formulas of infinite length.", "The most common way in which formulas can become infinite is through infinite conjunctions and disjunctions.", "However, it is also possible to admit generalized signatures in which function and relation symbols are allowed to have infinite arities, or in which quantifiers can bind infinitely many variables.", "Because an infinite formula cannot be represented by a finite string, it is necessary to choose some other representation of formulas; the usual representation in this context is a tree.", "Thus, formulas are, essentially, identified with their parse trees, rather than with the strings being parsed.The most commonly studied infinitary logics are denoted ''L''αβ, where α and β are each either cardinal numbers or the symbol ∞.", "In this notation, ordinary first-order logic is ''L''ωω.In the logic ''L''∞ω, arbitrary conjunctions or disjunctions are allowed when building formulas, and there is an unlimited supply of variables.", "More generally, the logic that permits conjunctions or disjunctions with less than κ constituents is known as ''L''κω.", "For example, ''L''ω1ω permits countable conjunctions and disjunctions.The set of free variables in a formula of ''L''κω can have any cardinality strictly less than κ, yet only finitely many of them can be in the scope of any quantifier when a formula appears as a subformula of another.", "In other infinitary logics, a subformula may be in the scope of infinitely many quantifiers.", "For example, in ''L''κ∞, a single universal or existential quantifier may bind arbitrarily many variables simultaneously.", "Similarly, the logic ''L''κλ permits simultaneous quantification over fewer than λ variables, as well as conjunctions and disjunctions of size less than κ.===Non-classical and modal logics=== ''Intuitionistic first-order logic'' uses intuitionistic rather than classical reasoning; for example, ¬¬φ need not be equivalent to φ and ¬ ∀x.φ is in general not equivalent to ∃ x.¬φ .", "First-order ''modal logic'' allows one to describe other possible worlds as well as this contingently true world which we inhabit.", "In some versions, the set of possible worlds varies depending on which possible world one inhabits.", "Modal logic has extra ''modal operators'' with meanings which can be characterized informally as, for example \"it is necessary that φ\" (true in all possible worlds) and \"it is possible that φ\" (true in some possible world).", "With standard first-order logic we have a single domain, and each predicate is assigned one extension.", "With first-order modal logic we have a ''domain function'' that assigns each possible world its own domain, so that each predicate gets an extension only relative to these possible worlds.", "This allows us to model cases where, for example, Alex is a philosopher, but might have been a mathematician, and might not have existed at all.", "In the first possible world ''P''(''a'') is true, in the second ''P''(''a'') is false, and in the third possible world there is no ''a'' in the domain at all.", "''First-order fuzzy logics'' are first-order extensions of propositional fuzzy logics rather than classical propositional calculus.===Fixpoint logic===Fixpoint logic extends first-order logic by adding the closure under the least fixed points of positive operators.===Higher-order logics===The characteristic feature of first-order logic is that individuals can be quantified, but not predicates.", "Thus:is a legal first-order formula, but:is not, in most formalizations of first-order logic.", "Second-order logic extends first-order logic by adding the latter type of quantification.", "Other higher-order logics allow quantification over even higher types than second-order logic permits.", "These higher types include relations between relations, functions from relations to relations between relations, and other higher-type objects.", "Thus the \"first\" in first-order logic describes the type of objects that can be quantified.Unlike first-order logic, for which only one semantics is studied, there are several possible semantics for second-order logic.", "The most commonly employed semantics for second-order and higher-order logic is known as ''full semantics''.", "The combination of additional quantifiers and the full semantics for these quantifiers makes higher-order logic stronger than first-order logic.", "In particular, the (semantic) logical consequence relation for second-order and higher-order logic is not semidecidable; there is no effective deduction system for second-order logic that is sound and complete under full semantics.Second-order logic with full semantics is more expressive than first-order logic.", "For example, it is possible to create axiom systems in second-order logic that uniquely characterize the natural numbers and the real line.", "The cost of this expressiveness is that second-order and higher-order logics have fewer attractive metalogical properties than first-order logic.", "For example, the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and compactness theorem of first-order logic become false when generalized to higher-order logics with full semantics." ], [ "Automated theorem proving and formal methods", "Automated theorem proving refers to the development of computer programs that search and find derivations (formal proofs) of mathematical theorems.", "Finding derivations is a difficult task because the search space can be very large; an exhaustive search of every possible derivation is theoretically possible but computationally infeasible for many systems of interest in mathematics.", "Thus complicated heuristic functions are developed to attempt to find a derivation in less time than a blind search.The related area of automated proof verification uses computer programs to check that human-created proofs are correct.", "Unlike complicated automated theorem provers, verification systems may be small enough that their correctness can be checked both by hand and through automated software verification.", "This validation of the proof verifier is needed to give confidence that any derivation labeled as \"correct\" is actually correct.Some proof verifiers, such as Metamath, insist on having a complete derivation as input.", "Others, such as Mizar and Isabelle, take a well-formatted proof sketch (which may still be very long and detailed) and fill in the missing pieces by doing simple proof searches or applying known decision procedures: the resulting derivation is then verified by a small core \"kernel\".", "Many such systems are primarily intended for interactive use by human mathematicians: these are known as proof assistants.", "They may also use formal logics that are stronger than first-order logic, such as type theory.", "Because a full derivation of any nontrivial result in a first-order deductive system will be extremely long for a human to write, results are often formalized as a series of lemmas, for which derivations can be constructed separately.Automated theorem provers are also used to implement formal verification in computer science.", "In this setting, theorem provers are used to verify the correctness of programs and of hardware such as processors with respect to a formal specification.", "Because such analysis is time-consuming and thus expensive, it is usually reserved for projects in which a malfunction would have grave human or financial consequences.For the problem of model checking, efficient algorithms are known to decide whether an input finite structure satisfies a first-order formula, in addition to computational complexity bounds: see ." ], [ "See also", " ACL2 — A Computational Logic for Applicative Common Lisp* Aristotelian logic* Equiconsistency* Ehrenfeucht-Fraisse game* Extension by definitions* Extension (predicate logic)* Herbrandization* List of logic symbols* Lojban* Löwenheim number* Nonfirstorderizability* Prenex normal form* ''Prior Analytics''* Prolog* Relational algebra* Relational model* Skolem normal form* Tarski's World* Truth table* Type (model theory)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Andrews, Peter B.", "(2002); '' An Introduction to Mathematical Logic and Type Theory: To Truth Through Proof'', 2nd ed., Berlin: Kluwer Academic Publishers.", "Available from Springer.", "* Avigad, Jeremy; Donnelly, Kevin; Gray, David; and Raff, Paul (2007); \"A formally verified proof of the prime number theorem\", ''ACM Transactions on Computational Logic'', vol.", "9 no.", "1 * * * Barwise, Jon; and Etchemendy, John (2000); ''Language Proof and Logic'', Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications (Distributed by the University of Chicago Press)* Bocheński, Józef Maria (2007); ''A Précis of Mathematical Logic'', Dordrecht, NL: D. Reidel, translated from the French and German editions by Otto Bird* Ferreirós, José (2001); ''The Road to Modern Logic — An Interpretation'', Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, Volume 7, Issue 4, 2001, pp.", "441–484, , * * Hilbert, David; and Ackermann, Wilhelm (1950); ''Principles of Mathematical Logic'', Chelsea (English translation of ''Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik'', 1928 German first edition)* Hodges, Wilfrid (2001); \"Classical Logic I: First-Order Logic\", in Goble, Lou (ed.", "); ''The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic'', Blackwell* Ebbinghaus, Heinz-Dieter; Flum, Jörg; and Thomas, Wolfgang (1994); Logic'', Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Berlin, DE/New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, Second Edition, * Tarski, Alfred and Givant, Steven (1987); ''A Formalization of Set Theory without Variables''.", "Vol.41 of American Mathematical Society colloquium publications, Providence RI: American Mathematical Society," ], [ "External links", "* * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Shapiro, Stewart; \" Classical Logic\".", "Covers syntax, model theory, and metatheory for first-order logic in the natural deduction style.", "* Magnus, P. D.; '' forall x: an introduction to formal logic''.", "Covers formal semantics and proof theory for first-order logic.", "* Metamath: an ongoing online project to reconstruct mathematics as a huge first-order theory, using first-order logic and the axiomatic set theory ZFC.", "''Principia Mathematica'' modernized.", "* Podnieks, Karl; '' Introduction to mathematical logic''* Cambridge Mathematical Tripos notes (typeset by John Fremlin).", "These notes cover part of a past Cambridge Mathematical Tripos course taught to undergraduate students (usually) within their third year.", "The course is entitled \"Logic, Computation and Set Theory\" and covers Ordinals and cardinals, Posets and Zorn's Lemma, Propositional logic, Predicate logic, Set theory and Consistency issues related to ZFC and other set theories.", "* Tree Proof Generator can validate or invalidate formulas of first-order logic through the semantic tableaux method." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Functor" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, specifically category theory, a '''functor''' is a mapping between categories.", "Functors were first considered in algebraic topology, where algebraic objects (such as the fundamental group) are associated to topological spaces, and maps between these algebraic objects are associated to continuous maps between spaces.", "Nowadays, functors are used throughout modern mathematics to relate various categories.", "Thus, functors are important in all areas within mathematics to which category theory is applied.The words ''category'' and ''functor'' were borrowed by mathematicians from the philosophers Aristotle and Rudolf Carnap, respectively.", "The latter used ''functor'' in a linguistic context;see function word." ], [ "Definition", "A category with objects X, Y, Z and morphisms f, g, g ∘ fFunctor must preserve the composition of morphisms and Let ''C'' and ''D'' be categories.", "A '''functor''' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' is a mapping that* associates each object in ''C'' to an object in ''D'',* associates each morphism in ''C'' to a morphism in ''D'' such that the following two conditions hold: for every object in ''C'', for all morphisms and in ''C''.That is, functors must preserve identity morphisms and composition of morphisms.=== Covariance and contravariance ===There are many constructions in mathematics that would be functors but for the fact that they \"turn morphisms around\" and \"reverse composition\".", "We then define a '''contravariant functor''' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' as a mapping thatassociates each object in ''C'' with an object in ''D'',associates each morphism in ''C'' with a morphism in ''D'' such that the following two conditions hold: for every object in ''C'', for all morphisms and in ''C''.Note that contravariant functors reverse the direction of composition.Ordinary functors are also called '''covariant functors''' in order to distinguish them from contravariant ones.", "Note that one can also define a contravariant functor as a ''covariant'' functor on the opposite category .", "Some authors prefer to write all expressions covariantly.", "That is, instead of saying is a contravariant functor, they simply write (or sometimes ) and call it a functor.Contravariant functors are also occasionally called ''cofunctors''.There is a convention which refers to \"vectors\"—i.e., vector fields, elements of the space of sections of a tangent bundle —as \"contravariant\" and to \"covectors\"—i.e., 1-forms, elements of the space of sections of a cotangent bundle —as \"covariant\".", "This terminology originates in physics, and its rationale has to do with the position of the indices (\"upstairs\" and \"downstairs\") in expressions such as for or for In this formalism it is observed that the coordinate transformation symbol (representing the matrix ) acts on the \"covector coordinates\" \"in the same way\" as on the basis vectors: —whereas it acts \"in the opposite way\" on the \"vector coordinates\" (but \"in the same way\" as on the basis covectors: ).", "This terminology is contrary to the one used in category theory because it is the covectors that have ''pullbacks'' in general and are thus ''contravariant'', whereas vectors in general are ''covariant'' since they can be ''pushed forward''.", "See also Covariance and contravariance of vectors.=== Opposite functor ===Every functor induces the '''opposite functor''' , where and are the opposite categories to and .", "By definition, maps objects and morphisms in the identical way as does .", "Since does not coincide with as a category, and similarly for , is distinguished from .", "For example, when composing with , one should use either or .", "Note that, following the property of opposite category, .=== Bifunctors and multifunctors ===A '''bifunctor''' (also known as a '''binary functor''') is a functor whose domain is a product category.", "For example, the Hom functor is of the type .", "It can be seen as a functor in ''two'' arguments.", "The Hom functor is a natural example; it is contravariant in one argument, covariant in the other.A '''multifunctor''' is a generalization of the functor concept to ''n'' variables.", "So, for example, a bifunctor is a multifunctor with ." ], [ "Properties", "Two important consequences of the functor axioms are:* ''F'' transforms each commutative diagram in ''C'' into a commutative diagram in ''D'';* if ''f'' is an isomorphism in ''C'', then ''F''(''f'') is an isomorphism in ''D''.One can compose functors, i.e.", "if ''F'' is a functor from ''A'' to ''B'' and ''G'' is a functor from ''B'' to ''C'' then one can form the composite functor from ''A'' to ''C''.", "Composition of functors is associative where defined.", "Identity of composition of functors is the identity functor.", "This shows that functors can be considered as morphisms in categories of categories, for example in the category of small categories.A small category with a single object is the same thing as a monoid: the morphisms of a one-object category can be thought of as elements of the monoid, and composition in the category is thought of as the monoid operation.", "Functors between one-object categories correspond to monoid homomorphisms.", "So in a sense, functors between arbitrary categories are a kind of generalization of monoid homomorphisms to categories with more than one object." ], [ "Examples", "; Diagram: For categories ''C'' and ''J'', a diagram of type ''J'' in ''C'' is a covariant functor .", "; (Category theoretical) presheaf:For categories ''C'' and ''J'', a ''J''-presheaf on ''C'' is a contravariant functor .In the special case when J is '''Set''', the category of sets and functions, ''D'' is called a presheaf on ''C''.", "; Presheaves (over a topological space): If ''X'' is a topological space, then the open sets in ''X'' form a partially ordered set Open(''X'') under inclusion.", "Like every partially ordered set, Open(''X'') forms a small category by adding a single arrow if and only if .", "Contravariant functors on Open(''X'') are called ''presheaves'' on ''X''.", "For instance, by assigning to every open set ''U'' the associative algebra of real-valued continuous functions on ''U'', one obtains a presheaf of algebras on ''X''.", "; Constant functor: The functor which maps every object of ''C'' to a fixed object ''X'' in ''D'' and every morphism in ''C'' to the identity morphism on ''X''.", "Such a functor is called a ''constant'' or ''selection'' functor.", "; : A functor that maps a category to that same category; e.g., polynomial functor.", "; : In category ''C'', written 1''C'' or id''C'', maps an object to itself and a morphism to itself.", "The identity functor is an endofunctor.", "; Diagonal functor: The diagonal functor is defined as the functor from ''D'' to the functor category ''D''''C'' which sends each object in ''D'' to the constant functor at that object.", "; Limit functor: For a fixed index category ''J'', if every functor has a limit (for instance if ''C'' is complete), then the limit functor assigns to each functor its limit.", "The existence of this functor can be proved by realizing that it is the right-adjoint to the diagonal functor and invoking the Freyd adjoint functor theorem.", "This requires a suitable version of the axiom of choice.", "Similar remarks apply to the colimit functor (which assigns to every functor its colimit, and is covariant).", "; Power sets functor: The power set functor maps each set to its power set and each function to the map which sends to its image .", "One can also consider the '''contravariant power set functor''' which sends to the map which sends to its inverse image For example, if then .", "Suppose and .", "Then is the function which sends any subset of to its image , which in this case means , where denotes the mapping under , so this could also be written as .", "For the other values, Note that consequently generates the trivial topology on .", "Also note that although the function in this example mapped to the power set of , that need not be the case in general.", "; : The map which assigns to every vector space its dual space and to every linear map its dual or transpose is a contravariant functor from the category of all vector spaces over a fixed field to itself.", "; Fundamental group: Consider the category of pointed topological spaces, i.e.", "topological spaces with distinguished points.", "The objects are pairs , where ''X'' is a topological space and ''x''0 is a point in ''X''.", "A morphism from to is given by a continuous map with .", "To every topological space ''X'' with distinguished point ''x''0, one can define the fundamental group based at ''x''0, denoted .", "This is the group of homotopy classes of loops based at ''x''0, with the group operation of concatenation.", "If is a morphism of pointed spaces, then every loop in ''X'' with base point ''x''0 can be composed with ''f'' to yield a loop in ''Y'' with base point ''y''0.This operation is compatible with the homotopy equivalence relation and the composition of loops, and we get a group homomorphism from to .", "We thus obtain a functor from the category of pointed topological spaces to the category of groups.", "In the category of topological spaces (without distinguished point), one considers homotopy classes of generic curves, but they cannot be composed unless they share an endpoint.", "Thus one has the '''fundamental groupoid''' instead of the fundamental group, and this construction is functorial.", "; Algebra of continuous functions: A contravariant functor from the category of topological spaces (with continuous maps as morphisms) to the category of real associative algebras is given by assigning to every topological space ''X'' the algebra C(''X'') of all real-valued continuous functions on that space.", "Every continuous map induces an algebra homomorphism by the rule for every ''φ'' in C(''Y'').", "; Tangent and cotangent bundles: The map which sends every differentiable manifold to its tangent bundle and every smooth map to its derivative is a covariant functor from the category of differentiable manifolds to the category of vector bundles.", "Doing this constructions pointwise gives the tangent space, a covariant functor from the category of pointed differentiable manifolds to the category of real vector spaces.", "Likewise, cotangent space is a contravariant functor, essentially the composition of the tangent space with the dual space above.", "; Group actions/representations: Every group ''G'' can be considered as a category with a single object whose morphisms are the elements of ''G''.", "A functor from ''G'' to '''Set''' is then nothing but a group action of ''G'' on a particular set, i.e.", "a ''G''-set.", "Likewise, a functor from ''G'' to the category of vector spaces, '''Vect'''''K'', is a linear representation of ''G''.", "In general, a functor can be considered as an \"action\" of ''G'' on an object in the category ''C''.", "If ''C'' is a group, then this action is a group homomorphism.", "; Lie algebras: Assigning to every real (complex) Lie group its real (complex) Lie algebra defines a functor.", "; Tensor products: If ''C'' denotes the category of vector spaces over a fixed field, with linear maps as morphisms, then the tensor product defines a functor which is covariant in both arguments.", "; Forgetful functors: The functor which maps a group to its underlying set and a group homomorphism to its underlying function of sets is a functor.", "Functors like these, which \"forget\" some structure, are termed ''forgetful functors''.", "Another example is the functor which maps a ring to its underlying additive abelian group.", "Morphisms in '''Rng''' (ring homomorphisms) become morphisms in '''Ab''' (abelian group homomorphisms).", "; Free functors: Going in the opposite direction of forgetful functors are free functors.", "The free functor sends every set ''X'' to the free group generated by ''X''.", "Functions get mapped to group homomorphisms between free groups.", "Free constructions exist for many categories based on structured sets.", "See free object.", "; Homomorphism groups: To every pair ''A'', ''B'' of abelian groups one can assign the abelian group Hom(''A'', ''B'') consisting of all group homomorphisms from ''A'' to ''B''.", "This is a functor which is contravariant in the first and covariant in the second argument, i.e.", "it is a functor (where '''Ab''' denotes the category of abelian groups with group homomorphisms).", "If and are morphisms in '''Ab''', then the group homomorphism : is given by .", "See Hom functor.", "; Representable functors: We can generalize the previous example to any category ''C''.", "To every pair ''X'', ''Y'' of objects in ''C'' one can assign the set of morphisms from ''X'' to ''Y''.", "This defines a functor to '''Set''' which is contravariant in the first argument and covariant in the second, i.e.", "it is a functor .", "If and are morphisms in ''C'', then the map is given by .", "Functors like these are called representable functors.", "An important goal in many settings is to determine whether a given functor is representable." ], [ "Relation to other categorical concepts", "Let ''C'' and ''D'' be categories.", "The collection of all functors from ''C'' to ''D'' forms the objects of a category: the functor category.", "Morphisms in this category are natural transformations between functors.Functors are often defined by universal properties; examples are the tensor product, the direct sum and direct product of groups or vector spaces, construction of free groups and modules, direct and inverse limits.", "The concepts of limit and colimit generalize several of the above.Universal constructions often give rise to pairs of adjoint functors." ], [ "Computer implementations", "Functors sometimes appear in functional programming.", "For instance, the programming language Haskell has a class Functor where fmap is a polytypic function used to map functions (''morphisms'' on ''Hask'', the category of Haskell types) between existing types to functions between some new types." ], [ "See also", "* Functor category* Kan extension* Pseudofunctor" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* * see and the variations discussed and linked to there.", "* André Joyal, CatLab, a wiki project dedicated to the exposition of categorical mathematics* formal introduction to category theory.", "* J. Adamek, H. Herrlich, G. Stecker, Abstract and Concrete Categories-The Joy of Cats * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: \" Category Theory\" — by Jean-Pierre Marquis.", "Extensive bibliography.", "* List of academic conferences on category theory* Baez, John, 1996,\" The Tale of ''n''-categories.\"", "An informal introduction to higher order categories.", "* WildCats is a category theory package for Mathematica.", "Manipulation and visualization of objects, morphisms, categories, functors, natural transformations, universal properties.", "* The catsters, a YouTube channel about category theory.", "* Video archive of recorded talks relevant to categories, logic and the foundations of physics.", "* Interactive Web page which generates examples of categorical constructions in the category of finite sets." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Felix Hausdorff" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Felix Hausdorff''' ( , ; November 8, 1868 – January 26, 1942) was a German mathematician, pseudonym '''Paul Mongré''' (''à mon gré'' (Fr.)", "= \"according to my taste\"), who is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology and who contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory, and functional analysis.Life became difficult for Hausdorff and his family after the Kristallnacht of 1938.The next year he initiated efforts to emigrate to the United States, but was unable to make arrangements to receive a research fellowship.", "On 26 January 1942, Felix Hausdorff, along with his wife and his sister-in-law, died by suicide by taking an overdose of veronal, rather than comply with German orders to move to the Endenich camp, and there suffer the likely implications, about which he held no illusions." ], [ "Life", "===Childhood and youth===Hausdorff's father, the Jewish merchant Louis Hausdorff (1843–1896), moved with his young family to Leipzig in the autumn of 1870, and over time worked at various companies, including a linen-and cotton goods factory.", "He was an educated man and had become a Morenu at the age of 14.He wrote several treatises, including a long work on the Aramaic translations of the Bible from the perspective of Talmudic law.Hausdorff's mother, Hedwig (1848–1902), who is also referred to in various documents as Johanna, came from the Jewish Tietz family.", "From another branch of this family came Hermann Tietz, founder of the first department store, and later co-owner of the department store chain called \"Hermann Tietz\".", "During the period of Nazi dictatorship the name was \"Aryanised\" to Hertie.From 1878 to 1887 Felix Hausdorff attended the Nicolai School in Leipzig, a facility that had a reputation as a hotbed of humanistic education.", "He was an excellent student, class leader for many years and often recited self-written Latin or German poems at school celebrations.In his later years of high school, choosing a main subject of study was not easy for Hausdorff.", "Magda Dierkesmann, who was often a guest in the home of Hausdorff in the years 1926–1932, reported in 1967 that:He decided to study the natural sciences, and in his graduating class of 1887 he was the only one who achieved the highest possible grade.===Degree, doctorate and Habilitation===From 1887 to 1891 Hausdorff studied mathematics and astronomy, mainly in his native city of Leipzig, interrupted by one semester in Freiburg (summer 1888) and Berlin (winter 1888/1889).", "Surviving testimony from other students depict him as an extremely versatile and interested young man, who, in addition to the mathematical and astronomical lectures, attended lectures in physics, chemistry and geography, and also lectures on philosophy and history of philosophy, as well as on issues of language, literature and social sciences.", "In Leipzig he attended lectures on the history of music from musicologist Oscar Paul.", "His early love of music lasted a lifetime; in Hausdorff's home he held impressive musical evenings with the landlord at the piano, according to witness statements made by various participants.", "Even as a student in Leipzig, he was an admirer and connoisseur of the music of Richard Wagner.In later semesters of his studies, Hausdorff was close to Heinrich Bruns (1848–1919).", "Bruns was professor of astronomy and director of the observatory at the University of Leipzig.", "Under his supervision, Hausdorff graduated in 1891 with a work on the theory of astronomical refraction of light in the atmosphere.", "Two publications on the same subject followed, and in 1895 his Habilitation also followed with a thesis on the absorbance of light in the atmosphere.", "These early astronomical works of Hausdorff, despite their excellent mathematical formulation, were ultimately of little importance to the scientific community.For one, the underlying idea of Bruns was later shown to not be viable (there was a need for refraction observations near the astronomical horizon, and as Julius Bauschinger would show, this could not be obtained with the required accuracy).", "And further, the progress in the direct measurement of atmospheric data (from weather balloon ascents) has since made the painstaking accuracy of this data from refraction observations unnecessary.", "In the time between defending his PhD and his Habilitation, Hausdorff completed his yearlong military requirement, and worked for two years as a human computer at the observatory in Leipzig.===Lecturer in Leipzig===After his Habilitation, Hausdorff became a lecturer at the University of Leipzig where he began extensive teaching in a variety of mathematical areas.", "In addition to teaching and research in mathematics, he also pursued his literary and philosophical inclinations.", "A man of varied interests, he often associated with a number of famous writers, artists and publishers such as Hermann Conradi, Richard Dehmel, Otto Erich Hartleben, Gustav Kirstein, Max Klinger, Max Reger and Frank Wedekind.", "The years of 1897 to 1904 mark the high point of his literary and philosophical creativity, during which time 18 of his 22 pseudonymous works were published, including a book of poetry, a play, an epistemological book and a volume of aphorisms.In 1899 Hausdorff married Charlotte Goldschmidt, the daughter of Jewish doctor Siegismund Goldschmidt.", "Her stepmother was the famous suffragist and preschool teacher Henriette Goldschmidt.", "Hausdorff's only child, his daughter Lenore (Nora), was born in 1900; she survived the era of National Socialism and enjoyed a long life, dying in Bonn in 1991.===First professorship===In December 1901 Hausdorff was appointed as adjunct associate professor at the University of Leipzig.", "An often-repeated factoid, that Hausdorff got a call from Göttingen and rejected it, cannot be verified and is most likely wrong.", "After considering Hausdorff's application to Leipzig, the Dean Kirchner felt compelled to make the following addition to the very positive vote from his colleagues, written by Heinrich Bruns:This quote emphasizes the undisguised antisemitism present, which especially took a sharp upturn throughout the German Reich after the stock market crash of 1873.Leipzig was a focus of antisemitic sentiment, especially among the student body, which may well be the reason that Hausdorff did not feel at ease in Leipzig.", "Another contributing factor may also have been the stresses due to the hierarchical posturing of the Leipzig professors.After his Habilitation, Hausdorff wrote other works on optics, on non-Euclidean geometry, and on hypercomplex number systems, as well as two papers on probability theory.", "However, his main area of work soon became set theory, especially the theory of ordered sets.", "Initially, it was only out of philosophical interest that Hausdorff began to study Georg Cantor's work, beginning around 1897, but already in 1901 Hausdorff began lecturing on set theory.", "His was one of the first ever lectures on set theory; only Ernst Zermelo's lectures in Göttingen College during the winter of 1900/1901 were earlier.", "That same year, he published his first paper on order types in which he examined a generalization of well-orderings called graded order types, where a linear order is graded if no two of its segments share the same order type.", "He generalized the Cantor–Bernstein theorem, which said the collection of countable order types has the cardinality of the continuum and showed that the collection of all graded types of an idempotent cardinality has a cardinality of 2.For the summer semester of 1910 Hausdorff was appointed as professor to the University of Bonn.", "There he began a lecture series on set theory, which he substantially revised and expanded for the summer semester of 1912.In the summer of 1912 he also began work on his magnum opus, the book ''Basics of set theory''.", "It was completed in Greifswald, where Hausdorff had been appointed for the summer semester as full professor in 1913, and was released in April 1914.The University of Greifswald was the smallest of the Prussian universities.", "The mathematical institute there was also small; during the summer of 1916 and the winter of 1916/17, Hausdorff was the only mathematician in Greifswald.", "This meant that he was almost fully occupied in teaching basic courses.", "It was thus a substantial improvement for his academic career when Hausdorff was appointed in 1921 to Bonn.", "There he was free to teach about wider ranges of topics, and often lectured on his latest research.", "He gave a particularly noteworthy lecture on probability theory (NL Hausdorff: Capsule 21: Fasz 64) in the summer semester of 1923, in which he grounded the theory of probability in measure-theoretic axiomatic theory, ten years before A. N. Kolmogorov's \"Basic concepts of probability theory\" (reprinted in full in the collected works, Volume V).", "In Bonn, Hausdorff was friends and colleagues with Eduard Study, and later with Otto Toeplitz, who were bothoutstanding mathematicians.===Under the Nazi dictatorship and suicide===After the takeover by the National Socialist party, antisemitism became state doctrine.", "Hausdorff was not initially concerned by the \"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service\", adopted in 1933, because he had been a German public servant since before 1914.However, he was not completely spared, as one of his lectures was interrupted by National Socialist student officials.", "In the winter semester of 1934/1935, there was a working session of the National Socialist German Student Union (NSDStB) at the University of Bonn, which chose \"Race and Ethnicity\" as their theme for the semester.", "Hausdorff cancelled his 1934/1935 winter semester Calculus III course on 20 November, and it is assumed that the choice of theme was related to the cancellation of Hausdorff's class, since in his long career as a university lecturer he had always taught his courses through to their end.On March 31, 1935, after some back and forth, Hausdorff was finally given emeritus status.", "No words of thanks were given for his 40 years of successful work in the German higher education system.His academic legacy shows that Hausdorff was still working mathematically during these increasingly difficult times, and continued to follow current developments of interest.", "He wrote, in addition to the expanded edition of his work on set theory, seven works on topology and descriptive set theory.", "These were published in Polish magazines: one in ''Studia Mathematica'', the others in ''Fundamenta Mathematicae''.He was supported at this time by Erich Bessel-Hagen, a loyal friend to the Hausdorff family who obtained books and magazines from the academic library, which Hausdorff was no longer allowed to enter.A great deal is known about the humiliations to which Hausdorff and his family especially were exposed to after Kristallnacht in 1938.There are many sources, including the letters of Bessel-Hagen.The first page of his farewell letter to Hans WollsteinIn 1939, Hausdorff asked the mathematician Richard Courant, in vain, for a research fellowship to be able to emigrate into the USA.", "In mid-1941, the Bonn Jews began to be deported to the \"Monastery for Eternal Adoration\" in Endenich, Bonn, from which the nuns had been expelled.", "Transports to death camps in the east occurred later.", "After Hausdorff, his wife, and his wife's sister, Edith Pappenheim (who was living with them), were ordered in January 1942 to move to the Endenich camp, the three died by suicide on 26 January 1942 by taking an overdose of veronal.", "Their final resting place is located on the cemetery Poppelsdorf in Bonn.", "In the time between their placement in temporary camps and his suicide, he gave his handwritten ''Nachlass'' to the Egyptologist and presbyter Hans Bonnet, who saved as much of them as possible, even despite the destruction of his house by a bomb.Some of his fellow Jews may have had illusions about the camp Endenich, but not Hausdorff.", "In the estate of Bessel-Hagen, E. Neuenschwander discovered the farewell letter that Hausdorff wrote to his lawyer Hans Wollstein, who was also Jewish.", "Here is the beginning and end of the letter:Hausdorff's gravestone in Bonn-PoppelsdorfAfter thanking friends and, in great composure, expressing his last wishes regarding his funeral and his will, Hausdorff writes:Unfortunately, this desire was not fulfilled.", "Hausdorff's lawyer, Wollstein, was murdered in Auschwitz.Hausdorffstraße (Bonn)Hausdorff's library was sold by his son-in-law and sole heir, Arthur König.", "The portions of Hausdorff's ''Nachlass'' which could be saved by Hans Bonnet are now in the university and State Library of Bonn.", "The ''Nachlass'' is catalogued." ], [ "Work and reception", "=== Hausdorff as philosopher and writer (Paul Mongré) ===Hausdorff's volume of aphorisms, published in 1897, was his first work published under the pseudonym Paul Mongré.", "It is entitled ''Sant' Ilario: Thoughts from the landscape of Zarathustra''.", "The subtitle plays first on the fact that Hausdorff had completed his book during a recovery stay on the Ligurian coast by Genoa and that in this same area, Friedrich Nietzsche wrote the first two parts of ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''; he also alludes to his spiritual closeness to Nietzsche.", "In an article on Sant' Ilario in the weekly paper Die Zukunft, Hausdorff acknowledged in expressis verbis his debt to Nietzsche.Hausdorff was not trying to copy or even exceed Nietzsche.", "\"Of Nietzsche imitation no trace\", says a contemporary review.", "He follows Nietzsche in an attempt to liberate individual thinking, to take the liberty of questioning outdated standards.", "Hausdorff maintained critical distance to the late works of Nietzsche.", "In his essay on the book ''The Will to Power'' compiled from notes left in the Nietzsche Archive he says:His critical standard he took from Nietzsche himself,In 1898—also under the pseudonym Paul Mongré—Hausdorff published an epistemological experiment titled ''Chaos in cosmic selection''.", "The critique of metaphysics put forward in this book had its starting point in Hausdorff's confrontation with Nietzsche's idea of eternal recurrence.", "Ultimately, it is about destroying ''any'' kind of metaphysics.", "Of the world itself, of the ''transcendent core of the world''—as Hausdorff puts it—we know nothing and we can know nothing.", "We must assume \"the world itself\" as undetermined and undeterminable, as mere chaos.", "The world of our experience, our cosmos, is the result of the selections that we have made and will always instinctively make according to our capacity for understanding.", "Seen from that chaos, all other frameworks, other cosmos, are conceivable.", "That is to say, from the world of our cosmos, one cannot draw any conclusions about the transcendent world.In 1904, in the magazine The New Rundschau, Hausdorff's play appeared, the one-act play ''The doctor in his honor''.", "It is a crude satire on the duel and on the traditional concepts of honor and nobility of the Prussian officer corps, which in the developing bourgeois society were increasingly anachronistic.", "''The doctor in his honor'' was Hausdorff's most popular literary work.", "In 1914–1918 there were numerous performances in more than thirty cities.", "Hausdorff later wrote an epilogue to the play, but it was not performed at that time.", "Only in 2006 did this epilogue have its premier at the annual meeting of the German Mathematical Society in Bonn.Besides the works mentioned above, Hausdorff also wrote numerous essays that appeared in some of the leading literary magazines of the time.", "He also wrote a book of poems, ''Ecstasy'' (1900).", "Some of his poems were set to music by Austrian composer Joseph Marx.===Theory of ordered sets===Hausdorff's entrance into a thorough study of ordered sets was prompted in part by Cantor's continuum problem: where should the cardinal number be placed in the sequence ?", "In a letter to Hilbert on 29 September 1904, he speaks of this problem, \"it has plagued me almost like monomania\".", "Hausdorff saw a new strategy to attack the problem in the set .", "Cantor had suspected , but had only been able to show that .", "While is the \"number\" of possible well-orderings of a countable set, had now emerged as the \"number\" of all possible orders of such an amount.", "It was natural, therefore, to study systems that are more specific than orders, but more general than well-orderings.", "Hausdorff did just that in his first volume of 1901, with the publication of theoretical studies of \"graded sets\".", "However, we know from the results of Kurt Gödel and Paul Cohen that this strategy to solve the continuum problem is just as ineffectual as Cantor's strategy, which was aimed at generalizing the Cantor–Bendixson principle from closed sets to general uncountable sets.In 1904 Hausdorff published the recursion named after him, which states that for each non-limit ordinal we have This formula was, together with a later notion called cofinality introduced by Hausdorff, the basis for all further results for Aleph exponentiation.", "Hausdorff's excellent knowledge of recurrence formulas of this kind also empowered him to uncover an error in Julius König's lecture at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1904 in Heidelberg.", "There König had argued that the continuum cannot be well-ordered, so its cardinality is not an Aleph at all, and thus caused a great stir.", "The fact that it was Hausdorff who clarified the mistake carries a special significance, since a false impression of the events in Heidelberg lasted for over 50 years.In the years 1906–1909 Hausdorff did his groundbreaking and fundamental work on ordered sets.", "Of fundamental importance to the whole theory is the concept of cofinality, which Hausdorff introduced.", "An ordinal is called regular if it is cofinal with any smaller ordinal; otherwise it is called singular.", "Hausdorff's question, whether there are regular numbers which index a limit ordinal, was the starting point for the theory of inaccessible cardinals.", "Hausdorff had already noticed that such numbers, if they exist, must be of \"exorbitant size\".The following theorem due to Hausdorff is also of fundamental importance: for each unbounded and ordered dense set there are two uniquely determined regular initial numbers so that is cofinal with and coinitial with (where * denotes the inverse order).", "This theorem provides, for example, a technique to characterize elements and gaps in ordered sets.If is a predetermined set of characters (element and gap characters), the question arises whether there are ordered sets whose character set is exactly .", "One can easily find a necessary condition for , but Hausdorff was also able to show that this condition is sufficient.", "For this one needs a rich reservoir of ordered sets, which Hausdorff was also able to create with his theory of general products and powers.", "In this reservoir can be found interesting structures like the Hausdorff normal-types, in connection with which Hausdorff first formulated the generalized continuum hypothesis.", "Hausdorff's -sets formed the starting point for the study of the important model theory of saturated structure.Hausdorff's general products and powers of cardinalities led him to study the concept of partially ordered set.", "The question of whether any ordered subset of a partially ordered set is contained in a maximal ordered subset was answered in the positive by Hausdorff using the well-ordering theorem.", "This is the Hausdorff maximal principle, which follows from either the well-ordering theorem or the axiom of choice, and as it turned out, is also equivalent to the axiom of choice.Writing in 1908, Arthur Moritz Schoenflies found in his report on set theory that the newer theory of ordered sets (i.e., that which occurred after Cantor's extensions) was almost exclusively due to Hausdorff.===The \"Magnum Opus\": \"Principles of set theory\"===According to previous notions, set theory included not only the general set theory and the theory of sets of points, but also dimension and measure theory.", "Hausdorff's textbook was the first to present all of set theory in this broad sense, systematically and with full proofs.", "Hausdorff was aware of how easily the human mind can err while also seeking for rigor and truth, so in the preface of his work he promises:This book went far beyond its masterful portrayal of already-known concepts.", "It also contained a series of important original contributions by the author.The first few chapters deal with the basic concepts of general set theory.", "In the beginning Hausdorff provides a detailed set algebra with some pioneering new concepts (differences chain, set rings and set fields, - and -systems).", "The introductory paragraphs on sets and their connections included, for example, the modern set-theoretic notion of functions.", "Chapters 3 to 5 discussed the classical theory of cardinal numbers, order types and ordinals, and in the sixth chapter \"Relations between ordered and well-ordered sets\" Hausdorff presents, among other things, the most important results of his own research on ordered sets.In the chapters on \"point sets\"—the topological chapters—Hausdorff developed for the first time, based on the known neighborhood axioms, a systematic theory of topological spaces, where in addition he added the separation axiom later named after him.", "This theory emerges from a comprehensive synthesis of earlier approaches of other mathematicians and Hausdorff's own reflections on the problem of space.", "The concepts and theorems of classical point set theory are—as far as possible—transferred to the general case, and thus become part of the newly created general or set-theoretic topology.", "But Hausdorff not only performed this \"translation work\", but he also developed basic construction methods of topology such as core formation (open core, self-dense core) and shell formation (closure), and he works through the fundamental importance of the concept of an open set (called \"area\" by him) and of the concept of compactness introduced by Fréchet.", "He also founded and developed the theory of the connected set, particularly through the introduction of the terms \"component\" and \"quasi-component\".With the first Hausdorff countability axiom, and eventually the second, the considered spaces were gradually further specialized.", "A large class of spaces satisfying the countable first axiom are metric spaces.", "They were introduced in 1906 by Fréchet under the name \"classes (E)\".", "The term \"metric space\" comes from Hausdorff.", "In ''Principles'', he developed the theory of metric spaces and systematically enriched it through a series of new concepts: Hausdorff metric, complete, total boundedness, -connectivity, reducible sets.", "Fréchet's work is not particularly famous; only through Hausdorff's ''Principles'' did metric spaces become common knowledge to mathematicians.The chapter on illustrations and the final chapter of ''Principles'' on measure and integration theory are enriched by the generality of the material and the originality of presentation.", "Hausdorff's mention of the importance of measure theory for probability had great historical effect, despite its laconic brevity.", "One finds in this chapter the first correct proof of the strong law of large numbers of Émile Borel.", "Finally, the appendix contains the single most spectacular result of the whole book, namely Hausdorff's theorem that one cannot define a volume for all bounded subsets of for .", "The proof is based on Hausdorff's paradoxical ball decomposition, whose production requires the axiom of choice.During the 20th century, it became the standard to build mathematical theories on axiomatic set theory.", "The creation of axiomatically founded generalized theories, such as general topology, served among other things to single out the common structural core for various specific cases or regions and then set up an abstract theory, which contained all these parts as special cases.", "This brought a great success in the form of simplification and harmonization, and ultimately brought with itself an economy of thought.", "Hausdorff himself highlighted this aspect in the ''Principles''.", "In the topological chapter, the basic concepts are methodologically a pioneering effort, and they paved the way for the development of modern mathematics.", "''Principles of set theory'' appeared in April 1914, on the eve of the First World War, which dramatically affected scientific life in Europe.", "Under these circumstances, the effects Hausdorff's book on mathematical thought would not be seen for five to six years after its appearance.", "After the war, a new generation of young researchers set forth to expand on the abundant suggestions that were included in this work.", "Undoubtedly, topology was the primary focus of attention.", "The journal ''Fundamenta Mathematicae'', founded in Poland in 1920, played a special role in the reception of Hausdorff's ideas.", "It was one of the first mathematical journals with special emphasis on set theory, topology, the theory of real functions, measure and integration theory, functional analysis, logic, and foundations of mathematics.", "Across this spectrum, a special focus was placed on topology.", "Hausdorff's ''Principles'' was cited in the very first volume of Fundamenta Mathematicae, and through citation counting its influence continued at a remarkable rate.", "Of the 558 works (Hausdorff's own three works not included), which appeared in the first twenty volumes of Fundamenta Mathematicae from 1920 to 1933, 88 of them cite ''Principles''.", "One must also take into account the fact that, as Hausdorff's ideas became increasingly commonplace, so too were they used in a number of works that did not cite them explicitly.The Russian topological school, founded by Paul Alexandroff and Paul Urysohn, was based heavily on Hausdorff's ''Principles''.", "This is shown by the surviving correspondence in Hausdorff's Nachlass with Urysohn, and especially Alexandroff and Urysohn's ''Mémoire sur les multiplicités Cantoriennes'', a work the size of a book, in which Urysohn developed dimension theory and ''Principles'' is cited no fewer than 60 times.After the Second World War there was a strong demand for Hausdorff's book, and there were three reprints at Chelsea from 1949, 1965 and 1978.===Descriptive set theory, measure theory and analysis===In 1916, Alexandroff and Hausdorff independently solved the continuum problem for Borel sets: Every Borel set in a complete separable metric space is either countable or has the cardinality of the continuum.", "This result generalizes the Cantor–Bendixson theorem that such a statement holds for the closed sets of .", "For linear sets William Henry Young had proved the result in 1903, for sets Hausdorff obtained a corresponding result in 1914 in ''Principles''.", "The theorem of Alexandroff and Hausdorff was a strong impetus for further development of descriptive set theory.Among the publications of Hausdorff in his time at Greifswald the work ''Dimension and outer measure'' from 1919 is particularly outstanding.", "In this work, the concepts were introduced which are now known as Hausdorff measure and the Hausdorff dimension.", "It has remained highly topical and in later years has been one of the most cited mathematical works from the decade of 1910 to 1920.The concept of Hausdorff dimension is useful for the characterization and comparison of \"highly rugged quantities\".", "The concepts of ''Dimension and outer measure'' have experienced applications and further developments in many areas such as in the theory of dynamical systems, geometric measure theory, the theory of self-similar sets and fractals, the theory of stochastic processes, harmonic analysis, potential theory, and number theory.Significant analytical work of Hausdorff occurred in his second time at Bonn.", "In ''Summation methods and moment sequences I'' in 1921, he developed a whole class of summation methods for divergent series, which today are called Hausdorff methods.", "In Hardy's classic ''Divergent Series'', an entire chapter is devoted to the Hausdorff method.", "The classical methods of Hölder and Cesàro proved to be special cases of the Hausdorff method.", "Every Hausdorff method is given by a moment sequence; in this context Hausdorff gave an elegant solution of the moment problem for a finite interval, bypassing the theory of continued fractions.", "In his paper ''Moment problems for a finite interval'' of 1923 he treated more special moment problems, such as those with certain restrictions for generating density , for instance .", "Criteria for solvability and decidability of moment problems occupied Hausdorff for many years, as hundreds of pages of handwritten notes in his Nachlass attest.A significant contribution to the emerging field of functional analysis in the 1920s was Hausdorff's extension of the Riesz-Fischer theorem to spaces in his 1923 work ''An extension of Parseval's theorem on Fourier series''.", "He proved the inequalities now named after him and W.H.", "Young.", "The Hausdorff–Young inequalities became the starting point of major new developments.Hausdorff's book ''Set Theory'' appeared in 1927.This was declared as a second Edition of ''Principles'', but it was actually a completely new book.", "Since the scale was significantly reduced due to its appearance in Goschen's teaching library, large parts of the theory of ordered sets and measures and integration theory were removed.", "In its preface, Hausdorff writes, \"Perhaps even more than these deletions the reader will regret the most that, to further save space in point set theory, I have abandoned the topological point of view through which the first edition has apparently acquired many friends, and focused on the simpler theory of metric spaces\".In fact, this was an explicit regret of some reviewers of the work.", "As a kind of compensation Hausdorff showed for the first time the then-current state of descriptive set theory.", "This fact assured the book almost as intense a reception as ''Principles'', especially in Fundamenta Mathematicae.", "As a textbook it was very popular.", "In 1935 there was an expanded edition published, and this was reprinted by Dover in 1944.An English translation appeared in 1957 with reprints in 1962 and 1967.There was also a Russian edition (1937), although it was only partially a faithful translation, and partly a reworking by Alexandroff and Kolmogorov.", "In this translation the topological point of view again moved to the forefront.", "In 1928 a review of ''Set Theory'' was written by Hans Hahn, who perhaps had the danger of German antisemitism in his mind as he closed his discussion with the following sentence:===His last works===In 1938, Hausdorff's last work ''Extension of a continuous map'' showed that a continuous function from a closed subset of a metric space can be extended to all of (although the image may need to be extended).", "As a special case, every homeomorphism from can be extended to a homeomorphism from .", "This work continued research from earlier years.", "In 1919, in ''About semi-continuous functions and their generalization'', Hausdorff had, among other things, given another proof of the Tietze extension theorem.", "In 1930, in ''Extending a homeomorphism'', he showed the following: Let be a metric space, a closed subset.", "If is given a new metric without changing the topology, this metric can be extended to the entire space without changing the topology.", "The work ''Graded spaces'' appeared in 1935, where Hausdorff discussed spaces which fulfilled the Kuratowski closure axioms up to the axiom of idempotence.", "These spaces are often also called closure spaces, and Hausdorff used them to study relationships between the Fréchet limit spaces and topological spaces." ], [ "Hausdorff as name-giver", "The name Hausdorff is found throughout mathematics.", "Among others, these concepts were named after him:* Hausdorff completion* Hausdorff convergence* Hausdorff density* Hausdorff dimension* Hausdorff distance* Hausdorff gap* Hausdorff maximal principle* Hausdorff measure* Hausdorff metric* Hausdorff moment problem* Hausdorff paradox* Hausdorff space* Hausdorff–Young inequality* Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formulaIn the universities of Bonn and Greifswald, these things were named in his honor:* the Hausdorff Center for Mathematics in Bonn,* the ''Hausdorff Research Institute for Mathematics'' in Bonn, and * the ''Felix Hausdorff Internationale Begegnungszentrum'' in Greifswald.Besides these, in Bonn there is the Hausdorffstraße (Hausdorff Street), where he first lived.", "(Haus-Nr. 61).", "In Greifswald there is a Felix-Hausdorff–Straße, where the Institutes for Biochemistry and Physics are located, among others.", "Since 2011, there is a \"Hausdorffweg\" (Hausdorff-Way) in the middle of Leipziger Ortsteil Gohlis.The Asteroid 24947 Hausdorff was named after him." ], [ "Writings", "=== As Paul Mongré ===Only a selection of the essays that appeared in text are shown here.", "* ''Sant'Ilario.", "Gedanken aus der Landschaft Zarathustras.''", "Verlag C. G. Naumann, Leipzig 1897.", "* ''Das Chaos in kosmischer Auslese — Ein erkenntniskritischer Versuch.''", "Verlag C. G. Naumann, Leipzig 1898; Reprinted with foreword by Max Bense: Baden-Baden: Agis-Verlag 1976, * ''Massenglück und Einzelglück.''", "Neue Deutsche Rundschau (Freie Bühne) 9 (1), (1898), S. 64–75.", "* ''Das unreinliche Jahrhundert.''", "Neue Deutsche Rundschau (Freie Bühne) 9 (5), (1898), S. 443–452.", "* ''Ekstasen.''", "Volume of poetry.", "Verlag H. Seemann Nachf., Leipzig 1900.", "* ''Der Wille zur Macht.''", "In: Neue Deutsche Rundschau (Freie Bühne) 13 (12) (1902), S. 1334–1338.", "* ''Max Klingers Beethoven.''", "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst, Neue Folge 13 (1902), S. 183–189.", "* ''Sprachkritik'' Neue Deutsche Rundschau (Freie Bühne) 14 (12), (1903), S. 1233–1258.", "* ''Der Arzt seiner Ehre, Groteske.''", "In: Die neue Rundschau (Freie Bühne) 15 (8), (1904), S. 989-1013.New edition as: ''Der Arzt seiner Ehre.", "Komödie in einem Akt mit einem Epilog.''", "With 7 portraits and woodcuts by Hans Alexander Müller after drawings by Walter Tiemann, 10 Bl., 71 S. Fifth printing by Leipziger Bibliophilen-Abends, Leipzig 1910.New edition: S. Fischer, Berlin 1912, 88 S.=== As Felix Hausdorff ===* ''Beiträge zur Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung''.", "Proceedings of the Royal Saxon Society for the Sciences at Leipzig.", "Math.-phys.", "Classe 53 (1901), S. 152–178.", "* ''Über eine gewisse Art geordneter Mengen.''", "Proceedings of the Royal Saxon Society for the Sciences at Leipzig.", "Math.-phys.", "Classe 53 (1901), S. 460–475.", "* ''Das Raumproblem'' (Inaugural lecture at the University of Leipzig on 4.July 1903).", "Ostwald's Annals of Natural Philosophy 3 (1903), S. 1–23.", "* '' Der Potenzbegriff in der Mengenlehre''.", "Annual report of the DMV 13 (1904), S. 569–571.", "* ''Untersuchungen über Ordnungstypen I, II, III.''", "Proceedings of the Royal Saxon Society for the Sciences at Leipzig.", "Math.-phys.\\ Klasse 58 (1906), S. 106–169.", "* ''Untersuchungen über Ordnungstypen IV, V.'' Proceedings of the Royal Saxon Society for the Sciences at Leipzig.", "Math.-phys.", "Klasse 59 (1907), S. 84–159.", "* '' Über dichte Ordnungstypen''.", "Annual report of the DMV 16 (1907), S. 541–546.", "* '' Grundzüge einer Theorie der geordneten Mengen''.", "Math.", "Annalen 65 (1908), S. 435–505.", "* ''Die Graduierung nach dem Endverlauf.''", "Proceedings of the Royal Saxon Society for the Sciences at Leipzig.", "Math.-phys.", "Klasse 31 (1909), S. 295–334.", "* ''Grundzüge der Mengenlehre''.", "Verlag Veit & Co, Leipzig.", "476 S. mit 53 Figuren.", "Further printings: Chelsea Pub.", "Co. 1949, 1965, 1978.", "* '' Die Mächtigkeit der Borelschen Mengen''.", "Math.", "Annalen 77 (1916), S. 430–437.", "* '' Dimension und äußeres Maß''.", "Math.", "Annalen 79 (1919), S. 157–179.", "* '' Über halbstetige Funktionen und deren Verallgemeinerung''.", "Math.", "Zeitschrift 5 (1919), S. 292–309.", "* '' Summationsmethoden und Momentfolgen I, II.''", "Math.", "Zeitschrift 9 (1921), I: S. 74-109, II: S. 280–299.", "* '' Eine Ausdehnung des Parsevalschen Satzes über Fourierreihen''.", "Math.", "Zeitschrift 16 (1923), S. 163–169.", "* '' Momentprobleme für ein endliches Intervall''.", "Math.", "Zeitschrift 16 (1923), S. 220–248.", "* ''Mengenlehre'', second reworked edition.", "Verlag Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin.", "285 S. with 12 figures.", "* '' Erweiterung einer Homöomorphie'' (PDF; 389 kB) Fundamenta Mathematicae 16 (1930), S. 353–360.", "* ''Mengenlehre'', third edition.", "With an additional chapter and several appendices.", "Verlag Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin.", "307 S. mit 12 Figuren.", "Nachdruck: Dover Pub.", "New York, 1944.Englisch edition: ''Set theory''.", "Translated from the German by J. R. Aumann et al.", "Chelsea Pub.", "Co., New York 1957, 1962, 1967.", "* '' Gestufte Räume.", "(PDF; 1,2 MB)'' Fundamenta Mathematicae 25 (1935), S. 486–502.", "* '' Erweiterung einer stetigen Abbildung'' (PDF; 450 kB) Fundamenta Mathematicae 30 (1938), S. 40–47.", "* ''Nachgelassene Schriften''.", "2 volumes.", "Ed.", ": G. Bergmann, Teubner, Stuttgart 1969.From the ''Nachlass'', Volume I includes fascicles 510–543, 545–559, 561–577, Volume II fascicles 578–584, 598–658 (all fascicles given in facsimile).", "''Hausdorff on Ordered Sets''.", "Trans.", "and Ed.", ": Jacob M. Plotkin, American Mathematical Society 2005." ], [ "Collected works", "The \"Hausdorff-Edition\", edited by E. Brieskorn (†), F. Hirzebruch (†), W. Purkert (all Bonn), R. Remmert (†) (Münster) and E. Scholz (Wuppertal) with the collaboration of over twenty mathematicians, historians, philosophers and scholars, is an ongoing project of the North Rhine-Westphalian Academy of Sciences, Humanities and the Arts to present the works of Hausdorff, with commentary and much additional material.", "The volumes have been published by Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.", "Nine volumes have been published with volume I being split up into volume IA and volume IB.", "See the website of the Hausdorff Project website of the Hausdorff Edition (German) for further information.", "The volumes are:* Band IA: ''Allgemeine Mengenlehre.''", "2013, .", "* Band IB: ''Felix Hausdorff – Paul Mongré (Biographie).''", "2018, .", "* Band II: ''Grundzüge der Mengenlehre (1914)''.", "2002, * Band III: ''Mengenlehre (1927, 1935); Deskriptive Mengenlehre und Topologie''.", "2008, * Band IV: ''Analysis, Algebra und Zahlentheorie''.", "2001, * Band V: ''Astronomie, Optik und Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie''.", "2006, * Band VI: ''Geometrie, Raum und Zeit''.", "2020.", "* Band VII: ''Philosophisches Werk''.", "2004, * Band VIII: ''Literarisches Werk''.", "2010, * Band IX: ''Korrespondenz.''", "2012, ." ], [ "References", "* Alexandroff, P.; Hopf, H.: ''Topologie.''", "Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1935.", "* Brieskorn, E.: ''Gustav Landauer und der Mathematiker Felix Hausdorff.''", "In: H. Delf, G. Mattenklott: ''Gustav Landauer im Gespräch – Symposium zum 125.Geburtstag.''", "Tübingen 1997, S.", "105–128.", "* Brieskorn, E.", "(Hrsg.", "): ''Felix Hausdorff zum Gedächtnis.", "Aspekte seines Werkes.''", "Vieweg, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1996.", "* Brieskorn, E.; Purkert, W.: ''Felix Hausdorff-Biographie.''", "(Band IB der Edition), Springer, Heidelberg 2018.", "* Eichhorn, E.; Thiele, E.-J.", ": ''Vorlesungen zum Gedenken an Felix Hausdorff'', , Berlin 1994, .", "* Koepke, P., Kanovei V., ''Deskriptive Mengenlehre in Hausdorffs Grundzügen der Mengenlehre'', 2001, uni-bonn.de (pdf)* Lorentz, G. G.: '' Das mathematische Werk von Felix Hausdorff.''", "Jahresbericht der DMV 69 (1967), 54 (130)-62 (138).", "* Purkert, Walter: ''The Double Life of Felix Hausdorff/Paul Mongré.''", "Mathematical Intelligencer, 30 (2008), 4, S. 36 ff.", "* Purkert, Walter: ''Felix Hausdorff - Paul Mongré.", "Mathematician - Philosopher - Man of Letters''.", "Hausdorff Center for Mathematics, Bonn 2013.", "* Stegmaier, W.: ''Ein Mathematiker in der Landschaft Zarathustras.", "Felix Hausdorff als Philosoph.''", "Nietzsche-Studien 31 (2002), 195–240.", "* Vollhardt, F.: ''Von der Sozialgeschichte zur Kulturwissenschaft?", "Die literarisch-essayistischen Schriften des Mathematikers Felix Hausdorff (1868–1942): Vorläufige Bemerkungen in systematischer Absicht.''", "In: Huber, M.; Lauer, G.", "(Hrsg.", "): ''Nach der Sozialgeschichte - Konzepte für eine Literaturwissenschaft zwischen Historischer Anthropologie, Kulturgeschichte und Medientheorie.''", "Max Niemeier Verlag, Tübingen 2000, S.", "551–573.", "* Wagon, S.: ''The Banach–Tarski Paradox''.", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press, Cambridge 1993.", "* , Band 10, Saur, München 2002, S. 262–268" ], [ "See also", "* Gromov–Hausdorff convergence* Hausdorff distance* Hausdorff gapMaurice René Fréchet Hausdorff Medal" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Homepage of the Hausdorff Edition (German)* Hausdorff Findbuch* Hausdorff Center for Mathematics in Bonn* Memorial \"Stolperstein\" at Hausdorff's last home, in Bonn" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fimbulvetr" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''' () is the immediate prelude to the events of Ragnarök in Norse mythology." ], [ "Etymology", " comes from Old Norse, meaning 'awful, mighty winter'.", "The prefix ''fimbul'' means 'mighty' so the literal interpretation is 'mighty winter'." ], [ "Overview", " is the harsh winter that precedes the end of the world and puts an end to all life on Earth.", "is three successive winters, when snow comes in from all directions, without any intervening summer.", "Innumerable wars follow.The event is described primarily in the ''Poetic Edda''.", "In the poem , Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the .", "Vafþrúðnir responds that Líf and Lífþrasir will survive and that they will live in the forest of Hoddmímis holt.The mythology might be related to the volcanic winter of 536, which resulted in a notable drop in temperature across northern Europe.", "There have also been several popular ideas about whether the particular piece of mythology has a connection to the climate change that occurred in the Nordic countries at the end of the Nordic Bronze Age from about 650 BC.In Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and other Nordic countries, the term has been borrowed from Old Norse to refer to an unusually cold and harsh winter." ], [ "See also", "EschatologyLaki 1783 eruptionNuclear winterRagnarökVolcanic winter" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===Gunn, Joel (2000).", "''The Years Without Summer: Tracing A.D. 536 and its Aftermath'' (British Archaeological Reports International.", "Oxford, England: Archaeopress) Keys, David Patrick (2000).", "''Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World.''", "(New York: Ballantine Pub) .", "Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.)", "(1999).", "''The Poetic Edda'' (Oxford World's Classics) Lindow, John (2001).", "''Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs'' (Oxford University Press) Orchard, Andy (1997).", "''Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend'' (Cassell)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 10" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1258 – The Siege of Baghdad ends with the surrender of the last Abbasid caliph to Hulegu Khan, a prince of the Mongol Empire.", "1306 – In front of the high altar of Greyfriars Church in Dumfries, Robert the Bruce murders John Comyn, sparking the revolution in the Wars of Scottish Independence.", "1355 – The St Scholastica Day riot breaks out in Oxford, England, leaving 63 scholars and perhaps 30 locals dead in two days.", "1502 – Vasco da Gama sets sail from Lisbon, Portugal, on his second voyage to India.", "1567 – Lord Darnley, second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, is found strangled following an explosion at the Kirk o' Field house in Edinburgh, Scotland, a suspected assassination.===1601–1900===1712 – Huilliches in Chiloé rebel against Spanish encomenderos.", "1763 – French and Indian War: The Treaty of Paris ends the war and France cedes Quebec to Great Britain.", "1814 – Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Champaubert ends in French victory over the Russians and the Prussians.", "1840 – Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.", "1846 – First Anglo-Sikh War: Battle of Sobraon: British defeat Sikhs in the final battle of the war.", "1861 – Jefferson Davis is notified by telegraph that he has been chosen as provisional President of the Confederate States of America.", "1862 – American Civil War: A Union naval flotilla destroys the bulk of the Confederate Mosquito Fleet in the Battle of Elizabeth City on the Pasquotank River in North Carolina.===1901–present===1906 – , the first of a revolutionary new breed of battleships, is christened.", "1920 – Józef Haller de Hallenburg performs the symbolic wedding of Poland to the sea, celebrating restitution of Polish access to open sea.", "1920 – About 75% of the population in Zone I votes to join Denmark in the 1920 Schleswig plebiscites.", "1923 – Texas Tech University is founded as Texas Technological College in Lubbock, Texas.", "1930 – The Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng launches the failed Yên Bái mutiny in hope of overthrowing French protectorate over Vietnam.", "1933 – In round 13 of a boxing match at New York City's Madison Square Garden, Primo Carnera knocks out Ernie Schaaf.", "Schaaf dies four days later.", "1936 – Second Italo-Abyssinian War: Italian troops launch the Battle of Amba Aradam against Ethiopian defenders.", "1939 – Spanish Civil War: The Nationalists conclude their conquest of Catalonia and seal the border with France.", "1940 – The Soviet Union begins mass deportations of Polish citizens from occupied eastern Poland to Siberia.", "1943 – World War II: Attempting to completely lift the Siege of Leningrad, the Soviet Red Army engages German troops and Spanish volunteers in the Battle of Krasny Bor.", "1947 – The Paris Peace Treaties are signed by Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Finland and the Allies of World War II.", "1954 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower warns against United States intervention in Vietnam.", "1962 – Cold War: Captured American U2 spy-plane pilot Gary Powers is exchanged for captured Soviet spy Rudolf Abel.", "1964 – Melbourne–Voyager collision: The aircraft carrier collides with and sinks the destroyer off the south coast of New South Wales, Australia, killing 82.", "1967 – The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified.", "1972 – Ras Al Khaimah joins the United Arab Emirates, now making up seven emirates.", "1984 – Kenyan soldiers kill an estimated 5,000 ethnic Somali Kenyans in the Wagalla massacre.", "1989 – Ron Brown is elected chairman of the Democratic National Committee, becoming the first African American to lead a major American political party.", "1996 – IBM supercomputer Deep Blue defeats Garry Kasparov in chess for the first time.", "2003 – France and Belgium break the NATO procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures for Turkey in case of a possible war with Iraq.", "2004 – Forty-three people are killed and three are injured when a Fokker 50 crashes near Sharjah International Airport.", "2009 – The communications satellites Iridium 33 and Kosmos 2251 collide in orbit, destroying both.", "2013 – Thirty-six people are killed and 39 others are injured in a stampede in Allahabad, India, during the Kumbh Mela festival.", "2016 – South Korea decides to stop the operation of the Kaesong joint industrial complex with North Korea in response to the launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-4.", "2018 – Nineteen people are killed and 66 injured when a Kowloon Motor Bus double decker on route 872 in Hong Kong overturns.", "2021 – The traditional Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil is canceled for the first time because of the COVID-19 pandemic." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1486 – George of the Palatinate, German bishop (d. 1529)1499 – Thomas Platter, Swiss author and scholar (d. 1582)1514 – Domenico Bollani, Bishop of Milan (d. 1579)===1601–1900===1606 – Christine of France, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1663)1609 – John Suckling, English poet and playwright (d. 1642)1627 – Cornelis de Bie, Flemish poet and jurist (d. 1715)1685 – Aaron Hill, English poet and playwright (d. 1750)1696 – Johann Melchior Molter, German violinist and composer (d. 1765)1744 – William Cornwallis, English admiral and politician (d. 1819)1766 – Benjamin Smith Barton, American botanist and physician (d. 1815)1775 – Charles Lamb, English poet and essayist (d. 1834)1785 – Claude-Louis Navier, French physicist and engineer (d. 1836)1795 – Ary Scheffer, Dutch-French painter and academic (d. 1858)1797 – George Chichester, 3rd Marquess of Donegall (d. 1883)1821 – Roberto Bompiani, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1908)1824 – Samuel Plimsoll, English merchant and politician (d. 1898)1842 – Agnes Mary Clerke, Irish astronomer and author (d. 1907)1843 – Adelina Patti, Italian-French opera singer (d. 1919)1846 – Lord Charles Beresford, Irish admiral and politician (d. 1919) 1846 – Ira Remsen, American chemist and academic (d. 1927)1847 – Nabinchandra Sen, Bangladeshi poet and author (d. 1909)1859 – Alexandre Millerand, French lawyer and politician, 12th President of France (d. 1943)1867 – Robert Garran, Australian lawyer and public servant (d. 1957)1868 – Prince Waldemar of Prussia (d. 1879)* 1868 – William Allen White, American journalist and author (d. 1944)1869 – Royal Cortissoz, American art critic (d. 1948)1879 – Ernst Põdder, Estonian general (d. 1932)1881 – Pauline Brunius, Swedish actress and director (d. 1954)1883 – Edith Clarke, American electrical engineer (d. 1959)* 1883 – H. V. Hordern, Australian cricketer (d. 1938)* 1888 – Giuseppe Ungaretti, Egyptian-Italian soldier, journalist, and poet (d. 1970)1889 – Cevdet Sunay, Turkish general and politician, 5th President of Turkey (d. 1982)1890 – Fanny Kaplan, Ukrainian-Russian activist (d. 1918)* 1890 – Boris Pasternak, Russian poet, novelist, and literary translator Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1960)1892 – Alan Hale Sr., American actor and director (d. 1950)1893 – Jimmy Durante, American actor, singer, and pianist (d. 1980)* 1893 – Bill Tilden, American tennis player and coach (d. 1953)1894 – Harold Macmillan, English captain and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1986)1897 – Judith Anderson, Australian actress (d. 1992)* 1897 – John Franklin Enders, American virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)1898 – Bertolt Brecht, German director, playwright, and poet (d. 1956) 1898 – Joseph Kessel, French journalist and author (d. 1979)===1901–present===1901 – Stella Adler, American actress and educator (d. 1992)1902 – Walter Houser Brattain, Chinese-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)1903 – Waldemar Hoven, German physician (d. 1948) 1903 – Matthias Sindelar, Austrian footballer and manager (d. 1939)1904 – John Farrow, Australian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1963)1905 – Walter A.", "Brown, American businessman, founded the Boston Celtics (d. 1964)* 1905 – Chick Webb, American drummer and bandleader (d. 1939)1906 – Lon Chaney Jr., American actor (d. 1973)1907 – Anthony Cottrell, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1988)1908 – Jean Coulthard, Canadian composer and educator (d. 2000)1909 – Min Thu Wun, Burmese poet, scholar, and politician (d. 2004)1910 – Dominique Pire, Belgian friar, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1969)1914 – Larry Adler, American harmonica player, composer, and actor (d. 2001)1915 – Vladimir Zeldin, Russian actor (d. 2016)1919 – Ioannis Charalambopoulos, Greek colonel and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2014)1920 – José Manuel Castañón, Spanish lawyer and author (d. 2001) 1920 – Alex Comfort, English physician and author (d. 2000)* 1920 – Neva Patterson, American actress (d. 2010)1922 – Árpád Göncz, Hungarian author, playwright, and politician, 1st President of Hungary (d. 2015) 1922 – José Gabriel da Costa, Brazilian spiritual leader, founder of the União do Vegetal (d. 1971)1923 – Allie Sherman, American football player and coach (d. 2015)1924 – Max Ferguson, Canadian radio host and actor (d. 2013)* 1924 – Bud Poile, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2005)1925 – Pierre Mondy, French actor and director (d. 2012)1926 – Sidney Bryan Berry, American general (d. 2013)* 1926 – Danny Blanchflower, Northern Irish soldier, footballer and manager (d. 1993)1927 – Leontyne Price, American operatic soprano 1929 – Jerry Goldsmith, American composer and conductor (d. 2004)* 1929 – Jim Whittaker, American mountaineer* 1929 – Lou Whittaker, American mountaineer1930 – E. L. Konigsburg, American author and illustrator (d. 2013) 1930 – Robert Wagner, American actor and producer1931 – James West, American inventor and acoustician1932 – Barrie Ingham, English-American actor (d. 2015)1933 – Faramarz Payvar, Iranian musician and composer (d. 2009) 1933 – Richard Schickel, American journalist, author, and critic (d. 2017)1935 – Theodore Antoniou, Greek composer and conductor (d. 2018) 1935 – Barbara Maier Gustern, American vocal coach and singer (d. 2022)1937 – Anne Anderson, Scottish physiologist and academic (d. 1983) 1937 – Roberta Flack, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1939 – Adrienne Clarkson, Hong Kong-Canadian journalist and politician, 26th Governor General of Canada 1939 – Deolinda Rodríguez de Almeida, Angolan nationalist (d. 1967)1940 – Mary Rand, English sprinter and long jumper 1940 – Kenny Rankin, American singer-songwriter (d. 2009)1941 – Michael Apted, English director and producer (d. 2021)1944 – Peter Allen, Australian singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (d. 1992)* 1944 – Frank Keating, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of Oklahoma* 1944 – Frances Moore Lappé, American author and activist* 1944 – Rufus Reid, American bassist and composer 1945 – Delma S. Arrigoitia, Puerto Rican historian, author, educator and lawyer (d. 2023) 1945 – Glynn Saulters, American basketball player1946 – Dick Anderson, American football player1947 – Louise Arbour, Canadian lawyer and jurist* 1947 – Butch Morris, American cornet player, composer, and conductor (d. 2013)* 1947 – Nicholas Owen, English journalist1949 – Nigel Olsson, English rock drummer and singer-songwriter1950 – Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta, Mexican economist and politician (d. 1994)* 1950 – Mark Spitz, American swimmer 1951 – Bob Iger, American media executive1952 – Lee Hsien Loong, Singaporean general and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Singapore1955 – Jim Cramer, American television personality, pundit, and author 1955 – Tom LaGarde, American basketball player* 1955 – Greg Norman, Australian golfer and sportscaster 1956 – Kathleen Beller, American actress 1956 – James Martin Graham, American Roman Catholic priest (d. 1997)* 1956 – Enele Sopoaga, Tuvaluan politician, 12th Prime Minister of Tuvalu1957 – Katherine Freese, American astrophysicist and academic1959 – John Calipari, American basketball player and coach1960 – Jim Kent, American biologist, computer programmer, academic1961 – Alexander Payne, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1961 – George Stephanopoulos, American television journalist1962 – Cliff Burton, American musician and songwriter (d. 1986) 1962 – Bobby Czyz, American boxer and commentator* 1962 – Randy Velischek, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1963 – Lenny Dykstra, American baseball player1964 – Glenn Beck, American journalist, producer, and author1966 – Natalie Bennett, Australian-English journalist and politician 1966 – Daryl Johnston, American football player and sportscaster1967 – Laura Dern, American actress, director, and producer 1967 – Jacky Durand, French cyclist and sportscaster* 1967 – Vince Gilligan, American director, producer, and screenwriter1968 – Peter Popovic, Swedish ice hockey player and coach 1968 – Garrett Reisman, American engineer and astronaut1969 – Joe Mangrum, American painter and sculptor 1969 – James Small, South African rugby player (d. 2019)1970 – Melissa Doyle, Australian journalist and author 1970 – Noureddine Naybet, Moroccan international footballer and manager* 1970 – Åsne Seierstad, Norwegian journalist and author1971 – Lorena Rojas, Mexican actress and singer (d. 2015)1972 – Michael Kasprowicz, Australian cricketer1973 – Martha Lane Fox, Baroness Lane-Fox of Soho, English businesswoman and politician1974 – Elizabeth Banks, American actress* 1974 – Ty Law, American football player* 1974 – Ivri Lider, Israeli singer* 1974 – Henry Paul, New Zealand rugby player and coach1975 – Hiroki Kuroda, Japanese baseball player 1975 – Tina Thompson, American basketball player and coach1976 – Lance Berkman, American baseball player and coach 1976 – Keeley Hawes, English actress1977 – Salif Diao, Senegalese footballer1978 – Don Omar, Puerto Rican rapper, singer, producer, and actor1979 – Joey Hand, American race car driver1980 – César Izturis, Venezuelan baseball player* 1980 – Enzo Maresca, Italian footballer* 1980 – Mike Ribeiro, Canadian ice hockey player* 1980 – Bruno Šundov, Croatian basketball player1981 – Uzo Aduba, American actress 1981 – Stephanie Beatriz, American actress* 1981 – Max Brown, English actor* 1981 – Andrew Johnson, English footballer* 1981 – Barry Sloane, English actor* 1981 – Holly Willoughby, English model and television host1982 – Hamad Al-Tayyar, Kuwaiti footballer 1982 – Justin Gatlin, American sprinter* 1982 – Tarmo Neemelo, Estonian footballer* 1982 – Iafeta Paleaaesina, New Zealand rugby league player1983 – Vic Fuentes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1984 – Greg Bird, Australian rugby league player* 1984 – Alex Gordon, American baseball player* 1984 – Kim Hyo-jin, South Korean actress* 1984 – Zaza Pachulia, Georgian basketball player1985 – Selçuk İnan, Turkish footballer 1985 – Paul Millsap, American basketball player1986 – Jeff Adrien, American basketball player 1986 – Josh Akognon, American basketball player* 1986 – Radamel Falcao, Colombian footballer* 1986 – Roberto Jiménez Gago, Spanish footballer* 1986 – Viktor Troicki, Serbian tennis player1987 – Justin Braun, American ice hockey player 1987 – Jakub Kindl, Czech ice hockey player* 1987 – Facundo Roncaglia, Argentine footballer1988 – Francesco Acerbi, Italian footballer1989 – Travis d'Arnaud, American baseball player* 1989 – Liam Hendriks, Australian baseball player1990 – Trevante Rhodes, American actor 1990 – Choi Soo-young, South Korean singer-songwriter, actress, and dancer1991 – C. J. Anderson, American football player 1991 – Rebecca Dempster, Scottish footballer* 1991 – Emma Roberts, American actress 1992 – Haruka Nakagawa, Japanese singer and actress 1992 – Reinhold Yabo, German footballer1993 – Yasser Ibrahim, Egyptian footballer 1993 – Max Kepler, German-American baseball player* 1993 – Luis Madrigal, Mexican footballer* 1993 – Filip Twardzik, Czech footballer1994 – Son Na-eun, South Korean singer and actress 1994 – Kang Seul-gi, South Korean singer* 1994 – Makenzie Vega, American actress * 1994 – Miguel Almirón, Paraguayan footballer1995 – Sterling Brown, American basketball player 1995 – Bobby Portis, American basketball player* 1995 – Carolane Soucisse, Canadian ice dancer* 1995 – Lexi Thompson, American golfer* 1995 – Naby Keïta, Guinean footballer1996 – Alexandar Georgiev, Bulgarian-Russian ice hockey player 1996 – Emanuel Mammana, Argentine footballer1997 – Josh Jackson, American basketball player 1997 – Lilly King, American swimmer* 1997 – Chloë Grace Moretz, American actress* 1997 – Nadia Podoroska, Argentine tennis player* 1997 – Josh Rosen, American football player* 1997 – Adam Armstrong, English footballer1999 – Tiffany Espensen, American actress2000 – María Carlé, Argentine tennis player* 2000 – Yara Shahidi, American actress and model" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 547 – Scholastica, Christian nun1127 – William IX, Duke of Aquitaine (b.", "1071)1163 – Baldwin III of Jerusalem (b.", "1130)1242 – Emperor Shijō of Japan (b.", "1231)1280 – Margaret II, Countess of Flanders (b.", "1202)1306 – John \"the Red\" Comyn, Scottish nobleman1307 – Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan (b.", "1265)1346 – Blessed Clare of Rimini (b.", "1282)1471 – Frederick II, Margrave of Brandenburg (b.", "1413)1524 – Catherine of Saxony, Archduchess of Austria (b.", "1468)1526 – John V, Count of Oldenburg, German noble (b.", "1460)1567 – Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, consort of Mary, Queen of Scots (b.", "1545)1576 – Wilhelm Xylander, German scholar, translator, and academic (b.", "1532)===1601–1900===1660 – Judith Leyster, Dutch painter (b.", "1609)1686 – William Dugdale, English genealogist and historian (b.", "1605)1752 – Henriette of France, French Princess (b.1727)1755 – Montesquieu, French lawyer and philosopher (b.", "1689)1782 – Friedrich Christoph Oetinger, German theologian and author (b.", "1702)1829 – Pope Leo XII (b.", "1760)1831 – Peter Heywood, British naval officer (b.", "1772)1837 – Alexander Pushkin, Russian poet and author (b.", "1799)1846 – Maria Aletta Hulshoff, Dutch feminist and pamphleteer (b.", "1781)1854 – José Joaquín de Herrera, Mexican politician and general (b.", "1792)1857 – David Thompson, English-Canadian surveyor and explorer (b.", "1770)1865 – Heinrich Lenz, Estonian-Italian physicist and academic (b.", "1804) 1879 – Honoré Daumier, French illustrator and painter (b.", "1808)1887 – Ellen Wood, English author (b.", "1814)1891 – Sofia Kovalevskaya, Russian-Swedish mathematician and physicist (b.", "1850)===1901–present===1904 – John A. Roche, American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Chicago (b.", "1844)1906 – Ezra Butler Eddy, American-Canadian businessman and politician (b.", "1827)1912 – Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, English surgeon and academic (b.", "1827)1913 – Konstantinos Tsiklitiras, Greek long jumper (b.", "1888)1917 – John William Waterhouse, English soldier and painter (b.", "1849)1918 – Abdul Hamid II, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1842) 1918 – Ernesto Teodoro Moneta, Italian soldier and journalist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1833)1920 – Henry Strangways, English-Australian politician, 12th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1832)1923 – Wilhelm Röntgen, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1845)1928 – José Sánchez del Río, Mexican martyr and saint (b.", "1913)1932 – Edgar Wallace, English author and screenwriter (b.", "1875)1939 – Pope Pius XI (b.", "1857)1944 – E. M. Antoniadi, Greek-French astronomer and chess player (b.", "1870)1945 – Anacleto Díaz, Filipino lawyer and jurist (b.", "1878)1950 – Marcel Mauss, French sociologist and anthropologist (b.", "1872)1956 – Leonora Speyer, American poet and violinist (b.", "1872) 1956 – Emmanouil Tsouderos, Greek banker and politician, 132nd Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1882)1957 – Laura Ingalls Wilder, American author (b.", "1867)1960 – Aloysius Stepinac, Croatian cardinal (b.", "1898)1966 – Billy Rose, American composer and songwriter (b.", "1899)1967 – Dionysios Kokkinos, Greek historian and author (b.", "1884)1975 – Nikos Kavvadias, Greek sailor and poet (b.", "1910)1979 – Edvard Kardelj, Slovene general and politician, 2nd Foreign Minister of Yugoslavia (b.", "1910)1992 – Alex Haley, American soldier, journalist, and author (b.", "1921)1993 – Fred Hollows, New Zealand-Australian ophthalmologist and academic (b.", "1929)1995 – Paul Monette, American author, poet, and activist (b.", "1945)1997 – Brian Connolly, Scottish musician (b.", "1945)2000 – Jim Varney, American actor, comedian and writer (b.", "1949)2001 – Abraham Beame, American academic and politician, 104th Mayor of New York City (b.", "1906)* 2001 – Buddy Tate, American saxophonist and clarinet player (b.", "1913)2002 – Dave Van Ronk, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1936)2003 – Edgar de Evia, Mexican-American photographer (b.", "1910)* 2003 – Albert J. Ruffo, American lawyer and politician, Mayor of San Jose (b.", "1908)* 2003 – Ron Ziegler, American politician, 14th White House Press Secretary (b.", "1939)2005 – Arthur Miller, American actor, playwright, and author (b.", "1915)2006 – James Yancey, American record producer and rapper (b.", "1974)2008 – Roy Scheider, American actor and boxer (b.", "1932)2010 – Fred Schaus, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1925)* 2010 – Charles Wilson, American lieutenant and politician (b.", "1933)2011 – Trevor Bailey, English cricketer and journalist (b.", "1923)2012 – Lloyd Morrison, New Zealand banker and businessman, founded H. R. L. Morrison & Co (b.", "1957)* 2012 – Jeffrey Zaslow, American journalist and author (b.", "1958)\t2013 – W. Watts Biggers, American author, screenwriter, and animator (b.", "1927)\t 2013 – David Hartman, American-Israeli rabbi and philosopher, founded the Shalom Hartman Institute (b.", "1931)\t2014 – Stuart Hall, Jamaican-English sociologist and theorist (b.", "1932) 2014 – Shirley Temple, American actress and diplomat (b.", "1928)2015 – Naseer Aruri, Palestinian scholar and activist (b.", "1934) 2015 – Karl Josef Becker, German cardinal and theologian (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Deng Liqun, Chinese theorist and politician (b.", "1915)2016 – Fatima Surayya Bajia, Indian-Pakistani author and playwright (b.", "1930)2017 – Mike Ilitch, American businessman (b.", "1929)2019 – Carmen Argenziano, American actor (b.", "1943) 2019 – Jan-Michael Vincent, American actor (b.", "1944)2021 – Larry Flynt, American publisher (b.", "1942)2022 – Olsen Filipaina, New Zealand rugby league player (b.", "1957)2023 – AKA, South African rapper (b.", "1988)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:AustreberthaCharalambosJosé Sánchez del RíoScholastica*February 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Feast of St. Paul's Shipwreck (Malta)Fenkil Day (Eritrea)Kurdish Authors Union Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe (Italy)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 10" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frankfurt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frankfurt''', officially '''Frankfurt am Main''' (; Hessian: , ; \"Frank ford on the Main\"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse.", "Its 791,000 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany, and it is the only city in the country rated as an \"alpha world city\" according to GaWC.", "Located in the foreland of the Taunus on its namesake Main, it forms a continuous conurbation with the neighboring city of Offenbach am Main and its urban area has a population of over 2.3 million.", "The city is the heart of the larger Rhine-Main metropolitan region, which has a population of more than 5.8 million and is Germany's second-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr region and the fourth biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union.", "Frankfurt's central business district lies about northwest of the geographic center of the EU at Gadheim in Lower Franconia.", "Like France and Franconia, the city is named after the Franks.", "Frankfurt is the largest city in the Rhenish Franconian dialect area.Frankfurt was a city state, the Free City of Frankfurt, for nearly five centuries, and was one of the most important cities of the Holy Roman Empire, as a site of Imperial coronations; it lost its sovereignty upon the collapse of the empire in 1806, regained it in 1815 and then lost it again in 1866, when it was annexed (though neutral) by the Kingdom of Prussia.", "It has been part of the state of Hesse since 1945.Frankfurt is culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse, with half of its population, and a majority of its young people, having a migrant background.", "A quarter of the population consists of foreign nationals, including many expatriates.", "In 2015, Frankfurt was home to 1,909 ultra high-net-worth individuals, the sixth-highest number of any city.", "As of 2023, Frankfurt is the 13th-wealthiest city in the world and the second-wealthiest city in Europe (after London).Frankfurt is a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and transportation, and is the site of many global and European corporate headquarters.", "Due to its central location in the former West Germany, Frankfurt Airport became the busiest in Germany, one of the busiest in the world, the airport with the most direct routes in the world, and the primary hub for Lufthansa, the national airline of Germany and Europe's largest airline.", "Frankfurt Central Station is Germany's second-busiest railway station after Hamburg Hbf, and Frankfurter Kreuz is the most-heavily used interchange in the EU.", "Frankfurt is one of the major financial centers of the European continent, with the headquarters of the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank, KfW, Commerzbank, DekaBank, Helaba, several cloud and fintech startups, and other institutes.", "Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media and creative industries complement the economic base.", "Frankfurt's DE-CIX is the world's largest internet exchange point.", "Messe Frankfurt is one of the world's largest trade fairs.", "Major fairs include the Music Fair and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the world's largest book fair.", "With 108 consulates, among which the largest is the US Consulate General, Frankfurt is second to New York City among non-capital cities in regards to consulate seats.Frankfurt is home to influential educational institutions, including the Goethe University with the Universitätsklinikum Frankfurt (de) (Hesse's largest hospital), the FUAS, the FUMPA, and graduate schools like the FSFM.", "The city is one of two seats of the German National Library (alongside Leipzig), the largest library in the German-speaking countries and one of the largest in the world.", "Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, continental Europe's largest English theater and many museums, 26 of which line up along the Museum Embankment, including the Städel, the Liebieghaus, the German Film Museum (de), the Senckenberg Natural Museum, the Goethe House and the Schirn art venue.", "Frankfurt's skyline is shaped by some of Europe's tallest skyscrapers, which has led to the term ''Mainhattan''.", "The city has many notable green areas and parks, including the Wallanlagen, Volkspark Niddatal, Grüneburgpark, the City Forest, two major botanical gardens (the Palmengarten and the Botanical Garden Frankfurt) and the Frankfurt Zoo.", "Frankfurt is the seat of the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund – DFB), is home to the first division association football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the Löwen Frankfurt ice hockey team, and the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, and is the venue of the Frankfurt Marathon and the Ironman Germany." ], [ "Distinctions", "Frankfurt is the largest financial hub in continental Europe.", "It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange and several large commercial banks.The Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the world's largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market.In 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had their registered offices in Frankfurt, including Germany's major banks, notably Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank, KfW, Deka Bank and Commerzbank, as well as 41 representative offices of international banks.Frankfurt is considered a global city (alpha world city) as listed by the GaWC group's 2012 inventory.", "Among global cities it was ranked tenth by the Global Power City Index 2011 and 11th by the Global City Competitiveness Index 2012.Among financial hubs, the city was ranked eighth by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and ninth in the 2013 Global Financial Centres Index.Its central location in Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, and road transport hub.", "Frankfurt Airport is one of the world's busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germany's flag carrier Lufthansa.", "Frankfurt Central Station is one of the largest rail stations in Europe and the busiest junction operated by Deutsche Bahn, the German national railway company, with 342 trains a day to domestic and European destinations.", "Frankfurter Kreuz, also known as the Autobahn interchange and located close to the airport, is the most-heavily used interchange in the EU, used by 320,000 cars daily.", "In 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual 'Quality of Living' survey of cities around the world.", "According to ''The Economist'' cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germany's most expensive city and the world's tenth most expensive.Frankfurt has many downtown high-rise buildings that form its renowned Frankfurt skyline.", "In fact, it is one of the few cities in the European Union (EU) to have such a skyline, which is why Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, combining the local river Main and \"Manhattan\".", "The other well-known nickname is Bankfurt.", "Before World War II, the city was noted for its unique old town, the largest timber-framed old town in Europe.", "The Römer area was later rebuilt and is popular with visitors and for events such as Frankfurt Christmas Market.", "Other parts of the old town were reconstructed as part of the Dom-Römer Project from 2012 to 2018." ], [ "Etymology", "''Frankonovurd'' (in Old High German) or ''Vadum Francorum'' (in Latin) were the first names mentioned in written records from 794.It transformed to ''Frankenfort'' during the Middle Ages and then to ''Franckfort'' and ''Franckfurth'' in the modern era.", "According to historian David Gans, the city was named 146 AD by its builder, a Frankish king named Zuna, who ruled over the province then known as Sicambri.", "He hoped thereby to perpetuate the name of his lineage.", "This is chronologically incompatible, however, with the archaeologically demonstrated Roman occupation of the area around Nida fortress in modern Heddernheim.", "The name is derived from the ''Franconofurd'' of the Germanic tribe of the Franks; ''Furt'' (cf.", "English ''ford'') where the river was shallow enough to be crossed on foot.The legend of the ''Frankenfurt'' (ford of the Franks)By the 19th century, the name ''Frankfurt'' had been established as the official spelling.", "The older English spelling of ''Frankfort'' is now rarely seen in reference to Frankfurt am Main, although more than a dozen other towns and cities, mainly in the United States, use this spelling, including Frankfort, Kentucky, Frankfort, New York, and Frankfort, Illinois.", "The New York Times first used the Frankfurt spelling for Frankfurt am Main on 24 October 1953 and last used the Frankfort spelling on 10 June 1954.The suffix ''am Main'' has been used regularly since the 14th century.", "In English, the city's full name of ''Frankfurt am Main'' means \"Frankfurt on the Main\" (pronounced like English ''mine'' or German ''mein'').", "Frankfurt is located on an ancient ford (German: '''') on the river Main.", "As a part of early Franconia, the inhabitants were the early Franks, thus the city's name reveals its legacy as \"the ford of the Franks on the Main\".Among English speakers, the city is commonly known simply as Frankfurt, but Germans occasionally call it by its full name to distinguish it from the other (significantly smaller) German city of Frankfurt an der Oder in the ''Land'' of Brandenburg on the Polish border.The city district Bonames has a name probably dating back to Roman times, thought to be derived from '''' (good table).The common abbreviations for the city, primarily used in railway services and on road signs, are ''Frankfurt (Main)'', ''Frankfurt (M)'', ''Frankfurt a. M.'', ''Frankfurt/Main'' or ''Frankfurt/M''.", "The common abbreviation for the name of the city is \"FFM\".", "Also in use is \"FRA\", the IATA code for Frankfurt Airport." ], [ "History", "===Early history and Holy Roman Empire===At the western borders of Frankfurt lies the Kapellenberg as part of the Taunus with one of the first Stone Age cities in Europe.", "The Celts had different settlements in the Taunus mountains north of Frankfurt, the biggest one the Heidetrank Oppidum.", "The first traces of Roman settlements established in the area of the river Nidda date to the reign of Emperor Vespasian in the years 69 to 79 AD.", "Nida (modern Heddernheim, Praunheim) was a Roman civitas capital (''Civitas Taunensium'').Alemanni and Franks lived there, and by 794, Charlemagne presided over an imperial assembly and church synod, at which ''Franconofurd'' (alternative spellings end with -furt and -) was first mentioned.", "It was one of the two capitals of Charlemagne's grandson Louis the German, together with Regensburg.", "Louis founded the collegiate church, rededicated in 1239 to Bartholomew the Apostle and now Frankfurt Cathedral.Frankfurt was one of the most important cities in the Holy Roman Empire.", "From 855, the German kings were elected and crowned in Aachen.", "From 1562, the kings and emperors were crowned and elected in Frankfurt, initiated for Maximilian II.", "This tradition ended in 1792, when Francis II was elected.", "His coronation was deliberately held on Bastille Day, 14 July, the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille.", "The elections and coronations took place in St. Bartholomäus Cathedral, known as the (Emperor's Cathedral), or its predecessors.The ('Frankfurt Trade Fair') was first mentioned in 1150.In 1240, Emperor Frederick II granted an imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the empire.", "The fair became particularly important when similar fairs in French Beaucaire lost attraction around 1380.Book trade fairs began in 1478.In 1372, Frankfurt became a (Imperial Free City), i.e., directly subordinate to the Holy Roman Emperor and not to a regional ruler or a local nobleman.In 1585, Frankfurt traders established a system of exchange rates for the various currencies that were circulating to prevent cheating and extortion.", "Therein lay the early roots for the Frankfurt Stock Exchange.Frankfurt managed to remain neutral during the Thirty Years' War, but suffered from the bubonic plague that refugees brought to the city.", "After the war, Frankfurt regained its wealth.", "In the late 1770s the theater principal Abel Seyler was based in Frankfurt, and established the city's theatrical life.Mk Frankfurt Merian Stadtansicht.jpg\|Frankfurt in 1612Frankfurt Am Main-Peter Becker-BAAF-032-Aussicht vom Steinernen Haus in der Judengasse nach Westen-1872.jpg\|Frankfurt in 1872Hertel Kaiserplatz von Osten um 1880.jpg\|Kaiserplatz, ===Impact of French revolution and the Napoleonic Wars===Following the French Revolution, Frankfurt was occupied or bombarded several times by French troops.", "It remained a Free city until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6.In 1806, it became part of the principality of Aschaffenburg under the (Prince-Primate), Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg.", "This meant that Frankfurt was incorporated into the Confederation of the Rhine.", "In 1810, Dalberg adopted the title of a Grand Duke of Frankfurt.", "Napoleon intended to make his adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais, already (\"prince of Venice\", a newly established primogeniture in Italy), Grand Duke of Frankfurt after Dalberg's death (since the latter as a Catholic bishop had no legitimate heirs).", "The Grand Duchy remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813 when the military tide turned in favor of the Anglo-Prussian-led allies that overturned the Napoleonic order.", "Dalberg abdicated in favor of Eugène de Beauharnais, which of course was only a symbolic action, as the latter effectively never ruled after the ruin of the French armies and Frankfurt's takeover by the allies.===Frankfurt as a fully sovereign state===After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) dissolved the grand-duchy and Frankfurt became a fully sovereign city-state with a republican form of government.", "Frankfurt entered the newly founded German Confederation (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its , the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian \"presidential envoy\".After the ill-fated revolution of 1848, Frankfurt was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the (St. Paul's Church) and was opened on 18 May 1848.In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch.", "The institution failed in 1849 when the Prussian king, Frederick William IV, declared that he would not accept \"a crown from the gutter\".===Frankfurt after the loss of sovereignty===Alte Brücke (Old Bridge), by Gustave Courbet (1858)Frankfurt lost its independence after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 when Prussia annexed several smaller states, among them the Free City of Frankfurt.", "The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province of Hesse-Nassau.", "The Prussian occupation and annexation were perceived as a great injustice in Frankfurt, which retained its distinct western European, urban and cosmopolitan character.", "The formerly independent towns of Bornheim and Bockenheim were incorporated in 1890.In 1914, the citizens founded the University of Frankfurt, later named Goethe University Frankfurt.", "This marked the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest.From 6 April to 17 May 1920, following military intervention to put down the Ruhr uprising, Frankfurt was occupied by French troops.", "The French claimed that Articles 42 to 44 of the peace treaty of Versailles concerning the demilitarization of the Rhineland had been broken.", "In 1924, Ludwig Landmann became the first Jewish mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years.", "During the Nazi era, the synagogues of the city were destroyed and the vast majority of the Jewish population fled or was killed.During World War II, Frankfurt was the location of a Nazi prison for underage girls with several forced labour camps, a camp for Sinti and Romani people (see ''Romani Holocaust''), the Dulag Luft West transit camp for Allied prisoners of war, and a subcamp of the Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp.Frankfurt was severely bombed in World War II (1939–1945).", "About 5,500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once-famous medieval city center, by that time the largest in Germany, was almost completely destroyed.", "It became a ground battlefield on 26 March 1945, when the Allied advance into Germany was forced to take the city in contested urban combat that included a river assault.", "The 5th Infantry Division and the 6th Armored Division of the United States Army captured Frankfurt after several days of intense fighting, and it was declared largely secure on 29 March 1945.After the end of the war, Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the old Hesse-(Darmstadt) and the Prussian Hesse provinces.", "The city was part of the American Zone of Occupation of Germany.", "The Military Governor for the United States Zone (1945–1949) and the United States High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG) (1949–1952) had their headquarters in the IG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged by the Allies' wartime bombardment.Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital city of the newly founded state of West Germany in 1949.The city constructed a parliament building that was never used for its intended purpose (it housed the radio studios of Hessischer Rundfunk).", "In the end, Konrad Adenauer, the first postwar Chancellor, preferred the town of Bonn, for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also because many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt would be accepted as the permanent capital, thereby weakening the West German population's support for a reunification with East Germany and the eventual return of the capital to Berlin.Postwar reconstruction took place in a sometimes simple modern style, thus changing Frankfurt's architectural face.", "A few landmark buildings were reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner (e.g., Römer, St. Paul's Church, and Goethe House).", "The collection of historically significant Cairo Genizah documents of the Municipal Library was destroyed by the bombing.", "According to Arabist and Genizah scholar S.D.", "Goitein, \"not even handlists indicating its contents have survived.", "\"The end of the war marked Frankfurt's comeback as Germany's leading financial hub, mainly because Berlin, now a city divided into four sectors, could no longer rival it.", "In 1948, the Allies founded the Bank deutscher Länder, the forerunner of Deutsche Bundesbank.", "Following this decision, more financial institutions were re-established, e.g.", "Deutsche Bank and Dresdner Bank.", "In the 1950s, Frankfurt Stock Exchange regained its position as the country's leading stock exchange.Frankfurt also reemerged as Germany's transportation hub and Frankfurt Airport became Europe's second-busiest airport behind London Heathrow Airport in 1961.During the 1970s, the city created one of Europe's most efficient underground transportation systems.", "That system includes a suburban rail system (S-Bahn) linking outlying communities with the city center, and a deep underground light rail system with smaller coaches (U-Bahn) also capable of travelling above ground on rails.In 1998, the European Central Bank was founded in Frankfurt, followed by the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and European Systemic Risk Board in 2011." ], [ "Geography", "Nidda into the Main, which flows into the Rhine between the Rhineland-Palatine capital of Mainz and the Hessian (historically Nassauian) capital of Wiesbaden.", "Also visible the Taunus suburbs of the districts of High Taunus and Main-Taunus, two of the wealthiest districts in Germany.Frankfurt as seen by the European Space Agency's Sentinel-2AThe central Innenstadt district, as seen by a SkySat satelliteFrankfurt is the largest city in the state of Hesse in the western part of Germany.===Site===Frankfurt is located on both sides of the river Main, south-east of the Taunus mountain range.", "The southern part of the city contains the Frankfurt City Forest, Germany's largest city forest.", "The city area is and extends over east to west and north to south.", "Its downtown is north of the river Main in Altstadt district (the historical center) and the surrounding Innenstadt district.", "The geographical center is in Bockenheim district near Frankfurt West station.Frankfurt at the heart of the densely populated Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region with a population of 5.5 million.", "Other important cities in the region are Wiesbaden (capital of Hesse), Mainz (capital of Rhineland-Palatinate), Darmstadt, Offenbach am Main, Hanau, Aschaffenburg, Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Rüsselsheim, Wetzlar and Marburg.===Districts===The 46 ''Stadtteile'' (city districts) of central Frankfurt, 2010The city is divided into 46 city districts (''Stadtteile''), which are in turn divided into 121 city boroughs (''Stadtbezirke'') and 448 electoral districts (''Wahlbezirke'').", "The 46 city districts combine into 16 area districts (''Ortsbezirke''), which each have a district committee and chairperson.The largest city district by population and area is Sachsenhausen, while the smallest is Altstadt, Frankfurt's historical center.", "Three larger city districts (Sachsenhausen, Westend and Nordend) are divided for administrative purposes into a northern (''-Nord'') and a southern (''-Süd'') part, respectively a western (''-West'') and an eastern (''-Ost'') part, but are generally considered as one city district (which is why often only 43 city districts are mentioned, even on the city's official website).Some larger housing areas are often falsely called city districts, even by locals, like Nordweststadt (part of Niederursel, Heddernheim and Praunheim), Goldstein (part of Schwanheim), Riedberg (part of Kalbach-Riedberg) and Europaviertel (part of Gallus).", "The Bankenviertel (''banking district''), Frankfurt's financial district, is also not an administrative city district (it covers parts of the western Innenstadt district, the southern Westend district and the eastern Bahnhofsviertel district).Many city districts are incorporated suburbs (''Vororte'') or were previously independent cities, such as Höchst.", "Some like Nordend and Westend arose during the rapid growth of the city in the Gründerzeit following the Unification of Germany, while others were formed from territory which previously belonged to other city , such as Dornbusch and Riederwald.===History of incorporations===Until the year 1877 the city's territory consisted of the present-day inner-city districts of Altstadt, Innenstadt, Bahnhofsviertel, Gutleutviertel, Gallus, Westend, Nordend, Ostend and Sachsenhausen.Bornheim was part of an administrative district called ''Landkreis Frankfurt'', before becoming part of the city on 1 January 1877, followed by Bockenheim on 1 April 1895.Seckbach, Niederrad and Oberrad followed on 1 July 1900.The ''Landkreis Frankfurt'' was finally dispersed on 1 April 1910, and therefore Berkersheim, Bonames, Eckenheim, Eschersheim, Ginnheim, Hausen, Heddernheim, Niederursel, Praunheim, Preungesheim and Rödelheim joined the city.", "In the same year a new city district, Riederwald, was created on territory that had formerly belonged to Seckbach and Ostend.On 1 April 1928 the City of Höchst became part of Frankfurt, as well as its city districts Sindlingen, Unterliederbach and Zeilsheim.", "Simultaneously the ''Landkreis Höchst'' was dispersed with its member cities either joining Frankfurt (Fechenheim, Griesheim, Nied, Schwanheim, Sossenheim) or joining the newly established ''Landkreis'' of Main-Taunus-Kreis.Dornbusch became a city district in 1946.It was created on territory that had formerly belonged to Eckenheim and Ginnheim.On 1 August 1972, Hesse's smaller suburbs of Harheim, Kalbach, Nieder-Erlenbach, and Nieder-Eschbach became districts while other neighboring suburbs chose to join the Main-Taunus-Kreis, the Landkreis Offenbach, the Kreis Groß-Gerau, the Hochtaunuskreis, the Main-Kinzig-Kreis or the Wetteraukreis.Bergen-Enkheim was the last suburb to become part of Frankfurt on 1 January 1977.Flughafen became an official city district in 1979.It covers the area of Frankfurt Airport that had belonged to Sachsenhausen and the neighboring city of Mörfelden-Walldorf.Frankfurt's youngest city district is Frankfurter Berg.", "It was part of Bonames until 1996.Kalbach was officially renamed Kalbach-Riedberg in 2006 because of the large residential housing development in the area known as Riedberg.===Neighboring districts and cities===Frankfurt urban area within HesseTo the west Frankfurt borders the administrative district (''Landkreis'') of Main-Taunus-Kreis with towns such as Hattersheim am Main, Kriftel, Hofheim am Taunus, Kelkheim, Liederbach am Taunus, Sulzbach, Schwalbach am Taunus and Eschborn; to the northwest the Hochtaunuskreis with Steinbach, Oberursel (Taunus) and Bad Homburg vor der Höhe; to the north the Wetteraukreis with Karben and Bad Vilbel; to the northeast the Main-Kinzig-Kreis with Niederdorfelden and Maintal; to the southeast the city of Offenbach am Main; to the south the Kreis Offenbach with Neu-Isenburg and to the southwest the Kreis Groß-Gerau with Mörfelden-Walldorf, Rüsselsheim and Kelsterbach.Together with these towns (and some larger nearby towns, e.g., Hanau, Rodgau, Dreieich, Langen) Frankfurt forms a contiguous built-up urban area called ''Stadtregion Frankfurt'' which is not an official administrative district.", "The urban area had an estimated population of 2.3 million in 2010, and is the 13th-largest urban area in the EU.===Climate===Frankfurt has a temperate-oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb'').", "Its climate features cool winters with frequent rain showers and overcast skies, and warm to hot summers.", "The average annual temperature is , with monthly mean temperatures ranging from in January to in July.", "The descriptions below are based off climate data between 1991 and 2020.Due to its location at the northern tip of the Upper Rhine Valley in the Southwest of Germany, Frankfurt is one of the warmest and driest major German cities along with Darmstadt, Mannheim, Karlsruhe and Freiburg im Breisgau.", "Summers in Frankfurt can get quite hot when compared to the rest of the country.", "On average, it sees 62 days with a daily high temperature above 25 °C and 18 days with a high above 30 °C per year.Climate change is elevating the number of hot days.", "In the year of 2018, Frankfurt recorded 108 days with a maximum over 25 °C and 43 days with a high above 30 °C.", "This is compared to 52 and 13 days on average per year between 1981 and 2010.The overall tendency for higher temperatures can also be seen when comparing the climate data from 1981 to 2010 with the data from 2010 to 2020.Being an urban heat island, Frankfurt sometimes experiences tropical nights, where the temperature does not fall below 20 °C between May and September.", "This is exacerbated and made more frequent as the density of the city stores daytime heat overnight.The growing season is longer when compared to the rest of Germany, thus resulting in an early arrival of springtime in the region, with trees typically leafing out already toward the end of March.Winters in Frankfurt are generally mild or at least not freezing with a small possibility of snow, especially in January and February but dark and often overcast.", "Frankfurt is, on average, covered with snow only for around 10 to 20 days per year.", "The temperature falls below 0 °C on about 64 days and the daily maximum stays below freezing for about 10 days on average per year.", "Some days with lows under −10 °C can occur more often here than at the coasts of Northern Germany, but not as frequently as in Bavaria or the eastern parts of Germany.Because of the mild climate in the region, there are some well-known wine regions in the vicinity such as Rhenish Hesse, Rheingau, Franconia (wine region) and Bergstraße (route).", "There is also a microclimate on the northern bank of the river Main which allows palms, fig trees, lemon trees and southern European plants to grow in that area.", "The area is called the \"Nizza\" (the German word for the southern French town Nice) and is one of the biggest parks with Mediterranean vegetation north of the Alps.Climate data for FrankfurtMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearMean daily daylight hours9.010.012.014.015.016.016.014.013.011.09.08.012.3Average Ultraviolet index1134677653113.5Source: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===+Largest groups of foreign residents Nationality Population (30 June 2022) 25,294 16,751 15,120 12,174 10,451 9,748 9,404 8,509 7,612 7,364 7,133 6,581 6,342 5,114 4,719 4,632 4,087 3,991 3,653 3,374With a population of 763,380 (2019) within its administrative boundaries and of 2,300,000 in the actual urban area, Frankfurt is the fifth-largest city in Germany, after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich and Cologne.", "Central Frankfurt has been a ''Großstadt'' (a city with at least 100,000 residents by definition) since 1875.With 414,576 residents in 1910, it was the ninth largest city in Germany and the number of inhabitants grew to 553,464 before World War II.", "After the war, at the end of the year 1945, the number had dropped to 358,000.In the following years, the population grew again and reached an all-time-high of 691,257 in 1963.It dropped again to 592,411 in 1986 but has increased since then.", "According to the demographic forecasts for central Frankfurt, the city will have a population up to 813,000 within its administrative boundaries in 2035 and more than 2.5 million inhabitants in its urban area.As of 2015, Frankfurt had 1909 ultra high-net-worth individuals, the sixth-highest number of any city.", "It is also the world's 14th-richest city by total wealth, as of 2017.During the 1970s, the state government of Hesse wanted to expand the city's administrative boundaries to include the entire urban area.", "This would have made Frankfurt officially the second-largest city in Germany after Berlin with up to 3 million inhabitants.", "However, because local authorities did not agree, the administrative territory is still much smaller than its actual urban area.===Moroccan community===Frankfurt has the largest Moroccan community in Germany, numbering about 8,000 people, and the Rhine-Main area has about 20,000.Many Moroccans came as guest workers in the 1970s.", "Today Frankfurt has many Moroccan restaurants, companies, shops, mosques and hamams.", "Due to the popularity of Moroccan culture in Frankfurt, it also led many people from the Maghreb and other African countries to move to Frankfurt.", "Famous singer Namika was born in Frankfurt to Moroccan parents.+ Population of the 46 city districts on 31 December 2009 No.", "City district (''Stadtteil'') Area in km2 Population Foreign nationals Foreign nationals in % Area district (''Ortsbezirk'') 1 Altstadt 0.51 3.475 1.122 32.3 01 – Innenstadt I 2 Innenstadt 1.52 6.577 2.529 38.5 01 – Innenstadt I 3 Bahnhofsviertel 0.53 2.125 810 38.1 01 – Innenstadt I 4 Westend-Süd 2.47 17.288 3.445 19.9 02 – Innenstadt II 5 Westend-Nord 1.67 8.854 2.184 24.7 02 – Innenstadt II 6 Nordend-West 3.07 28.808 5.162 17.9 03 – Innenstadt III 7 Nordend-Ost 1.69 26.619 5.580 21.0 03 – Innenstadt III 8 Ostend 5.40 26.955 7.213 26.8 04 – Bornheim/Ostend 9 Bornheim 2.66 27.184 6.240 23.0 04 – Bornheim/Ostend 10 Gutleutviertel 2.20 5.843 1.953 33.4 01 – Innenstadt I 11 Gallus 4.22 26.716 11.012 41.2 01 – Innenstadt I 12 Bockenheim 8.04 34.740 9.034 26.0 02 – Innenstadt II 13 Sachsenhausen-Nord 4.24 30.374 6.507 21.4 05 – Süd 14 Sachsenhausen-Süd 34.91 26.114 4.847 18.6 05 – Süd 15 Flughafen 20.00 211 14 6.6 05 – Süd 16 Oberrad 2.74 12.828 3.113 24.3 05 – Süd 17 Niederrad 2.93 22.954 6.569 28.6 05 – Süd 18 Schwanheim 17.73 20.162 3.532 17.5 06 – West 19 Griesheim 4.90 22.648 8.029 35.5 06 – West 20 Rödelheim 5.15 17.841 4.863 27.3 07 – Mitte-West 21 Hausen 1.26 7.178 2.135 29.7 07 – Mitte-West 22/23 Praunheim 4.55 15.761 3.197 20.3 07 – Mitte-West 24 Heddernheim 2.49 16.443 3.194 19.4 08 – Nord-West 25 Niederursel 7.22 16.394 3.671 22.4 08 – Nord-West 26 Ginnheim 2.73 16.444 4.024 24.5 09 – Mitte-Nord 27 Dornbusch 2.38 18.511 3.482 18.8 09 – Mitte-Nord 28 Eschersheim 3.34 14.808 2.657 17.9 09 – Mitte-Nord 29 Eckenheim 2.23 14.277 3.674 25.7 10 – Nord-Ost 30 Preungesheim 3.74 13.568 3.442 25.4 10 – Nord-Ost 31 Bonames 1.24 6.362 1.288 20.2 10 – Nord-Ost 32 Berkersheim 3.18 3.400 592 17.4 10 – Nord-Ost 33 Riederwald 1.04 4.911 1.142 23.3 11 – Ost 34 Seckbach 8.04 10.194 1.969 19.3 11 – Ost 35 Fechenheim 7.18 16.061 5.635 35.1 11 – Ost 36 Höchst 4.73 13.888 5.279 38.0 06 – West 37 Nied 3.82 17.829 5.224 29.3 06 – West 38 Sindlingen 3.98 9.032 2.076 23.0 06 – West 39 Zeilsheim 5.47 11.984 2.555 21.3 06 – West 40 Unterliederbach 5.85 14.350 3.511 24.5 06 – West 41 Sossenheim 5.97 15.853 4.235 26.7 06 – West 42 Nieder-Erlenbach 8.34 4.629 496 10.7 13 – Nieder-Erlenbach 43 Kalbach-Riedberg 6.90 8.482 1.279 15.1 12 – Kalbach-Riedberg 44 Harheim 5.02 4.294 446 10.4 14 – Harheim 45 Nieder-Eschbach 6.35 11.499 1.978 17.2 15 – Nieder-Eschbach 46 Bergen-Enkheim 12.54 17.954 2.764 15.4 16 – Bergen-Enkheim 47 Frankfurter Berg 2.16 7.149 1.715 24.0 10 – Nord-Ost '''Frankfurt am Main''' '''248.33''' '''679.571''' '''165.418''' '''24.3'''===Immigration and foreign nationals===According to data from the city register of residents, 51.2% of the population had a ''migration background'' as of 2015, which means that a person or at least one or both of their parents was born with foreign citizenship.", "For the first time, a majority of the city residents had an at least part non-German background.", "Moreover, three of four children in the city under the age of six had full or partial immigrant backgrounds, and 27.7% of residents had a foreign citizenship.According to statistics, 46.7% of immigrants in Frankfurt come from other countries in the EU; 24.5% come from European countries that are not part of the EU; 15.7% come from Asia (including Western Asia and South Asia); 7.3% come from Africa; 3.4% come from North America (including the Caribbean and Central America); 0.2% come from Australia and New Zealand; 2.3% come from South America; and 1.1% come from Pacific island nations.", "Because of this the city is often considered to be a multicultural city, and has been compared to New York City, London, and Toronto.===Religion===Frankfurt was historically a Protestant-dominated city.", "However, during the 19th century, an increasing number of Catholics moved to Frankfurt.", ", the largest Christian denominations were Catholicism (22.7% of the population) and Protestantism, especially Lutheranism (19.4%).The Jewish community has a history dating back to medieval times and has always ranked among the largest in Germany.", "Over 7,200 inhabitants are affiliated with the Jewish community, making it the second largest in Germany after Berlin.", "Frankfurt has four active synagogues.Due to the growing immigration of people from Muslim countries beginning in the 1960s, Frankfurt has a large Muslim community, estimated at 12% in 2006.According to calculations based on census data for 21 countries of origin, the number of Muslim migrants in Frankfurt amounted to about 84,000 in 2011, making up 12.6% of the population.", "The most prevalent countries of origin were Turkey and Morocco." ], [ "Government and politics", "=== Mayor ===Results of the second round of the 2023 mayoral electionThe current Mayor is Mike Josef of the Social Democratic Party, who took the office on 11 May 2023.The most recent mayoral election was held on 5 March 2023, with a runoff held on 26 March, and the results were as follows: Candidate Party First round Second round Votes % Votes % Uwe Becker Christian Democratic Union '''70,411''' '''34.5''' 86,307 48.3 Mike Josef Social Democratic Party 49,033 24.0 '''92,371''' '''51.7''' Manuela Rottmann Alliance 90/The Greens 43,502 21.3 Peter Wirth Independent 10,397 5.1 Daniela Mehler-Würzbach The Left 7,356 3.6 Maja Wolff Independent 6,014 2.9 Yanki Pürsün Free Democratic Party 5,768 2.8 Andreas Lobenstein Alternative for Germany 4,628 2.3 Mathias Pfeiffer Citizens for Frankfurt 1,565 0.8 Katharina Tanczos Die PARTEI 1,176 0.6 Khurrem Akhtar Team Todenhöfer 858 0.4 Frank Großenbach dieBasis 744 0.4 Tilo Schwichtenberg Garden Party Frankfurt am Main 661 0.3 Sven Junghans Independent 574 0.3 Yamòs Camara Free Party Frankfurt 487 0.2 Niklas Pauli Independent 340 0.2 Peter Pawelski Independent 325 0.2 Feng Xu Independent 199 0.1 Karl-Maria Schulte Independent 158 0.1 Markus Eulig Independent 102 0.0 Valid votes 204,298 99.6 178,678 99.0 Invalid votes 921 0.4 1,754 1.0 Total 205,219 100.0 180,432 100.0 Electorate/voter turnout 508,510 40.4 510,336 35.4 Source: City of Frankfurt am Main=== City council ===Results of the 2021 city council electionThe Frankfurt am Main city council (''Stadtverordnetenversammlung'') governs the city alongside the mayor.", "It is located in the city's medieval town hall, Römer, which is also used for representative and official purposes.", "The most recent city council election was held on 14 March 2021, and the results were as follows: Party Lead candidate Votes % +/- Seats +/- Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) Martina Feldmayer 4,894,339 24.6 9.3 23 9 Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Nils Kößler 4,361,942 21.9 2.2 20 2 Social Democratic Party (SPD) Mike Josef 3,385,017 17.0 6.8 16 6 The Left () Dominike Pauli 1,572,333 7.9 0.1 7 1 Free Democratic Party (FDP) Annette Rinn 1,515,646 7.6 0.1 7 ±0 Alternative for Germany (AfD) Patrick Schenk 902,412 4.5 4.4 4 4 Volt Germany (Volt) Eileen O'Sullivan 745,418 3.7 New 4 New Citizens for Frankfurt (BFF) Mathias Mund 395,905 2.0 0.7 2 1 Ecological Left – Anti-Racist List (ÖkoLinX-ARL) Jutta Ditfurth 359,304 1.8 0.3 2 ±0 Die PARTEI (PARTEI) Nico Wehnemann 361,932 1.8 0.4 2 1 Europe List for Frankfurt (ELF) Luigi Brillante 265,914 1.3 0.1 1 ±0 Free Voters (FW) Eric Pärisch 162,122 0.8 0.2 1 ±0 I am a Frankfurter (IBF) Jumas Medoff 166,573 0.8 0.4 1 1 Alliance for Innovation and Justice (BIG) Haluk Yıldız 128,846 0.6 New 1 New Garden Party Frankfurt am Main (Gartenpartei) Tilo Schwichtenberg 126,991 0.6 New 1 New Pirate Party Germany (Piraten) Herbert Förster 123,772 0.6 0.2 1 ±0 Polish Dialogue Initiative for Frankfurt Barbara Lange 88,771 0.4 New 0 New The Frankfurters (dFfm) Bernhard Ochs 73,026 0.4 0.4 0 1 International Vote Frankfurt (ISF) Kerry Reddington 61,772 0.3 New 0 New Climate List Frankfurt (Klimaliste) Beate Balzert 61,526 0.3 New 0 New Free Party Frankfurt (FPF) Benjamin Klinger 40,621 0.2 New 0 New United Democrats (VD) André Leitzbach 30,691 0.2 New 0 New The Social Liberals (SL) Christian Bethke 18,563 0.1 New 0 New Frankfurt Free Voter Group (FFWG) Thomas Schmitt 16,587 0.1 New 0 New Romanians for Frankfurt (RF) Ionut-Vlad Plenz 15,884 0.1 New 0 New Party of Humanists (Die Humanisten) Rüdiger Gottschalk 11,680 0.1 New 0 New Bulgarian Association of Frankfurt (BGF) Daniela Spasova-Mischke 11,488 0.1 New 0 New Sven Junghans, We Frankfurters (WF) Sven Junghans 9,627 0.0 New 0 New Valid votes 221,487 96.0 Invalid votes 9,196 4.0 Total 230,683 100.0 93 ±0 Electorate/voter turnout 512,034 45.1 6.1 Source: Statistics Hesse=== Landtag election ===For elections to the Hesse State Parliament, Frankfurt am Main is split up into six constituencies.", "In total 15 delegates represent the city in the Landtag in Wiesbaden.", "The last election took place in October 2018.Six members of parliament were directly elected in their respective constituencies: Uwe Serke (CDU, Frankfurt am Main I), Miriam Dahlke (Greens, Frankfurt am Main II), Ralf-Norbert Bartel (CDU, Frankfurt am Main III), Michael Boddenberg (CDU, Frankfurt am Main IV), Markus Bocklet (Greens, Frankfurt am Main V) and Boris Rhein (CDU, Frankfurt am Main VI).Delegates from Frankfurt often serve high-ranking positions in Hessian politics, e.g.", "Michael Boddenberg is Hessian Minister of Finance and Boris Rhein was elected President of the Landtag of Hesse in 2019.=== German federal election ===For federal elections which are held every four years, Frankfurt is split up into two constituencies.", "In the German federal election 2017, Matthias Zimmer (CDU) and Bettina Wiesmann were elected to the Bundestag by directe mandate in Frankfurt am Main I and Frankfurt am Main II respectively.", "Nicola Beer (FDP), Achim Kessler (Linke), Ulli Nissen (SPD) and Omid Nouripour (Greens) were elected as well.Nicola Beer resigned as a member of parliament in 2019 following her election to the European Parliament where she now serves as vice president." ], [ "Economy and business", " trading floor in FrankfurtFrankfurt is one of the world's most important financial hubs and Germany's financial capital, followed by Hamburg and Stuttgart.", "Frankfurt was ranked eighth at the International Financial Centers Development Index (2013), eighth at the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index (2008), ninth at the Global Financial Centres Index (September 2013), tenth at the Global Power City Index (2011), 11th at the Global City Competitiveness Index (2012), 12th at the Innovation Cities Index (2011), 14th at the World City Survey (2011) and 23rd at the Global Cities Index (2012).The city's importance as a financial hub has risen since the eurozone crisis.", "Indications are the establishment of two institutions of the European System of Financial Supervisors (European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and European Systemic Risk Board) in 2011, and the entry into force in 2014 of European Banking Supervision, by which the European Central Bank has become the central supervisory authority for the euro area banking sector.According to an annual study by Cushman & Wakefield, the European Cities Monitor (2010), Frankfurt has been one of the top three cities for international companies in Europe, after London and Paris, since the survey started in 1990.It is the only German city considered to be an alpha world city (category 3) as listed by the Loughborough University group's 2010 inventory, which was a promotion from the group's 2008 inventory when it was ranked as an alpha minus world city (category 4).With over 922 jobs per 1,000 inhabitants, Frankfurt has the highest concentration of jobs in Germany.", "On work days and Saturdays, one million people commute from all over the Rhein-Main-Area.", "The GRP per capita was €96,670 in 2019.The city is expected to benefit from international banks relocating jobs from London to Frankfurt as a result of Brexit to retain access to the EU market.", "Thus far, Morgan Stanley, Citigroup Inc., Standard Chartered Plc and Nomura Holdings Inc. announced they would move their EU headquarters to Frankfurt.===Central banks===The new headquarters of the European Central Bank in the Ostend districtFrankfurt is home to two important central banks: the German Bundesbank and the European Central Bank (ECB).====European Central Bank====Euro-SkulpturThe European Central Bank (''Europäische Zentralbank'') is one of the world's most important central banks.", "The ECB sets monetary policy for the Eurozone, consisting of 19 EU member states that have adopted the Euro (€) as their common currency.", "From 1998 the ECB Headquarters have been located in Frankfurt, first in the Eurotower at Willy-Brandt-Platz and in two other nearby high-rises.", "The new Seat of the European Central Bank in the Ostend district, consisting of the former wholesale market hall (''Großmarkthalle'') and a newly built 185-meter skyscraper, was completed in late 2014.The new building complex was designed to accommodate up to 2,300 ECB personnel.", "The location is a few kilometers away from downtown and borders an industrial area as well as the Osthafen (''East Harbor''), It was primarily chosen because of its large premises which allows the ECB to install security arrangements without high fences.The city honors the importance of the ECB by officially using the slogan \"The City of the Euro\" since 1998.====Deutsche Bundesbank====The Deutsche Bundesbank (German Federal Bank), located in Ginnheim, was established in 1957 as the central bank for the Federal Republic of Germany.", "Until the euro (€) was introduced in 1999, the Deutsche Bundesbank was responsible for the monetary policy of Germany and for the German currency, the Deutsche Mark (DM).", "The Bundesbank was greatly respected for its control of inflation through the second half of the 20th century.", "Today the Bundesbank is an integral part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) which is formed by all 27 EU member states.===Commercial banks===Deutsche Bank Twin TowersWestend Tower, also known as ''Westendstraße 1'' or ''Crown Tower'', headquarters of DZ BankOpernturm, headquarters of UBS Germany, at the OpernplatzIn 2010, 63 national and 152 international banks had a registered office, including the headquarters of the major German banks, as well as 41 offices of international banks.", "Frankfurt is therefore known as Bankenstadt (\"City of the banks\") and nicknamed \"Mainhattan\" (a portmanteau of the local Main river and Manhattan in New York City) or \"Bankfurt\".", "73,200 people were employed at banks in 2010.", "'''Deutsche Bank''' — Germany's largest commercial bank.", "It had 15% share of private customers and total assets of €1,900 billion in 2010.Deutsche Bank ranks among the 30 largest banks in the world and the ten largest banks in Europe.", "Deutsche Bank is listed on the DAX, the stock market index of the 30 largest German business companies at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange.", "In November 2010 Deutsche Bank bought the majority of shares of competitor Postbank.", "Its headquarters are located at Taunusanlage in the financial district.", "'''DZ Bank''' — Central institution for more than 900 co-operative banks (''Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken'') and their 12,000 branch offices in Germany and is a corporate and investment bank.", "It is Germany's second-largest bank (total assets: €509 billion).", "The DZ Bank Group defines itself primarily as a service provider for the local Volksbanken and Raiffeisenbanken and their 30 million clients.", "The DZ Bank headquarters are the Westend Tower and the City-Haus at Platz der Republik.", "The DZ Bank Group includes Union Investment, DVB Bank and Reisebank, which are also headquartered in Frankfurt.", "'''KfW Bankengruppe''' — Government-owned development bank formed in 1948 as part of the Marshall Plan.", "KfW provides loans for approved purposes at lower rates than commercial banks, especially to medium-sized businesses.", "With total assets of €507 billion (2017), it is Germany's third-largest bank.", "The KfW headquarters are located in the Westend district at Bockenheimer Landstraße and Senckenberganlage.", "'''Commerzbank''' — Germany's fourth-largest bank by total assets (2017).", "In 2009, Commerzbank merged with competitor Dresdner Bank, then the third-largest German bank.", "Due to the merger and the higher credit risks, Commerzbank was 25% nationalized during the Great Recession.", "It is listed in the DAX.", "Its headquarters are at Commerzbank Tower (259 meters), the second-tallest building in the EU, at Kaiserplatz.", "'''Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen''' – Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen, or short '''Helaba''', is a commercial bank owned by the states of Hesse and Thuringia (''Landesbank'').", "As such, it is a service provider for the local Sparkassen.", "Helaba is one of nine ''Landesbanken'' and is the fifth-largest in Germany.", "It is located in the 200-meter-tall Main Tower in the financial district, the only skyscraper in Frankfurt with an observation desk open to the public.", "'''DekaBank''' – DekaBank is the central asset manager of the ''Sparkassen'' in Germany.", "The headquarters of DekaBank are located at the Trianon skyscraper at Mainzer Landstraße.", "'''ING Diba Germany''' – Germany's largest direct bank, headquartered in BockenheimOther major German banks include Frankfurter Volksbank, the second-largest ''Volksbank'' in Germany, Frankfurter Sparkasse and old-established private banks such as Bankhaus Metzler, Hauck & Aufhäuser and Delbrück Bethmann Maffei.Many international banks have a registered or a representative office, e.g., Credit Suisse, UBS, Bank of America, Morgan Stanley, Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, JPMorgan Chase & Co., Bank of China, Banco do Brasil, Itaú Unibanco Société Générale, BNP Paribas, SEB, Royal Bank of Scotland and Barclays.===Frankfurt Stock Exchange===Bull and bear in front of the Frankfurt Stock ExchangeThe Frankfurt Stock Exchange (''Frankfurter Wertpapierbörse'') began in the ninth century.", "By the 16th century Frankfurt had developed into an important European hub for trade fairs and financial services.", "Today the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is by far the largest in Germany, with a turnover of more than 90 percent of the German stock market and is the third-largest in Europe after the London Stock Exchange and the European branch of the NYSE Euronext.", "The most important stock market index is the DAX, the index of the 30 largest German business companies listed at the stock exchange.", "The stock exchange is owned and operated by , which is itself listed in the DAX.", "Deutsche Börse also owns the European futures exchange Eurex and clearing company Clearstream.", "Trading takes place exclusively via the Xetra trading system, with redundant floor brokers taking on the role of market-makers on the new platform.On 1 February 2012 European Commission blocked the proposed merger of Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext.", "\"The merger between Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext would have led to a near-monopoly in European financial derivatives worldwide.", "These markets are at the heart of the financial system and it is crucial for the whole European economy that they remain competitive.", "We tried to find a solution, but the remedies offered fell far short of resolving the concerns.\"", "European competition commissioner Joaquín Almunia said.It is located downtown at the Börsenplatz.", "Deutsche Börse's headquarters are formally registered in Frankfurt, but it moved most of its employees to a high-rise called \"The Cube\" in Eschborn in 2010, primarily due to significantly lower local corporate taxes.===Frankfurt Trade Fair===Messeturm seen from the trade fair premisesFrankfurt Trade Fair (''Messe Frankfurt'') has the third-largest exhibition site in the world with a total of .", "The trade fair premises are located in the western part between Bockenheim, the Westend and the Gallus district.", "It houses ten exhibition halls with a total of of space and of outdoor space.Hosted in Frankfurt are the Frankfurt Motor Show (''Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung – IAA''), the world's largest auto show, the Frankfurt Book Fair (''Frankfurter Buchmesse''), the world's largest book fair, the Ambiente Frankfurt, the world's largest consumer goods fair, the Achema, the world's largest plant engineering fair, and many more like Paperworld, Christmasworld, Beautyworld, Tendence Lifestyle or Light+Building.Messe Frankfurt GmbH, the owner and operator company, organized 87 exhibitions in 2010, 51 thereof in foreign countries.", "It is one of the largest trade fair companies with commercial activities in over 150 countries.===Aviation===Two Lufthansa Airbus A380s at Frankfurt AirportFrankfurt Airport is one of the busiest airports in the world and is also the single largest place of work in Germany with over 500 companies which employ 71,500 people (2010).Fraport is the owner and operator of Frankfurt Airport.", "It is the airport's second-largest employer (19,800 workers in 2010).", "Fraport also operates other airports worldwide, e.g., King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah, Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima and Antalya Airport.The largest company at Frankfurt Airport is Lufthansa, Germany's flag carrier and Europe's largest airline.", "Lufthansa employs 35,000 people in Frankfurt.", "The Lufthansa Aviation Center (LAC) is the main operation base of Lufthansa at Frankfurt Airport.", "The airport serves as Lufthansa's primary hub with 157 worldwide destinations (compared to 110 destinations at Munich Airport, Lufthansa's second-largest hub).", "'''Lufthansa Cargo''' is based in Frankfurt and operates its largest cargo center (LCC) at Frankfurt Airport.", "'''Lufthansa Flight Training''' is also based here.Condor is a German airline based at Frankfurt Airport.===Other industries=======Accountancy and professional services====Three of the four largest international accountancy and professional services firms ''(Big Four)'' are present.PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) German headquarters are located at Tower 185.KPMG moved its European Headquarters (KPMG Europe LLP) to The Squaire.", "Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu are present, while Ernst & Young is located in Eschborn.====Credit rating agencies====The three major international credit rating agencies – Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings – have their German headquarters in Frankfurt.====Investment trust companies====DWS Investments is one of the largest investment trust company in Germany and manages €859 billion fund assets.", "It is one of the ten largest investment trust companies in the world.", "Other large investment trust companies are Universal Investment, Allianz Global Investors Europe (a division of Allianz SE, and a top-five global active investment manager), Union Investment and Deka Investmentfonds.====Management consultancies====Many of the largest international management consultancies are represented, including Arthur D. Little, McKinsey & Company, Boston Consulting Group, Booz & Company, Oliver Wyman, Bearing Point, Capgemini, Bain & Company and Roland Berger Strategy Consultants.====Real estate services companies====Located in Frankfurt are the German headquarters of Jones Lang LaSalle and BNP Paribas Real Estate.====Law firms====Frankfurt has the highest concentration of lawyers in Germany, with one lawyer per 97 inhabitants (followed by Düsseldorf with a ratio of 1/117 and Munich with 1/124) in 2005.Most of the large international law firms maintain offices, among them Allen & Overy, Baker & McKenzie, Bird & Bird, Clifford Chance, Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton, Debevoise & Plimpton, DLA Piper, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Hogan Lovells, Jones Day, Latham & Watkins, Linklaters, Mayer Brown, Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy, Norton Rose, Shearman & Sterling, Sidley Austin, SJ Berwin, Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom, Sullivan & Cromwell, K&L Gates, Taylor Wessing and White & Case.====Advertising agencies====Although it is best known for its banks and financial institutions, Frankfurt is also a media hub.", "Around 570 companies of the advertising industry and 270 public relations companies are there.According to a ranking of German FOCUS magazine (November 2007) seven of the 48 largest advertising agencies in Germany are based in Frankfurt, including Havas, Dentsu, McCann-Erickson, Saatchi & Saatchi, JWT, and Publicis.====Food====Frankfurt is home to the German headquarters of Nestlé, the world's largest food company, located in Niederrad.", "Other important food companies are Ferrero SpA (German headquarters) and Radeberger Gruppe KG, the largest private brewery group in Germany.====Automotive====The South-Korean automobile manufacturer Kia Motors moved its European headquarters to Frankfurt in 2007.In the same year, Italian manufacturer Fiat opened its new German headquarters.", "The automotive supplier Continental AG has the headquarters and a major manufacturing plant of its Chassis & Safety division (formerly ITT Automotive) located in Frankfurt Rödelheim.====Construction====Some of the largest German construction companies have offices, e.g., Bilfinger Berger, Hochtief, Züblin and BAM Deutschland.====Property and real estate====Frankfurt has Germany's highest concentration of homeowners.", "This is partly attributed to the financial sector, but also to its cosmopolitan nature, with expatriates and immigrants representing one-fourth of its population.", "For this reason, Frankfurt's property market often operates differently than the rest of the country where the prices are generally flatter.====Tourism====Frankfurt is one of Germany's leading tourist destinations.", "In addition to its infrastructure and economy, its diversity supports a vibrant cultural scene.", "This blend of attractions led 4.3 million tourists (2012) to visit Frankfurt.", "The Hotels in central Frankfurt offer 34,000 beds in 228 hotels, of which 13 are luxury hotels and 46 are first-class hotels.====Other====Headquarters of Colt Technology Services and Nintendo of Europe in the Lyoner QuartierIndustriepark HöchstMainova heating plantFrankfurt is home to companies from the chemical, transportation, telecommunication and energy industries.", "Some of the larger companies are:'''Industriepark Höchst''' — An industrial park in Höchst.", "It is one of Germany's largest with over 90 companies from the pharmaceutical, the chemical and the biotechnology industry, including Celanese, Clariant, BASF, Merck KGaA and Siemens.", "It was founded by chemical company Hoechst AG in 1874.At the beginning of the 1980s Hoechst AG was the largest pharmaceutical corporation and Industriepark Höchst was known as \"the pharmacy of the world\".", "Hoechst AG merged with Rhône-Poulenc to become Aventis in 1999 and in 2004 Aventis merged with Sanofi-Synthélabo to become Sanofi-Aventis.", "In 2005, around 22,000 people worked at Industriepark Höchst.", "In 2011, Ticona now part of Celanese, an international manufacturer of engineering polymers, moved to Industriepark Höchst.", "'''Deutsche Bahn''' – Deutsche Bahn subsidiaries DB Fernverkehr, DB Regio, DB Stadtverkehr, DB Netz, DB Schenker and the corporate development department of Deutsche Bahn are Frankfurt-based.", "'''Deutsche Telekom''' – Deutsche Telekom's subsidiary T-Systems is Frankfurt-based.", "'''COLT''' – telecommunications company with Frankfurt-based German headquarters'''Nintendo''' — In 2014, Nintendo of Europe moved its headquarters from Großostheim to Frankfurt.", "'''CenturyLink''' — internet service provider with German headquarters in Frankfurt'''DE-CIX''' – Frankfurt is an important location for electronic communication, especially the Internet.", "It is home to DE-CIX, the world's largest internet exchange point.", "'''Mainova''' – The largest regional energy supplier in Germany with about one million customers in Hesse.", "It provides electricity, gas, heat and water.", "Its headquarters are Frankfurt-based.In addition, several cloud and fintech startups have their headquarters in Frankfurt.===Urban area (suburban) businesses===Within Frankfurt's urban area are several important companies.The business hub of Eschborn is located right at Frankfurt's city limits in the west and attracts businesses with significantly lower corporate taxes compared to Frankfurt.", "Major companies in Eschborn include Ernst & Young, Vodafone Germany, Randstad Holding and VR Leasing.", "moved most of its employees to Eschborn in 2010.Rüsselsheim is internationally known for its automobile manufacturer Opel, one of the biggest automobile manufacturers in Germany.", "With 20,000 employees in 2003, Opel was one of the five largest employers in Hesse.Offenbach am Main is home to the European headquarters of automobile manufacturer Hyundai Motor Company, to the German headquarters of automobile manufacturer Honda, to Honeywell Germany and to Deutscher Wetterdienst, the central scientific agency that monitors weather and meteorological conditions over Germany.Two DAX companies are located in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Fresenius SE & Co. KGaA and Fresenius Medical Care.", "Other major companies are Hewlett-Packard, Bridgestone, Deutsche Leasing and Basler Versicherungen.Kronberg im Taunus is home of the German headquarters of automobile manufacturer Jaguar Cars as well as the German headquarters of Accenture.Lufthansa Systems, a subsidiary of Lufthansa, is located in Kelsterbach.LSG Sky Chefs, another subsidiary of Lufthansa, is located in Neu-Isenburg.The German headquarters of Thomas Cook Group are based in Oberursel.Langen is home to Deutsche Flugsicherung, the German air traffic control." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – sister cities===Frankfurt is twinned with: Birmingham, West Midlands, England, United Kingdom (1966)* Budapest, Hungary (1990)* Deuil-la-Barre, Val d'Oise, France (1967); ''formerly twinned with Nieder-Eschbach, incorporated into Frankfurt in 1972)''* Dubai, Emirate of Dubai, United Arab Emirates (2005)* Eskişehir, Eskişehir Province, Turkey (2013)* Granada, Granada Department, Nicaragua (1991)* Guangzhou, Guangdong, China (1988)* Kraków, Poland (1991)* Leipzig, Saxony, Germany (1990)* Lyon, France (1960)* Milan, Lombardy, Italy (1970)* Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States (2015)* Prague, Czech Republic (1990)* Tel Aviv, Gush Dan, Israel (1980)* Toronto, Ontario, Canada (1989)===Friendly cities===Frankfurt has friendly relations with:* Cairo, Egypt (1979)* Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan (2011)" ], [ "Cityscape", "===Landmarks==='''Römer'''Römer, the city hallRömer, the German word for Roman, is a complex of nine houses that form the Frankfurt city hall (''Rathaus'').", "The houses were acquired by the city council in 1405 from a wealthy merchant family.", "The middle house became the city hall and was later connected with its neighbors.", "The ''Kaisersaal'' (\"Emperor's Hall\") is located on the upper floor and is where the newly crowned emperors held their banquets.", "The Römer was partially destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt.", "The surrounding square, the Römerberg, is named after the city hall.New Frankfurt Old Town was completed in 2018, including 15 reconstructed historical buildings.The former Altstadt (old town) quarter between the Römer and the Frankfurt Cathedral was redeveloped as the Dom-Römer Quarter from 2012 to 2018, including 15 reconstructions of historical buildings that were destroyed during World War II.", "'''Frankfurt Cathedral'''Frankfurt Cathedral (Frankfurter Dom) is not a cathedral, but the main Catholic church, dedicated to St. Bartholomew.", "The Gothic building was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the Merovingian time.", "From 1356 onwards, kings of the Holy Roman Empire were elected in this church, and from 1562 to 1792, Roman-German emperors were crowned there.Since the 18th century, St. Bartholomew's has been called ''Dom'', although it was never a bishop's seat.", "In 1867 it was destroyed by fire and rebuilt in its present style.", "It was again partially destroyed in World War II and rebuilt in the 1950s.", "Its height is 95 meters.", "The cathedral tower has a viewing platform open to the public at a height of 66 meters, accessed through a narrow spiral staircase with 386 steps.'''St.", "Paul's Church'''St.", "Paul's Church (''Paulskirche'') is a national historic monument in Germany because it was the seat of the first democratically elected parliament in 1848.It was established in 1789 as a Protestant church, but was not completed until 1833.Its importance has its roots in the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the church during the revolutionary years of 1848/49 in order to write a constitution for a united Germany.", "The attempt failed because the monarchs of Prussia and Austria did not want to lose power.", "In 1849, Prussian troops ended the democratic experiment by force and the parliament dissolved; the building was once more used for religious services.St.", "Paul's was partially destroyed in World War II, particularly its interior, which now has a modern appearance.", "It was quickly and symbolically rebuilt after the war; today it is used mainly for exhibitions and events.", "'''Archäologischer Garten Frankfurt'''The Archaeological Garden contains small parts of the oldest recovered buildings: an ancient Roman settlement and the Frankfurt Royal Palace (''Kaiserpfalz Frankfurt'') from the sixth century.", "The garden is located between the Römerberg and the cathedral.", "It was discovered after World War II when the area was heavily bombed and later partly rebuilt.", "The remains were preserved and are now open to the public.", "From 2013 until 2015 an event building, the Stadthaus (\"City house\"), has been built on top of the garden, but it remains open to the public free of charge.", "'''Haus Wertheim'''Wertheim House is the only timbered house in the Altstadt district that survived the heavy bombings of World War II undamaged.", "It is located on the Römerberg next to the Historical Museum.", "'''Saalhof'''The Saalhof is the oldest conserved building in the Altstadt district and dates to the 12th century.", "It was used as an exhibition hall by Dutch clothiers when trade fairs were held during the 14th and 15th centuries.", "The Saalhof was partly destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt.", "Today it serves as a part of the Historical Museum.", "'''Eiserner Steg'''The Eiserner Steg (Iron Bridge) is a pedestrian-only bridge across the Main that connects Römerberg and Sachsenhausen.", "It was built in 1868 and was the second bridge to cross the river.", "After World War II, when it was blown up by the Wehrmacht, it was quickly rebuilt in 1946.Today some 10,000 people cross the bridge on a daily basis.", "'''Alte Oper'''Alte Oper, now a concert hall, at OpernplatzThe Alte Oper is a former opera house, hence the name \"Old Opera\".", "The opera house was built in 1880 by architect Richard Lucae.", "It was one of the major opera houses in Germany until it was heavily damaged in World War II.", "Until the late 1970s, it was a ruin, nicknamed \"Germany's most beautiful ruin\".", "Former Frankfurt Lord Mayor Rudi Arndt called for blowing it up in the 1960s, which earned him the nickname \"Dynamite-Rudi\".", "(Later on, Arndt said he never had meant his suggestion seriously.", ")Public pressure led to its refurbishment and reopening in 1981.Today, it functions as a famous concert hall, while operas are performed at the \"new\" Frankfurt Opera.", "The inscription on the frieze of the Alte Oper says: \"''Dem Wahren, Schönen, Guten''\" (\"To the true, the beautiful, the good\").", "'''Eschenheimer Turm'''The Eschenheim Tower (''Eschenheimer Turm'') was erected at the beginning of the 15th century and served as a city gate as part of late-medieval fortifications.", "It is the oldest and most unaltered building in the Innenstadt district.'''St.", "Catherine's Church'''St.", "Catherine's Church (''Katharinenkirche'') is the largest Protestant church, dedicated to Catherine of Alexandria, a martyred early Christian saint.", "It is located downtown at the entrance to the Zeil, the central pedestrian shopping street.", "'''Hauptwache'''Although today Hauptwache is mostly associated with the inner-city underground train station of the same name, the name originates from a baroque building on the square above the station.", "The Hauptwache building was constructed in 1730 and was used as a prison, therefore the name that translates as \"main guard-house\".", "Today the square surrounding the building is also called \"Hauptwache\" (formal: ''An der Hauptwache'').", "It is situated downtown opposite to St. Catherine's Church and houses a famous café.", "'''Central Station'''Frankfurt Central Station (''Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof''), which opened in 1888, was built as the central train station for Frankfurt to replace three smaller downtown train stations and to boost the needed capacity for travellers.", "It was constructed as a terminus station and was the largest train station in Europe by floor area until 1915 when Leipzig Central Station was opened.", "Its three main halls were constructed in a neorenaissance-style, while the later enlargement with two outer halls in 1924 was constructed in neoclassic-style.", "'''Frankfurter Hof'''The Frankfurter Hof is a landmark downtown hotel at Kaiserplatz, built from 1872 to 1876.It is part of Steigenberger Hotels group and is considered the city's most prestigious.'''St.", "Leonhard'''St.", "Leonhard, on the Main close to the bridge Eiserner Steg, is a Catholic late Gothic hall church, derived from a Romanesque style basilica beginning in 1425.It is the only one of nine churches in the Old Town that survived World War II almost undamaged.", "The parish serves the English-speaking community.", "The church has been under restoration from 2011 until 2019.", "'''Gründerzeit quarters'''Around the city centre there are wide spread quarters full of Gründerzeit architecture.", "Buildings of that typ often sport richly-decorated façades in the form of Historicism such as Gothic Revival, Renaissance Revival, German Renaissance and Baroque Revival.", "Textor-schweizer-ffm002.jpg\|Sachsenhausen Frankfurt, Beethovenstraße 71.jpg\|Westend Frankfurt am Main - Nordend.JPG\|Nordend Bergerstrasse-ffm066.jpg\|Bornheim===20th-century architecture==='''Frauenfriedenskirche''' and '''Holy Cross Church'''), both consecrated in 1929, are examples of early modernist church buildings during the time of the New Frankfurt.", "'''Großmarkthalle''', built 1926–1928 as a part of the New Frankfurt-project, the former wholesale market hall was repaired after the second world war and integrated into the new seat of the European Central Bank between 2010 and 2014.", "'''Goethe House''', rebuilt 1947.The birthplace of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe from 1749 was destroyed in World War II and then rebuilt true to the original.", "'''Junior-Haus''', built 1951, an example of early post-World War II architecture located at Kaiserplatz.", "'''Bayer-Haus''', built 1952, another example of early post-World War II architecture.", "'''Museum für angewandte Kunst''', built 1985, designed by Richard Meier.", "'''IG Farben Building''' – Also known as '''Poelzig Building''' (''Poelzig-Bau'') after its architect Hans Poelzig, it was built from 1928 to 1930 as the corporate headquarters of I.G.", "Farbenindustrie AG.", "It is located in the Westend district and borders Grüneburgpark in the west.", "Upon its completion, the complex was the largest office building in Europe and remained so until the 1950s.", "The building served as headquarters for research projects relating to the development of synthetic oil and rubber and the manufacturing of magnesium, lubricating oil, explosives, methanol, and Zyklon B, the lethal gas used in concentration camps.", "After World War II, it served as the headquarters for the Supreme Allied Command and from 1949 to 1952 the High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG).", "It became the principal location for implementing the Marshall Plan, which largely financed the post-war reconstruction of Europe.", "The state apparatus of the Federal German Government was devised there.", "It served as the headquarters for the US Army's V Corps and the Northern Area Command (NACOM) until 1995 when the US Army returned control of the IG Farben Building to the German government.", "It was purchased on behalf of the Goethe University Frankfurt by the state of Hesse.", "In October 2001 it became part of the Westend Campus of Goethe University.===21st-century architecture===The Squaire in 2017'''Die Welle''' (''The Wave''), built 1998–2003, a complex of three wavelike-formed office buildings next to the Opernplatz.", "'''Alte Stadtbibliothek''', rebuilt 2003–2005, reconstruction of the old public library house originally built 1820–1825.", "'''Palais Thurn und Taxis''', rebuilt 2004–2009, reconstruction of a palace originally built 1731–1739.", "'''MyZeil''', built 2004–2009, shopping mall at the Zeil with an imposing vaulted glass-structure.", "'''The Squaire''' (portmanteau of ''square'' and ''air''), also known as '''Airrail Center Frankfurt''', is a long and tall office building located at Frankfurt Airport.", "It was built from 2006 to 2011 on top of an existing railway station (Frankfurt Airport long distance Station) and has a connecting bridge to Terminal 1 for pedestrians.", "Its total of rentable floor space makes it Germany's largest office building.===Skyscrapers===Frankfurt is one of the few European cities with a significant number of skyscrapers, (buildings at least tall).", "It hosts 18 out of Germany's 19 skyscrapers.", "Most skyscrapers and high-rise office buildings are located in the financial district (Bankenviertel) near downtown, around the trade fair premises (Europaviertel) and at Mainzer Landstraße between Opernplatz and Platz der Republik, which connects the two areas.The 18 skyscrapers are:'''Commerzbank Tower''', – The EU's second-tallest building, the tallest building in Europe 1997–2003; Commerzbank headquarters.", "'''Messeturm''', – The EU's third-tallest building, the tallest building in Europe 1990–1997; main tenant is Goldman Sachs (Germany).", "'''Westend Tower''', – DZ Bank headquarters '''Main Tower''', – Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen and Standard & Poor's (Germany) headquarters '''Tower 185''', – PricewaterhouseCoopers (Germany) headquarters ''' ONE ''', '''Omniturm''', '''Trianon''', – DekaBank headquarters '''Seat of the European Central Bank''', – European Central Bank headquarters '''Grand Tower''', – Residential tower'''Opernturm''', – UBS (Germany) headquarters '''Taunusturm''', '''Silberturm''', – Germany's tallest building 1978–1990, Main tenant is Deutsche Bahn.", "'''Westend Gate''', – Germany's tallest building 1976–1978, Main tenant is Marriott Frankfurt Hotel.", "'''Deutsche Bank I''', – Deutsche Bank headquarters '''Deutsche Bank II''', '''Marienturm''', '''Skyper''', – Main tenant is DekaBank.Other high-rise buildings include:'''Eurotower''', – Former European Central Bank headquarters '''Frankfurter Büro Center''', – Main tenant is Clifford Chance (Germany).", "'''City-Haus''', – Main tenant is DZ Bank.", "'''Gallileo''', – Main tenant is Commerzbank.===History of high-rise buildings===Skyline at dusk, seen from Deutschherrnbrücke (2014)For centuries, St. Bartholomeus's Cathedral was the tallest structure.", "The first building to exceed the 95-meter-high cathedral was not an office building but a grain silo, the Henninger Turm, built from 1959 to 1961.The first high-rise building boom came in the 1970s when Westend Gate (then called ''Plaza Büro Center'') and Silberturm were constructed and became the tallest buildings in Germany with a height of 159.3 meters and 166.3 meters, respectively.", "Around the same time, Frankfurter Büro Center and City-Haus (142.4 meters and 142.1 meters) were constructed at Mainzer Landstraße and Eurotower (148.0 meters) and Garden Tower (127.0 meters; then called ''Helaba-Hochhaus'') were constructed in the financial district.None of the buildings constructed during the 1980s surpassed Silberturm.", "The most famous buildings from this decade are the Deutsche Bank Twin Towers at Taunusanlage, both 155.0 meters tall.The 1990s featured a second wave.", "Messeturm, built on the trade fair site, reached a height of and became the tallest building in Europe by 1991.It was overtaken by the Commerzbank Tower in 1997.Other tall buildings from this decade are Westendstrasse 1 (), Main Tower () and Trianon ().In 21st-century Frankfurt, more high-rise buildings and skyscrapers (e.g., Skyper, Opernturm, Tower 185, Seat of the European Central Bank, Taunusturm) emerged, but none have surpassed Commerzbank Tower.===Other tall structures===Top of the Europaturm, a communications tower'''Europaturm —''' The Europe Tower is a telecommunications tower, also known as the Frankfurt TV Tower, built from 1974 to 1979.With a height of 337.5 meters it is the tallest tower and the second tallest structure in Germany after the Fernsehturm Berlin.", "It was open to the public until 1999, with an entertainment establishment in the revolving top.", "It is normally referred to by locals as the \"Ginnheimer Spargel\" (''Ginnheim Asparagus''), but stands a few meters within Bockenheim district.", "'''Henninger Turm —''' The Henninger Tower was a 120-mete-high grain silo built from 1959 to 1961 and owned by Henninger Brewery.", "It was the highest structure until 1974.The Henninger Tower had two rotating restaurants at the height of 101 and 106 meters and an open-air observation deck at the height of 110 meters.", "The tower closed to the public in October 2002 and was demolished in 2013 to be replaced by a 140 m (459 ft) tall residential tower, which is externally inspired by the old Henninger Turm.", "The cornerstone for this project was laid in June 2014 and construction was completed in summer 2017.The new tower offers 207 luxury flats and houses the non-rotating restaurant \"Franziska\".", "From 1962 to 2008 a famous yearly cycling race was named after the tower, the \"Radrennen Rund um den Henninger Turm\" (''Cycling race around Henninger Tower'').", "The now-renamed race is still a yearly event.", "'''Goetheturm –''' The Goethe Tower was a tower on the northern edge of the Frankfurt City Forest in Sachsenhausen.", "It was the fifth tallest wood construction structure in Germany.", "It was built in 1931 and was a popular place for day-trippers until it burned down in 2017.A faithful reconstruction has been opened to the public on 12 October 2020, exactly three years after the original's destruction.===Shopping streets===Zeil, Frankfurt's central shopping street'''Zeil''' – Frankfurt's central shopping street.", "It is a pedestrian-only area and is bordered by two large public squares, Hauptwache in the west and Konstablerwache in the east.", "It is the second most expensive street for shops to rent in Germany after the Kaufingerstraße in Munich.", "85 percent of the shops are retail chains such as H&M, Saturn, Esprit, Zara or NewYorker.", "In 2009 a new shopping mall named MyZeil opened there with nearly 100 stores and chains like Hollister.", "Three more shopping malls occupy the Zeil: UpperZeil (replacing the Zeilgalerie, which was demolished in 2016), Galeria Kaufhof and Karstadt, as well as large fashion retail clothing stores from Peek & Cloppenburg and C&A.", "During the month before Christmas, the extended pedestrian-only zone is host to Frankfurt Christmas Market, one of the largest and oldest Christmas markets in Germany.", "'''Goethestraße''' – Frankfurt's most expensive shopping street with prestigious shops like Louis Vuitton, Prada, Gucci, Tiffany, Giorgio Armani, Versace, Cartier, Burberry, Vertu and Bulgari.", "It is located between the financial district and downtown, running from Goetheplatz to Opernplatz.", "'''Freßgass''' – (officially ''Kalbächer Gasse'' and ''Große Bockenheimer Straße'') is a central pedestrian-only street section between Börsenstraße and Opernplatz.", "The name translates as \"feeding alley\" because of its high concentration of gastronomy, but lately prestigious shops (e.g., Apple Store, Hugo Boss, Porsche Design) have moved here due to the lack of space in the neighboring Goethestraße, displacing old, established restaurants, butchers and delicatessens.", "'''Berger Straße''' – Frankfurt's longest shopping street.", "It starts in the city center, runs through Nordend and Bornheim and ends in Seckbach.", "The street is less crowded than the Zeil and offers a greater variety of smaller shops, restaurants and cafés.", "'''Leipziger Straße''' – Central shopping street in the Bockenheim district starting at Bockenheimer Warte going towards West.", "High density of shops for daily needs.", "'''Braubachstraße''' – In the Altstadt district, close to the historic sites of the city, offers a large variety of art galleries, second-hand bookshops and antique shops.", "'''Münchener Straße''' – In the Bahnhofsviertel district, located between the central station and Willy-Brandt-Platz, is the most multicultural shopping street with many shops selling imported products mainly from Turkey, the Middle East and Asia.", "'''Kaiserstraße''' – One of the best-known streets and considered one of the most beautiful because of its amount of Gründerzeit-style buildings.", "It runs parallel to Münchener Straße from the central station to the financial district.", "Kaiserstraße is still a synonym for Frankfurt's Red-light district although sex-oriented businesses moved to neighboring streets such as in the 1990s.", "Today Kaiserstraße houses many small shops, restaurants and cafés.", "'''Kleinmarkthalle''' – (literally: ''Small Market Hall'') is a market hall close to Konstablerwache square offering fresh food and flowers.", "In addition to regional delicacies like green sauce imported goods are offered.", "The Kleinmarkthalle is the largest public marketplace in Frankfurt.===Green city===Frankfurt City ForestWith a large forest, many parks, the Main riverbanks and the two botanical gardens, Frankfurt is considered a \"green city\": More than 50 percent of the area within the city limits are protected green areas.", "'''Frankfurter Grüngürtel''' – The Green Belt is a ring-shaped public green space around the city.", "With 8,000 ha it covers a third of the administrative area.", "It includes the Frankfurter Stadtwald (''Frankfurt City Forest'', Germany's largest forest within a city), the Schwanheimer Düne (''Schwanheim Dune''), the Niddatal (''Nidda Valley''), the Niddapark, the Lohrberg (''Lohr Mountain'', Frankfurt's only vineyard), the Huthpark, the Enkheimer Ried (''Enkheim Marsh''), the Seckbacher Ried (''Seckbach Marsh'') and the Fechenheimer Mainbogen (a S-shaped part of the Main river in Fechenheim).", "The Green Belt is a protected area which means that housing is not allowed.", "The Green Belt was formally created in 1991 with its own constitution.", "'''Mainuferpark''' – The Mainuferpark (''Main Riverbanks Park'') is the common term to describe the inner-city Main riverbanks.", "It is an auto-free zone with large green areas that is popular with strollers and tourists, especially in the summertime, when it can become crowded.", "The southern riverbank, which continues further to Offenbach am Main and Hanau, offers the best skyline views.", "The northern riverbank ends in the west at the former Westhafen (''West Harbor'', a residential housing area) and is growing to the east: A former industrial-used area between the new Seat of the European Central Bank and the Osthafen (''East Harbor'') has become a park named Hafenpark (''Harbor Park''), which offers outdoor courts for basketball, soccer and a skatepark.", "'''Wallanlagen''' – The Wallanlagen (former ''ramparts'') relate to the former ring-shaped city wall fortifications around the Altstadt and the Innenstadt district (abolished 1804–1812), now a series of parks.", "Building is not allowed, with a few exceptions, the most famous being the Alte Oper (built 1880) at the Opernplatz.", "The part between the northern Main riverbank and the Opernplatz, referred to officially as Taunusanlage and Gallusanlage, is locally known as \"Central Park\" (a reference to the famous park in Manhattan), because of the skyscrapers which stand on both sides.", "'''Nizza Park''' – At the juncture of the northern Main riverbank and the Wallanlagen is a famous small park called Nizza.", "The name of the park recalls Nice in southern France, because it is one of the warmest areas with a nearly mediterranean climate.", "Numerous Mediterranean flora grow there and can survive outside during the winter.", "'''Garten des Himmlischen Friedens''' – \"Garden of Heavenly Peace\", named after the Tiananmen Gate in Beijing, is a Chinese-styled park in the Nordend district and part of the larger Bethmannpark.", "It contains Chinese buildings, with building materials imported from China and built by Chinese workers in the 1980s.", "Hosts traditional Chinese plants and herbs.", "'''Other parks''' – The largest parks are the Niddapark (168 ha), the Ostpark (32 ha) and the Grüneburgpark (29 ha)." ], [ "Culture", "===Museums===The StädelSenckenberg Natural History MuseumWith more than 30 museums, Frankfurt has one of the largest variety of museums in Europe.", "Most museums are part of the Museumsufer, located on the front row of both sides of the Main riverbank or nearby, which was created on an initiative by cultural politician Hilmar Hoffmann.Ten museums are located on the southern riverbank in Sachsenhausen between the Eiserner Steg and the Friedensbrücke.", "The street itself, Schaumainkai, is partially closed to traffic on Saturdays for Frankfurt's largest flea market.", "* Deutsches Architekturmuseum (German Architecture Museum)* Deutsches Filmmuseum (German Film Museum)* Deutsches Romantik-Museum* Frankfurter Ikonenmuseum (Icon Museum Frankfurt)* Liebieghaus (Museum of sculptures)* Museum Angewandte Kunst (Museum of Applied Arts)* Museum Giersch (Museum for Regional Art)* Museum für Kommunikation (Museum of Communications)* Museum der Weltkulturen (Museum of World Cultures)* Städel, one of the most famous art museums in Germany* Museum für elektronische Musik (Museum of Modern Electronic Music) * Bibelhaus Erlebnis Museum (Bible House Experience Museum)Two museums are located on the northern riverbank:Jüdisches Museum Frankfurt (Jewish Museum Frankfurt)Historisches Museum Frankfurt (Historical Museum Frankfurt)Not directly located on the northern riverbank in the Altstadt district are:Museum für Moderne Kunst (Museum of Modern Art)Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt (Schirn Art Gallery Frankfurt)Frankfurter Kunstverein (Art Association Frankfurt)Museum Judengasse (Jews' Alley Museum)Goethe-Haus (Goethe House)Archäologisches Museum Frankfurt (Archaeological Museum Frankfurt)Caricatura Museum für Komische Kunst (Caricatura Museum of Comic Art)Dommuseum Frankfurt (Frankfurt Cathedral Museum)Another important museum is located in the Westend district:Naturmuseum Senckenberg (Senckenberg Natural History Museum), the second-largest natural history museum in GermanyOther museums are the Dialogmuseum (Dialogue Museum) in the Ostend district, Eintracht Frankfurt Museum at Deutsche Bank Park, the Frankfurter Feldbahnmuseum (Light Railway Museum Frankfurt) in the Gallus district, the Verkehrsmuseum Frankfurt (Transport Museum Frankfurt) in the Schwanheim district, the Hammer Museum in the Bahnhofsviertel district and the Geldmuseum der Deutschen Bundesbank (Money Museum of the German Federal Bank) in the Ginnheim district.The Explora Museum+Wissenschaft+Technik (Explora Museum of Science and Engineering) in the Nordend district was closed in 2016.Most museums open around 10:00 am local time, and it is possible to comfortably visit four museums in one day, a fact many tourists take advantage of.===Performing arts=======Music====Eurodance and Trance music originated in Frankfurt.", "In 1989 German producers Michael Münzing and Luca Anzilotti (under the pseudonyms Benito Benites and John \"Virgo\" Garrett III) formed the Snap!", "project.", "Snap!", "songs combined Rap and Soul vocals adding rhythm by using computer technology and mixing electronic sounds, bass and drums.", "By doing so a new genre was born: Eurodance.", "In the early 1990s, DJs including Sven Väth and DJ DAG (of Dance 2 Trance) first played a harder, deeper style of acid house that became popular worldwide over the next decade as Trance music.", "Some of the early and most influential Eurodance, Trance and Techno acts, e.g., La Bouche, Jam and Spoon, Magic Affair, Culture Beat, Snap!, Dance 2 Trance, Oliver Lieb and Hardfloor, and record labels such as Harthouse and Eye Q, were based in the city in the early 1990s.====Venues====Festhalle FrankfurtThe English Theatre'''Oper Frankfurt''' – A leading Germany opera company and one of Europe's most important.", "It was elected ''Opera house of the year'' (of Germany, Austria and German-speaking Switzerland) by German magazine Opernwelt in 1995, 1996 and 2003.It was also elected ''Best opera house in Germany'' in 2010 and 2011.Its orchestra was voted ''Orchestra of the year'' in 2009, 2010 and 2011.", "'''Schauspiel Frankfurt''' – Theater at Willy-Brandt-Platz in the financial district, next to the Frankfurt Opera.", "'''Frankfurt Radio Symphony''' (hr-Sinfonieorchester in German) – one of the top symphony orchestras in the world'''Festhalle Frankfurt''' – Multi-purpose hall next to the Messeturm at the grounds of the Frankfurt Trade Fair.", "It is mostly used for concerts, exhibitions or sport events and can accommodate up to 13,500.", "'''Deutsche Bank Park''' – Frankfurt's largest sports stadium and the seventh largest in Germany.", "It is located in the Frankfurt City Forest near Niederrad.", "It is primarily used for soccer and concerts with a capacity up to 58,000.It opened in 1925 and underwent several major reconstructions.", "Locals still prefer to call the stadium by its traditional name, '''Waldstadion''' (''Forest Stadium'').", "Home to Eintracht Frankfurt.", "'''Alte Oper''' – A major concert hall.", "'''Jahrhunderthalle''' – ''Century Hall'' is a large concert and exhibition hall in Unterliederbach district.", "Sometimes referred to as \"Jahrhunderthalle Höchst\", because it was built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the chemical company Hoechst AG in 1963.", "'''The English Theatre''' – Located on the ground floor of the Gallileo high-rise building, this is the largest English theater in continental Europe.", "It was established in 1979.", "'''Tigerpalast''' – ''Tiger Palace'' is a varieté near the Zeil.", "It was established in 1988 and houses the famous Tiger-Restaurant which was awarded a Michelin star.", "'''Künstlerhaus Mousonturm''' – ''House of Artists Mouson Tower'' has a smaller budget than traditional theaters and uses more unconventional performing methods.", "It is located in an old factory in the Ostend district.", "'''Die Schmiere''' – ''The Grease'' is a cabaret and Frankfurt's oldest privately owned theater.", "It is located in the Karmeliterkloster in the Altstadt district.", "According to its own advertising, it is ''the worst theater in the world''.", "'''Die Komödie''' – ''The Comedy'' is a boulevard theater near downtown Frankfurt's Willy-Brandt-Platz.===Botanical gardens===PalmengartenFrankfurt is home to two major botanical gardens:Palmengarten – Located in the Westend district, it is Hesse's largest botanical garden, covering .", "It opened to the public in 1871.The botanical exhibits are organized according to their origin in free-air or in greenhouses that host tropical and subtropical plants, hence the name \"Palm Garden\".", "'''Botanischer Garten der Goethe-Universität''' – The university's botanical garden is also an arboretum.", "It contains about 5,000 species, with special collections of ''Rubus'' (45 species) and indigenous plants of central Europe.", "It is organized into two major areas: The geobotanical area contains an alpine garden, arboretum, meadows, steppes, marsh, and a pond, as well as collections of plants from the Canary Islands, Caucasus, East Asia, Mediterranean, and North America and the systematic and ecological collection includes crop plants, endangered species, ornamental plants, roses, and the ''Neuer Senckenbergischer Arzneipflanzengarten'' (New Senckenberg Medicinal Plant Garden), which measures .", "The Botanical Garden, Palmengarten, Grüneburgpark collectively form the largest inner-city green area.===Foreign culture==='''Instituto Cervantes''' – Named after Miguel de Cervantes, one of the most important Spanish authors, this is the world's largest organization for promoting the study and teaching of Spanish language and culture.", "54 such Centros Cervantes across the world offer Spanish language and history courses.", "The Frankfurt branch was officially opened in September 2008 by Felipe, Prince of Asturias and his wife Letizia, Princess of Asturias.", "It is located in the so-called ''Amerika-Haus''.", "'''Institut Français''' – A French public industrial and commercial organization (EPIC), started in 1907 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for promoting French, francophone as well as local cultures around the world.", "The French Institute works closely with the French cultural network abroad consisting of more than 150 branches and nearly 1,000 branches of the Alliance française around the world.", "'''Istituto Italiano di Cultura''' – A worldwide non-profit organization created by the Italian government.", "It promotes Italian culture and is involved in the teaching of the Italian language; there are 83 Italian Cultural Institutes throughout major cities around the world.", "'''Confucius Institute''' – A non-profit public educational organization affiliated with the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, whose aim is to promote Chinese language and culture, support local Chinese teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchanges.", "There are over 480 Confucius Institutes worldwide.", "'''Central and Eastern European Online Library''' – CEEOL is an online archive providing access to full-text articles from humanities and social science scholarly journals on Central, Eastern and South-Eastern European topics.", "Subject areas include anthropology, culture and society, economy, gender studies, history, Judaic studies, fine arts, literature, linguistics, political sciences and social sciences, philosophy and religion.", "CEEOL is operated by Questa.Soft GmbH.===Festivals===The Museumsuferfest in 2005'''Museumsuferfest''' – ''Museums Riverbank Festival'' is one of Germany's biggest cultural festivals, attracting more than 3 million visitors over three days at the end of August along the Main riverbank downtown.", "The 20 museums there open far into the night.", "It offers live music, dance shows, booths for crafts, jewelry, clothes and food stands from around the world.", "'''Dippemess''' – Frankfurt's oldest folk festival is the ''Festival of Stoneware'', which takes place semi-annually around Easter and the end of September in the eastern area.", "\"Dippe\" is a regional Hessian dialect word meaning \"pot\" or \"jar\" which would not be understood in most other German regions.", "Mentioned for the first time in the 14th century as an annual marketplace it is now more of an amusement park.", "The name of the festival derives from its original purpose when it was a fair where traditionally crafted jars, pots and other stoneware were on offer.", "\"OVO\" at Luminale 2012'''Luminale''' — The \"festival of light\" has taken place biannually since 2000, parallel to the ''Light + building'' exhibition at the trade fair.", "Many buildings are specially lit for the event.", "In 2008, more than 220 light installations could be seen, attracting 100,000 visitors.", "'''Wäldchestag''' – ''Day of the forest'' is known as a regional holiday because until the 1990s it was common that Frankfurt's shops were closed on this day.", "The festival takes place over four days after Pentecost with the formal Wäldchestag on Tuesday.", "Its unique location is in the Frankfurt City Forest, south-west of downtown in Niederrad.", "\"Wäldches\" is a regional dialect of the German word \"Wäldchen\", meaning \"small forest\".", "'''Nacht der Museen''' – ''Night of the museums'' takes place every year in April or May.", "50 museums in Frankfurt and in the neighboring city of Offenbach am Main are open until 2:00 am surrounded by special music events, dance performances, readings and guided tours.", "A free shuttle operates between the museums.", "In 2010, approximately 40,000 visitors attended.", "'''Nacht der Clubs''' – ''Night of the clubs'' is an event similar to Nacht der Museen: On one night as many as 20 clubs can be visited with a single ticket for €12.Usually, club-door policies are loosened to attract new customers.", "A free shuttle runs between the clubs.", "15,000 people participated in 2008.", "'''Wolkenkratzer Festival''' — The ''Skyscraper Festival'' is unique in Germany.", "It takes place irregularly, lately in May 2013, and attracted around 1.2 million visitors.", "For two days most skyscrapers are open to the public.", "Sky-divers, base jumpers, fireworks and laser shows are extra attractions.===Nightlife===Frankfurt offers a variety of restaurants, bars, pubs and clubs.", "Clubs concentrate in and around downtownand in the Ostend district, mainly close to Hanauer Landstraße.", "Restaurants, bars and pubs concentrate in Sachsenhausen, Nordend, Bornheim and Bockenheim.In electronic music, Frankfurt was a pioneering city in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with renowned DJs including Sven Väth, Marc Trauner, Scot Project and Kai Tracid.", "One of the main venues of the early Trance music sound was the Omen nightclub from 1988 to 1998.Another popular disco club of the 1980s–1990s and a hotspot for Techno/Trance music was the Dorian Gray, which was located within Terminal 1 at Frankfurt Airport from 1978 to 2000.Further popular venues were the U60311 (1998–2012) and the Coocoon Club in Fechenheim (2004–2012).", "Notable live music venues of the past include the Sinkkasten Arts Club (1971–2011) and the King Kamehameha Club (1999–2013).Among the most popular active rock and pop concert venues is the Batschkapp in Seckbach, which opened in 1976 as a center for autonomous and left-wing counterculture.", "Further popular active clubs and music venues include the Velvet Club, The Cave, Cooky's, Nachtleben, Silbergold, Zoom, Tanzhaus West and the Yachtclub.===Domestic culture===A \"Frankfurt kitchen\" in the version of 1926 in an Austrian museumFrankfurt kitchen – Designed originally in 1926 for the New Frankfurt-project and built in some 10,000 units, the kitchen became a milestone in domestic architecture, considered the forerunner of modern fitted kitchens.", "Frankfurt cupboard – The Baroque Frankfurt-style cupboards were used to store the family linen, one of them by Goethe's father, who took one cupboard to Rome.", "The most luxurious versions have wave-shaped parts, some are made of solid cherry wood inlaid with plumwood.===Culinary specialties===\"Bembel\" (jug) and \"Geripptes\" (glass)Apfelwein – ''Apple wine'' or ''hard cider'' is regionally known as \"Ebbelwoi\", \"Äppler\" or \"Stöffsche\".", "It has an alcohol content of 5.5%–7% and a tart, sour taste.", "It is traditionally served in a glass, typically decorated with lozenges, called \"Geripptes\", a full glass is then called \"Schoppen\".", "Apfelwein is also available in a stoneware jar locally known as \"Bembel\".", "A group normally orders a \"Bembel\" and shares the contents.", "Apfelwein can be ordered as \"sauergespritzer\", which is apfelwein blended with 30% mineral water or as \"süssgespritzer\", which is Apfelwein blended with lemon soda, orange soda or fresh-pressed apple juice (lemon soda being the most common).", "Most of the pubs which serve Apfelwein are located in Sachsenhausen, which is therefore known as \"Ebbelwoi district\".", "Due to its national drink Frankfurt is sometimes called \"Big Ebbel\" (pronunciation with Hessian dialect), an homage to Big Apple, the famous nickname of New York City.", "Grüne Soße – ''Green sauce'' is a sauce made with hard-boiled eggs, oil, vinegar, salt and a generous amount of seven fresh herbs, namely borage, sorrel, garden cress, chervil, chives, parsley and salad burnet.", "Variants, often due to seasonal availability include dill, lovage, lemon balm and spinach.", "Original green sauce Frankfurt-style is made of herbs that were gathered only on fields within the city limits.", "Frankfurter Würstchen – \"short Frankfurter\" is a small sausage made of smoked pork.", "They are similar to hot dogs.", "The name Frankfurter Würstchen has been trademarked since 1860.", "Frankfurter Rindswurst – Sausage made of pure beef.", "Frankfurter Rippchen – Also known as Rippchen mit Kraut, this is a traditional dish which consists of cured pork cutlets, slowly heated in sauerkraut or meat broth, and usually served with sauerkraut, mashed potatoes and yellow mustard.", "Handkäs mit Musik – German regional sour milk cheese (similar to Harzer) and a culinary specialty in the Rhine Main Region.", "The traditional way of producing it is by hand.", "When it is topped with chopped onions it becomes \"Handkäs mit Musik\" (with music) because the onions are supposed to stimulate flatulence.", "Frankfurter Kranz – Cake speciality believed to originate from Frankfurt.", "Bethmännchen – \"A little Bethmann\" is a pastry made from marzipan with almond, powdered sugar, rosewater, flour, and egg.", "It is usually baked for Christmas." ], [ "Quality of life", "In a 2001 ranking by the University of Liverpool, Frankfurt was rated the richest city in Europe by GDP per capita, followed by Karlsruhe, Paris and Munich.Frankfurt was voted the seventh in the Mercer Quality of Living Survey by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey (2012), seventh in the Mercer Quality of Living Survey (2010) and 18th at the Economist's World's Most Liveable Cities Survey (2011).", "According to an annual citizen survey (2010), arranged by the city council, 66 percent inhabitants are satisfied or highly satisfied with the city, while only 6 percent said that they are dissatisfied.", "Compared to the 1993's survey the number of satisfied inhabitants has grown about 22 percent while the number of dissatisfied inhabitants was reduced by 8 percent.", "84 percent of the inhabitants like to live in Frankfurt, 13 percent would rather choose to live somewhere else.", "37 percent are satisfied with the public safety (1993: only 9 percent), 22 percent are dissatisfied (1993: 64 percent).Frankfurt consistently has the highest levels of crime per 100,000 inhabitants in Germany (15.976 crimes per annum in 2008) and is therefore dubbed the German \"crime capital\".", "However, this statistic is often criticized because it ignores major factors: It is calculated based on the administrative 680,000-inhabitant figure while the urban area has 2.5 M inhabitants and on weekdays adds another million people (not counting the 53 million passengers passing through the airport each year).", "The rate for personal safety-relevant crimes such as murder, manslaughter, rape or bodily harm, is 3.4 percent, placing Frankfurt twelfth in the ranking (related to the official 680,000-inhabitant figure) or number 21 (related to the one-million-figure).", "In 2018, the state of Hesse, where Frankfurt is located, was ranked the third-safest state in Germany." ], [ "Transport", "===Airports=======Frankfurt Airport====Frankfurt Airport (with the fourth runway under construction in 2010) and the Frankfurter Kreuz (lower right corner)The city can be accessed from around the world via Frankfurt Airport (''Flughafen Frankfurt am Main'') located southwest of downtown.", "The airport has four runways and serves 265 nonstop destinations.", "Run by transport company Fraport it ranks among the world's busiest airports by passenger traffic and is the busiest airport by cargo traffic in Europe.", "The airport also serves as a hub for Condor and as the main hub for German flag carrier Lufthansa.", "It is the busiest airport in Europe in terms of cargo traffic, and the fourth busiest in Europe in terms of passenger traffic behind London Heathrow Airport, Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.", "Passenger traffic at Frankfurt Airport in 2018 was 69,510,269 passengers.A third terminal is being constructed (planned to open in 2023).", "The third terminal will increase the capacity of the airport to over 90 million passengers per year.The airport can be reached by car or bus and has two railway stations, one for regional and one for long-distance traffic.", "The S-Bahn lines S8 and S9 (direction ''Offenbach Ost'' or ''Hanau Hbf'') departing at the regional station take 10–15 minutes from the airport to Frankfurt Central Station and onwards to Hauptwache station downtown), the IC and ICE trains departing at the long-distance station take 10 minutes to Frankfurt Central Station.====Frankfurt Hahn Airport====Despite the name, Frankfurt Hahn Airport (''Flughafen Frankfurt-Hahn'') is situated approximately from the city in Lautzenhausen (Rhineland-Palatinate).", "Hahn Airport is a major base for low-cost carrier Ryanair.", "This airport can only be reached by car or bus.", "An hourly bus service runs from Frankfurt Central Station, taking just over 2 hours.", "Passenger traffic at Hahn Airport in 2010 was 3.5 million.====Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport====Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport (''Flugplatz Frankfurt-Egelsbach'') is a busy general aviation airport located south-east of Frankfurt Airport, near Egelsbach.===Roads===Frankfurter KreuzFrankfurt is a traffic hub for the German motorway (''Autobahn'') system.", "The Frankfurter Kreuz is an Autobahn interchange close to the airport, where the Bundesautobahn 3 (A3), Cologne to Würzburg, and the Bundesautobahn 5 (A5), Basel to Hanover, meet.", "With approximately 320,000 cars passing through it every day, it is Europe's most heavily used interchange.", "The Bundesautobahn 66 (A66) connects Frankfurt with Wiesbaden in the west and Fulda in the east.", "The Bundesautobahn 661 (A661) is mainly a commuter motorway that starts in the south (Egelsbach), runs through the eastern part and ends in the north (Oberursel).", "The Bundesautobahn 648 (A648) is a very short motorway in the western part which primarily serves as a fast connection between the A 66 and the Frankfurt Trade Fair.", "The A5 in the west, the A3 in the south and the A661 in the northeast form a ring road around the inner city districts and define a Low-emission zone (''Umweltzone''; established in 2008), meaning that vehicles have to meet certain emission criteria to enter the zone.The streets of central Frankfurt are usually congested with cars during rush hour.", "Some areas, especially around the shopping streets Zeil, Goethestraße and Freßgass, are pedestrian-only streets.===Railway stations=======Frankfurt Central Station====Frankfurt Central StationS-Bahn at Central Station (underground)(''Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof'', often abbreviated as ''Frankfurt (Main) Hbf'' or ''F-Hbf'') is the largest railway station in Germany by railway traffic.", "By daily passenger volume, it ranks second together with Munich Central Station (350,000 each) after Hamburg Central Station (450,000).", "It is located between the Gallus, the Gutleutviertel and the Bahnhofsviertel district, not far away from the trade fair and the financial district.", "It serves as a major hub for long-distance trains (InterCity, ICE) and regional trains as well as for Frankfurt's public transport system.", "It is a stop for most of ICE high-speed lines, making it Germany's most important ICE station.", "ICE Trains to London via the Channel Tunnel were planned for 2013.All Rhine-Main S-Bahn lines, two U-Bahn lines (U4, U5), several tram and bus lines stop there.", "Regional and local trains are integrated in the Public transport system Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (RMV), the second-largest integrated public transport systems in the world, after Verkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg.====Frankfurt Airport stations====ICE 3 departing westward from Frankfurt Airport long-distance station underneath The SquaireFrankfurt Airport can be accessed by two railway stations: Frankfurt Airport long-distance station (''Frankfurt Flughafen Fernbahnhof'') is only for long-distance traffic and connects the airport to the main rail network, with most of the ICE services using the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line.", "The long-distance station is located outside the actual airport ground but has a connecting bridge for pedestrians to Terminal 1, concourse B. Frankfurt Airport regional station (''Frankfurt Flughafen Regionalbahnhof'') is for local S-Bahn trains (lines S8, S9) and regional trains.", "The regional station is located within Terminal 1, concourse B.====Frankfurt South station====Frankfurt's third long-distance station is Frankfurt South station (''Frankfurt Südbahnhof'', often abbreviated as ''Frankfurt (Main) Süd'' or ''F-Süd''), located in Sachsenhausen.", "It is an important destination for local trains and trams (lines 15, 16 and 18) and the terminal stop for four U-Bahn lines (U1, U2, U3, U8) as well as two S-Bahn lines (S5, S6).", "Two other S-Bahn lines (S3, S4) also serve the station.====Messe stations====The Frankfurt Trade Fair offers two railway stations: Messe station is for local S-Bahn trains (lines S3-S6) and is centrally located amid trade fair premises, while Festhalle/Messe station is served by U-Bahn line U4 and is located at the north-east corner of the premises.====Konstablerwache station and Hauptwache station====Two other major downtown railway stations are Konstablerwache and Hauptwache, located on each end of the Zeil.", "They are the main stations to change from east-to-west-bound S-Bahn trains to north-to-south-bound U-Bahn trains.", "Konstablerwache station is the second-busiest railway station regarding daily passenger volume (191,000) after the central station.", "The third-busiest railway station is Hauptwache station (181,000).====Frankfurt West Station====DBAG Class 423 approaching the elevated section of Frankfurt West stationThis Station, located in Bockenheim, is served by north-heading Long-Distance ICE trains, multiple regional trains, and four commuter S-Bahn lines (S3, S4, S5, S6).", "Additionally, it is an important terminal stop for three \"Metrobus\" lines (M32, M36, M73).===Coach stations===There are three stations for intercity bus services in Frankfurt: one at the south side of the Central Station, one at the Terminal 2 of the airport and another one at Stephanstraße.===Public transport===Public transport networkThe city has two rapid transit systems: the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn, as well as an above-ground tram system.", "Information about the U- and S-Bahn can be found on the website of the RMV.====S-Bahn====Nine S-Bahn lines (S1 to S9) connect Frankfurt with the densely populated Rhine Main Region.", "Most routes have at least 15-minute service during the day, either by one line running every 15 minutes, or by two lines servicing one route at a 30-minute interval.", "All lines, except line S7, run through the Frankfurt city tunnel and serve the stations Ostendstraße, Konstablerwache, Hauptwache, Taunusanlage and Frankfurt Central Station.", "When leaving the city the S-Bahn travels above ground.", "It provides access to the trade fair (S3, S4, S5, S6), the airport (S8, S9), the stadium (S7, S8, S9) and nearby cities such as Wiesbaden, Mainz, Darmstadt, Rüsselsheim, Hanau, Offenbach am Main, Oberursel, Bad Homburg, Kronberg, Friedberg and smaller towns that are on the way.The S8/S9 runs 24/7.====U-Bahn====Underground line ''U7'' running as a ''Stadtbahn'' amidst Ludwig-Landmann-Straße in Frankfurt-RödelheimThe U-Bahn has nine lines (U1 to U9) serving Frankfurt and the larger suburbs of Bad Homburg and Oberursel in the north.", "The trains that run on the U-Bahn are in fact light rail (''Stadtbahn'') as many lines travel along a track in the middle of the street instead of underground.", "The minimum service interval is 2.5 minutes, although the usual pattern is that each line runs at 7.5- to 10-minute intervals, which produce between 3- and 5-minute intervals on downtown tracks shared by more than one line.====Tram====Frankfurt has ten tram lines (11, 12, 14 to 21), with trams arriving usually every 10 minutes.", "Many sections are served by two lines, combining to run at 5-minute intervals during rush-hour.", "Trams only run above ground and serve more stops than the U-Bahn or the S-Bahn.====Bus====A number of bus lines complete the Frankfurt public transport system.", "Night buses replace U-Bahn and tram services between 1:30 am and 3:30 am.", "The central junction for the night bus service is at the downtown square of Konstablerwache, where all night bus lines start and end.===Taxis===Taxicabs can usually be found outside the major S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations, at the central station, the south station, the airport, the trade fair and in the crowded inner-city shopping streets.", "The common way to obtain a taxi is to either call a taxi operator or to go to a taxi rank.", "However, although not the norm, one can hail a passing taxi on the street.Uber ceased operations in Frankfurt on 9 November 2015 after operating in the city for 18 months.", "However, UberX and local cabs are available through the Uber app.===Bicycles===Velotaxi at the ZeilDeutsche Bahn makes bicycles available for hire through their Call a Bike service.", "The bicycles are stationed all over the city, including at selected railway stations.", "They can easily be spotted because of their eye-catching silver-red color.", "To rent a specific bike, riders either call a service number to get an unlock code or reserve the bike via the smartphone application.", "To return the bike, the rider locks it within a designated return area (and calls the service number, if not booked via the app).Nextbike also makes bicycles available for hire in Frankfurt.", "They are stationed all over the city.", "These can be spotted with their blue color scheme.Cycle rickshaws (velotaxis), a type of tricycle designed to carry passengers in addition to the driver, are also available.", "These are allowed to operate in pedestrian-only areas and are therefore practical for sightseeing.Frankfurt has a network of cycle routes.", "Many long-distance bike routes into the city have cycle tracks that are separate from motor vehicle traffic.", "A number of downtown roads are \"bicycle streets\" where the cyclist has the right of way and where motorized vehicles are only allowed access if they do not disrupt the cycle users.", "In addition, cyclists are allowed to ride many cramped one-way streets in both directions.", ", 15 percent of citizens used bicycles.===E-Scooters===Since 15 June 2019, the use of e-scooters was officially permitted by the German federal government.", "In Frankfurt, companies like Lime, TIER, Bird, voi., Dott or Bolt are offering their electric micro mobility vehicles for lease.", "However, their use is being regarded with increasing weariness due to frequent abuse (parking, speeding, vandalism, accidents) and has sparked a public debate about the need of further regulation of the e-scooter market." ], [ "Public institutions", "Westhafen Tower, home to the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA)===European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority===The European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA) is an institution of the EU and part of the European System of Financial Supervisors that was created in response to the financial crisis of 2007–2008.It was established on 1 January 2011.===Federal Financial Supervisory Authority===Frankfurt is one of two locations of the German Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (''Bundesanstalt für Finanzdienstleistungsaufsicht'', short: ''BaFin'').", "The BaFin is an independent federal institution and acts as Germany's financial regulatory authority.===International Finance Corporation===Frankfurt is home to the German office of the International Finance Corporation (IFC), which is part of the World Bank Group.", "The IFC promotes sustainable private sector investment in developing countries.===German National Library===Frankfurt is one of two sites of the German National Library (''Deutsche Nationalbibliothek''), the other being Leipzig.", "The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek is the largest universal library in Germany.", "Its task, unique in Germany, is to collect, permanently archive, comprehensively document and record bibliographically all German and German-language publications from 1913 on, foreign publications about Germany, translations of German works and the works of German-speaking emigrants published abroad between 1933 and 1945, and to make them available to the public.===Consulates===Greek consulateAs a profoundly international city, Frankfurt hosts 92 diplomatic missions (consulates and consulates-general).", "Worldwide, only New York City and Hamburg are non-capital cities with more foreign representation.", "The Consulate General of the United States in Eckenheim is the largest American consulate in the world.===Courts===Several courts are located in Frankfurt, including:'''Hessisches Landesarbeitsgericht''' (Hessian State Employment Court)'''Oberlandesgericht Frankfurt''' (Higher Regional Court Frankfurt)'''Landgericht Frankfurt''' (Regional Court Frankfurt)'''Amtsgericht Frankfurt''' (Local Court Frankfurt)'''Sozialgericht Frankfurt''' (Social Court Frankfurt)'''Arbeitsgericht Frankfurt''' (Employment Court Frankfurt)'''Verwaltungsgericht Frankfurt''' (Administration Court Frankfurt)" ], [ "Education and research", "===Universities and schools===Frankfurt hosts two universities and several specialist schools.", "The two business schools are Goethe University Frankfurt's Goethe Business School and Frankfurt School of Finance & Management.====Johann Wolfgang Goethe University====Johann Wolfgang Goethe UniversityThe oldest and best-known university is the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, with locations in Bockenheim, Westend, and Riedberg, and the university hospital in Niederrad.", "Goethe Business School is part of the university's House of Finance at Campus Westend.", "The Business School's Full-Time MBA program has over 70% international students.====Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences====The Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences was created out of several older organisations in 1971, and offers over 38 study areas, in the arts, sciences, engineering and law.", "Some of the most important research projects: Planet Earth Simulator, FraLine-IT-School-Service, quantitative analysis of methane in human corpses with the help of a mass spectrometer, software engineering (e.g., fraDesk), analysis of qualitative and quantitative gas in human lungs, long-term studies on photovoltaic modules (to name only a few).====Frankfurt School of Finance and Management====The city is also home to a business school, Frankfurt School of Finance & Management, formerly known as the '''' (Institution of Higher Learning for Banking Economics), with its new campus near Deutsche Nationalbibliothek U-Bahn stop (recently moving from its previous location in the Ostend (Eastend) neighborhood).", "In 2001, it became a specialist institution for Economics and Management, or FOM.", "Frankfurt School is consistently ranked among the best business schools in the world, attributed to its high research output and quality of undergraduate and graduate training.====Städelschule====Frankfurt has the State Institution of Higher Learning for Artistic Education known as the Städelschule, founded in 1817 by Johann Friedrich Städel.", "It was taken over by the city in 1942 and turned into a state art school.====Music schools and conservatory====Music institutions are the Frankfurt University of Music and Performing Arts, and the Hoch Conservatory (Dr. Hoch's Konservatorium) which was founded in 1878.The International Ensemble Modern Academy is a significant institution for the study of contemporary music.====Other notable schools====The Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology (German:''Philosophisch-Theologische Hochschule Sankt Georgen''), a private institution with membership in the German Jesuit Association, has been located in Sachsenhausen since 1950.====Education and media====Frankfurt schools rank among the best-equipped schools nationwide for the availability of PCs and other media facilities.", "In order to assure maintenance and support of the school PCs, the city in cooperation with the University of Applied Sciences launched the project Fraline – IT-Schul-Service, an initiative employing students to provide basic school IT-support.===Research institutes===Max Planck Institute for Brain ResearchThe city is home to three Max Planck Society institutes: the Max Planck Institute for European History of Law (MPIeR), Max Planck Institute for Biophysics, and the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research.The Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, sponsored by several institutional and private sources, is involved in theoretical research in physics, chemistry, neuroscience, and computer science.Frankfurt is host to the ''Römisch-Germanische-Kommission'' (RGK), the German Archaeological Institute branch for prehistoric archeology in Germany and Europe.", "The RGK is involved in a variety of research projects.", "Its library, with over 130,000 volumes, is one of the largest archeological libraries in the world.Goethe University and Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences are involved in the Hessian Center for Artificial Intelligence (\"hessian.AI\")." ], [ "Trade unions and associations", "Main Forum, home to IG MetallFrankfurt is home to multiple trade unions and associations, including:IG Metall, Germany's largest metalworkers trade union, based at the Main Forum high-rise building in the Gutleutviertel district IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt, a union for construction and engineering workers, Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft, a union for teachersGewerkschaft Deutscher Lokomotivführer, a union for train driversTrade associations include:Verband der Elektrotechnik, Elektronik und Informationstechnik (Electrotechnical, Electronic and Information Technology Association)DECHEMA Gesellschaft für Chemische Technik und Biotechnologie (Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology Association)Börsenverein des Deutschen Buchhandels, which organizes the Frankfurt Book FairBundesverband des Deutschen Versandhandels (German Mail Order Industry Association)Verband der Chemischen Industrie (Chemical Industry Association)Verband der Photoindustrie (Photography Industry Association)Verband Deutscher Maschinen- und Anlagenbau (German Machine and Equipment Building Association)Verband der Köche Deutschlands (German Cooks Association)" ], [ "Media", "===Newspapers===Editorial department building of ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung''Two important daily newspapers are published.", "The conservative ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'', also known as ''FAZ'', was founded in 1949 and is the German newspaper with the widest circulation outside of Germany, with its editors claiming to deliver the newspaper to 148 countries every day.", "The FAZ has a circulation of over 380,000 copies daily.", "The other important newspaper, the ''Frankfurter Rundschau'', was first published in 1945 and has a daily circulation of over 181,000.===Magazines===Several magazines also originate from Frankfurt.", "The local ''Journal Frankfurt'' is the best-known magazine for events, parties, and \"insider tips\".", "''Öko-Test'' is a consumer-oriented magazine that focuses on ecological topics.", "''Titanic'' is a well-known and often criticized satirical magazine with a circulation of approximately 100,000.===Radio and TV===Frankfurt's first radio station was the Südwestdeutsche Rundfunkdienst AG (Southwest German Broadcast Service), founded in 1924.Its successor service is the public broadcaster Hessischer Rundfunk (Hessian Broadcast Service).", "It is located at the \"Funkhaus am Dornbusch\" in the Dornbusch district and is one of the most important radio and television broadcasters in Hesse, with additional studios in Kassel, Darmstadt and Fulda.Bloomberg TV and RTL Television have regional studios.Other radio broadcasters include Main FM and Radio X.From August 1945 to October 2004, the American Forces Network (AFN) had broadcast from Frankfurt (AFN Frankfurt).", "Due to troop reductions the AFN's location has been closed with AFN now broadcasting from Mannheim.===News agency===Frankfurt is home to the German office of Reuters, a global news agency.", "Associated Press and US-based international news agency Feature Story News have bureaux in Frankfurt." ], [ "Sports", "Waldstadion ( known as the ''Deutsche Bank Park''), home of the soccer club Eintracht FrankfurtFrankfurt is home to several professional sports teams.", "Some of them have won German Championships.", "E.g.", "the Skyliners Frankfurt won the German Basketball Championship in 2004 and the German Cup in 2000.Women's side 1.FFC Frankfurt (merged with Eintracht Frankfurt in 2020) are Germany's record title-holders; Eintracht Frankfurt are one-time German champions, five-times winners of the DFB-Pokal, and winners of the UEFA Cup in 1980 and the Europa League in 2022.Frankfurt hosts the following sports teams or clubs:Skyliners Frankfurt, BasketballFrankfurt Galaxy, footballFrankfurt Universe, footballFrankfurt Pirates, footballFrankfurt Sarsfields GAA, Gaelic footballFrankfurt Lions (until 2010), Ice hockeyLöwen Frankfurt (since 2010), Ice hockeySC 1880 Frankfurt, Rugby unionEintracht Frankfurt, soccer (women)Eintracht Frankfurt, soccer (men)FSV Frankfurt, soccer (men)Rot-Weiss Frankfurt, soccerFrankfurter FC Germania 1894, soccerFrankfurt is host to the classic cycle race Eschborn-Frankfurt City Loop (known as ''Rund um den Henninger-Turm'' from 1961 to 2008).", "The city hosts also the annual Frankfurt Marathon and the Ironman Germany.", "In addition to the former, it is one of 13 global host locations to the J.P. Morgan Corporate Challenge , Germany's biggest corporate sports event.", "Rhein-Main Eissport Club forms the base of the German bandy community." ], [ "Sights in the Frankfurt Rhein-Main area", "Wiesbaden Kurhaus with the CasinoRoman Empire army camp SaalburgThe real Frankenstein CastleWaldspiraleBesides the tourist attractions in central Frankfurt many internationally famous sites are within 80 km (50 mi) of the city, such as:=== North ===Taunus mountain rangeRoman Empire Army Camp SaalburgLimes (former northern border of the Roman Empire)Bad Homburg vor der Höhe with its famous casinoBad Nauheim Elvis Presley memorialHessenpark=== West ===Wiesbaden with its Kurhaus, State Theater, Neroberg and CasinoRüdesheimRheingauEberbach Monastery (the original movie set of the film ''The Name of the Rose'')Rhine ValleyRiver RhineRheinhessen wine region=== East ===Leather Museum OffenbachHanau Grimm Brothers Summer FestivalGerman Fairy Tale RouteSpessart=== South ===Darmstadt with the Art Nouveau MathildenhöheWaldspiraleThe former private chapel of the last Tsar of RussiaVortex GardenOdenwaldBergstrasseVineyards at HeppenheimFrankenstein CastleHeidelberg" ], [ "See also", "Frankfurt SchoolList of people from FrankfurtMayor of Frankfurt-am-MainList of cities in Hesse by populationList of cities in Germany by population" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "; Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "; HistoryKramer, Waldemar (Hrsg.", "): ''Frankfurt Chronik''.", "Verlag Waldemar Kramer, Frankfurt am Main 1987 (3.Auflage), .", "Lothar Gall (Hrsg.", "): ''FFM 1200.Traditionen und Perspektiven einer Stadt''.", "Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Sigmaringen 1994, (Katalog zur 1200-Jahrfeier 1994 mit wiss.", "Aufsätzen).", "Mack, Ernst: ''Von der Steinzeit zur Stauferstadt.", "Die frühe Geschichte von Frankfurt am Main''.", "Verlag Josef Knecht, Frankfurt am Main 1994, .", "; ArchitectureSchohmann, Heinz: ''Frankfurt am Main und Umgebung.", "Von der Pfalzsiedlung zum Bankenzentrum''.", "Dumont Kunstreiseführer.", "Dumont, Köln 2003, .", "(mit Schwerpunkt Architektur).", "Bodenbach, Christoph (Hrsg.", "): ''Neue Architektur in Frankfurt am Main''.", "Junius Verlag, Hamburg 2008, .", "Sturm, Philipp, Schmal, Peter Cachola: ''Hochhausstadt Frankfurt.", "Bauten und Visionen seit 1945''.", "Prestel, München 2014, .", "; OthersSetzepfandt, Christian: ''Geheimnisvolles Frankfurt am Main''.", "Wartberg, Gudensberg-Gleichen 2003, .", "Mosebach, Martin: ''Mein Frankfurt''.", "Mit Photographien von Barbara Klemm.", "Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2002, .", "(Insel-Taschenbuch.", "Bd 2871)" ], [ "External links", "* Official website.", "(in German).", "* SKYLINE ATLAS – information portal about the Frankfurt skyline having more than 500 pages* Frankfurt prepares for Brexit bankers: 'Maybe our city will change them'* Architecture of Frankfurt* Frankfurt Zoo * Frankfurt before and after World War II Frankfurt panoramas: 360°city panoramas; Panorama Frankfurt; frankfurt360.de; panorama-frankfurt.de Tourismus+Congress GmbH Frankfurt am Main Cultural portal of the city of Frankfurt am Main** Geschichte der Juden in Frankfurt a. M. (1150–1824) (in German) by Isidor Kracauer, 2 volumes, free download" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Albert, King of Saxony" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Albert''' (23 April 1828 – 19 June 1902) was King of Saxony from 29 October 1873 until his death in 1902.He was the eldest son of Prince John (who succeeded his brother Frederick Augustus II on the Saxon throne as King John in 1854) by his wife Amalie Auguste of Bavaria.Albert had a successful military career, leading Saxon troops that participated in the First Schleswig War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War." ], [ "Early life", "Albert's education, as usual with German princes, concentrated to a great extent on military matters, but he attended lectures at the University of Bonn.", "His first experience of warfare came in 1849, when he served as a captain in the First War of Schleswig against Denmark.When the Austro-Prussian War broke out in 1866, Albert, then Crown Prince (German: ''Kronprinz''), took up the command of the Saxon forces opposing the Prussian Army of Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia.", "No attempt was made to defend Saxony, and the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected a junction with the Austrians.", "They took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Jizera and in the Battle of Jičín.", "The Crown Prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive Battle of Königgrätz (3 July 1866), he held the extreme left of the Austrian position.", "The Saxons maintained their post with great tenacity but were involved in the disastrous defeat of their allies.During the operations, the Crown Prince won the reputation of a thorough soldier.", "After peace was made and Saxony had entered the North German Confederation, he gained the command of the Saxon army, which had now become the XII army corps of the North German army, and in that position, he carried out the necessary reorganisation.", "He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance.", "On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, his old opponent.", "At the Battle of Gravelotte, they formed the extreme left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the battle.In the reorganisation of the army which accompanied the march towards Paris, the Crown Prince gained a separate command over the 4th army (Army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons, the Prussian Guard corps, and the IV (Prussian Saxony) corps.", "He was succeeded in command of the XII corps by his brother Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia.Albert took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle of Sedan, the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army wheeled round in pursuit of MacMahon; and the actions of Buzancy and Beaumont on 29 and 30 August 1870 were fought under his direction.", "In the Battle of Sedan itself (1 September 1870), with the troops under his orders, Albert carried out the envelopment of the French on the east and the north.Albert's conduct in the engagements won for him the complete confidence of the army, and during the Siege of Paris, his troops formed the north-east section of the investing force.", "During the siege, he blocked French attempts to break out of the encirclement at Le Bourget and Villiers.", "After the conclusion of the Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), he was left in command of the German army of occupation, a position which he held till the fall of the Paris Commune.", "On the conclusion of peace, he was made an inspector-general of the army and a field marshal." ], [ "King", "Albert of Saxony in 1878 by Alfred DietheOn the death of his father, King John on 29 October 1873, the Crown Prince succeeded to the throne as King Albert.", "His reign proved uneventful, and he took little public part in politics, devoting himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but also to the German army in general.", "During his reign, the Saxon monarchy became constitutional.In the 1870s, Albert initiated the construction of a Dresden suburb, the Albertstadt.", "It was then the largest garrison in Germany.", "Near the former suburb other buildings and places still bear his name: the Albertbrücke, the Alberthafen, the Albertplatz and the Albertinum.In 1879, he initiated the reconstruction of the Saint Afra School in Meissen.", "In 1897, he was appointed arbitrator between the claimants for the Principality of Lippe." ], [ "Marriage and succession", "In Dresden on 18 June 1853, Albert married Princess Carola, daughter of Gustav, Prince of Vasa and granddaughter of Gustav IV Adolf, the second to last king of Sweden of the House of Holstein-Gottorp.", "The marriage was childless although Carola miscarried many times.", "They included:* A miscarriage of a daughter in the 4th month of pregnancy (19 December 1853).", "* A miscarriage of a daughter in the 6th month of pregnancy (16 August 1854).", "* A miscarriage in the 1st month of pregnancy (22 January 1855).", "* A miscarriage of a son in the 4th and a half month of pregnancy (17 January 1856).", "* A miscarriage in the 1st month of pregnancy (4 December 1856).", "* A miscarriage in the 1st month of pregnancy (30 January 1857).", "* A miscarriage in the 1st month of pregnancy (30 March 1857).", "* A miscarriage of a son in the 5th and a half month of pregnancy (11 January 1858).", "* A miscarriage of a son in the 4th and a half month of pregnancy (20 March 1859).", "* A miscarriage in the 1st month of pregnancy (30 March 1860).Albert died at Sibyllenort on 19 June 1902 and was succeeded by his brother, who became King George.", "He was buried in Dresden on 23 June, among the mourners present were both the German Emperor Wilhelm II and the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I." ], [ "Honours, decorations and awards", "The King of Saxony bird-of-paradise was named in Albert's honour; the Queen Carola's parotia was named for his wife.===German honours======Foreign honours===" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References", "* Konrad Sturmhoefel: ''König Albert von Sachsen.", "Ein Lebensbild.''", "Voigtländer, Leipzig 1898.", "* Georg von Schimpff: ''König Albert: Fünfzig Jahre Soldat''.", "Baensch, Dresden 1893.", "* Joseph Kürschner (Hrsg.", "): ''König Albert und Sachsenland : eine Festschrift zum 70.Geburtstage und 25jährigen Regierungsjubiläum des Monarchen''.", "Schwarz, Berlin 1898.", "* ''Dem Gedächtnis König Alberts von Sachsen'', Dresden: v. Zahn & Jaensch, 1902 * Ernst von Körner: ''König Albert von Sachsen: der Soldat und Feldherr''.", "Oestergaard, \t Berlin-Schöneberg 1936.", "* Bernd Rüdiger: ''Wahre Geschichten um König Albert'', Taucha: Tauchaer Verl., 1994 ** Albert Herzog zu Sachsen: ''Die Wettiner in Lebensbildern''.", "Styria-Verlag, Graz/Wien/Köln 1995, .", "* Thomas Eugen Scheerer (Hrsg.", "): ''Albert von Sachsen – Kronprinz, Soldat, König''.", "Militärhistorisches Museum der Bundeswehr, Dresden 2002.", "* Arbeitskreis sächsische Militärgeschichte (Hrsg.", "): ''Sibyllenort und König Albert von Sachsen: Sonderheft zum 100.Todestag von König Albert''.", "Arbeitskreis Sächsische Militärgeschichte, Dresden 2003." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "François d'Aguilon" ], [ "Introduction", "''Opticorum libri sex'', 1613'''François d'Aguilon''' (also d'Aguillon or in Latin '''Franciscus Aguilonius''') (4 January 1567 – 20 March 1617) was a Jesuit, mathematician, physicist, and architect from the Spanish Netherlands.D'Aguilon was born in Brussels; his father was a secretary to Philip II of Spain.", "He became a Jesuit in Tournai in 1586.In 1598 he moved to Antwerp, where he helped plan the construction of the Saint Carolus Borromeus church.", "In 1611, he started a special school of mathematics in Antwerp, fulfilling a dream of Christopher Clavius for a Jesuit mathematical school; in 1616, he was joined there by Grégoire de Saint-Vincent.", "The notable geometers educated at this school included Jean-Charles della Faille, André Tacquet, and Theodorus Moretus.Illustration by Rubens for ''Opticorum Libri Sex'' demonstrating how the projection is computed.His book, ''Opticorum Libri Sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles,'' or ''Six Books of Optics,'' is useful for philosophers and mathematicians.", "It was published by Balthasar I Moretus in Antwerp in 1613 and illustrated by the famous painter Peter Paul Rubens.", "It included one of the first studies of binocular vision.", "It also gave the names we now use to stereographic projection and orthographic projection, although the projections themselves were likely known to Hipparchus.", "This book inspired the works of Desargues and Christiaan Huygens.He died in Antwerp, aged 50." ], [ "Six Books of Optics", "Francois d'Aguilon's ''Six Books of Optics'' concerns geometrical optics, which at the time in the Jesuit school was a subcategory of geometry.", "He taught logic, syntax, and theology while being charged with organizing the teaching of geometry and science which would be useful for geography, navigation, architecture and the military arts in Belgium.", "His superiors wanted him to synthesize the work of Euclid, Alhazen, Vitello, Roger Bacon and others.", "Although he died before completing the book, it still consists of six in-depth books, called ''Opticorum Libri Sex.", "''=== Perception and the horopter ===D'Aguilon extensively studied stereographic projection, which he wanted to use a means to aid architects, cosmographers, navigators and artists.", "For centuries, artists and architects had sought formal laws of projection to place objects on a screen.", "Aguilon's ''Opticorum libri sex'' successfully treated projections and the errors in perception.", "D'Aguillon adopted Alhazen's theory that only light rays orthogonal to the cornea and lens surface are clearly registered.", "Aguilon was the first to use the term horopter, which is the line drawn through the focal point of both eyes and parallel to the line between the eyes.", "In other words, it describes how only objects on the horopter are seen in their true location.", "He then built an instrument to measure the spacing of double images in the horopter as he saw fit.D'Aguilon expanded on the horopter by saying in his book: At first glance, it seems that Aguillon discovered the geometrical horopter more than 200 years before Prevost and Vieth and Muller.", "The horopter was then used by architect Girard Desargues, who in 1639 published a remarkable treatise on the conic sections, emphasizing the idea of projection.=== Similarity to other theorists ===In Aguilon's book there are elements of perspectivities as well as the stereographic projections of Ptolemy and Hipparchus.", "Unaware that Johannes Kepler had already published optical theories years before him, Aguilon decided to share his insights on geometric optics.", "At the age of 20, the Dutch poet Constantijn Huygens read Aguilon's and was enthralled by it.", "He later said that it was the best book he had ever read in geometrical optics, and he thought that Aguilon should be compared to Plato, Eudoxus and Archimedes.", "In fact the title of Constantijn Huygens' first publication imitated Aguilon's title (omitting letters p and c): Otiorum Libri Sex (1625).=== Accompanying art ===In Aguilon's book the beginning of each section had works of the Flemish Baroque painter, Peter Paul Rubens.", "The frontispiece at the beginning of the book shows an eagle, referring to Aguilon's name and a variety of optical and geometrical images.", "On either side of the title stands Mercury holding the head of Argus with a hundred eyes, and Minerva holding a shield reflecting the head of Medusa.", "Then, at the beginning of each of six sections are Rubens' drawings describing Aguilon's experiments, one of which is the first known picture of a photometer This is one of six experiments drawn by Rubens and shows how intensity of light varies with the square of distance from the source.", "The experiment was later taken up by Mersenne and another Jesuit, Claude de Chales, and eventually led to Bouguer's more famous photometer.", "It is evident, from the detail that he put into his drawings, how enthused Rubens was about the subject matter, perspective geometry and optical rules." ], [ "See also", "List of Catholic clergy scientists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* François De Aguilon, S.J.", "(1546 to 1617) And his Six books on Optics, Joseph MacDonnell, S.J., Fairfield University* BEIC digital library: François d'Aguilon, ''Opticorum libri'', Antwerpen, Jan Moretus widow & sons, 1613." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Freenet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hyphanet''' (until mid-2023: '''Freenet''') is a peer-to-peer platform for censorship-resistant, anonymous communication.", "It uses a decentralized distributed data store to keep and deliver information, and has a suite of free software for publishing and communicating on the Web without fear of censorship.", "Both Freenet and some of its associated tools were originally designed by Ian Clarke, who defined Freenet's goal as providing freedom of speech on the Internet with strong anonymity protection.The distributed data store of Freenet is used by many third-party programs and plugins to provide microblogging and media sharing, anonymous and decentralised version tracking, blogging, a generic web of trust for decentralized spam resistance, Shoeshop for using Freenet over sneakernet, and many more." ], [ "History", "The origin of Freenet can be traced to Ian Clarke's student project at the University of Edinburgh, which he completed as a graduation requirement in the summer of 1999.Ian Clarke's resulting unpublished report \"A distributed decentralized information storage and retrieval system\" (1999) provided foundation for the seminal paper written in collaboration with other researchers, \"Freenet: A Distributed Anonymous Information Storage and Retrieval System\" (2001).", "According to CiteSeer, it became one of the most frequently cited computer science articles in 2002.Freenet can provide anonymity on the Internet by storing small encrypted snippets of content distributed on the computers of its users and connecting only through intermediate computers which pass on requests for content and sending them back without knowing the contents of the full file.", "This is similar to how routers on the Internet route packets without knowing anything about files —except Freenet has caching, a layer of strong encryption, and no reliance on centralized structures.", "This allows users to publish anonymously or retrieve various kinds of information.The Freenet 0.7 darknet peers list.Freenet has been under continuous development since 2000.Freenet 0.7, released on 8 May 2008, is a major re-write incorporating a number of fundamental changes.", "The most fundamental change is support for darknet operation.", "Version 0.7 offered two modes of operation: a mode in which it connects only to friends, and an opennet-mode in which it connects to any other Freenet user.", "Both modes can be run simultaneously.", "When a user switches to pure darknet operation, Freenet becomes very difficult to detect from the outside.", "The transport layer created for the darknet mode allows communication over restricted routes as commonly found in mesh networks, as long as these connections follow a small-world structure.", "Other modifications include switching from TCP to UDP, which allows UDP hole punching along with faster transmission of messages between peers in the network.Freenet 0.7.5, released on 12 June 2009, offers a variety of improvements over 0.7.These include reduced memory usage, faster insert and retrieval of content, significant improvements to the FProxy web interface used for browsing freesites, and a large number of smaller bugfixes, performance enhancements, and usability improvements.", "Version 0.7.5 also shipped with a new version of the Windows installer.As of build 1226, released on 30 July 2009, features that have been written include significant security improvements against both attackers acting on the network and physical seizure of the computer running the node.As of build 1468, released on 11 July 2015, the Freenet core stopped using the db4o database and laid the foundation for an efficient interface to the Web of Trust plugin which provides spam resistance.Freenet has always been free software, but until 2011 it required users to install Java.", "This problem was solved by making Freenet compatible with OpenJDK, a free and open source implementation of the Java Platform.On 11 February 2015, Freenet received the SUMA-Award for \"protection against total surveillance\"." ], [ "Features and user interface", "Freenet served as the model for the Japanese peer to peer file-sharing programs Winny, Share and Perfect Dark, but this model differs from p2p networks such as Bittorrent and emule.", "Freenet separates the underlying network structure and protocol from how users interact with the network; as a result, there are a variety of ways to access content on the Freenet network.", "The simplest is via FProxy, which is integrated with the node software and provides a web interface to content on the network.", "Using FProxy, a user can browse freesites (websites that use normal HTML and related tools, but whose content is stored within Freenet rather than on a traditional web server).", "The web interface is also used for most configuration and node management tasks.", "Through the use of separate applications or plugins loaded into the node software, users can interact with the network in other ways, such as forums similar to web forums or Usenet or interfaces more similar to traditional P2P \"filesharing\" interfaces.While Freenet provides an HTTP interface for browsing freesites, it is not a proxy for the World Wide Web; Freenet can be used to access only the content that has been previously inserted into the Freenet network.", "In this way, it is more similar to Tor's onion services than to anonymous proxy software like Tor's proxy.Freenet's focus lies on free speech and anonymity.", "Because of that, Freenet acts differently at certain points that are (directly or indirectly) related to the anonymity part.", "Freenet attempts to protect the anonymity of both people inserting data into the network (uploading) and those retrieving data from the network (downloading).", "Unlike file sharing systems, there is no need for the uploader to remain on the network after uploading a file or group of files.", "Instead, during the upload process, the files are broken into chunks and stored on a variety of other computers on the network.", "When downloading, those chunks are found and reassembled.", "Every node on the Freenet network contributes storage space to hold files and bandwidth that it uses to route requests from its peers.As a direct result of the anonymity requirements, the node requesting content does not normally connect directly to the node that has it; instead, the request is routed across several intermediaries, none of which know which node made the request or which one had it.", "As a result, the total bandwidth required by the network to transfer a file is higher than in other systems, which can result in slower transfers, especially for infrequently accessed content.Since version 0.7, Freenet offers two different levels of security: opennet and darknet.", "With opennet, users connect to arbitrary other users.", "With darknet, users connect only to \"friends\" with whom they previously exchanged public keys, named node-references.", "Both modes can be used together." ], [ "Content", "Freenet's founders argue that true freedom of speech comes only with true anonymity and that the beneficial uses of Freenet outweigh its negative uses.", "Their view is that free speech, in itself, is not in contradiction with any other consideration—the information is not the crime.", "Freenet attempts to remove the possibility of any group imposing its beliefs or values on any data.", "Although many states censor communications to different extents, they all share one commonality in that a body must decide what information to censor and what information to allow.", "What may be acceptable to one group of people may be considered offensive or even dangerous to another.", "In essence, the purpose of Freenet is to ensure that no one is allowed to decide what is acceptable.Reports of Freenet's use in authoritarian nations is difficult to track due to the very nature of Freenet's goals.", "One group, ''Freenet China'', used to introduce the Freenet software to Chinese users starting from 2001 and distribute it within China through e-mails and on disks after the group's website was blocked by the Chinese authorities on the mainland.", "It was reported that in 2002 ''Freenet China'' had several thousand dedicated users.", "However, Freenet opennet traffic was blocked in China around the 2010s." ], [ "Technical design", "The Freenet file sharing network stores documents and allows them to be retrieved later by an associated key, as is now possible with protocols such as HTTP.", "The network is designed to be highly survivable.", "The system has no central servers and is not subject to the control of any one individual or organization, including the designers of Freenet.", "The codebase size is over 192.000 lines of code.", "Information stored on Freenet is distributed around the network and stored on several different nodes.", "Encryption of data and relaying of requests makes it difficult to determine who inserted content into Freenet, who requested that content, or where the content was stored.", "This protects the anonymity of participants, and also makes it very difficult to censor specific content.", "Content is stored encrypted, making it difficult for even the operator of a node to determine what is stored on that node.", "This provides plausible deniability; which, in combination with request relaying, means that safe harbor laws that protect service providers may also protect Freenet node operators.", "When asked about the topic, Freenet developers defer to the EFF discussion which says that not being able to filter anything is a safe choice.===Distributed storage and caching of data===Like Winny, Share and Perfect Dark, Freenet not only transmits data between nodes but actually stores them, working as a huge distributed cache.", "To achieve this, each node allocates some amount of disk space to store data; this is configurable by the node operator, but is typically several GB (or more).Files on Freenet are typically split into multiple small blocks, with duplicate blocks created to provide redundancy.", "Each block is handled independently, meaning that a single file may have parts stored on many different nodes.Information flow in Freenet is different from networks like eMule or BitTorrent; in Freenet:# A user wishing to share a file or update a freesite \"inserts\" the file \"to the network\"# After \"insertion\" is finished, the publishing node is free to shut down, because the file is stored in the network.", "It will remain available for other users whether or not the original publishing node is online.", "No single node is responsible for the content; instead, it is replicated to many different nodes.Two advantages of this design are high reliability and anonymity.", "Information remains available even if the publisher node goes offline, and is anonymously spread over many hosting nodes as encrypted blocks, not entire files.The key disadvantage of the storage method is that no one node is responsible for any chunk of data.", "If a piece of data is not retrieved for some time and a node keeps getting new data, it will drop the old data sometime when its allocated disk space is fully used.", "In this way Freenet tends to 'forget' data which is not retrieved regularly (see also Effect).While users can insert data into the network, there is no way to delete data.", "Due to Freenet's anonymous nature the original publishing node or owner of any piece of data is unknown.", "The only way data can be removed is if users don't request it.===Network===Typically, a host computer on the network runs the software that acts as a node, and it connects to other hosts running that same software to form a large distributed, variable-size network of peer nodes.", "Some nodes are end user nodes, from which documents are requested and presented to human users.", "Other nodes serve only to route data.", "All nodes communicate with each other identically – there are no dedicated \"clients\" or \"servers\".", "It is not possible for a node to rate another node except by its capacity to insert and fetch data associated with a key.", "This is unlike most other P2P networks where node administrators can employ a ratio system, where users have to share a certain amount of content before they can download.Freenet may also be considered a small world network.The Freenet protocol is intended to be used on a network of complex topology, such as the Internet (Internet Protocol).", "Each node knows only about some number of other nodes that it can reach directly (its conceptual \"neighbors\"), but any node can be a neighbor to any other; no hierarchy or other structure is intended.", "Each message is routed through the network by passing from neighbor to neighbor until it reaches its destination.", "As each node passes a message to a neighbor, it does not know whether the neighbor will forward the message to another node, or is the final destination or original source of the message.", "This is intended to protect the anonymity of users and publishers.Each node maintains a data store containing documents associated with keys, and a routing table associating nodes with records of their performance in retrieving different keys.===Protocol===A typical request sequence.", "The request moves through the network from node to node, backing out of a dead-end (step 3) and a loop (step 7) before locating the desired file.The Freenet protocol uses a key-based routing protocol, similar to distributed hash tables.", "The routing algorithm changed significantly in version 0.7.Prior to version 0.7, Freenet used a heuristic routing algorithm where each node had no fixed location, and routing was based on which node had served a key closest to the key being fetched (in version 0.3) or which is estimated to serve it faster (in version 0.5).", "In either case, new connections were sometimes added to downstream nodes (i.e.", "the node that answered the request) when requests succeeded, and old nodes were discarded in least recently used order (or something close to it).", "Oskar Sandberg's research (during the development of version 0.7) shows that this \"path folding\" is critical, and that a very simple routing algorithm will suffice provided there is path folding.The disadvantage of this is that it is very easy for an attacker to find Freenet nodes, and connect to them, because every node is continually attempting to find new connections.", "In version 0.7, Freenet supports both \"opennet\" (similar to the old algorithms, but simpler), and \"darknet\" (all node connections are set up manually, so only your friends know your node's IP address).", "Darknet is less convenient, but much more secure against a distant attacker.This change required major changes in the routing algorithm.", "Every node has a location, which is a number between 0 and 1.When a key is requested, first the node checks the local data store.", "If it's not found, the key's hash is turned into another number in the same range, and the request is routed to the node whose location is closest to the key.", "This goes on until some number of hops is exceeded, there are no more nodes to search, or the data is found.", "If the data is found, it is cached on each node along the path.", "So there is no one source node for a key, and attempting to find where it is currently stored will result in it being cached more widely.", "Essentially the same process is used to insert a document into the network: the data is routed according to the key until it runs out of hops, and if no existing document is found with the same key, it is stored on each node.", "If older data is found, the older data is propagated and returned to the originator, and the insert \"collides\".But this works only if the locations are clustered in the right way.", "Freenet assumes that the darknet (a subset of the global social network) is a small-world network, and nodes constantly attempt to swap locations (using the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm) in order to minimize their distance to their neighbors.", "If the network actually is a small-world network, Freenet should find data reasonably quickly; ideally on the order of hops in Big O notation.", "However, it does not guarantee that data will be found at all.Eventually, either the document is found or the hop limit is exceeded.", "The terminal node sends a reply that makes its way back to the originator along the route specified by the intermediate nodes' records of pending requests.", "The intermediate nodes may choose to cache the document along the way.", "Besides saving bandwidth, this also makes documents harder to censor as there is no one \"source node\".===Effect===The effect of the node specialising on the particular location.Initially, the locations in darknet are distributed randomly.", "This means that routing of requests is essentially random.", "In opennet connections are established by a join request which provides an optimized network structure if the existing network is already optimized.", "So the data in a newly started Freenet will be distributed somewhat randomly.As location swapping (on darknet) and path folding (on opennet) progress, nodes which are close to one another will increasingly have close locations, and nodes which are far away will have distant locations.", "Data with similar keys will be stored on the same node.The result is that the network will self-organize into a distributed, clustered structure where nodes tend to hold data items that are close together in key space.", "There will probably be multiple such clusters throughout the network, any given document being replicated numerous times, depending on how much it is used.", "This is a kind of \"spontaneous symmetry breaking\", in which an initially symmetric state (all nodes being the same, with random initial keys for each other) leads to a highly asymmetric situation, with nodes coming to specialize in data that has closely related keys.There are forces which tend to cause clustering (shared closeness data spreads throughout the network), and forces that tend to break up clusters (local caching of commonly used data).", "These forces will be different depending on how often data is used, so that seldom-used data will tend to be on just a few nodes which specialize in providing that data, and frequently used items will be spread widely throughout the network.", "This automatic mirroring counteracts the times when web traffic becomes overloaded, and due to a mature network's intelligent routing, a network of size ''n'' should require only log(''n'') time to retrieve a document on average.===Keys===Keys are hashes: there is no notion of semantic closeness when speaking of key closeness.", "Therefore, there will be no correlation between key closeness and similar popularity of data as there might be if keys did exhibit some semantic meaning, thus avoiding bottlenecks caused by popular subjects.There are two main varieties of keys in use on Freenet, the Content Hash Key (CHK) and the Signed Subspace Key (SSK).", "A subtype of SSKs is the Updatable Subspace Key (USK) which adds versioning to allow secure updating of content.A CHK is a SHA-256 hash of a document (after encryption, which itself depends on the hash of the plaintext) and thus a node can check that the document returned is correct by hashing it and checking the digest against the key.", "This key contains the meat of the data on Freenet.", "It carries all the binary data building blocks for the content to be delivered to the client for reassembly and decryption.", "The CHK is unique by nature and provides tamperproof content.", "A hostile node altering the data under a CHK will immediately be detected by the next node or the client.", "CHKs also reduce the redundancy of data since the same data will have the same CHK and when multiple sites reference the same large files, they can reference to the same CHK.SSKs are based on public-key cryptography.", "Currently Freenet uses the DSA algorithm.", "Documents inserted under SSKs are signed by the inserter, and this signature can be verified by every node to ensure that the data is not tampered with.", "SSKs can be used to establish a verifiable pseudonymous identity on Freenet, and allow for multiple documents to be inserted securely by a single person.", "Files inserted with an SSK are effectively immutable, since inserting a second file with the same name can cause collisions.", "USKs resolve this by adding a version number to the keys which is also used for providing update notification for keys registered as bookmarks in the web interface.", "Another subtype of the SSK is the Keyword Signed Key, or KSK, in which the key pair is generated in a standard way from a simple human-readable string.", "Inserting a document using a KSK allows the document to be retrieved and decrypted if and only if the requester knows the human-readable string; this allows for more convenient (but less secure) URIs for users to refer to." ], [ "Scalability", "A network is said to be scalable if its performance does not deteriorate even if the network is very large.", "The scalability of Freenet is being evaluated, but similar architectures have been shown to scale logarithmically.", "This work indicates that Freenet can find data in hops on a small-world network (which includes both opennet and darknet style Freenet networks), when ignoring the caching which could improve the scalability for popular content.", "However, this scalability is difficult to test without a very large network.", "Furthermore, the security features inherent to Freenet make detailed performance analysis (including things as simple as determining the size of the network) difficult to do accurately.", "As of now, the scalability of Freenet has yet to be tested." ], [ "Darknet versus opennet", "As of version 0.7, Freenet supports both \"darknet\" and \"opennet\" connections.", "Opennet connections are made automatically by nodes with opennet enabled, while darknet connections are manually established between users that know and trust each other.", "Freenet developers describe the trust needed as \"will not crack their Freenet node\".", "Opennet connections are easy to use, but darknet connections are more secure against attackers on the network, and can make it difficult for an attacker (such as an oppressive government) to even determine that a user is running Freenet in the first place.The core innovation in Freenet 0.7 is to allow a globally scalable darknet, capable (at least in theory) of supporting millions of users.", "Previous darknets, such as WASTE, have been limited to relatively small disconnected networks.", "The scalability of Freenet is made possible by the fact that human relationships tend to form small-world networks, a property that can be exploited to find short paths between any two people.", "The work is based on a speech given at DEF CON 13 by Ian Clarke and Swedish mathematician Oskar Sandberg.", "Furthermore, the routing algorithm is capable of routing over a mixture of opennet and darknet connections, allowing people who have only a few friends using the network to get the performance from having sufficient connections while still receiving some of the security benefits of darknet connections.", "This also means that small darknets where some users also have opennet connections are fully integrated into the whole Freenet network, allowing all users access to all content, whether they run opennet, darknet, or a hybrid of the two, except for darknet pockets connected only by a single hybrid node." ], [ "Tools and applications", "Screenshot of Frost running on Microsoft WindowsUnlike many other P2P applications Freenet does not provide comprehensive functionality itself.", "Freenet is modular and features an API called Freenet Client Protocol (FCP) for other programs to use to implement services such as message boards, file sharing, or online chat.===Communication==='''Freenet Messaging System (FMS)''':FMS was designed to address problems with Frost such as denial of service attacks and spam.", "Users publish trust lists, and each user downloads messages only from identities they trust and identities trusted by identities they trust.", "FMS is developed anonymously and can be downloaded from ''the FMS freesite'' within Freenet.", "It does not have an official site on the normal Internet.", "It features random post delay, support for many identities, and a distinction between trusting a user's posts and trusting their trust list.", "It is written in C++ and is a separate application from Freenet which uses the Freenet Client Protocol (FCP) to interface with Freenet.", "'''Frost''':Frost includes support for convenient file sharing, but its design is inherently vulnerable to spam and denial of service attacks.", "Frost can be downloaded from the Frost home page on SourceForge, or from ''the Frost freesite'' within Freenet.", "It is not endorsed by the Freenet developers.", "Frost is written in Java and is a separate application from Freenet.", "'''Sone''':Sone provides a simpler interface inspired by Facebook with public anonymous discussions and image galleries.", "It provides an API for control from other programs is also used to implement a comment system for static websites in the regular internet.===Utilities==='''jSite''':jSite is a tool to upload websites.", "It handles keys and manages uploading files.", "'''Infocalypse''':Infocalypse is an extension for the distributed revision control system Mercurial.", "It uses an optimized structure to minimize the number of requests to retrieve new data, and allows supporting a repository by securely reuploading most parts of the data without requiring the owner's private keys.===Libraries==='''FCPLib''':FCPLib (Freenet Client Protocol Library) aims to be a cross-platform natively compiled set of C++-based functions for storing and retrieving information to and from Freenet.", "FCPLib supports Windows NT/2K/XP, Debian, BSD, Solaris, and macOS.", "'''lib-pyFreenet''':lib-pyFreenet exposes Freenet functionality to Python programs.", "Infocalypse uses it." ], [ "Vulnerabilities", "Law enforcement agencies have claimed to have successfully infiltrated Freenet opennet in order to deanonymize users but no technical details have been given to support these allegations.", "One report stated that, \"A child-porn investigation focused on ... the suspect when the authorities were monitoring the online network, Freenet.\"", "A different report indicated arrests may have been based on the BlackICE project leaks, that are debunked for using bad math and for using an incorrectly calculated false positives rate and a false model.A court case in the Peel Region of Ontario, ''Canada R. v. Owen'', 2017 ONCJ 729 (CanLII), illustrated that law enforcement do in fact have a presence, after Peel Regional Police located who had been downloading illegal material on the Freenet network.", "The court decision indicates that a Canadian Law Enforcement agency operates nodes running modified Freenet software in the hope of determining who is requesting illegal material.", "'''Routing Table Insertion''' (RTI) Attack" ], [ "Notability", "Freenet has had significant publicity in the mainstream press, including articles in ''The New York Times'', and coverage on CNN, ''60 Minutes II'', the BBC, ''The Guardian'', and elsewhere.Freenet received the SUMA-Award 2014 for \"protection against total surveillance\"." ], [ "Freesite", "A \"freesite\" is a site hosted on the Freenet network.", "Because it contains only static content, it cannot contain any active content like server-side scripts or databases.", "Freesites are coded in HTML and support as many features as the browser viewing the page allows; however, there are some exceptions where the Freenet software will remove parts of the code that may be used to reveal the identity of the person viewing the page (making a page access something on the internet, for example)." ], [ "See also", " Peer-to-peer web hosting* Rendezvous protocol* Anonymous P2P* Crypto-anarchism* Cypherpunk* Distributed file system* Freedom of information* Friend-to-friend===Comparable software===* GNUnet* I2P* InterPlanetary File System* Java Anon Proxy (also known as JonDonym)* Osiris* Perfect Dark – also creates a distributed data store shared by anonymous nodes; the successor to Share, which itself is the successor of Winny* Tahoe-LAFS* ZeroNet" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*******" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fortified wine" ], [ "Introduction", " port, a fortified wineA collection of vermouth and quinquina bottles, including Noilly Prat Extra Dry, Lillet Blanc, Dolin Rouge, and Martini & Rossi Rosso'''Fortified wine''' is a wine to which a distilled spirit, usually brandy, has been added.", "In the course of some centuries, winemakers have developed many different styles of fortified wine, including port, sherry, madeira, Marsala, Commandaria wine, and the aromatised wine vermouth." ], [ "Production", "Sherry barrels agingOne reason for fortifying wine was to preserve it, since ethanol is also a natural antiseptic.", "Even though other preservation methods now exist, fortification continues to be used because the process can add distinct flavors to the finished product.Although grape brandy is most commonly added to produce fortified wines, the additional alcohol may also be neutral spirit that has been made from grapes, grain, sugar beets or sugarcane.", "Regional appellation laws may dictate the types of spirit that are permitted for fortification.", "For example, in the U.S. only spirits made from the same fruit as the wine may be added.The source of the additional alcohol and the method of its distillation can affect the flavour of the fortified wine.", "If neutral spirit is used, it is usually produced with a continuous still, rather than a pot still.When added to wine before the fermentation process is complete, the alcohol in the distilled beverage kills the yeast and leaves residual sugar behind.", "The end result is a wine that is both sweeter and stronger, normally containing about 20% alcohol by volume (ABV).During the fermentation process, yeast cells in the ''must'' continue to convert sugar into alcohol until the must reaches an alcohol level of 16–18%.", "At this level, the alcohol becomes toxic to the yeast and stalls its metabolism.", "If fermentation is allowed to run to completion, the resulting wine is (in most cases) low in sugar and is considered a dry wine.", "Adding alcohol earlier in the fermentation process results in a sweeter wine.", "For drier fortified wine styles, such as sherry, the alcohol is added shortly before or after the end of the fermentation.In the case of some fortified wine styles (such as late harvest and botrytized wines), a naturally high level of sugar inhibits the yeast, or the rising alcohol content due to the high sugar kills the yeast.", "This causes fermentation to stop before the wine can become dry." ], [ "Varieties", "===Commandaria wine===Commandaria is made in Cyprus' unique AOC region north of Limassol from high-altitude vines of Mavro and Xynisteri, sun-dried and aged in oak barrels.", "Recent developments have produced different styles of Commandaria, some of which are not fortified.===Madeira wine===Madeira wine Madeira is a fortified wine made in the Madeira Islands.", "The wine is produced in a variety of styles ranging from dry wines which can be consumed on their own as an aperitif, to sweet wines more usually consumed with dessert.", "Madeira is deliberately heated and oxidised as part of its maturation process, resulting in distinctive flavours and an unusually long lifespan once a bottle is opened.===Marsala wine===Marsala wine is a wine from Sicily that is available in both fortified and unfortified versions.", "It was first produced in 1772 by an English merchant, John Woodhouse, as an inexpensive substitute for sherry and port, and gets its name from the island's port, Marsala.", "The fortified version is blended with brandy to make two styles, the younger, slightly weaker ''Fine'', which is at least 17% abv and aged at least four months; and the ''Superiore'', which is at least 18%, and aged at least two years.", "The unfortified Marsala wine is aged in wooden casks for five years or more and reaches a strength of 18% by evaporation.===Mistelle===Mistelle (; ; Spanish, Portuguese, Galician and , from Latin / \"mix\") is sometimes used as an ingredient in fortified wines, particularly Vermouth, Marsala and Sherry, though it is used mainly as a base for apéritifs such as the French Pineau des Charentes.", "It is produced by adding alcohol to non-fermented or partially fermented grape juice (or apple juice to make pommeau).", "The addition of alcohol stops the fermentation and, as a consequence Mistelle is sweeter than fully fermented grape juice in which the sugars turn to alcohol.===Moscatel de Setúbal===Moscatel de Setúbal is a Portuguese wine produced around the Setúbal Municipality on the Península de Setúbal.", "The wine is made primarily from the Muscat of Alexandria grape and is typically fortified with aguardente.", "The style was believed to have been invented by José Maria da Fonseca, the founder of the oldest table wine company in Portugal dating back to 1834.===Port wine===A 10-year tawny portPort wine (also known simply as port) is a fortified wine from the Douro Valley in the northern provinces of Portugal.", "It is typically a sweet red wine, but also comes in dry, semi-dry and white or rosé styles.===Sherry===sherries Sherry is a fortified wine made from white grapes that are grown near the town of Jerez, Spain.", "The word \"sherry\" itself is an anglicisation of Jerez.", "In earlier times, sherry was known as ''sack'' (from the Spanish ''saca'', meaning \"a removal from the solera\").", "In the European Union \"sherry\" is a protected designation of origin; therefore, all wine labelled as \"sherry\" must legally come from the Sherry Triangle, which is an area in the province of Cádiz between Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlúcar de Barrameda and El Puerto de Santa María.After fermentation is complete, sherry is fortified with brandy.", "Because the fortification takes place after fermentation, most sherries are initially dry, with any sweetness being added later.", "In contrast, port wine (for example) is fortified halfway through its fermentation, which stops the process so that not all of the sugar is turned into alcohol.Sherry is produced in a variety of styles, ranging from dry, light versions such as finos to much darker and sometimes sweeter versions known as olorosos.", "Cream sherry is always sweet.===Vermouth===Martini Bianco, an Italian vermouthVermouth is a fortified wine flavoured with aromatic herbs and spices (\"aromatised\" in the trade) using closely guarded recipes (trade secrets).", "Some of the herbs and spices used may include cardamom, cinnamon, marjoram, and chamomile.", "Some vermouth is sweetened.", "Unsweetened or dry vermouth tends to be bitter.", "The person credited with the second vermouth recipe, Antonio Benedetto Carpano from Turin, Italy, chose to name his concoction \"vermouth\" in 1786 because he was inspired by a German wine flavoured with wormwood, an herb most famously used in distilling absinthe.", "Wine flavoured with wormwood goes back to ancient Rome.", "The modern German word ''Wermut'' (''Wermuth'' in the spelling of Carpano's time) means both ''wormwood'' and ''vermouth''.", "The herbs were originally used to mask raw flavours of cheaper wines, imparting a slightly medicinal \"tonic\" flavor.===Vins doux naturels=== A Grenache-based VDN from RasteauVins doux naturels (VDN) are lightly fortified wines typically made from white Muscat grapes or red Grenache grapes in the south of France.", "The production of vins doux naturels was perfected by Arnaud de Villeneuve at the University of Montpellier in the 13th century and they are now quite common in the Languedoc-Roussillon region of southern France.As the name suggests, Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, Muscat de Rivesaltes and Muscat de Frontignan are all made from the white Muscat grape, whilst Banyuls and Maury are made from red Grenache.", "Other wines, like those of Rivesaltes AOC, can be made from red or white grapes.", "Regardless of the grape, fermentation is stopped by the addition of up to 10% of a 190 proof (95% abv) grape spirit.", "The Grenache vins doux naturels can be made in an oxidised or unoxidised style whereas the Muscat wines are protected from oxidation to retain their freshness.===Vins de liqueur===A vin de liqueur is a sweet fortified style of French wine that is fortified by adding brandy to unfermented grape must.", "The term vin de liqueur is also used by the European Union to refer to all fortified wines.", "Vins de liqueur take greater flavour from the added brandy but are also sweeter than vin doux.Examples include Floc de Gascogne which is made using 1/3 armagnac to 2/3 grape juice from the same vineyard, Pineau des Charentes in the Cognac zone, Macvin in Jura; there is also Pommeau similarly made by blending apple juice and apple brandy.===Low-end fortified wines===Inexpensive fortified wines, such as Thunderbird and Wild Irish Rose, became popular during the Great Depression for their relatively high alcohol content.", "The term ''wino'' was coined during this period to describe impoverished alcoholics of the time.These wines continue to be associated with the homeless, mainly because marketers have been aggressive in targeting low-income communities as ideal consumers of these beverages; organisations in cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Portland have urged makers of inexpensive fortified wine, including E & J Gallo Winery, to stop providing such products to liquor stores in impoverished areas.", "In 2005, the Seattle City Council asked the Washington State Liquor Control Board to prohibit the sale of certain alcohol products in an impoverished \"Alcohol Impact Area.\"", "Among the products sought to be banned were over two dozen beers, and six fortified wines: Cisco, Gino's Premium Blend, MD 20/20, Night Train, Thunderbird, and Wild Irish Rose.", "The Liquor Control Board approved these restrictions on 30 August 2006.=== Gwaha-ju ===''Gwaha-ju'' is a fortified rice wine made in Korea.Although rice wine is not made from grapes, it has a similar alcohol content to grape wine, and the addition of the distilled spirit, soju, and other ingredients like ginseng, jujubes, ginger, etc., to the rice wine, bears similarity to the above-mentioned fortified wines." ], [ "Terminology", "Fortified wines are often termed dessert wines in the United States to avoid association with hard drinking.", "The term \"vins de liqueur\" is used by the French.Under European Union legislation, a liqueur wine is a fortified wine that contains 15–22% abv, with Total Alcoholic Strength of no less than 17.5%, and that meets many additional criteria.", "Exemptions are allowed for certain quality liqueur wines." ], [ "See also", "* Wine and health" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Commandaria wine and its evolution.", "* Dessert Wines (fortified wine production).", "* Fortification calculator* Fortified Wines" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fred Hoyle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Fred Hoyle''' (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was an English astronomer who formulated the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis and was one of the authors of the influential B2FH paper.", "He also held controversial stances on other scientific matters—in particular his rejection of the \"Big Bang\" theory (a term coined by him on BBC Radio) in favor of the \"steady-state model\", and his promotion of panspermia as the origin of life on Earth.", "He spent most of his working life at the Institute of Astronomy at Cambridge and served as its director for six years.Hoyle also wrote science fiction novels, short stories and radio plays, co-created television serials, and co-authored twelve books with his son, Geoffrey Hoyle." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Hoyle was born near Bingley in Gilstead, West Riding of Yorkshire, England.", "His father, Ben Hoyle, who was a violinist and worked in the wool trade in Bradford, served as a machine gunner in the First World War.", "His mother, Mabel Pickard, had studied music at the Royal College of Music in London and later worked as a cinema pianist.", "Hoyle was educated at Bingley Grammar School and read mathematics at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.", "In his youth, he sang in the choir at the local Anglican church.In 1936, he won the Mayhew Prize (jointly with George Stanley Rushbrooke).===Career===In late 1940, Hoyle left Cambridge to go to Portsmouth to work for the Admiralty on radar research, for example devising a method to get the altitude of the incoming aeroplanes.", "He was also put in charge of countermeasures against the radar guided guns found on the ''Graf Spee'' after its scuttling in the River Plate.", "Britain's radar project employed more personnel than the Manhattan project, and was probably the inspiration for the large British project in Hoyle's novel ''The Black Cloud''.", "Two colleagues in this war work were Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold, and the three had many and deep discussions on cosmology.", "The radar work paid for a couple of trips to North America, where he took the opportunity to visit astronomers.", "On one trip to the US, he learned about supernovae at Caltech and Mount Palomar and, in Canada, the nuclear physics of plutonium implosion and explosion, noticed some similarity between the two and started thinking about supernova nucleosynthesis.", "He had an intuition at the time \"I will make a name for myself if this works out.\"", "Eventually (1954) his prescient and ground breaking paper came out.", "He also formed a group at Cambridge exploring stellar nucleosynthesis in ordinary stars and was bothered by the paucity of stellar carbon production in existing models.", "He noticed that one of the existing processes would be made a billion times more productive if the carbon-12 nucleus had a resonance at 7.7 MeV, but the nuclear physicists did not list such a one.", "On another trip, he visited the nuclear physics group at Caltech, spending a few months of sabbatical there and persuaded them against their considerable scepticism to look for and find the Hoyle state in carbon-12, from which developed a full theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, co-authored by Hoyle with some members of the Caltech group.A blue plaque at Bingley Grammar School commemorating himAfter the war, in 1945, Hoyle returned to Cambridge University, as a lecturer at St John's College, Cambridge.", "Hoyle's Cambridge years, 1945–1973, saw him rise to the top of world astrophysics theory, on the basis of a startling originality of ideas covering a very wide range of topics.", "In 1958, Hoyle was appointed Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in Cambridge University.", "In 1967, he became the founding director of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (subsequently renamed the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge), where his innovative leadership quickly led to this institution becoming one of the premier groups in the world for theoretical astrophysics.", "In 1971, he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.", "He chose the subject \"Astronomical Instruments and their Construction\".", "Hoyle was knighted in 1972.Hoyle resigned his Plumian professor position in 1972 and his directorship of the institute in 1973, with this move effectively cutting him off from most of his establishment power-base, connections and steady salary.After leaving Cambridge, Hoyle wrote many popular science and science fiction books, as well as presenting lectures around the world.", "Part of the motivation for this was simply to provide a means of support.", "Hoyle was still a member of the joint policy committee (since 1967), during the planning stage for the 150-inch Anglo-Australian Telescope at Siding Spring Observatory in New South Wales.", "He became chairman of the Anglo-Australian Telescope board in 1973, and presided at its inauguration in 1974 by Charles, Prince of Wales.===Decline and death===After his resignation from Cambridge, Hoyle moved to the Lake District and occupied his time with a mix of treks across the moors, writing books, visiting research centres around the world, and working on science ideas that have been nearly universally rejected.", "On 24 November 1997, while hiking across moorlands in west Yorkshire, near his childhood home in Gilstead, Hoyle fell into a steep ravine called Shipley Glen.", "Roughly twelve hours later, Hoyle was found by a search dog.", "He was hospitalised for two months with pneumonia and kidney problems (both resulting from hypothermia), as well as a broken shoulder from the fall.", "Thereafter he entered a marked decline, suffering from memory and mental agility problems.", "In 2001, he suffered a series of strokes and died in Bournemouth on 20 August of that year." ], [ "Views and contributions", "===Origin of nucleosynthesis===Hoyle authored the first two research papers ever published on the synthesis of the chemical elements heavier than helium by nuclear reactions in stars.", "The first of these in 1946 showed that the cores of stars will evolve to temperatures of billions of degrees, much hotter than temperatures considered for thermonuclear origin of stellar power in main-sequence stars.", "Hoyle showed that at such high temperatures the element iron can become much more abundant than other heavy elements owing to thermal equilibrium among nuclear particles, explaining the high natural abundance of iron.", "This idea would later be called the ''e''Process.", "Hoyle's second foundational nucleosynthesis publication, published in 1954, showed that the elements between carbon and iron cannot be synthesized by such equilibrium processes.", "He attributed those elements to specific nuclear fusion reactions between abundant constituents in concentric shells of evolved massive, pre-supernova stars.", "This startlingly modern picture is the accepted paradigm today for the supernova nucleosynthesis of these primary elements.", "In the mid-1950s, Hoyle became the leader of a group of very talented experimental and theoretical physicists who met in Cambridge: William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, and Geoffrey Burbidge.", "This group systematized basic ideas of how all the chemical elements in our universe were created, with this now being a field called nucleosynthesis.", "Famously, in 1957, this group produced the B2FH paper (known for the initials of the four authors) in which the field of nucleosynthesis was organized into complementary nuclear processes.", "They also added much new material on the synthesis of heavy elements by neutron-capture reactions, the so-called s process and the r process.", "So influential did the B2FH paper become that for the remainder of the twentieth century it became the default citation of almost all researchers wishing to cite an accepted origin for nucleosynthesis theory, and as a result, the path-breaking Hoyle 1954 paper fell into obscurity.", "Historical research in the 21st century has brought Hoyle's 1954 paper back to scientific prominence.", "Those historical arguments were first presented to a gathering of nucleosynthesis experts attending a 2007 conference at Caltech organized after the deaths of both Fowler and Hoyle to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the publication of B2FH.", "Ironically the B2FH paper did not review Hoyle's 1954 supernova-shells attribution of the origin of elements between silicon and iron despite Hoyle's co-authorship of B2FH.", "Based on his many personal discussions with Hoyle Donald D. Clayton has attributed this seemingly inexplicable oversight in B2FH to the lack of proofreading by Hoyle of the draft composed at Caltech in 1956 by G.R.", "Burbidge and E.M. Burbidge.The second of Hoyle's nucleosynthesis papers also introduced an interesting use of the anthropic principle, which was not then known by that name.", "In trying to work out the routes of stellar nucleosynthesis, Hoyle calculated that one particular nuclear reaction, the triple-alpha process, which generates carbon from helium, would require the carbon nucleus to have a very specific resonance energy and spin for it to work.", "The large amount of carbon in the universe, which makes it possible for carbon-based life-forms of any kind to exist, demonstrated to Hoyle that this nuclear reaction must work.", "Based on this notion, Hoyle therefore predicted the values of the energy, the nuclear spin and the parity of the compound state in the carbon nucleus formed by three alpha particles (helium nuclei), which was later borne out by experiment.This energy level, while needed to produce carbon in large quantities, was statistically very unlikely to fall where it does in the scheme of carbon energy levels.", "Hoyle later wrote:His co-worker William Alfred Fowler eventually won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983 (with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar), but Hoyle's original contribution was overlooked by the electors, and many were surprised that such a notable astronomer missed out.", "Fowler himself in an autobiographical sketch affirmed Hoyle's pioneering efforts:===Rejection of the Big Bang===While having no argument with the Lemaître theory (later confirmed by Edwin Hubble's observations) that the universe was expanding, Hoyle disagreed on its interpretation.", "He found the idea that the universe had a beginning to be pseudoscience, resembling arguments for a creator, \"for it's an irrational process, and can't be described in scientific terms\" (see Kalam cosmological argument).", "Instead, Hoyle, along with Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi (with whom he had worked on radar in the Second World War), in 1948 began to argue for the universe as being in a \"steady state\" and formulated their Steady State theory.", "The theory tried to explain how the universe could be eternal and essentially unchanging while still having the galaxies we observe moving away from each other.", "The theory hinged on the creation of matter between galaxies over time, so that even though galaxies get further apart, new ones that develop between them fill the space they leave.", "The resulting universe is in a \"steady state\" in the same manner that a flowing river is—the individual water molecules are moving away but the overall river remains the same.The theory was one alternative to the Big Bang which, like the Big Bang, agreed with key observations of the day, namely Hubble's red shift observations, and Hoyle was a strong critic of the Big Bang.", "He coined the term \"Big Bang\" on BBC radio's ''Third Programme'' broadcast on 28 March 1949.It was said by George Gamow and his opponents that Hoyle intended to be pejorative, and the script from which he read aloud was interpreted by his opponents to be \"vain, one-sided, insulting, not worthy of the BBC\".", "Hoyle explicitly denied that he was being insulting and said it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for the radio audience.", "In another BBC interview, he said, \"The reason why scientists like the \"big bang\" is because they are overshadowed by the Book of Genesis.", "It is deep within the psyche of most scientists to believe in the first page of Genesis\".Hoyle had a famously heated argument with Martin Ryle of the Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group about Hoyle's steady state theory, which somewhat restricted collaboration between the Cavendish group and the Cambridge Institute of Astronomy during the 1960s.Hoyle, unlike Gold and Bondi, offered an explanation for the appearance of new matter by postulating the existence of what he dubbed the \"creation field\", or just the \"C-field\", which had negative pressure in order to be consistent with the conservation of energy and drive the expansion of the universe.", "This C-field is the same as the later \"de Sitter solution\" for cosmic inflation, but the C-field model acts much slower than the de Sitter inflation model.", "They jointly argued that continuous creation was no more inexplicable than the appearance of the entire universe from nothing, although it had to be done on a regular basis.", "In the end, mounting observational evidence convinced most cosmologists that the steady state model was incorrect and that the Big Bang was the theory that agreed better with observations, although Hoyle continued to support and develop his theory.", "In 1993, in an attempt to explain some of the evidence against the steady state theory, he presented a modified version called \"quasi-steady state cosmology\" (QSS), but the theory is not widely accepted.The evidence that resulted in the Big Bang's victory over the steady state model included the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in the 1960s, and the distribution of \"young galaxies\" and quasars throughout the Universe in the 1980s indicate a more consistent age estimate of the universe.", "Hoyle died in 2001 having never accepted the validity of the Big Bang theory.===Theory of gravity===Together with Narlikar, Hoyle developed a particle theory in the 1960s, the Hoyle–Narlikar theory of gravity.", "It made predictions that were roughly the same as Einstein's general relativity, but it incorporated Mach's Principle, which Einstein had tried but failed to incorporate in his theory.", "The Hoyle-Narlikar theory fails several tests, including consistency with the microwave background.", "It was motivated by their belief in the steady state model of the universe.===Rejection of Earth-based abiogenesis===In his later years, Hoyle became a staunch critic of theories of abiogenesis to explain the origin of life on Earth.", "With Chandra Wickramasinghe, Hoyle promoted the hypothesis that the first life on Earth began in space, spreading through the universe via panspermia, and that evolution on Earth is influenced by a steady influx of viruses arriving via comets.", "His belief that comets had a significant percentage of organic compounds was well ahead of his time, as the dominant views in the 1970s and 1980s were that comets largely consisted of water-ice, and the presence of organic compounds was then highly controversial.", "Wickramasinghe wrote in 2003: \"In the highly polarized polemic between Darwinism and creationism, our position is unique.", "Although we do not align ourselves with either side, both sides treat us as opponents.", "Thus we are outsiders with an unusual perspective—and our suggestion for a way out of the crisis has not yet been considered.", "\"Hoyle and Wickramasinghe advanced several instances where they say outbreaks of illnesses on Earth are of extraterrestrial origins, including the 1918 flu pandemic, and certain outbreaks of polio and mad cow disease.", "For the 1918 flu pandemic, they hypothesized that cometary dust brought the virus to Earth simultaneously at multiple locations—a view almost universally dismissed by experts on this pandemic.", "In 1982, Hoyle presented ''Evolution from Space'' for the Royal Institution's Omni Lecture.", "After considering what he thought of as a very remote possibility of Earth-based abiogenesis he concluded:Published in his 1982/1984 books ''Evolution from Space'' (co-authored with Chandra Wickramasinghe), Hoyle calculated that the chance of obtaining the required set of enzymes for even the simplest living cell without panspermia was one in 1040,000.Since the number of atoms in the known universe is infinitesimally tiny by comparison (1080), he argued that Earth as life's place of origin could be ruled out.", "He claimed:Though Hoyle declared himself an atheist, this apparent suggestion of a guiding hand led him to the conclusion that \"a superintellect has monkeyed with physics, as well as with chemistry and biology, and ... there are no blind forces worth speaking about in nature.\"", "He would go on to compare the random emergence of even the simplest cell without panspermia to the likelihood that \"a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein\" and to compare the chance of obtaining even a single functioning protein by chance combination of amino acids to a solar system full of blind men solving Rubik's Cubes simultaneously.", "This is known as \"the junkyard tornado\", or \"Hoyle’s Fallacy\".", "Those who advocate the intelligent design (ID) philosophy sometimes cite Hoyle's work in this area to support the claim that the universe was fine tuned in order to allow intelligent life to be possible.===Other opinions===While Hoyle was well-regarded for his works on nucleosynthesis and science popularization, he held positions on a wide range of scientific issues that were in direct opposition to the prevailing theories of the scientific community.", "Paul Davies describes how he \"loved his maverick personality and contempt for orthodoxy\", quoting Hoyle as saying \"I don't care what they think\" about his theories on discrepant redshift, and \"it is better to be interesting and wrong than boring and right\".Hoyle often expressed anger against the labyrinthine and petty politics at Cambridge and frequently feuded with members and institutions of all levels of the British astronomy community, leading to his resignation from Cambridge in September 1971 over the way he thought Donald Lynden-Bell was chosen to replace retiring professor Roderick Oliver Redman behind his back.", "According to biographer Simon Mitton, Hoyle was crestfallen because he felt that his colleagues at Cambridge were unsupportive.In addition to his views on steady state theory and panspermia, Hoyle also supported the following controversial hypotheses and speculations:* The correlation of flu epidemics with the sunspot cycle, with epidemics occurring at the minimum of the cycle.", "The idea was that flu contagion was scattered in the interstellar medium and reached Earth only when the solar wind had minimum power.", "* Two fossil ''Archaeopteryx'' were man-made fakes.", "* The theory of abiogenic petroleum, held by Hoyle and by Thomas Gold, where natural hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) are explained as the result of deep carbon deposits, instead of fossilized organic material.", "This theory is dismissed by the mainstream petroleum geochemistry community.", "* In his 1977 book ''On Stonehenge'', Hoyle supported Gerald Hawkins's proposal that the fifty-six Aubrey holes at Stonehenge were used as a system for neolithic Britons to predict eclipses, using them in the daily positioning of marker stones.", "The use of the Aubrey holes for predicting lunar eclipses was originally proposed by Gerald Hawkins in his book of the subject ''Stonehenge Decoded'' (1965).===Nobel Prize for Physics===Hoyle was also at the centre of two unrelated controversies involving the politics for selecting the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics.", "The first came when the 1974 prize went, in part, to Antony Hewish for his leading role in the discovery of pulsars.", "Promptly Hoyle made an off-the-cuff remark to a reporter in Montreal that \"Yes, Jocelyn Bell was the actual discoverer, not Hewish, who was her supervisor, so she should have been included.\"", "This remark received widespread international coverage.", "Worried about being misunderstood, Hoyle carefully composed a letter of explanation to ''The Times''.The 1983 prize went in part to William Alfred Fowler \"for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe.\"", "despite Hoyle having been the inventor of the theory of nucleosynthesis in the stars with two research papers published shortly after WWII.", "So some suspicion arose that Hoyle was denied the third share of this prize because of his earlier public disagreement with the 1974 award.", "British scientist Harry Kroto later said that the Nobel Prize is not just an award for a piece of work, but a recognition of a scientist's overall reputation and Hoyle's championing many disreputable and disproven ideas may have invalidated him.", "In ''Nature'', editor John Maddox called it \"shameful\" that Fowler had been rewarded with a Nobel prize and Hoyle had not." ], [ "Media appearances", "Hoyle appeared in a series of radio talks on astronomy for the BBC in the 1950s; these were collected in the book ''The Nature of the Universe'', and he went on to write a number of other popular science books.In the play ''Sur la route de Montalcino'', the character of Fred Hoyle confronts Georges Lemaître on a fictional journey to the Vatican in 1957.Hoyle also appeared in the 1973 short film ''Take the World From Another Point of View''.In the 2004 television movie ''Hawking'', Fred Hoyle is played by Peter Firth.", "In the movie, Stephen Hawking (played by Benedict Cumberbatch) publicly confronts Hoyle at a Royal Society lecture in summer 1964, about a mistake he found in his latest publication." ], [ "Honours", "A statue of Fred Hoyle at the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge'''Awards'''* Elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1964)* Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1957* Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1968)* Bakerian Lecture (1968)* Elected member of the United States National Academy of Sciences (1969)* Bruce Medal (1970)* Henry Norris Russell Lectureship (1971)* Jansky Lectureship before the National Radio Astronomy Observatory* Knighthood (1972)* President of the Royal Astronomical Society (1971–1973)* Royal Medal (1974)* Klumpke-Roberts Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1977)* Elected member of the American Philosophical Society (1980)* Balzan Prize for Astrophysics: evolution of stars (1994, with Martin Schwarzschild)* Crafoord Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, with Edwin Salpeter (1997)'''Named after him'''* Hoyle Building, Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge* Asteroid 8077 Hoyle* ''Janibacter hoylei'', species of bacteria discovered by ISRO scientists* Sir Fred Hoyle Way, a stretch of the A650 dual carriageway in Bingley.", "* Institute of Physics Fred Hoyle Medal and Prize===Memorabilia===The Fred Hoyle Collection at St John's College Library contains \"a pair of walking boots, five boxes of photographs, two ice axes, some dental X-rays, a telescope, ten large film reels and an unpublished opera\" in addition to 150 document boxes of papers." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Non-fiction===* ''The Nature of the Universe – a series of broadcast lectures'', Basil Blackwell, Oxford 1950 (early use of the big bang phrase)* ''Frontiers of Astronomy'', Heinemann Education Books Limited, London, 1955.The Internet Archive.", "HarperCollins, * Burbidge, E.M., Burbidge, G.R., Fowler, W.A.", "and Hoyle, F., \"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars\" , ''Revs.", "Mod.", "Physics'' '''29:'''547–650, 1957, the famous B2FH paper after their initials, for which Hoyle is most famous among professional cosmologists.", "* ''Astronomy, A history of man's investigation of the universe'', Crescent Books, Inc., London 1962, * ''Of men and galaxies'', Seattle University of Washington, 1964, * ''Galaxies, Nuclei, and Quasars'', Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, 1965, * ''Nicolaus Copernicus'', Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London, p. 78, 1973* ''Astronomy and Cosmology: A Modern Course'', 1975, * ''Energy or Extinction?", "The case for nuclear energy'', 1977, Heinemann Educational Books Limited, .", "In this provocative book Hoyle establishes the dependence of Western civilization on energy consumption and predicts that nuclear fission as a source of energy is essential for its survival.", "* ''Ten Faces of the Universe'', 1977, W.H.", "Freeman and Company (San Francisco), * ''On Stonehenge'', 1977, London : Heinemann Educational, ; San Francisco: W.H.", "Freeman and Company, pbk.", "* ''Lifecloud – The Origin of Life in the Universe'', Hoyle, F. and Wickramasinghe C., J.M.", "Dent and Sons, 1978.", "* ''Diseases from Space'' (with Chandra Wickramasinghe) (J.M.", "Dent, London, 1979)* ''Commonsense in Nuclear Energy'', Fred Hoyle and Geoffrey Hoyle, 1980, Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., * The big bang in astronomy, ''New Scientist'' '''92'''(1280):527, 19 November 1981.", "* ''Ice, the Ultimate Human Catastrophe'',1981, Snippet view from Google Books* ''The Intelligent Universe'', 1983* ''From Grains to Bacteria'', Hoyle, F. and Wickramasinghe N.C., University College Cardiff Press, , 1984* ''Evolution from space (the Omni lecture) and other papers on the origin of life'' 1982, * ''Evolution from Space: A Theory of Cosmic Creationism'', 1984, * ''Viruses from Space'', 1986, * With Jayant Narlikar and Chandra Wickramasinghe, The extragalactic universe: an alternative view, ''Nature'' '''346:'''807–812, 30 August 1990.", "* ''The Origin of the Universe and the Origin of Religion'',1993, * ''Home Is Where the Wind Blows: Chapters from a Cosmologist's Life'' (autobiography) Oxford University Press 1994, * ''Mathematics of Evolution'', (1987) University College Cardiff Press, (1999) Acorn Enterprises LLC., * With G. Burbridge and Narlikar J.V.", "''A Different Approach to Cosmology'', Cambridge University Press 2000, ===Science fiction===A mosaic by Boris Anrep depicting Fred Hoyle as a steeplejack climbing to the stars, with a book under his arm, in the National Gallery, London.Hoyle also wrote science fiction.", "In his first novel, ''The Black Cloud'', most intelligent life in the universe takes the form of interstellar gas clouds; they are surprised to learn that intelligent life can also form on planets.", "He wrote a television series, ''A for Andromeda'', which was also published as a novel.", "His play ''Rockets in Ursa Major'' had a professional production at the Mermaid Theatre in 1962.", "* ''The Black Cloud'', 1957* ''Ossian's Ride'', 1959* ''A for Andromeda'', 1962 (co-authored with John Elliot)* ''Fifth Planet'', 1963 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''Andromeda Breakthrough'', 1965 (co-authored with John Elliot)* ''October the First Is Too Late'', 1966* ''Element 79'' (collection of short stories), 1967* ''Rockets in Ursa Major'', 1969 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''Seven Steps to the Sun'', 1970 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''The Inferno'', 10/1973 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''The Molecule Men and the Monster of Loch Ness'', 1973 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''Into Deepest Space'', 1974 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''The Incandescent Ones'', 1977 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''The Westminster Disaster'', 1978 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle and Edited by Barbara Hoyle)* ''Comet Halley'', 11/1985* ''The Frozen Planet of Azuron'', 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''The Energy Pirate'', 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''The Planet of Death'', 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)* ''The Giants of Universal Park'', 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)Most of these are independent of each other.", "''Andromeda Breakthrough'' is a sequel to ''A for Andromeda'' and ''Into Deepest Space'' is a sequel to ''Rockets in Ursa Major''.", "The four Ladybird Books are intended for children.Some stories of the collection ''Element 79'' are fantasy, in particular \"Welcome to Slippage City\" and \"The Judgement of Aphrodite\".", "Both introduce mythological characters.", "''The Telegraph'' (UK) called him a \"masterful\" science fiction writer." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alan P. Lightman and Roberta Brawer, ''Origins: The Lives and Worlds of Modern Cosmologists'', Harvard University Press, 1990.A collection of interviews, mostly with the generation (or two) of cosmologists after Hoyle, but also including an interview with Hoyle himself.", "Several interviewees testify to Hoyle's influence in popularizing astronomy and cosmology.", "* Dennis Overbye, ''Lonely Hearts of the Cosmos: The Scientific Quest for the Secret of the Universe'', HarperCollins, 1991.2nd ed.", "(with new afterword), Back Bay, 1999.Gives a biographical account of modern cosmology in a novel-like fashion.", "Complementary to ''Origins.", "''* Simon Mitton, ''Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2011.", "* Douglas Gough, editor, ''The Scientific Legacy of Fred Hoyle'', Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "* Chandra Wickramasinghe, ''A Journey with Fred Hoyle'', World Scientific Pub, 2005..* Jane Gregory, ''Fred Hoyle's Universe'', Oxford University Press, 2005.", "* ''A Journey with Frey Hoyle: Second Edition'' by Chandra Wickramasinghe, World Scientific Publishing Co. 2013." ], [ "External links", "* Fred Hoyle Website* Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe Website* Obituary by Sir Martin Rees in ''Physics Today''* Obituary by Bernard Lovell in ''The Guardian''* * Fred Hoyle: An Online Exhibition* An Interview with Fred Hoyle, 5 July 1996* * * Fred Hoyle at the Notable Names Database*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "French cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "A ''nouvelle cuisine'' presentationFrench ''haute cuisine'' presentationFrench wines are usually made to accompany French cuisine'''French cuisine''' is the cooking traditions and practices from France.", "In the 14th century, Guillaume Tirel, a court chef known as \"Taillevent\", wrote ''Le Viandier'', one of the earliest recipe collections of medieval France.", "In the 17th century, chefs François Pierre La Varenne and Marie-Antoine Carême spearheaded movements that shifted French cooking away from its foreign influences and developed France's own indigenous style.Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine.", "They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations and ''appellation d'origine contrôlée'' (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws.Culinary tourism and the ''Guide Michelin'' helped to acquaint commoners with the ''cuisine bourgeoise'' of the urban elites and the peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century.", "Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country.Knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines.", "Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education.", "In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the world's \"intangible cultural heritage\"." ], [ "History", "===Middle Ages===John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal.", "The Duke is sitting with a cardinal at the high table, under a luxurious ''baldaquin'', in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants, including a carver.", "On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden salt cellar, or ''nef'', in the shape of a ship; illustration from ''Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry'', circa 1410.In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy.", "Multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called ''service en confusion'', or all at once.", "Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers.", "The sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used.Pies were a common banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather than as food itself, and it was not until the very end of the Late Middle Ages that the shortcrust pie was developed.Meals often ended with an ''issue de table'', which later changed into the modern dessert, and typically consisted of ''dragées'' (in the Middle Ages, meaning spiced lumps of hardened sugar or honey), aged cheese, and spiced wine, such as hypocras.The ingredients of the time varied greatly according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey, and other preservatives.", "Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse.", "Livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter.", "Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked.", "Bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried.", "Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt.", "Fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation.", "Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent, the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten.Artificial freshwater ponds (often called ''stews'') held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and other fish.", "Poultry was kept in special yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite.", "Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, boar, hare, rabbit, and fowl.Kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy, rue, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today.", "Spices were treasured and very expensive at that time—they included pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and mace.", "Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine are cubebs, long pepper (both from vines similar to black pepper), grains of paradise, and galengale.Sweet-sour flavors were commonly added to dishes with vinegar and ''verjus'' combined with sugar (for the affluent) or honey.", "A common form of food preparation was to thoroughly cook, pound, and strain mixtures into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to be beneficial to make use of nutrients.Visual display was prized.", "Brilliant colors were obtained by the addition of, for example, juices from spinach and the green part of leeks.", "Yellow came from saffron or egg yolk, while red came from sunflower, and purple came from ''Crozophora tinctoria'' or ''Heliotropium europaeum''.Gold and silver leaf were placed on food surfaces and brushed with egg whites.", "Elaborate and showy dishes were the result, such as ''tourte parmerienne'' which was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with chicken-drumstick turrets coated with gold leaf.", "One of the grandest showpieces of the time was a roast swan or peacock sewn back into its skin with feathers intact, the feet and beak being gilded.", "Since both birds are stringy, and taste unpleasant, the skin and feathers could be kept and filled with the cooked, minced and seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like goose or chicken.The most well known French chef of the Middle Ages was Guillaume Tirel, also known as Taillevent.", "Taillevent worked in numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century.", "His first position was as a kitchen boy in 1326.He was chef to Philip VI, then the Dauphin who was son of John II.", "The Dauphin became King Charles V of France in 1364, with Taillevent as his chief cook.", "His career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his death, he was buried in grand style between his two wives.", "His tombstone represents him in armor, holding a shield with three cooking pots, ''marmites'', on it.===Ancien Régime===Paris was the central hub of culture and economic activity, and as such, the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were to be found there.", "Markets in Paris such as ''Les Halles'', ''la Mégisserie'', those found along ''Rue Mouffetard'', and similar smaller versions in other cities were very important to the distribution of food.", "Those that gave French produce its characteristic identity were regulated by the guild system, which developed in the Middle Ages.", "In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government as well as by the French crown.", "A guild restricted those in a given branch of the culinary industry to operate only within that field.There were two groups of guilds—first, those that supplied the raw materials: butchers, fishmongers, grain merchants, and gardeners.", "The second group were those that supplied prepared foods: bakers, pastry cooks, sauce makers, poulterers, and caterers.", "Some guilds offered both raw materials and prepared food, such as the ''charcutiers'' and ''rôtisseurs'' (purveyors of roasted meat dishes).", "They would supply cooked meat pies and dishes as well as raw meat and poultry.", "This caused issues with butchers and poulterers, who sold the same raw materials.The guilds served as a training ground for those within the industry.", "The degrees of assistant cook, full-fledged cook and master chef were conferred.", "Those who reached the level of master chef were of considerable rank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level of income as well as economic and job security.", "At times, those in the royal kitchens did fall under the guild hierarchy, but it was necessary to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills after leaving the service of the royal kitchens.", "This was not uncommon as the Paris cooks' Guild regulations allowed for this movement.During the 16th and 17th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many new food items from the New World.", "Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets show Catherine de' Medici (1519–1589?)", "serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner.", "The dish called cassoulet has its roots in the New World discovery of haricot beans, which are central to the dish's creation, but had not existed outside of the Americas until the arrival of Europeans.", "''Haute cuisine'' (, \"high cuisine\") has foundations during the 17th century with a chef named La Varenne.", "As an author of works such as ''Le Cuisinier françois'', he is credited with publishing the first true French cookbook.", "His book includes the earliest known reference to roux using pork fat.", "The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one for fasting.", "His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known in the Middle Ages to new techniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter dishes, and more modest presentations of pies as individual pastries and turnovers.", "La Varenne also published a book on pastry in 1667 entitled ''Le Parfait confitvrier'' (republished as ''Le Confiturier françois'') which similarly updated and codified the emerging ''haute cuisine'' standards for desserts and pastries.Chef François Massialot wrote ''Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois'' in 1691, during the reign of Louis XIV.", "The book contains menus served to the royal courts in 1690.Massialot worked mostly as a freelance cook, and was not employed by any particular household.", "Massialot and many other royal cooks received special privileges by association with the French royalty.", "They were not subject to the regulation of the guilds; therefore, they could cater weddings and banquets without restriction.", "His book is the first to list recipes alphabetically, perhaps a forerunner of the first culinary dictionary.", "It is in this book that a marinade is first seen in print, with one type for poultry and feathered game, while a second is for fish and shellfish.", "No quantities are listed in the recipes, which suggests that Massialot was writing for trained cooks.The successive updates of ''Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois'' include important refinements such as adding a glass of wine to fish stock.", "Definitions were also added to the 1703 edition.", "The 1712 edition, retitled ''Le Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois'', was increased to two volumes, and was written in a more elaborate style with extensive explanations of technique.", "Additional smaller preparations are included in this edition as well, leading to lighter preparations, and adding a third course to the meal.", "Ragout, a stew still central to French cookery, makes its first appearance as a single dish in this edition as well; prior to that, it was listed as a garnish.===Late 18th century – early 19th century===Polish wife of Louis XV of France, Queen Marie Leszczyńska, influenced French cuisine.Marie-Antoine Carême was a French chef and an early practitioner and exponent of the elaborate style of cooking known as grande cuisineShortly before the French Revolution, dishes like ''bouchées à la Reine'' gained prominence.", "Essentially royal cuisine produced by the royal household, this is a chicken-based recipe served on ''vol-au-vent'' created under the influence of Queen Marie Leszczyńska, the Polish-born wife of Louis XV.", "This recipe is still popular today, as are other recipes from Queen Marie Leszczyńska like ''consommé à la Reine'' and ''filet d'aloyau braisé à la royale''.", "Queen Marie is also credited with introducing Polonaise garnishing to the French diet.The French Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it abolished the guild system.", "This meant anyone could now produce and sell any culinary item they wished.Bread was a significant food source among peasants and the working class in the late 18th century, with many of the nation's people being dependent on it.", "In French provinces, bread was often consumed three times a day by the people of France.", "According to Brace, bread was referred to as the basic dietary item for the masses, and it was also used as a foundation for soup.", "In fact, bread was so important that harvest, interruption of commerce by wars, heavy flour exploration, and prices and supply were all watched and controlled by the French Government.", "Among the underprivileged, constant fear of famine was always prevalent.", "From 1725 to 1789, there were fourteen years of bad yields to blame for the low grain supply.", "In Bordeaux, during 1708–1789, thirty-three bad harvests occurred.Marie-Antoine Carême was born in 1784, five years before the Revolution.", "He spent his younger years working at a ''pâtisserie'' until he was discovered by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord; he would later cook for Napoleon Bonaparte.", "Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carême had become known for his ''pièces montées'', which were extravagant constructions of pastry and sugar architecture.More important to Carême's career was his contribution to the refinement of French cuisine.", "The basis for his style of cooking was his sauces, which he named mother sauces.", "Often referred to as fonds, meaning \"foundations\", these base sauces, ''espagnole'', ''velouté'', and ''béchamel'', are still known today.", "Each of these sauces was made in large quantities in his kitchen, then formed the basis of multiple derivatives.", "Carême had over one hundred sauces in his repertoire.In his writings, soufflés appear for the first time.", "Although many of his preparations today seem extravagant, he simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that existed beforehand.", "Central to his codification of the cuisine were ''Le Maître d'hôtel français'' (1822), ''Le Cuisinier parisien'' (1828) and ''L'Art de la cuisine française au dix-neuvième siècle'' (1833–5).===Late 19th century – early 20th century===Georges Auguste Escoffier was a French chef, restaurateur, and culinary writer who popularized and updated traditional French cooking methodsGeorges Auguste Escoffier is commonly acknowledged as the central figure to the modernization of ''haute cuisine'' and organizing what would become the national cuisine of France.", "His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels in Europe and America during the 1880s-1890s.", "The Savoy Hotel managed by César Ritz was an early hotel in which Escoffier worked, but much of his influence came during his management of the kitchens in the Carlton from 1898 until 1921.He created a system of \"parties\" called the brigade system, which separated the professional kitchen into five separate stations.These five stations included the ''garde manger'' that prepared cold dishes; the ''entremettier'' prepared starches and vegetables, the ''rôtisseur'' prepared roasts, grilled and fried dishes; the ''saucier'' prepared sauces and soups; and the ''pâtissier'' prepared all pastry and desserts items.This system meant that instead of one person preparing a dish on one's own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different components for the dish.", "An example used is ''oeufs au plat Meyerbeer'', the prior system would take up to fifteen minutes to prepare the dish, while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by the ''entremettier'', kidney grilled by the ''rôtisseur'', truffle sauce made by the ''saucier'' and thus the dish could be prepared in a shorter time and served quickly in the popular restaurants.Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure of the meal.", "He published a series of articles in professional journals which outlined the sequence, and he finally published his ''Livre des menus'' in 1912.This type of service embraced the ''service à la russe'' (serving meals in separate courses on individual plates), which Félix Urbain Dubois had made popular in the 1860s.", "Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of ''Le Guide Culinaire'' in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery.", "The book was a collaboration with Philéas Gilbert, E. Fetu, A. Suzanne, B. Reboul, Ch.", "Dietrich, A. Caillat and others.", "The significance of this is to illustrate the universal acceptance by multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking.", "''Le Guide Culinaire'' deemphasized the use of heavy sauces and leaned toward lighter ''fumets'', which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and vegetables.", "This style of cooking looked to create garnishes and sauces whose function is to add to the flavor of the dish, rather than mask flavors like the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of the past.", "Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in addition to recipes from Carême, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's ''Le Viandier'', which had a modern version published in 1897.A second source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes that were translated into the refined techniques of ''haute cuisine''.Expensive ingredients would replace the common ingredients, making the dishes much less humble.", "The third source of recipes was Escoffier himself, who invented many new dishes, such as ''pêche Melba''.", "Escoffier updated ''Le Guide Culinaire'' four times during his lifetime, noting in the foreword to the book's first edition that even with its 5,000 recipes, the book should not be considered an \"exhaustive\" text, and that even if it were at the point when he wrote the book, \"it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress marches on each day.", "\"This period is also marked by the appearance of the ''nouvelle cuisine''.", "The term \"nouvelle cuisine\" has been used many times in the history of French cuisine which emphasized the freshness, lightness and clarity of flavor and inspired by new movements in world cuisine.", "In the 1740s, Menon first used the term, but the cooking of Vincent La Chapelle and François Marin was also considered modern.", "In the 1960s, Henri Gault and Christian Millau revived it to describe the cooking of Paul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, Michel Guérard, Roger Vergé and Raymond Oliver.", "These chefs were working toward rebelling against the \"orthodoxy\" of Escoffier's cuisine.", "Some of the chefs were students of Fernand Point at the ''Pyramide'' in Vienne, and had left to open their own restaurants.", "Gault and Millau \"discovered the formula\" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of cooking.The characteristics that happened during this period were:1.A rejection of excessive complication in cooking.2.The cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés was greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors.", "Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic.3.The cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients.4.Large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus.5.Strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used.6.They stopped using heavy sauces such as ''espagnole'' and ''béchamel'' thickened with flour based \"''roux''\" in favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar.7.They used regional dishes for inspiration instead of ''haute cuisine'' dishes.8.New techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used; Bocuse even used microwave ovens.9.The chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through their dishes.10.And finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and created new combinations and pairings.Some have speculated that a contributor to ''nouvelle cuisine'' was World War II when animal protein was in short supply during the German occupation.", "By the mid-1980s food writers stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs began returning to the ''haute cuisine'' style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new techniques remained.When the French colonized Vietnam, one of the most famous and popular dishes, Pot-au-feu was subsequently introduced to the local people.", "While it did not directly create the widely recognizable Vietnamese dish, Pho, it served as a reference for the modern-day form of Pho." ], [ "National cuisine", "There are many dishes that are considered part of French national cuisine today.A meal often consists of three courses, ''hors d'œuvre'' or ''entrée'' (introductory course, sometimes soup), ''plat principal'' (main course), ''fromage'' (cheese course) or ''dessert'', sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert.", ";Hors d'œuvreFile:Terrine de saumon au basilic.JPG\|Basil salmon ''terrine''File:Lobster bisque.jpg\|''Bisque'' is a smooth and creamy French ''potage''.File:Foie gras en cocotte.jpg\|''Foie gras'' with mustard seeds and green onions in duck ''jus''File:Croque monsieur.jpg\|''Croque monsieur'';Plat principalFile:Pot-au-feu2.jpg\|''Pot-au-feu'' is a ''cuisine classique'' dish.File:Flickr - cyclonebill - Bøf med pommes frites (1).jpg\|''Steak frites'' is a simple and popular dish.File:Blanquette de veau à l'ancienne 04.jpg\|''Blanquette de veau'';PâtisserieFile:Lille Meert2.JPG\|Typical French ''pâtisserie''File:Mille-feuille 20100916.jpg\|''Mille-feuille''File:Arc-en-ciel comestible.jpg\|''Macaron''File:Eclairs at Fauchon in Paris.jpg\|''Éclair'';DessertFile:Creme Brulee.jpeg\|''Crème brûlée''File:Chocolate mousse.jpg\|''Mousse au chocolat''File:Crêpe Suzette au Citron.jpg\|''Crêpe''File:Ujuvad saarekesed.jpg\|''Île flottante''" ], [ "Regional cuisine", "regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France include Corsica (''Corse'', lower right).", "Paris area is expanded (inset at left).French regional cuisine is characterized by its extreme diversity and style.", "Traditionally, each region of France has its own distinctive cuisine.===Paris and Île-de-France===Paris and Île-de-France are central regions where almost anything from the country is available, as all train lines meet in the city.", "Over 9,000 restaurants exist in Paris and almost any cuisine can be obtained here.", "High-quality Michelin Guide-rated restaurants proliferate here.===Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace===Game and ham are popular in Champagne, as well as the special sparkling wine simply known as ''Champagne''.", "Fine fruit preserves are known from Lorraine as well as the quiche Lorraine.", "As region of historically Allemanic German culture Alsace has retained Elements of German cuisine, especially similar to those from the neighboring Palatinate and Baden region, but has implemented French influences since France first took control of the region in the 17th century.", "As such, beers made in the area are similar to the style of bordering Germany.", "Dishes like ''choucroute'' (French for ''sauerkraut'') are also popular.", "Many \"''Eaux de vie''\" (distilled alcohol from fruit) also called schnaps are from this region, due to a wide variety of local fruits (cherry, raspberry, pear, grapes) and especially prunes (mirabelle, plum).9:259,295File:Champagne flute and bottle.jpg\|''Flute'' of ''Champagne'' wineFile:Tarte flambée alsacienne 514471722.jpg\|Alsatian ''Flammekueche''File:Quiches 2.jpg\|''Quiche''File:Choucroute-p1030191.jpg\|''Choucroute garnie''File:Andouillette.jpg\|''Andouillette''\"Carte Gastronomique de la France\" belong to the outset of the \"Cours Gastronomique\" by Charles Louis Cadet de Gassicourt (1809).===Nord Pas-de-Calais, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany===The coastline supplies many crustaceans, sea bass, monkfish and herring.", "Normandy has top-quality seafood, such as scallops and sole, while Brittany has a supply of lobster, crayfish and mussels.Normandy is home to a large population of apple trees; apples are often used in dishes, as well as cider and Calvados.", "The northern areas of this region, especially Nord, grow ample amounts of wheat, sugar beets and chicory.", "Thick stews are found often in these northern areas as well.The produce of these northern regions is also considered some of the best in the country, including cauliflower and artichokes.", "Buckwheat grows widely in Brittany as well and is used in the region's ''galettes'', called ''jalet'', which is where this dish originated.File:Crème Chantilly.jpg\|''Crème Chantilly'', created at the Château de Chantilly.File:Camembert.JPG\|''Camembert'', cheese specialty from NormandyFile:GaletteCidre.JPG\|''Crêpe'' and ''Cider'', specialty from BrittanyFile:Jielbeaumadier gaufres lilloises 2008.jpg\|''Lille Waffles''File:Belon oysters at Belon river, France.jpg\|Belon oysters===Loire Valley and central France===High-quality fruits come from the Loire Valley and central France, including cherries grown for the liqueur ''Guignolet'' and ''Belle Angevine'' pears.", "The strawberries and melons are also of high quality.Fish are seen in the cuisine, often served with a ''beurre blanc'' sauce, as well as wild game, lamb, calves, Charolais cattle, ''Géline'' fowl, and goat cheeses.Young vegetables are used often, as are the specialty mushrooms of the region, ''champignons de Paris''.", "Vinegars from Orléans are a specialty ingredient used as well.===Burgundy and Franche-Comté===Burgundy and Franche-Comté are known for their wines.", "Pike, perch, river crabs, snails, game, redcurrants, blackcurrants are from both Burgundy and Franche-Comté.Amongst savorous specialties accounted in the ''Cuisine franc-comtoise'' from the Franche-Comté region are '''', '''', trout, smoked meats and cheeses such as Mont d'Or, Comté and Morbier which are best eaten hot or cold, the exquisite '''' and the special dessert ''''.Charolais beef, poultry from Bresse, sea snail, honey cake, Chaource and Époisses cheese are specialties of the local cuisine of Burgundy.", "Dijon mustard is also a specialty of Burgundy cuisine.", "''Crème de cassis'' is a popular liquor made from the blackcurrants.", "Oils are used in the cooking here, types include nut oils and rapeseed oil.File:Boeuf bourguignon servie avec des pâtes.jpg\|''Bœuf bourguignon''File:Coq au vin at The Swan at the Globe, London.jpg\|''Coq au vin''File:Escargotbordeaux.jpg\|''Escargots'', with special tongs and forkFile:Beaujolais salad.jpg\|''Beaujolais'' wineFile:Dijon mustard on a spoon - 20051218.jpg\|''Dijon mustard''File:Vin Jaune.jpg\|''Comté'' cheese and ''Vin jaune''File:Gateau de menage.jpg\|''Gâteau de ménage''===Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes===''Grand sechoir'', Museum of the Walnut in Vinay, IsèreSalade lyonnaise''Drome apricotsSweet chestnutsThe area covers the old province of Dauphiné, once known as the \"larder\" of France, that gave its name to ''gratin dauphinois'', traditionally made in a large baking dish rubbed with garlic.", "Successive layers of potatoes, salt, pepper and milk are piled up to the top of the dish.", "It is then baked in the oven at low temperature for 2 hours.Fruit and young vegetables are popular in the cuisine from the Rhône valley, as are wines like Hermitage AOC, Crozes-Hermitage AOC and Condrieu AOC.", "Walnuts and walnut products and oil from Noix de Grenoble AOC, lowland cheeses, like St. Marcellin, St. Félicien and Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage.Poultry from Bresse, guinea fowl from Drôme and fish from the Dombes, a light yeast-based cake, called Pogne de Romans and the regional speciality, ''Raviole du Dauphiné'', and there is the short-crust \"Suisse\", a Valence biscuit speciality.Lakes and mountain streams in Rhône-Alpes are key to the cuisine as well.", "Lyon and Savoy supply sausages while the Alpine regions supply their specialty cheeses like Beaufort, Abondance, Reblochon, Tomme and Vacherin.", "''Mères lyonnaises'' are female cooks particular to this region who provide local gourmet establishments.", "Celebrated chefs from this region include Fernand Point, Paul Bocuse, the Troisgros brothers and Alain Chapel.The Chartreuse Mountains are the source of the green and yellow digestif liquor Chartreuse, produced by the monks of the Grande Chartreuse.Since the 2014 administrative reform, the ancient area of Auvergne is now part of the region.", "One of its leading chefs is Regis Marcon.File:Gratin-Dauphinois.jpg\|''Gratin dauphinois''File:Etalage de bleu du Vercors-Sassenage.jpg\|''Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage''File:Chartreuse ElixirVegetal 400th71%.jpg\|''Chartreuse Elixir Végétal''File:Salade de ravioles.jpg\|''Salade de ravioles''File:Condrieu Viognier.jpg\|''Condrieu'' wineFile:Suisse biscuit.JPG\|''''File:Bleu de Bresse cheese.jpg\|''Bleu de Bresse''File:Salade bressane.jpg\|''Poulet de Bresse'' chicken saladFile:Rosettes de Lyon.jpg\|''Rosette de Lyon charcuterie''File:Noix3coquilles.jpg\|''Noix de Grenoble'', unusual trilaterally symmetric walnutFile:Cave Beaufort (Savoie).jpg\|Beaufort cheeses ripening in a cellar===Poitou-Charentes and Limousin===Oysters come from the Oléron-Marennes basin, while mussels come from the Bay of Aiguillon.High-quality produce comes from the region's hinterland, especially goat cheese.", "This region and in the Vendée is grazing ground for ''Parthenaise'' cattle, while poultry is raised in Challans.The region of Poitou-Charentes purportedly produces the best butter and cream in France.", "Cognac is also made in the region along the river Charente.Limousin is home to the Limousin cattle, as well as sheep.", "The woodlands offer game and mushrooms.", "The southern area around Brive draws its cooking influence from Périgord and Auvergne to produce a robust cuisine.===Bordeaux, Périgord, Gascony, and Basque country===Bordeaux is known for its wine, with certain areas offering specialty grapes for wine-making.", "Fishing is popular in the region for the cuisine, sea fishing in the Bay of Biscay, trapping in the Garonne and stream fishing in the Pyrenees.The Pyrenees also has lamb, such as the ''Agneau de Pauillac'', as well as sheep cheeses.", "Beef cattle in the region include the ''Blonde d'Aquitaine'', ''Boeuf de Chalosse'', ''Boeuf Gras de Bazas'', and ''Garonnaise''.Free-range chicken, turkey, pigeon, capon, goose and duck prevail in the region as well.", "Gascony and Périgord cuisines includes ''pâtés'', ''terrines'', ''confits'' and ''magrets''.", "This is one of the regions notable for its production of ''foie gras'', or fattened goose or duck liver.The cuisine of the region is often heavy and farm-based.", "Armagnac is also from this region, as are prunes from Agen.File:Confitdecanard.jpg\|''Confit de canard''File:Foie gras with sauternes.jpg\|A ''terrine'' of ''foie gras'' with a bottle of ''Sauternes''File:Truffe coupée.jpg\|Black Périgord truffleFile:Tourin.jpg\|''Tourin'', a garlic soup from Dordogne===Toulouse, Quercy, and Aveyron===Gers, a department of France, is within this region and has poultry, while La Montagne Noire and Lacaune area offer hams and dry sausages.White corn is planted heavily in the area both for use in fattening ducks and geese for foie gras and for the production of ''millas'', a cornmeal porridge.", "Haricot beans are also grown in this area, which are central to the dish ''cassoulet''.The finest sausage in France is ''saucisse de Toulouse'', which also part of ''cassoulet'' of Toulouse.", "The Cahors area produces a specialty \"black wine\" as well as truffles and mushrooms.This region also produces milk-fed lamb.", "Unpasteurized ewe's milk is used to produce Roquefort in Aveyron, while in Laguiole is producing unpasteurized cow's milk cheese.", "Salers cattle produce milk for cheese, as well as beef and veal products.The volcanic soils create flinty cheeses and superb lentils.", "Mineral waters are produced in high volume in this region as well.", "Cabécou cheese is from Rocamadour, a medieval settlement erected directly on a cliff, in the rich countryside of .This area is one of the region's oldest milk producers; it has chalky soil, marked by history and human activity, and is favourable for the raising of goats.File:Bowl of cassoulet.JPG\|''Cassoulet''File:Bol d'aligot.jpg\|''Aligot''File:Roquefort cheese.jpg\|''Roquefort'' cheese===Roussillon, Languedoc, and Cévennes===Restaurants are popular in the area known as ''Le Midi''.", "Oysters come from the Étang de Thau, to be served in the restaurants of Bouzigues, Mèze, and Sète.", "Mussels are commonly seen here in addition to fish specialties of Sète, ''bourride'', ''tielles'' and ''rouille de seiche''.In the Languedoc ''jambon cru'', sometimes known as ''jambon de montagne'' is produced.", "High quality ''Roquefort'' comes from the ''brebis'' (sheep) on the Larzac plateau.The Les Cévennes area offers mushrooms, chestnuts, berries, honey, lamb, game, sausages, ''pâtés'' and goat cheeses.", "Catalan influence can be seen in the cuisine here with dishes like ''brandade'' made from a purée of dried cod wrapped in mangold leaves.", "Snails are plentiful and are prepared in a specific ''Catalan'' style known as a ''cargolade''.", "Wild boar can be found in the more mountainous regions of the ''Midi''.===Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur===The Provence and Côte d'Azur region is rich in quality citrus, vegetables, fruits and herbs; the region is one of the largest suppliers of all these ingredients in France.", "The region also produces the largest amount of olives, and creates superb olive oil.", "Lavender is used in many dishes found in Haute-Provence.", "Other important herbs in the cuisine include thyme, sage, rosemary, basil, savory, fennel, marjoram, tarragon, oregano, and bay leaf.", "Honey is a prized ingredient in the region.Seafood is widely available throughout the coastal area and is heavily represented in the cuisine.", "Goat cheeses, air-dried sausages, lamb, beef, and chicken are popular here.", "Garlic and anchovies are used in many of the region's sauces, as in ''Poulet Provençal'', which uses white wine, tomatoes, herbs, and sometimes anchovies, and Pastis is found everywhere that alcohol is served.The cuisine uses a large amount of vegetables for lighter preparations.", "Truffles are commonly seen in Provence during the winter.", "Thirteen desserts in Provence are the traditional Christmas dessert, e.g.", "quince cheese, biscuits, almonds, nougat, apple, and ''fougasse''.Rice is grown in the Camargue, which is the northernmost rice growing area in Europe, with Camargue red rice being a specialty.", "Anibal Camous, a Marseillais who lived to be 104, maintained that it was by eating garlic daily that he kept his \"youth\" and brilliance.", "When his eighty-year-old son died, the father mourned: \"I always told him he wouldn't live long, poor boy.", "He ate too little garlic!", "\"File:Ratatouille-Dish.jpg\|''Ratatouille''File:Flickr - cyclonebill - Salade niçoise (2).jpg\|''Salade niçoise''File:Flickr - cyclonebill - Bouillabaisse med rouille.jpg\|''Bouillabaisse''File:Daube de boeuf carottes.jpg\|''Daube''File:Pissaladière.jpg\|''Pissaladière''File:Pan-bagnat002.jpg\|''Pan bagnat''File:AOC Vacqueyras rosé + lavande.jpg\|Vacqueyras wineFile:Bourride de fruits de mer.JPG\|''Bourride de fruits de mer''File:Salade mesclun et chèvre chaud sur toasts.jpg\|''Salade Mesclun''File:Pieds et paquets 2.jpg\|''Pieds paquets''===Corsica===Goats and sheep proliferate on the island of Corsica, and lamb are used to prepare dishes such as ''stufato'', ''ragouts'' and roasts.", "Cheeses are also produced, with ''brocciu'' being the most popular.Chestnuts, growing in the Castagniccia forest, are used to produce flour, which is used in turn to make bread, cakes and ''polenta''.", "The forest provides acorns used to feed the pigs and boars that provide much of the protein for the island's cuisine.", "Fresh fish and seafood are common.The island's pork is used to make fine hams, sausage and other unique items including ''coppa'' (dried rib cut), ''lonzu'' (dried pork fillet), ''figatellu'' (smoked and dried liverwurst), ''salumu'' (a dried sausage), ''salcietta'', ''Panzetta'', bacon, and ''prisuttu'' (farmer's ham).Clementines (which hold an AOC designation), lemons, nectarines and figs are grown there.", "Candied citron is used in nougats, while and the aforementioned ''brocciu'' and chestnuts are also used in desserts.Corsica offers a variety of wines and fruit liqueurs, including Cap Corse, Patrimonio, Cédratine, Bonapartine, ''liqueur de myrte'', ''vins de fruit'', Rappu, and ''eau-de-vie de châtaigne''.===French Guiana==='''French Guianan cuisine''' or '''Guianan cuisine''' is a blend of the different cultures that have settled in French Guiana.", "Creole and Chinese restaurants are common in major cities such as Cayenne, Kourou and Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni.", "Many indigenous animal species such as caiman and tapir are used in spiced stews.=== Réunion ===The cuisine of Réunion is a Creole cuisine (in French, ''Créole'') with a mixture of cooking styles and ingredients.", "It is strongly influenced by Malagasy cuisine (from Madagascar), as well as other cuisines from East Africa.", "It also incorporates elements of larger French, Indian and Chinese cuisines, brought by French colonialization and Indian and Chinese immigrants respectively.", "Notable dishes include samosas, bouchons, rougail, and various curries.=== Martinique ===The cuisine of Martinique is a Creole cuisine with a mix of French, indigenous, African, and Indian cooking styles using local ingredients such as breadfruit, cassava, and christophene.", "Creole dishes rely heavily on seafood, including curries and fritters.", "Crêperies, Brasseries, and restaurants featuring cuisine from various French regions can be found all over Martinique.", "Notable local dishes include Accra a fish-based fritter, Boudin sausage, Fricassée de chatrou an occotpus stew, Colombo de Martinique a coconut-milk based curry, and Ti Punch a rum and cane juice based drink.=== Guadeloupe ===The cuisine of Guadeloupe includes Caribbean, African, European and Indian influences.", "Notable dishes includes the fish fritter accra, a savory stuffed donut called bokit, and coconut based desserts like custard and sorbet.", "Notably.", "the spice blend \"colombo\" or \"massalé\" is a curry-like mix of pepper, saffron, coriander, cumin and garlic with the flavor profile included by Sri Lankan immigrants.", "The island is also known for rums and includes nine distilleries producing traditional and agricultural rum.=== New Caledonia ===The cuisine of New Caledonia includes local Kanak, Melanesian, and traditional French cooking styles.", "A notable local dish is bougna which is a stew composed of starches, taros, sweet potatoes, poingo bananas, yams, and is accompanied by local meat and cooked in coconut milk.", "Seafood is also common including fish and lobster.", "Traditional French pastries, breads, and cheese may also be found especially in the capital of Nouméa.=== French Polynesia ===The cuisine of French Polynesia includes a significant array of fruits and vegetables especially sweet potato and coconut.", "Due to the island nature of the region, seafood is also very common.", "The \"''ahima’a''\", is a traditional Polynesian underground oven in which hot stones are placed inside to cook the ingredients.", "Notable dishes include Faraoa 'ipo, Poisson cru and Rēti'a.=== Mayotte ===The cuisine of Mayotte includes influences from European France, Portugal, the Arab world, and India.", "Common food includes rice as a daily staple staple mixed with root vegetables, plantains, fresh and dried fish, and milk from grated coconuts and meat.", "Notable dishes include Chahoula ya nadzi, rice boiled in water or coconut milk generally served for large meals and makarara a festive fried cake that is prepared into rolls of dough made of flour and coconut milk." ], [ "Specialties by season", "French cuisine varies according to the season.", "In summer, salads and fruit dishes are popular because they are refreshing and produce is inexpensive and abundant.", "Greengrocers prefer to sell their fruits and vegetables at lower prices if needed, rather than see them rot in the heat.", "At the end of summer, mushrooms become plentiful and appear in stews throughout France.", "The hunting season begins in September and runs through February.", "Game of all kinds is eaten, often in elaborate dishes that celebrate the success of the hunt.", "Shellfish are at their peak when winter turns to spring, and oysters appear in restaurants in large quantities.With the advent of deep-freeze and the air-conditioned ''hypermarché'', these seasonal variations are less marked than hitherto, but they are still observed, in some cases due to legal restrictions.", "Crayfish, for example, have a short season and it is illegal to catch them out of season.", "Moreover, they do not freeze well." ], [ "Foods and ingredients", "French regional cuisines use locally grown vegetables, such as ''pomme de terre'' (potato), ''blé'' (wheat), ''haricots verts'' (a type of French green bean), ''carotte'' (carrot), ''poireau'' (leek), ''navet'' (turnip), ''aubergine'' (eggplant), ''courgette'' (zucchini), and ''échalotte'' (shallot).French regional cuisines use locally grown fungi, such as ''truffe'' (truffle), ''champignon de Paris'' (button mushroom), ''chanterelle ou girolle'' (chanterelle), ''pleurote (en huître)'' (oyster mushrooms), and ''cèpes'' (porcini).Common fruits include oranges, tomatoes, tangerines, peaches, apricots, apples, pears, plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, redcurrants, blackberries, grapes, grapefruit, and blackcurrants.Varieties of meat consumed include ''poulet'' (chicken), ''pigeon'' (squab), ''canard'' (duck), ''oie'' (goose, the source of foie gras), ''bœuf'' (beef), ''veau'' (veal), ''porc'' (pork), ''agneau'' (lamb), ''mouton'' (mutton), ''caille'' (quail), ''cheval'' (horse), ''grenouille'' (frog), and ''escargot'' (snails).", "Commonly consumed fish and seafood include cod, canned sardines, fresh sardines, canned tuna, fresh tuna, salmon, trout, mussels, herring, oysters, shrimp and calamari.Eggs often eaten as: omelettes, hard-boiled with mayonnaise, scrambled plain, scrambled ''haute cuisine'' preparation, ''œuf à la coque''.Herbs and seasonings vary by region, and include ''fleur de sel'', ''herbes de Provence'', ''olive'', tarragon, rosemary, marjoram, lavender, thyme, fennel, and sage.Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat, can be purchased either from supermarkets or specialty shops.", "Street markets are held on certain days in most localities; some towns have a more permanent covered market enclosing food shops, especially meat and fish retailers.", "These have better shelter than the periodic street markets.File:Herbesdeprovence.jpg\|''Herbes de provence''File:Charetveau.jpg\|''Charolais cattle''File:Champignons Agaricus.jpg\|''Champignon de Paris''File:HaricotsVerts2.JPG\|''Haricots verts''File:France-AOC Piment d'Espelette-2005-08-05.jpg\|''Piments d'Espelette''File:Fleur de sel2.jpg\|''Fleur de sel de Guérande''File:Wine grapes03.jpg\|''Grappe de raisin''File:Bressehühner-1.jpg\|''Poulet de Bresse''File:Vehnäpelto 6.jpg\|''Blé (Wheat)''File:Truffe noire du Périgord.jpg\|''Black Périgord truffle''" ], [ "Structure of meals", "===Breakfast===Café'' with a ''croissant'' for breakfast''Le petit déjeuner'' (breakfast) is traditionally a quick meal consisting of ''tartines'' (slices) of French bread with butter and honey or jam (sometimes brioche), along with ''café au lait'' (also called ''café crème''), or black coffee, or tea and rarely hot chicory.", "Children often drink hot chocolate in bowls or cups along with their breakfasts.", "''Croissants'', ''pain aux raisins'' or ''pain au chocolat'' (also named ''chocolatine'' in the south-west of France) are mostly included as a weekend treat.", "Breakfast of some kind is always served in cafés opening early in the day.There are also savoury dishes for breakfast.", "An example is ''le petit déjeuner gaulois'' or ''petit déjeuner fermier'' with the famous long narrow bread slices topped with soft white cheese or boiled ham, called ''mouillettes'', which is dipped in a soft-boiled egg and some fruit juice and hot drink.Another variation called ''le petit déjeuner chasseur'', meant to be very hearty, is served with ''pâté'' and other ''charcuterie'' products.", "A more classy version is called ''le petit déjeuner du voyageur'', where delicatessens serve gizzard, bacon, salmon, omelet, or ''croque monsieur'', with or without soft-boiled egg and always with the traditional coffee/tea/chocolate along fruits or fruit juice.", "When the egg is cooked sunny-side over the ''croque-monsieur'', it is called a ''croque-madame''.In ''Germinal'' and other novels, Émile Zola also mentioned the ''briquet'': two long bread slices stuffed with butter, cheese and or ham.", "It can be eaten as a standing/walking breakfast, or meant as a \"second\" one before lunch.In the movie ''Bienvenue chez les Ch'tis'', Philippe Abrams (Kad Merad) and Antoine Bailleul (Dany Boon) share together countless breakfasts consisting of ''tartines de Maroilles'' (a strong cheese) along with their hot chicory.===Lunch===''Le déjeuner'' (lunch) is a two-hour mid-day meal or a one-hour lunch break .", "In some smaller towns and in the south of France, the two-hour lunch may still be customary .", "Sunday lunches are often longer and are taken with the family.", "Restaurants normally open for lunch at noon and close at 2:30 pm.", "Some restaurants are closed on Monday during lunch hours.In large cities, a majority of working people and students eat their lunch at a corporate or school cafeteria, which normally serves complete meals as described above; it is not usual for students to bring their own lunch to eat.", "For companies that do not operate a cafeteria, it is mandatory for employees to be given lunch vouchers as part of their employee benefits.", "These can be used in most restaurants, supermarkets and ''traiteurs''; however, workers having lunch in this way typically do not eat all three courses of a traditional lunch due to price and time constraints.", "In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave their workplaces to return home for lunch.", "An alternative, especially among blue-collar workers, is eating sandwiches followed by a dessert; both dishes can be found ready-made at bakeries and supermarkets at budget prices.===Dinner===''Le dîner'' (dinner) often consists of three courses, ''hors d'œuvre'' or ''entrée'' (appetizers or introductory course, sometimes soup), ''plat principal'' (main course), and a cheese course or dessert, sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert.", "Yogurt may replace the cheese course, while a simple dessert would be fresh fruit.", "The meal is often accompanied by bread, wine and mineral water.", "Most of the time the bread would be a baguette which is very common in France and is made almost every day.", "Main meat courses are often served with vegetables, along with potatoes, rice or pasta.", "Restaurants often open at 7:30 pm for dinner, and stop taking orders between the hours of 10:00 pm and 11:00 pm.", "Some restaurants close for dinner on Sundays." ], [ "Beverages and drinks <span id=\"drinks\"></span>", "In French cuisine, beverages that precede a meal are called ''apéritifs'' (literally: \"that opens the appetite\"), and can be served with ''amuse-gueules'' (literally: \"mouth amuser\").", "Those that end it are called ''digestifs''.", "During the meal, plates are served with water, wine or sometimes beer (''choucroute'' and beer, for example).", ";''Apéritifs''The ''apéritif'' varies from region to region: Pastis is popular in the south of France, Crémant d'Alsace in the eastern region.", "Champagne can also be served.", "Kir, also called ''Blanc-cassis'', is a common and popular ''apéritif''-cocktail made with a measure of ''crème de cassis'' (blackcurrant liqueur) topped up with white wine.", "The phrase ''Kir Royal'' is used when white wine is replaced with a ''Champagne'' wine.", "A simple glass of red wine, such as Beaujolais nouveau, can also be presented as an ''apéritif'', accompanied by ''amuse-bouches''.", "Some ''apéritifs'' can be fortified wines with added herbs, such as cinchona, gentian and vermouth.", "Trade names that sell well include Suze (the classic gentiane), Byrrh, Dubonnet, and Noilly Prat.", "Beer can also be an ''apéritif''.", "Other drinks are fruit juices or syrups for children.", ";''Digestifs''''Digestifs'' are traditionally stronger, and include Cognac, Armagnac, Calvados, ''Eau de vie'' and fruit alcohols." ], [ "Christmas", "A typical French Christmas dish is turkey or capon, with chestnuts.", "Other common dishes are smoked salmon, oysters, caviar and ''foie gras''.", "The Yule log (''bûche de Noël'') is a very French tradition during Christmas.", "Chocolate and cakes also occupy a prominent place for Christmas in France.", "This cuisine is normally accompanied by Champagne.", "Tradition says that thirteen desserts complete the Christmas meal in reference to the twelve apostles and Christ.Yule log, a French Christmas tradition" ], [ "Food establishments", "Cooks at work===History===The modern restaurant has its origins in French culture.", "Prior to the late 18th century, diners who wished to \"dine out\" would visit their local guild member's kitchen and have their meal prepared for them.", "However, guild members were limited to producing whatever their guild registry delegated to them.", "These guild members offered food in their own homes to steady clientele that appeared day-to-day but at set times.", "The guest would be offered the meal ''table d'hôte'', which is a meal offered at a set price with very little choice of dishes, sometimes none at all.The first steps toward the modern restaurant were locations that offered \"restorative\" ''bouillons'', or ''restaurants''—these words being the origin of the name \"restaurant\".", "This step took place during the 1760s–1770s.", "These locations were open at all times of the day, featuring ornate tableware and reasonable prices.", "These locations were meant more as meal replacements for those who had \"lost their appetites and suffered from jaded palates and weak chests.", "\"In 1782 Antoine Beauvilliers, pastry chef to the future Louis XVIII, opened one of the most popular restaurants of the time—the ''Grande Taverne de Londres''—in the arcades of the Palais-Royal.", "Other restaurants were opened by chefs of the time who were leaving the failing monarchy of France, in the period leading up to the French Revolution.", "It was these restaurants that expanded upon the limited menus of decades prior, and led to the full restaurants that were completely legalized with the advent of the French Revolution and the abolition of the guilds.", "This and the substantial discretionary income of the French Directory's ''nouveau riche'' helped keep these new restaurants in business.Restaurant ''Le Train Bleu'', in ParisA bouchon, ''Le tablier'' (the apron), in Vieux Lyon''Café de Flore'', in ParisAn ''estaminet'' in Lille+CategoriesEnglishFrenchDescriptionRestaurantMore than 5,000 in Paris alone, with varying levels of prices and menus.", "Open at certain times of the day, and normally closed one day of the week.", "Patrons select items from a printed menu.", "Some offer regional menus, while others offer a modern styled menu.", "Waiters and waitresses are trained and knowledgeable professionals.", "By law, a menu must be offered, although high-class restaurants may try to conceal the fact.", "Few French restaurants cater to vegetarians.", "The ''Guide Michelin'' rates many of the better restaurants in this category.Bistro(t)Often smaller than a restaurant and many times using chalk board or verbal menus.", "Wait staff may well be untrained.", "Many feature a regional cuisine.", "Notable dishes include ''coq au vin'', ''pot-au-feu'', ''confit de canard'', calves' liver and ''entrecôte''.Bistrot à VinSimilar to ''cabarets'' or ''tavernes'' of the past in France.", "Some offer inexpensive alcoholic drinks, while others take pride in offering a full range of vintage AOC wines.", "The foods in some are simple, including sausages, ham and cheese, while others offer dishes similar to what can be found in a bistro.BouchonFound in Lyon, they produce traditional Lyonnaise cuisine, such as sausages, duck ''pâté'' or roast pork.", "The dishes can be quite fatty, and heavily oriented around meat.", "There are about twenty officially certified traditional bouchons, but a larger number of establishments describing themselves using the term.BreweryBrasserieThese establishments were created in the 1870s by refugees from Alsace-Lorraine.", "These establishments serve beer, but most serve wines from Alsace such as Riesling, Sylvaner, and Gewürztraminer.", "The most popular dishes are ''choucroute'' and seafood dishes.", "In general, a brasserie is open all day every day, offering the same menu.CaféPrimarily locations for coffee and alcoholic drinks.", "Additional tables and chairs are usually set outside, and prices are usually higher for service at these tables.", "The limited foods sometimes offered include ''croque-monsieur'', salads, ''moules-frites'' (mussels and ''pommes frites'') when in season.", "''Cafés'' often open early in the morning and shut down around nine at night.Salon de ThéThese locations are more similar to cafés in the rest of the world.", "These tearooms often offer a selection of cakes and do not offer alcoholic drinks.", "Many offer simple snacks, salads, and sandwiches.", "Teas, hot chocolate, and ''chocolat à l'ancienne'' (a popular chocolate drink) are offered as well.", "These locations often open just prior to noon for lunch and then close late afternoon.BarBased on the American style, many were built at the beginning of the 20th century (particularly around World War I, when young American expatriates were quite common in France, particularly Paris).", "These locations serve cocktails, whiskey, pastis and other alcoholic drinks.EstaminetTypical of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, these small bars/restaurants used to be a central place for farmers, mine or textile workers to meet and socialize, sometimes the bars would be in a grocery store.", "Customers could order basic regional dishes, play boules, or use the bar as a meeting place for clubs.", "These estaminets almost disappeared, but are now considered a part of Nord-Pas-de-Calais history, and therefore preserved and promoted.===Restaurant staff===Larger restaurants and hotels in France employ extensive staff and are commonly referred to as either the ''kitchen brigade'' for the kitchen staff or ''dining room brigade'' system for the dining room staff.", "This system was created by Georges Auguste Escoffier.", "This structured team system delegates responsibilities to different individuals who specialize in certain tasks.", "The following is a list of positions held both in the kitchen and dining rooms brigades in France:+StaffSectionFrenchEnglishDutyKitchen brigadeHead chefResponsible for overall management of kitchen.", "They supervise staff, and create menus and new recipes with the assistance of the restaurant manager, make purchases of raw food items, train apprentices and maintain a sanitary and hygienic environment for the preparation of food.Deputy Head chefReceives orders directly from the ''chef de cuisine'' for the management of the kitchen and often represents the ''chef de cuisine'' when he or she is not present.Senior chefResponsible for managing a given station in the kitchen where they specialize in preparing particular dishes.", "Those that work in a lesser station are referred to as a ''demi-chef''.CookThis position is an independent one where they usually prepare specific dishes in a station.", "They may be referred to as a ''cuisinier de partie''.Junior cookAlso works in a specific station, but reports directly to the ''chef de partie'' and takes care of the tools for the station.ApprenticeMany times they are students gaining theoretical and practical training in school and work experience in the kitchen.", "They perform preparatory or cleaning work.DishwasherCleans dishes and utensils and may be entrusted with basic preparatory jobs.Pot and pan washerIn larger restaurants, takes care of all the pots and pans instead of the ''plongeur''.Saucemaker/sauté cookPrepares sauces, warm ''hors d'œuvres'', completes meat dishes and in smaller restaurants may work on fish dishes and prepare sautéed items.", "This is one of the most respected positions in the kitchen brigade.Roast cookManages a team of cooks that roasts, broils and deep fries dishes.Grill cookIn larger kitchens this person prepares the grilled foods instead of the ''rôtisseur''.Fry cookIn larger kitchens this person prepares fried foods instead of the ''rôtisseur''.Fish cookPrepares fish and seafood dishes.Entrée preparerPrepares soups and other dishes not involving meat or fish, including vegetable dishes and egg dishes.Soup cookIn larger kitchens, this person reports to the ''entremetier'' and prepares the soups.Vegetable cookIn larger kitchen this person also reports to the ''entremetier'' and prepares the vegetable dishes.Pantry supervisorResponsible for preparation of cold ''hors d'œuvres'', prepares salads, organizes large buffet displays and prepares charcuterie items.Spare hand/ roundspersonMoves throughout kitchen assisting other positions in kitchen.Pastry cookPrepares desserts and other meal end sweets, and in locations without a ''boulanger'' also prepares breads and other baked items.", "They may also prepare pasta for the restaurant.Prepares candies and ''petit fours'' in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.Prepares frozen and cold desserts in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.Prepares show pieces and specialty cakes in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.BakerPrepares bread, cakes and breakfast pastries in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.ButcherButchers meats, poultry and sometimes fish.", "May also be in charge of breading meat and fish items.Announcer/ expediterTakes orders from dining room and distributes them to the various stations.", "This position may also be performed by the ''sous-chef de partie''.Prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff.Performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support in larger restaurants.Dining room brigadeGeneral managerOversees economic and administrative duties for all food-related business in large hotels or similar facilities including multiple restaurants, bars, catering and other events.Restaurant managerResponsible for the operation of the restaurant dining room, which includes managing, training, hiring and firing staff, and economic duties of such matters.", "In larger establishments there may be an assistant to this position who would replace this person in their absence.Welcomes guests, and seats them at tables.", "They also supervise the service staff.", "Commonly deals with complaints and verifies patrons' bills.Commonly in charge of service for the full dining room in larger establishments; this position can be combined into the ''maître d'hotel'' position.The dining room is separated into sections called ''rangs''.", "Each ''rang'' is supervised by this person to coordinate service with the kitchen.Back serverClears plates between courses if there is no ''commis débarrasseur'', fills water glasses and assists the ''chef de rang''.Clears plates between courses and the table at the end of the meal.In larger establishments, this person brings the different courses from the kitchen to the table.CaptainExplains the menu to the guest and answers any questions.", "This person often performs the tableside food preparations.", "This position may be combined with the ''chef de rang'' in smaller establishments.Wine serverManages wine cellar by purchasing and organizing as well as preparing the wine list.", "Also advises the guests on wine choices and serves the wine.In larger establishments, this person will manage a team of sommeliers.ServerThis position found in smaller establishments performs the multiple duties of various positions in the larger restaurants in the service of food and drink to the guests.Bar managerManages the bar in a restaurant, which includes ordering and creating drink menus; they also oversee the hiring, training and firing of barmen.", "Also manages multiple bars in a hotel or other similar establishment.BartenderServes alcoholic drinks to guests.Coat room attendant who receives and returns guests' coats and hats.ValetParks guests' cars and retrieves them when the guests leave." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Patrick Rambourg, ''Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie françaises'', Paris, Ed.", "Perrin (coll.", "tempus n° 359), 2010, 381 pages.", "* Bryan Newman, \" Behind the French Menu\"," ], [ "External links", "* France stages first-ever Gastronomy Day Radio France Internationale in English" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Five-spice powder" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Five-spice powder''' () is a spice mixture of five or more spices used predominantly in almost all branches of Chinese cuisine.", "The five flavors of the spices (sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and savory) refers to the five traditional Chinese elements.", "The addition of eight other spices creates '''thirteen-spice powder''' (十三香), which is used less commonly." ], [ "Ingredients", "A common mix for ground five-spice powder (center) is (clockwise from top left) cinnamon, fennel seeds, star anise, Sichuan peppercorns and cloves.While there are many variants, a common mix is:Star anise (''bājiǎo'' 八角) Cloves (''dīngxiāng'' 丁香)Chinese cinnamon (''ròuguì'' 肉桂)Sichuan pepper (''huājiāo'' 花椒)Fennel seeds (''xiǎohuíxiāng'' 小茴香)Other recipes may contain anise seed, ginger root, nutmeg, turmeric, ''Amomum villosum'' pods (''shārén'' ), ''Amomum cardamomum'' pods (''báidòukòu'' ), licorice, Mandarin orange peel or galangal.In Southern China, ''Cinnamomum loureiroi'' and Mandarin orange peel are commonly used as substitutes for ''Cinnamomum cassia'' and cloves respectively.", "These ingredients collectively produce southern five-spice powders' distinctive, slightly different flavor profile.", "In one study, the potential antioxidant capacities of Chinese five-spice powder (consisting of Szechuan pepper, fennel seed, cinnamon, star anise, and clove) with varying proportion of individual spice ingredients was investigated through four standard methods.", "The results suggest that clove is the major contributor to the high antioxidant capacities of the five-spice powder whereas the other four ingredients contribute to the flavor." ], [ "Use", "Five spice may be used with fatty meats such as pork, duck or goose.", "It is used as a spice rub for chicken, duck, pork and seafood, in red cooking recipes, or added to the breading for fried foods.", "Five spice is used in recipes for Cantonese roasted duck, as well as beef stew.", "Canned spiced pork cubes is very popular as well.", "Five spice is used as a marinade for Vietnamese broiled chicken.", "The five-spice powder mixture has followed the Chinese diaspora and has been incorporated into other national cuisines throughout Asia.In Hawaii, some restaurants place a shaker of the spice on each patron's table.", "A seasoned salt can be easily made by dry-roasting common salt with five-spice powder under low heat in a dry pan until the spice and salt are well mixed.Five-spice powder can also add complexity and savoriness to sweets and savory dishes alike.", "It has a traditional use as an antiseptic and used to cure indigestion." ], [ "See also", "Curry powder*List of culinary herbs and spicesNgo hiangPanch phoronShichimi" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fundamental group" ], [ "Introduction", "In the mathematical field of algebraic topology, the '''fundamental group''' of a topological space is the group of the equivalence classes under homotopy of the loops contained in the space.", "It records information about the basic shape, or holes, of the topological space.", "The fundamental group is the first and simplest homotopy group.", "The fundamental group is a homotopy invariant—topological spaces that are homotopy equivalent (or the stronger case of homeomorphic) have isomorphic fundamental groups.", "The fundamental group of a topological space is denoted by ." ], [ "Intuition", "Start with a space (for example, a surface), and some point in it, and all the loops both starting and ending at this point—paths that start at this point, wander around and eventually return to the starting point.", "Two loops can be combined in an obvious way: travel along the first loop, then along the second.Two loops are considered equivalent if one can be deformed into the other without breaking.", "The set of all such loops with this method of combining and this equivalence between them is the fundamental group for that particular space." ], [ "History", "Henri Poincaré defined the fundamental group in 1895 in his paper \"Analysis situs\".", "The concept emerged in the theory of Riemann surfaces, in the work of Bernhard Riemann, Poincaré, and Felix Klein.", "It describes the monodromy properties of complex-valued functions, as well as providing a complete topological classification of closed surfaces." ], [ "Definition", "thumbThroughout this article, ''X'' is a topological space.", "A typical example is a surface such as the one depicted at the right.", "Moreover, is a point in ''X'' called the ''base-point''.", "(As is explained below, its role is rather auxiliary.)", "The idea of the definition of the homotopy group is to measure how many (broadly speaking) curves on ''X'' can be deformed into each other.", "The precise definition depends on the notion of the homotopy of loops, which is explained first.===Homotopy of loops===Given a topological space ''X'', a ''loop based at '' is defined to be a continuous function (also known as a continuous map):such that the starting point and the end point are both equal to .thumbA ''homotopy'' is a continuous interpolation between two loops.", "More precisely, a homotopy between two loops (based at the same point ) is a continuous map:such that* for all that is, the starting point of the homotopy is for all ''t'' (which is often thought of as a time parameter).", "* for all that is, similarly the end point stays at for all ''t''.", "* for all .If such a homotopy ''h'' exists, and are said to be ''homotopic''.", "The relation \" is homotopic to \" is an equivalence relation so that the set of equivalence classes can be considered::.This set (with the group structure described below) is called the ''fundamental group'' of the topological space ''X'' at the base point .", "The purpose of considering the equivalence classes of loops up to homotopy, as opposed to the set of all loops (the so-called loop space of ''X'') is that the latter, while being useful for various purposes, is a rather big and unwieldy object.", "By contrast the above quotient is, in many cases, more manageable and computable.===Group structure===thumbBy the above definition, is just a set.", "It becomes a group (and therefore deserves the name fundamental ''group'') using the concatenation of loops.", "More precisely, given two loops , their product is defined as the loop::Thus the loop first follows the loop with \"twice the speed\" and then follows with \"twice the speed\".The product of two homotopy classes of loops and is then defined as .", "It can be shown that this product does not depend on the choice of representatives and therefore gives a well-defined operation on the set .", "This operation turns into a group.", "Its neutral element is the constant loop, which stays at for all times ''t''.", "The inverse of a (homotopy class of a) loop is the same loop, but traversed in the opposite direction.", "More formally,:.Given three based loops the product: is the concatenation of these loops, traversing and then with quadruple speed, and then with double speed.", "By comparison,: traverses the same paths (in the same order), but with double speed, and with quadruple speed.", "Thus, because of the differing speeds, the two paths are not identical.", "The associativity axiom:therefore crucially depends on the fact that paths are considered up to homotopy.", "Indeed, both above composites are homotopic, for example, to the loop that traverses all three loops with triple speed.", "The set of based loops up to homotopy, equipped with the above operation therefore does turn into a group.===Dependence of the base point===Although the fundamental group in general depends on the choice of base point, it turns out that, up to isomorphism (actually, even up to ''inner'' isomorphism), this choice makes no difference as long as the space ''X'' is path-connected.", "For path-connected spaces, therefore, many authors write instead of" ], [ "Concrete examples", "A star domain is simply connected since any loop can be contracted to the center of the domain, denoted .This section lists some basic examples of fundamental groups.", "To begin with, in Euclidean space () or any convex subset of there is only one homotopy class of loops, and the fundamental group is therefore the trivial group with one element.", "More generally, any star domain – and yet more generally, any contractible space – has a trivial fundamental group.", "Thus, the fundamental group does not distinguish between such spaces.=== The 2-sphere ===A loop on a 2-sphere (the surface of a ball) being contracted to a pointA path-connected space whose fundamental group is trivial is called simply connected.", "For example, the 2-sphere depicted on the right, and also all the higher-dimensional spheres, are simply-connected.", "The figure illustrates a homotopy contracting one particular loop to the constant loop.", "This idea can be adapted to all loops such that there is a point that is in the image of However, since there are loops such that (constructed from the Peano curve, for example), a complete proof requires more careful analysis with tools from algebraic topology, such as the Seifert–van Kampen theorem or the cellular approximation theorem.===The circle===thumbThe circle (also known as the 1-sphere):is not simply connected.", "Instead, each homotopy class consists of all loops that wind around the circle a given number of times (which can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of winding).", "The product of a loop that winds around ''m'' times and another that winds around ''n'' times is a loop that winds around ''m'' + ''n'' times.", "Therefore, the fundamental group of the circle is isomorphic to the additive group of integers.", "This fact can be used to give proofs of the Brouwer fixed point theorem and the Borsuk–Ulam theorem in dimension 2.===The figure eight===The fundamental group of the figure eight is the free group on two generators ''a'' and ''b''.The fundamental group of the figure eight is the free group on two letters.", "The idea to prove this is as follows: choosing the base point to be the point where the two circles meet (dotted in black in the picture at the right), any loop can be decomposed as:where ''a'' and ''b'' are the two loops winding around each half of the figure as depicted, and the exponents are integers.", "Unlike the fundamental group of the figure eight is ''not'' abelian: the two ways of composing ''a'' and ''b'' are not homotopic to each other::More generally, the fundamental group of a bouquet of ''r'' circles is the free group on ''r'' letters.The fundamental group of a wedge sum of two path connected spaces ''X'' and ''Y'' can be computed as the free product of the individual fundamental groups::This generalizes the above observations since the figure eight is the wedge sum of two circles.The fundamental group of the plane punctured at ''n'' points is also the free group with ''n'' generators.", "The ''i''-th generator is the class of the loop that goes around the ''i''-th puncture without going around any other punctures.=== Graphs ===The fundamental group can be defined for discrete structures too.", "In particular, consider a connected graph , with a designated vertex ''v''0 in ''V''.", "The loops in ''G'' are the cycles that start and end at ''v''0.Let ''T'' be a spanning tree of ''G''.", "Every simple loop in ''G'' contains exactly one edge in ''E'' \\ ''T''; every loop in ''G'' is a concatenation of such simple loops.", "Therefore, the fundamental group of a graph is a free group, in which the number of generators is exactly the number of edges in ''E'' \\ ''T''.", "This number equals .For example, suppose ''G'' has 16 vertices arranged in 4 rows of 4 vertices each, with edges connecting vertices that are adjacent horizontally or vertically.", "Then ''G'' has 24 edges overall, and the number of edges in each spanning tree is , so the fundamental group of ''G'' is the free group with 9 generators.", "Note that ''G'' has 9 \"holes\", similarly to a bouquet of 9 circles, which has the same fundamental group.===Knot groups===A trefoil knot.", "''Knot groups'' are by definition the fundamental group of the complement of a knot ''K'' embedded in For example, the knot group of the trefoil knot is known to be the braid group which gives another example of a non-abelian fundamental group.", "The Wirtinger presentation explicitly describes knot groups in terms of generators and relations based on a diagram of the knot.", "Therefore, knot groups have some usage in knot theory to distinguish between knots: if is not isomorphic to some other knot group of another knot ''K′'', then ''K'' can not be transformed into ''K′''.", "Thus the trefoil knot can not be continuously transformed into the circle (also known as the unknot), since the latter has knot group .", "There are, however, knots that can not be deformed into each other, but have isomorphic knot groups.===Oriented surfaces===The fundamental group of a genus-''n'' orientable surface can be computed in terms of generators and relations as:This includes the torus, being the case of genus 1, whose fundamental group is:===Topological groups===The fundamental group of a topological group ''X'' (with respect to the base point being the neutral element) is always commutative.", "In particular, the fundamental group of a Lie group is commutative.", "In fact, the group structure on ''X'' endows with another group structure: given two loops and in ''X'', another loop can defined by using the group multiplication in ''X'': :This binary operation on the set of all loops is ''a priori'' independent from the one described above.", "However, the Eckmann–Hilton argument shows that it does in fact agree with the above concatenation of loops, and moreover that the resulting group structure is abelian.An inspection of the proof shows that, more generally, is abelian for any H-space ''X'', i.e., the multiplication need not have an inverse, nor does it have to be associative.", "For example, this shows that the fundamental group of a loop space of another topological space ''Y'', is abelian.", "Related ideas lead to Heinz Hopf's computation of the cohomology of a Lie group." ], [ "Functoriality", "If is a continuous map, and with then every loop in with base point can be composed with to yield a loop in with base point This operation is compatible with the homotopy equivalence relation and with composition of loops.", "The resulting group homomorphism, called the induced homomorphism, is written as or, more commonly,:This mapping from continuous maps to group homomorphisms is compatible with composition of maps and identity morphisms.", "In the parlance of category theory, the formation of associating to a topological space its fundamental group is therefore a functor:from the category of topological spaces together with a base point to the category of groups.", "It turns out that this functor does not distinguish maps that are homotopic relative to the base point: if are continuous maps with , and ''f'' and ''g'' are homotopic relative to {''x''0}, then ''f''∗ = ''g''∗.", "As a consequence, two homotopy equivalent path-connected spaces have isomorphic fundamental groups::For example, the inclusion of the circle in the punctured plane:is a homotopy equivalence and therefore yields an isomorphism of their fundamental groups.The fundamental group functor takes products to products and coproducts to coproducts.", "That is, if ''X'' and ''Y'' are path connected, then:and if they are also locally contractible, then:(In the latter formula, denotes the wedge sum of pointed topological spaces, and the free product of groups.)", "The latter formula is a special case of the Seifert–van Kampen theorem, which states that the fundamental group functor takes pushouts along inclusions to pushouts." ], [ "Abstract results", "As was mentioned above, computing the fundamental group of even relatively simple topological spaces tends to be not entirely trivial, but requires some methods of algebraic topology.=== Relationship to first homology group ===The abelianization of the fundamental group can be identified with the first homology group of the space.A special case of the Hurewicz theorem asserts that the first singular homology group is, colloquially speaking, the closest approximation to the fundamental group by means of an abelian group.", "In more detail, mapping the homotopy class of each loop to the homology class of the loop gives a group homomorphism:from the fundamental group of a topological space ''X'' to its first singular homology group This homomorphism is not in general an isomorphism since the fundamental group may be non-abelian, but the homology group is, by definition, always abelian.", "This difference is, however, the only one: if ''X'' is path-connected, this homomorphism is surjective and its kernel is the commutator subgroup of the fundamental group, so that is isomorphic to the abelianization of the fundamental group.===Gluing topological spaces===Generalizing the statement above, for a family of path connected spaces the fundamental group is the free product of the fundamental groups of the This fact is a special case of the Seifert–van Kampen theorem, which allows to compute, more generally, fundamental groups of spaces that are glued together from other spaces.", "For example, the 2-sphere can be obtained by gluing two copies of slightly overlapping half-spheres along a neighborhood of the equator.", "In this case the theorem yields is trivial, since the two half-spheres are contractible and therefore have trivial fundamental group.", "The fundamental groups of surfaces, as mentioned above, can also be computed using this theorem.In the parlance of category theory, the theorem can be concisely stated by saying that the fundamental group functor takes pushouts (in the category of topological spaces) along inclusions to pushouts (in the category of groups).===Coverings===The map is a covering: the preimage of ''U'' (highlighted in gray) is a disjoint union of copies of ''U''.", "Moreover, it is a universal covering since is contractible and therefore simply connected.Given a topological space ''B'', a continuous map :is called a ''covering'' or ''E'' is called a ''covering space'' of ''B'' if every point ''b'' in ''B'' admits an open neighborhood ''U'' such that there is a homeomorphism between the preimage of ''U'' and a disjoint union of copies of ''U'' (indexed by some set ''I''),:in such a way that is the standard projection map ====Universal covering====A covering is called a universal covering if ''E'' is, in addition to the preceding condition, simply connected.", "It is universal in the sense that all other coverings can be constructed by suitably identifying points in ''E''.", "Knowing a universal covering : of a topological space ''X'' is helpful in understanding its fundamental group in several ways: first, identifies with the group of deck transformations, i.e., the group of homeomorphisms that commute with the map to ''X'', i.e., Another relation to the fundamental group is that can be identified with the fiber For example, the map:(or, equivalently, ) is a universal covering.", "The deck transformations are the maps for This is in line with the identification in particular this proves the above claim Any path connected, locally path connected and locally simply connected topological space ''X'' admits a universal covering.", "An abstract construction proceeds analogously to the fundamental group by taking pairs (''x'', γ), where ''x'' is a point in ''X'' and γ is a homotopy class of paths from ''x''0 to ''x''.", "The passage from a topological space to its universal covering can be used in understanding the geometry of ''X''.", "For example, the uniformization theorem shows that any simply connected Riemann surface is (isomorphic to) either or the upper half plane.", "General Riemann surfaces then arise as quotients of group actions on these three surfaces.The quotient of a free action of a discrete group ''G'' on a simply connected space ''Y'' has fundamental group :As an example, the real ''n''-dimensional real projective space is obtained as the quotient of the ''n''-dimensional unit sphere by the antipodal action of the group sending to As is simply connected for ''n'' ≥ 2, it is a universal cover of in these cases, which implies for ''n'' ≥ 2.====Lie groups====Let ''G'' be a connected, simply connected compact Lie group, for example, the special unitary group SU(''n''), and let Γ be a finite subgroup of ''G''.", "Then the homogeneous space ''X'' = ''G''/Γ has fundamental group Γ, which acts by right multiplication on the universal covering space ''G''.", "Among the many variants of this construction, one of the most important is given by locally symmetric spaces ''X'' = Γ&hairsp;\\''G''/''K'', where''G'' is a non-compact simply connected, connected Lie group (often semisimple),''K'' is a maximal compact subgroup of ''G''* Γ is a discrete countable torsion-free subgroup of ''G''.In this case the fundamental group is Γ and the universal covering space ''G''/''K'' is actually contractible (by the Cartan decomposition for Lie groups).As an example take ''G'' = SL(2, '''R'''), ''K'' = SO(2) and Γ any torsion-free congruence subgroup of the modular group SL(2, '''Z''').From the explicit realization, it also follows that the universal covering space of a path connected topological group ''H'' is again a path connected topological group ''G''.", "Moreover, the covering map is a continuous open homomorphism of ''G'' onto ''H'' with kernel Γ, a closed discrete normal subgroup of ''G''::Since ''G'' is a connected group with a continuous action by conjugation on a discrete group Γ, it must act trivially, so that Γ has to be a subgroup of the center of ''G''.", "In particular π1(''H'') = Γ is an abelian group; this can also easily be seen directly without using covering spaces.", "The group ''G'' is called the ''universal covering group'' of ''H''.As the universal covering group suggests, there is an analogy between the fundamental group of a topological group and the center of a group; this is elaborated at Lattice of covering groups.===Fibrations===''Fibrations'' provide a very powerful means to compute homotopy groups.", "A fibration ''f'' the so-called ''total space'', and the base space ''B'' has, in particular, the property that all its fibers are homotopy equivalent and therefore can not be distinguished using fundamental groups (and higher homotopy groups), provided that ''B'' is path-connected.", "Therefore, the space ''E'' can be regarded as a \"twisted product\" of the base space ''B'' and the fiber The great importance of fibrations to the computation of homotopy groups stems from a long exact sequence:provided that ''B'' is path-connected.", "The term is the second homotopy group of ''B'', which is defined to be the set of homotopy classes of maps from to ''B'', in direct analogy with the definition of If ''E'' happens to be path-connected and simply connected, this sequence reduces to an isomorphism:which generalizes the above fact about the universal covering (which amounts to the case where the fiber ''F'' is also discrete).", "If instead ''F'' happens to be connected and simply connected, it reduces to an isomorphism:What is more, the sequence can be continued at the left with the higher homotopy groups of the three spaces, which gives some access to computing such groups in the same vein.====Classical Lie groups====Such fiber sequences can be used to inductively compute fundamental groups of compact classical Lie groups such as the special unitary group with This group acts transitively on the unit sphere inside The stabilizer of a point in the sphere is isomorphic to It then can be shown that this yields a fiber sequence: Since the sphere has dimension at least 3, which implies :The long exact sequence then shows an isomorphism:Since is a single point, so that is trivial, this shows that is simply connected for all The fundamental group of noncompact Lie groups can be reduced to the compact case, since such a group is homotopic to its maximal compact subgroup.", "These methods give the following results: Compact classical Lie group ''G'' Non-compact Lie group special unitary group 1 unitary group special orthogonal group for and for compact symplectic group 1 A second method of computing fundamental groups applies to all connected compact Lie groups and uses the machinery of the maximal torus and the associated root system.", "Specifically, let be a maximal torus in a connected compact Lie group and let be the Lie algebra of The exponential map:is a fibration and therefore its kernel identifies with The map:can be shown to be surjective with kernel given by the set ''I'' of integer linear combination of coroots.", "This leads to the computation : This method shows, for example, that any connected compact Lie group for which the associated root system is of type is simply connected.", "Thus, there is (up to isomorphism) only one connected compact Lie group having Lie algebra of type ; this group is simply connected and has trivial center." ], [ "Edge-path group of a simplicial complex", "When the topological space is homeomorphic to a simplicial complex, its fundamental group can be described explicitly in terms of generators and relations.If ''X'' is a connected simplicial complex, an ''edge-path'' in ''X'' is defined to be a chain of vertices connected by edges in ''X''.", "Two edge-paths are said to be ''edge-equivalent'' if one can be obtained from the other by successively switching between an edge and the two opposite edges of a triangle in ''X''.", "If ''v'' is a fixed vertex in ''X'', an ''edge-loop'' at ''v'' is an edge-path starting and ending at ''v''.", "The '''edge-path group''' ''E''(''X'', ''v'') is defined to be the set of edge-equivalence classes of edge-loops at ''v'', with product and inverse defined by concatenation and reversal of edge-loops.The edge-path group is naturally isomorphic to π1(\|''X''&hairsp;\|, ''v''), the fundamental group of the geometric realisation \|''X''&hairsp;\| of ''X''.", "Since it depends only on the 2-skeleton ''X'' 2 of ''X'' (that is, the vertices, edges, and triangles of ''X''), the groups π1(\|''X''&hairsp;\|,''v'') and π1(\|''X'' 2\|, ''v'') are isomorphic.The edge-path group can be described explicitly in terms of generators and relations.", "If ''T'' is a maximal spanning tree in the 1-skeleton of ''X'', then ''E''(''X'', ''v'') is canonically isomorphic to the group with generators (the oriented edge-paths of ''X'' not occurring in ''T'') and relations (the edge-equivalences corresponding to triangles in ''X'').", "A similar result holds if ''T'' is replaced by any simply connected—in particular contractible—subcomplex of ''X''.", "This often gives a practical way of computing fundamental groups and can be used to show that every finitely presented group arises as the fundamental group of a finite simplicial complex.", "It is also one of the classical methods used for topological surfaces, which are classified by their fundamental groups.The ''universal covering space'' of a finite connected simplicial complex ''X'' can also be described directly as a simplicial complex using edge-paths.", "Its vertices are pairs (''w'',γ) where ''w'' is a vertex of ''X'' and γ is an edge-equivalence class of paths from ''v'' to ''w''.", "The ''k''-simplices containing (''w'',γ) correspond naturally to the ''k''-simplices containing ''w''.", "Each new vertex ''u'' of the ''k''-simplex gives an edge ''wu'' and hence, by concatenation, a new path γ''u'' from ''v'' to ''u''.", "The points (''w'',γ) and (''u'', γ''u'') are the vertices of the \"transported\" simplex in the universal covering space.", "The edge-path group acts naturally by concatenation, preserving the simplicial structure, and the quotient space is just ''X''.It is well known that this method can also be used to compute the fundamental group of an arbitrary topological space.", "This was doubtless known to Eduard Čech and Jean Leray and explicitly appeared as a remark in a paper by André Weil; various other authors such as Lorenzo Calabi, Wu Wen-tsün, and Nodar Berikashvili have also published proofs.", "In the simplest case of a compact space ''X'' with a finite open covering in which all non-empty finite intersections of open sets in the covering are contractible, the fundamental group can be identified with the edge-path group of the simplicial complex corresponding to the nerve of the covering." ], [ "Realizability", "Every group can be realized as the fundamental group of a connected CW-complex of dimension 2 (or higher).", "As noted above, though, only free groups can occur as fundamental groups of 1-dimensional CW-complexes (that is, graphs).", "Every finitely presented group can be realized as the fundamental group of a compact, connected, smooth manifold of dimension 4 (or higher).", "But there are severe restrictions on which groups occur as fundamental groups of low-dimensional manifolds.", "For example, no free abelian group of rank 4 or higher can be realized as the fundamental group of a manifold of dimension 3 or less.", "It can be proved that every group can be realized as the fundamental group of a compact Hausdorff space if and only if there is no measurable cardinal." ], [ "Related concepts", "===Higher homotopy groups===Roughly speaking, the fundamental group detects the 1-dimensional hole structure of a space, but not holes in higher dimensions such as for the 2-sphere.", "Such \"higher-dimensional holes\" can be detected using the higher homotopy groups , which are defined to consist of homotopy classes of (basepoint-preserving) maps from to ''X''.", "For example, the Hurewicz theorem implies that for all the ''n''-th homotopy group of the ''n''-sphere is: As was mentioned in the above computation of of classical Lie groups, higher homotopy groups can be relevant even for computing fundamental groups.===Loop space===The set of based loops (as is, i.e.", "not taken up to homotopy) in a pointed space ''X'', endowed with the compact open topology, is known as the loop space, denoted The fundamental group of ''X'' is in bijection with the set of path components of its loop space::===Fundamental groupoid===The ''fundamental groupoid'' is a variant of the fundamental group that is useful in situations where the choice of a base point is undesirable.", "It is defined by first considering the category of paths in i.e., continuous functions:,where ''r'' is an arbitrary non-negative real number.", "Since the length ''r'' is variable in this approach, such paths can be concatenated as is (i.e., not up to homotopy) and therefore yield a category.", "Two such paths with the same endpoints and length ''r'', resp.", "''r''' are considered equivalent if there exist real numbers such that and are homotopic relative to their end points, where The category of paths up to this equivalence relation is denoted Each morphism in is an isomorphism, with inverse given by the same path traversed in the opposite direction.", "Such a category is called a groupoid.", "It reproduces the fundamental group since:.More generally, one can consider the fundamental groupoid on a set ''A'' of base points, chosen according to the geometry of the situation; for example, in the case of the circle, which can be represented as the union of two connected open sets whose intersection has two components, one can choose one base point in each component.", "The van Kampen theorem admits a version for fundamental groupoids which gives, for example, another way to compute the fundamental group(oid) of ===Local systems===Generally speaking, representations may serve to exhibit features of a group by its actions on other mathematical objects, often vector spaces.", "Representations of the fundamental group have a very geometric significance: any ''local system'' (i.e., a sheaf on ''X'' with the property that locally in a sufficiently small neighborhood ''U'' of any point on ''X'', the restriction of ''F'' is a constant sheaf of the form ) gives rise to the so-called monodromy representation, a representation of the fundamental group on an ''n''-dimensional -vector space.", "Conversely, any such representation on a path-connected space ''X'' arises in this manner.", "This equivalence of categories between representations of and local systems is used, for example, in the study of differential equations, such as the Knizhnik–Zamolodchikov equations.===Étale fundamental group===In algebraic geometry, the so-called étale fundamental group is used as a replacement for the fundamental group.", "Since the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or scheme ''X'' is much coarser than, say, the topology of open subsets in it is no longer meaningful to consider continuous maps from an interval to ''X''.", "Instead, the approach developed by Grothendieck consists in constructing by considering all finite étale covers of ''X''.", "These serve as an algebro-geometric analogue of coverings with finite fibers.This yields a theory applicable in situation where no great generality classical topological intuition whatsoever is available, for example for varieties defined over a finite field.", "Also, the étale fundamental group of a field is its (absolute) Galois group.", "On the other hand, for smooth varieties ''X'' over the complex numbers, the étale fundamental group retains much of the information inherent in the classical fundamental group: the former is the profinite completion of the latter.===Fundamental group of algebraic groups===The fundamental group of a root system is defined, in analogy to the computation for Lie groups.", "This allows to define and use the fundamental group of a semisimple linear algebraic group ''G'', which is a useful basic tool in the classification of linear algebraic groups.===Fundamental group of simplicial sets===The homotopy relation between 1-simplices of a simplicial set ''X'' is an equivalence relation if ''X'' is a Kan complex but not necessarily so in general.", "Thus, of a Kan complex can be defined as the set of homotopy classes of 1-simplices.", "The fundamental group of an arbitrary simplicial set ''X'' are defined to be the homotopy group of its topological realization, i.e., the topological space obtained by gluing topological simplices as prescribed by the simplicial set structure of ''X''." ], [ "See also", "* Orbifold fundamental group* Fundamental group scheme" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** * * * * * * * * * * Peter Hilton and Shaun Wylie, ''Homology Theory'', Cambridge University Press (1967) warning: these authors use ''contrahomology'' for cohomology* * * * * * Deane Montgomery and Leo Zippin, ''Topological Transformation Groups'', Interscience Publishers (1955)* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "* Dylan G.L.", "Allegretti, ''Simplicial Sets and van Kampen's Theorem'': A discussion of the fundamental groupoid of a topological space and the fundamental groupoid of a simplicial set* Animations to introduce fundamental group by Nicolas Delanoue* Sets of base points and fundamental groupoids: mathoverflow discussion* Groupoids in Mathematics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 19" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 197 – Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum, the bloodiest battle between Roman armies.", "* 356 – The anti-paganism policy of Constantius II forbids the worship of pagan idols in the Roman Empire.", "1594 – Having already been elected to the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1587, Sigismund III of the House of Vasa is crowned King of Sweden, having succeeded his father John III of Sweden in 1592.", "1600 – The Peruvian stratovolcano Huaynaputina explodes in the most violent eruption in the recorded history of South America.===1601–1900===1649 – The Second Battle of Guararapes takes place, effectively ending Dutch colonization efforts in Brazil.", "1674 – England and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Westminster, ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War.", "A provision of the agreement transfers the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam to England.", "1714 – Great Northern War: The battle of Napue between Sweden and Russia is fought in Isokyrö, Ostrobothnia.", "1726 – The Supreme Privy Council is established in Russia.", "1807 – Former Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr is arrested for treason in Wakefield, Alabama, and confined to Fort Stoddert.", "1819 – British explorer William Smith discovers the South Shetland Islands and claims them in the name of King George III.", "1836 – King William IV signs Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia.", "1846 – In Austin, Texas, the newly formed Texas state government is officially installed.", "The Republic of Texas government officially transfers power to the State of Texas government following the annexation of Texas by the United States.", "1847 – The first group of rescuers reaches the Donner Party.", "1878 – Thomas Edison patents the phonograph.", "1884 – More than sixty tornadoes strike the Southern United States, one of the largest tornado outbreaks in U.S. history.===1901–present===1913 – Pedro Lascuráin becomes President of Mexico for 45 minutes; this is the shortest term to date of any person as president of any country.", "1915 – World War I: The first naval attack on the Dardanelles begins when a strong Anglo-French task force bombards Ottoman artillery along the coast of Gallipoli.", "1937 – Yekatit 12: During a public ceremony at the Viceregal Palace (the former Imperial residence) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, two Ethiopian nationalists of Eritrean origin attempt to kill viceroy Rodolfo Graziani with a number of grenades.", "1942 – World War II: Nearly 250 Japanese warplanes attack the northern Australian city of Darwin, killing 243 people.", " 1942 – World War II: United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs executive order 9066, allowing the United States military to relocate Japanese Americans to internment camps.", "1943 – World War II: Battle of Kasserine Pass in Tunisia begins.", "1945 – World War II: Battle of Iwo Jima: About 30,000 United States Marines land on the island of Iwo Jima.", "1948 – The Conference of Youth and Students of Southeast Asia Fighting for Freedom and Independence convenes in Calcutta.", "1949 – Ezra Pound is awarded the first Bollingen Prize in poetry by the Bollingen Foundation and Yale University.", "1953 – Book censorship in the United States: The Georgia Literature Commission is established.", "1954 – Transfer of Crimea: The Soviet Politburo of the Soviet Union orders the transfer of the Crimean Oblast from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.", "1959 – The United Kingdom grants Cyprus independence, which is formally proclaimed on August 16, 1960.", "1960 – China successfully launches the T-7, its first sounding rocket.", "1963 – The publication of Betty Friedan's ''The Feminine Mystique'' reawakens the feminist movement in the United States as women's organizations and consciousness raising groups spread.", "1965 – Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and a communist spy of the North Vietnamese Viet Minh, along with Generals Lâm Văn Phát and Trần Thiện Khiêm, all Catholics, attempt a coup against the military junta of the Buddhist Nguyễn Khánh.", "1976 – Executive Order 9066, which led to the relocation of Japanese Americans to internment camps, is rescinded by President Gerald Ford's Proclamation 4417.", "1978 – Egyptian forces raid Larnaca International Airport in an attempt to intervene in a hijacking, without authorisation from the Republic of Cyprus authorities.", "The Cypriot National Guard and Police forces kill 15 Egyptian commandos and destroy the Egyptian C-130 transport plane in open combat.", "1985 – William J. Schroeder becomes the first recipient of an artificial heart to leave the hospital.", " 1985 – A Boeing 727 operating as Iberia Flight 610 crashes Mount Oiz in Spain, killing 148; it is the deadliest accident to occur in Iberia's history and the deadliest in Basque County to occur.", "1986 – Akkaraipattu massacre: the Sri Lankan Army massacres 80 Tamil farm workers in eastern Sri Lanka.", "1989 – Flying Tiger Line flight 66 crashes into a hill near Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport in Malaysia, killing four.", "2002 – NASA's Mars Odyssey space probe begins to map the surface of Mars using its thermal emission imaging system.", "2003 – An Ilyushin Il-76 military aircraft crashes near Kerman, Iran, killing 275.", "2006 – A methane explosion in a coal mine near Nueva Rosita, Mexico, kills 65 miners.", "2011 – The debut exhibition of the Belitung shipwreck, containing the largest collection of Tang dynasty artifacts found in one location, begins in Singapore.", "2012 – Forty-four people are killed in a prison brawl in Apodaca, Nuevo León, Mexico.", "2021 – Mya Thwe Thwe Khine, a 19-year-old protester, becomes the first known casualty of anti-coup protests that formed in response to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1461 – Domenico Grimani, Italian cardinal (d. 1523)1473 – Nicolaus Copernicus, Prussian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1543)1497 – Matthäus Schwarz, German fashion writer (d. 1574)1519 – Froben Christoph of Zimmern, German author of the Zimmern Chronicle (d. 1566)1526 – Carolus Clusius, Flemish botanist and academic (d. 1609)1532 – Jean-Antoine de Baïf, French poet (d. 1589)1552 – Melchior Klesl, Austrian cardinal (d. 1630)1594 – Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (d. 1612)===1601–1900===1611 – Andries de Graeff, Dutch politician (d. 1678)1630 – Shivaji, Indian warrior-king and the founder of Maratha Empire1660 – Friedrich Hoffmann, German physician and chemist (d. 1742)1717 – David Garrick, English actor, playwright, and producer (d. 1779)1743 – Luigi Boccherini, Italian cellist and composer (d. 1805)1798 – Allan MacNab, Canadian soldier, lawyer, and politician, Premier of Canada West (d. 1862)1800 – Émilie Gamelin, Canadian nun and social worker, founded the Sisters of Providence (d. 1851)1804 – Carl von Rokitansky, German physician, pathologist, and philosopher (d. 1878)1821 – August Schleicher, German linguist and academic (d. 1868)1833 – Élie Ducommun, Swiss journalist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1906)1838 – Lydia Thompson, British burlesque performer (d. 1908)1841 – Elfrida Andrée, Swedish organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1929)1855 – Nishinoumi Kajirō I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 16th Yokozuna (d. 1908)1859 – Svante Arrhenius, Swedish physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1927)1865 – Sven Hedin, Swedish geographer and explorer (d. 1952)1869 – Hovhannes Tumanyan, Armenian-Russian poet and author (d. 1923)1872 – Johan Pitka, Estonian admiral (d. 1944)1876 – Constantin Brâncuși, Romanian-French sculptor, painter, and photographer (d. 1957)1877 – Gabriele Münter, German painter (d. 1962)1878 – Harriet Bosse, Swedish–Norwegian actress (d. 1961)1880 – Álvaro Obregón, Mexican general and politician, 39th President of Mexico (d. 1928)1886 – José Abad Santos, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 5th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (d. 1942)1888 – José Eustasio Rivera, Colombian lawyer and poet (d. 1928)1893 – Cedric Hardwicke, English actor and director (d. 1964)1895 – Louis Calhern, American actor (d. 1956)1896 – André Breton, French poet and author (d. 1966)1897 – Alma Rubens, American actress (d. 1931)1899 – Lucio Fontana, Argentinian-Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1968)===1901–present===1902 – Kay Boyle, American novelist, short story writer, and educator (d. 1992)1904 – Havank, Dutch journalist and author (d. 1964)1911 – Merle Oberon, Indian-American actress (d. 1979)1912 – Saul Chaplin, American composer (d. 1997)* 1912 – Dorothy Janis, American actress (d. 2010)1913 – Prince Pedro Gastão of Orléans-Braganza (d. 2007) 1913 – Frank Tashlin, American animator and screenwriter (d. 1972)1914 – Thelma Kench, New Zealand Olympic sprinter (d. 1985)1915 – Dick Emery, English actor and comedian (d. 1983)1915 – John Freeman, English lawyer, politician, and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States (d. 2014)1916 – Eddie Arcaro, American jockey and sportscaster (d. 1997)1917 – Carson McCullers, American novelist, short story writer, playwright, and essayist (d. 1967)1918 – Fay McKenzie, American actress (d. 2019)1920 – C. Z.", "Guest, American actress, fashion designer, and author (d. 2003) 1920 – Jaan Kross, Estonian author and poet (d. 2007)* 1920 – George Rose, English actor and singer (d. 1988)1922 – Władysław Bartoszewski, Polish journalist and politician, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2015)1924 – David Bronstein, Ukrainian chess player and theoretician (d. 2006)* 1924 – Lee Marvin, American actor (d. 1987)1926 – György Kurtág, Hungarian composer and academic1927 – Philippe Boiry, French journalist (d. 2014)1929 – Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (d. 2003)1930 – John Frankenheimer, American director and producer (d. 2002)* 1930 – K. Viswanath, Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2023)1932 – Joseph P. Kerwin, American captain, physician, and astronaut1935 – Dave Niehaus, American sportscaster (d. 2010)* 1935 – Russ Nixon, American MLB catcher and coach (d. 2016)1936 – Sam Myers, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006) 1936 – Frederick Seidel, American poet1937 – Terry Carr, American author and educator (d. 1987) 1937 – Norm O'Neill, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2008)1938 – Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama (d. 1989)1939 – Erin Pizzey, English activist and author, founded Refuge1940 – Saparmurat Niyazov, Turkmen engineer and politician, 1st President of Turkmenistan (d. 2006) 1940 – Smokey Robinson, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1940 – Bobby Rogers, American singer-songwriter (d. 2013)1941 – David Gross, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1941 – Jenny Tonge, Baroness Tonge, English politician1942 – Cyrus Chothia, English biochemist and emeritus scientist at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology (d. 2019) 1942 – Paul Krause, American football player and politician* 1942 – Will Provine, American biologist, historian, and academic (d. 2015)* 1942 – Howard Stringer, Welsh businessman1943 – Lou Christie, American singer-songwriter 1943 – Homer Hickam, American author and engineer* 1943 – Tim Hunt, English biochemist and academic, Nobel laureate1944 – Les Hinton, English-American journalist and businessman1945 – Yuri Antonov, Uzbek-Russian singer-songwriter1946 – Paul Dean, Canadian guitarist 1946 – Peter Hudson, Australian footballer and coach* 1946 – Karen Silkwood, American technician and activist (d. 1974)1947 – Jackie Curtis, American actress and playwright (d. 1985) 1947 – Tim Shadbolt, New Zealand businessman and politician, 42nd Mayor of Invercargill1948 – Mark Andes, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1948 – Pim Fortuyn, Dutch sociologist, academic, and politician (d. 2002)* 1948 – Tony Iommi, English guitarist and songwriter 1949 – Danielle Bunten Berry, American game designer and programmer (d. 1998) 1949 – Eddie Hardin, English singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2015)* 1949 – Barry Lloyd, English footballer and manager* 1949 – William Messner-Loebs, American author and illustrator1950 – Juice Leskinen, Finnish singer-songwriter (d. 2006) 1950 – Andy Powell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, Pakistani scholar and politician, founder of Minhaj-ul-Quran1952 – Ryū Murakami, Japanese novelist and filmmaker* 1952 – Rodolfo Neri Vela, Mexican engineer and astronaut* 1952 – Amy Tan, American novelist, essayist, and short story writer* 1952 – Danilo Türk, Slovene academic and politician, 3rd President of Slovenia1953 – Corrado Barazzutti, Italian tennis player 1953 – Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, Argentine lawyer and politician, President of Argentina and Vice President of Argentina* 1953 – Massimo Troisi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1994)1954 – Francis Buchholz, German bass player 1954 – Michael Gira, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1954 – Sócrates, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2011)1955 – Jeff Daniels, American actor and playwright1956 – Kathleen Beller, American actress* 1956 – Peter Holsapple, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1956 – Roderick MacKinnon, American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1956 – Dave Wakeling, English singer-songwriter and guitarist1957 – Falco, Austrian singer-songwriter, rapper, and musician (d. 1998) 1957 – Dave Stewart, American baseball player, coach, and executive* 1957 – Ray Winstone, English actor1958 – Leslie David Baker, American actor 1958 – Helen Fielding, English author and screenwriter* 1958 – Steve Nieve, English keyboard player and composer1959 – Roger Goodell, American businessman, 6th National Football League Commissioner1960 – Prince Andrew, Duke of York* 1960 – John Paul Jr., American race car driver (d. 2020)1961 – Justin Fashanu, English footballer (d. 1998) 1961 – Ernie Gonzalez, American golfer (d. 2020)1962 – Hana Mandlíková, Czech-Australian tennis player and coach1963 – Seal, English singer-songwriter* 1963 – Jessica Tuck, American actress1964 – Doug Aldrich, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1964 – Jennifer Doudna, American biochemist* 1964 – Jonathan Lethem, American novelist, essayist, and short story writer1965 – Jon Fishman, American drummer 1965 – Clark Hunt, American businessman* 1965 – Leroy, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer1966 – Justine Bateman, American actress and producer 1966 – Paul Haarhuis, Dutch tennis player and coach* 1966 – Eduardo Xol, American designer and author1967 – Benicio del Toro, Puerto Rican actor, director, and producer1968 – Prince Markie Dee, American rapper and actor (d. 2021)* 1968 – Frank Watkins, American bass player (d. 2015)1969 – Burton C. Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1969 – Helena Guergis, Canadian businesswoman and politician1970 – Joacim Cans, Swedish singer-songwriter 1970 – Bellamy Young, American actress1971 – Miguel Batista, Dominican baseball player and poet 1971 – Richard Green, Australian golfer * 1971 – Jeff Kinney, American author and illustrator1972 – Francine Fournier, American wrestler and manager 1972 – Sunset Thomas, American pornographic actress1973 – Eric Lange, American actor1975 – Daniel Adair, Canadian drummer and producer * 1975 – Daewon Song, South Korean-American skateboarder, co-founded Almost Skateboards1977 – Ola Salo, Swedish singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1977 – Andrew Ross Sorkin, American journalist and author* 1977 – Gianluca Zambrotta, Italian footballer and manager1978 – Ben Gummer, English scholar and politician 1978 – Immortal Technique, Peruvian-American rapper1979 – Steve Cherundolo, American soccer player and manager1980 – Dwight Freeney, American football player* 1980 – Ma Lin, Chinese table tennis player* 1980 – Mike Miller, American basketball player1981 – Beth Ditto, American singer 1981 – Shawn Spears, Canadian wrestler1983 – Kotoōshū Katsunori, Bulgarian sumo wrestler 1983 – Mika Nakashima, Japanese singer and actress* 1983 – Reynhard Sinaga, Indonesian sex offender* 1983 – Ryan Whitney, American ice hockey player* 1983 – Jawad Williams, American basketball player1984 – Chris Richardson, American singer-songwriter1985 – Haylie Duff, American actress and singer* 1985 – Arielle Kebbel, American actress and model* 1985 – Kosta Perović, Serbian basketball player1986 – Kyle Chipchura, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Linus Klasen, Swedish ice hockey player* 1986 – Marta, Brazilian footballer* 1986 – Maria Mena, Norwegian singer-songwriter1987 – Anna Cappellini, Italian ice dancer 1987 – Josh Reddick, American baseball player1988 – Shawn Matthias, Canadian ice hockey player 1988 – Seth Morrison, American guitarist1989 – Sone Aluko, English-Nigerian footballer1991 – Trevor Bayne, American race car driver* 1991 – Christoph Kramer, German footballer* 1991 – Adreian Payne, American basketball player (d. 2022)1992 – Camille Kostek, American model1993 – Mauro Icardi, Argentine footballer* 1993 – Victoria Justice, American actress and singer1994 – Tiina Trutsi, Estonian footballer1995 – Nikola Jokić, Serbian basketball player1996 – Mabel, British-Swedish singer 1996 – D. J. Wilson, American basketball player1998 – Katharina Gerlach, German tennis player2001 – Lee Kang-in, South Korean footballer* 2001 – David Mazouz, American actor2003 – Jakub Ojrzyński, Polish footballer2004 – Millie Bobby Brown, English actress, model and producer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 197 – Clodius Albinus, Roman usurper (b.", "150)* 446 – Leontius of Trier, Bishop of Trier1133 – Irene Doukaina, Byzantine wife of Alexios I Komnenos (b.", "1066)1275 – Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Sufi philosopher and poet (b.", "1177)1300 – Munio of Zamora, General of the Dominican Order1408 – Thomas Bardolf, 5th Baron Bardolf, English rebel1414 – Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury (b.", "1353)1445 – Eleanor of Aragon, queen of Portugal (b.", "1402)1491 – Enno I, Count of East Frisia, German noble (b.", "1460)1553 – Erasmus Reinhold, German astronomer and mathematician (b.", "1511)===1601–1900===1602 – Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur (b.", "1558)1605 – Orazio Vecchi, Italian composer (b.", "1550)1622 – Henry Savile, English scholar and politician (b.", "1549)1672 – Charles Chauncy, English-American minister, theologian, and academic (b.", "1592)1709 – Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1646)1716 – Dorothe Engelbretsdatter, Norwegian author and poet (b.", "1634)1785 – Mary, Countess of Harold, English aristocrat and philanthropist (b.", "1701)1789 – Nicholas Van Dyke, American lawyer and politician, 7th Governor of Delaware (b.", "1738)1799 – Jean-Charles de Borda, French mathematician, physicist, and sailor (b.", "1733)1806 – Elizabeth Carter, English poet and translator (b.", "1717)1837 – Georg Büchner, German-Swiss poet and playwright (b.", "1813) 1837 – Thomas Burgess, English bishop and philosopher (b.", "1756)1887 – Multatuli, Dutch-German author and civil servant (b.", "1820)1897 – Karl Weierstrass, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1815)===1901–present===1915 – Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Indian philosopher and politician (b.", "1866)1916 – Ernst Mach, Austrian-Czech physicist and philosopher (b.", "1838)1927 – Robert Fuchs, Austrian composer and educator (b.", "1847)1928 – George Howard Earle Jr., American lawyer and businessman (b.", "1856)1936 – Billy Mitchell, American general and pilot (b.", "1879)1945 – John Basilone, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1916)1951 – André Gide, French novelist, essayist, and dramatist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1869)1952 – Knut Hamsun, Norwegian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1859)1953 – Richard Rushall, British businessman (b.", "1864)1957 – Maurice Garin, Italian-French cyclist (b.", "1871)1959 – Willard Miller, American sailor, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1877)1962 – Georgios Papanikolaou, Greek-American pathologist, invented the Pap smear (b.", "1883)1969 – Madge Blake, American actress (b.", "1899)1970 – Ralph Edward Flanders, US Senator from Vermont (b.", "1890) 1972 – John Grierson, Scottish director and producer (b.", "1898) 1972 – Lee Morgan, American trumpet player and composer (b.", "1938)1973 – Joseph Szigeti, Hungarian violinist (b.", "1892)1977 – Anthony Crosland, English author and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (b.", "1918)* 1977 – Mike González, Cuban baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1890)1980 – Bon Scott, Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter (b.", "1946)1983 – Alice White, American actress (b.", "1904)1988 – André Frédéric Cournand, French-American physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1895)1992 – Tojo Yamamoto, American wrestler and manager (b.", "1927)1994 – Derek Jarman, English director and set designer (b.", "1942)1996 – Charlie Finley, American businessman (b.", "1918)1997 – Leo Rosten, Polish-American author and academic (b.", "1908) 1997 – Deng Xiaoping, Chinese politician, 1st Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (b.", "1904)1998 – Grandpa Jones, American singer-songwriter and banjo player (b.", "1913)1999 – Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr, Iraqi cleric (b.", "1943)2000 – Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Austrian-New Zealand painter and illustrator (b.", "1928)2001 – Stanley Kramer, American director and producer (b.", "1913)* 2001 – Charles Trenet, French singer-songwriter (b.", "1913)2002 – Sylvia Rivera, American transgender LGBT activist (b.", "1951)2003 – Johnny Paycheck, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1938)2007 – Janet Blair, American actress and singer (b.", "1921) 2007 – Celia Franca, English-Canadian dancer and director, founded the National Ballet of Canada (b.", "1921)2008 – Yegor Letov, Russian singer-songwriter (b.", "1964) 2008 – Lydia Shum, Chinese-Hong Kong actress and singer (b.", "1945)2009 – Kelly Groucutt, English singer and bass player (b.", "1945)2011 – Ollie Matson, American sprinter and football player (b.", "1930)2012 – Ruth Barcan Marcus, American philosopher and logician (b.", "1921) 2012 – Jaroslav Velinský, Czech author and songwriter (b.", "1932)* 2012 – Vitaly Vorotnikov, Russian politician, 27th Prime Minister of Russia (b.", "1926)2013 – Armen Alchian, American economist and academic (b.", "1914) 2013 – Park Chul-soo, South Korean director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1948)* 2013 – Robert Coleman Richardson, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1937)* 2013 – Donald Richie, American-Japanese author and critic (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Eugene Whelan, Canadian farmer and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Agriculture (b.", "1924)2014 – Kresten Bjerre, Danish footballer and manager (b.", "1946) 2014 – Dale Gardner, American captain and astronaut (b.", "1948)* 2014 – Valeri Kubasov, Russian engineer and astronaut (b.", "1935)2015 – Harold Johnson, American boxer (b.", "1928) 2015 – Nirad Mohapatra, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1947)* 2015 – Harris Wittels, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1984)2016 – Umberto Eco, Italian novelist, literary critic, and philosopher (b.", "1932) 2016 – Harper Lee, American author (b.", "1926)* 2016 – Chiaki Morosawa, Japanese anime screenwriter (b.", "1959)* 2016 – Samuel Willenberg, Polish-Israeli sculptor and painter (b.", "1923)2017 – Larry Coryell, American jazz guitarist (b.", "1943) 2019 – Karl Lagerfeld, German fashion designer (b.", "1933)2020 – José Mojica Marins, Brazilian filmmaker, actor, composer, screenwriter, and television horror host (b.", "1936) 2020 – Pop Smoke, American rapper (b.", "1999)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Armed Forces Day (Mexico)Brâncuși Day (Romania)Christian feast day:Barbatus of BeneventoBoniface of BrusselsConrad of PiacenzaLucy Yi Zhenmei (one of Martyrs of Guizhou)February 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Commemoration of Vasil Levski (Bulgaria)Flag Day (Turkmenistan)Shivaji Jayanti (Maharashtra, India)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 19" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 24" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 484 – King Huneric of the Vandals replaces Nicene bishops with Arian ones, and banishes some to Corsica.", "1303 – The English are defeated at the Battle of Roslin, in the First War of Scottish Independence.", "1386 – King Charles III of Naples and Hungary is assassinated at Buda.", "1525 – A Spanish-Austrian army defeats a French army at the Battle of Pavia.", "1527 – Coronation of Ferdinand I as the king of Bohemia in Prague.", "1538 – Treaty of Nagyvárad between Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I and King John Zápolya of Hungary and Croatia.", "1582 – With the papal bull ''Inter gravissimas'', Pope Gregory XIII announces the Gregorian calendar.", "1597 – The last battle of the Cudgel War takes place on the Santavuori Hill in Ilmajoki, Ostrobothnia.===1601–1900===1607 – ''L'Orfeo'' by Claudio Monteverdi, one of the first works recognized as an opera, receives its première performance.", "1711 – ''Rinaldo'' by George Frideric Handel, the first Italian opera written for the London stage, is premièred.", "1739 – Battle of Karnal: The army of Iranian ruler Nader Shah defeats the forces of the Mughal emperor of India, Muhammad Shah.", "1803 – In ''Marbury v. Madison'', the Supreme Court of the United States establishes the principle of judicial review.", "1809 – London's Drury Lane Theatre burns to the ground, leaving its owner, Irish writer and politician Richard Brinsley Sheridan, destitute.", "1821 – Final stage of the Mexican War of Independence from Spain with Plan of Iguala.", "1822 – The first Swaminarayan temple in the world, Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Ahmedabad, is inaugurated.", "1826 – The signing of the Treaty of Yandabo marks the end of the First Anglo-Burmese War.", "1831 – The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, the first removal treaty in accordance with the Indian Removal Act, is proclaimed.", "The Choctaws in Mississippi cede land east of the river in exchange for payment and land in the West.", "1848 – King Louis-Philippe of France abdicates the throne.", "1854 – A Penny Red with perforations becomes the first perforated postage stamp to be officially issued for distribution.", "1863 – Arizona is organized as a United States territory.", "1868 – Andrew Johnson becomes the first President of the United States to be impeached by the United States House of Representatives.", "He is later acquitted in the Senate.", "1875 – The hits the Great Barrier Reef and sinks off the Australian east coast, killing approximately 100, including a number of high-profile civil servants and dignitaries.", "1876 – The stage première of ''Peer Gynt'', a play by Henrik Ibsen with incidental music by Edvard Grieg, takes place in Christiania (Oslo), Norway.", "1881 – China and Russia sign the Sino-Russian Ili Treaty.", "1895 – Revolution breaks out in Baire, a town near Santiago de Cuba, beginning the Cuban War of Independence; the war ends along with the Spanish–American War in 1898.===1901–present===1916 – The Governor-General of Korea establishes a clinic called ''Jahyewon'' in Sorokdo to segregate Hansen's disease patients.", "1917 – World War I: The U.S. ambassador Walter Hines Page to the United Kingdom is given the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany pledges to ensure the return of New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona to Mexico if Mexico declares war on the United States.", "1918 – Estonian Declaration of Independence.", "1920 – Nancy Astor becomes the first woman to speak in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom following her election as a Member of Parliament (MP) three months earlier.", "* 1920 – The Nazi Party (NSDAP) was founded by Adolf Hitler in the Hofbräuhaus beer hall in Munich, Germany1942 – Seven hundred ninety-one Romanian Jewish refugees and crew members are killed after the MV Struma is torpedoed by the Soviet Navy.", " 1942 – The Battle of Los Angeles: A false alarm led to an anti-aircraft barrage that lasted into the early hours of February 25.", "1945 – Egyptian Premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is killed in Parliament after reading a decree.", "1946 – Colonel Juan Perón, founder of the political movement that became known as Peronism, is elected to his first term as President of Argentina.", "1949 – The Armistice Agreements are signed, to formally end the hostilities of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.", "1967 – Cultural Revolution: Zhang Chunqiao announces the dissolution of the Shanghai People's Commune, replacing its local government with a revolutionary committee.", "1968 – Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive is halted; South Vietnamese forces led by Ngo Quang Truong recapture the citadel of Hué.", "1971 – The All India Forward Bloc holds an emergency central committee meeting after its chairman, Hemantha Kumar Bose, is killed three days earlier.", "P.K.", "Mookiah Thevar is appointed as the new chairman.", "1976 – The 1976 constitution of Cuba is formally proclaimed.", "1978 – The Yuba County Five disappear in California.", "Four of their bodies are found four months later.", "1981 – The 6.7 Gulf of Corinth earthquake affected Central Greece with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe'').", "Twenty-two people were killed, 400 were injured, and damage totaled $812 million.", "1983 – A special commission of the United States Congress condemns the Japanese American internment during World War II.", "1984 – Tyrone Mitchell perpetrates the 49th Street Elementary School shooting in Los Angeles, killing two children and injuring 12 more.", "1989 – United Airlines Flight 811, bound for New Zealand from Honolulu, rips open during flight, blowing nine passengers out of the business-class section.", "1991 – Gulf War: Ground troops cross the Saudi Arabian border and enter Iraq, thus beginning the ground phase of the war.", "1996 – Two civilian airplanes operated by the Miami-based group Brothers to the Rescue are shot down in international waters by the Cuban Air Force.", "1999 – China Southwest Airlines Flight 4509, a Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft, crashes on approach to Wenzhou Longwan International Airport in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.", "All 61 people on board are killed.", "2004 – The 6.3 Al Hoceima earthquake strikes northern Morocco with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent'').", "At least 628 people are killed, 926 are injured, and up to 15,000 are displaced.", "2006 – Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo declares Proclamation 1017 placing the country in a state of emergency in attempt to subdue a possible military coup.", "2007 – Japan launches its fourth spy satellite, stepping up its ability to monitor potential threats such as North Korea.", "2008 – Fidel Castro retires as the President of Cuba and the Council of Ministers after 32 years.", "He remains as head of the Communist Party for another three years.", "2015 – A Metrolink train derails in Oxnard, California following a collision with a truck, leaving more than 30 injured.", "2016 – Tara Air Flight 193, a de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft, crashed, with 23 fatalities, in Solighopte, Myagdi District, Dhaulagiri Zone, while en route from Pokhara Airport to Jomsom Airport.", "2020 – Mahathir Mohamad resigns as Prime Minister of Malaysia following an attempt to replace the Pakatan Harapan government, which triggered the 2020-2022 Malaysian political crisis.", "2022 – Days after recognising Donetsk and Luhansk as independent states, Russian president Vladimir Putin orders a full scale invasion of Ukraine." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1103 – Emperor Toba of Japan (d. 1156)1304 – Ibn Battuta, Moroccan jurist1413 – Louis, Duke of Savoy (d. 1465)1463 – Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Italian philosopher (d. 1494)1494 – Johan Friis, Danish statesman (d. 1570)1500 – Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1558)1536 – Pope Clement VIII (d. 1605)1545 – John of Austria (d. 1578)1553 – Cherubino Alberti, Italian engraver and painter (d. 1615)1557 – Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1619)1593 – Henry de Vere, 18th Earl of Oxford, English soldier and courtier (d. 1625)1595 – Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, Polish author and poet (d. 1640)===1601–1900===1604 – Arcangela Tarabotti, Venetian nun and feminist (d. 1652)1619 – Charles Le Brun, French painter and theorist (d. 1690)1622 – Johannes Clauberg, German theologian and philosopher (d. 1665)1709 – Jacques de Vaucanson, French engineer (d. 1782)1721 – John McKinly, Irish-American physician and politician, 1st Governor of Delaware (d. 1796)1723 – John Burgoyne, English general and politician (d. 1792)1736 – Charles Alexander, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1806)1743 – Joseph Banks, English botanist and explorer (d. 1820)1762 – Charles Frederick Horn, German-English composer and educator (d. 1830)1767 – Rama II of Siam (d. 1824)1774 – Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge (d. 1850)1786 – Martin W. Bates, American lawyer and politician (d. 1869) 1786 – Wilhelm Grimm, German anthropologist, author, and academic (d. 1859)1788 – Johan Christian Dahl, Norwegian-German painter (d. 1857)1827 – Lydia Becker, English-French activist (d. 1890)1831 – Leo von Caprivi, German general and politician, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1899)1835 – Julius Vogel, English-New Zealand journalist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1899)1836 – Winslow Homer, American painter and illustrator (d. 1910)1837 – Rosalía de Castro, Spanish poet (d. 1885)1842 – Arrigo Boito, Italian journalist, author, and composer (d. 1918)1848 – Andrew Inglis Clark, Australian engineer, lawyer, and politician (d. 1907)1852 – George Moore, Irish author, poet, and playwright (d. 1933)1868 – Édouard Alphonse James de Rothschild, French financier and polo player (d. 1949)1869 – Zara DuPont, American suffragist (d. 1946)1874 – Honus Wagner, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1955)1877 – Rudolph Ganz, Swiss pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1972) 1877 – Ettie Rout, Australian-New Zealand educator and activist (d. 1936)1885 – Chester W. Nimitz, American admiral (d. 1966) 1885 – Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, Polish author, poet, and painter (d. 1939)1890 – Marjorie Main, American actress (d. 1975)1896 – Richard Thorpe, American director and screenwriter (d. 1991)1898 – Kurt Tank, German pilot and engineer (d. 1983)1900 – Irmgard Bartenieff, German-American dancer and physical therapist, leading pioneer of dance therapy (d. 1981)===1901–present===1903 – Vladimir Bartol, Italian-Slovene author and playwright (d. 1967)1908 – Telford Taylor, American general, lawyer, and historian (d. 1998)1909 – August Derleth, American anthologist and author (d. 1971)1914 – Ralph Erskine, English-Swedish architect, designed The Ark and Byker Wall (d. 2005)* 1914 – Weldon Kees, American author, poet, painter, and pianist (d. 1955)1915 – Jim Ferrier, Australian golfer (d. 1986)1919 – John Carl Warnecke, American architect (d. 2010)1921 – Abe Vigoda, American actor (d. 2016)1922 – Richard Hamilton, English painter and academic (d. 2011)* 1922 – Steven Hill, American actor (d. 2016)1924 – Hal Herring, American football player and coach (d. 2014) 1924 – Erik Nielsen, Canadian lawyer and politician, 3rd Deputy Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2008)1925 – Bud Day, American colonel and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2013) 1926 – Dave Sands, Australian boxer (d. 1952)1927 – Emmanuelle Riva, French actress (d. 2017)1929 – Kintarō Ōki, South Korean wrestler (d. 2006)1930 – Barbara Lawrence, American model and actress (d. 2013)1931 – Dominic Chianese, American actor and singer* 1931 – Brian Close, English cricketer and coach (d. 2015)1932 – Michel Legrand, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2019) 1932 – Zell Miller, American sergeant and politician, 79th Governor of Georgia (d. 2018)* 1932 – John Vernon, Canadian-American actor (d. 2005)1933 – Judah Folkman, American physician and biologist (d. 2008) 1933 – Ali Mazrui, Kenyan-American political scientist, philosopher, and academic (d. 2014)* 1933 – David \"Fathead\" Newman, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2009)1934 – Bettino Craxi, Italian lawyer and politician, 45th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 2000) 1934 – Johnny Hills, English footballer (d. 2021)* 1934 – Renata Scotto, Italian soprano (d. 2023) 1935 – Ryhor Baradulin, Belarusian poet, essayist, and translator (d. 2014)1936 – Guillermo O'Donnell, Argentine political scientist (d. 2011)* 1936 – Carol D'Onofrio, American public health researcher (d. 2020)1938 – James Farentino, American actor (d. 2012) 1938 – Phil Knight, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Nike, Inc.1939 – Jamal Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi physicist and cosmologist (d. 2013)1940 – Pete Duel, American actor (d. 1971)* 1940 – Jimmy Ellis, American boxer (d. 2014)* 1940 – Denis Law, Scottish footballer and sportscaster1941 – Joanie Sommers, American singer and actress1942 – Paul Jones, English singer, harmonica player, and actor* 1942 – Celia Kaye, American actress* 1942 – Joe Lieberman, American lawyer and politician* 1942 – Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Indian philosopher, theorist, and academic1943 – Kent Haruf, American novelist (d. 2014) 1943 – Gigi Meroni, Italian footballer (d. 1967)* 1943 – Pablo Milanés, Cuban singer-songwriter and guitarist1944 – Nicky Hopkins, English keyboard player (d. 1994) 1944 – Ivica Račan, Croatian lawyer and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Croatia (d. 2007)1945 – Barry Bostwick, American actor and singer1946 – Grigory Margulis, Russian mathematician and academic1947 – Rupert Holmes, English-American singer-songwriter and playwright 1947 – Edward James Olmos, American actor and director1948 – Jayalalithaa, Indian actress and politician, 16th Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (d. 2016) 1948 – Dennis Waterman, English actor (d. 2022)1950 – George Thorogood, American musician1951 – David Ford, Northern Irish social worker and politician* 1951 – Derek Randall, English cricketer* 1951 – Debra Jo Rupp, American actress* 1951 – Helen Shaver, Canadian actress and director* 1951 – Laimdota Straujuma, Latvian economist and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Latvia1953 – Anatoli Kozhemyakin, Soviet footballer (d. 1974)1954 – Plastic Bertrand, Belgian singer-songwriter and producer * 1954 – Judith Ortiz Cofer, Puerto Rican American award-winning author (d. 2016)* 1954 – Aurora Levins Morales, Puerto Rican Jewish writer and activist* 1954 – Sid Meier, Canadian-American game designer and programmer, created the ''Civilization series''* 1954 – Mike Pickering, English DJ and saxophonist1955 – Steve Jobs, American businessman, co-founded Apple Computer and Pixar (d. 2011) 1955 – Eddie Johnson, American basketball player (d. 2020)* 1955 – Alain Prost, French race car driver1956 – Judith Butler, American philosopher, theorist, and author 1956 – Eddie Murray, American baseball player and coach* 1956 – Paula Zahn, American journalist and producer1958 – Sammy Kershaw, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Mark Moses, American actor1959 – Beth Broderick, American actress and director 1959 – Mike Whitney, Australian cricketer and television host1962 – Kelly Craft, US Ambassador to the United Nations and US Ambassador to Canada1963 – Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro* 1963 – Mike Vernon, Canadian ice hockey player* 1963 – Sanjay Leela Bhansali, Indian filmmaker1964 – Russell Ingall, British-Australian race car driver and sportscaster1965 – Paul Gruber, American football player* 1965 – Jane Swift, American businesswoman and politician, Governor of Massachusetts1966 – Billy Zane, American actor and producer1967 – Brian Schmidt, Australian astrophysicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1968 – Mitch Hedberg, American comedian and actor (d. 2005)1969 – Kim Seung-woo, South Korean actor1970 – Jeff Garcia, American football player and coach 1970 – Neil Sullivan, English born Scottish international footballer and coach* 1970 – Jonathan Ward, American actor1971 – Pedro de la Rosa, Spanish race car driver1972 – Teodor Currentzis, Greek conductor and composer* 1972 – Manon Rhéaume, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1973 – Stubby Clapp, Canadian baseball player and coach 1973 – Alexei Kovalev, Russian ice hockey player and pilot1975 – Ashley MacIsaac, Canadian singer-songwriter and fiddler1976 – Zach Johnson, American golfer* 1976 – Bradley McGee, Australian cyclist and coach* 1976 – Marco Campos, Brazilian race car driver (d. 1995)1977 – Jason Akermanis, Australian footballer and coach 1977 – Floyd Mayweather Jr., American boxer1980 – Shinsuke Nakamura, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist1981 – Felipe Baloy, Panamanian footballer* 1981 – Lleyton Hewitt, Australian tennis player* 1981 – Mohammad Sami, Pakistani cricketer1982 – Nick Blackburn, American baseball player 1982 – Emanuel Villa, Argentinian footballer* 1982 – Klára Koukalová, Czech tennis player* 1982 – Fala Chen, Chinese actress and singer1984 – Corey Graves, American wrestler and sportscaster1985 – Nakash Aziz, Indian playback singer and composer1987 – Kim Kyu-jong, South Korean singer, dancer, and actor 1988 – Connie Ramsay, Scottish judoka1989 – Trace Cyrus, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1989 – Daniel Kaluuya, English actor1991 – Madison Hubbell, American ice dancer 1991 – O'Shea Jackson Jr., American actor and rapper* 1991 – Semih Kaya, Turkish footballer1994 – Jessica Pegula, American tennis player 1994 – Earl Sweatshirt, American rapper1996 – Royce Freeman, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 616 – Æthelberht of Kent * 951 – Liu Yun, Chinese governor (''jiedushi'')1018 – Borrell, bishop of Vic1114 – Thomas, archbishop of York1386 – Charles III of Naples (b.", "1345)1496 – Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (b.", "1445)1525 – Jacques de La Palice, French nobleman and military officer (b.", "1470) 1525 – Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet, French soldier (b. c. 1488)* 1525 – Richard de la Pole, last Yorkist claimant to the English throne (b.", "1480)1530 – Properzia de' Rossi, Italian Renaissance sculptor1563 – Francis, Duke of Guise (b.", "1519)1580 – Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel, English nobleman (b.", "1511)1588 – Johann Weyer, Dutch physician and occultist (b.", "1515)===1601–1900===1666 – Nicholas Lanier, English composer and painter (b.", "1588)1685 – Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Carlisle, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Cumberland (b.", "1629)1704 – Marc-Antoine Charpentier, French composer (b.", "1643)1714 – Edmund Andros, English courtier and politician, 4th Colonial Governor of New York (b.", "1637)1721 – John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, English poet and politician, Lord President of the Council (b.", "1648)1732 – Francis Charteris, Scottish soldier (b.", "1675)1777 – Joseph I of Portugal (b.", "1714)1785 – Carlo Buonaparte, Corsican lawyer and politician (b.", "1746)1799 – Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, German physicist and academic (b.", "1742)1810 – Henry Cavendish, French-English physicist and chemist (b.", "1731)1812 – Étienne-Louis Malus, French physicist and mathematician (b.", "1775)1815 – Robert Fulton, American engineer (b.", "1765)1825 – Thomas Bowdler, English physician and philanthropist (b.", "1754)1856 – Nikolai Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1792)1876 – Joseph Jenkins Roberts, American-Liberian politician, 1st President of Liberia (b.", "1809)1879 – Shiranui Kōemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 11th Yokozuna (b.", "1825)===1901–present===1910 – Osman Hamdi Bey, Turkish archaeologist and painter (b.", "1842)1914 – Joshua Chamberlain, American general and politician, 32nd Governor of Maine (b.", "1828)1925 – Hjalmar Branting, Swedish journalist and politician, 16th Prime Minister of Sweden, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1860)1927 – Edward Marshall Hall, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1858)1929 – André Messager, French pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1853)1930 – Hermann von Ihering, German-Brazilian zoologist (b.", "1850)1953 – Robert La Follette Jr., American politician, senator of Wisconsin (b.", "1895) 1953 – Gerd von Rundstedt, German field marshal (b.", "1875)1967 – Mir Osman Ali Khan, Last Nizam of Hyderabad State (b.", "1886)1970 – Conrad Nagel, American actor (b.", "1897)1974 – Margaret Leech, American historian and author (b.", "1895)1975 – Hans Bellmer, German artist (b.", "1902)* 1975 – Nikolai Bulganin, Russian marshal and politician, 6th Premier of the Soviet Union (b.", "1895)1978 – Alma Thomas, American painter and educator (b.1891)1982 – Virginia Bruce, American actress (b.", "1910)1986 – Rukmini Devi Arundale, Indian Bharatnatyam dancer (b.", "1904) 1986 – Tommy Douglas, Scottish-Canadian minister and politician, 7th Premier of Saskatchewan (b.", "1904)1990 – Tony Conigliaro, American baseball player (b.", "1945) 1990 – Malcolm Forbes, American sergeant and publisher (b.", "1917)* 1990 – Sandro Pertini, Italian journalist and politician, 7th President of Italy (b.", "1896)* 1990 – Johnnie Ray, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1927)1991 – John Daly, American journalist and game show host (b.", "1914) 1991 – George Gobel, American actor (b.", "1919)* 1991 – Webb Pierce, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1921)1993 – Danny Gallivan, Canadian sportscaster (b.", "1917) 1993 – Bobby Moore, English footballer and manager (b.", "1941)1994 – Jean Sablon, French singer and actor (b.", "1906) 1994 – Dinah Shore, American actress and singer (b.", "1916)1998 – Antonio Prohías, Cuban-American cartoonist (b.", "1921) 1998 – Henny Youngman, English-American comedian and violinist (b.", "1906)1999 – Andre Dubus, American short story writer, essayist, and memoirist (b.", "1936)2001 – Theodore Marier, American composer and educator, founded the Boston Archdiocesan Choir School (b.", "1912)* 2001 – Claude Shannon, American mathematician, cryptographer, and engineer (b.", "1916)2002 – Leo Ornstein, Ukrainian-American pianist and composer (b.", "1893)2004 – John Randolph, American actor (b.", "1915)2005 – Coşkun Kırca, Turkish diplomat, journalist and politician (b.", "1927)2006 – Octavia E. Butler, American author and educator (b.", "1947)* 2006 – Don Knotts, American actor and comedian (b.", "1924)* 2006 – John Martin, Canadian broadcaster, co-founded MuchMusic (b.", "1947)* 2006 – Dennis Weaver, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1924)2007 – Bruce Bennett, American shot putter and actor (b.", "1906) 2007 – Damien Nash, American football player (b.", "1982)2008 – Larry Norman, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1947)2010 – Dawn Brancheau, senior animal trainer at SeaWorld (b.", "1969)2011 – Anant Pai, Indian author and illustrator (b.", "1929)2012 – Agnes Allen, American baseball player and therapist (b.", "1930)* 2012 – Oliver Wrong, English nephrologist and academic (b.", "1925)2013 – Virgil Johnson, American singer (b.", "1935) 2013 – Con Martin, Irish footballer and manager (b.", "1923)2014 – Franny Beecher, American guitarist (b.", "1921) 2014 – Alexis Hunter, New Zealand-English painter and photographer (b.", "1948)* 2014 – Carlos Páez Vilaró, Uruguayan painter and sculptor (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Harold Ramis, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1944)2015 – Mefodiy, Ukrainian metropolitan (b.", "1949) 2015 – Rakhat Aliyev, Kazakh politician and diplomat (b.", "1962)2016 – Peter Kenilorea, Solomon Islands politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (b.", "1943) 2016 – Nabil Maleh, Syrian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1936)* 2016 – George C. Nichopoulos, American soldier and physician (b.", "1927)2018 – Sridevi, Indian actress (b.", "1963) 2018 – Haukur Hilmarsson, Icelandic political activist and internationalist volunteer fighter (b.", "1986)2020 – Katherine Johnson, American physicist and mathematician (b.", "1918)2021 – Ronald Pickup, English actor (b.", "1940)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Blessed Ascensión Nicol y GoñiLindel Tsen and Paul Sasaki (Anglican Church of Canada)Modest (bishop of Trier)Sergius of CappadociaFebruary 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Dragobete (Romania)Engineer's Day (Iran)Flag Day in MexicoIndependence Day, celebrates the independence of Estonia from the Russian Empire in 1918; the Soviet period is considered to have been an illegal annexation.", "National Artist Day (Thailand)Sweden Finns' Day (Sweden)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 24" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 23" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 303 – Roman emperor Diocletian orders the destruction of the Christian church in Nicomedia, beginning eight years of Diocletianic Persecution.", "* 532 – Byzantine emperor Justinian I lays the foundation stone of a new Orthodox Christian basilica in Constantinople – the Hagia Sophia.", "* 628 – Khosrow II, last Sasanian shah of Iran, is overthrown.", "* 705 – Empress Wu Zetian abdicates the throne, restoring the Tang dynasty.", "1455 – Traditionally the date of publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western book printed with movable type.===1601–1900===1763 – Berbice slave uprising in Guyana: The first major slave revolt in South America.", "1778 – American Revolutionary War: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, to help train the Continental Army.", "1820 – Cato Street Conspiracy: A plot to murder all the British cabinet ministers is exposed and the conspirators arrested.", "1836 – Texas Revolution: The Siege of the Alamo (prelude to the Battle of the Alamo) begins in San Antonio, Texas.", "1847 – Mexican–American War: Battle of Buena Vista: In Mexico, American troops under future president General Zachary Taylor defeat Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna.", "1854 – The official independence of the Orange Free State, South Africa is declared.", "1861 – President-elect Abraham Lincoln arrives secretly in Washington, D.C., after the thwarting of an alleged assassination plot in Baltimore, Maryland.", "1870 – Reconstruction Era: Post-U.S. Civil War military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union.", "1883 – Alabama becomes the first U.S. state to enact an anti-trust law.", "1885 – Sino-French War: French Army gains an important victory in the Battle of Đồng Đăng in the Tonkin region of Vietnam.", "1886 – Charles Martin Hall produced the first samples of aluminium from the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, after several years of intensive work.", "He was assisted in this project by his older sister, Julia Brainerd Hall.", "1887 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, killing around 2,000.", "1898 – Émile Zola is imprisoned in France after writing ''J'Accuse…!", "'', a letter accusing the French government of antisemitism and wrongfully imprisoning Captain Alfred Dreyfus.", "1900 – Second Boer War: During the Battle of the Tugela Heights, the first British attempt to take Hart's Hill fails.===1901–present===1903 – Cuba leases Guantánamo Bay to the United States \"in perpetuity\".", "1905 – Chicago attorney Paul Harris and three other businessmen meet for lunch to form the Rotary Club, the world's first service club.", "1909 – The AEA Silver Dart makes the first powered flight in Canada and the British Empire.", "1917 – First demonstrations in Saint Petersburg, Russia.", "The beginning of the February Revolution (March 8 in the Gregorian calendar).", "1927 – U.S. President Calvin Coolidge signs a bill by Congress establishing the Federal Radio Commission (later replaced by the Federal Communications Commission) which was to regulate the use of radio frequencies in the United States.", "* 1927 – German theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg writes a letter to fellow physicist Wolfgang Pauli, in which he describes his uncertainty principle for the first time.", "1934 – Leopold III becomes King of Belgium.", "1941 – Plutonium is first produced and isolated by Dr. Glenn T.", "Seaborg.", "1942 – World War II: Japanese submarines fire artillery shells at the coastline near Santa Barbara, California.", "1943 – The Cavan Orphanage fire kills thirty-five girls and an elderly cook.", "* 1943 – Greek Resistance: The United Panhellenic Organization of Youth is founded in Greece.", "1944 – The Soviet Union begins the forced deportation of the Chechen and Ingush people from the North Caucasus to Central Asia.", "1945 – World War II: During the Battle of Iwo Jima, a group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island and are photographed raising the American flag.", "* 1945 – World War II: The 11th Airborne Division, with Filipino guerrillas, free all 2,147 captives of the Los Baños internment camp, in what General Colin Powell later would refer to as \"the textbook airborne operation for all ages and all armies.", "\"* 1945 – World War II: The capital of the Philippines, Manila, is liberated by combined Filipino and American forces.", "* 1945 – World War II: Capitulation of German garrison in Poznań.", "The city is liberated by Soviet and Polish forces.", "* 1945 – World War II: The German town of Pforzheim is annihilated in a raid by 379 British bombers.", "* 1945 – American Airlines Flight 009 crashes near Rural Retreat, Virginia, killing 17.", "1947 – International Organization for Standardization is founded.", "1954 – The first mass inoculation of children against polio with the Salk vaccine begins in Pittsburgh.", "1958 – Five-time Argentine Formula One champion Juan Manuel Fangio is kidnapped by rebels involved in the Cuban Revolution, on the eve of the Cuban Grand Prix.", "He was released the following day after the race.", "1966 – In Syria, Ba'ath Party member Salah Jadid leads an intra-party military coup that replaces the previous government of General Amin al-Hafiz, also a Baathist.", "1971 – Operation Lam Son 719: South Vietnamese General Do Cao Tri was killed in a helicopter crash en route to taking control of the faltering campaign.", "1974 – The Symbionese Liberation Army demands $4 million more to release kidnap victim Patty Hearst.", "1980 – Iran hostage crisis: Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini states that Iran's parliament will decide the fate of the American embassy hostages.", "1981 – In Spain, Antonio Tejero attempts a coup d'état by capturing the Spanish Congress of Deputies.", "1983 – The United States Environmental Protection Agency announces its intent to buy out and evacuate the dioxin-contaminated community of Times Beach, Missouri.", "1987 – Supernova 1987a is seen in the Large Magellanic Cloud.", "1988 – Saddam Hussein begins the Anfal genocide against Kurds and Assyrians in northern Iraq.", "1991 – In Thailand, General Sunthorn Kongsompong leads a bloodless coup d'état, deposing Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan.", "1998 – In the United States, tornadoes in central Florida destroy or damage 2,600 structures and kill 42 people.", "1999 – Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Öcalan is charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey.", "* 1999 – An avalanche buries the town of Galtür, Austria, killing 31.", "2007 – A train derails on an evening express service near Grayrigg, Cumbria, England, killing one person and injuring 88.This results in hundreds of points being checked over the UK after a few similar accidents.", "2008 – A United States Air Force B-2 Spirit bomber crashes on Guam, marking the first operational loss of a B-2.", "2010 – Unknown criminals pour more than million liters of diesel oil and other hydrocarbons into the river Lambro, in northern Italy, sparking an environmental disaster.", "2012 – A series of attacks across Iraq leave at least 83 killed and more than 250 injured.", "2017 – The Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army captures Al-Bab from ISIL.", "2019 – Atlas Air Flight 3591, a Boeing 767 freighter, crashes into Trinity Bay near Anahuac, Texas, killing all three people on board.", "2020 – Ahmaud Arbery, a 25-year-old African-American citizen, is shot and murdered by three white men after visiting a house under construction while jogging at a neighborhood in Satilla Shores near Brunswick in Glynn County, Georgia.", "2021 – Four simultaneous prison riots leave at least 62 people dead in Ecuador." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1133 – Al-Zafir, Fatimid caliph (d. 1154)1417 – Pope Paul II (d. 1471)* 1417 – Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1479)1443 – Matthias Corvinus, Hungarian king (d. 1490)1529 – Onofrio Panvinio, Italian historian (d. 1568)1539 – Henry XI of Legnica, thrice Duke of Legnica (d. 1588) 1539 – Salima Sultan Begum, Empress of the Mughal Empire (d. 1612)1583 – Jean-Baptiste Morin, French mathematician, astrologer, and astronomer (d. 1656)1592 – Balthazar Gerbier, Dutch painter (d. 1663)===1601–1900===1606 – George Frederick of Nassau-Siegen, officer in the Dutch Army (d. 1674)1633 – Samuel Pepys, English diarist and politician (d. 1703)1646 – Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, Japanese shōgun (d. 1709)1680 – Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, Canadian politician, 2nd Colonial Governor of Louisiana (d. 1767)1685 – George Frideric Handel, German-English organist and composer (d. 1759)1723 – Richard Price, Welsh-English minister and philosopher (d. 1791)1744 – Mayer Amschel Rothschild, German banker and businessman (d. 1812)1792 – José Joaquín de Herrera, Mexican politician and general (d. 1854)1805 – Johan Jakob Nervander, Finnish poet, physicist and meteorologist (d. 1848)1831 – Hendrik Willem Mesdag, Dutch painter (d. 1915)1842 – Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, German philosopher and author (d. 1906)1850 – César Ritz, Swiss businessman, founded The Ritz Hotel, London and Hôtel Ritz Paris (d. 1918)1868 – W. E. B.", "Du Bois, American sociologist, historian, and activist (d. 1963) 1868 – Anna Hofman-Uddgren, Swedish actress, singer, and director (d. 1947)1873 – Liang Qichao, Chinese journalist, philosopher, and scholar (d. 1929)1874 – Konstantin Päts, Estonian lawyer and politician, 1st President of Estonia (d. 1956)1878 – Kazimir Malevich, Ukrainian painter and theorist (d. 1935)1883 – Karl Jaspers, German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher (d. 1969)* 1883 – Guy C. Wiggins, American painter (d. 1962)1889 – Musidora, French actress and director (d. 1957) 1889 – Cyril Delevanti, English-American actor (d. 1975)* 1889 – Victor Fleming, American director, cinematographer, and producer (d. 1949)* 1889 – John Gilbert Winant, American captain, pilot, and politician, 60th Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1947)1892 – Kathleen Harrison, English actress (d. 1995) 1892 – Agnes Smedley, American journalist and writer (d. 1950)1894 – Harold Horder, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1978)1899 – Erich Kästner, German author and poet (d. 1974)* 1899 – Norman Taurog, American director and screenwriter (d. 1981)===1901–present===1904 – Terence Fisher, English director and screenwriter (d. 1980) 1904 – William L. Shirer, American journalist and historian (d. 1993)1908 – William McMahon, Australian lawyer and politician, 20th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1988)1915 – Jon Hall, American actor and director (d. 1979)* 1915 – Paul Tibbets, American general and pilot (d. 2007)1919 – Johnny Carey, Irish footballer and manager (d. 1995)1920 – Paul Gérin-Lajoie, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2018)1923 – Rafael Addiego Bruno, Uruguayan jurist and politician, President of Uruguay (d. 2014) 1923 – Harry Clarke, English international footballer (d. 2000)* 1923 – Ioannis Grivas, Greek judge and politician, 176th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2016)* 1923 – Dante Lavelli, American football player (d. 2009)* 1923 – Clarence D. Lester, African-American fighter pilot (d.1986)* 1923 – Mary Francis Shura, American author (d. 1991)1924 – Allan McLeod Cormack, South-African-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)1925 – Louis Stokes, American lawyer and politician (d. 2015)1927 – Régine Crespin, French soprano and actress (d. 2007) 1927 – Jessica Huntley, Guyanese activist and publisher (d. 2013)1928 – Hans Herrmann, German racing driver 1928 – Vasily Lazarev, Russian colonel, physician, and astronaut (d. 1990)1929 – Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow (d. 2008) 1929 – Elston Howard, American baseball player and coach (d. 1980)1930 – Paul West, English-American author, poet, and academic (d. 2015)1931 – Tom Wesselmann, American painter and sculptor (d. 2004)1932 – Majel Barrett, American actress and producer (d. 2008)1937 – Tom Osborne, American football player, coach, and politician1938 – Sylvia Chase, American broadcast journalist (d. 2019) 1938 – Paul Morrissey, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1938 – Diane Varsi, American actress (d. 1992)1940 – Peter Fonda, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1940 – Jackie Smith, American football player1941 – Ron Hunt, American baseball player1943 – Fred Biletnikoff, American football player and coach* 1943 – Bobby Mitchell, American golfer (d. 2018)1944 – Bernard Cornwell, English author and educator 1944 – Florian Fricke, German keyboard player and composer (d. 2001)* 1944 – Johnny Winter, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2014)1945 – Allan Boesak, South African cleric and politician1946 – Rusty Young, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021)1947 – Pia Kjærsgaard, Danish politician, Speaker of the Danish Parliament 1947 – Anton Mosimann, Swiss chef and author1948 – Bill Alexander, English director and producer 1948 – Trevor Cherry, English footballer (d. 2020)* 1948 – Steve Priest, English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2020)1949 – César Aira, Argentinian author and translator 1949 – Marc Garneau, Canadian engineer, astronaut, and politician1950 – Rebecca Goldstein, American philosopher and author 1950 – John Greaves, British bass guitarist and composer1951 – Eddie Dibbs, American tennis player 1951 – Debbie Friedman, American singer-songwriter of Jewish melodies (d. 2011)* 1951 – Ed \"Too Tall\" Jones, American football player and boxer* 1951 – Patricia Richardson, American actress1952 – Brad Whitford, American guitarist and songwriter1953 – Kenny Bee, Hong Kong singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor* 1953 – Satoru Nakajima, Japanese racing driver1954 – Rajini Thiranagama, Sri Lankan physician and academic (d. 1989) 1954 – Viktor Yushchenko, Ukrainian captain and politician, 3rd President of Ukraine1955 – Howard Jones, English singer-songwriter 1955 – Flip Saunders, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015)* 1955 – Francesca Simon, American-British author 1956 – Sandra Osborne, Scottish politician1957 – Charlie Brandt, American serial killer (d. 2004)1958 – David Sylvian, English singer-songwriter 1958 – Charles Sheedy - Member of the West Virginia House of Delegates1959 – Clayton Anderson, American engineer and astronaut 1959 – Nick de Bois, English politician* 1959 – Ian Liddell-Grainger, Scottish soldier and politician* 1959 – Linda Nolan, Irish singer and actress1960 – Naruhito, Emperor of Japan1962 – Michael Wilton, American guitarist1963 – Bobby Bonilla, American baseball player 1963 – Radosław Sikorski, Polish journalist and politician, 11th Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland1964 – John Norum, Norwegian guitarist and songwriter1965 – Michael Dell, American businessman* 1965 – Helena Suková, Czech-Monacan tennis player1967 – Steve Stricker, American golfer 1967 – Chris Vrenna, American drummer, songwriter, and producer1969 – Michael Campbell, New Zealand golfer 1969 – Martine Croxall, English journalist and television news presenter* 1969 – Daymond John, American fashion designer and businessman, founded FUBU1970 – Niecy Nash, American actress and producer1971 – Carin Koch, Swedish golfer* 1971 – Melinda Messenger, English model and television host* 1971 – Joe-Max Moore, American soccer player1972 – Alessandro Sturba, Italian footballer 1972 – Rondell White, American baseball player1973 – Jeff Nordgaard, American-Polish basketball player1974 – Herschelle Gibbs, South African cricketer* 1974 – Robbi Kempson, South African rugby player1975 – Michael Cornacchia, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter1976 – Kelly Macdonald, Scottish actress1977 – Kristina Šmigun-Vähi, Estonian skier1978 – John Manning, Australian rugby league player and actor* 1978 – Residente, Puerto Rican-American singer-songwriter* 1978 – Dan Snyder, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2003)1981 – Gareth Barry, English footballer 1981 – Josh Gad, American actor, producer, and screenwriter1983 – Mido, Egyptian footballer, manager and sportscaster 1983 – Aziz Ansari, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1983 – Emily Blunt, English actress1986 – Emerson Conceição, Brazilian footballer 1986 – Skylar Grey, American singer-songwriter* 1986 – Kazuya Kamenashi, Japanese singer-songwriter and actor* 1986 – Jerod Mayo, American football coach, former player* 1986 – Ola Svensson, Swedish singer-songwriter1987 – Ab-Soul, American rapper 1987 – Theophilus London, Trinidadian-American singer-songwriter and producer* 1987 – Zak Kirkup, Member of the Parliament of Western Australia1988 – Nicolás Gaitán, Argentinian footballer1989 – Evan Bates, American ice dancer* 1989 – Jérémy Pied, French footballer1990 – Kevin Connauton, Canadian ice hockey player 1990 – Marco Scandella, Canadian ice hockey player1992 – Casemiro, Brazilian footballer 1992 – Kyriakos Papadopoulos, Greek footballer1993 – Chris Grevsmuhl, Australian rugby league player1994 – Dakota Fanning, American actress1995 – Andrew Wiggins, Canadian basketball player1996 – D'Angelo Russell, American basketball player1997 – Jamal Murray, Canadian basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 715 – Al-Walid I, Umayyad caliph (b.", "668)* 908 – Li Keyong, Shatuo military governor during the Tang dynasty in China (b.", "856)* 943 – Herbert II, Count of Vermandois, (b.", "884)* 943 – David I, prince of Tao-Klarjeti (Georgia)1011 – Willigis, German archbishop (b.", "940)1100 – Emperor Zhezong of Song (b.", "1076)1270 – Isabel of France (b.", "1225)1447 – Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (b.", "1390)* 1447 – Pope Eugene IV (b.", "1383)1464 – Emperor Yingzong of Ming (b.", "1427)1473 – Arnold, Duke of Gelderland (b.", "1410)1526 – Diego Colón, Spanish Viceroy of the Indies (b. c. 1479)1554 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Leicestershire (b.", "1515)===1601–1900===1603 – Andrea Cesalpino, Italian philosopher, physician, and botanist (b.", "1519) 1603 – Franciscus Vieta, French mathematician (b.", "1540)1620 – Nicholas Fuller, English politician (b.", "1543)1704 – Georg Muffat, French organist and composer (b.", "1653)1766 – Stanisław Leszczyński, Polish king (b.", "1677)1781 – George Taylor, Founding Father of the United States (b.", "1716)1792 – Joshua Reynolds, English painter and academic (b.", "1723)1821 – John Keats, English poet (b.", "1795)1844 – Martim Francisco Ribeiro de Andrada, Brazilian politician, twice Minister of Finance, brother of José Bonifácio (b.", "1775)1848 – John Quincy Adams, American politician, 6th President of the United States (b.", "1767)1855 – Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (b.", "1777)1859 – Zygmunt Krasiński, Polish poet and playwright (b.", "1812)1871 – Amanda Cajander, Finnish medical reformer (b.", "1827)1879 – Albrecht von Roon, Prussian soldier and politician, 10th Minister President of Prussia (b.", "1803)1897 – Woldemar Bargiel, German composer and educator (b.", "1828)1900 – Ernest Dowson, English poet, novelist, and short story writer (b.", "1867)===1901–present===1908 – Friedrich von Esmarch, German surgeon and academic (b.", "1823)1918 – Adolphus Frederick VI, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (b.", "1882)1930 – Horst Wessel, German SA officer (b.", "1907)1931 – Nellie Melba, Australian soprano and actress (b.", "1861)1934 – Edward Elgar, English composer and academic (b.", "1857)1944 – Leo Baekeland, Belgian-American chemist and engineer (b.", "1863)1946 – Tomoyuki Yamashita, Japanese general (b.", "1885)1948 – John Robert Gregg, Irish-American publisher and educator (b.", "1866)1955 – Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (b.", "1868)1965 – Stan Laurel, English actor and comedian (b.", "1890)1969 – Madhubala, Indian actress and producer (b.", "1933) 1969 – Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, 2nd King of Saudi Arabia (b.", "1902)1973 – Dickinson W. Richards, American physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1895)1974 – Harry Ruby, American composer and screenwriter (b.", "1895)1976 – L. S. Lowry, English painter (b.", "1887)1979 – W. A. C. Bennett, Canadian businessman and politician, 25th Premier of British Columbia (b.", "1900)1983 – Herbert Howells, English organist and composer (b.", "1892)1990 – José Napoleón Duarte, Salvadoran engineer and politician, President of El Salvador (b.", "1925)1995 – James Herriot, English veterinarian and author (b.", "1916)1997 – Tony Williams, American drummer, composer, and producer (b.", "1945)1998 – Philip Abbott, American actor and director (b.", "1924)1999 – The Renegade, American wrestler (b.", "1965)2000 – Ofra Haza, Israeli singer-songwriter and actress (b.", "1957) 2000 – Stanley Matthews, English footballer and manager (b.", "1915)2003 – Howie Epstein, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1955) 2003 – Robert K. Merton, American sociologist and academic (b.", "1910)2004 – Vijay Anand, Indian director, producer, screenwriter, and actor (b.", "1934) 2004 – Sikander Bakht, Indian politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs (b.", "1918)2006 – Muhammad Shamsul Huq, Bangladeshi academic and former Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1912) 2006 – Telmo Zarra, Spanish footballer (b.", "1921)2007 – John Ritchie, English footballer (b.", "1941)2008 – Janez Drnovšek, Slovenian economist and politician, 2nd President of Slovenia (b.", "1950)* 2008 – Paul Frère, Belgian racing driver and journalist (b.", "1917)2010 – Orlando Zapata, Cuban plumber and activist (b.", "1967)2011 – Nirmala Srivastava, Indian religious leader, founded Sahaja Yoga (b.", "1923)2012 – William Raggio, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1926) 2012 – David Sayre, American physicist and mathematician (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Kazimierz Żygulski, Polish sociologist and activist (b.", "1919)2013 – Eugene Bookhammer, American soldier and politician, 18th Lieutenant Governor of Delaware (b.", "1918) 2013 – Joseph Friedenson, Holocaust survivor, Holocaust historian, Yiddish writer, lecturer and editor (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Julien Ries, Belgian cardinal (b.", "1920)* 2013 – Lotika Sarkar, Indian lawyer and academic (b.", "1945)2014 – Alice Herz-Sommer, Czech-English Holocaust survivor, pianist and educator (b.", "1903) 2014 – Roger Hilsman, American soldier, academic, and politician (b.", "1919)2015 – James Aldridge, Australian-English journalist and author (b.", "1918) 2015 – Rana Bhagwandas, Pakistani lawyer and judge, Chief Justice of Pakistan (b.", "1942)* 2015 – W. E. \"Bill\" Dykes, American soldier and politician (b.", "1925)2016 – Peter Lustig, German television host and author (b.", "1937) 2016 – Jacqueline Mattson, American baseball player (b.", "1928)2019 – Katherine Helmond, American actress (b.", "1929)2021 – Ahmed Zaki Yamani, Saudi Arabian politician (b.", "1930)2023 – Tony Earl, American politician, 40th Governor of Wisconsin (b.", "1936) 2023 – John Motson, English football commentator (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Polycarp of SmyrnaSerenus the GardenerFebruary 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)The Emperor's Birthday, birthday of Naruhito, the current Emperor of Japan (Japan)Mashramani-Republic Day (Guyana)National Day (Brunei)Red Army Day or Day of Soviet Army and Navy in the former Soviet Union, also held in various former Soviet republics:Defender of the Fatherland Day (Russia)Defender of the Fatherland and Armed Forces day (Belarus)Armed Forces Day (Tajikistan) (Tajikistan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 23" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 22" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1076 – Having received a letter during the Lenten synod of 14–20 February demanding that he abdicate, Pope Gregory VII excommunicates Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.", "1316 – The Battle of Picotin, between Ferdinand of Majorca and the forces of Matilda of Hainaut, ends in victory for Ferdinand.", "1371 – Robert II becomes King of Scotland, beginning the Stuart dynasty.", "1495 – King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the city's throne.===1601–1900===1632 – Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the dedicatee, receives the first printed copy of Galileo's ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems''.", "1651 – St. Peter's Flood: A storm surge floods the Frisian coast, drowning 15,000 people.", "1744 – War of the Austrian Succession: The Battle of Toulon causes several Royal Navy captains to be court-martialed, and the Articles of War to be amended.", "1770 – British customs officer Ebenezer Richardson fires blindly into a crowd during a protest in North End, Boston, fatally wounding 11-year-old Christopher Seider; the first American fatality of the American Revolution.", "1797 – The last Invasion of Britain begins near Fishguard, Wales.", "1819 – By the Adams–Onís Treaty, Spain sells Florida to the United States for five million U.S.", "dollars.", "1847 – Mexican–American War: The Battle of Buena Vista: Five thousand American troops defeat 15,000 Mexican troops.", "1848 – The French Revolution of 1848, which would lead to the establishment of the French Second Republic, begins.", "1856 – The United States Republican Party opens its first national convention in Pittsburgh.", "1862 – American Civil War: Jefferson Davis is officially inaugurated for a six-year term as the President of the Confederate States of America in Richmond, Virginia.", "He was previously inaugurated as a provisional president on February 18, 1861.", "1872 – The Prohibition Party holds its first national convention in Columbus, Ohio, nominating James Black as its presidential nominee.", "1879 – In Utica, New York, Frank Woolworth opens the first of many of five-and-dime Woolworth stores.", "1881 – ''Cleopatra's Needle'', a 3,500-year-old Ancient Egyptian obelisk is erected in Central Park, New York.", "1889 – President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U.S.", "states.", "1899 – Filipino forces led by General Antonio Luna launch counterattacks for the first time against the American forces during the Philippine–American War.", "The Filipinos fail to regain Manila from the Americans.===1901–present===1904 – The United Kingdom sells a meteorological station on the South Orkney Islands to Argentina; the islands are subsequently claimed by the United Kingdom in 1908.", "1909 – The sixteen battleships of the Great White Fleet, led by , return to the United States after a voyage around the world.", "1921 – After Russian forces under Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg drive the Chinese out, the Bogd Khan is reinstalled as the emperor of Mongolia.", "1942 – World War II: President Franklin D. Roosevelt orders General Douglas MacArthur out of the Philippines as the Japanese victory becomes inevitable.", "1943 – World War II: Members of the White Rose resistance, Sophie Scholl, Hans Scholl, and Christoph Probst are executed in Nazi Germany.", "1944 – World War II: American aircraft mistakenly bomb the Dutch towns of Nijmegen, Arnhem, Enschede and Deventer, resulting in 800 dead in Nijmegen alone.", " 1944 – World War II: The Soviet Red Army recaptures Krivoi Rog.", "1946 – The \"Long Telegram\", proposing how the United States should deal with the Soviet Union, arrives from the US embassy in Moscow.", "1957 – Ngô Đình Diệm of South Vietnam survives a communist shooting assassination attempt in Buôn Ma Thuột.", "1958 – Following a plebiscite in both countries the previous day, Egypt and Syria join to form the United Arab Republic.", "1959 – Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500.", "1972 – The Official Irish Republican Army detonates a car bomb at Aldershot barracks, killing seven and injuring nineteen others.", "1973 – Cold War: Following President Richard Nixon's visit to the People's Republic of China, the two countries agree to establish liaison offices.", "1974 – The Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit begins in Lahore, Pakistan.", "Thirty-seven countries attend and twenty-two heads of state and government participate.", "It also recognizes Bangladesh.", " 1974 – Samuel Byck attempts to hijack an aircraft at Baltimore/Washington International Airport with the intention of crashing it into the White House to assassinate Richard Nixon, but is killed by police.", "1979 – Saint Lucia gains independence from the United Kingdom.", "1980 – Miracle on Ice: In Lake Placid, New York, the United States hockey team defeats the Soviet Union hockey team 4–3.", "1983 – The notorious Broadway flop ''Moose Murders'' opens and closes on the same night at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre.", "1986 – Start of the People Power Revolution in the Philippines.", "1994 – Aldrich Ames and his wife are charged by the United States Department of Justice with spying for the Soviet Union.", "1995 – The Corona reconnaissance satellite program, in existence from 1959 to 1972, is declassified.", "1997 – In Roslin, Midlothian, British scientists announce that an adult sheep named Dolly has been successfully cloned.", "2002 – Angolan political and rebel leader Jonas Savimbi is killed in a military ambush.", "2005 – The 6.4 Zarand earthquake shakes the Kerman Province of Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe''), leaving 612 people dead and 1,411 injured.", " 2006 – At approximately 6:44 a.m. local Iraqi time, explosions occurred at the al-Askari Shrine in Samarra, Iraq.", "The attack on the shrine, one of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, caused the escalation of sectarian tensions in Iraq into a full-scale civil war.", "2006 – The Securitas depot robbery was the UK's largest heist.", "Almost £53m (about $92.5 million or €78 million) was stolen from a Securitas depot in Tonbridge, Kent.", "2011 – New Zealand's second deadliest earthquake strikes Christchurch, killing 185 people.", "* 2011 – Bahraini uprising: Tens of thousands of people march in protest against the deaths of seven victims killed by police and army forces during previous protests.", "2012 – A train crash in Buenos Aires, Argentina, kills 51 people and injures 700 others.", "2014 – President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine is impeached by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine by a vote of 328–0, fulfilling a major goal of the Euromaidan rebellion.", "2015 – A ferry carrying 100 passengers capsizes in the Padma River, killing 70 people.", "2018 – A man throws a grenade at the U.S. embassy in Podgorica, Montenegro.", "He dies at the scene from a second explosion, with no one else hurt." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1040 – Rashi, French rabbi and author (d. 1105)1403 – Charles VII of France (d. 1461)1440 – Ladislaus the Posthumous, Hungarian king (d. 1457)1500 – Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian cardinal (d. 1564)1514 – Tahmasp I, Iranian shah (d. 1576)1520 – Moses Isserles, Polish rabbi (d. 1572)1550 – Charles de Ligne, 2nd Prince of Arenberg (d. 1616)1592 – Nicholas Ferrar, English scholar (d. 1637)===1601–1900===1631 – Peder Syv, Danish historian (d. 1702)1649 – Bon Boullogne, French painter (d. 1717)1715 – Charles-Nicolas Cochin, French artist (d. 1790)1732 – George Washington, American general and politician, 1st President of the United States (d. 1799)1749 – Johann Nikolaus Forkel, German musicologist and theorist (d. 1818)1778 – Rembrandt Peale, American painter and curator (d. 1860)1788 – Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher and author (d. 1860)1796 – Alexis Bachelot, French priest and missionary (d. 1837)* 1796 – Adolphe Quetelet, Belgian mathematician, astronomer, and sociologist (d. 1874)1805 – Sarah Fuller Flower Adams, English poet and hymnwriter (d. 1848)1806 – Józef Kremer, Polish historian and philosopher (d. 1875)1817 – Carl Wilhelm Borchardt, German mathematician and academic (d. 1880)1819 – James Russell Lowell, American poet and critic (d. 1891)1824 – Pierre Janssen, French astronomer and mathematician (d. 1907)1825 – Jean-Baptiste Salpointe, French-American archbishop (d. 1898)1836 – Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya, Indian scholar and academic (d. 1906)1840 – August Bebel, German theorist and politician (d. 1913)1849 – Nikolay Yakovlevich Sonin, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1915)1857 – Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, English general, co-founded The Scout Association (d. 1941)* 1857 – Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, philosopher, and academic (d. 1894)1860 – Mary W. Bacheler, American physician and Baptist medical missionary (d. 1939)1863 – Charles McLean Andrews, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1943)1864 – Jules Renard, French author and playwright (d. 1910)1876 – Zitkala-Sa, American author and activist (d. 1938)1874 – Bill Klem, American baseball player and umpire (d. 1951)1879 – Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted, Danish chemist and academic (d. 1947)1880 – Eric Lemming, Swedish athlete (d. 1930)1881 – Joseph B. Ely, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1956)* 1881 – Albin Prepeluh, Slovenian journalist and politician (d. 1937)1882 – Eric Gill, English sculptor and illustrator (d. 1940)1883 – Marguerite Clark, American actress (d. 1940)1886 – Hugo Ball, German author and poet (d. 1927)1887 – Savielly Tartakower, Polish journalist, author, and chess player (d. 1956)* 1887 – Pat Sullivan, Australian-American animator and producer (d. 1933)1888 – Owen Brewster, American captain and politician, 54th Governor of Maine (d. 1961)1889 – Olave Baden-Powell, English scout leader, first World Chief Guide (d. 1977)* 1889 – R. G. Collingwood, English historian and philosopher (d. 1943)1891 – Vlas Chubar, Russian economist and politician (d. 1939)1892 – Edna St. Vincent Millay, American poet and playwright (d. 1950)1895 – Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, Peruvian politician (d. 1979)1897 – Karol Świerczewski, Polish general (d. 1947)1899 – George O'Hara, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1966)1900 – Luis Buñuel, Spanish-Mexican director and producer (d. 1983)===1901–present===1903 – Morley Callaghan, Canadian author and playwright (d. 1990) 1903 – Frank P. Ramsey, English economist, mathematician, and philosopher (d. 1930)1906 – Constance Stokes, Australian painter (d. 1991)1907 – Sheldon Leonard, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1997)* 1907 – Robert Young, American actor (d. 1998)1908 – Rómulo Betancourt, Venezuelan politician, 56th President of Venezuela (d. 1981) 1908 – John Mills, English actor (d. 2005)1910 – George Hunt, English international footballer (d. 1996)1914 – Renato Dulbecco, Italian-American virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012)1915 – Gus Lesnevich, American boxer (d. 1964)1918 – Sid Abel, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2000)* 1918 – Don Pardo, American radio and television announcer (d. 2014)* 1918 – Robert Wadlow, American man, the tallest person in recorded history (d. 1940)1921 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, Central African general and politician, 2nd President of the Central African Republic (d. 1996) 1921 – Giulietta Masina, Italian actress (d. 1994)1921 – Marshall Teague, American race car driver (d. 1959)1922 – Joe Wilder, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 2014)1922 – Zenaida Manfugás, Cuban pianist (d. 2012)1923 – Bleddyn Williams, Welsh rugby player and sportscaster (d. 2009)* 1923 – François Cavanna, French author and editor (d. 2014)1925 – Edward Gorey, American illustrator and poet (d. 2000) 1925 – Gerald Stern, American poet and academic (d. 2022)1926 – Kenneth Williams, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1988)1927 – Florencio Campomanes, Filipino political scientist and chess player (d. 2010)* 1927 – Guy Mitchell, American Singer (d. 1999)1928 – Clarence 13X, American religious leader, founded the Nation of Gods and Earths (d. 1969) 1928 – Texas Johnny Brown, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)* 1928 – Paul Dooley, American actor* 1928 – Bruce Forsyth, English singer and television host (d. 2017) 1929 – James Hong, American actor and director 1929 – Rebecca Schull, American stage, film, and television actress1930 – Marni Nixon, American soprano and actress (d. 2016) 1932 – Ted Kennedy, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2009)* 1932 – Zenaida Manfugás, Cuban-born American-naturalized pianist (d. 2012)1933 – Katharine, Duchess of Kent 1933 – Sheila Hancock, English actress and author* 1933 – Ernie K-Doe, American R&B singer (d. 2001)* 1933 – Bobby Smith, English international footballer (d. 2010)1934 – Sparky Anderson, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010)1936 – J. Michael Bishop, American microbiologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate1937 – Tommy Aaron, American golfer 1937 – Joanna Russ, American author and activist (d. 2011)1938 – Steve Barber, American baseball player (d. 2007) 1938 – Tony Macedo, Gibraltarian born English footballer* 1938 – Ishmael Reed, American poet, novelist, essayist 1940 – Judy Cornwell, English actress 1940 – Chet Walker, American basketball player1941 – Hipólito Mejía, Dominican politician, 52nd President of the Dominican Republic1942 – Christine Keeler, English model and dancer (d. 2017)1943 – Terry Eagleton, English philosopher and critic 1943 – Horst Köhler, Polish-German economist and politician, 9th President of Germany* 1943 – Dick Van Arsdale, American basketball player* 1943 – Tom Van Arsdale, American basketball player* 1943 – Otoya Yamaguchi, Japanese assassin of Inejiro Asanuma (d. 1960)1944 – Jonathan Demme, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1944 – Mick Green, English guitarist (d. 2010)* 1944 – Robert Kardashian, American lawyer and businessman (d. 2003)* 1944 – Christopher Meyer, English diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States* 1944 – Tom Okker, Dutch tennis player and painter1945 – Oliver, American pop singer (d. 2000)1946 – Kresten Bjerre, Danish footballer and manager (d. 2014)1947 – Pirjo Honkasalo, Finnish director, cinematographer, and screenwriter 1947 – Harvey Mason, American drummer * 1947 – John Radford, English footballer and manager* 1947 – Frank Van Dun, Belgian philosopher and theorist1949 – John Duncan, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2022) 1949 – Niki Lauda, Austrian racing driver (d. 2019)* 1949 – Olga Morozova, Russian tennis player and coach 1950 – Julius Erving, American basketball player and sportscaster 1950 – Lenny Kuhr, Dutch singer-songwriter* 1950 – Miou-Miou, French actress* 1950 – Genesis P-Orridge, English singer-songwriter (d. 2020)* 1950 – Julie Walters, English actress and author1951 – Ellen Greene, American singer and actress1952 – Bill Frist, American physician and politician1952 – Joaquim Pina Moura, Portuguese Minister of Economy and Treasury and MP (d. 2020) 1952 – Saufatu Sopoanga, Tuvaluan politician, 8th Prime Minister of Tuvalu (d. 2020) 1953 – Nigel Planer, English actor and screenwriter1955 – David Axelrod, American journalist and political adviser* 1955 – Tim Young, Canadian ice hockey player1957 – Willie Smits, Dutch microbiologist and engineer1958 – Dave Spitz, American bass player and songwriter 1959 – Jiří Čunek, Czech politician 1959 – Kyle MacLachlan, American actor* 1959 – Bronwyn Oliver, Australian sculptor (d. 2006)1960 – Thomas Galbraith, 2nd Baron Strathclyde, Scottish politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster1961 – Akira Takasaki, Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1962 – Steve Irwin, Australian zoologist and television host (d. 2006)1963 – Andrew Adonis, Baron Adonis, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Transport* 1963 – Devon Malcolm, Jamaican-English cricketer* 1963 – Vijay Singh, Fijian-American golfer1964 – Diane Charlemagne, English singer-songwriter (d. 2015) 1964 – Andy Gray, English footballer and manager1965 – Kieren Fallon, Irish jockey1966 – Rachel Dratch, American actress and comedian1967 – Psicosis II, Mexican wrestler1968 – Shawn Graham, Canadian politician, 31st Premier of New Brunswick* 1968 – Jeri Ryan, American model and actress* 1968 – Jayson Williams, American basketball player and sportscaster1969 – Thomas Jane, American actor 1969 – Brian Laudrup, Danish footballer and sportscaster* 1969 – Marc Wilmots, Belgian footballer and manager 1971 – Lea Salonga, Filipino actress and singer1972 – Michael Chang, American tennis player and coach* 1972 – Claudia Pechstein, German speed skater* 1972 – Haim Revivo, Israeli footballer* 1972 – Ben Sasse, U.S.", "Senator from Nebraska1973 – Philippe Gaumont, French cyclist (d. 2013) 1973 – Juninho Paulista, Brazilian footballer1974 – James Blunt, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – Chris Moyles, English radio and television host1975 – Drew Barrymore, American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter1977 – Hakan Yakin, Swiss footballer1979 – Brett Emerton, Australian footballer 1979 – Lee Na-young, South Korean actress1980 – Jeanette Biedermann, German singer-songwriter and actress1983 – Shaun Tait, Australian cricketer1984 – Tommy Bowe, Irish rugby player 1984 – Branislav Ivanović, Serbian footballer1985 – Hamer Bouazza, Algerian international footballer 1985 – Georgios Printezis, Greek basketball player1986 – Rajon Rondo, American basketball player1987 – Han Hyo-joo, South Korean actress and model* 1987 – Sergio Romero, Argentinian footballer1988 – Jonathan Borlée, Belgian sprinter1989 – Franco Vázquez, Argentinian footballer1991 – Khalil Mack, American football player1994 – Nam Joo-hyuk, South Korean model and actor" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 556 – Maximianus, bishop of Ravenna (b.", "499)* 606 – Sabinian, pope of the Catholic Church* 793 – Sicga, Anglo-Saxon nobleman and regicide* 845 – Wang, Chinese empress dowager* 954 – Guo Wei, Chinese emperor (b.", "904)* 965 – Otto, duke of Burgundy (b.", "944)* 970 – García I, king of Pamplona* 978 – Lambert, count of Chalon (b.", "930)1071 – Arnulf III, count of Flanders1072 – Peter Damian, Italian cardinal1079 – John of Fécamp, Italian Benedictine abbot1111 – Roger Borsa, king of Sicily (b.", "1078)1297 – Margaret of Cortona, Italian penitent (b.", "1247)1371 – David II, king of Scotland (b.", "1324)1452 – William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas (b.", "1425)1500 – Gerhard VI, German nobleman (b.", "1430)1511 – Henry, duke of Cornwall (b.", "1511)1512 – Amerigo Vespucci, Italian cartographer and explorer (b.", "1454)===1601–1900===1627 – Olivier van Noort, Dutch explorer (b.", "1558)1674 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (b.", "1595)1680 – La Voisin, French occultist (b.", "1640)1690 – Charles Le Brun, French painter and theorist (b.", "1619)1731 – Frederik Ruysch, Dutch physician and anatomist (b.", "1638)1732 – Francis Atterbury, English bishop (b.", "1663)1770 – Christopher Seider, first American killed in the American Revolution (b.", "1758)1799 – Heshen, Chinese politician (b.", "1750)1816 – Adam Ferguson, Scottish historian and philosopher (b.", "1723)1875 – Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, French painter and illustrator (b.", "1796)* 1875 – Charles Lyell, Scottish geologist (b.", "1797)1888 – Anna Kingsford, English physician and activist (b.", "1846)1890 – John Jacob Astor III, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1822)* 1890 – Carl Bloch, Danish painter and academic (b.", "1834)1897 – Charles Blondin, French tightrope walker and acrobat (b.", "1824)1898 – Heungseon Daewongun, Korean king (b.", "1820)===1901–present===1903 – Hugo Wolf, Austrian composer (b.", "1860)1904 – Leslie Stephen, English historian, author, and critic (b.", "1832)1913 – Ferdinand de Saussure, Swiss linguist and author (b.", "1857) 1913 – Francisco I. Madero, Mexican president and author (b.", "1873)1923 – Théophile Delcassé, French politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1852)1939 – Antonio Machado, Spanish-French poet and author (b.", "1875)1942 – Stefan Zweig, Austrian journalist, author, and playwright (b.", "1881)1943 – Christoph Probst, German activist (b.", "1919)* 1943 – Hans Scholl, German activist (b.", "1918)* 1943 – Sophie Scholl, German activist (b.", "1921)1944 – Kasturba Gandhi, Indian activist (b.", "1869) 1944 – Fritz Schmenkel, anti-Nazi German who joined Soviet partisans (b.1916) 1945 – Osip Brik, Russian avant garde writer and literary critic (b.", "1888)1958 – Abul Kalam Azad, Indian scholar and politician, Indian Minister of Education (b.", "1888)1960 – Paul-Émile Borduas, Canadian-French painter and critic (b.", "1905)1961 – Nick LaRocca, American trumpet player and composer (b.", "1889)1965 – Felix Frankfurter, Austrian-American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1882)1971 – Frédéric Mariotti, French actor (b.", "1883) 1973 – Jean-Jacques Bertrand, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Premier of Quebec (b.", "1916) 1973 – Elizabeth Bowen, Anglo-Irish author (b.", "1899)* 1973 – Katina Paxinou, Greek actress (b.", "1900)* 1973 – Winthrop Rockefeller, American colonel and politician, 37th Governor of Arkansas (b.", "1912)1976 – Angela Baddeley, English actress (b.", "1904) 1976 – Florence Ballard, American singer (b.", "1943)1980 – Oskar Kokoschka, Austrian painter, poet and playwright (b.", "1886)1982 – Josh Malihabadi, Indian-Pakistani poet and author (b.", "1898)1983 – Adrian Boult, English conductor (b.", "1889) 1983 – Romain Maes, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1913)1985 – Salvador Espriu, Spanish author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1913) 1985 – Efrem Zimbalist, Russian violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1889)1986 – John Donnelly, Australian rugby league player (b.", "1955)1987 – David Susskind, American talk show host and producer (b.", "1920)* 1987 – Andy Warhol, American painter and photographer (b.", "1928)1992 – Markos Vafiadis, Greek general and politician (b.", "1906)1994 – Papa John Creach, American violinist (b.", "1917)1995 – Ed Flanders, American actor (b.", "1934)1997 – Joseph Aiuppa, American gangster (b.", "1907)1998 – Abraham A. Ribicoff, American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (b.", "1910)1999 – William Bronk, American poet and academic (b.", "1918)* 1999 – Menno Oosting, Dutch tennis player (b.", "1964)2002 – Chuck Jones, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1912) 2002 – Jonas Savimbi, Angolan general, founded UNITA (b.", "1934)2004 – Andy Seminick, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1920)2005 – Lee Eun-ju, South Korean actress and singer (b.", "1980)* 2005 – Simone Simon, French actress (b.", "1910)2006 – S. Rajaratnam, Singaporean politician, 1st Senior Minister of Singapore (b.", "1915)2007 – George Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe, English politician, Leader of the House of Lords (b.", "1918)* 2007 – Dennis Johnson, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1954)2012 – Sukhbir, Indian author and poet (b.", "1925) 2012 – Frank Carson, Irish-English comedian and actor (b.", "1926)* 2012 – Marie Colvin, American journalist (b.", "1956)* 2012 – Rémi Ochlik, French photographer and journalist (b.", "1983)2013 – Atje Keulen-Deelstra, Dutch speed skater (b.", "1938) 2013 – Jean-Louis Michon, French-Swiss scholar and translator (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Wolfgang Sawallisch, German pianist and conductor (b.", "1923)2014 – Charlotte Dawson, New Zealand–Australian television host (b.", "1966) 2014 – Trebor Jay Tichenor, American pianist and composer (b.", "1940)* 2014 – Leo Vroman, Dutch-American hematologist, poet, and illustrator (b.", "1915)2015 – Chris Rainbow, Scottish singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1946)2016 – Yolande Fox, American model and singer, Miss America 1951 (b.", "1928)* 2016 – Sonny James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1928)2018 – Forges, Spanish cartoonist (b.", "1942)2019 – Brody Stevens, American comedian and actor (b.", "1970)* 2019 – Morgan Woodward, American actor (b.", "1925)2021 – Lawrence Ferlinghetti, American poet, painter (b.", "1919)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Birthday of Scouting and Guiding founder Robert Baden-Powell and Olave Baden-Powell, and its related observance: Founder's Day or \"B.-P. day\" (World Organization of the Scout Movement) World Thinking Day (World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts)* Christian feast day: Baradates Eric Liddell (Episcopal Church (USA)) Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter (Roman Catholic Church) Margaret of Cortona** February 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Crime Victims Day (Europe)* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Saint Lucia from the United Kingdom in 1979.", "* Founding Day (Saudi Arabia)* Washington's Birthday, federal holiday in the United States.", "A holiday on February 22 as well as the third Monday in February.", "* National Cat Day (Japan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 22" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 21" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===452 or 453 – Severianus, Bishop of Scythopolis, is martyred in Palestine.", "1245 – Thomas, the first known Bishop of Finland, is granted resignation after confessing to torture and forgery.", "1440 – The Prussian Confederation is formed.===1601–1900===1613 – Mikhail I is unanimously elected Tsar by a national assembly, beginning the Romanov dynasty of Imperial Russia.", "1797 – A force of 1,400 French soldiers invaded Britain at Fishguard in support of the Society of United Irishmen.", "They were defeated by 500 British reservists.", "1804 – The first self-propelling steam locomotive makes its outing at the Pen-y-Darren Ironworks in Wales.", "1808 – Without a previous declaration of war, Russian troops cross the border to Sweden at Abborfors in eastern Finland, thus beginning the Finnish War, in which Sweden will lose the eastern half of the country (i.e.", "Finland) to Russia.", "1828 – Initial issue of the Cherokee Phoenix is the first periodical to use the Cherokee syllabary invented by Sequoyah.", "1842 – John Greenough is granted the first U.S. patent for the sewing machine.", "1848 – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish ''The Communist Manifesto''.", "1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Valverde is fought near Fort Craig in New Mexico Territory.", "1874 – The ''Oakland Daily Tribune'' publishes its first edition.", "1878 – The first telephone directory is issued in New Haven, Connecticut.", "1885 – The newly completed Washington Monument is dedicated.", "1896 – An Englishman raised in Australia, Bob Fitzsimmons, fought an Irishman, Peter Maher, in an American promoted event which technically took place in Mexico, winning the 1896 World Heavyweight Championship in boxing.===1901–present===1913 – Ioannina is incorporated into the Greek state after the Balkan Wars.", "1916 – World War I: In France, the Battle of Verdun begins.", "1918 – The last Carolina parakeet dies in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo.", "1919 – German socialist Kurt Eisner is assassinated.", "His death results in the establishment of the Bavarian Soviet Republic and parliament and government fleeing Munich, Germany.", "1921 – Constituent Assembly of the Democratic Republic of Georgia adopts the country's first constitution.", "* 1921 – Rezā Shāh takes control of Tehran during a successful coup.", "1925 – ''The New Yorker'' publishes its first issue.", "1929 – In the first battle of the Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong against the Nationalist government of China, a 24,000-strong rebel force led by Zhang Zongchang was defeated at Zhifu by 7,000 NRA troops.", "1937 – The League of Nations bans foreign national \"volunteers\" in the Spanish Civil War.", "1945 – World War II: During the Battle of Iwo Jima, Japanese kamikaze planes sink the escort carrier and damage the .", "* 1945 – World War II: the Brazilian Expeditionary Force defeat the German forces in the Battle of Monte Castello on the Italian front.", "1947 – In New York City, Edwin Land demonstrates the first \"instant camera\", the Polaroid Land Camera, to a meeting of the Optical Society of America.", "1948 – NASCAR is incorporated.", "1952 – The British government, under Winston Churchill, abolishes identity cards in the UK to \"set the people free\".", " 1952 – The Bengali Language Movement protests occur at the University of Dhaka in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).", "1958 – The CND symbol, aka peace symbol, commissioned by the Direct Action Committee in protest against the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment, is designed and completed by Gerald Holtom.", "1971 – The Convention on Psychotropic Substances is signed at Vienna.", "1972 – United States President Richard Nixon visits China to normalize Sino-American relations.", " 1972 – The Soviet uncrewed spaceship Luna 20 lands on the Moon.", "1973 – Over the Sinai Desert, Israeli fighter aircraft shoot down Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 jet killing 108 people.", "1974 – The last Israeli soldiers leave the west bank of the Suez Canal pursuant to a truce with Egypt.", "1975 – Watergate scandal: Former United States Attorney General John N. Mitchell and former White House aides H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman are sentenced to prison.", "1994 – Aldrich Ames is arrested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation for selling national secrets to the Soviet Union in Arlington County, Virginia.", "1995 – Steve Fossett lands in Leader, Saskatchewan, Canada becoming the first person to make a solo flight across the Pacific Ocean in a balloon.", "2013 – At least 17 people are killed and 119 injured following several bombings in the Indian city of Hyderabad.", "2022 – In the Russo-Ukrainian crisis Russian President Vladimir Putin declares the Luhansk People's Republic and Donetsk People's Republic as independent from Ukraine, and moves troops into the region.", "The action is condemned by the United Nations." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 921 – Abe no Seimei, Japanese astrologer (d. 1005)1397 – Isabella of Portugal (d. 1471)1462 – Joanna la Beltraneja, princess of Castile (d. 1530)1484 – Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1535)1498 – Ralph Neville, 4th Earl of Westmorland, English Earl (d. 1549)1541 – Philipp V, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1599)1556 – Sethus Calvisius, German astronomer, composer, and theorist (d. 1615)===1601–1900===1609 – Raimondo Montecuccoli, Italian military commander (d. 1680)1621 – Rebecca Nurse, Massachusetts colonist, executed as a witch (d. 1692)1705 – Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke, English admiral and politician (d. 1781)1728 – Peter III of Russia (d. 1762)1783 – Catharina of Württemberg (d. 1835)1788 – Francis Ronalds, British scientist, inventor and engineer who was knighted for developing the first working electric telegraph (d. 1873)1791 – Carl Czerny, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1857)1794 – Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexican general and politician, 8th President of Mexico (d. 1876)1801 – John Henry Newman, English cardinal (d. 1890)1817 – José Zorrilla, Spanish poet and playwright (d. 1893)1821 – Charles Scribner I, American publisher, founded Charles Scribner's Sons (d. 1871)1836 – Léo Delibes, French pianist and composer (d. 1891)1844 – Charles-Marie Widor, French organist and composer (d. 1937)1860 – Goscombe John, Welsh-English sculptor and academic (d. 1952)1865 – John Haden Badley, English author and educator, founded the Bedales School (d. 1967)1867 – Otto Hermann Kahn, German banker and philanthropist (d. 1934)1875 – Jeanne Calment, French super-centenarian, oldest verified person ever (d. 1997)1878 – Mirra Alfassa, French-Indian spiritual leader (d. 1973)1881 – Kenneth J. Alford, English soldier, bandmaster, and composer (d. 1945)1885 – Sacha Guitry, Russian-French actor, director, and playwright (d. 1957)1887 – Korechika Anami, Japanese general and politician, 54th Japanese Minister of War (d. 1945)1888 – Clemence Dane, English author and playwright (d. 1965)1892 – Harry Stack Sullivan, American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst (d. 1949)1893 – Celia Lovsky, Austrian-American actress (d. 1979)* 1893 – Andrés Segovia, Spanish guitarist (d. 1987)1894 – Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar, Indian chemist and academic (d. 1955)1895 – Henrik Dam, Danish biochemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)1896 – Nirala, Indian poet and author (d. 1961)1900 – Jeanne Aubert, French singer and actress (d. 1988)===1901–present===1902 – Arthur Nock, English theologian and academic (d. 1963)1903 – Anaïs Nin, French-American essayist and memoirist (d. 1977)* 1903 – Raymond Queneau, French poet and author (d. 1976)1907 – W. H. Auden, English-American poet, playwright, and composer (d. 1973)1909 – Hans Erni, Swiss painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 2015)1910 – Douglas Bader, English captain and pilot (d. 1982)1912 – Arline Judge, American actress and singer (d. 1974)1914 – Ilmari Juutilainen, Finnish soldier and pilot (d. 1999) 1914 – Zachary Scott, American actor (d. 1965)* 1914 – Jean Tatlock, American psychiatrist and physician (d. 1944)1915 – Claudia Jones, Trinidad-British journalist and activist (d. 1964) 1915 – Ann Sheridan, American actress and singer (d. 1967)* 1915 – Anton Vratuša, Prime Minister of Slovenia (d. 2017)1917 – Lucille Bremer, American actress and dancer (d. 1996) 1917 – Tadd Dameron, American pianist and composer (d. 1965)1921 – Zdeněk Miler, Czech animator (d. 2011) 1921 – John Rawls, American philosopher and academic (d. 2002)* 1921 – Richard T. Whitcomb, American aeronautical engineer (d. 2009)1924 – Dorothy Blum, American computer scientist and cryptanalyst (d. 1980) 1924 – Thelma Estrin, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 2014)* 1924 – Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwean educator and politician, 2nd President of Zimbabwe (d. 2019)1925 – Sam Peckinpah, American director and screenwriter (d. 1984) 1925 – Jack Ramsay, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2014)1927 – Erma Bombeck, American journalist and author (d. 1996)1929 – Chespirito, Mexican actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014)1933 – Bob Rafelson, American film director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2022) 1933 – Nina Simone, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2003)1934 – Rue McClanahan, American actress (d. 2010)1935 – Richard A. Lupoff, American author (d. 2020)* 1935 – Mark McManus, Scottish actor (d. 1994)1936 – Barbara Jordan, American lawyer and politician (d. 1996)1937 – Ron Clarke, Australian runner and politician, Mayor of the Gold Coast (d. 2015)* 1937 – Harald V of Norway* 1937 – Gary Lockwood, American actor1938 – Bobby Charles, American singer-songwriter (d. 2020)1940 – Peter Gethin, English racing driver (d. 2011)* 1940 – John Lewis, American activist and politician (d. 2020)1942 – Tony Martin, Trinidadian-American historian and academic (d. 2013) 1942 – Margarethe von Trotta, German actress, director, and screenwriter1943 – David Geffen, American businessman, co-founded DreamWorks and Geffen Records1945 – Maurice Bembridge, English golfer1946 – Tyne Daly, American actress and singer 1946 – Anthony Daniels, English actor and producer* 1946 – Alan Rickman, English actor and director (d. 2016)* 1946 – Bob Ryan, American journalist and author1947 – Johnny Echols, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1947 – Olympia Snowe, American politician1949 – Frank Brunner, American illustrator 1949 – Jerry Harrison, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1949 – Ronnie Hellström, Swedish footballer (d. 2022)1950 – Sahle-Work Zewde, Ethiopian politician and diplomat, 5th President of Ethiopia1951 – Vince Welnick, American keyboard player (d. 2006)1952 – Jean-Jacques Burnel, English bass player, songwriter, and producer 1952 – Vitaly Churkin, Russian diplomat, former Ambassador of Russia to the United Nations (d. 2017)1953 – Christine Ebersole, American actress and singer 1953 – William Petersen, American actor and producer 1954 – Christina Rees, British politician1955 – Kelsey Grammer, American actor, singer, and producer1958 – Jake Burns, Northern Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Mary Chapin Carpenter, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1958 – Kim Coates, Canadian-American actor* 1958 – Jack Coleman, American actor* 1958 – Alan Trammell, American baseball player, coach, and manager1959 – José María Cano, Spanish singer-songwriter and painter 1960 – Plamen Oresharski, Bulgarian economist and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Bulgaria1961 – Christopher Atkins, American actor and businessman 1961 – Elliot Hirshman, American psychologist and academic1962 – Chuck Palahniuk, American novelist and journalist 1962 – David Foster Wallace, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 2008)1963 – William Baldwin, American actor 1963 – Ranking Roger, English singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2019)* 1963 – Greg Turner, New Zealand golfer1964 – Mark Kelly, American astronaut and politician 1964 – Scott Kelly, American astronaut1965 – Mark Ferguson, Australian journalist1967 – Leroy Burrell, American runner and coach* 1967 – Sari Essayah, Finnish athlete and politician1969 – James Dean Bradfield, Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist 1969 – Aunjanue Ellis, American actress and producer* 1969 – Petra Kronberger, Austrian skier* 1969 – Tony Meola, American soccer player and manager* 1969 – Cathy Richardson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1970 – Michael Slater, Australian cricketer and sportscaster1971 – Pierre Fulke, Swedish golfer1973 – Heri Joensen, Faroese singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Brian Rolston, American ice hockey player and coach1974 – Iván Campo, Spanish footballer1975 – Scott Miller, Australian swimmer1976 – Michael McIntyre, English comedian, actor and television presenter 1976 – Ryan Smyth, Canadian ice hockey player1977 – Steve Francis, American basketball player 1977 – Rhiannon Giddens, American musician1978 – Erick Barkley, American basketball player1979 – Tituss Burgess, American actor and singer* 1979 – Carlito, Puerto Rican wrestler* 1979 – Pascal Chimbonda, Guadeloupean-French footballer* 1979 – Jennifer Love Hewitt, American actress and producer* 1979 – Jordan Peele, American actor, comedian, director, producer, and screenwriter1980 – Brad Fast, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Tiziano Ferro, Italian singer-songwriter and producer* 1980 – Brendan Sexton III, American actor* 1980 – Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, 5th King of Bhutan1981 – Tsuyoshi Wada, Japanese baseball player1982 – Andre Barrett, American basketball player* 1982 – Chantal Claret, American singer-songwriter* 1982 – Tebogo Jacko Magubane, South African DJ and producer 1983 – Braylon Edwards, American football player 1983 – Franklin Gutiérrez, Venezuelan baseball player* 1983 – Mélanie Laurent, French actress1984 – Andrew Ellis, New Zealand rugby player 1984 – David Odonkor, German footballer* 1984 – Marco Paoloni, Italian footballer* 1984 – James Wisniewski, American ice hockey player1985 – Georgios Samaras, Greek footballer1986 – Charlotte Church, Welsh singer-songwriter and actress1987 – Eniola Aluko, English footballer 1987 – Ashley Greene, American actress* 1987 – Elliot Page, Canadian actor1988 – Donté Greene, American basketball player1989 – Corbin Bleu, American actor, model, dancer, film producer and singer-songwriter* 1989 – Ian Cole, American ice hockey player* 1989 – Jake Muzzin, Canadian ice hockey player1990 – Mattias Tedenby, Swedish ice hockey player1991 – Joe Alwyn, English actor* 1991 – Riyad Mahrez, Algerian footballer* 1991 – Ji So-yun, South Korean footballer* 1991 – Devon Travis, American baseball player1993 – Steve Leo Beleck, Cameroonian footballer 1993 – Davy Klaassen, Dutch footballer1994 – Tang Haochen, Chinese tennis player 1994 – Hayley Orrantia, American actress and singer-songwriter* 1994 – Wendy, South Korean singer1996 – Noah Rubin, American tennis player 1996 – Sophie Turner, English actress1999 – Metawin Opas-iamkajorn, Thai actor and singer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===4 AD – Gaius Caesar, Roman consul and grandson of Augustus (b.", "20 BC)* 675 – Randoald of Grandval, prior of the Benedictine monastery of Grandval1184 – Minamoto no Yoshinaka, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1154)1267 – Baldwin of Ibelin, Seneschal of Cyprus1437 – James I of Scotland (b.", "1394; assassinated)1471 – Jan Rokycana, Czech bishop and theologian (b.", "1396)1513 – Pope Julius II (b.", "1443)1543 – Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, Somalian general (b.", "1507)1554 – Hieronymus Bock, German botanist and physician (b.", "1498)1572 – Cho Shik, Korean poet and scholar (d. 1501)1590 – Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick, English nobleman and general (b.", "1528)1595 – Robert Southwell, English priest and poet (b.", "1561)===1601–1900===1677 – Baruch Spinoza, Dutch philosopher and scholar (b.", "1632)1715 – Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, English politician (b.", "1637)1730 – Pope Benedict XIII (b.", "1649)1821 – Georg Friedrich von Martens, German jurist and diplomat (b.", "1756)1824 – Eugène de Beauharnais, French general (b.", "1781)1829 – Kittur Chennamma, Indian queen and freedom fighter (b.", "1778)1846 – Emperor Ninkō of Japan (b.", "1800)1862 – Justinus Kerner, German poet and physician (b.", "1786)1888 – William Weston, English-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1804)1891 – James Timberlake, American lieutenant and police officer (b.", "1846)===1901–present===1918 – Incas, last known Carolina parakeet (h. )1919 – Kurt Eisner, German journalist and politician, Minister-President of Bavaria (b.", "1867)1926 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Dutch physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1853)1934 – Augusto César Sandino, Nicaraguan rebel leader (b.", "1895)1938 – George Ellery Hale, American astronomer and academic (b.", "1868)1941 – Frederick Banting, Canadian physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1891)1944 – Ferenc Szisz, Hungarian-French racing driver (b.", "1873)1945 – Eric Liddell, Scottish rugby player and runner (b.", "1902)1946 – José Streel, Belgian journalist (b.", "1911)1947 – Fannie Charles Dillon, American composer (b.", "1881)1958 – Duncan Edwards, English footballer (b.", "1936)1965 – Malcolm X, American minister and activist (b.", "1925)1967 – Charles Beaumont, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1929)1968 – Howard Florey, Australian pathologist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1898)1972 – Zhang Guohua, Chinese general and politician (b.", "1914) 1972 – Bronislava Nijinska, Russian-American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1891)* 1972 – Eugène Tisserant, French cardinal (b.", "1884)1974 – Tim Horton, Canadian ice hockey player and businessman, co-founded Tim Hortons (b.", "1930)1980 – Alfred Andersch, German-Swiss author (b.", "1914)1982 – Gershom Scholem, German-Israeli historian and philosopher (b.", "1897)1984 – Mikhail Sholokhov, Russian novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1905)1985 – Louis Hayward, South African-American actor (b.", "1909)1986 – Helen Hooven Santmyer, American novelist (b.", "1895)1991 – Dorothy Auchterlonie Green, Australian poet, critic, and academic (b.", "1915) 1991 – Nutan, Indian actress (b.", "1936)1993 – Inge Lehmann, Danish seismologist and geophysicist (b.", "1888)1994 – Johannes Steinhoff, German general and pilot (b.", "1913)1995 – Robert Bolt, English dramatist (b.", "1924)1996 – Morton Gould, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1913)1999 – Gertrude B. Elion, American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918) 1999 – Ilmari Juutilainen, Finnish soldier and pilot (b.", "1914)* 1999 – Wilmer Mizell, American baseball player and politician (b.", "1930)2002 – John Thaw, English actor and producer (b.", "1942)2004 – John Charles, Welsh footballer and manager (b.", "1931)2005 – Guillermo Cabrera Infante, Cuban author, screenwriter, and critic (b.", "1929) 2005 – Zdzisław Beksiński, Polish painter, photographer, and sculptor (b.", "1929)2008 – Ben Chapman, American actor (b.", "1928)2011 – Dwayne McDuffie, American author and screenwriter, co-founded Milestone Media (b.", "1962)* 2011 – Bernard Nathanson, American physician and activist (b.", "1926)2012 – H. M. Darmstandler, American general (b.", "1922)2013 – Hasse Jeppson, Swedish footballer (b.", "1925)2014 – Héctor Maestri, Cuban-American baseball player (b.", "1935) 2014 – Matthew Robinson, Australian snowboarder (b.", "1985)* 2014 – Cornelius Schnauber, German–American historian, playwright, and academic (b.", "1939)2015 – Aleksei Gubarev, Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1931) 2015 – Sadeq Tabatabaei, Iranian journalist and politician (b.", "1943)* 2015 – Clark Terry, American trumpet player, composer, and educator (b.", "1920)2016 – Eric Brown, Scottish-English captain and pilot (b.", "1919)2017 – Jeanne Martin Cissé, Guinean teacher and politician (b.", "1926)2018 – Billy Graham, American evangelist (b.", "1918)2019 – Stanley Donen, American film director (b.", "1924)\t* 2019 – Peter Tork, American musician and actor (b.", "1942)2021 – Mireya Arboleda, Colombian classical pianist (b.", "1928) 2021 – Kevin Dann, Australian rugby league player (b.", "1958)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Armed Forces Day (South Africa)Birthday of King Harald V (Norway)Christian feast day:Felix of HadrumetumPepin of LandenPeter DamianRandoald of GrandvalFebruary 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Father Lini Day (Vanuatu)Language Movement Day (Bangladesh)International Mother Language Day (UNESCO)The first day of the Birth Anniversary of Fifth Druk Gyalpo, celebrated until February 23.", "(Bhutan)The first day of the Musikahan Festival, celebrated until February 27.", "(Tagum City, Philippines)" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 21" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "FBI (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''FBI''' is the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the United States.", "'''FBI''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Music", "''F.B.I.''", "(album), a 1996 song and album by The Dayton Family\"F.B.I.\"", "(instrumental), a 1961 single by The ShadowsFBi Radio, a community radio station based in Sydney, Australia" ], [ "Television", "''Fully Booked Interactive'', a 2000 British children's TV show – a reformat of the series ''Fully Booked''''The F.B.I.''", "(TV series), a 1965–1974 television series based in part on actual FBI casesFBI (franchise)''FBI'' (TV series), the television series produced by Dick Wolf, debuted in the 2018–2019 season''FBI: Most Wanted'', a spin-off of the above*''FBI: International'', a spin-off of the above" ], [ "Organisations", "Federation of British Industries, merged into Confederation of British Industry in 1965Flying Buffalo, Inc., a game publisher based in the Arizona, USFurniture Brands International, a former Clayton, Missouri, US-based furniture companyFull Blooded Italians, a professional wrestling stable" ], [ "Science", "''The Fauna of British India'', a series of scientific books published by the British government in India (1890–1947)FBI mnemonics, for describing directions in magnetic fieldsFBI transform (Fourier-Bros-Iaglonitzer transform), a concept in mathematics" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''F.B.I.", "Frog Butthead Investigators'', a 2012 film" ], [ "See also", "''The FBI Story'', a 1959 film about the Federal Bureau of InvestigationFBI MoneyPak Ransomware, a ransomware virus that claims to be from the FBI" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Forth (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Forth''' is a procedural, concatenative, stack-oriented programming language and interactive development environment designed by Charles H. \"Chuck\" Moore and first used by other programmers in 1970.Although not an acronym, the language's name in its early years was often spelled in all capital letters as ''FORTH''.", "The FORTH-79 and FORTH-83 implementations, which were not written by Moore, became ''de facto'' standards, and an official standardization of the language was published in 1994 as ANS Forth.", "A wide range of Forth derivatives existed before and after ANS Forth.", "The free software Gforth implementation is actively maintained, as are several commercially supported systems.Forth typically combines a compiler with an integrated command shell, where the user interacts via subroutines called ''words''.", "Words can be defined, tested, redefined, and debugged without recompiling or restarting the whole program.", "All syntactic elements, including variables, operators, and control flow, are defined as words.", "A stack is used to pass parameters between words, leading to a Reverse Polish Notation style.For much of Forth's existence, the standard technique was to compile to threaded code, which can be interpreted faster than bytecode.", "One of the early benefits of Forth was size: an entire development environment—including compiler, editor, and user programs—could fit in memory on an 8-bit or similarly limited system.", "No longer constrained by space, there are modern implementations that generate optimized machine code like other language compilers.", "The relative simplicity of creating a basic Forth system has led to many personal and proprietary variants, such as the custom Forth used to implement the bestselling 1986 video game ''Starflight'' from Electronic Arts.Forth is used in the Open Firmware boot loader, in spaceflight applications such as the Philae spacecraft, and in other embedded systems which involve interaction with hardware.", "Moore developed a series of microprocessors for executing compiled Forth-like code directly and experimented with smaller languages based on Forth concepts, including cmForth and colorForth.", "Most of these languages were designed to support Moore's own projects, such as chip design." ], [ "Uses", "Forth has a niche in astronomical and space applications as well as a history in embedded systems.", "The Open Firmware boot ROMs used by Apple, IBM, Sun, and OLPC XO-1 contain a Forth environment.Forth has often been used to bring up new hardware.", "Forth was the first resident software on the new Intel 8086 chip in 1978, and MacFORTH was the first resident development system for the Macintosh 128K in 1984.Atari, Inc. used an elaborate animated demo written in Forth to showcase capabilities of the Atari 400 and 800 computers in department stores.", "Electronic Arts published multiple video games in the 1980s that were written in Forth, including ''Worms?''", "(1983), ''Adventure Construction Set'' (1984), ''Amnesia'' (1986), ''Starflight'' (1986), and ''Lords of Conquest'' (1986).", "Robot coding game ''ChipWits'' (1984) was written in MacFORTH.Ashton-Tate's RapidFile (1986), a flat-file database program, and VP-Planner from Paperback Software International (1983), a spreadsheet program competing with Lotus 1-2-3, were written in Forth.The Canon Cat (1987) uses Forth for its system programming.Rockwell produced single-chip microcomputers with resident Forth kernels: the R65F11 and R65F12.ASYST was a Forth expansion for measuring and controlling on PCs." ], [ "History", "Forth evolved from Charles H. Moore's personal programming system, which had been in continuous development since 1968.Forth was first exposed to other programmers in the early 1970s, starting with Elizabeth Rather at the United States National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO).", "After their work at NRAO, Charles Moore and Elizabeth Rather formed FORTH, Inc. in 1973, refining and porting Forth systems to dozens of other platforms in the next decade.Forth is so-named, because in 1968 \"the file holding the interpreter was labeled FOURTH, for 4th (next) generation software, but the IBM 1130 operating system restricted file names to five characters.\"", "Moore saw Forth as a successor to compile-link-go third-generation programming languages, or software for \"fourth generation\" hardware.FORTH, Inc.'s microFORTH was developed for the Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Zilog Z80, and RCA 1802 microprocessors, starting in 1976.MicroFORTH was later used by hobbyists to generate Forth systems for other architectures, such as the 6502 in 1978.The Forth Interest Group was formed in 1978.It promoted and distributed its own version of the language, FIG-Forth, for most makes of home computer.Forth was popular in the early 1980s, because it was well suited to the limited memory of microcomputers.", "The ease of implementing the language led to many implementations.", "The Jupiter ACE home computer has Forth in its ROM-resident operating system.", "Insoft GraFORTH is a version of Forth with graphics extensions for the Apple II.Common practice was codified in the de facto standards FORTH-79 and FORTH-83 in the years 1979 and 1983, respectively.", "These standards were unified by ANSI in 1994, commonly referred to as Forth.As of 2018, the source for the original 1130 version of FORTH has been recovered, and is now being updated to run on a restored or emulated 1130 system." ], [ "Overview", "Forth emphasizes the use of small, simple functions called ''words''.", "Words for bigger tasks call upon many smaller words that each accomplish a distinct sub-task.", "A large Forth program is a hierarchy of words.", "These words, being distinct modules that communicate implicitly via a stack mechanism, can be prototyped, built and tested independently.", "The highest level of Forth code may resemble an English-language description of the application.", "Forth has been called a ''meta-application language'': a language that can be used to create problem-oriented languages.Forth relies on explicit use of a data stack and reverse Polish notation which is commonly used in calculators from Hewlett-Packard.", "In RPN, the operator is placed after its operands, as opposed to the more common infix notation where the operator is placed between its operands.", "Postfix notation makes the language easier to parse and extend; Forth's flexibility makes a static BNF grammar inappropriate, and it does not have a monolithic compiler.", "Extending the compiler only requires writing a new word, instead of modifying a grammar and changing the underlying implementation.Using RPN, one can get the result of the mathematical expression (25 * 10 + 50) this way: 25 10 * 50 + CR .", "300 okleftFirst the numbers 25 and 10 are put on the stack.leftThe word * takes the top two numbers from the stack, multiplies them, and puts the product back on the stack.leftThen the number 50 is placed on the stack.leftThe word + adds the top two values, pushing the sum.", "CR (carriage return) starts the output on a new line.", "Finally, .", "prints the result.", "As everything has completed successfully, the Forth system prints OK.Even Forth's structural features are stack-based.", "For example: : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' ) DUP 6 The colon indicates the beginning of a new definition, in this case a new word (again, ''word'' is the term used for a subroutine) called FLOOR5.The text in parentheses is a comment, advising that this word expects a number on the stack and will return a possibly changed number (on the stack).The subroutine uses the following commands: DUP duplicates the number on the stack; 6 pushes a 6 on top of the stack; compares the top two numbers on the stack (6 and the DUPed input), and replaces them with a true-or-false value; IF takes a true-or-false value and chooses to execute commands immediately after it or to skip to the ELSE; DROP discards the value on the stack; 5 pushes a 5 on top of the stack; and THEN ends the conditional.The FLOOR5 word is equivalent to this function written in the C programming language using the conditional operator '?", ":'int floor5(int v) { return (v This function is written more succinctly as: : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' ) 1- 5 MAX ;This can be run as follows: 1 FLOOR5 CR .", "5 ok 8 FLOOR5 CR .", "7 okFirst a number (1 or 8) is pushed onto the stack, FLOOR5 is called, which pops the number again and pushes the result.", "CR moves the output to a new line (again, this is only here for readability).", "Finally, a call to .", "pops the result and prints." ], [ "Facilities", "Forth's grammar has no official specification.", "Instead, it is defined by a simple algorithm.", "The interpreter reads a line of input from the user input device, which is then parsed for a word using spaces as a delimiter; some systems recognise additional whitespace characters.", "When the interpreter finds a word, it looks the word up in the ''dictionary''.", "If the word is found, the interpreter executes the code associated with the word, and then returns to parse the rest of the input stream.", "If the word isn't found, the word is assumed to be a number and an attempt is made to convert it into a number and push it on the stack; if successful, the interpreter continues parsing the input stream.", "Otherwise, if both the lookup and the number conversion fail, the interpreter prints the word followed by an error message indicating that the word is not recognised, flushes the input stream, and waits for new user input.The definition of a new word is started with the word : (colon) and ends with the word ; (semi-colon).", "For example, : X DUP 1+ .", ".", ";will compile the word X, and makes the name findable in the dictionary.", "When executed by typing 10 X at the console this will print 11 10.Most Forth systems include an assembler to write words using the processor's facilities.", "Forth assemblers often use a reverse Polish syntax in which the parameters of an instruction precede the instruction.", "A typical reverse Polish assembler prepares the operands on the stack and the mnemonic copies the whole instruction into memory as the last step.", "A Forth assembler is by nature a macro assembler, so that it is easy to define an alias for registers according to their role in the Forth system: e.g.", "\"dsp\" for the register used as the data stack pointer.=== Operating system, files, and multitasking ===Most Forth systems run under a host operating system such as Microsoft Windows, Linux or a version of Unix and use the host operating system's file system for source and data files; the ANSI Forth Standard describes the words used for I/O.", "All modern Forth systems use normal text files for source, even if they are embedded.", "An embedded system with a resident compiler gets its source via a serial line.Classic Forth systems traditionally use neither operating system nor file system.", "Instead of storing code in files, source code is stored in disk blocks written to physical disk addresses.", "The word BLOCK is employed to translate the number of a 1K-sized block of disk space into the address of a buffer containing the data, which is managed automatically by the Forth system.", "Block use has become rare since the mid-1990s.", "In a hosted system those blocks too are allocated in a normal file in any case.Multitasking, most commonly cooperative round-robin scheduling, is normally available (although multitasking words and support are not covered by the ANSI Forth Standard).", "The word PAUSE is used to save the current task's execution context, to locate the next task, and restore its execution context.", "Each task has its own stacks, private copies of some control variables and a scratch area.", "Swapping tasks is simple and efficient; as a result, Forth multitaskers are available even on very simple microcontrollers, such as the Intel 8051, Atmel AVR, and TI MSP430.Other non-standard facilities include a mechanism for issuing calls to the host OS or windowing systems, and many provide extensions that employ the scheduling provided by the operating system.", "Typically they have a larger and different set of words from the stand-alone Forth's PAUSE word for task creation, suspension, destruction and modification of priority.=== Self-compilation and cross compilation ===A full-featured Forth system with all source code will compile itself, a technique commonly called meta-compilation or self-hosting, by Forth programmers (although the term doesn't exactly match meta-compilation as it is normally defined).", "The usual method is to redefine the handful of words that place compiled bits into memory.", "The compiler's words use specially named versions of fetch and store that can be redirected to a buffer area in memory.", "The buffer area simulates or accesses a memory area beginning at a different address than the code buffer.", "Such compilers define words to access both the target computer's memory, and the host (compiling) computer's memory.After the fetch and store operations are redefined for the code space, the compiler, assembler, etc.", "are recompiled using the new definitions of fetch and store.", "This effectively reuses all the code of the compiler and interpreter.", "Then, the Forth system's code is compiled, but this version is stored in the buffer.", "The buffer in memory is written to disk, and ways are provided to load it temporarily into memory for testing.", "When the new version appears to work, it is written over the previous version.Numerous variations of such compilers exist for different environments.", "For embedded systems, the code may instead be written to another computer, a technique known as cross compilation, over a serial port or even a single TTL bit, while keeping the word names and other non-executing parts of the dictionary in the original compiling computer.", "The minimum definitions for such a Forth compiler are the words that fetch and store a byte, and the word that commands a Forth word to be executed.", "Often the most time-consuming part of writing a remote port is constructing the initial program to implement fetch, store and execute, but many modern microprocessors have integrated debugging features (such as the Motorola CPU32) that eliminate this task." ], [ "Structure of the language", "The basic data structure of Forth is the \"dictionary\" which maps \"words\" to executable code or named data structures.", "The dictionary is laid out in memory as a tree of linked lists with the links proceeding from the latest (most recently) defined word to the oldest, until a sentinel value, usually a NULL pointer, is found.", "A context switch causes a list search to start at a different leaf.", "A linked list search continues as the branch merges into the main trunk leading eventually back to the sentinel, the root.There can be several dictionaries.", "In rare cases such as meta-compilation a dictionary might be isolated and stand-alone.The effect resembles that of nesting namespaces and can overload keywords depending on the context.A defined word generally consists of ''head'' and ''body'' with the head consisting of the ''name field'' (NF) and the ''link field'' (LF), and body consisting of the ''code field'' (CF) and the ''parameter field'' (PF).Head and body of a dictionary entry are treated separately because they may not be contiguous.", "For example, when a Forth program is recompiled for a new platform, the head may remain on the compiling computer, while the body goes to the new platform.", "In some environments (such as embedded systems) the heads occupy memory unnecessarily.", "However, some cross-compilers may put heads in the target if the target itself is expected to support an interactive Forth.The exact format of a dictionary entry is not prescribed, and implementations vary.===Structure of the compiler===The compiler itself is not a monolithic program.", "It consists of Forth words visible to the system, and usable by a programmer.", "This allows a programmer to change the compiler's words for special purposes.The \"compile time\" flag in the name field is set for words with \"compile time\" behavior.", "Most simple words execute the same code whether they are typed on a command line, or embedded in code.", "When compiling these, the compiler simply places code or a threaded pointer to the word.The classic examples of compile-time words are the control structures such as IF and WHILE.", "Almost all of Forth's control structures and almost all of its compiler are implemented as compile-time words.", "Apart from some rarely used control flow words only found in a few implementations, such as the conditional return word ?EXIT used in Ulrich Hoffmann's preForth, all of Forth's control flow words are executed during compilation to compile various combinations of primitive words along with their branch addresses.", "For instance, IF and WHILE, and the words that match with those, set up BRANCH (unconditional branch) and ?BRANCH (pop a value off the stack, and branch if it is false).", "Counted loop control flow words work similarly but set up combinations of primitive words that work with a counter, and so on.", "During compilation, the data stack is used to support control structure balancing, nesting, and back-patching of branch addresses.", "The snippet: ... DUP 6 would often be compiled to the following sequence inside a definition: ... DUP LIT 6 The numbers after BRANCH represent relative jump addresses.", "LIT is the primitive word for pushing a \"literal\" number onto the data stack.", "(Faster, shorter code would be compiled using pointers to constants instead of LIT and embedded data, if any of the numbers involved have been separately defined as constants.", "There would be similar changes if yet other words were used instead of constants, and so on.", ")==== Compilation state and interpretation state ====The word : (colon) parses a name as a parameter, creates a dictionary entry (a ''colon definition'') and enters compilation state.", "The interpreter continues to read space-delimited words from the user input device.", "If a word is found, the interpreter executes the ''compilation semantics'' associated with the word, instead of the ''interpretation semantics''.", "The default compilation semantics of a word are to append its interpretation semantics to the current definition.The word ; (semi-colon) finishes the current definition and returns to interpretation state.", "It is an example of a word whose compilation semantics differ from the default.", "The interpretation semantics of ; (semi-colon), most control flow words, and several other words are undefined in Forth, meaning that they must only be used inside of definitions and not on the interactive command line.The interpreter state can be changed manually with the words (left-bracket) and (right-bracket) which enter interpretation state or compilation state, respectively.", "These words can be used with the word LITERAL to calculate a value during a compilation and to insert the calculated value into the current colon definition.", "LITERAL has the compilation semantics to take an object from the data stack and to append semantics to the current colon definition to place that object on the data stack.In Forth, the current state of the interpreter can be read from the flag STATE which contains the value true when in compilation state and false otherwise.", "This allows the implementation of so-called ''state-smart words'' with behavior that changes according to the current state of the interpreter.==== Immediate words ====The word IMMEDIATE marks the most recent colon definition as an ''immediate word'', effectively replacing its compilation semantics with its interpretation semantics.", "Immediate words are normally executed during compilation, not compiled, but this can be overridden by the programmer in either state.", "; is an example of an immediate word.", "In Forth, the word POSTPONE takes a name as a parameter and appends the compilation semantics of the named word to the current definition even if the word was marked immediate.", "Forth-83 defined separate words COMPILE and COMPILE to force the compilation of non-immediate and immediate words, respectively.Instead of reserving space for an Immediate flag in every definition, some implementations of Forth use an Immediates Dictionary which is checked first when in compile mode.==== Unnamed words and execution tokens ====In Forth, unnamed words can be defined with the word :NONAME which compiles the following words up to the next ; (semi-colon) and leaves an ''execution token'' on the data stack.", "The execution token provides an opaque handle for the compiled semantics, similar to the function pointers of the C programming language.Execution tokens can be stored in variables.", "The word EXECUTE takes an execution token from the data stack and performs the associated semantics.", "The word COMPILE, (compile-comma) takes an execution token from the data stack and appends the associated semantics to the current definition.The word (tick) takes the name of a word as a parameter and returns the execution token associated with that word on the data stack.", "In interpretation state, ' RANDOM-WORD EXECUTE is equivalent to RANDOM-WORD.==== Parsing words and comments ====The words : (colon), POSTPONE, (tick) are examples of ''parsing words'' that take their arguments from the user input device instead of the data stack.", "Another example is the word ( (paren) which reads and ignores the following words up to and including the next right parenthesis and is used to place comments in a colon definition.", "Similarly, the word \\ (backslash) is used for comments that continue to the end of the current line.", "To be parsed correctly, ( (paren) and \\ (backslash) must be separated by whitespace from the following comment text.===Structure of code===In most Forth systems, the body of a code definition consists of either machine language, or some form of threaded code.", "The original Forth which follows the informal FIG standard (Forth Interest Group), is a TIL (Threaded Interpretive Language).", "This is also called indirect-threaded code, but direct-threaded and subroutine threaded Forths have also become popular in modern times.", "The fastest modern Forths, such as SwiftForth, VFX Forth, and iForth, compile Forth to native machine code.===Data objects===When a word is a variable or other data object, the CF points to the runtime code associated with the defining word that created it.", "A defining word has a characteristic \"defining behavior\" (creating a dictionary entry plus possibly allocating and initializing data space) and also specifies the behavior of an instance of the class of words constructed by this defining word.", "Examples include:;VARIABLE:Names an uninitialized, one-cell memory location.", "Instance behavior of a VARIABLE returns its address on the stack.", ";CONSTANT:Names a value (specified as an argument to CONSTANT).", "Instance behavior returns the value.", ";CREATE:Names a location; space may be allocated at this location, or it can be set to contain a string or other initialized value.", "Instance behavior returns the address of the beginning of this space.Forth also provides a facility by which a programmer can define new application-specific defining words, specifying both a custom defining behavior and instance behavior.", "Some examples include circular buffers, named bits on an I/O port, and automatically indexed arrays.Data objects defined by these and similar words are global in scope.", "The function provided by local variables in other languages is provided by the data stack in Forth (although Forth also has real local variables).", "Forth programming style uses very few named data objects compared with other languages; typically such data objects are used to contain data which is used by a number of words or tasks (in a multitasked implementation).Forth does not enforce consistency of data type usage; it is the programmer's responsibility to use appropriate operators to fetch and store values or perform other operations on data." ], [ "Examples", "=== “Hello, World!” === : HELLO ( -- ) CR .\"", "Hello, World!\"", "; HELLO Hello, World!The word CR (Carriage Return) causes the following output to be displayed on a new line.", "The parsing word .\"", "(dot-quote) reads a double-quote delimited string and appends code to the current definition so that the parsed string will be displayed on execution.", "The space character separating the word .\"", "from the string Hello, World!", "is not included as part of the string.", "It is needed so that the parser recognizes .\"", "as a Forth word.A standard Forth system is also an interpreter, and the same output can be obtained by typing the following code fragment into the Forth console: CR .", "( Hello, World!).", "( (dot-paren) is an immediate word that parses a parenthesis-delimited string and displays it.", "As with the word .\"", "the space character separating .", "( from Hello, World!", "is not part of the string.The word CR comes before the text to print.", "By convention, the Forth interpreter does not start output on a new line.", "Also by convention, the interpreter waits for input at the end of the previous line, after an ok prompt.", "There is no implied \"flush-buffer\" action in Forth's CR, as sometimes is in other programming languages.=== Mixing states of compiling and interpreting ===Here is the definition of a word EMIT-Q which when executed emits the single character Q: : EMIT-Q 81 ( the ASCII value for the character 'Q' ) EMIT ;This definition was written to use the ASCII value of the Q character (81) directly.", "The text between the parentheses is a comment and is ignored by the compiler.", "The word EMIT takes a value from the data stack and displays the corresponding character.The following redefinition of EMIT-Q uses the words (left-bracket), (right-bracket), CHAR and LITERAL to temporarily switch to interpreter state, calculate the ASCII value of the Q character, return to compilation state and append the calculated value to the current colon definition: : EMIT-Q CHAR Q LITERAL EMIT ;The parsing word CHAR takes a space-delimited word as parameter and places the value of its first character on the data stack.", "The word is an immediate version of CHAR.", "Using , the example definition for EMIT-Q could be rewritten like this: : EMIT-Q CHAR Q EMIT ; \\ Emit the single character 'Q'This definition used \\ (backslash) for the describing comment.Both CHAR and are predefined in Forth.", "Using IMMEDIATE and POSTPONE, could have been defined like this: : CHAR CHAR POSTPONE LITERAL ; IMMEDIATE=== RC4 cipher program ===In 1987, Ron Rivest developed the RC4 cipher-system for RSA Data Security, Inc. Its description follows:The following Standard Forth version uses Core and Core Extension words only.0 value ii 0 value jj0 value KeyAddr 0 value KeyLencreate SArray 256 allot \\ state array of 256 bytes: KeyArray KeyLen mod KeyAddr ;: get_byte + c@ ;: set_byte + c!", ";: as_byte 255 and ;: reset_ij 0 TO ii 0 TO jj ;: i_update 1 + as_byte TO ii ;: j_update ii SArray get_byte + as_byte TO jj ;: swap_s_ij jj SArray get_byte ii SArray get_byte jj SArray set_byte ii SArray set_byte;: rc4_init ( KeyAddr KeyLen -- ) 256 min TO KeyLen TO KeyAddr 256 0 DO i i SArray set_byte LOOP reset_ij BEGIN ii KeyArray get_byte jj + j_update swap_s_ij ii 255 This is one way to test the code:hexcreate AKey 61 c, 8A c, 63 c, D2 c, FB c,: test cr 0 DO rc4_byte .", "LOOP cr ;AKey 5 rc4_init2C F9 4C EE DC 5 test \\ output should be: F1 38 29 C9 DE" ], [ "Implementations", "Because Forth is simple to implement and has no standard reference implementation, there are numerous versions of the language.", "In addition to supporting the standard varieties of desktop computer systems (POSIX, Microsoft Windows, macOS), many of these Forth systems also target a variety of embedded systems.", "Listed here are some of the systems which conform to the 1994 Forth standard.", "* ASYST, a Forth-like system for data collection and analysis * Gforth, a portable Forth implementation from the GNU Project* noForth, an ANS Forth implementation (as far as possible) for Flash microcontrollers (MSP430 & Risc-V)* Open Firmware, a bootloader and Firmware standard based on Forth* pForth, portable Forth written in C* SP-Forth, Forth implementation from the Russian Forth Interest Group (RuFIG)* Swift Forth, machine code generating implementation from Forth, Inc.* VFX Forth, optimizing native code Forth* Firth, an adaptation of Forth for the Little Man Stack Machine computer." ], [ "See also", "* RTX2010, a CPU that runs Forth natively" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Forth 2012 Standard official site* ''Programming a problem-oriented language'' unpublished book by Charles H. Moore (1970)* Annual European Forth Conference 1985–present* Forth Research at Institut für Computersprachen" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francesco Algarotti" ], [ "Introduction", "Count '''Francesco Algarotti''' (11 December 1712 – 3 May 1764) was an Italian polymath, philosopher, poet, essayist, anglophile, art critic and art collector.", "He was a man of broad knowledge, an expert in Newtonianism, architecture and opera.", "He was a friend of Frederick the Great and leading authors of his times: Voltaire, Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens, Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis and the atheist Julien Offray de La Mettrie.", "Lord Chesterfield, Thomas Gray, George Lyttelton, Thomas Hollis, Metastasio, Benedict XIV and Heinrich von Brühl were among his correspondents." ], [ "Early life", "Algarotti was born in Venice as the son of a rich merchant.", "His father and uncle were art collectors.", "Unlike his older brother, Bonomo he did not step into the company, but decided to become an author.", "Francesco obtained a classical education; also studied natural sciences and mathematics in Rome.", "While the experimental physics and medicine at University of Bologna under Francesco Maria Zanotti and in 1728, he experimented with optics.", "(Zanotti became a lifelong friend.)", "He was educated in his native Venice and in Rome and Bologna.", "His youthful curiosity led him to travel extensively, and he visited Paris for the first time in his early 20s.", "There his urbanity, his brilliant conversation, his good looks, and his versatile intelligence promptly made an impression on such intellectuals as Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis and Voltaire.", "Two years later, he was in London, where he was made a fellow of the Royal Society.", "He became embroiled in a lively bisexual love-triangle with the politician John Hervey, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.", "Algarotti left for Italy and finished his ''Neutonianismo per le dame'' (\"Newtonism for Ladies\") (1737 – dedicated to Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle) – a work consisting of information on astronomy, physics, mathematics, women and science and education." ], [ "Personal life and career", "Algarotti had made acquaintance with Antiochus Kantemir, a Moldavian diplomat, poet and composer.", "He was invited to visit Russia for the wedding of Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick.", "In 1739 he left with Lord Baltimore from Sheerness to Newcastle upon Tyne.", "Because of a heavy storm the ship sheltered in Harlingen.", "Algarotti was discovering \"this new city\", which he called the great window ... to which Russia looks on Europe.", "Returning from Saint Petersburg, they visited Frederick the Great in Rheinsberg.", "Algarotti had obligations in England and came back the year after.", "Then Algarotti went together with Frederick to Königsberg where he was crowned.Nandl Baldauf, la belle chocolatière (1743/44).", "The pastel by Liotard was sold in 1745 by Algarotti to Dresden.Frederick, who was impressed with this walking encyclopedia, made him and his brother Bonomo Prussian counts in 1740.Algarotti accompanied Frederick to Bayreuth, Kehl, Strasbourg and Moyland Castle where they met with Voltaire, who was taking baths in Kleve for his health.", "In 1741 Algarotti went to Turin as his diplomat.", "Frederick had offered him a salary, but Algarotti refused.", "First, he went to Dresden and Venice, where he bought 21 paintings, a few by Jean-Étienne Liotard and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo for the court of Augustus III of Poland.", "Algarotti did not succeed in inducing the Kingdom of Sardinia to launch a treacherous attack upon Austria.===Algarotti and the other arts===The interior of the Pantheon (Rome) by Giovanni Paolo Pannini, ordered by and belonging to the art collection of AlgarottiAlgarotti's choice of works reflects the encyclopedic interests of the Neoclassic era; he was uninterested in developing a single unitary stylistic collection, and envisioned a modern museum, a catalog of styles from across the ages.", "For contemporary commissions, he wrote up a list of paintings he recommended commissioning, including history paintings from Tiepolo, Pittoni, and Piazzetta; scenes with animals from Castiglione, and veduta with ruins from Pannini.", "He wanted ''\"suggetti graziosi e leggeri\"'' from Balestra, Boucher, and Donato Creti.", "Other artists he supported were Giuseppe Nogari, Bernardo Bellotto, and Francesco Pavona.In 1747 Algarotti went back to Potsdam and became court chamberlain, but left to visit the archeological diggings at Herculaneum.", "In 1749 he moved to Berlin.", "Algarotti was involved in finishing the architectural designs of Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff who had fallen ill.", "In February 1753, after several years residing in Prussia, he returned to Italy, living most of the time in Bologna, where he was friendly with Laura Bassi the first salaried female teacher in a university.", "In 1759 Algarotti was involved in a new opera-style in the city of Parma.", "He influenced Guillaume du Tillot and the Duke of Parma.Gathering on Sanssouci in the Marble Hall, with Frederick II.", "(the Great) of Prussia, Voltaire, d'Argens, La Mettrie, James Keith, George Keith, Friedrich Rudolf von Rothenburg, Christoph Ludwig von Stille, and Algarotti.", "The painting was lost in 1945.Algarotti's ''Essay on the Opera'' (1755) was a major influence on the librettist Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni and the composer Tommaso Traetta, and in the development of Gluck's reformist ideology.", "Algarotti proposed a heavily simplified model of ''opera seria'', with the drama pre-eminent, instead of the music, ballet or staging.", "The drama itself should \"delight the eyes and ears, to rouse up and to affect the hearts of an audience, without the risk of sinning against reason or common sense\".", "Algarotti's ideas influenced both Gluck and his librettist Calzabigi, writing their ''Orfeo ed Euridice''.In 1762 Algarotti moved to Pisa, where he died of tuberculosis.", "Frederick the Great, who several times had needed Algarotti for writing texts in Latin, sent in a text for a monument to his memory on the Campo Santo." ], [ "Works", "* Bibliography and Inventory of all known letters at Algarotti Briefdatenbank der Universitätsbibliothek Trier * Correspondence with Frederick the Great at Digitale Ausgabe der Universitätsbibliothek Trier * Il newtonianismo per le dame, 1737.The International Centre for the History of Universities and Science (CIS), University of Bologna\"Saggio sopra la pittura\"\"An essay on architecture\" (1753).", "\"Letters military and political\" (1782).", "\"Essai sur la durée des règnes des sept rois de Rome\"\"Essai sur l'empire des Incas\"***" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Pisa, Camposanto interno.JPG\|Algarotti tombstone on the left in neo-classical styleFile:Monumento sepolcrale del conte Francesco Algarotti (m. 1764) di Carlo Bianconi, Mauro Tesi e Giovanni Antonio Cibei.JPG\|Tomb of Algarotti in Camposanto di Pisa, designed by Mauro Antonio Tesi and Giovanni Antonio Cibei.File:Bundesarchiv Bild 170-415, Potsdam, Französische Straße.jpg\|Algarotti was involved in the design of the Französische Kirche in Potsdam; picture taken just after the war.File:Francesco Algarotti.jpg\|Francesco Algarotti by Giovanni Boggi, who copied a portrait by J. É. LiotardMichelessi, Domenico – Memorie intorno alla vita e agli scritti del conte Francesco Algarotti, 1770 – BEIC 1320197.jpg\|Domenico Michelessi, ''Memorie intorno alla vita e agli scritti del conte Francesco Algarotti'', 1770File:Algarotti, Francesco - Saggi, 1963 - BEIC 1729548.djvu\|''Saggi'', 1963 (Italian, full text)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " * * * MacDonogh, G. (1999) ''Frederick the Great''.", "New York: St. Martin's Griffin* Orrey, Leslie; Milnes, Rodney (1987).", "''Opera, a concise history''.", "London: Thames and Hudson.", ".", "* Occhipinti, C. ''Piranesi, Mariette, Algarotti.", "Percorsi settecenteschi nella cultura figurativa europea''.", "Roma, UniversItalia, 2013.", "* Stanford University Databases* Frieder von Ammon, Jörg Krämer, Florian Mehltretter (eds.", "): Oper der Aufklärung – Aufklärung der Oper.", "Francesco Algarottis \"Saggio Sopra L'Opera in Musica\" im Kontext.", "Mit einer kommentierten Edition der 5.Fassung des \"Saggio\" und ihrer Übersetzung durch Rudolf Erich Raspe.", "Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter 2017, ." ], [ "External links", "* Catalogo dei quadri dei disegni e dei libri che trattano dell' arte del disegno della galleria del fu Sig.", "conte Algarotti in Venezia (1776)* Online books by F. Algarotti at The Online Books Page.", "* Francesco Algarotti's House in Venice* in Tate Collection at Tate.org.uk* * All that glitters by Henk van Os* Becoming a Scientist: Gender and Knowledge in Eighteenth-Century Italy by Paula Findlen* Thomas Carlyle on Algarotti* Rictor Norton, \"John, Lord Hervey\", section: \"Swan of Padua\".", "* Francesco Algarotti (1739) ''Il Newtonianismo per le dame.''", "– Linda Hall Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francisco Álvares" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francisco Álvares''' ( – 1536-1541) was a Portuguese missionary and explorer.", "In 1515 he traveled to Ethiopia as part of the Portuguese embassy to emperor Lebna Dengel accompanied by returning Ethiopian ambassador Matheus.", "The embassy arrived only in 1520 to Ethiopia where he joined long sought Portuguese envoy Pêro da Covilhã.", "There he remained six years, returning to Lisbon in 1526-27 having written a report entitled ''Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Índias'' (\"A True Relation of the Lands of Prester John of the Indies\")." ], [ "1515 embassy to Ethiopia", "Francisco Álvares was a chaplain-priest and almoner to King Manuel I of Portugal.", "He was sent in 1515 as part of the Portuguese embassy to the nəgusä nägäst (Emperor of Ethiopia), accompanied by the Ethiopian ambassador Matheus.", "Their first attempt to reach the port of Massawa failed due to the actions of Lopo Soares de Albergaria, governor of Portuguese India, which got no closer than the Dahlak Archipelago and was aborted with the death of the Portuguese ambassador, old Duarte Galvão at Kamaran.", "Álvares and Mattheus were forced to wait until the arrival of Soares' replacement, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, who successfully sent the embassy on, with Dom Rodrigo de Lima replacing Duarte Galvão.", "The party at last reached Massawa on April 9, 1520, and reached the court of Lebna Dengel where he befriended several Europeans who had gained the favor of the Emperor, which included Pêro da Covilhã and Nicolao Branceleon.", "Father Álvares remained six years in Ethiopia, returning to Lisbon in either 1526 or 1527.In 1533 he was allowed to accompany Dom Martinho de Portugal to Rome on an embassy to Pope Clement VII, to whom Father Álvares delivered the letter Lebna Dengel had written to the Pope.", "The precise date of Francisco Álvares death, like that of his birth, is unknown, but according to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Eleventh Edition, it was later than 1540, in which year an account of his travels were published at Lisbon.", "In the introduction of their translation of Álvares' work, C.F.", "Beckingham and G.W.B.", "Huntingford furnish evidence that points to Álvares' death in Rome, and admit that he may have died before his work was published." ], [ "Álvares' writings", "''Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias'', 1540In 1540, Luís Rodrigues published a version of Álvares account in a one volume folio, entitled ''Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias'' (\"A True Relation of the Lands of Prester John of the Indies\").", "C.F.", "Beckingham and G.W.B.", "Huntingford cite evidence, based in part on the earlier work of Professor Roberto Almagia, showing that Rodrigues's publication is only a part of Álvares's entire account.", "Another version of what Álvares wrote was included in an anthology of travel narratives, ''Navigationi et Viaggi'' assembled and published by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, and published in 1550.Almagia also identified three manuscripts in the Vatican Library which contain versions of excerpts from the original manuscript.Francisco Álvares' work has been translated into English at least twice.", "The first time was the work of the Henry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley for the Hakluyt Society in 1881.This translation was revised and augmented with notes by C. F. Beckingham and G. W. B. Huntingford, ''The Prester John of the Indies'' (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961).The author of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article was critical of the information it contained, believing it should \"be received with caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, and does not confine himself to what came within his own observation.\"", "Beckingham and Huntingford, however, have a higher opinion of Álvares testimony, stating that not only is it \"incomparably more detailed than any earlier account of Ethiopia that has survived; it is also a very important source for Ethiopian history, for it was written just before the country was occupied for 10 years by Arabs, Ottoman empire, Adal, Somalis, and then later encroachment by pagan Galla in the second quarter of the sixteenth century.\"", "He provides the first recorded and detailed descriptions of Axum and Lalibela.", "They continue::\"He is sometimes wrong, but very rarely silly or incredible.", "He made a few mistakes; he may well have made others that we cannot detect because he is our sole authority; when he tried to describe buildings his command of language was usually inadequate; he is often confused and obscure, though this may be as much his printer's fault as his own; his prose is frequently difficult to read and painful to translate; but he seems to us to be free from the dishonesty of the traveller who tries to exaggerate his own knowledge, importance, or courage\"." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francesco Andreini" ], [ "Introduction", " Francesco Andreini, '''Francesco Andreini''' ( – 1624) was an Italian actor mainly of ''commedia dell'arte'' plays.", "He began his career playing the role of the unsophisticated love-stricken young man.", "Later he played the role of Capitan Spavento (), a Pickwickian character of excessive fatigue.", "He died on January 1, 1624, in Mantua, Italy at the age of 76.Francesco Andreini was the leader of the Gelosi commedia dell'arte troupe and had he not brought this type of theater elsewhere, it would not have made it further to the mainstream media and developed into multilingualism and oral and textual transmissions.", "His role of Capitano made its way into modern media with adapted versions solely based on the original Capitano.", "Francesco had an impact on today's theater and improvisation." ], [ "Life", "Andreini was a soldier under the banner of the Medici in the Ottoman–Venetian War.", "He turned to theatre after 8 years in a Turkish jail.Andreini was born at Pistoia.", "He was a member of the company of I Gelosi which Henry IV of France summoned to Paris for his bride, the young queen Marie de' Medici, thus introducing the ''commedia dell'arte'' style to France.Andreini married sixteen-year-old Isabella Canali in 1578, when he was 30.She and their son, Giambattista Andreini, were also distinguished in the arts." ], [ "Accomplishments", "He published his dialogue as Captain Spavento as \"La bravura del Capitano Spavento\".", "This dialogue takes place between the captain and his servant, Trappola.", "Francesco Andreini wrote four to five page boasts in his publication of his dialogue; although Andreini may have elaborated on these speeches in print, it is clear that he was trying to give the audience the intense verbosity within.", "Similarly, Andreini elaborates on the fact that the doctor was only talk, while the lovers could get carried away with themselves to any extent.Andreini spoke a handful of languages including Italian, Turkish, English and French.", "He used a combination of these languages while performing.", "As Capitano, he often combined Italian and Turkish claiming it was Arabic.", "He also used Grammelot in his works and was one of the original inventors." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "'''Attribution''':" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fifth Monarchists" ], [ "Introduction", "Title page of ''A Brief description of the Fifth Monarchy or Kingdome'' (1653) by William Aspinwall.The '''Fifth Monarchists''', or '''Fifth Monarchy Men''', were a Protestant sect which advocated Millennialist views, active during the 1649 to 1660 Commonwealth of England.", "Named after a prophecy in the Book of Daniel that Four Monarchies would precede the Fifth or establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth, the group was one of a number of Nonconformist sects that emerged during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "Perhaps its best known adherent was Major-General Thomas Harrison, executed in October 1660 as a regicide, while Oliver Cromwell was a sympathiser until 1653.Members believed the execution of Charles I in January 1649 marked the end of the Fourth Monarchy, and viewed both the institution of the Protectorate in 1653 and the 1660 Stuart Restoration as preventing the coming of the Fifth.", "The belief this justified military action meant they were actively persecuted by both regimes, and never became a mass movement.", "Many of their remaining leaders were executed after participating in Venner's Rising of January 1661, and the group dissolved.Along with millenarianism and Antinomianism, many of the religious views advocated by Fifth Monarchists were common to other Non-Conformists, notably Anabaptists.", "As a group, they were primarily united by shared political beliefs, rather than being a sect with a distinctive and coherent doctrine." ], [ "Beliefs", "The Fifth Monarchists took their inspiration from the four kingdoms of Daniel which prophesied that the Fifth, or Kingdom of God, would be preceded by the Babylonian, Persian, Greek and Roman kingdoms.", "Followers believed the execution of Charles I in January 1649 marked the end of the Fourth or Roman Monarchy.", "Several became regicides in the belief his death would usher in the Kingdom of the Saints, or rule by those who were \"saved\", such as the Fifth Monarchists.", "The role of these so-called \"Saints\" was to prepare the masses for the Second Coming, although exactly when this would happen was debated.", "Based on the Book of Revelation, some believed Christ would return in 1666, which corresponded with the biblical number of the beast, while it was also common to refer to a \"Thousand Years\".", "Many supported \"Antinomianism\", a rejection of the legal system on the grounds that the \"Saved\" were not bound by the Ten Commandments, while they also believed it was their duty to resist any regime which hindered the coming of the Kingdom.", "Although the movement eventually split between those who opposed violence, the \"suffering Saints\", and the \"insurrectionist Saints\" like Thomas Venner who advocated taking up arms, these beliefs caused Oliver Cromwell and later contemporaries to see them as wild revolutionaries and enemies of the established order." ], [ "Origins and the Commonwealth", "Thomas Harrison, Fifth Monarchist leader executed as a regicide in 1660The outbreak of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in 1639 led to an exponential increase in the dissemination of radical political and religious views, including Millennialist ideas.", "Although Millenarianism was common among Puritans and even shared by some Royalist members of the Church of England, Fifth Monarchists were unique in that the concept was central to their theology.", "However, one recent historian argues it is more accurate to see them as a political group, rather than a religious sect with a distinctive and coherent doctrine.", "In general, Fifth Monarchists also opposed Religious tolerance for non-Protestants, and unlike groups such as the Diggers had no desire to end the existing social order or extend political rights, since they argued only the \"Saved\" were worthy of power.", "Exceptions included the Levellers sympathiser Christopher Feake, and Mary Cary, who supported gender equality and measures to alleviate poverty; prior to her death in 1654, she wrote under the name \"MC\", and many assumed she was a man.", "The Fifth Monarchists began life as a faction of the religious Independents who dominated the post-1648 Rump Parliament, with close links to Baptists and Anabaptists.", "Their emergence as a separate sect is usually dated to December 1651, when a group of preachers including Feake, John Rogers, and John Simpson met in London.", "Disillusioned by the apparent failure of Parliament to further the \"Godly Revolution\", they agreed a programme of action to support their objectives, including active resistance to the Commonwealth government.", "Primarily recruited from the London Artisan class, the Fifth Monarchists attracted attention disproportionate to their actual numbers because these included senior officers of the New Model Army.", "Among them were Major Generals Thomas Harrison and Thomas Overton, along with Colonels Nathaniel Rich, John Jones Maesygarnedd and William Goffe, as well as senior administrators such as John Carew.", "Many others were initially sympathetic to their views, including Cromwell and Sir Henry Vane, and the highpoint of their political influence came in April 1653 when Cromwell dismissed the Rump Parliament, an action which led the Fifth Monarchists to hail him as a new Moses.", "They also supported his declaration of war on the Dutch Republic.", "Despite it being waged against fellow Protestants, the Monarchists argued that it was their duty to spread the Kingdom of the Saints to every country, whether Protestant or Catholic.. Cromwell replaced the Rump with a nominated body popularly known as \"Barebone's Parliament\"; out of 149 MPs, 15 can be identified as Fifth Monarchists, including Praise-God Barebone, Carew and Harrison.", "The inaugural session began in July 1653 but the different factions quickly became entangled in bitter disputes over tithes, which the Monarchists wanted to abolish rather than reduce, and reform of the legal system, which they argued should be based solely on laws contained in the Bible.", "On 8 December, the moderate majority passed a motion urging Cromwell to dissolve Parliament, leading to the establishment of the Protectorate on 16th.", "The result was open conflict between the regime and the Fifth Monarchists; Harrison, Overton and Rich were dismissed from the army, while Rogers and Feake attacked Cromwell for his Apostasy and preached revolt to their followers.", "This caused a split with elements of the movement like John Carew who held Baptist or Anabaptist views, notably their opposition to the use of violence.", "Rogers and Feake were arrested, while the government placed other members under surveillance and thereafter alternated persecution with tolerance in an attempt to split the movement.", "This policy had some success, with Rogers, Goffe, John Jones Maesygarnedd and the Welsh preacher Morgan Llwyd becoming reconciled with the regime, leaving a minority of insurrectionists like Venner who was imprisoned in 1657 for planning a rising.", "By the time he was released in 1659, the Monarchists had lost much of their influence and were no longer a significant force." ], [ "Restoration and after", "Ian Bone speaking at the installation of the Thomas Rainsborough memorial plaque (12 May 2013), championing Thomas Venner and the Fifth Monarchy Men.", "The banner is a replica of that used by the insurgents at the time.Following the Stuart Restoration in May 1660, Harrison was the first person to be found guilty of regicide and then hanged, drawn and quartered on 13 October.", "One reason was his justification of violent action against \"un-Godly rulers\", which meant he was viewed as an ongoing threat to the re-established order.", "This seemed confirmed on 6 January 1661, when Venner tried to incite a popular uprising to capture London in the name of \"King Jesus\", with fifty followers based in Norton Folgate.Most were killed or taken prisoner, with Venner and ten others executed for high treason on 19 and 21 January, while its failure led to the suppression of Non-conformist sects, culminating in the Act of Uniformity 1662.Although the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London briefly revived belief in the end of a world ruled by carnal human beings, Fifth Monarchy ceased to exist as a separate sect, although some doctrines were absorbed by Baptists and others who believed \"God's Kingdom\" could be achieved through spiritual means." ], [ "Notable members and sympathisers", "* Praise-God Barebone; gave his name to the 1653 Barebone's Parliament, arrested after the 1660 Restoration but later released and died in 1679; * John Carew; executed as a regicide in 1661;* Mary Cary (prophetess); died 1654;* Christopher Feake; a Fifth Monarchist who shared the egalitarian political views of the Levellers, he was arrested in 1655 under the Protectorate.", "Released after Cromwell's death in 1658, he disappears from the historical record after 1660; * Major General William Goffe; regicide, fled to New England in 1660, where he is thought to have died around 1679;Thomas Venner, executed for treason in 1661 * Major-General Thomas Harrison; dismissed from the army in 1654 and imprisoned several times under the Protectorate, he was executed as a regicide in October 1660;* Morgan Llwyd; leader of the Welsh Fifth Monarchists and Welsh language author, died 1659;* John Jones Maesygarnedd; served in the Parliamentarian army in Wales during the First and Second English Civil Wars, continued to hold office under the Protectorate, executed as a regicide in October 1660; * Major-General Robert Overton; arrested several times during the Protectorate, imprisoned on the island of Jersey from 1661 to 1668, died at home in London 1679; * Major General William Packer; imprisoned briefly after the Restoration, died 1662;* Vavasor Powell; Welsh preacher, imprisoned by both the Protectorate and the Stuart regime, died in prison 1670; * Colonel Thomas Rainsborough; often cited as a Fifth Monarchist, he was the leading Leveller spokesman during the 1647 Putney Debates, shared Anabaptist sympathies and died in 1648* Colonel Nathaniel Rich; dismissed from the army along with Harrison and Overton, he was imprisoned under the Protectorate in 1655, then released in 1656.Since he was not a regicide, he escaped punishment after the Restoration, but was arrested during the Venner Rising and held until 1665, after which he lived quietly at home in Essex; * John Rogers; preacher, imprisoned under the Protectorate, went into exile in the Dutch Republic post 1660;* John Simpson; London-based preacherAnna Trapnell; religious visionary from Poplar, London, who opposed The Protectorate, and was considered mad for her advocacy of gender equality.", "Arrested in 1654, released in 1656, and thereafter disappears from the historical record; Thomas Venner; leader of the \"Fighting Saints\", executed after an abortive rising in January 1661;" ], [ "See also", "* Fifth Empire, a Portuguese millennialist sect also inspired by the Four Kingdoms of Daniel" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men* The Times of Stephen MUMFORD.", "See the sections on \"John James\", \"Efforts at Conformity\" and \"Fifth Monarchy Views\".", "* Some account of the life and opinions of a fifth-monarchy-man By John Rogers, Edward Rogers, Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer, 1867" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 15" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 438 – Roman emperor Theodosius II publishes the law codex Codex Theodosianus* 590 – Khosrau II is crowned king of Persia.", "* 706 – Byzantine emperor Justinian II has his predecessors Leontios and Tiberios III publicly executed in the Hippodrome of Constantinople.", "1002 – At an assembly at Pavia of Lombard nobles, Arduin of Ivrea is restored to his domains and crowned King of Italy.", "1113 – Pope Paschal II issues ''Pie Postulatio Voluntatis'', recognizing the Order of Hospitallers.", "1214 – During the Anglo-French War (1213–1214), an English invasion force led by John, King of England, lands at La Rochelle in France.", "1493 – While on board the ''Niña'', Christopher Columbus writes an open letter (widely distributed upon his return to Portugal) describing his discoveries and the unexpected items he came across in the New World.===1601–1900===1637 – Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor.", "1690 – Constantin Cantemir, Prince of Moldavia, and the Holy Roman Empire sign a secret treaty in Sibiu, stipulating that Moldavia would support the actions led by the House of Habsburg against the Ottoman Empire.", "1764 – The city of St. Louis is established in Spanish Louisiana (now in Missouri, USA).", "1798 – The Roman Republic is proclaimed after Louis-Alexandre Berthier, a general of Napoleon, had invaded the city of Rome five days earlier.", "1835 – Serbia's Sretenje Constitution briefly comes into effect.", "1852 – The Helsinki Cathedral (known as ''St.", "Nicholas' Church'' at time) is officially inaugurated in Helsinki, Finland.", "1862 – American Civil War: Confederates commanded by Brig.", "Gen. John B. Floyd attack General Ulysses S. Grant's Union forces besieging Fort Donelson in Tennessee.", "Unable to break the fort's encirclement, the Confederates surrender the following day.", "1870 – Stevens Institute of Technology is founded in New Jersey, US, and offers the first Bachelor of Engineering degree in mechanical engineering.", "1879 – Women's rights: US President Rutherford B. Hayes signs a bill allowing female attorneys to argue cases before the Supreme Court of the United States.", "1898 – The battleship explodes and sinks in Havana harbor in Cuba, killing about 274 of the ship's roughly 354 crew.", "The disaster pushes the United States to declare war on Spain.", "1899 – Tsar Nicholas II of Russia issues a declaration known as the February Manifesto, which reduces the autonomy of the Grand Duchy of Finland, thus beginning the first period of oppression.===1901–present===1909 – The Flores Theater fire in Acapulco, Mexico kills 250.", "1923 – Greece becomes the last European country to adopt the Gregorian calendar.", "1925 – The 1925 serum run to Nome: The second delivery of serum arrives in Nome, Alaska.", "1933 – In Miami, Giuseppe Zangara attempts to assassinate US President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt, but instead shoots Chicago mayor Anton J. Cermak, who dies of his wounds on March 6.", "1942 – World War II: Fall of Singapore.", "Following an assault by Japanese forces, the British General Arthur Percival surrenders.", "About 80,000 Indian, United Kingdom and Australian soldiers become prisoners of war, the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history.", "1944 – World War II: The assault on Monte Cassino, Italy begins.", " 1944 – World War II: The Narva Offensive begins.", "1945 – World War II: Third day of bombing in Dresden.", "1946 – ENIAC, the first electronic general-purpose computer, is formally dedicated at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.", "1949 – Gerald Lankester Harding and Roland de Vaux begin excavations at Cave 1 of the Qumran Caves, where they will eventually discover the first seven Dead Sea Scrolls.", "1952 – King George VI of the United Kingdom is buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.", "1954 – Canada and the United States agree to construct the Distant Early Warning Line, a system of radar stations in the far northern Arctic regions of Canada and Alaska.", "1961 – Sabena Flight 548 crashes in Belgium, killing 73, including the entire United States figure skating team along with several of their coaches and family members.", "1965 – A new red-and-white maple leaf design is adopted as the flag of Canada, replacing the old Canadian Red Ensign banner.", "1971 – The decimalisation of the currencies of the United Kingdom and Ireland is completed on Decimal Day.", "1972 – Sound recordings are granted U.S. federal copyright protection for the first time.", " 1972 – José María Velasco Ibarra, serving as President of Ecuador for the fifth time, is overthrown by the military for the fourth time.", "1982 – The drilling rig ''Ocean Ranger'' sinks during a storm off the coast of Newfoundland, killing 84 workers.", "1989 – Soviet–Afghan War: The Soviet Union officially announces that all of its troops have left Afghanistan.", "1991 – The Visegrád Group, establishing cooperation to move toward free-market systems, is signed by the leaders of Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland.", "1992 – Serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer is sentenced in Milwaukee to 15 terms of life in prison.", "* 1992 – Air Transport International Flight 805 crashes in Swanton, Ohio, near Toledo Express Airport, killing all four people on board.", "1996 – At the Xichang Satellite Launch Center in China, a Long March 3B rocket, carrying an Intelsat 708, veers off course and crashes into a rural village after liftoff, killing somewhere between six and 100 people.", " 1996 – The Embassy of the United States, Athens, is attacked by an antitank rocket, launched by the Revolutionary Organization 17 November.", "2001 – The first draft of the complete human genome is published in ''Nature''.", "2003 – Protests against the Iraq war take place in over 600 cities worldwide.", "It is estimated that between eight million and 30 million people participate, making this the largest peace demonstration in history.", "2010 – Two trains collide in the Halle train collision in Halle, Belgium, killing 19 and injuring 171 people.", "2012 – Three hundred and sixty people die in a fire at a Honduran prison in the city of Comayagua.", "2013 – A meteor explodes over Russia, injuring 1,500 people as a shock wave blows out windows and rocks buildings.", "This happens unexpectedly only hours before the ''expected'' closest ever approach of the larger and unrelated asteroid 2012 DA14.", "2021 – Sixty people drown and hundreds are missing after a boat sinks on the Congo River near the village of Longola Ekoti, Mai-Ndombe Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1377 – Ladislaus of Naples (d. 1414)1458 – Ivan the Young, son of Ivan III of Russia (d. 1490)1472 – Piero the Unfortunate, Italian ruler (d. 1503)1506 – Juliana of Stolberg, German countess (d. 1580)1519 – Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, first Spanish Governor of Florida (d. 1574)1557 – Alfonso Fontanelli, Italian composer (d. 1622)1564 – Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician (d. 1642)===1601–1900===1612 – Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, French soldier, founded Montreal (d. 1676)1627 – Charles Morton, Cornish nonconformist minister (d. 1698)1638 – Zeb-un-Nissa, Mughal princess and poet (d. 1702)1705 – Charles-André van Loo, French painter (d. 1765)1710 – Louis XV of France (d. 1774)1725 – Abraham Clark, American surveyor, lawyer, and politician (d. 1794)1734 – William Stacy, American colonel (d. 1802)1739 – Alexandre-Théodore Brongniart, French architect, designed the Paris Bourse (d. 1813)1748 – Jeremy Bentham, English jurist and philosopher (d. 1832)1759 – Friedrich August Wolf, German philologist and critic (d. 1824)1760 – Jean-François Le Sueur, French composer and educator (d. 1837)1809 – André Dumont, Belgian geologist and academic (d. 1857) 1809 – Cyrus McCormick, American journalist and businessman, co-founded International Harvester (d. 1884)1810 – Mary S. B. Shindler, American poet, writer, and editor (d. 1883)1811 – Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Argentinian journalist and politician, 7th President of Argentina (d. 1888)1812 – Charles Lewis Tiffany, American businessman, founded Tiffany & Co. (d. 1902)1820 – Susan B. Anthony, American suffragist and activist (d. 1906)1825 – Carter Harrison, Sr., American lawyer and politician, 29th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1893)1834 – V. A. Urechia, Moldavian-Romanian historian, author, and playwright (d. 1901)1835 – Demetrius Vikelas, Greek businessman and philanthropist (d. 1908)1840 – Titu Maiorescu, Romanian philosopher, academic, and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1917)1841 – Manuel Ferraz de Campos Sales, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 4th President of Brazil (d. 1913)1845 – Elihu Root, American lawyer and politician, 38th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937)1847 – Robert Fuchs, Austrian composer and educator (d. 1927)1849 – Rickman Godlee, English surgeon and academic (d. 1925)1850 – Sophie Bryant, Irish mathematician, academic and activist (d. 1922)1851 – Spiru Haret, Romanian mathematician, astronomer, and politician, 55th Romanian Minister of Internal Affairs (d. 1912)1856 – Emil Kraepelin, German psychiatrist and academic (d. 1926)1861 – Charles Édouard Guillaume, Swiss-French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1938)* 1861 – Alfred North Whitehead, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1947)1873 – Hans von Euler-Chelpin, German-Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1964)1874 – Ernest Shackleton, Anglo-Irish captain and explorer (d. 1922)1883 – Sax Rohmer, English-American author (d. 1959)1890 – Robert Ley, German politician (d. 1945)1892 – James Forrestal, American lieutenant and politician, 1st United States Secretary of Defense (d. 1949)1893 – Roman Najuch, Polish professional tennis player (d. 1967)1897 – Gerrit Kleerekoper, Dutch gymnast and coach (d. 1943)1898 – Totò, Italian actor, singer, and screenwriter (d. 1967)1899 – Georges Auric, French composer (d. 1983) 1899 – Gale Sondergaard, Danish-American actress (d. 1985)===1901–present===1904 – Mary Adshead, English painter (d. 1995) 1904 – Antonin Magne, French cyclist and manager (d. 1983)1905 – Harold Arlen, American composer (d. 1986)1907 – Jean Langlais, French organist and composer (d. 1991)* 1907 – Cesar Romero, American actor (d. 1994)1908 – Sarto Fournier, Canadian lawyer and politician, 38th Mayor of Montreal (d. 1980)1909 – Miep Gies, Austrian-Dutch humanitarian, helped hide Anne Frank and her family (d. 2010)1910 – Irena Sendler, Polish nurse and humanitarian, Righteous Gentile (d. 2008)1912 – George Mikes, Hungarian-English journalist and author (d. 1987)1913 – Erich Eliskases, Austrian chess player (d. 1997)1914 – Hale Boggs, American lawyer and politician (d. 1972)* 1914 – Kevin McCarthy, American actor (d. 2010)1916 – Mary Jane Croft, American actress (d. 1999)1918 – Allan Arbus, American actor and photographer (d. 2013)* 1918 – Hank Locklin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2009)1919 – Ducky Detweiler, American baseball player and manager (d. 2013)1920 – Endicott Peabody, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 62nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1997)* 1920 – Eio Sakata, Japanese Go player (d. 2010)1921 – Norman C. Deno, American chemist and plant scientist, (d. 2017)1922 – John B. Anderson, Swedish-American lawyer and politician (d. 2017)1923 – Yelena Bonner, Soviet-Russian activist (d. 2011)1924 – Robert Drew, American director and producer (d. 2014)1925 – Angella D. Ferguson, American pediatrician1927 – Frank Dunlop, English actor and director* 1927 – Harvey Korman, American actor and comedian (d. 2008)* 1927 – Yehoshua Neuwirth, Israeli rabbi and scholar (d. 2013)1928 – Joseph Willcox Jenkins, American composer, conductor, and educator (d. 2014)1929 – Graham Hill, English racing driver and businessman (d. 1975)* 1929 – James R. Schlesinger, American economist and politician, 12th United States Secretary of Defense (d. 2014)1930 – Bruce Dawe, Australian poet and academic (d. 2020)1931 – Claire Bloom, English actress* 1931 – Jonathan Steele, English journalist and author1934 – Jimmy Bloomfield, English footballer and manager (d. 1983) 1934 – Graham Kennedy, Australian television host and actor (d. 2005)* 1934 – Niklaus Wirth, Swiss computer scientist, created the Pascal programming language (d. 2024)* 1934 – Abe Woodson, American football player and minister (d. 2014)1935 – Susan Brownmiller, American journalist and author 1935 – Roger B. Chaffee, American lieutenant, engineer, and astronaut (d. 1967)* 1935 – Gene Hickerson, American football player (d. 2008)1937 – Gregory Mcdonald, American author (d. 2008) 1937 – Coen Moulijn, Dutch footballer (d. 2011)1940 – İsmail Cem İpekçi, Turkish journalist and politician, 45th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2007) 1940 – Hamzah Haz, Indonesian journalist and politician, 9th Vice President of Indonesia1941 – Florinda Bolkan, Brazilian actress 1941 – Brian Holland, American songwriter and producer1944 – Mick Avory, English musician and songwriter1945 – Jack Dann, American-Australian author and poet* 1945 – Douglas Hofstadter, American author and academic1946 – Clare Short, English civil servant and politician, Secretary of State for International Development 1946 – John Trudell, American author, poet, and actor (d. 2015)1947 – John Adams, American composer 1947 – Marisa Berenson, American model and actress1948 – Art Spiegelman, Swedish-American cartoonist and critic1949 – Ken Anderson, American football player1951 – Markku Alén, Finnish racing driver 1951 – Melissa Manchester, American singer-songwriter and actress * 1951 – Jane Seymour, English-American actress, producer, and jewelry designer1952 – Tomislav Nikolić, Serbian politician, 4th President of Serbia 1952 – Nikolai Sorokin, Russian actor and director (d. 2013)1953 – Ernie Howe, English footballer and manager 1953 – Lynn Whitfield, American actress and producer1954 – Matt Groening, American animator, producer, and screenwriter1955 – Janice Dickinson, American model, agent, and author * 1955 – Christopher McDonald, American actor1956 – Desmond Haynes, Barbadian cricketer and coach 1956 – Ann Westin, Swedish comedian1958 – Chrystine Brouillet, Canadian author 1958 – Tony McKegney, Canadian ice hockey player* 1958 – Matthew Ward, American singer-songwriter 1959 – Ali Campbell, English singer-songwriter and musician 1959 – Joseph R. Gannascoli, American actor* 1959 – Brian Propp, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster* 1959 – Hugo Savinovich, Ecuadorian wrestler and sportscaster1960 – Darrell Green, American football player 1960 – Jock Hobbs, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2012)1962 – Milo Đukanović, Montenegrin politician, 29th Prime Minister of Montenegro1963 – Steven Michael Quezada, American actor, comedian, and politician1964 – Chris Farley, American comedian and actor (d. 1997) 1964 – Leland D. Melvin, American engineer and astronaut* 1964 – Mark Price, American basketball player and coach1965 – Craig Matthews, South African cricketer1967 – Jane Child, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer* 1967 – Syed Kamall, English academic and politician* 1967 – Craig Simpson, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster1969 – Birdman, American rapper and producer1970 – Shepard Fairey, American artist and activist1971 – Alex Borstein, American actress, voice artist, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Renee O'Connor, American actress, director, and producer1972 – Jaromír Jágr, Czech ice hockey player1973 – Kateřina Neumannová, Czech skier* 1973 – Amy van Dyken, American swimmer* 1973 – Sarah Wynter, Australian actress1974 – Miranda July, American actress, director, and screenwriter 1974 – Ugueth Urbina, Venezuelan baseball player* 1974 – Alexander Wurz, Austrian racing driver and businessman1975 – Serge Aubin, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1975 – Sébastien Bordeleau, Canadian-French ice hockey player* 1975 – Annemarie Kramer, Dutch sprinter* 1975 – Brendon Small, American animator, producer, screenwriter, and actor1976 – Brandon Boyd, American singer-songwriter 1976 – Óscar Freire, Spanish cyclist* 1976 – Ronnie Vannucci Jr., American musician and songwriter1977 – Álex González, Venezuelan baseball player 1977 – Ronald Petrovický, Slovak ice hockey player1979 – Hamish Marshall, New Zealand cricketer 1979 – James Marshall, New Zealand cricketer1980 – Conor Oberst, American singer-songwriter 1981 – Heurelho Gomes, Brazilian footballer* 1981 – Matt Hoopes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1981 – Rita Jeptoo, Kenyan runner* 1981 – Diego Martínez, Mexican footballer* 1981 – Vivek Shraya, Canadian singer and songwriter1982 – Shameka Christon, American basketball player 1982 – James Yap, Filipino basketball player1983 – Eddie Basden, American basketball player 1983 – Don Cowie, Scottish footballer* 1983 – David Degen, Swiss footballer* 1983 – Philipp Degen, Swiss footballer* 1983 – Russell Martin, Canadian baseball player1984 – Gary Clark Jr., American singer-songwriter and musician 1984 – Matt Duffer, American film director, writer, and producer* 1984 – Ross Duffer, American film director, writer, and producer* 1984 – Nate Schierholtz, American baseball player1985 – Serkan Kırıntılı, Turkish footballer 1985 – Natalie Morales, American actress and director1986 – Valeri Bojinov, Bulgarian footballer 1986 – Johnny Cueto, Dominican baseball player* 1986 – Amber Riley, American actress and singer* 1986 – Laura Sallés, Andorran judoka1988 – Papu Gómez, Argentine footballer 1988 – Rui Patrício, Portuguese footballer1989 – Mark Canha, American baseball player1990 – Callum Turner, English actor1991 – Ángel Sepúlveda, Mexican footballer 1991 – Rich Swann, American wrestler1993 – Ravi, South Korean rapper 1993 – Geoffrey Kondogbia, Central African footballer* 1993 – Manuel Lanzini, Argentine footballer1994 – Sodapoppin, American Twitch streamer and internet personality1995 – Megan Thee Stallion, American rapper1997 – Derrick Jones Jr., American basketball player 1997 – Justin Reid, American football player1998 – Zachary Gordon, American actor 1998 – George Russell, English racing driver2000 – Jakub Kiwior, Polish footballer2004 – Šimon Nemec, Slovak ice hockey player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 670 – Oswiu, king of Northumbria (b. c. 612)* 706 – Leontios, Byzantine emperor* 706 – Tiberios III, Byzantine emperor* 815 – Ibn Tabataba, Zaydi anti-caliph* 956 – Su Yugui, Chinese chancellor (b.", "895)1043 – Gisela of Swabia, Holy Roman Empress (b.", "990)1145 – Lucius II, pope of the Catholic Church1152 – Conrad III, king of Germany (b.", "1093)1382 – William de Ufford, 2nd Earl of Suffolk (b. c. 1339)1417 – Richard de Vere, 11th Earl of Oxford, English commander (b.", "1385)1508 – Giovanni II Bentivoglio, tyrant of Bologna (b.", "1443)1600 – José de Acosta, Spanish Jesuit missionary and naturalist (b.", "1540)===1601–1900===1621 – Michael Praetorius, German organist and composer (b.", "1571)1637 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1578)1738 – Matthias Braun, Czech sculptor (b.", "1684)1781 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German philosopher, author, and critic (b.", "1729)1818 – Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (b.", "1746)1835 – Henry Hunt, English farmer and politician (b.", "1773)1839 – François-Marie-Thomas Chevalier de Lorimier, Canadian rebel (b.", "1803)1842 – Archibald Menzies, Scottish surgeon and botanist (b.", "1754)1844 – Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1757)1847 – Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Belgian mathematician and engineer (b.", "1794)1848 – Hermann von Boyen, Prussian general and politician, Prussian Minister of War (b.", "1771)1849 – Pierre François Verhulst, Belgian mathematician and theorist (b.", "1804)1857 – Mikhail Glinka, Russian composer (b.", "1804)1869 – Ghalib, Indian poet and educator (b.", "1796)1885 – Gregor von Helmersen, Estonian-Russian geologist and engineer (b.", "1803)* 1885 – Leopold Damrosch, German-American composer and conductor (b.", "1832)1897 – Dimitrie Ghica, Romanian lawyer and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Romania (b.", "1816)===1901–present===1905 – Lew Wallace, American author, general, and politician, 11th Governor of New Mexico Territory (b.", "1827)1911 – Theodor Escherich, German-Austrian pediatrician and academic (b.", "1859)1924 – Lionel Monckton, English composer (b.", "1861)1928 – H. H. Asquith, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1852)1932 – Minnie Maddern Fiske, American actress and playwright (b.", "1865)1933 – Pat Sullivan, Australian animator and producer, co-created ''Felix the Cat'' (b.", "1887)1939 – Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin, Russian painter and author (b.", "1878)1956 – Vincent de Moro-Giafferi, French lawyer and politician (b.", "1878)1959 – Owen Willans Richardson, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1879)1961 – Laurence Owen, American figure skater (b.", "1944)1965 – Nat King Cole, American singer and pianist (b.", "1919)1966 – Gerard Antoni Ciołek, Polish architect and historian (b.", "1909) 1966 – Camilo Torres Restrepo, Colombian priest and theologian (b.", "1929)1967 – Antonio Moreno, Spanish-American actor and director (b.", "1887)1970 – Hugh Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding, Scottish air marshal (b.", "1882)1973 – Wally Cox, American actor (b.", "1924)1974 – Kurt Atterberg, Swedish composer and engineer (b.", "1887)1981 – Mike Bloomfield, American guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1943) 1981 – Karl Richter, German organist and conductor (b.", "1926)1984 – Ethel Merman, American actress and singer (b.", "1908)1988 – Richard Feynman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)1992 – María Elena Moyano, Peruvian activist (b.", "1960) 1992 – William Schuman, American composer and academic (b.", "1910)1996 – McLean Stevenson, American actor (b.", "1929)1998 – Martha Gellhorn, American journalist and author (b.", "1908)1999 – Henry Way Kendall, American physicist and mountaineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1926)2000 – Angus MacLean, Canadian commander and politician, 25th Premier of Prince Edward Island (b.", "1914)2002 – Howard K. Smith, American journalist and actor (b.", "1914) 2002 – Kevin Smith, New Zealand actor (b.", "1963)2004 – Jens Evensen, Norwegian lawyer, judge, and politician, Norwegian Minister of Trade (b.", "1917)2005 – Pierre Bachelet, French singer-songwriter (b.", "1944)* 2005 – Sam Francis, American historian and journalist (b.", "1947)2007 – Walker Edmiston, American actor (b.", "1925) 2007 – Ray Evans, American songwriter (b.", "1915)2008 – Johnny Weaver, American wrestler and sportscaster (b.", "1935)2010 – Jeanne M. Holm, American general (b.", "1921)2012 – Cyril Domb, English-Israeli physicist and academic (b.", "1920)2013 – Sanan Kachornprasart, Thai general and politician (b.", "1935)* 2013 – Ahmed Rajib Haider, Bangladeshi atheist blogger2014 – Thelma Estrin, American computer scientist and engineer (b.", "1924) 2014 – Christopher Malcolm, Scottish-Canadian actor, director, and producer (b.", "1946)2015 – Haron Amin, Afghan diplomat, Afghan Ambassador to Japan (b.", "1969) 2015 – Arnaud de Borchgrave, American journalist and author (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Steve Montador, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1979)2016 – George Gaynes, Finnish-American actor (b.", "1917) 2016 – Vanity, Canadian-American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress (b.", "1959) 2017 – Stuart McLean, Canadian radio broadcaster (b.", "1948)2019 – Lee Radziwill, American socialite (b.", "1933)2020 – Caroline Flack, English actress and TV presenter (b.", "1979)2022 – Bappi Lahiri, Indian singer, composer and record producer (b.", "1952)* 2022 – P.J.", "O'Rourke, American author, humorist, and journalist (b.", "1947)2023 – Raquel Welch, American actress and singer (b.", "1940)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", " Christian feast day: Blessed Michał Sopoćko Claude de la Colombière Faustinus and Jovita Oswiu Quinidius Sigfrid of Sweden Thomas Bray (Episcopal Church) Walfrid** February 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Earliest day on which Family Day can fall, while February 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third Monday in February.", "(parts of Canada)Earliest day on which Washington's Birthday can fall, while February 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third Monday in February.", "(United States)* International Duties Memorial Day (Russia, regional)* John Frum Day (Vanuatu)* Liberation Day (Afghanistan)* National Flag of Canada Day (Canada)* Parinirvana Day, also celebrated on February 8.", "(Mahayana Buddhism)* Singles Awareness Day* Statehood Day (Serbia)* Susan B. Anthony Day (Florida, United States)* The ENIAC Day (Philadelphia, United States)* Total Defence Day (Singapore)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 15" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 6" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===590 – Hormizd IV, king of the Sasanian Empire, is overthrown and blinded by his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih.", "1579 – The Diocese of Manila is erected by papal bull, with Domingo de Salazar appointed its first bishop.===1601–1900===1685 – James II of England and VII of Scotland is proclaimed King upon the death of his brother Charles II.", "1694 – The warrior queen Dandara, leader of the runaway slaves in Quilombo dos Palmares, Brazil, is captured and commits suicide rather than be returned to a life of slavery.", "1778 – American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France signaling official recognition of the new republic.", " 1778 – New York became the third state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.", "1788 – Massachusetts becomes the sixth state to ratify the United States Constitution.", "1806 – Battle of San Domingo: British naval victory against the French in the Caribbean.", "1819 – The Treaty of Singapore was signed by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Hussein Shah of Johor, and Temenggong Abdul Rahman, and it is now recognised as the founding of modern Singapore.", "1820 – The first 86 African American immigrants sponsored by the American Colonization Society depart New York to start a settlement in present-day Liberia.", "1833 – Otto becomes the first modern King of Greece.", "1840 – Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, establishing New Zealand as a British colony.", "1843 – The first minstrel show in the United States, The Virginia Minstrels, opens (Bowery Amphitheatre in New York City).", "1851 – The largest Australian bushfires in a populous region in recorded history take place in the state of Victoria.", "1862 – American Civil War: Forces under the command of Ulysses S. Grant and Andrew H. Foote give the Union its first victory of the war, capturing Fort Henry, Tennessee in the Battle of Fort Henry.", "1865 – The municipal administration of Finland is established.", "1899 – Spanish–American War: The Treaty of Paris, a peace treaty between the United States and Spain, is ratified by the United States Senate.", "1900 – The Permanent Court of Arbitration, an international arbitration court at The Hague, is created when the Senate of the Netherlands ratifies an 1899 peace conference decree.===1901–present===1918 – British women over the age of 30 who meet minimum property qualifications, get the right to vote when Representation of the People Act 1918 is passed by Parliament.", " 1919 – The five-day Seattle General Strike begins, as more than 65,000 workers in the city of Seattle, Washington, walk off the job.", "1922 – The Washington Naval Treaty is signed in Washington, D.C., limiting the naval armaments of United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy.", "1934 – Far-right leagues rally in front of the Palais Bourbon in an attempted coup against the French Third Republic, creating a political crisis in France.", "1944 – World War II: The Great Raids Against Helsinki begins.", "1951 – The Canadian Army enters combat in the Korean War.", "* 1951 – ''The Broker'', a Pennsylvania Railroad passenger train derails near Woodbridge Township, New Jersey.", "The accident kills 85 people and injures over 500 more.", "The wreck is one of the worst rail disasters in American history.", "1952 – Elizabeth II becomes Queen of the United Kingdom and her other Realms and Territories and Head of the Commonwealth upon the death of her father, George VI.", "At the exact moment of succession, she was in a tree house at the Treetops Hotel in Kenya.", "1958 – Eight Manchester United F.C.", "players and 15 other passengers are killed in the Munich air disaster.", "1959 – Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments files the first patent for an integrated circuit.", " 1959 – At Cape Canaveral, Florida, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile is accomplished.", "1973 – The 7.6 Luhuo earthquake strikes Sichuan Province, causing widespread destruction and killing at least 2,199 people.", "1976 – In testimony before a United States Senate subcommittee, Lockheed Corporation president Carl Kotchian admits that the company had paid out approximately $3 million in bribes to the office of Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka.", "1978 – The Blizzard of 1978, one of the worst Nor'easters in New England history, hit the region, with sustained winds of 65 mph and snowfall of four inches an hour.", "1981 – The National Resistance Army of Uganda launches an attack on a Ugandan Army installation in the central Mubende District to begin the Ugandan Bush War.", "1987 – Justice Mary Gaudron becomes the first woman to be appointed to the High Court of Australia.", "1988 – Michael Jordan makes his signature slam dunk from the free throw line inspiring Air Jordan and the Jumpman logo.", "1989 – The Round Table Talks start in Poland, thus marking the beginning of the overthrow of communism in Eastern Europe.", "1996 – Willamette Valley Flood: Floods in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, United States, causes over US$500 million in property damage throughout the Pacific Northwest.", "* 1996 – Birgenair Flight 301 crashed off the coast of the Dominican Republic, killing all 189 people on board.", "This is the deadliest aviation accident involving a Boeing 757.", "1998 – Washington National Airport is renamed Ronald Reagan National Airport.", "2000 – Second Chechen War: Russia captures Grozny, Chechnya, forcing the separatist Chechen Republic of Ichkeria government into exile.", "2006 – Stephen Harper becomes Prime Minister of Canada.", "2012 – A magnitude 6.7 earthquake hits the central Philippine island of Negros, leaving 112 people dead.", "2016 – An earthquake of magnitude 6.6 strikes southern Taiwan, killing 117 people.", "2018 – SpaceX's Falcon Heavy, a super heavy launch vehicle, makes its maiden flight.", "2021 – U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken suspends agreements with Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras to send asylum seekers back to their home countries.", "2023 – Two earthquakes measuring 7.8 and 7.5 struck near the border between Turkey and Syria with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII (''Extreme'').", "The earthquakes resulted in numerous aftershocks and a death toll of 57,658 people." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 885 – Emperor Daigo of Japan (d. 930)1402 – Louis I, Landgrave of Hesse, Landgrave of Hesse (d. 1458)1452 – Joanna, Princess of Portugal (d. 1490)1453 – Girolamo Benivieni, Florentine poet (d. 1542)1465 – Scipione del Ferro, Italian mathematician and theorist (d. 1526)1536 – Sassa Narimasa, Japanese samurai (d. 1588)1577 – Beatrice Cenci, Italian murderer (d. 1599)1582 – Mario Bettinus, Italian mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (d. 1657)===1601–1900===1605 – Bernard of Corleone, Italian saint (d. 1667)1608 – António Vieira, Portuguese priest and philosopher (d. 1697)1611 – Chongzhen Emperor of China (d. 1644)1612 – Antoine Arnauld, French mathematician, theologian, and philosopher (d. 1694)1643 – Johann Kasimir Kolbe von Wartenberg, Prussian politician, 1st Minister President of Prussia (d. 1712)1649 – Augusta Marie of Holstein-Gottorp, German noblewoman (d. 1728)1664 – Mustafa II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1703)1665 – Anne, Queen of Great Britain, Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland (d. 1714)1695 – Nicolaus II Bernoulli, Swiss-Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1726)1719 – Alberto Pullicino, Maltese painter (d. 1759)1726 – Patrick Russell, Scottish surgeon and zoologist (d. 1805)1732 – Charles Lee, English-American general (d. 1782)1736 – Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, German-Austrian sculptor (d. 1783)1744 – Pierre-Joseph Desault, French anatomist and surgeon (d. 1795)1748 – Adam Weishaupt, German philosopher and academic, founded the Illuminati (d. 1830)1753 – Évariste de Parny, French poet and author (d. 1814)1756 – Aaron Burr, American colonel and politician, 3rd Vice President of the United States (d. 1836)1758 – Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Belarusian-Polish poet, playwright, and politician (d. 1841)1769 – Ludwig von Wallmoden-Gimborn, Austrian general (d. 1862)1772 – George Murray, Scottish general and politician, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies (d. 1830)1778 – Ugo Foscolo, Italian author and poet (d. 1827)1781 – John Keane, 1st Baron Keane, Irish general and politician, Governor of Saint Lucia (d. 1844)1796 – John Stevens Henslow, English botanist and geologist (d. 1861)1797 – Joseph von Radowitz, Prussian general and politician, Foreign Minister of Prussia (d. 1853)1799 – Imre Frivaldszky, Hungarian botanist and entomologist (d. 1870)1800 – Achille Devéria, French painter and lithographer (d. 1857)1802 – Charles Wheatstone, English-French physicist and cryptographer (d. 1875)1811 – Henry Liddell, English priest, author, and academic (d. 1898)1814 – Auguste Chapdelaine, French missionary and saint (d. 1856)1818 – William M. Evarts, American lawyer and politician, 27th United States Secretary of State (d. 1901)1820 – Thomas C. Durant, American railroad tycoon (d. 1885)1829 – Joseph Auguste Émile Vaudremer, French architect, designed the La Santé Prison and Saint-Pierre-de-Montrouge (d. 1914)1832 – John Brown Gordon, American general and politician, 53rd Governor of Georgia (d. 1904)1833 – José María de Pereda, Spanish author and academic (d. 1906) 1833 – J. E. B. Stuart, American general (d. 1864)1834 – Edwin Klebs, German-Swiss pathologist and academic (d. 1913) 1834 – Ema Pukšec, Croatian-German soprano (d. 1889)* 1834 – Wilhelm von Scherff, German general and author (d. 1911)1838 – Henry Irving, English actor and manager (d. 1905) 1838 – Israel Meir Kagan, Lithuanian-Polish rabbi and author (d. 1933)1839 – Eduard Hitzig, German neurologist and psychiatrist (d. 1907)1842 – Alexandre Ribot, French academic and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1923)1843 – Inoue Kowashi, Japanese scholar and politician (d. 1895) 1843 – Frederic William Henry Myers, English poet and philologist, co-founded the Society for Psychical Research (d. 1901)1845 – Isidor Straus, German-American businessman and politician (d. 1912)1847 – Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, American architect, designed the Plaza Hotel (d. 1918)1852 – C. Lloyd Morgan, English zoologist and psychologist (d. 1936) 1852 – Vasily Safonov, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1918)1861 – Nikolay Zelinsky, Russian chemist and academic (d. 1953)1864 – John Henry Mackay, Scottish-German philosopher and author (d. 1933)1866 – Karl Sapper, German linguist and explorer (d. 1945)1872 – Robert Maillart, Swiss engineer, designed the Salginatobel Bridge and Schwandbach Bridge (d. 1940)1874 – Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, Indian religious leader, founded the Gaudiya Math (d. 1937)1875 – Leonid Gobyato, Russian general (d. 1915)1876 – Henry Blogg, English fisherman and sailor (d. 1954)1879 – Othon Friesz, French painter (d. 1949)* 1879 – Magnús Guðmundsson, Icelandic lawyer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1937)* 1879 – Edwin Samuel Montagu, English politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (d. 1924)* 1879 – Carl Ramsauer, German physicist and author (d. 1955)1880 – Nishinoumi Kajirō II, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 25th Yokozuna (d. 1931)1884 – Marcel Cohen, French linguist and scholar (d. 1974)1887 – Josef Frings, German cardinal (d. 1978)1890 – Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Pakistani activist and politician (d. 1988)* 1890 – James McGirr, Australian politician, 28th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1957)1892 – Maximilian Fretter-Pico, German general (d. 1984) 1892 – William P. Murphy, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)1893 – Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, Pakistani politician and diplomat, 1st Minister of Foreign Affairs for Pakistan (d. 1985)1894 – Eric Partridge, New Zealand-English lexicographer and academic (d. 1979)* 1894 – Kirpal Singh, Indian spiritual master (d. 1974)1895 – Robert La Follette Jr., American politician (d. 1953) 1895 – María Teresa Vera, Cuban singer, guitarist and composer (d. 1965) * 1895 – Babe Ruth, American baseball player and coach (d. 1948)1898 – Harry Haywood, American soldier and politician (d. 1985)1899 – Ramon Novarro, Mexican-American actor, singer, and director (d. 1968)===1901–present===1901 – Ben Lyon, American actor (d. 1979)1902 – George Brunies, American trombonist (d. 1974)1903 – Claudio Arrau, Chilean pianist and composer (d. 1991)1905 – Władysław Gomułka, Polish politician (d. 1982)* 1905 – Jan Werich, Czech actor and playwright (d. 1980)1906 – Joseph Schull, Canadian playwright and historian (d. 1980)1908 – Geo Bogza, Romanian poet and journalist (d. 1993)* 1908 – Amintore Fanfani, Italian journalist and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1999)* 1908 – Edward Lansdale, American general and CIA agent (d. 1987)* 1908 – Michael Maltese, American actor, screenwriter, and composer (d. 1981)1910 – Roman Czerniawski, Polish air force officer and spy (d. 1985) 1910 – Irmgard Keun, German author (d. 1982)* 1910 – Carlos Marcello, Tunisian-American gangster (d. 1993)1911 – Ronald Reagan, American actor and politician, 40th President of the United States (d. 2004)1912 – Eva Braun, German wife of Adolf Hitler (d. 1945)* 1912 – Christopher Hill, English historian and author (d. 2003)1913 – Mary Leakey, English-Kenyan archaeologist and anthropologist (d. 1996)1914 – Thurl Ravenscroft, American voice actor and singer (d. 2005)1915 – Kavi Pradeep, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1998)1916 – John Crank, English mathematician and physicist (d. 2006)1917 – Louis-Philippe de Grandpré, Canadian lawyer and jurist (d. 2008) 1917 – Zsa Zsa Gabor, Hungarian-American actress and socialite (d. 2016)1918 – Lothar-Günther Buchheim, German author and painter (d. 2007)1919 – Takashi Yanase, Japanese poet and illustrator, created ''Anpanman'' (d. 2013)1921 – Carl Neumann Degler, American historian and author (d. 2014) 1921 – Bob Scott, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2012)1922 – Patrick Macnee, English-American actor and costume designer (d. 2015) 1922 – Denis Norden, English actor, screenwriter, and television host (d. 2018)* 1922 – Haskell Wexler, American director, producer, and cinematographer (d. 2015)1923 – Gyula Lóránt, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 1981)1924 – Billy Wright, English footballer and manager (d. 1994)* 1924 – Jin Yong, Hong Kong author and publisher, founded ''Ming Pao'' (d. 2018)1925 – Walker Edmiston, American actor and puppeteer (d. 2007)1927 – Gerard K. O'Neill, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1992)1928 – Allan H. Meltzer, American economist and academic (d. 2017)1929 – Colin Murdoch, New Zealand pharmacist and veterinarian, invented the tranquilliser gun (d. 2008)* 1929 – Oscar Sambrano Urdaneta, Venezuelan author and critic (d. 2011)* 1929 – Valentin Yanin, Russian historian and author (d. 2020)1930 – Jun Kondo, Japanese physicist and academic (d. 2022)1931 – Rip Torn, American actor (d. 2019)* 1931 – Fred Trueman, English cricketer (d. 2006)* 1931 – Mamie Van Doren, American actress and model* 1931 – Ricardo Vidal, Filipino cardinal (d. 2017)1932 – Camilo Cienfuegos, Cuban soldier and anarchist (d. 1959) 1932 – François Truffaut, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1984)1933 – Leslie Crowther, English comedian, actor, and game show host (d. 1996)1936 – Kent Douglas, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2009)1938 – Fred Mifflin, Canadian admiral and politician, 19th Minister of Veterans Affairs (d. 2013)1939 – Jean Beaudin, Canadian director and screenwriter (d. 2019)* 1939 – Mike Farrell, American actor, director, producer, activist and public speaker* 1939 – Jair Rodrigues, Brazilian singer (d. 2014)1940 – Tom Brokaw, American journalist and author 1940 – Petr Hájek, Czech mathematician and academic (d. 2016)* 1940 – Jimmy Tarbuck, English comedian and actor1941 – Stephen Albert, American pianist and composer (d. 1992) 1941 – Dave Berry, English pop singer* 1941 – Gigi Perreau, American actress and director1942 – Ahmad-Jabir Ahmadov, Azerbaijani philosopher and academic (d. 2021) 1942 – Sarah Brady, American activist and author (d. 2015)* 1942 – Charlie Coles, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)* 1942 – James Loewen, American sociologist and historian (d. 2021)* 1942 – Tommy Roberts, English fashion designer (d. 2012)1943 – Fabian Forte, American pop singer and actor 1943 – Gayle Hunnicutt, American actress (d. 2023)1944 – Christine Boutin, French politician, French Minister of Housing and Urban Development 1944 – Willie Tee, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2007)1945 – Bob Marley, Jamaican singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1981) 1945 – Michael Tucker, American actor and producer1946 – Richie Hayward, American drummer and songwriter (d. 2010) 1946 – Kate McGarrigle, Canadian musician and singer-songwriter (d. 2010)* 1946 – Jim Turner, American captain and politician1947 – Charlie Hickcox, American swimmer (d. 2010) 1947 – Bill Staines, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021)1949 – Mike Batt, English singer-songwriter and producer 1949 – Manuel Orantes, Spanish tennis player* 1949 – Jim Sheridan, Irish director, producer, and screenwriter* 1949 - Mike Anderson, former American football player.", "1950 – Natalie Cole, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2015) 1950 – Timothy M. Dolan, American cardinal* 1950 – Punky Meadows, American rock guitarist and songwriter1951 – Kevin Whately, English actor1952 – Ric Charlesworth, Australian cricketer, coach, and politician* 1952 – Viktor Giacobbo, Swiss actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1952 – Ricardo La Volpe, Argentinian footballer, manager, and coach 1955 – Avram Grant, Israeli football manager 1955 – John Kuester, American basketball player and coach* 1955 – Michael Pollan, American journalist, author, and academic* 1955 – Bruno Stolorz, French rugby player and coach1956 – Jerry Marotta, American drummer1957 – Andres Lipstok, Estonian economist and politician, Estonian Minister of Economic Affairs* 1957 – Kathy Najimy, American actress and comedian* 1957 – Simon Phillips, English drummer and producer * 1957 – Robert Townsend, American actor and director1958 – Cecily Adams, American actress and casting director (d. 2004)1960 – Jeremy Bowen, Welsh journalist* 1960 – Megan Gallagher, American actress1961 – Cam Cameron, American football player and coach 1961 – Bill Lester, American race car driver* 1961 – Yury Onufriyenko, Ukrainian-Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut1962 – Stavros Lambrinidis, Greek lawyer and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Greece 1962 – Axl Rose, American singer-songwriter and producer 1963 – David Capel, English cricketer (d. 2020) 1963 – Scott Gordon, American ice hockey player and coach* 1963 – Quentin Letts, English journalist and critic1964 – Laurent Cabannes, French rugby player 1964 – Gordon Downie, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2017)* 1964 – Colin Miller, Australian cricketer and sportscaster* 1964 – Andrey Zvyagintsev, Russian actor and director1965 – Jan Svěrák, Czech actor, director, and screenwriter1966 – Rick Astley, English singer-songwriter1967 – Anita Cochran, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1967 – Izumi Sakai, Japanese singer-songwriter (d. 2007)* 1967 – Michelle Thrush, Canadian actress and activist1968 – Adolfo Valencia, Colombian footballer 1968 – Akira Yamaoka, Japanese composer and producer1969 – David Hayter, American actor and screenwriter 1969 – Masaharu Fukuyama, Japanese singer-songwriter, producer, and actor* 1969 – Tim Sherwood, English footballer and manager* 1969 – Bob Wickman, American baseball player1970 – Per Frandsen, Danish footballer and manager 1970 – Tim Herron, American golfer1971 – Brad Hogg, Australian cricketer 1971 – Carlos Rogers, American basketball player* 1971 – Brian Stepanek, American actor1972 – Stefano Bettarini, Italian footballer 1972 – David Binn, American football player1974 – Aljo Bendijo, Filipino journalist1975 – Chad Allen, American baseball player and coach* 1975 – Orkut Büyükkökten, Turkish computer scientist and engineer, created Orkut* 1975 – Tomoko Kawase, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer 1976 – Tanja Frieden, Swiss snowboarder and educator 1976 – Kim Zmeskal, American gymnast and coach1977 – Josh Stewart, American actor1978 – Yael Naim, French-Israeli singer-songwriter1979 – Dan Bălan, Moldovan singer-songwriter and producer 1980 – Kerry Jeremy, Antiguan cricketer* 1980 – Konnor, American wrestler* 1980 – Ben Lawson, Australian actor* 1980 – Kim Poirier, Canadian actress, singer, and producer* 1980 – Luke Ravenstahl, American politician, 58th Mayor of Pittsburgh1981 – Ricky Barnes, American golfer 1981 – Calum Best, American-English model and actor* 1981 – Shim Eun-jin, South Korean singer and actress * 1981 – Alison Haislip, American actress and producer* 1981 – Jens Lekman, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist1982 – Alice Eve, English actress 1982 – Elise Ray, American gymnast* 1982 – Tank, Taiwanese singer-songwriter1983 – Dimas Delgado, Spanish footballer 1983 – S. Sreesanth, Indian cricketer* 1983 – Jamie Whincup, Australian race car driver1984 – Darren Bent, English international footballer 1984 – Piret Järvis, Estonian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1984 – Antoine Wright, American basketball player1985 – Fallulah, Danish singer-songwriter 1985 – Kris Humphries, American basketball player* 1985 – Crystal Reed, American actress1986 – Dane DeHaan, American actor 1986 – Tony Johnson, American mixed martial artist* 1986 – Yunho, South Korean singer and actor1987 – Pedro Álvarez, Dominican-American baseball player 1987 – Travis Wood, American baseball player1988 – Anna Diop, Senegalese-American actress 1988 – Bailey Hanks, American actress, singer, and dancer1989 – Craig Cathcart, Northern Irish footballer 1989 – Jonny Flynn, American basketball player1990 – Adam Henrique, Canadian ice hockey player 1990 – Jermaine Kearse, American football player* 1990 – Aida Rybalko, Lithuanian figure skater* 1990 – Dominic Sherwood, English actor1991 – Tobias Eisenbauer, Austrian ice dancer 1991 – Aleksandar Katai, Serbian footballer* 1991 – Ida Njåtun, Norwegian speed skater* 1991 – Eva Wacanno, Dutch tennis player* 1991 – Fei Yu, Chinese footballer1992 – Víctor Mañón, Mexican footballer1993 – Teresa Scanlan, American beauty pageant titleholder, Miss America 2011* 1993 – Tinashe, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress 1994 – Charlie Heaton, English actor and musician 1995 – Nyck de Vries, Dutch race car driver* 1995 – Leon Goretzka, German footballer* 1995 – Sam McQueen, English footballer1996 – Kevon Looney, American basketball player1998 – Adley Rutschman, American baseball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 685 – Hlothhere, king of Kent * 743 – Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, Umayyad caliph (b.", "691)* 797 – Donnchad Midi, Irish king (b.", "733)* 891 – Photios I of Constantinople (b.", "810)* 1135 – Elvira of Castile, Queen of Sicily (b.c.", "1100)1140 – Thurstan, Archbishop of York1215 – Hōjō Tokimasa, Japanese shikken of the Kamakura bakufu (b.", "1138)1378 – Joanna of Bourbon (b.", "1338)1411 – Esau de' Buondelmonti, ruler of Epirus 1497 – Johannes Ockeghem, Flemish composer and educator (b.", "1410)1515 – Aldus Manutius, Italian publisher, founded the Aldine Press (b.", "1449)1519 – Lorenz von Bibra, Prince-Bishop of the Bishopric of Würzburg (b.", "1459)1539 – John III, Duke of Cleves (b.", "1491)1585 – Edmund Plowden, English lawyer and scholar (b.", "1518)1593 – Jacques Amyot, French author and translator (b.", "1513)* 1593 – Emperor Ōgimachi of Japan (b.", "1517)1597 – Franciscus Patricius, Italian philosopher and scientist (b.", "1529)===1601–1900===1612 – Christopher Clavius, German mathematician and astronomer (b.", "1538)1617 – Prospero Alpini, Italian physician and botanist (b.", "1553)1685 – Charles II of England (b.", "1630)1695 – Ahmed II, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1642)1740 – Pope Clement XII (b.", "1652)1775 – William Dowdeswell, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1721)1783 – Capability Brown, English gardener and architect (b.", "1716)1793 – Carlo Goldoni, Italian-French playwright (b.", "1707)1804 – Joseph Priestley, English chemist and theologian (b.", "1733)1833 – Pierre André Latreille, French zoologist and entomologist (b.", "1762)1834 – Richard Lemon Lander, English explorer (b.", "1804)1865 – Isabella Beeton, English author of ''Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management'' (b.", "1836)1899 – Leo von Caprivi, German general and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1831)===1901–present===1902 – John Colton, English-Australian politician, 13th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1823)1908 – Harriet Samuel, English businesswoman and founder of the jewellery retailer H. Samuel (b.", "1836)1916 – Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan poet, journalist, and diplomat (b.", "1867)1918 – Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter and illustrator (b.", "1862)1929 – Maria Christina of Austria (b.", "1858)1931 – Motilal Nehru, Indian lawyer and politician, President of the Indian National Congress (b.", "1861)1932 – John Earle, Australian politician, 22nd Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1865)1938 – Marianne von Werefkin, Russian-Swiss painter (b.", "1860)1942 – Jaan Soots, Estonian general and politician, 7th Estonian Minister of War (b.", "1880)1951 – Gabby Street, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1882)1952 – George VI of the United Kingdom (b.", "1895)1958 – victims of the Munich air disaster Geoff Bent, English footballer (b.", "1932) Roger Byrne, English footballer (b.", "1929) Eddie Colman, English footballer (b.", "1936) Walter Crickmer, English footballer and manager (b.", "1900) Mark Jones, English footballer (b.", "1933) David Pegg, English footballer (b.", "1935) Frank Swift, English footballer and journalist (b.", "1913) Tommy Taylor, English footballer (b.", "1932)1963 – Piero Manzoni, Italian painter and sculptor (b.", "1933)1964 – Emilio Aguinaldo, Filipino general and politician, 1st President of the Philippines (b.", "1869)1967 – Martine Carol, French actress (b.", "1920)1971 – Lew \"Sneaky Pete\" Robinson, drag racer (b.", "1933)1972 – Julian Steward, American anthropologist (b.", "1902)1976 – Ritwik Ghatak, Bangladeshi-Indian director and screenwriter (b.", "1925)* 1976 – Vince Guaraldi, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1928)1981 – Hugo Montenegro, American composer and conductor (b.", "1925)1982 – Ben Nicholson, British painter (b.", "1894)1985 – James Hadley Chase, English-Swiss soldier and author (b.", "1906)1986 – Frederick Coutts, Scottish 8th General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1899)* 1986 – Dandy Nichols, English actress (b.", "1907)* 1986 – Minoru Yamasaki, American architect, designed the World Trade Center (b.", "1912)1987 – Julien Chouinard, Canadian lawyer and jurist (b.", "1929)1989 – Barbara W. Tuchman, American historian and author (b.", "1912)1990 – Jimmy Van Heusen, American pianist and composer (b.", "1913)1991 – Salvador Luria, Italian biologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1912)* 1991 – Danny Thomas, American actor, producer, and humanitarian (b.", "1914)1993 – Arthur Ashe, American tennis player and sportscaster (b.", "1943)1994 – Joseph Cotten, American actor (b.", "1905)* 1994 – Jack Kirby, American author and illustrator (b.", "1917)1995 – James Merrill, American poet and playwright (b.", "1926)1998 – Falco, Austrian pop-rock musician (b.", "1957)1999 – Don Dunstan, Australian lawyer and politician, 35th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1926) 1999 – Jimmy Roberts, American tenor (b.", "1924)2000 – Phil Walters, American race car driver (b.", "1916) 2000 – Hani al-Rahib, Syrian novelist and literary academic (b.", "1939)2001 – Filemon Lagman, Filipino theoretician and activist (b.", "1953) 2001 – Trần Văn Lắm, South Vietnamese diplomat and politician (b.", "1913)2002 – Max Perutz, Austrian-English biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1914)2004 – Gerald Bouey, Canadian lieutenant and economist (b.", "1920)2005 – Karl Haas, German-American pianist, conductor, and radio host (b.", "1913)2007 – Lew Burdette, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2007 – Frankie Laine, American singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1913)* 2007 – Willye White, American runner and long jumper (b.", "1939)2008 – Tony Rolt, English race car driver and engineer (b.", "1918)2009 – Philip Carey, American actor (b.", "1925)* 2009 – Shirley Jean Rickert, American actress (b.", "1926)* 2009 – James Whitmore, American actor (b.", "1921)2011 – Gary Moore, Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1952)2012 – David Rosenhan, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1929)* 2012 – Antoni Tàpies, Spanish painter and sculptor (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Janice E. Voss, American engineer and astronaut (b.", "1956)2013 – Chokri Belaid, Tunisian lawyer and politician (b.", "1964) 2013 – Menachem Elon, German-Israeli academic and jurist (b.", "1923)2014 – Vasiľ Biľak, Slovak politician (b.", "1917) 2014 – Ralph Kiner, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1922)* 2014 – Maxine Kumin, American author and poet (b.", "1925)* 2014 – Vaçe Zela, Albanian-Swiss singer and guitarist (b.", "1939)2015 – André Brink, South African author and playwright (b.", "1935) 2015 – Alan Nunnelee, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1958)* 2015 – Pedro León Zapata, Venezuelan cartoonist (b.", "1929)2016 – Dan Gerson, American screenwriter (b.", "1966) 2016 – Dan Hicks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1941)2017 – Irwin Corey, American comedian and actor (b.", "1914) 2017 – Inge Keller, German actress (b.", "1923)* 2017 – Alec McCowen, English actor (b.", "1925)* 2017 – Joost van der Westhuizen, South African rugby union footballer (b.", "1971)2018 – Donald Lynden-Bell, English astrophysicist (b.", "1935)2019 – Manfred Eigen, German Nobel Prize winning biophysical chemist (b.", "1927)* 2019 – Rosamunde Pilcher, British author (born 1924)2020 – Jhon Jairo Velásquez, Colombian hitman and drug dealer (b.", "1962)2021 – George Shultz, American politician, Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of Labor (b.", "1920)2022 – Lata Mangeshkar, Indian singer and music composer (b.", "1929)2024 – Sebastian Piñera, former chilean president (b.", "1949)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day: Amand Dorothea of Caesarea Hildegund, ''O.Praem.", "'' Jacut Mateo Correa Magallanes (one of Saints of the Cristero War) Mél of Ardagh Paul Miki and Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan Relindis (Renule) of Maaseik Vedastus February 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation (United Nations)* Ronald Reagan Day (California, United States)* Sami National Day (Russia, Finland, Norway and Sweden)* Waitangi Day, celebrates the founding of New Zealand in 1840." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day * * Historical Events on February 6" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Hopkinson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Hopkinson''' (October 2, 1737 – May 9, 1791) was an American Founding Father, lawyer, jurist, author, and composer.", "He designed Continental paper money and two early versions of flags, one for the United States and one for the United States Navy.", "He was a signer of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776 as a delegate from New Jersey.Hopkinson served in various roles in the early United States government including as a member of the Second Continental Congress and as a member of the Navy Board.", "He became the first federal judge of the Eastern District Court of Pennsylvania on September 30, 1789." ], [ "Education and career", "Born on October 2, 1737 (Gregorian), September 21, 1737 (Julian) in Philadelphia, Province of Pennsylvania, British America,Hopkinson received an Artium Baccalaureus degree in 1757 from the College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania) and an Artium Magister degree in 1760 from the same institution.", "He was the first native American composer of a secular song in 1759.He was secretary of a commission of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania which made a treaty between the province and certain Indian tribes in 1761.He entered private practice in Philadelphia from 1761 to 1766.He was collector of customs in Salem, Province of New Jersey in 1763.Hopkinson spent from May 1766 to August 1767 in England in hopes of becoming commissioner of customs for North America.Although unsuccessful, he spent time with the future Prime Minister Lord North, Hopkinson's cousin James Johnson, and the painter Benjamin West.Upon his return to Philadelphia in 1768, he sold varieties of fabric and port wine.", "In 1768 he was elected to the revived American Philosophical Society and served as its curator from 1776 to 1782.He was collector of customs for New Castle, Delaware Colony from 1772 to 1773.He resumed private practice in Bordentown, New Jersey from 1773 to 1774.He was a member of the New Jersey Provincial Council from 1774 to 1776.He was a member of the Executive Council of New Jersey in 1775.He was admitted to practice before the bar of the Supreme Court of New Jersey on May 8, 1775.He was elected an associate justice of that court in 1776 but declined the office.", "He was a delegate to the Second Continental Congress (Continental Congress) from June 21, 1776, to November 18, 1776.He was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, representing New Jersey.", "He was the Chairman of the Navy Board in Philadelphia from November 18, 1776, to mid-August 1778.He was treasurer for the Continental Loan Office in Philadelphia from 1778 to 1781.He was judge of the Admiralty Court of Pennsylvania from 1779 to 1789.While sitting on the court, in December 1780 Hopkinson was impeached on allegations of accepted payment from litigants, accepting bribes in exchange for appointments, and trading in false certificates.", "After an impeachment trial, he was acquitted and remained in office.", "He was a member of the Pennsylvania Convention which ratified the United States Constitution.Hopkinson was nominated by President George Washington on September 24, 1789, to the United States District Court for the District of Pennsylvania, to a new seat authorized by .", "He was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 26, 1789, and received his commission the same day." ], [ "Personal life and death", "Hopkinson was the son of Thomas Hopkinson and Mary Johnson Hopkinson.", "He married Ann Borden on September 1, 1768.They had five children.", "He was the father of Joseph Hopkinson, who was a member of the United States House of Representatives and also became a federal judge.", "Hopkinson's sister Mary (1742-1785) was married to Dr. John Morgan, second chief physician and director general of the Continental Army.On May 9, 1791, Hopkinson died in Philadelphia of a sudden apoplectic seizure.", "He was interred in Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia." ], [ "Cultural contributions", "Hopkinson wrote popular airs and political satires (''jeux d'esprit'') in the form of poems and pamphlets.", "Some were widely circulated and powerfully assisted in arousing and fostering the spirit of political independence that issued in the American Revolution.", "His principal writings are ''A Pretty Story .", ".", ".''", "(1774), a satire about King George; ''The Prophecy'' (1776); and ''The Political Catechism'' (1777).", "Other notable essays are \"Typographical Method of conducting a Quarrel\", \"Essay on White Washing\", and \"Modern Learning\".Hopkinson began to play the harpsichord at age seventeen and, during the 1750s, hand-copied arias, songs, and instrumental pieces by many European composers.", "He is credited as being the first American-born composer to commit a composition to paper with his 1759 composition \"My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free\".", "By the 1760s, was playing with professional musicians in concerts.Some of his more notable songs include \"The Treaty\", \"The Battle of the Kegs\", and \"The New Roof, a song for Federal Mechanics\".", "He also played organ at Philadelphia's Christ Church and composed or edited a number of hymns and psalms including: \"A Collection of Psalm Tunes with a few Anthems and Hymns Some of them Entirely New, for the Use of the United Churches of Christ Church and St. Peter's Church in Philadelphia\" (1763), \"A psalm of thanksgiving, Adapted to the Solemnity of Easter: To be performed on Sunday, the 30th of March, 1766, at Christ Church, Philadelphia\" (1766), and \"The Psalms of David, with the Ten Commandments, Creed, Lord's Prayer, &c. in Metre\" (1767).", "In the 1780s, Hopkinson modified a glass harmonica to be played with a keyboard and invented the '''Bellarmonic''', an instrument that utilized the tones of metal balls.At his alma mater, University of Pennsylvania, one of the buildings in the Fisher-Hassenfeld College House is named after him.===Bibliography=======Books====* ''The Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional Writings of Francis Hopkinson, Esq'' Printed by T. Dobson, 1792.Available via Google Books: Volume I, Volume II, Volume III* ''Judgments in the Admiralty of Pennsylvania in four suits'' Printed at T. Dobson and T. Lang, 1789.Available via Internet Archive====Essays====* ''A Pretty Story Written in the Year of Our Lord 1774''.", "Printed by John Dunlap, 1774.Available via Google Books* \"Dissertation IV,\" in ''Four Dissertations, on the Reciprocal Advantages of a Perpetual Union between Great-Britain and Her American Colonies''.", "Printed by William & Thomas Bradford, 1766.Available via the U.S. National Library of Medicine, Digital Collections===Musical compositions===* ''Collection of Plain Tunes with a Few from Anthems and Hymns''.", "Printed by Benjamin Carr, 1763.", "* ''Temple of Minerva''.", "(The First American Opera) Printed by Benjamin Carr, 1781.", "* ''Seven Songs for the Harpsichord or Forte Piano''.", "Printed by T. Dobson, 1788.", "** No.", "3: \"Beneath a weeping willow's shade\"" ], [ "Great Seal of the United States", "In 1776.Hopkinson designed the Great Seal of New Jersey with assistance from Pierre Eugene du Simitiere in 1776.He was thus chosen as a consultant to design the Great Seal of the United States.", "Fourteen men worked on the Great Seal of the United States, including two other consultants – Simitiere (first Great Seal committee) and William Barton (third committee).", "The seal was finalized on June 20, 1782.In the current rendition of the Great Seal of the United States, the 13 stars (constellation) representing the 13 original states have five points.", "They are arranged in the shape of a larger star with six points.", "The constellation comprising 13 smaller stars symbolizes the national motto, \"E pluribus unum.\"", "Originally, the design had individual stars with six points, but this was changed in 1841 when a new die was cast.", "This seal is now impressed upon the reverse of the United States one-dollar bill.", "The reverse of the seal, designed by Barton, contains an unfinished pyramid below a radiant eye.", "The unfinished pyramid was an image used by Hopkinson when he designed the Continental $50 currency bill." ], [ "United States Flag", "Francis Hopkinson's flag for the U.S. Navy, an interpretation, with 13 six-pointed stars arranged in five rowsOn June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Stars and Stripes as the first official national flag of the newly independent United States (later celebrated as Flag Day).", "The resolution creating the flag came from the Continental Marine Committee.", "Hopkinson became a member of the committee in 1776.At the time of the flag's adoption, he was the chairman of the Navy Board, which was under the Marine Committee.", "Today, that office has been transferred to the United States Secretary of the Navy.Hopkinson is recognized as a designer of the Flag of the United States, and the journals of the Continental Congress support this.", "On May 25, 1780, Hopkinson wrote a letter to the Continental Board of Admiralty mentioning several patriotic designs he had completed during the previous three years.", "One was his Board of Admiralty seal, which contained a shield of seven red and six white stripes on a blue field.", "Others included the Treasury Board seal, \"7 devices for the Continental Currency,\" and \"the Flag of the United States of America.\"", "Hopkinson noted that he had not asked for any compensation for the designs but was seeking a reward: \"a Quarter Cask of the public Wine.\"", "The board sent that letter on to Congress.Hopkinson submitted another bill on June 24 for his \"drawings and devices.\"", "In this second letter, Hopkinson did not mention designing the flag of the United States.", "Instead, the first item listed was \"the great Naval Flag of the United States\" along with the other contributions.", "This flag with its red outer stripes was designed to show up well on ships at sea.", "A parallel flag for the national flag was most likely intended by Hopkinson with white outer stripes as on the Great Seal of the United States and on the Bennington flag, which commemorated 50th anniversary of the founding of the United States in 1826.Ironically, the Navy flag was preferred as the national flag.For the various designs, Hopkinson asked for cash in the amount of £2,700.Auditor General James Milligan commissioned an evaluation of the request for payment.", "The report from the commissioner of the Chamber of Accounts said that the bill was reasonable and ought to be paid.", "Congress asked for an itemized bill for payment in cash.", "Hopkinson requested £9 for the naval flag.", "A committee investigated Hopkinson's charges that his payment was being delayed for arbitrary reasons.", "The Treasury Board turned down the request in an October 27, 1780, report to Congress.", "The Board cited several reasons for its action, including the fact that Hopkinson \"was not the only person consulted on those exhibitions of Fancy that were incidental to the Board (among them, the U.S. flag, the Navy flag, the Admiralty seal, and the Great Seal with a reverse), and therefore cannot claim the sole merit of them and not entitled in this respect to the full sum charged.\"", "The reference to the work of others is most probably a reference to his work on the Great Seal.", "Therefore, he would not be eligible to be paid for the Great Seal.", "Furthermore, the Great Seal project was still a work in progress.", "No known committee of the Continental Congress was documented with the assignment to design the national flag or naval flag.", "Hence, there was no evidence of collaboration with others on Hopkinson's flag design.There is no known sketch of a Hopkinson flag—either U.S. or naval—in existence today.", "However, he incorporated elements of the two flags he designed in his rough sketches of the Great Seal of the United States and his design for the Admiralty Board Seal.", "The rough sketch of his second Great Seal proposal has 7 white stripes and 6 red stripes.", "The impression of Hopkinson's Admiralty Board Seal has a chevron with 7 red stripes and 6 white stripes.", "The Great Seal reflects Hopkinson's design for a governmental flag, and the Admiralty Board Seal reflects Hopkinson's design for a naval flag.", "Both flags were intended to have 13 stripes.", "Because the original stars used in the Great Seal had six points, Hopkinson's U.S. flag might also have intended the use of 6-pointed stars.", "This is bolstered by his original sketch for the Great Seal that featured a U.S. flag with six-pointed asterisks for stars." ], [ "See also", "* Francis Hopkinson House, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Burlington County, New Jersey* Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence" ], [ "Note" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Francis Hopkinson holdings at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania Online Public Access Catalog.", "* * " ], [ "External links", " University of Penn.", "Archives on Hopkinson* The Hopkinson Family Papers, including correspondence, documents and printed materials, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.", "* Pennsylvania Center for the Book on Hopkinson and his writings* Library of Congress on Hopkinson* Francis Hopkinson: Jurist, Wit, and Dilettante Marble, Annie Russell.", "''Heralds of American Literature: A Group of Patriot Writers of the Revolutionary and National Periods.''", "1907, University of Chicago Press, hosted by Google Book Search* image of stamp with Hopkinson's flag, stars in a circle, from the University of Georgia* First American Song by Francis Hopkinson* * \"AN ACCOUNT OF THE GRAND FEDERAL PROCESSION.", "PERFORMED AT PHILADELPHIA ON FRIDAY THE 4TH OF JULY 1788\" by Francis Hopkinson – Hopkinson's review of a Philadelphia Fourth of July parade of 1788; celebrating the ratification of the U.S.", "Constitution.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Honorius (emperor)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Honorius''' (9 September 384 – 15 August 423) was Roman emperor from 393 to 423.He was the younger son of emperor Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla.", "After the death of Theodosius in 395, Honorius, under the regency of Stilicho, ruled the western half of the empire while his brother Arcadius ruled the eastern half.", "His reign over the Western Roman Empire was notably precarious and chaotic.", "In 410, Rome was sacked for the first time in almost 800 years." ], [ "Family", "Honorius was born to Emperor Theodosius I and Empress Aelia Flaccilla on 9 September 384 in Constantinople.", "He was the brother of Arcadius and Pulcheria.", "In 386, his mother died, and in 387, Theodosius married Galla who had taken a temporary refuge in Thessaloniki with her family, including her brother Valentinian II and mother Justina, away from usurper Magnus Maximus.", "Theodosius and Galla had a daughter, Honorius's half-sister Galla Placidia.", "Honorius, Arcadius, and Galla Placidia were the only children of Theodosius to survive into adulthood." ], [ "Emperor", "Marble bust of Honorius.===Early reign===After holding the consulate at the age of two in 386, Honorius was declared ''augustus'' by his father Theodosius I, and thus co-ruler, on 23 January 393, after the death of Valentinian II and the usurpation of Eugenius.", "When Theodosius died, in January 395, Honorius and Arcadius divided the Empire, so that Honorius became Western Roman emperor at the age of ten.During the early part of his reign, Honorius depended on the military leadership of the general Stilicho, who had been appointed by Theodosius and was of mixed Vandal and Roman ancestry.", "To strengthen his bonds with the young emperor and to make his grandchild an imperial heir, Stilicho married his daughter Maria, to him.", "The epithalamion written for the occasion by Stilicho's court poet Claudian survives.", "Honorius was also influenced by the Popes of Rome.", "So it was that Pope Innocent I and Western bishops may have been successful in persuading Honorius to write to his brother, arguing for convening a synod in Thessalonica.Aureus of HonoriusAt first Honorius based his capital in Milan, but when the Visigoths under King Alaric I entered Italy in 401 he moved his capital to the coastal city of Ravenna, which was protected by a ring of marshes and strong fortifications.", "While the new capital was easier to defend, it was poorly situated to allow Roman forces to protect Central Italy from the increasingly regular threat of barbarian incursions.", "It was significant that the Emperor's residence remained in Ravenna until the overthrow of Romulus Augustulus in 476.That was probably the reason why Ravenna was chosen not only as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy, but also for the seat of the Byzantine exarchs as well.===Stilicho and the defense of Italy===Honorius's reign experienced continued barbarian incursions into Gaul, Italy and Hispania.", "At the same time, a host of usurpers rose up.", "Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406)The first crisis faced by Honorius was a revolt led by Gildo, the ''comes Africae'' and ''magister utriusque militiae per Africam'', in Northern Africa, which lasted for two years (397–398).", "It was eventually subdued by Stilicho, under the local command of Mascezel, the brother of Gildo.The next crisis was the Visigothic invasion of Italy in 402 under the command of their king, Alaric.", "Stilicho was absent in Raetia in the latter months of 401, when Alaric, who was also the Eastern Empire's magister militum in Illyricum, suddenly marched with a large army through the Julian Alps and entered Italy.Stilicho hurried back to protect Honorius and the legions of Gaul and Britain were summoned to defend Italy.", "Honorius, at Milan, was besieged by Alaric, who marched into Liguria.", "Stilicho narrowly defeated Alaric at Pollentia, on the river Tanarus on Easter Day (6 April 402).", "Alaric retreated to Verona, where Stilicho attacked him again yet the battle was not entirely conclusive.", "The Visigoths were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum.", "In 405 Stilicho met an invasion of Italy led across the Danube by Radagaisus.", "They brought devastation to the heart of the Empire, until Stilicho defeated them in 406 and recruited most of them into his forces.", "Then, in 405 or 406, a number of tribes, according to some sources allegedly including Vandals, Alans, and Suebi, crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul.The situation in Britain was even more difficult.", "The British provinces were isolated, lacking support from the Empire, and the soldiers supported the revolts of Marcus (406–407), Gratian (407), and Constantine III.", "Constantine invaded Gaul in 407, occupying Arles, and while Constantine was in Gaul, his son Constans ruled over Britain.", "By 410, Britain may have been told to look after its own affairs and expect no aid from Rome, although it has been argued that the order was sent to the people of Bruttium in Italy, not Britain.The western empire was effectively overstretched due to the massive invasion of Alans, Suebi and Vandals who, although they had been repulsed from Italy in 406, moved into Gaul on 31 December 406, and arrived in Hispania in 409.In early 408, Stilicho attempted to strengthen his position at court by marrying his second daughter, Thermantia, to Honorius after the death of the Empress Maria in 407.Another invasion by Alaric was prevented in 408 by Stilicho when he forced the Roman Senate to pay 4,000 pounds of gold to persuade the Goths to leave Italy.cameo of Honorius and his wife Maria, probably based on an old cameo of Caligula and Agrippina.Honorius, in the meantime, was at Bononia, on his way from Ravenna to Ticinum, when the news reached him of his brother's death in May 408.He at first was planning to go to Constantinople to help set up the court during the transition from Arcadius to Theodosius II.", "Summoned from Ravenna for advice, Stilicho advised Honorius not to go, and proceeded to go himself.", "In Stilicho's absence, a minister named Olympius gained the confidence of Honorius.", "He convinced the emperor that his father-in-law was conspiring with the barbarians to overthrow him.On his return to Ravenna, Honorius ordered the arrest and execution of Stilicho.", "With Stilicho's fall, Honorius moved against all of his former father-in-law's allies, killing and torturing key individuals and ordering the confiscation of the property of anyone who had borne any office while Stilicho was in command.", "Honorius's wife Thermantia was taken from the imperial throne and given over to her mother; Eucherius, the son of Stilicho, was put to death.", "The purge also massacred the families of Stilicho's foederati troops, and they defected en masse to Alaric.In October 408, Alaric returned to Italy to claim more gold and land to settle in, as feudatory vassals of the Empire, which Stilicho had promised him.", "The city bought him off with 5,000 lbs of gold and 30,000 lbs of silver after a short siege with Rome on the verge of famine.A palace revolution in Honorius's court led meanwhile to a change of ministers, and those hostile to the Goths were replaced by officers favorable to Alaric, who began peace negotiations.", "While the embassy was absent, a new change occurred at Ravenna, and Honorius disclaimed the peace which was on the verge of being concluded.", "The enraged Alaric returned to Rome in late 409 and forced the Senate to elect Priscus Attalus as emperor, who ratified Alaric's former treaty with Stilicho.===Sack of Rome===Rome had been under Visigothic siege since shortly after Stilicho's deposition and execution in the summer of 408.In 410, the Eastern Roman Empire sent six legions (6,000 men; due to changes in tactics, legions of this period were about 1,000 soldiers, down from the 6,000-soldier legions of the Republic era and Empire period up to late 4th century) from Ravenna to aid Honorius, but Alaric ambushed the legions on the way, and only a handful of them reached Rome.", "Lacking a strong general to control the by-now mostly Germanic Roman army, Honorius could do little to attack Alaric's forces directly, and apparently adopted the only strategy he could in the situation: wait passively for the Visigoths to grow weary and spend the time marshalling what forces he could.", "This course of action appeared to be the product of Honorius's indecisive character and he suffered much criticism for it both from contemporaries and later historians.To counter Attalus, Honorius tried to negotiate with Alaric in addition to restricting grain shipments to Rome from North Africa.", "Attalus dispatched an army to conquer Africa and restore the grain supply to Rome, but the governor, Heraclian, who was loyal to Honorius, wiped out this force as soon as it landed on the coast.", "As Rome was dependent on North African grain for sustenance, the populace was faced with the prospect of famine, and they blamed Attalus for the impending calamity.", "Growing desperate, Attalus searched for means of pacifying the people, but found himself, in consequence of conciliatory expenditures, incapable of satisfying his debt to Alaric, and thus alienated both Romans and Goths.", "In turn he came out to be exploited in political terms.", "Confronted with the increasing unpopularity and truculence of Attalus, Alaric dethroned him in 410 and proposed to renew negotiations with Honorius.", "Honorius, overconfident at Attalus' fall and the victory of his general Heraclian over Attalus' African expeditionary force, refused negotiation, and declared Alaric the eternal enemy of the Republic.Stricken by starvation, somebody opened Rome's defenses to Alaric and the Goths poured in.", "The city had not been under the control of a foreign force since an invasion of Gauls some eight centuries before.", "The sack itself was notably mild as sacks go.", "For example, churches and religious statuary went unharmed.", "The psychological blow to the contemporary Roman world was considerably more painful.", "The shock of this event reverberated from Britain to Jerusalem, and inspired Augustine to write his magnum opus, ''The City of God''.===Constantius and the beginning of erosion of the Western Empire===Maria, daughter of Stilicho, and wife of Honorius.", "The pendant reads, around a central cross (clockwise):HONORIMARIASERHNAVIVATISSTELICHO.Latin and Greek characters were intermingled in this one.", "The letters form a Christogram.", "Louvre, Paris.The revolt of Constantine III in the west continued through this period.", "In 409, Gerontius, Constantine III's general in Hispania, rebelled against him, proclaimed Maximus Emperor, and besieged Constantine at Arles.", "Honorius now found himself an able commander, Constantius, who defeated Maximus and Gerontius, and then Constantine, in 411.Gaul was again a source of troubles for Honorius: just after Constantius's troops had returned to Italy, Jovinus revolted in northern Gaul, with the support of Alans, Burgundians, and the nobility of Gallic descent.", "Jovinus tried to negotiate with the invading Goths of Ataulf (412), but his proclamation of his brother Sebastianus as Augustus made Ataulf seek alliance with Honorius.", "Honorius had Ataulf defeat and execute Jovinus in 413.At the same time, Heraclianus raised the standard of revolt in North Africa, but failed during an invasion of Italy.", "Defeated, he fled back to Carthage and was killed.In 414, Constantius attacked Ataulf, who proclaimed Priscus Attalus emperor again.", "Constantius drove Ataulf into Hispania, and Attalus, having again lost Visigoth support, was captured and deposed once again.", "In the eleventh consulship of Honorius and the second of Constantius, the Emperor entered Rome in triumph, with Attalus at the wheels of his chariot.", "Honorius punished Attalus by cutting off his right finger and thumb, inflicting the same fate with which Attalus had threatened Honorius.", "Remembering how Attalus had suggested that Honorius should retire to some small island, he returned the favor by banishing Attalus to the island of Lipara.Northeastern Gaul became subject to even greater Frankish influence, while a treaty signed in 418 granted to the Visigoths southwestern Gaul, the former Gallia Aquitania.", "Under the influence of Constantius, Honorius issued the Edict of 418, which was designed to enable the Empire to retain a hold on the lands which were to be surrendered to the Goths.", "This edict relaxed the administrative bonds that connected all the Seven Provinces (The Maritime Alps, Narbonensis Prima, Narbonensis Secunda, Novempopulania, Aquitania Prima, Aquitania Secunda and Viennensis) with the central government.", "It removed the imperial governors and allowed the inhabitants, as a dependent federation, to conduct their own affairs, for which purpose representatives of all the towns were to meet every year in Arles.In 417, Constantius married Honorius's sister, Galla Placidia, much against her will.", "In 421, Honorius recognized him as co-emperor Constantius III; however, when the announcement of his elevation was sent to Constantinople, Theodosius refused to recognise him.", "Constantius, enraged, began preparations for a military conflict with the eastern empire but before he could commence it, he died in September 421.In 420–422, another Maximus (or perhaps the same) gained and lost power in Hispania.", "By the time of Honorius's death in 423, Britain, Spain and Gaul had been ravaged by barbarians.", "In his final years, Honorius fell out with his sister after his soldiers clashed with hers.", "Galla Placidia and her children, the future emperor Valentinian III and his sister, Honoria, were forced to flee to Constantinople.===Death===Honorius died of edema on 15 August 423, leaving no heir.", "In the subsequent interregnum Joannes was nominated Emperor.", "The following year, however, the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II installed his cousin Valentinian III, son of Galla Placidia and Constantius III, as Emperor.Reconstruction of Old St Peter's Basilica in Rome.", "The Mausoleum of Honorius is the domed structure at the extreme top left, behind the rotunda Sant'Andrea and the Vatican Obelisk.The Mausoleum of Honorius was located on the Vatican Hill, accessed from the transept of the Old Saint Peter's Basilica.", "It was first used for Maria.", "Probably Thermantia and Honorius's sister Galla Placidia, and perhaps other imperial family members, were later buried there.", "In the 8th century it was transformed into a church, the Chapel of St Petronilla, which held the relics of the saint and was demolished when the New St Peter's was erected.The year 410 also saw Honorius reply to a British plea for assistance against local barbarian incursions, called the ''Rescript of Honorius''.", "Preoccupied with the Visigoths, Honorius lacked any military capability to assist the distant province.", "According to the sixth century Byzantine scholar Zosimus, \"Honorius wrote letters to the cities in Britain, bidding them to guard themselves.\"", "This sentence is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy." ], [ "Assessments", "''The Favourites of the Emperor Honorius'', by John William Waterhouse, 1883In his ''History of the Wars'', Procopius mentions a likely apocryphal story where, on hearing the news that Rome had \"perished\", Honorius was initially shocked, thinking the news was in reference to a favourite chicken he had named \"Roma\".At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Rome had perished.", "And he cried out and said, 'And yet it has just eaten from my hands!'", "For he had a very large cock, Rome by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Rome which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: 'But I thought that my fowl Rome had perished.'", "So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed.—Procopius, ''The Vandalic War'' ( III.2.25–26)While the tale is discounted as a rumour by more recent historians like Edward Gibbon, it is useful in understanding Roman public opinion towards Honorius.Honorius was negatively assessed by some 19th and 20th century historians, including J.B. Bury.Honorius issued a decree during his reign, prohibiting men from wearing trousers in Rome.", "The last known gladiatorial games took place during the reign of Honorius, who banned the practice in 399 and again in 404, reportedly due to the martyrdom of a Christian monk named Telemachus while he was protesting a gladiator fight." ], [ "See also", "Solidus of Honorius* Usurpers during Honorius reign: Priscus Attalus in Rome (two times, both as a puppet of Alaric); Maximus in Hispania; Marcus, Gratian, Constantine \"III\" and Constans \"II\" in Gaul and Britain; Jovinus and Sebastianus (joint puppets of Gundahar and Goar).", "* Co-emperors with Honorius:** Constantius III.", "* Succession to Honorius:** Joannes and Valentinian III.", "* ''Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===* Aurelius Victor,'' \"Epitome de Caesaribus\"'', English version of Epitome de Caesaribus* Zosimus, ''\"Historia Nova\"'', Books 4–6 Historia Nova===Secondary sources===*** Doyle, Chris. ''", "Honorius: The Fight for the Roman West AD 395-423''.", "Roman Imperial Biographies.", "Routledge.", "(2018) Doyle, Christopher.", "''The Endgame of Treason'': ''Suppressing Rebellion and Usurpation in the Late Roman Empire AD 397‑411''.", "(2014) National University of Ireland Galway.", "Unpublished doctoral thesis.", "https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/handle/10379/4631Kovács, Tamás.", "“ 410: Honorius, His Rooster, and the Eunuch (Procop.", "Vand.", "1.2.25–26).” ''Graeco-Latina Brunensia'' 25, no.", "2 (2020): 131–48.. Mathisen, Ralph, \"Honorius (395–423 A.D.)\", ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''McEvoy, Meaghan A.", "(2010).", "'Rome and the transformation of the imperial office in the late fourth - mid-fifth centuries A.D.', ''Papers of the British School at Rome'' 78: 151–192.", "McEvoy, Meaghan A.", "(2013).", "'The mausoleum of Honorius: late Roman imperial Christianity and the city of Rome in the fifth century', in Rosamond McKitterick, John Osbourne, Carol M. Richards, Joanna Story (eds.", "), '' Old St Peter's, Rome'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 119–136.", "* * Gibbon.", "Edward ''Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1888)" ], [ "External links", "* * * This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Honorius relating to Christianity." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Formant" ], [ "Introduction", "Spectrogram of American English vowels showing the formants ''F''1 and ''F''2In speech science and phonetics, a '''formant''' is the broad spectral maximum that results from an acoustic resonance of the human vocal tract.", "In acoustics, a formant is usually defined as a broad peak, or local maximum, in the spectrum.", "For harmonic sounds, with this definition, the formant frequency is sometimes taken as that of the harmonic that is most augmented by a resonance.", "The difference between these two definitions resides in whether \"formants\" characterise the production mechanisms of a sound or the produced sound itself.", "In practice, the frequency of a spectral peak differs slightly from the associated resonance frequency, except when, by luck, harmonics are aligned with the resonance frequency, or when the sound source is mostly non-harmonic, as in whispering and vocal fry.A room can be said to have formants characteristic of that particular room, due to its resonances, i.e., to the way sound reflects from its walls and objects.", "Room formants of this nature reinforce themselves by emphasizing specific frequencies and absorbing others, as exploited, for example, by Alvin Lucier in his piece ''I Am Sitting in a Room''.", "In acoustic digital signal processing, the way a collection of formants (such as a room) affects a signal can be represented by an impulse response.In both speech and rooms, formants are characteristic features of the resonances of the space.", "They are said to be ''excited'' by acoustic sources such as the voice, and they shape (filter) the sources' sounds, but they are not sources themselves." ], [ "History", "From an acoustic point of view, phonetics had a serious problem with the idea that the effective length of vocal tract changed vowels.", "Indeed, when the length of the vocal tract changes, all the acoustic resonators formed by mouth cavities are scaled, and so are their resonance frequencies.", "Therefore, it was unclear how vowels could depend on frequencies when talkers with different vocal tract lengths, for instance bass and soprano singers, can produce sounds that are perceived as belonging to the same phonetic category.", "There had to be some way to normalize the spectral information underpinning the vowel identity.", "Hermann suggested a solution to this problem in 1894, coining the term “formant”.", "A vowel, according to him, is a special acoustic phenomenon, depending on the intermittent production of a special partial, or “formant”, or “characteristique” feature.", "The frequency of the “formant” may vary a little without altering the character of the vowel.", "For “long e” (''ee'' or ''iy'') for example, the lowest-frequency “formant” may vary from 350 to 440 Hz even in the same person." ], [ "Phonetics", "+Average vowel formants for a male voice Vowel(IPA) Formant ''F''1(Hz) Formant ''F''2(Hz) Difference''F''2 – ''F''1(Hz) 240 2400 2160 235 2100 1865 390 2300 1910 370 1900 1530 610 1900 1290 585 1710 1125 850 1610 760 820 1530 710 750 940 190 700 760 60 600 1170 570 500 700 200 460 1310 850 360 640 280 300 1390 1090 250 595 345Formants are distinctive frequency components of the acoustic signal produced by speech, musical instruments or singing.", "The information that humans require to distinguish between speech sounds can be represented purely quantitatively by specifying peaks in the frequency spectrum.Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber resonance, but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of Venturi effect low-pressure zones.The formant with the lowest frequency is called ''F''1, the second ''F''2, the third ''F''3, and so forth.", "The fundamental frequency or pitch of the voice is sometimes referred to as ''F''0, but it is not a formant.", "Most often the two first formants, ''F''1 and ''F''2, are sufficient to identify the vowel.", "The relationship between the perceived vowel quality and the first two formant frequencies can be appreciated by listening to \"artificial vowels\" that are generated by passing a click train (to simulate the glottal pulse train) through a pair of bandpass filters (to simulate vocal tract resonances).", "Front vowels have higher ''F''2, while low vowels have higher ''F''1.Lip rounding tends to lower ''F''1 and ''F''2 in back vowels and ''F''2 and ''F''3 in front vowels.Nasal consonants usually have an additional formant around 2500 Hz.", "The liquid usually has an extra formant at 1500 Hz, whereas the English \"r\" sound () is distinguished by a very low third formant (well below 2000 Hz).Plosives (and, to some degree, fricatives) modify the placement of formants in the surrounding vowels.", "Bilabial sounds (such as and in \"ball\" or \"sap\") cause a lowering of the formants; on spectrograms, velar sounds ( and in English) almost always show ''F''2 and ''F''3 coming together in a 'velar pinch' before the velar and separating from the same 'pinch' as the velar is released; alveolar sounds (English and ) cause fewer systematic changes in neighbouring vowel formants, depending partially on exactly which vowel is present.", "The time course of these changes in vowel formant frequencies are referred to as 'formant transitions'.In normal voiced speech, the underlying vibration produced by the vocal folds resembles a sawtooth wave, rich inharmonic overtones.", "If the fundamental frequency or (more often) one of the overtones is higher than a resonance frequency of the system, then the resonance will be only weakly excited and the formant usually imparted by that resonance will be mostly lost.", "This is most apparent in the case of soprano opera singers, who sing at pitches high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish.Control of resonances is an essential component of the vocal technique known as overtone singing, in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper harmonics, giving the impression of several tones being sung at once.Spectrograms may be used to visualise formants.", "In spectrograms, it can be hard to distinguish formants from naturally occurring harmonics when one sings.", "However, one can hear the natural formants in a vowel shape through atonal techniques such as vocal fry." ], [ "Formant estimation", "Formants, whether they are seen as acoustic resonances of the vocal tract, or as local maxima in the speech spectrum, like band-pass filters, are defined by their frequency and by their spectral width (bandwidth).Different methods exist to obtain this information.", "Formant frequencies, in their acoustic definition, can be estimated from the frequency spectrum of the sound, using a spectrogram (in the figure) or a spectrum analyzer.", "However, to estimate the acoustic resonances of the vocal tract (i.e.", "the speech definition of formants) from a speech recording, one can use ''linear predictive coding''.", "An intermediate approach consists in extracting the spectral envelope by neutralizing the fundamental frequency, and only then looking for local maxima in the spectral envelope." ], [ "Formant plots", "Diagram of average vowel formantsThe first two formants are important in determining the quality of vowels, and are frequently said to correspond to the open/close (or low/high) and front/back dimensions (which have traditionally been associated with the shape and position of the tongue).", "Thus the first formant ''F''1 has a higher frequency for an open or low vowel such as and a lower frequency for a closed or high vowel such as or ; and the second formant ''F''2 has a higher frequency for a front vowel such as and a lower frequency for a back vowel such as .Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants, and sometimes more than six.", "However, the first two formants are the most important in determining vowel quality and are often plotted against each other in vowel diagrams, though this simplification fails to capture some aspects of vowel quality such as rounding.Many writers have addressed the problem of finding an optimal alignment of the positions of vowels on formant plots with those on the conventional vowel quadrilateral.", "The pioneering work of Ladefoged used the Mel scale because this scale was claimed to correspond more closely to the auditory scale of pitch than to the acoustic measure of fundamental frequency expressed in Hertz.", "Two alternatives to the Mel scale are the Bark scale and the ERB-rate scale.", "Another widely adopted strategy is plotting the difference between ''F''1 and ''F''2 rather than ''F''2 on the horizontal axis." ], [ "Singer's formant", "Studies of the frequency spectrum of trained speakers and classical singers, especially male singers, indicate a clear formant around 3000 Hz (between 2800 and 3400 Hz) that is absent in speech or in the spectra of untrained speakers or singers.", "It is thought to be associated with one or more of the higher resonances of the vocal tract.", "It is this increase in energy at 3000 Hz which allows singers to be heard and understood over an orchestra.", "This formant is actively developed through vocal training, for instance through so-called ''voce di strega'' or \"witch's voice\" exercises and is caused by a part of the vocal tract acting as a resonator.", "In classical music and vocal pedagogy, this phenomenon is also known as ''squillo''." ], [ "See also", "Formant synthesisHuman voiceLinear predictive codingPraatTimbreVocoder" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Formants for fun and profit* Formants and wah-wah pedals* What is a formant?", "A discussion of the three different meanings of the word 'formant'* Formant tuning by soprano singers from the University of New South Wales* The acoustics of harmonic or overtone singing from the University of New South Wales* Materials for measuring and plotting vowel formants" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 20" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1339 – The Milanese army and the St. George's (San Giorgio) Mercenaries of Lodrisio Visconti clash in the Battle of Parabiago; Visconti is defeated.", "1472 – Orkney and Shetland are pawned by Norway to Scotland in lieu of a dowry for Margaret of Denmark.", "1521 – Juan Ponce de León sets out from Spain for Florida with about 200 prospective colonists.", "1547 – Edward VI of England is crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey.===1601–1900===1685 – René-Robert Cavelier establishes Fort St. Louis at Matagorda Bay thus forming the basis for France's claim to Texas.", "1792 – The Postal Service Act, establishing the United States Post Office Department, is signed by United States President George Washington.", "1798 – Louis-Alexandre Berthier removes Pope Pius VI from power.", "1813 – Manuel Belgrano defeats the royalist army of Pío de Tristán during the Battle of Salta.", "1816 – Rossini's opera ''The Barber of Seville'' premieres at the Teatro Argentina in Rome.", "1824 – William Buckland formally announces the name ''Megalosaurus'', the first scientifically validly named non-avian dinosaur species.", "1835 – The 1835 Concepción earthquake destroys Concepción, Chile.", "1846 – Polish insurgents lead an uprising in Kraków to incite a fight for national independence.", "1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Olustee: The largest battle fought in Florida during the war.", "1865 – End of the Uruguayan War, with a peace agreement between President Tomás Villalba and rebel leader Venancio Flores, setting the scene for the destructive War of the Triple Alliance.", "1872 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City.", "1877 – Tchaikovsky's ballet ''Swan Lake'' receives its premiere at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow.===1901–present===1901 – The legislature of Hawaii Territory convenes for the first time.", "1905 – The U.S. Supreme Court upholds the constitutionality of Massachusetts's mandatory smallpox vaccination program in ''Jacobson v.", "Massachusetts''.", "1909 – Publication of the Futurist Manifesto in the French journal ''Le Figaro''.", "1913 – King O'Malley drives in the first survey peg to mark commencement of work on the construction of Canberra.", "1920 – An earthquake kills between 114 and 130 in Georgia and heavily damages the town of Gori.", "1931 – The U.S. Congress approves the construction of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge by the state of California.", "* 1931 – An anarchist uprising in Encarnación, Paraguay briefly transforms the city into a revolutionary commune.", "1933 – The U.S. Congress approves the Blaine Act to repeal federal Prohibition in the United States, sending the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution to state ratifying conventions for approval.", " 1933 – Adolf Hitler secretly meets with German industrialists to arrange for financing of the Nazi Party's upcoming election campaign.", "1935 – Caroline Mikkelsen becomes the first woman to set foot in Antarctica.", "1939 – Madison Square Garden Nazi rally: The largest ever pro-Nazi rally in United States history is convened in Madison Square Garden, New York City, with 20,000 members and sympathizers of the German American Bund present.", "1942 – World War II: Lieutenant Edward O'Hare becomes America's first World War II flying ace.", "1943 – World War II: American movie studio executives agree to allow the Office of War Information to censor movies.", "* 1943 – ''The Saturday Evening Post'' publishes the first of Norman Rockwell's ''Four Freedoms'' in support of United States President Franklin Roosevelt's 1941 State of the Union address theme of Four Freedoms.", "1944 – World War II: The \"Big Week\" began with American bomber raids on German aircraft manufacturing centers.", " 1944 – World War II: The United States takes Eniwetok Atoll.", "1952 – Emmett Ashford becomes the first African-American umpire in organized baseball by being authorized to be a substitute umpire in the Southwestern International League.", "1956 – The United States Merchant Marine Academy becomes a permanent Service Academy.", "1959 – The Avro Arrow program to design and manufacture supersonic jet fighters in Canada is cancelled by the Diefenbaker government amid much political debate.", "1962 – Mercury program: While aboard ''Friendship 7'', John Glenn becomes the first American to orbit the Earth, making three orbits in four hours, 55 minutes.", "1965 – Ranger 8 crashes into the Moon after a successful mission of photographing possible landing sites for the Apollo program astronauts.", "1968 – The China Academy of Space Technology, China's main arm for the research, development, and creation of space satellites, is established in Beijing.", "1971 – The United States Emergency Broadcast System is accidentally activated in an erroneous national alert.", "1979 – An earthquake cracks open the ''Sinila'' volcanic crater on the Dieng Plateau, releasing poisonous H2S gas and killing 149 villagers in the Indonesian province of Central Java.", "1986 – The Soviet Union launches its Mir spacecraft.", "Remaining in orbit for 15 years, it is occupied for ten of those years.", "1988 – The Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast votes to secede from Azerbaijan and join Armenia, triggering the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.", "1991 – In the Albanian capital Tirana, a gigantic statue of Albania's long-time leader, Enver Hoxha, is brought down by mobs of angry protesters.", "1998 – American figure skater Tara Lipinski, at the age of 15, becomes the youngest Olympic figure skating gold-medalist at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan.", "2003 – During a Great White concert in West Warwick, Rhode Island, a pyrotechnics display sets the Station nightclub ablaze, killing 100 and injuring over 200 others.", "2005 – Spain becomes the first country to vote in a referendum on ratification of the proposed Constitution of the European Union, passing it by a substantial margin, but on a low turnout.", "2009 – Two Tamil Tigers aircraft packed with C4 explosives en route to the national airforce headquarters are shot down by the Sri Lankan military before reaching their target, in a kamikaze style attack.", "2010 – In Madeira Island, Portugal, heavy rain causes floods and mudslides, resulting in at least 43 deaths, in the worst disaster in the history of the archipelago.", "2014 – Dozens of Euromaidan anti-government protesters died in Ukraine's capital Kyiv, many reportedly killed by snipers.", "2015 – Two trains collide in the Swiss town of Rafz resulting in as many as 49 people injured and Swiss Federal Railways cancelling some services.", "2016 – Six people are killed and two injured in multiple shooting incidents in Kalamazoo County, Michigan." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1358 – Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (d. 1382)1469 – Thomas Cajetan, Italian philosopher (d. 1534)1523 – Jan Blahoslav, Czech writer (d. 1571)1549 – Francesco Maria II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino, last Duke of Urbino (d. 1631)1552 – Sengoku Hidehisa, Daimyō (d. 1614)===1601–1900===1608 – Arthur Capell, 1st Baron Capell of Hadham (d. 1649)1631 – Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds, English politician, Treasurer of the Navy (d. 1712)1633 – Jan de Baen, Dutch painter (d. 1702)1705 – Nicolas Chédeville, French musette player and composer (d. 1782)1726 – William Prescott, American colonel (d. 1795)1745 – Henry James Pye, English poet and politician (d. 1813)1748 – Luther Martin, American politician (d. 1826)1751 – Johann Heinrich Voss, German poet, translator, and academic (d. 1826)1753 – Louis-Alexandre Berthier, French general and politician, French Minister of Defence (d. 1815)1756 – Angelica Schuyler Church, American socialite, sister-in-law to Alexander Hamilton (d. 1814)1759 – Johann Christian Reil, German physician, physiologist, and anatomist (d. 1813)1774 – Vicente Sebastián Pintado, Spanish cartographer, engineer, military officer and land surveyor of Spanish Louisiana and Spanish West Florida (d. 1829)1784 – Judith Montefiore, British linguist, travel writer, philanthropist (d. 1862)1792 – Eliza Courtney, French daughter of Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire (d. 1859)1794 – William Carleton, Irish author (d. 1869)1802 – Charles Auguste de Bériot, Belgian violinist and composer (d. 1870)1819 – Alfred Escher, Swiss businessman and politician (d. 1882)1839 – Benjamin Waugh, English activist, founded the NSPCC (d. 1908)1844 – Ludwig Boltzmann, Austrian physicist and philosopher (d. 1906) 1844 – Joshua Slocum, Canadian sailor and adventurer (d. 1909)1848 – E. H. Harriman, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1909)1857 – A. P. Lucas, English cricketer (d. 1923)1866 – Carl Westman, Swedish architect, designed the Stockholm Court House and Röhsska Museum (d. 1936)1867 – Louise, Princess Royal of England (d. 1931)1870 – Jay Johnson Morrow, American engineer and politician, 3rd Governor of the Panama Canal Zone (d. 1937)1874 – Mary Garden, Scottish-American soprano and actress (d. 1967)1879 – Hod Stuart, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1907)1880 – Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen, French author and poet (d. 1923)1882 – Elie Nadelman, Polish-American sculptor (d. 1946)1887 – Vincent Massey, Canadian lawyer and politician, 18th Governor General of Canada (d. 1967)1888 – Georges Bernanos, French soldier and author (d. 1948)1889 – Hulusi Behçet, Turkish dermatologist and physician (d. 1948)1893 – Elizabeth Holloway Marston, American psychologist and author (d. 1993)1895 – Louis Zborowski, English race car driver and engineer (d. 1924)1897 – Ivan Albright, American painter (d. 1983)1898 – Ante Ciliga, Croatian politician, writer and publisher (d. 1992)* 1898 – Enzo Ferrari, Italian motor racing driver and entrepreneur, founder of Scuderia Ferrari and Ferrari (d. 1988)1899 – Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1992)===1901–present===1901 – René Dubos, French-American biologist and author (d. 1982)* 1901 – Louis Kahn, American architect, designed the Salk Institute, the Kimbell Art Museum and the Bangladesh Parliament Building (d. 1974)* 1901 – Muhammad Naguib, Egyptian general and politician, 1st President of Egypt (d. 1984)* 1901 – Ramakrishna Ranga Rao of Bobbili, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th Chief Minister of Madras Presidency (d. 1978)1902 – Ansel Adams, American photographer and environmentalist (d. 1984)1906 – Gale Gordon, American actor (d. 1995)1912 – Pierre Boulle, French soldier and author (d. 1994) 1912 – Johnny Checketts, New Zealand flying ace of the Second World War (d. 2006)1913 – Tommy Henrich, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2009)1914 – John Charles Daly, South African–American journalist and game show host (d. 1991)1916 – Jean Erdman, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2020)1918 – Leonore Annenberg, American businesswoman and diplomat (d. 2009)1919 – James O'Meara, English soldier and pilot (d. 1974)1920 – Karl Albrecht, German businessman, co-founded Aldi (d. 2014)1921 – Buddy Rogers, American wrestler (d. 1992)1923 – Victor G. Atiyeh, American businessman and politician, 32nd Governor of Oregon (d. 2014)* 1923 – Forbes Burnham, Guyanese lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Guyana (d. 1985)* 1923 – Rena Vlahopoulou, Greek actress (d. 2004)1924 – Gloria Vanderbilt, American actress, fashion designer, and socialite (d. 2019)1925 – Robert Altman, American director and screenwriter (d. 2006)* 1925 – Tochinishiki Kiyotaka, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 44th Yokozuna (d. 1990)1926 – Matthew Bucksbaum, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded General Growth Properties (d. 2013) 1926 – Gillian Lynne, English ballerina, choreographer, and director (d. 2018)* 1926 – Richard Matheson, American author and screenwriter (d. 2013)* 1926 – Bob Richards, American Olympic track and field athlete (d. 2023)* 1926 – María de la Purísima Salvat Romero, Spanish Roman Catholic nun; later canonized (d. 1998)1927 – Roy Cohn, American lawyer and political activist (d. 1986) 1927 – Ibrahim Ferrer, Cuban singer and musician (d. 2005)* 1927 – Hubert de Givenchy, French fashion designer (d. 2018)* 1927 – Sidney Poitier, Bahamian-American actor, director, and diplomat (d. 2022)1928 – Jean Kennedy Smith, American diplomat, 25th United States Ambassador to Ireland (d. 2020)1929 – Amanda Blake, American actress (d. 1989)1931 – John Milnor, American mathematician and academic1932 – Adrian Cristobal, Filipino journalist and author (d. 2007)1934 – Bobby Unser, American race car driver (d. 2021)1935 – Ellen Gilchrist, American novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 2024)1936 – Marj Dusay, American actress (d. 2020) 1936 – Larry Hovis, American actor and singer (d. 2003)* 1936 – Shigeo Nagashima, Japanese baseball player and coach1937 – Robert Huber, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1937 – Roger Penske, American race car driver and businessman* 1937 – Nancy Wilson, American singer and actress (d. 2018)1939 – Herbert Kohler Jr., American businessman (d. 2022)1940 – Jimmy Greaves, English footballer and TV pundit (d. 2021)1941 – Lim Kit Siang, Malaysian lawyer and politician 1941 – Buffy Sainte-Marie, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer1942 – Phil Esposito, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager 1942 – Mitch McConnell, American lawyer and politician* 1942 – Claude Miller, French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)1943 – Antonio Inoki, Japanese wrestler, mixed martial artist, and politician (d. 2022) 1943 – Mike Leigh, English director and screenwriter1944 – Robert de Cotret, Canadian economist and politician, 56th Secretary of State for Canada (d. 1999) 1944 – Lew Soloff, American trumpet player, composer, and actor (d. 2015)* 1944 – Willem van Hanegem, Dutch footballer and coach1945 – Alan Hull, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995)1946 – Brenda Blethyn, English actress* 1946 – Sandy Duncan, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1946 – J. Geils, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017)1947 – Peter Osgood, English footballer (d. 2006) 1947 – Peter Strauss, American actor and producer1948 – Pierre Bouchard, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1948 – Jennifer O'Neill, American model and actress1949 – Eddie Hemmings, English cricketer 1949 – Ivana Trump, Czech-American socialite and model (d. 2022)1950 – Walter Becker, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2017) 1950 – Peter Marinello, Scottish footballer* 1950 – Tony Wilson, English journalist and businessman (d. 2007)1951 – Edward Albert, American actor (d. 2006) 1951 – Gordon Brown, Scottish politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom* 1951 – Randy California, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1997)* 1951 – Phil Neal, English footballer and manager1953 – Poison Ivy, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer1954 – Jon Brant, American bass player* 1954 – Anthony Head, English actor* 1954 – Patty Hearst, American actress and author1957 – Glen Hanlon, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1958 – James Wilby, English actor1959 – Scott Brayton, American race car driver (d. 1996) 1959 – David Corn, American journalist and author* 1959 – Bill Gullickson, American baseball player1960 – Joel Hodgson, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1960 – Cándido Muatetema Rivas, Equatoguinean politician and diplomat, Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea (d. 2014)1961 – Steve Lundquist, American swimmer1962 – Dwayne McDuffie, American author, screenwriter, and producer, co-founded Milestone Media (d. 2011)1963 – Charles Barkley, American basketball player and sportscaster 1963 – Ian Brown, English singer-songwriter and musician* 1963 – Joakim Nystrom, Swedish tennis player* 1963 – Mariliza Xenogiannakopoulou, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Health* 1963 – Cui Yongyuan, Chinese former anchor1964 – Willie Garson, American actor and director (d. 2021) 1964 – Tom Harris, Scottish journalist and politician* 1964 – Jeff Maggert, American golfer* 1964 – French Stewart, American actor1966 – Cindy Crawford, American model and businesswoman1967 – Paul Accola, Swiss alpine skier* 1967 – Kurt Cobain, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1994)* 1967 – David Herman, American comedian and actor* 1967 – Andrew Shue, American actor and activist, founded Do Something* 1967 – Lili Taylor, American actress1969 – Kjell Ove Hauge, Norwegian school principal and track and field athlete 1969 – Siniša Mihajlović, Serbian footballer and manager (d. 2022)* 1969 – Danis Tanović, Bosnian director and screenwriter1971 – Jari Litmanen, Finnish footballer 1971 – Joost van der Westhuizen, South African rugby player (d. 2017)1973 – Andrea Savage, American actress and comedian1974 – Karim Bagheri, Iranian footballer and manager1975 – Liván Hernández, Cuban-American baseball player 1975 – Brian Littrell, American singer-songwriter and actor1977 – Gail Kim, Canadian wrestler 1977 – Stephon Marbury, American basketball player1978 – Lauren Ambrose, American actress 1978 – Jay Hernandez, American actor* 1978 – Chelsea Peretti, American actress, comedian, writer, and singer-songwriter1979 – Michael Zegen, American actor1980 – Imanol Harinordoquy, French rugby player* 1980 – Luis Gabriel Rey, Colombian footballer* 1980 – Artur Boruc, Polish footballer1981 – Majandra Delfino, American actress and singer-songwriter 1981 – Tony Hibbert, English footballer1983 – Jose Morales, Puerto Rican baseball player 1983 – Justin Verlander, American baseball player1984 – Brian McCann, American baseball player 1984 – Trevor Noah, South African comedian, actor, and television host1985 – Killian Dain, Northern Irish wrestler 1985 – Ryan Sweeney, American baseball player* 1985 – Julia Volkova, Russian singer and actress1986 – Julio Borbón, American baseball player1987 – Luke Burgess, English rugby league player* 1987 – Martin Hanzal, Czech ice hockey player* 1987 – James Johnson, American basketball player* 1987 – Daniella Pineda, American actress* 1987 – Miles Teller, American actor1988 – Ki Bo-bae, South Korean archer 1988 – Jiah Khan, Indian singer and actress (d. 2013)* 1988 – Rihanna, Barbadian singer, songwriter and actress1989 – Jack Falahee, American actor and singer-songwriter1990 – Ciro Immobile, Italian footballer1991 – Hidilyn Diaz, Filipino weightlifter 1991 – Angelique van der Meet, Dutch tennis player1993 – Jurickson Profar, Curaçaoan baseball player1994 – Kateryna Baindl, Ukrainian tennis player* 1994 – Luis Severino, Dominican baseball player1998 – Emam Ashour, Egyptian footballer1999 – Jarrett Culver, American basketball player2000 – Josh Sargent, American soccer player2002 – Gavin Bazunu, Irish footballer2003 – Olivia Rodrigo, American actress and singer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 789 – Leo of Catania, saint and bishop of Catania (b.", "709)* 922 – Theodora, Byzantine empress1054 – Yaroslav the Wise, grand prince of Veliky Novgorod and Kyiv (b.", "978)1154 – Saint Wulfric of Haselbury (b. c. 1080)1171 – Conan IV, Duke of Brittany (b.", "1138)1194 – Tancred, King of Sicily (b.", "1138)1258 – Al-Musta'sim, Iraqi caliph (b.", "1213)1408 – Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, English politician, Earl Marshal of England (b.", "1341)1431 – Pope Martin V (b.", "1368)1458 – Lazar Branković, Despot of Serbia1513 – King John of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (b.", "1455)1524 – Tecun Uman, Mayan ruler (b.", "1500)1579 – Nicholas Bacon, English politician (b.", "1509)===1601–1900===1618 – Philip William, Prince of Orange (b.", "1554)1626 – John Dowland, English lute player and composer (b.", "1563)1762 – Tobias Mayer, German astronomer and academic (b.", "1723)1771 – Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan, French geophysicist and astronomer (b.", "1678)1773 – Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia (b.", "1701)1778 – Laura Bassi, Italian physicist and scholar (b.", "1711)1790 – Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1741)1806 – Lachlan McIntosh, Scottish-American general and politician (b.", "1725)1810 – Andreas Hofer, Tyrolean rebel leader (b.", "1767)1850 – Valentín Canalizo, Mexican general and politician.", "14th President (1843–1844) (b.", "1794)1862 – William Wallace Lincoln, American son of Abraham Lincoln (b.", "1850)1871 – Paul Kane, Irish-Canadian painter (b.", "1810)1893 – P. G. T. Beauregard, American general (b.", "1818)1895 – Frederick Douglass, American author and activist (b. c. 1818)1900 – Washakie, American tribal leader (b.", "1798)===1901–present===1907 – Henri Moissan, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1852)1916 – Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Swedish journalist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1844)1920 – Jacinta Marto, Portuguese saint (b.", "1910) 1920 – Robert Peary, American admiral and explorer (b.", "1856)1933 – Takiji Kobayashi, Japanese writer (b.", "1903)1936 – Max Schreck, German actor (b.", "1879)1957 – Sadri Maksudi Arsal, Turkish scholar and politician (b.", "1878)1961 – Percy Grainger, Australian-American pianist and composer (b.", "1882)1963 – Jacob Gade, Danish violinist and composer (b.", "1879)1965 – Michał Waszyński, Polish film director and producer (b.", "1904)1966 – Chester W. Nimitz, American admiral (b.", "1885)1968 – Anthony Asquith, English director and screenwriter (b.", "1902)1969 – Ernest Ansermet, Swiss conductor (b.", "1883)1972 – Maria Goeppert-Mayer, German-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1906)* 1972 – Walter Winchell, American journalist and actor (b.", "1897)1976 – René Cassin, French lawyer and judge, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1887) 1976 – Kathryn Kuhlman, healing evangelist, known for belief in Holy Spirit (b.", "1907)1981 – Nicolas de Gunzburg, French-American banker and publisher (b.", "1904)1987 – Wayne Boring, American illustrator (b.", "1905)1992 – A. J. Casson, Canadian painter (b.", "1898) 1992 – Dick York, American actor (b.", "1928)1993 – Ferruccio Lamborghini, Italian businessman, founded Lamborghini (b.", "1916) 1993 – Ernest L. Massad, American general (b.", "1908)1996 – Solomon Asch, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1907) 1996 – Audrey Munson, American model (b.", "1891)* 1996 – Toru Takemitsu, Japanese pianist, guitarist, and composer (b.", "1930)1999 – Sarah Kane, English playwright (b.", "1971) 1999 – Gene Siskel, American journalist and critic (b.", "1946)2001 – Rosemary DeCamp, American actress (b.", "1910) 2001 – Donella Meadows, American environmentalist, author, and academic (b.", "1941)2003 – Mushaf Ali Mir, Pakistani air marshal (b.", "1947) 2003 – Maurice Blanchot, French philosopher and author (b.", "1907)* 2003 – Orville Freeman, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 29th Governor of Minnesota (b.", "1918)2005 – Sandra Dee, American actress (b.", "1942) 2005 – Josef Holeček, Czechoslovakian canoeist (b.", "1921)* 2005 – John Raitt, American actor and singer (b.", "1917)* 2005 – Hunter S. Thompson, American journalist and author (b.", "1937)2006 – Curt Gowdy, American sportscaster (b.", "1919) 2006 – Lucjan Wolanowski, Polish journalist and author (b.", "1920)2008 – Emily Perry, English actress and dancer (b.", "1907)2009 – Larry H. Miller, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1944)2010 – Alexander Haig, American general and politician, 59th United States Secretary of State (b.", "1924)2012 – Knut Torbjørn Eggen, Norwegian footballer and manager (b.", "1960)* 2012 – Katie Hall, American educator and politician (b.", "1938)2013 – Kenji Eno, Japanese game designer and composer (b.", "1970) 2013 – David S. McKay, American biochemist and geologist (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Antonio Roma, Argentinian footballer (b.", "1932)2014 – Rafael Addiego Bruno, Uruguayan jurist and politician, President of Uruguay (b.", "1923) 2014 – Walter D. Ehlers, American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Garrick Utley, American journalist (b.", "1939)2015 – Govind Pansare, Indian author and activist (b.", "1933) 2015 – Henry Segerstrom, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1923)* 2015 – John C. Willke, American physician, author, and activist (b.", "1925)2016 – Fernando Cardenal, Nicaraguan priest and politician (b.", "1934)2017 – Vitaly Churkin, Ambassador of the Russian Federation to the United Nations (b.", "1952)* 2017 – Mildred Dresselhaus, American physicist (b.", "1930)* 2017 – Steve Hewlett, British journalist (b.", "1958)2020 – Joaquim Pina Moura, Portuguese Minister of Economy and Treasury and MP (b.", "1952)2021 – Nurul Haque Miah, Bangladeshi professor and writer (b.", "1944)* 2021 – Mauro Bellugi, Italian footballer (b.", "1950)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Eleutherius of TournaiEucherius of OrléansFrancisco Marto and Jacinta MartoFrederick Douglass (Episcopal Church (USA))Wulfric of HaselburyFebruary 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Day of Heavenly Hundred Heroes (Ukraine)World Day of Social Justice" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day** Historical Events on February 20" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of programmers" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''list of programmers''' notable for their contributions to software, either as original author or architect, or for later additions.", "All entries must already have associated articles.Some persons notable as computer scientists are included here because they work in program as well as research.==A==Michael Abrash – program optimization and x86 assembly languageScott Adams – series of text adventures beginning in the late 1970sTarn Adams – Dwarf FortressLeonard Adleman – co-created RSA algorithm (being the ''A'' in that name), coined the term ''computer virus''Alfred Aho – co-created AWK (being the ''A'' in that name), and main author of famous Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools (Dragon book)Andrei Alexandrescu – author, expert on languages C++, DPaul Allen – Altair BASIC, Applesoft BASIC, cofounded MicrosoftEric Allman – sendmail, syslogMarc Andreessen – co-created Mosaic, cofounded NetscapeJeremy Ashkenas – CoffeeScript programming language and Backbone.jsBill Atkinson – QuickDraw, HyperCard==B==Roland Carl Backhouse – computer program construction, algorithmic problem solving, ALGOLJohn Backus – Fortran, BNFLars Bak – virtual machine specialistRichard Bartle – MUD, with Roy Trubshaw, created MUDsFriedrich L. Bauer – Stack (data structure), ''Sequential Formula Translation'', ALGOL, software engineering, Bauer–Fike theoremKent Beck – created Extreme programming, cocreated JUnitDonald Becker – Linux Ethernet drivers, Beowulf clusteringBrian Behlendorf – Apache HTTP ServerDoug Bell – ''Dungeon Master'' series of video gamesFabrice Bellard – created FFmpeg open codec library, QEMU virtualization toolsTim Berners-Lee – invented World Wide WebDaniel J. Bernstein – djbdns, qmailEric Bina – cocreated Mosaic web browserMarc Blank – cocreated ''Zork''Joshua Bloch – core Java language designer, lead the Java collections framework projectJonathan Blow – video games ''Braid'' and ''The Witness''Susan G. Bond – cocreated ALGOL 68-RGrady Booch – cocreated Unified Modeling LanguageBert Bos – authored Argo web browser, co-authored Cascading Style SheetsStephen R. Bourne – cocreated ALGOL 68C, created Bourne shellDavid Bradley – coder on the IBM PC project team who wrote the ''Control-Alt-Delete'' keyboard handler, embedded in all PC-compatible BIOSesAndrew Braybrook – video games ''Paradroid'' and ''Uridium''Larry Breed – implementation of Iverson Notation (APL), co-developed APL\\360, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation cofounderJack Elton Bresenham – created Bresenham's line algorithmDan Bricklin – cocreated VisiCalc, the first personal spreadsheet programWalter Bright – Digital Mars, First C++ compiler, authored D (programming language)Sergey Brin – cofounded Google Inc.Per Brinch Hansen (surname \"Brinch Hansen\") – RC 4000 multiprogramming system, operating system kernels, microkernels, monitors, concurrent programming, Concurrent Pascal, distributed computing & processes, parallel computingRichard Brodie – Microsoft WordAndries Brouwer – ''Hack'', former maintainer of man pager, Linux kernel hackerDanielle Bunten Berry (Dani Bunten) – ''M.U.L.E.", "'', multiplayer video game and other noted video gamesDries Buytaert – created Drupal==C==Steve Capps – cocreated Macintosh and NewtonJohn Carmack – first-person shooters ''Doom'', ''Quake''Vint Cerf – TCP/IP, NCPWard Christensen – wrote the first BBS (Bulletin Board System) system CBBSEdgar F. Codd – principal architect of relational modelBram Cohen – BitTorrent protocol design and implementationAlain Colmerauer – PrologRichard W. Conway – compilers for CORC, CUPL, and PL/C; XCELL Factory Modelling SystemAlan Cooper – Visual BasicMike Cowlishaw – REXX and NetRexx, LEXX editor, image processing, decimal arithmetic packagesAlan Cox – co-developed Linux kernelBrad Cox – Objective-CMark Crispin – created IMAP, authored UW-IMAP, one of reference implementations of IMAP4William Crowther – ''Colossal Cave Adventure''Ward Cunningham – created Wiki conceptDave Cutler – architected RSX-11M, OpenVMS, VAXELN, DEC MICA, Windows NT==D==Ole-Johan Dahl – cocreated Simula, object-oriented programmingRyan Dahl – created Node.jsJames Duncan Davidson – created Tomcat, now part of Jakarta ProjectTerry A. Davis – developer of TempleOSJeff Dean – Spanner, Bigtable, MapReduceL. Peter Deutsch – Ghostscript, Assembler for PDP-1, XDS-940 timesharing system, QED original co-authorRobert Dewar – IFIP WG 2.1 member, chairperson, ALGOL 68; AdaCore cofounder, president, CEOEdsger W. Dijkstra – contributions to ALGOL, Dijkstra's algorithm, ''Go To Statement Considered Harmful'', IFIP WG 2.1 memberMatt Dillon – programmed various software including DICE and DragonflyBSDJack Dorsey – created TwitterMartin Dougiamas – creator and lead developed MoodleAdam Dunkels – authored Contiki operating system, the lwIP and uIP embedded TCP/IP stacks, invented protothreads==E==Les Earnest – authored finger programAlan Edelman – Edelman's Law, stochastic operator, Interactive Supercomputing, Julia (programming language) cocreator, high performance computing, numerical computingBrendan Eich – created JavaScriptLarry Ellison – co-created Oracle Database, cofounded Oracle CorporationAndrey Ershov – languages ''ALPHA'', ''Rapira''; first Soviet time-sharing system ''AIST-0'', electronic publishing system ''RUBIN'', multiprocessing workstation ''MRAMOR'', IFIP WG 2.1 member, ''Aesthetics and the Human Factor in Programming''Marc Ewing – created Red Hat Linux==F==Scott Fahlman – created smiley face emoticon :-) Dan Farmer – created COPS and Security Administrator Tool for Analyzing Networks (SATAN) Security ScannersSteve Fawkner – created ''Warlords'' and ''Puzzle Quest''Stuart Feldman – created make, authored Fortran 77 compiler, part of original group that created UnixDavid Filo – cocreated Yahoo!", "Brad Fitzpatrick – created memcached, Livejournal and OpenIDAndrew Fluegelman – author PC-Talk communications software; considered a cocreated sharewareMahmoud Samir Fayed – created PWCT and RingMartin Fowler – created the dependency injection pattern of software engineering, a form of inversion of controlBrian Fox – created Bash, Readline, GNU Finger==G==Elon Gasper – cofounded Bright Star Technology, patented realistic facial movements for in-game speech; HyperAnimator, Alphabet Blocks, etc.", "Bill Gates – Altair BASIC, cofounded MicrosoftNick Gerakines – author, contributor to open-source Erlang projectsJim Gettys – X Window System, HTTP/1.1, One Laptop per Child, BufferbloatSteve Gibson – created SpinRiteJohn Gilmore – GNU Debugger (GDB)Adele Goldberg – cocreated SmalltalkRobert Griesemer – cocreated GoRyan C. Gordon (a.k.a.", "Icculus) – Lokigames, ioquake3James Gosling – Java, Gosling Emacs, NeWSBill Gosper – Macsyma, Lisp machine, hashlife, helped Donald Knuth on Vol.2 of The Art of Computer Programming (Semi-numerical algorithms)Paul Graham – Yahoo!", "Store, On Lisp, ANSI Common LispJohn Graham-Cumming – authored POPFile, a Bayesian filter-based e-mail classifierDavid Gries – The book ''The Science of Programming'', Interference freedom, Member Emeritus, IFIP Working Group 2.3 on Programming MethodologyRalph Griswold – cocreated SNOBOL, created Icon (programming language)Richard Greenblatt – Lisp machine, Incompatible Timesharing System, MacHackNeil J. Gunther – authored Pretty Damn Quick (PDQ) performance modeling programScott Guthrie (a.k.a.", "ScottGu) – ASP.NET creatorJürg Gutknecht – with Niklaus Wirth: Lilith computer; Modula-2, Oberon, Zonnon programming languages; Oberon operating systemAndi Gutmans – cocreated PHP programming languageMichael Guy – Phoenix, work on number theory, computer algebra, higher dimension polyhedra theory, ALGOL 68C; work with John Horton Conway==H==Daniel Ha – cofounder and CEO of blog comment platform DisqusNico Habermann – work on operating systems, software engineering, inter-process communication, process synchronization, deadlock avoidance, software verification, programming languages: ALGOL 60, BLISS, Pascal, AdaJim Hall – started the FreeDOS projectMargaret Hamilton – Director of Software Engineering Division of MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, which developed on-board flight software for the space Apollo programBrian Harris – machine translation research, Canada's first computer-assisted translation course, natural translation theory, community interpreting (Critical Link)Eric Hehner – predicative programming, formal methods, quote notation, ALGOLDavid Heinemeier Hansson – created the Ruby on Rails framework for developing web applicationsRebecca Heineman – authored ''Bard's Tale III: Thief of Fate'' and ''Dragon Wars''Gernot Heiser – operating system teaching, research, commercialising, Open Kernel Labs, OKL4, WombatAnders Hejlsberg – Turbo Pascal, Borland Delphi, C#, TypeScriptTed Henter – founded Henter-Joyce (now part of Freedom Scientific) created JAWS screen reader software for blind peopleAndy Hertzfeld – co-created Macintosh, cofounded General Magic, cofounded EazelD. Richard Hipp – created SQLiteC. A. R. Hoare – first implementation of quicksort, ALGOL 60 compiler, Communicating sequential processesLouis Hodes – Lisp, pattern recognition, logic programming, cancer researchAllen Holub – author and public speaker, Agile Manifesto signatoryGrace Hopper – Harvard Mark I computer, FLOW-MATIC, COBOLPaul Hudak – Haskell language design, textbooks on it and computer musicDavid A. Huffman – created the Huffman coding; a compression algorithmRoger Hui – created JDave Hyatt – co-authored Mozilla FirefoxP. J. Hyett – cofounded GitHub==I==Miguel de Icaza – GNOME project leader, initiated Mono projectRoberto Ierusalimschy – Lua leading architectDan Ingalls – cocreated Smalltalk and BitbltGeir Ivarsøy – cocreated Opera web browserKen Iverson – APL, JToru Iwatani – created ''Pac-Man''==J==Bo Jangeborg – ZX Spectrum gamesPaul Jardetzky – authored server program for the first webcamRod Johnson – created Spring Framework, founded SpringSourceStephen C. Johnson – yaccLynne Jolitz – 386BSDWilliam Jolitz – 386BSDBill Joy – BSD, csh, vi, cofounded Sun MicrosystemsRobert K. Jung – created ARJ==K==Poul-Henning Kamp – MD5 password hash algorithm, FreeBSD GEOM and GBDE, part of UFS2, FreeBSD Jails, malloc and the Beerware licenseMitch Kapor – Lotus 1-2-3, founded Lotus Development CorporationPhil Katz – created Zip (file format), authored PKZIPTed Kaehler – contributions to Smalltalk, Squeak, HyperCardAlan Kay – Smalltalk, Dynabook, Object-oriented programming, SqueakMel Kaye – LGP-30 and RPC-4000 machine code programmer at Royal McBee in the 1950s, famed as \"Real Programmer\" in the Story of MelStan Kelly-Bootle – Manchester Mark 1, ''The Devil's DP Dictionary''John Kemeny – cocreated BASICBrian Kernighan – cocreated AWK (being the ''K'' in that name), authored ditroff text-formatting toolGary Kildall – CP/M, MP/M, BIOS, PL/M, also known for work on data-flow analysis, binary recompilers, multitasking operating systems, graphical user interfaces, disk caching, CD-ROM file system and data structures, early multi-media technologies, founded Digital Research (DRI)Tom Knight – Incompatible Timesharing SystemJim Knopf – a.k.a.", "Jim Button, author PC-File flatfile database; cocreated sharewareDonald E. Knuth – TeX, CWEB, Metafont, ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Concrete MathematicsAndrew R. Koenig – co-authored books on C and C++ and former Project Editor of ISO/ANSI standards committee for C++Cornelis H. A. Koster – ''Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 68'', ALGOL 68 transput==L==Andre LaMothe – created XGameStation, one of world's first video game console development kitsLeslie Lamport – LaTeXButler Lampson – QED original co-authorPeter Landin – ISWIM, J operator, SECD machine, off-side rule, syntactic sugar, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 memberTom Lane – main author of libjpeg, major developer of PostgreSQLSam Lantinga – created Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL)Dick Lathwell – codeveloped APL\\360Chris Lattner – main author of LLVM projectSamuel J. Leffler – BSD, FlexFAX, LibTIFF, FreeBSD Wireless Device DriversRasmus Lerdorf – original created PHPMichael Lesk – LexGordon Letwin – architected OS/2, authored High Performance File System (HPFS)Jochen Liedtke – microkernel operating systems Eumel, L3, L4Charles H. Lindsey – IFIP WG 2.1 member, ''Revised Report on ALGOL 68''Håkon Wium Lie – co-authored Cascading Style SheetsYanhong Annie Liu – programming languages, algorithms, program design, program optimization, software systems, optimizing, analysis, and transformations, intelligent systems, distributed computing, computer security, IFIP WG 2.1 memberRobert Love – Linux kernel developerAda Lovelace – first programmer (of Charles Babbages' Analytical Engine)Al Lowe – created ''Leisure Suit Larry'' seriesDavid Luckham – Lisp, Automated theorem proving, Stanford Pascal Verifier, Complex event processing, Rational Software cofounder (Ada compiler)Hans Peter Luhn – hash-coding, linked list, searching and sorting binary tree==M==Khaled Mardam-Bey – created mIRC (Internet Relay Chat Client)Simon Marlow – Haskell developer, book author; co-developer: Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Haxl remote data access libraryRobert C. Martin – authored ''Clean Code'', ''The Clean Coder'', leader of Clean Code movement, signatory on the Agile ManifestoJohn Mashey – authored PWB shell, also called Mashey shellYukihiro Matsumoto – RubyConor McBride – researches type theory, functional programming; cocreated Epigram (programming language) with James McKinna; member IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and CalculiJohn McCarthy – Lisp, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member, artificial intelligenceCraig McClanahan – original author Jakarta Struts, architect of Tomcat Catalina servlet containerDaniel D. McCracken – professor at City College and authored ''Guide to Algol Programming'', ''Guide to Cobol Programming'', ''Guide to Fortran Programming'' (1957)Scott A. McGregor – architect and development team lead of Microsoft Windows 1.0, co-authored X Window System version 11, and developed Cedar Viewers Windows System at Xerox PARCDouglas McIlroy – macros, pipes and filters, concept of software componentry, Unix tools (spell, diff, sort, join, graph, speak, tr, etc.", ")Marshall Kirk McKusick – Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD), work on FFS, implemented soft updatesSid Meier – author, ''Civilization'' and ''Railroad Tycoon'', cofounded MicroProseBertrand Meyer – Eiffel, ''Object-oriented Software Construction'', design by contractBob Miner – co-created Oracle Database, cofounded Oracle CorporationJeff Minter – psychedelic, and often llama-related video gamesJames G. Mitchell – WATFOR compiler, Mesa (programming language), Spring (operating system), ARM architectureArvind Mithal – formal verification of large digital systems, developing dynamic dataflow architectures, parallel computing programming languages (Id, pH), compiling on parallel machinesPetr Mitrichev – competitive programmerCleve Moler – co-authored LINPACK, EISPACK, and MATLAB Lou Montulli – created Lynx browser, cookies, the blink tag, server push and client pull, HTTP proxying, HTTP over SSL, browser integration with animated GIFs, founding member of HTML working group at W3CBram Moolenaar – authored text-editor VimDavid A.", "Moon – Maclisp, ZetaLispCharles H. Moore – created Forth languageRoger Moore – co-developed APL\\360, created IPSANET, cofounded I. P. Sharp AssociatesMatt Mullenweg – authored WordPressBoyd Munro – Australian developed GRASP, owns SDI, one of earliest software development companiesMike Muuss – authored ping, network tool to detect hosts==N==Patrick Naughton – early Java designer, HotJavaPeter Naur (1928–2016) – Backus–Naur form (BNF), ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 memberFredrik Neij – cocreated The Pirate BayGraham Nelson – created Inform authoring system for interactive fictionGreg Nelson (1953–2015) – satisfiability modulo theories, extended static checking, program verification, Modula-3 committee, ''Simplify'' theorem prover in ESC/JavaKlára Dán von Neumann (1911–1963) – principal programmer for the MANIAC IMaurice Nivat (1937–2017) – theoretical computer science, ''Theoretical Computer Science'' journal, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 memberPhiwa Nkambule – cofounded Riovic, founded CybatarPeter Norton – programmed Norton UtilitiesKristen Nygaard (1926–2002) – Simula, object-oriented programming==O==Ed Oates – cocreated Oracle Database, cofounded Oracle CorporationMartin Odersky – ScalaPeter O'Hearn – separation logic, bunched logic, Infer Static AnalyzerJarkko Oikarinen – created Internet Relay Chat (IRC)Andrew and Philip Oliver, the Oliver Twins – many ZX Spectrum games including ''Dizzy''John Ousterhout – created Tcl/Tk==P==Keith Packard – X Window SystemLarry Page – cofounded Google, Inc.Alexey Pajitnov – created game Tetris on Electronika 60Seymour Papert – Logo (programming language)David Park (1935–1990) – first Lisp implementation, expert in fairness, program schemas, bisimulation in concurrent computingMike Paterson – algorithms, analysis of algorithms (complexity)Tim Paterson – authored 86-DOS (QDOS)Markus Persson – created MinecraftJeffrey Peterson – key free and open-source software architect, created QuepasaCharles Petzold – authored many Microsoft Windows programming booksSimon Peyton Jones – functional programming, Glasgow Haskell Compiler, C--Rob Pike – wrote first bitmapped window system for Unix, cocreated UTF-8 character encoding, authored text editor sam and programming environment acme, main author of Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems, and co-authored Go programming languageKent Pitman – technical contributor to the ANSI Common Lisp standardTom Preston-Werner – cofounded GitHub==R==Theo de Raadt – founding member of NetBSD, founded OpenBSD and OpenSSHBrian Randell – ALGOL 60, software fault tolerance, dependability, pre-1950 history of computing hardwareT. V. Raman – specializes in accessibility research (Emacspeak, ChromeVox (screen reade r for Google Chrome)Jef Raskin – started the Macintosh project in Apple Computer, designed Canon Cat computer, developed Archy (The Humane Environment) programEric S. Raymond – Open Source movement, authored fetchmailHans Reiser – created ReiserFS file systemJohn Resig – creator and lead developed jQuery JavaScript libraryCraig Reynolds – created boids computer graphics simulationJohn C. Reynolds – continuations, definitional interpreters, defunctionalization, Forsythe, Gedanken language, intersection types, polymorphic lambda calculus, relational parametricity, separation logic, ALGOLReinder van de Riet – Editor: ''Europe of Data and Knowledge Engineering'', COLOR-X event modeling languageDennis Ritchie – C, Unix, Plan 9 from Bell Labs, InfernoRon Rivest – cocreated RSA algorithm (being the ''R'' in that name).", "created RC4 and MD5John Romero – first-person shooters ''Doom'', ''Quake''Blake Ross – co-authored Mozilla FirefoxDouglas T. Ross – Automatically Programmed Tools (APT), Computer-aided design, structured analysis and design technique, ALGOL XGuido van Rossum – PythonPhilip Rubin – articulatory synthesis (ASY), sinewave synthesis (SWS), and HADES signal processing system.", "Jeff Rulifson – lead programmer on the NLS projectRusty Russell – created iptables for linuxSteve Russell – first Lisp interpreter; original ''Spacewar!''", "graphic video gameMark Russinovich – Sysinternals.com, Filemon, Regmon, Process Explorer, TCPView and RootkitRevealer==S==Bob Sabiston – Rotoshop, interpolating rotoscope animation softwareMuni Sakya – Nepalese softwareCarl Sassenrath – Amiga, REBOLChris Sawyer – developed ''RollerCoaster Tycoon'' and the ''Transport Tycoon'' seriesCher Scarlett – Apple, Webflow, Blizzard Entertainment, World Wide Technology, and USA TodayBob Scheifler – X Window System, JiniIsai Scheinberg – IBM engineer, founded PokerStarsBill Schelter – GNU Maxima, GNU Common LispJohn Scholes – Direct functionsRandal L. Schwartz – Just another Perl hackerAdi Shamir – cocreated RSA algorithm (being the ''S'' in that name)Mike Shaver – founding member of Mozilla OrganizationCliff Shaw – Information Processing Language (IPL), the first AI languageZed Shaw – wrote the Mongrel Web Server, for Ruby web applicationsEmily Short – prolific writer of Interactive fiction and co-developed Inform version 7Jacek Sieka – developed DC++ an open-source, peer-to-peer file-sharing clientDaniel Siewiorek – electronic design automation, reliability computing, context aware mobile computing, wearable computing, computer-aided design, rapid prototyping, fault toleranceKen Silverman – created ''Duke Nukem 3D''s graphics engineCharles Simonyi – Hungarian notation, Bravo (the first WYSIWYG text editor), Microsoft WordColin Simpson – developed CircuitLogix simulation softwareRich Skrenta – cofounded DMOZDavid Canfield Smith – invented interface icons, programming by demonstration, developed graphical user interface, Xerox Star; Xerox PARC researcher, cofounded Dest Systems, CognitionMatthew Smith – ZX Spectrum games, including ''Manic Miner'' and ''Jet Set Willy''Henry Spencer – C News, RegexJoel Spolsky – cofounded Fog Creek Software and Stack OverflowQuentin Stafford-Fraser – authored original VNC viewer, first Windows VNC server, client program for the first webcamRichard Stallman – Emacs, GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), GDB, founder and pioneer of GNU Project, terminal-independent I/O pioneer on Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), Lisp machine manualGuy L. Steele Jr. – Common Lisp, Scheme, JavaAlexander Stepanov – created Standard Template LibraryChristopher Strachey – draughts playing programLudvig Strigeus – created μTorrent, OpenTTD, ScummVM and the technology behind SpotifyBjarne Stroustrup – created C++Zeev Suraski – cocreated PHP languageGerald Jay Sussman – SchemeHerb Sutter – chair of ISO C++ standards committee and C++ expertGottfrid Svartholm – cocreated The Pirate BayAaron Swartz – software developer, writer, Internet activistTim Sweeney – The Unreal engine, UnrealScript, ''ZZT''==T==Amir Taaki – leading developer for Bitcoin projectAndrew Tanenbaum – MinixAudrey \"Autrijus\" Tang – designed PugsSimon Tatham – Netwide Assembler (NASM), PuTTYLarry Tesler – the Smalltalk code browser, debugger and object inspector, and (with Tim Mott) the Gypsy word processorJon Stephenson von Tetzchner – cocreated Opera web browserAvie Tevanian – authored Mach kernelKen Thompson – mainly designed and authored Unix, Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems, B and Bon languages (precursors of C), created UTF-8 character encoding, introduced regular expressions in QED and co-authored Go languageSimon Thompson – functional programming research, textbooks; Cardano domain-specific languages: MarloweMichael Tiemann – G++, GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)Linus Torvalds – original author and current maintainer of Linux kernel and created Git, a source code management systemAndrew Tridgell – Samba, RsyncRoy Trubshaw – MUD – together with Richard Bartle, created MUDsBob Truel – cofounded DMOZAlan Turing – mathematician, computer scientist and cryptanalystDavid Turner – SASL, Kent Recursive Calculator, Miranda, IFIP WG 2.1 member==V==Wietse Venema – Postfix, Security Administrator Tool for Analyzing Networks (SATAN), TCP WrapperBernard Vauquois – pioneered computer science in France, machine translation (MT) theory and practice including ''Vauquois triangle'', ALGOL 60Pat Villani – original author FreeDOS/DOS-C kernel, maintainer of defunct ''Linux for Windows 9x'' distributionPaul Vixie – BIND, CronPatrick Volkerding – original author and current maintainer of Slackware Linux Distribution==W==Eiiti Wada – ALGOL N, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) X 0208, 0212, Happy Hacking KeyboardJohn Walker – cofounded AutodeskLarry Wall – Warp (1980s space-war game), rn, patch, PerlBob Wallace – author PC-Write word processor; considered shareware cocreatorChris Wanstrath – cofounded GitHub, created the Atom (text editor) and the Mustache template systemJohn Warnock – created PostScriptRobert Watson – FreeBSD network stack parallelism, TrustedBSD project and OpenBSMJoseph Henry Wegstein – ALGOL 58, ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member, data processing technical standards, fingerprint analysisPei-Yuan Wei – authored ViolaWWW, one of earliest graphical browsersPeter J. Weinberger – cocreated AWK (being the ''W'' in that name)Jim Weirich – created Rake, Builder, and RubyGems for Ruby; popular teacher and conference speakerJoseph Weizenbaum – created ELIZADavid Wheeler – cocreated subroutine; designed WAKE; co-designed Tiny Encryption Algorithm, XTEA, Burrows–Wheeler transformMolly White – HubSpot; creator of ''Web3 Is Going Just Great''Arthur Whitney – A+, Kwhy the lucky stiff – created libraries and writing for Ruby, including quirky, popular ''Why's (poignant) Guide to Ruby'' to teach programmingAdriaan van Wijngaarden – Dutch pioneer; ARRA, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 memberBruce Wilcox – created Computer Go, programmed NEMESIS Go MasterEvan Williams – created and cofounded language LogoRoberta and Ken Williams – Sierra Entertainment, ''King's Quest'', graphic adventure gameSophie Wilson – designed instruction set for Acorn RISC Machine, authored BBC BASICDave Winer – developed XML-RPC, Frontier scripting languageNiklaus Wirth – ALGOL W, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Pascal, Modula-2, OberonStephen Wolfram – created MathematicaDon Woods – INTERCAL, Colossal Cave AdventurePhilip Woodward – ambiguity function, sinc function, comb operator, rep operator, ALGOL 68-RSteve Wozniak – ''Breakout'', Apple Integer BASIC, cofounded Apple Inc.Will Wright – created the Sim City series, cofounded MaxisWilliam Wulf – BLISS system programming language + optimizing compiler, Hydra operating system, Tartan Laboratories==Y==Jerry Yang – co-created Yahoo!", "Victor Yngve – authored first string processing language, COMITNobuo Yoneda – Yoneda lemma, Yoneda product, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member==Z==Matei Zaharia – created Apache SparkJamie Zawinski – Lucid Emacs, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla, XScreenSaverPhil Zimmermann – created encryption software PGP, the ZRTP protocol, and ZfoneMark Zuckerberg – created Facebook" ], [ "See also", "List of computer scientistsList of computing peopleList of important publications in computer scienceList of members of the National Academy of Sciences (computer and information sciences)List of pioneers in computer scienceList of programming language researchersList of Russian programmersList of video game industry people (programming)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Film stock" ], [ "Introduction", "A film strip'''Film stock''' is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation.", "It is recorded on by a movie camera, developed, edited, and projected onto a screen using a movie projector.", "It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals.", "The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film.", "The emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use.", "Instead, a very short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change, proportional to the amount of light absorbed by each crystal.", "This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be chemically developed into a visible photograph.", "In addition to visible light, all films are sensitive to X-rays and high-energy particles.", "Most are at least slightly sensitive to invisible ultraviolet (UV) light.", "Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the infrared (IR) region of the spectrum.In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts.", "When the exposed grains are developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, which blocks light and appears as the black part of the film negative.", "Color film has at least three sensitive layers.", "Dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors.", "Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green and red layers.", "During development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film.", "But in a color film, the by-products of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals known as color couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution to form colored dyes.", "Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, the dye clouds formed are also in proportion to the exposure and development.", "Following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the ''bleach step''.", "It is removed from the film in the ''fix step'' and is sometimes recovered for subsequent use or sale.", "Fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image.", "Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer.", "Photographic film and film stock tend to be similar in composition and speed, but often not in other parameters such as frame size and length." ], [ "History", "===1888–1899: Before standardization===Early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus.", "The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for photographic use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin, and George Eastman.", "Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889; Thomas Henry Blair, in 1891, was his first competitor.", "The stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light.", "Emulsions were orthochromatic.", "By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edison's laboratory, was using Blair's stock for Kinetoscope experiments.", "Blair's company supplied film to Edison for five years.", "Between 1892 and 1893, Eastman experienced problems with production.", "Because of patent lawsuits in 1893, Blair left his American company and established another in Britain.", "Eastman became Edison's supplier of film.Blair's new company supplied European filmmaking pioneers, including Birt Acres, Robert Paul, George Albert Smith, Charles Urban, and the Lumière Brothers.", "By 1896, the new movie projector required a fully transparent film base that Blair's American operation could not supply.", "Eastman shortly thereafter bought the company out and became the leading supplier of film stock.", "Louis Lumière worked with Victor Planchon to adapt the Lumière \"Blue Label\" (Etiquette Bleue) photographic plate emulsion for use on celluloid roll film, which began in early 1896.Eastman's first motion picture film stock was offered in 1889.At first the film was the same as photographic film.", "By 1916, separate \"Cine Type\" films were offered.", "From 1895, Eastman supplied their motion picture roll film in rolls of 65 feet, while Blair's rolls were 75 feet.", "If longer lengths were needed, the unexposed negative rolls could be cemented in a darkroom, but this was largely undesirable by most narrative filmmakers.", "The makers of Actuality films were much more eager to undertake this method, however, in order to depict longer actions.", "They created cemented rolls as long as 1,000 feet.", "American Mutoscope and Biograph was the first known company to use such film for the Jeffries-Sharkey fight on 3 November 1899.===1900–1919: Toward the standard picture film===As the quantity of film and filmmakers grew, the demand for standardization increased.", "Between 1900 and 1910, film formats gradually became standardized and film stocks improved.", "A number of film gauges were made.", "Eastman increased the length of rolls to 200 feet without major adjustments to the emulsion, retaining a large market share.", "Lumière reformulated its stock to match the speed of Eastman film, naming it 'Etiquette Violette' (Violet Label).", "Blair sold his English company to Pathé in 1907 and retired to the US.", "Pathé began to supplement its operation in 1910 by purchasing film prints, stripping the emulsion from the film base and re-coating it.", "35mm film began to become the dominant gauge because of the commonality of Edison's and Lumière's cameras.", "Consumers usually purchased unperforated film and had to punch it by perforators that were often imprecise, causing difficulty in making prints for the opposite perforation format.", "In 1908, the perforators began to be made by Bell and Howell.", "Eastman Kodak used the Bell and Howell machine to perforate its films.", "In 1909, Edison's organization of the Motion Picture Patents Trust agreed to what would become the standard: 35 mm gauge, with Edison perforations and a 1.33 aspect ratio.16mm black-and-white reversal double-perforation film stockAgfa began to produce motion picture film in 1913, but remained a largely local supplier until World War I boycotts of popular French, American and Italian film stocks allowed the UFA film studio to flourish, boosting Agfa's orders.", "All film stocks were manufactured on a nitrate film base, which is highly flammable.", "Nitrate film fires were virtually impossible to extinguish.", "A significant number of fatal accidents occurred in theatrical projection booths, where the heat of the projector lamp made ignition a possibility.", "Amateur filmmaking (home movies) slowly developed during this period.", "Kodak developed a heat-resistant 'safety base' for home projection.In 1909, tests showed cellulose diacetate to be a viable replacement base, and Kodak began selling acetate-base films the following year in 22 mm widths for Edison's work on the Home Kinetoscope, which was commercially released in 1912.Eastman Kodak introduced a non-flammable 35 mm film stock in 1909.The plasticizers used to make the film flexible evaporated quickly, making the film dry and brittle, causing splices to part and perforations to tear.", "In 1911 the major American film studios returned to using nitrate stock.", "More amateur formats began to use acetate-based film, and several, including Kodak's own 16 mm format, were designed specifically to be manufactured with safety base.", "Kodak released Cine Negative Film Type E in 1916 and Type F (later known as Negative Film Par Speed Type 1201) in 1917.As both of these orthochromatic films were no faster than previous offerings, the improvements were in granularity and sharpness.===1920s: Diversification of film sensitivity===Film stock manufacturers began to diversify their products.", "Each manufacturer had previously offered one negative stock (usually orthochromatic) and one print stock.", "In 1920, a variant of Type F film known as X-back was introduced to counteract the effects of static electricity on the film, which can cause sparking and create odd exposure patterns on the film.", "A resin backing was used on the film, which rendered the film too opaque to allow focusing through the back of the film, a common technique for many cameras of that era.", "The X-back stock was popular on the east coast of the US.", "Other manufacturers were established in the 1920s, including American E.I.", "Dupont de Nemours in 1926 and Belgian Gevaert in 1925.Panchromatic film stock became more common.", "Created in 1913 for use in early color film processes such as Kinemacolor, panchromatic was first used in a black-and-white film for exterior sequences in ''Queen of the Sea'' (1918) and originally available as a special order product.", "The stock's increased sensitivity to red light made it an attractive option for day for night shooting.", "Kodak financed a feature in 1922, shot entirely with panchromatic stock, ''The Headless Horseman'', to promote the film when Kodak introduced it as a standard option.", "Panchromatic film stock increased costs and no motion pictures were produced on it in their entirety for several years.", "The cross-cutting between panchromatic and orthochromatic stocks caused continuity problems with costume tones and panchromatic film was often avoided.Orthochromatic film remained dominant until the mid-1920s due to Kodak's lack of competition in the panchromatic market.", "In 1925, Gevaert introduced an orthochromatic stock with limited color sensitivity and a fully panchromatic stock, Pan-23.In 1926, Kodak lowered the price of panchromatic stock to parity with its orthochromatic offering and the panchromatic stock began to overtake the orthochromatic stock's market share within a few years.", "As similar panchromatic film stocks were also manufactured by Agfa and Pathé, making the shift to panchromatic stocks largely complete by 1928, Kodak discontinued orthochromatic stock in 1930.===Color films===Experiments with color films were made as early as the late 19th century, but practical color film was not commercially viable until 1908, and for amateur use when Kodak introduced Kodachrome for 16 mm in 1935 and 8 mm in 1936.Commercially successful color processes used special cameras loaded with black-and-white separation stocks rather than color negative.", "Kinemacolor (1908–1914), Technicolor processes 1 through 4 (1917–1954), and Cinecolor used one, two or three strips of monochrome film stock sensitized to certain primary colors or exposed behind color filters in special cameras.", "Technicolor introduced a color reversal stock, called Monopack, for location shooting in 1941; it was ultimately a 35 mm version of Kodachrome that could be used in standard motion picture cameras.Eastman Kodak introduced their first 35mm color negative stock, Eastman Color Negative film 5247, in 1950.A higher quality version in 1952, Eastman Color Negative film 5248, was quickly adopted by Hollywood for color motion picture production, replacing both the expensive three-strip Technicolor process and Monopack." ], [ "Classification and properties", "A short strip of undeveloped 35 mm color negative film.There are several variables in classifying stocks; in practice, one orders raw stock by a code number, based on desired sensitivity to light.===Base===A piece of film consists of a light-sensitive emulsion applied to a tough, transparent base, sometimes attached to anti-halation backing or \"rem-jet\" layer (now only on camera films).", "Originally the highly flammable cellulose nitrate was used.", "In the 1930s, film manufacturers introduced \"safety film\" with a cellulose triacetate plastic base.", "All amateur film stocks were safety film, but the use of nitrate persisted for professional releases.", "Kodak discontinued the manufacture of nitrate base in 1951, and the industry transitioned entirely to safety film in 1951 in the United States and by 1955 internationally.", "Since the late 1990s, almost all release prints have used polyester film stock.===Emulsion===The emulsion consists of silver halide grains suspended in a gelatin colloid; in the case of color film, there are three layers of silver halide, which are mixed with color couplers and interlayers that filter specific light spectra.", "These end up creating yellow, cyan, and magenta layers in the negative after development.===Chemistry===Development chemicals applied to an appropriate film can produce either a positive (showing the same densities and colors as the subject) or negative image (with dark highlights, light shadows, and, in principle, complementary colors).", "The first films were darkened by light: negative films.", "Later films that produce a positive image became known as reversal films; processed transparent film of this type can be projected onto a screen.", "Negative images need to be transferred onto photographic paper or other substrate which reverses the image again, producing a final positive image.", "Creating a positive image from a negative film can also be done by scanning the negative to create a computer file which can then be reversed by software.===Image record===Different emulsions and development processes exist for a variety of image recording possibilities: the two most common of which are black and white, and color.", "However, there are also variant types, such as infrared film (in black and white or false color); specialist technical films, such as those used for X-rays; and obsolete processes, such as orthochromatic film.", "Generally, however, the vast majority of stock used today is \"normal\" (visible spectrum) color, although \"normal\" black and white also commands a significant minority percentage.===Physical characteristics===Film is also classified according to its gauge and the arrangement of its perforations— gauges range from 8 mm to 70 mm or more, while perforations may vary in shape, pitch, and positioning.", "The film is also distinguished by how it is wound with regard to perforations and base or emulsion side, as well as whether it is packaged around a core, a daylight spool, or within a cartridge.", "Depending on the manufacturing processes and camera equipment, lengths can vary anywhere from 25 to 2000 feet.", "Common lengths include 25 feet for 8 mm, 50 feet for Super 8, 100 and 400 feet for 16 mm, 400 and 1000 feet for 35 mm, and 1000 for 65/70 mm.===Responsivity===A critical property of a stock is its film speed, determined by ASA or its sensitivity to light listed by a measurement on the raw stock which must be chosen with care.", "Speed determines the range of lighting conditions under which the film can be shot, and is related to granularity and contrast, which influence the look of the image.", "The stock manufacturer will usually give an exposure index (EI) number equal to the ASA which they recommend exposing for.", "However, factors such as forced or non-standard development (such as bleach bypass or cross processing), compensation for filters or shutter angle, as well as intended under- and over-exposure may cause the cinematographer to actually \"rate\" the stock differently from the EI.", "This new rating is not a change to the stock itself — it is merely a way of calculating exposure without figuring out the compensation after each light reading.===Color temperature===Another important quality of color film stock in particular is its color balance, which is defined by the color temperature at which it accurately records white.", "Tungsten lighting is defined at 3200 K, which is considered \"warmer\" in tone and shifted towards orange; daylight is defined at 5600 K, which is considered \"colder\" and shifted towards blue.", "This means that unfiltered tungsten stock will look normal shot under tungsten lights, but blue if shot during daylight.", "Conversely, daylight stock shot in daylight will look normal, but orange if shot under tungsten lights.", "Color temperature issues such as these can be compensated for by other factors such as lens filters and color gels placed in front of the lights.", "The color temperature of a film stock is generally indicated next to the film speed number — e.g.", "500T stock is color film stock with an ASA of 500 and balanced for tungsten light; 250D would have an ASA of 250 and be balanced for daylight.", "While black-and-white film has no color temperature itself, the silver halide grains themselves tend to be slightly more responsive to blue light, and therefore will have daylight and tungsten speeds — e.g.", "Kodak's Double-X stock is rated 250D/200T, since the tungsten light will give slightly less exposure than an equivalent amount of daylight.===Sound===A fundamental limitation of film stock as a recording medium is that it reacts to light, but not sound.", "This is why the first films were literally silent (and exhibitors often provided live musical accompaniment to compensate).", "Sound films later became possible after engineers developed techniques like sound-on-disc to synchronize playback of a separate soundtrack and then sound-on-film to print the soundtrack on the film itself." ], [ "Deterioration", "All plastic is subject to deterioration through physical or chemical means, and thus, motion picture film is at risk for the same reason.", "Films deteriorate over time, which can damage individual frames or even lead to the entire film being destroyed.", "Cellulose nitrate, cellulose diacetate and triacetate are known to be unstable media: improperly preserved film can deteriorate in a period of time much faster than many photographs or other visual presentations.", "Cellulose nitrate, because of its unstable chemistry, eventually breaks down, releasing nitric acid, further catalyzing the decomposition.", "In the final stage of celluloid decomposition, the film has turned into a rust-like powder.", "Likewise, tri-acetate stock is also vulnerable to deterioration.", "Because of the small gauge of the film, owners of home-made films often find that their film can become shrunken and brittle to the point where the film is unwatchable in the space of a few years.", "In general, decaying acetate film breaks down into acetic acid, and similar to celluloid decomposition, leads to an auto-catylictic breakdown of the base that cannot be reversed.", "The result of the acetic acid released is a strong odor of vinegar, which is why the decay process in the archival community is known as \"vinegar syndrome\".", "Modern polyester-based stocks are far more stable by comparison and are rated to last hundreds of years if stored properly." ], [ "Intermediate and print stocks", "The distinction between camera stocks and print stocks involves a difference in the recording process.", "When the work print or edit master has been approved, the Original Camera Negative (OCN) is assembled by a negative cutter using the edited work print or EDL (edit decision list) as a guide.", "A series of Answer Prints are then made from the OCN.", "During the Answer Print stage, corrections in the film's density and color are corrected (timed) to the filmmakers' tastes.", "Interpositive (IP) prints are struck from the OCN, checked to make sure they look the same as the custom timed Answer Print, and then each IP is used to make one or more Dupe Negative (DN) copies.", "The release prints are then generated from the DN(s).", "Recently, with the development of digital intermediate (DI), it has become possible to completely edit, composite visual effects, and color grade the image digitally at full resolution and bit-depth.", "In this workflow, the answer print is generated digitally and then written out to the IP stage using a laser film printer.Due to the specialized nature of the exposure and the higher degree of control afforded by the film lab equipment, these intermediate and release stocks are specially designed solely for these applications and are generally not feasible for camera shooting.", "Because intermediates only function to maintain the image information accurately across duplication, each manufacturer tends to only produce one or two different intermediate stocks.", "Similarly, release print stocks usually are available only in two varieties: a \"normal\" print or a deluxe print (on more-costly print film like Kodak Vision Premiere) with slightly greater saturation and contrast." ], [ "Decline", "Use of film remained the dominant form of cinematography until the early 21st century when digital formats supplanted the use of film in many applications.", "This has also led to the replacement of film projectors with digital projection.Despite this, some filmmakers continue to opt for film stock as a medium of choice for aesthetic reasons.", "Movies produced entirely on photochemical film or with a combination of analog and digital methods are a minority, but maintain a stable presence among both arthouse and mainstream film releases.", "However, digital formats are sometimes deliberately altered to achieve a film look, such as adding film grain or other noise for artistic effect." ], [ "See also", "Direct filmFilm formatFilm preservationFujifilmList of film formatsList of motion picture film stocksList of photographic filmsColor motion picture filmPhotographic film with emphasis on film for still photography.", "ORWOTasmaVideo" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===Koszarski, Richard (1994).", "''An Evening's Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915–1928'', University of California Press.", ".", "Salt, Barry (1992).", "''Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis''.", "London: Starword.===Further reading===Ascher, Steve and Edward Pincus.", "''The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age''.", "New York: Penguin Group, 1999.", "Fujifilm UK. ''", "A Brief History of Fujifilm'', 2001.Retrieved 2007-07-09.", "Fujifilm USA. ''", "Motion Picture Chronology'', 2001.Retrieved 2007-07-09.Kodak. ''", "Chronology of Motion Picture Films'', 2005.Retrieved 2009-06-29." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Form 1040" ], [ "Introduction", " U.S.", "Individual Income Tax Return Form 1040 for fiscal year 2021'''Form 1040''', officially, the '''U.S.", "Individual Income Tax Return''', is an IRS tax form used for personal federal income tax returns filed by United States residents.", "The form calculates the total taxable income of the taxpayer and determines how much is to be paid to or refunded by the government.Income tax returns for individual calendar-year taxpayers are due by Tax Day, which is usually April 15 of the following year, except when April 15 falls on a Saturday, a Sunday, or a legal holiday.", "In those circumstances, the returns are due on the next business day after April 15.An automatic extension until October 15 to '''''file''''' Form 1040 can be obtained by filing Form 4868 (but that filing does not extend a taxpayer's required payment date if tax is owed; it must still be paid by Tax Day).Form 1040 consists of two pages (23 lines in total), not counting attachments.", "The first page collects information about the taxpayer(s) and dependents.", "In particular, the taxpayer's filing status is reported on this page.", "The second page reports income, calculates the allowable deductions and credits, figures the tax due given adjusted income, and applies funds already withheld from wages or estimated payments made towards tax liability.", "On the right side of the first page is the presidential election campaign fund checkoff, which allows individuals to designate that the federal government give $3 of the tax it receives to the presidential election campaign fund.", "Altogether, 142 million individual income tax returns were filed for the tax year 2018 (filing season 2019), 92% of which were filed electronically." ], [ "Filing requirements", "=== Who must file?", "===Form 1040 (or a variant thereof) is the main tax form filed by individuals who are deemed residents of the United States for tax purposes.", "The corresponding main form filed by businesses is Form 1120, also called the U.S.", "Corporation Income Tax Return.An individual is considered a resident of the United States for tax purposes if he or she is a citizen of the United States or a resident alien of the United States for tax purposes.", "An individual is a resident alien of the United States if he or she passes either the Substantial Presence Test or the Green Card Test, although there are also some other cases; individuals who have taxable income in the United States but fail the criteria for being resident aliens must file as nonresident aliens for tax purposes.", "While residents of the United States for tax purposes file Form 1040, nonresident aliens must file Form 1040NR or 1040NR-EZ.", "There is also a \"dual status alien\" for aliens whose status changed during the year.Resident aliens of the United States for tax purposes must generally file if their income crosses a threshold where their taxable income is likely to be positive, but there are many other cases where it may be legally desirable to file.", "For instance, even if not required, individuals can file a return in order to receive a refund on withheld income or to receive certain credits (e.g.", "earned income tax credit).=== Filing modalities ===The form may be filed either by paper or online.==== Paper filing ====Paper filing is the universally accepted filing method.", "Form 1040, along with its variants, schedules, and instructions, can be downloaded as PDFs from the Internal Revenue Service website.", "Finalized versions of the forms for the tax year (which in the US is the same as the calendar year) are released near the end of January of the following year.Paper forms can be filled and saved electronically using a compatible PDF reader, and then printed.", "This way, it is easy to keep electronic copies of one's filled forms despite filing by paper.", "Alternatively, they can be printed out and filled by hand.", "A combination of the approaches may also be used, with some content filled in electronically and additional content written in by hand.", "As a general rule, where possible, it makes sense to fill electronically, but in some cases filling by hand may be necessary (for instance, if additional notes of explanation need to be added, or the font used for electronic filling is too large to fit the information in the space provided).The only parts of the form that cannot be filled electronically are the signature lines.The paper Form 1040, along with all relevant schedules and additional forms, must be sent in a single packet by mail or courier to an IRS address determined by the US state the taxpayer is filing from and whether or not a payment is enclosed.The IRS accepts returns that are stapled or paperclipped together.", "However, any check or payment voucher, as well as accompanying Form 1040-V, must ''not'' be stapled or paperclipped with the rest of the return, since payments are processed separately.==== Electronic filing ====The IRS allows US residents for tax purposes to file electronically in three ways:* Those with incomes of $66,000 or less may file electronically using IRS Free File, a free e-filing tool (there are some other conditions necessary to be eligible for free filing; in particular, some kinds of income and deductions cannot be handled by free filing).", "* It is possible to prepare one's tax return using a tax compliance software approved by the IRS and have the software file the return electronically.", "* One can use a tax professional who has been accepted by the IRS for electronic filing.Many paid tax preparers are required to file individual tax returns electronically, and most tax compliance software file electronically on the taxpayer's behalf.", "Even the tax preparers who are not so required, must file Form 8948 if they choose paper filing, providing an explanation for why they are not filing electronically.==== Comparison ====If one is not eligible for IRS Free File, depending on the company used it might cost hundreds of dollars to file electronically, whereas paper filing has no costs beyond those of printing and mailing.", "Furthermore, the available existing electronic filing options may not offer sufficient flexibility with respect to arranging one's tax return, adding attachments, or putting written notes of explanation that can help preempt IRS questions.", "In the past, filing electronically may have exposed the taxpayer's data to the risk of accidental loss or identity theft, but now e-filing with reputable companies is considered more secure than paper filing.=== Signature requirement ===Form 1040 must be signed and dated in order to be considered valid.", "If filing jointly with a spouse, both must sign and date.", "If a return is submitted electronically, individuals must use either a Self-Select PIN or Practitioner PIN.=== Substitute return ===If an individual decides not to file a return, the IRS may (after it has sent several reminders) file a substitute return." ], [ "Variants", "For filing the regular tax return, in addition to the standard Form 1040, there are currently three variants: the 1040-NR 1040-SR, and 1040-X.Form 1040X, 2011Form '''1040-NR''' is used by taxpayers who are considered \"non-resident aliens\" for tax purposes.Form '''1040-SR''' may be used by taxpayers who are 65 or older.", "The 1040-SR form is functionally the same as 1040, but 1040-SR is easier to fill-out by hand, because the text is larger and the checkboxes are larger.", "Seniors may continue to use the standard 1040 for tax filing if they prefer.", "Its creation was mandated by the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, and it was first used for filing taxes for the 2019 tax year.", "Form '''1040-X''' (officially, the \"Amended U.S.", "Individual Tax Return\") is used to make corrections on Form 1040, Form 1040A, and Form 1040EZ tax returns that have been previously filed (note: forms '''1040-A''' and '''1040-EZ''' were discontinued starting with tax year 2018, but a 1040X may still be filed amending one of these tax forms filed for previous years)." ], [ "Accompanying payments", "=== Form 1040-V ===Form 1040-V payment voucher formThe '''1040-V''' (officially, the \"Payment Voucher for Form 1040\") is used as an optional payment voucher to be sent in along with a payment for any balance due on the \"Amount you owe\" line of the 1040.The form is entirely optional.", "The IRS will accept payment without the 1040V form.", "However including the 1040-V allows the IRS to process payments more efficiently.Form 1040-V and any accompanying payment should be included in the same packet as the tax return, but should ''not'' be stapled or paper-clipped along with the tax return, since it is processed separately." ], [ "Schedules and extra forms", "Since 1961 Form 1040 has had various separate attachments to the form.", "These attachments are usually called \"schedules\" because prior to the 1961, the related sections were schedules on the main form identified by letter.", "Form 1040 currently has 20 attachments, which may need to be filed depending on the taxpayer.", "For 2009 and 2010 there was an additional form, , due to the \"Making Work Pay\" provision of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (\"the stimulus\").Starting in 2018, 1040 was \"simplified\" by separating out 6 new schedules numbers Schedule 1 through Schedule 6 to make parts of the main form optional.", "The new schedules had the prior old 1040 line numbers to make transition easier.In addition to the listed schedules, there are dozens of other forms that may be required when filing a personal income tax return.", "Typically these will provide additional details for deductions taken or income earned that are listed either on form 1040 or its subsequent schedules.", "Type Explanation Lines where schedule is referenced or needed in Form 1040 or associated numbered schedule (2021) Schedule A Itemizes allowable deductions against income; instead of filling out Schedule A, taxpayers may choose to take a standard deduction of between $6,300 and $12,600 (for tax year 2015), depending on age, filing status, and whether the taxpayer and/or spouse is blind.", "12a Schedule B Enumerates interest and/or dividend income, and is required if either interest or dividends received during the tax year exceed $1,500 from all sources or if the filer had certain foreign accounts.", "3b Lists income and expenses related to self-employment, and is used by sole proprietors.", "Sch.", "1 line 3 Schedule D Is used to compute capital gains and losses incurred during the tax year.", "7 Schedule E Is used to report income and expenses arising from the rental of real property, royalties, or from pass-through entities (like trusts, estates, partnerships, or S corporations).", "Sch.", "1 line 5 Schedule EIC Is used to document a taxpayer's eligibility for the Earned Income Credit.", "27a Schedule F Is used to report income and expenses related to farming.", "Sch.", "1 line 6 Schedule G (Until 1986) Was used for income averaging over four years until eliminated by the Tax Reform Act of 1986.N/A Schedule H (Since 1995) Is used to report taxes owed due to the employment of household help.", "Previously these were reported on Form 942.Sch.", "2 line 9 Schedule J Is used when averaging farm income over a period of three years.", "16 Schedule L (Until 2010) was used to figure an increased standard deduction in certain cases.", "N/A Schedule M (2009 and 2010) was used to claim the Making Work Pay tax credit (6.2% earned income credit, up to $400).", "N/A Schedule R Is used to calculate the Credit for the Elderly or the Disabled.", "Sch.", "3 line 6d Schedule SE Is used to calculate the self-employment tax owed on income from self-employment (such as on a Schedule C or Schedule F, or in a partnership).", "Sch.", "2 line 4 Schedule 1 Additional Income and Adjustments to Income - Former lines 1-36 that were moved from 1040 with those kept on 1040 omitted.", "8 Schedule 2 Tax - Former lines 38-47 that were moved from 1040 with those kept on 1040 omitted.", "Since 2019, this form includes the contents of schedule 4, obsoleting it.", "17 Schedule 3 Nonrefundable Credits - Former lines 48-55 that were moved from 1040 with those kept on 1040 omitted.", "Since 2019, this form is also used for non-refundable credits, obsoleting schedule 5.20, 31 Schedule 4 (2018) Other Taxes - Former lines 57-64 that were moved from 1040 with those kept on 1040 omitted.", "N/A Schedule 5 (2018) Other Payments and Refundable Credits - Former lines 65-75 that were moved from 1040 with those kept on 1040 omitted.", "N/A Schedule 6 (2018) Foreign Address and Third Party Designee.", "Since 2019, this is part of the header of the 1040, so is obsolete.", "N/A Schedule 8812 Is used to calculate the Child Tax Credit.", "(From 1998 to 2011 this was called Form 8812 rather than Schedule 8812.)", "19, 28In 2014 there were two additions to Form 1040 due to the implementation of the Affordable Care Act—the premium tax credit and the individual mandate.In most situations, other Internal Revenue Service or Social Security Administration forms such as Form W-2 must be attached to the Form 1040, in addition to the Form 1040 schedules.", "There are over 100 other specialized forms that may need to be completed along with Schedules and the Form 1040.However, Form 1099 need not be attached if no tax was withheld.", "In general, employer-sent forms are used to substantiate claims of withholding, so only forms that involve withholding need to be attached." ], [ "Estimated payments and withholding", "For most individuals, withholding is the main way through which taxes are paid.", "However, income that is not subject to withholding must be estimated using Form 1040-ES.", "(It may be possible to avoid filing Form 1040-ES by increasing one's withholding and instead filing a Form W-4.", ")Estimated payments can be made using the Electronic Federal Tax Payment System." ], [ "Payments, refunds, and penalties", "There is a three-year limit to when individuals can claim a tax refund.", "However, payments that are due must be paid immediately.In addition it is possible to apply one's refunds to next year's taxes and also to change one's mind later.Considering whether to file an extension for the 2010 tax year with Form 4868An automatic extension until October 15 to file Form 1040 can be obtained by filing Form 4868.There is a penalty for not filing a tax return by April 15 that depends on whether the individual got a filing extension and the amount of unpaid taxes.", "However, since the maximum penalty is 25% of unpaid taxes, if an individual has paid all their taxes, there is no penalty for not filing.In addition to making sure that one pays one's taxes for the year by Tax Day, it is also important to make sure that one has paid partial taxes throughout the tax year in the form of estimated tax payments or employer tax withholding.", "If one has not done so, then a tax penalty may be assessed.", "The minimum amount of estimated taxes that need to be paid to avoid penalties depends on a variety of factors, including one's income in the tax year in question as well as one's income in the previous year (in general, if one pays 90% of the current year's tax liability or 100% of the previous year's tax liability during the tax year, one is not subject to estimated tax penalty even if this year's taxes are higher, but there are some caveats to that rule).", "Employer withholding is also treated differently from estimated tax payment, in that for the latter, the time of the year when the payment was made matters, whereas for the former, all that matters is how much has been withheld as of the end of the year (though there are other restrictions on how one can adjust one's withholding pattern that need to be enforced by the employer).When filing Form 1040, the penalty for failing to pay estimated taxes must be included on the form (on line 79) and included in the total on line 78 (if a net payment is due).", "The taxpayer is not required to compute other interest and penalties (such as penalty for late filing or late payment of taxes).", "If the taxpayer does choose to compute these, the computed penalty can be listed on the bottom margin of page 2 of the form, but should not be included on the amount due line (line 78)." ], [ "Relationship with state tax returns", "Each state has separate tax codes in addition to federal taxes.", "Form 1040 is only used for federal taxes, and state taxes should be filed separately based on the individual state's form.", "Some states do not have any income tax.", "Although state taxes are filed separately, many state tax returns will reference items from Form 1040.For example, California's 540 Resident Income Tax form makes a reference to Form 1040's line 37 in line 13.Certain tax filing software, such as TurboTax, will simultaneously file state tax returns using information filled in on the 1040 form.The federal government allows individuals to deduct their state income tax or their state sales tax from their federal tax through Schedule A of Form 1040, but not both.", "In addition to deducting either income tax or sales tax, an individual can further deduct any state real estate taxes or private property taxes." ], [ "OMB control number controversy", "One argument used by tax protesters against the legitimacy of the 1040 Form is the OMB Control Number of the Paperwork Reduction Act argument.", "Tax protesters contend that Form 1040 does not contain an \"OMB Control Number\" which is issued by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget under the Paperwork Reduction Act.The relevant clauses of the Paperwork Reduction Act state that:::§ 1320.6 Public protection.", "::(a) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information that is subject to the requirements of this part if:::::(1) The collection of information does not display, in accordance with §1320.3(f) and §1320.5(b)(1), a currently valid OMB control number assigned by the Director in accordance with the Act...::(e) The protection provided by paragraph (a) of this section does not preclude the imposition of a penalty on a person for failing to comply with a collection of information that is imposed on the person by statute—e.g., 26 U.S.C.", "§6011(a) (statutory requirement for person to file a tax return)...The Courts have responded to the OMB Control Number arguments with the following arguments.", "1) Form 1040, U.S.", "Individual Income Tax Return has contained the OMB Control number since 1981.2) As ruled in a number of cases, the absence of an OMB Control number does not eliminate the legal obligation to file or pay taxes.Cases involving the OMB Control Number Argument include:''United States v. Wunder''The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit argues that the provisions on the Paperwork Reduction Act are not relevant as the act applies only to information requests made after December 31, 1981, and tax returns starting from 1981 contained an OMB Control Number.", "''United States v. Patridge''The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit rejected the convicted taxpayer's OMB control number argument by stating \"Finally, we have no doubt that the IRS has complied with the Paperwork Reduction Act.", "Form 1040 bears a control number from OMB, as do the other forms the IRS commonly distributes to taxpayers.", "That this number has been constant since 1981 does not imply that OMB has shirked its duty.", "\"''United States v. Lawrence''In this Case, IRS agents who had calculated Lawrence's tax liability had made an error and it was discovered that Lawrence owed less taxes than originally determined.", "Lawrence asked the trial court to order the government to reimburse him for his legal fees, to which the trial court ruled against him.", "He appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, contending that the government's conduct against him had been \"vexatious, frivolous, or in bad faith.\"", "and also raising the OMB Control Number Argument.The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit rejected the OMB argument stating that According to Lawrence, the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (PRA) required the Internal Revenue Service to display valid Office of Management and Budget (OMB) numbers on its Form 1040.... Lawrence argues that the PRA by its terms prohibits the government from imposing a criminal penalty upon a citizen for the failure to complete a form where the information request at issue does not comply with the PRA...", "Yet Lawrence conceded at oral argument that no case from this circuit establishes such a proposition, and in fact Lawrence cites no caselaw from any jurisdiction that so holds.", "In contrast, the government referenced numerous cases supporting its position that the PRA does not present a defense to a criminal action for failure to file income taxes.\"" ], [ "History", "=== Original form structure and tax rates ===Form 1040A for the 1937 tax yearThe first Form 1040 was published for use for the tax years 1913, 1914, and 1915;the number 1040 was simply the next number in the sequential numbering of forms.", "For 1913, taxes applied only from March 1 to December 31.The original Form 1040, available on the IRS website as well as elsewhere, is three pages and 31 lines long, with the first page focused on computing one's income tax, the second page focused on more detailed documentation of one's income and the third page describing deductions and including a signature area.", "There is an additional page of instructions.", "The main rules were: The taxable income was calculated starting from gross income, subtracting business-related expenses to get net income, and then subtracting specific exemptions (usually $3,000 or $4,000).", "In other words, people with net incomes below $3,000 would have to pay no income tax at all.", "The inflation calculator used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates the corresponding amount in 2015 dollars as $71,920.", "* The base income tax rate on taxable income was 1%.", "* High earners had to pay additional taxes.", "The first high-earning tax bracket, $20,000–$50,000, has an additional tax of 1% on the part of net income above $20,000.Thus, somebody with a taxable income of $50,000 (over a million dollars in 2015 dollars according to the BLS) would pay a total of $800 (1% of $50,000 + 1% of $(50,000 − 20,000)) in federal income tax.", "At the time (when the United States as a whole was much poorer) these higher taxes applied to fewer than 0.5% of the residents of the United States.Just over 350,000 forms were filed in 1914 and all were audited.Form 1040 for the 1941 tax year: The basic layout and main entries are familiar, but there are more of them now and the Schedules letters have been reassigned=== Subsequent changes ===Form 1040A, 2015 tax yearFor 1916, Form 1040 was converted to an annual form (i.e., updated each year with the new tax year printed on the form).", "Initially, the IRS mailed tax booklets (Form 1040, instructions, and most common attachments) to all households.", "As alternative delivery methods (CPA/Attorneys, Internet forms) increased in popularity, the IRS sent fewer packets via mail.", "In 2009 this practice was discontinued.With the Current Tax Payment Act of 1943, income tax withholding was introduced.", "The Individual Income Tax Act of 1944 created standard deductions on the 1040.The tax return deadline was original set at March 1.This was changed to March 15 in the Revenue Act of 1918, and in the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, the tax return deadline was changed to April 15 from March 15, as part of a large-scale overhaul of the tax code.", "The reason for March 1 was not explained in the law, but was presumably to give time after the end of the tax (and calendar) year to prepare tax returns.", "The two-week extension from March 1 to March 15 occurred after the Revenue Act of 1918 was passed in February 1919, given only a few weeks to complete returns under the new law.", "The month extension from March 15 to April 15 was to give additional time for taxpayers and accountants to prepare taxes, owing to the more complex tax code, and also helped spread work by the IRS over a longer time, as it would receive returns over a longer time.The '''1040A''' was introduced by the 1930s to simplify the filing process and discontinued after tax year 2017.It was limited to taxpayers with taxable income below $100,000 who take the standard deduction instead of itemizing deductions.The '''1040EZ''' was used for tax years 1982–2017.Its use was limited to taxpayers with no dependents to claim, with taxable income below $100,000 who take the standard deduction instead of itemizing deductions.Electronic filing was introduced in a limited form in 1986, with the passage of the Tax Reform Act of 1986, and starting 1992, taxpayers who owed money were allowed to file electronically.", "The Electronic Federal Tax Payment System, jointly managed by the IRS and Financial Management Service, started in 1996 and allowed people to make estimated payments.With the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, a new, redesigned Form 1040 was released for tax year 2018.It reduced the number of lines from 79 to 23, removed two of the variants (1040A and 1040EZ) in favor of the redesigned Form 1040, and redesigned the supplemental schedules.=== Changes to complexity and tax rates ===The complexity and compliance burden of the form and its associated instructions have increased considerably since 1913.The National Taxpayers Union has documented the steady increase in complexity from a 34-line form in 1935 to a 79-line form in 2014, decreasing to 23 lines in 2018.", "''Quartz'' created an animated GIF showing the gradual changes to the structure and complexity of the form.", "The NTU table is below with data through 2014:Form 1040EZ, 2011 Tax year Lines, Form 1040 Pages, Form 1040 Pages, Form 1040 Instruction Booklet2018232221201779222020167922152015792211 2014 79 2 209 2013 77 2 206 2012 77 2 214 2011 77 2 189 2010 77 2 179 2005 76 2 142 2000 70 2 117 1995 66 2 84 1985 68 2 52 1975 67 2 39 1965 54 2 17 1955 28 2 16 1945 24 2 4 1935 34 1 2The number of pages in the federal tax law grew from 400 in 1913 to over 72,000 in 2011.The increase in complexity can be attributed to an increase in the number and range of activities being taxed, an increase in the number of exemptions, credits, and deductions available, an increase in the subtlety of the rules governing taxation and the edge cases explicitly spelled out based on historical experience, and an increase in the base of taxpayers making it necessary to offer longer, more explicit instructions for less sophisticated taxpayers.", "As an example, whereas the initial versions of Form 1040 came only with a rate schedule included in the tax form itself, the IRS now publishes a complete tax table for taxable income up to $100,000 so that people can directly look up their tax liability from their taxable income without having to do complicated arithmetic calculations based on the rate schedule.", "The IRS still publishes its rate schedule so that people can quickly compute their approximate tax liability, and lets people with incomes of over $100,000 compute their taxes directly using the Tax Computation Worksheet.In addition to an increase in the complexity of the form, the tax rates have also increased, though the increase in tax rates has not been steady (with huge upswings and downswings) in contrast with the steady increase in tax complexity.===Cost of filing===For tax return preparation, Americans spent roughly 20 percent of the amount collected in taxes (estimating the compliance costs and efficiency costs is difficult because neither the government nor taxpayers maintain regular accounts of these costs).", "As of 2013, there were more tax preparers in the US (1.2 million) than there were law enforcement officers (765 thousand) and firefighters (310,400) combined.", "The National Taxpayers Union estimated the 2018 compliance cost at 11 hours per form 1040 vs. 12 hours in 2017, with a total of $92.5 billion spent in individual income tax compliance vs. $94.27 billion in 2017.In 2008, 57.8 percent of tax returns were filed with assistance from paid tax preparers, compared to about 20 percent of taxpayers employing a paid preparer in the 1950s." ], [ "See also", "* List of countries by tax rates" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* 2021 version of Form 1040" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Frederick Douglass" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick Douglass''' (born '''Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey''', or February 1818 – February 20, 1895) was an American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman.", "He became the most important leader of the movement for African-American civil rights in the 19th century.", "After escaping from slavery in Maryland, Douglass became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York, during which he gained fame for his oratory and incisive antislavery writings.", "Accordingly, he was described by abolitionists in his time as a living counterexample to enslavers' arguments that enslaved people lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens.", "Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been enslaved.", "It was in response to this disbelief that Douglass wrote his first autobiography.Douglass wrote three autobiographies, describing his experiences as an enslaved person in his ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave'' (1845), which became a bestseller and was influential in promoting the cause of abolition, as was his second book, ''My Bondage and My Freedom'' (1855).", "Following the Civil War, Douglass was an active campaigner for the rights of freed slaves and wrote his last autobiography, ''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass''.", "First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, the book covers his life up to those dates.", "Douglass also actively supported women's suffrage, and he held several public offices.", "Without his knowledge or consent, Douglass became the first African American nominated for vice president of the United States, as the running mate of Victoria Woodhull on the Equal Rights Party ticket.Douglass believed in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, as well as, after breaking with William Lloyd Garrison, in the anti-slavery interpretation of the U.S. Constitution.", "When radical abolitionists, under the motto \"No Union with Slaveholders\", criticized Douglass's willingness to engage in dialogue with slave owners, he replied: \"I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong.\"" ], [ "Early life and slavery", "Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, Maryland.", "The plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova;\"I was born in Tuckahoe, near Hillsborough, and about twelve miles from Easton, in Talbot County, Maryland.\"", "(Tuckahoe refers to the area west of Tuckahoe Creek in Talbot County.)", "his birthplace was likely his grandmother's cabin east of Tappers Corner and west of Tuckahoe Creek.", "In his first autobiography, Douglass stated: \"I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it.", "\"Frederick Douglass began his own story thusly: \"I was born in Tuckahoe, near Hillsborough, and about twelve miles from Easton, in Talbot County, Maryland.\"", "(Tuckahoe is not a town; it refers to the area west of Tuckahoe Creek in Talbot County.)", "In successive autobiographies, Douglass gave more precise estimates of when he was born, his final estimate being 1817.In successive autobiographies, he gave more precise estimates of when he was born, his final estimate being 1817.However, based on the extant records of Douglass's former owner, Aaron Anthony, historian Dickson J. Preston determined that Douglass was born in February 1818.Though the exact date of his birth is unknown, he chose to celebrate February 14 as his birthday, remembering that his mother called him her \"Little Valentine.", "\"=== Birth family ===Douglass's mother, enslaved, was of African descent and his father, who may have been her master, apparently of European descent; in his ''Narrative'' (1845), Douglass wrote: \"My father was a white man.\"", "According to David W. Blight's 2018 biography of Douglass, \"For the rest of his life he searched in vain for the name of his true father.\"", "Douglass's genetic heritage likely also included Native American.", "Douglass said his mother Harriet Bailey gave him his name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey and, after he escaped to the North in September 1838, he took the surname Douglass, having already dropped his two middle names.He later wrote of his earliest times with his mother:The opinion was also whispered that my master was my father; but of the correctness of this opinion, I know nothing.", "... My mother and I were separated when I was but an infant.", "...", "It is a common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, to part children from their mothers at a very early age.", "...", "I do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day.", "She was with me in the night.", "She would lie down with me, and get me to sleep, but long before I waked she was gone.After separation from his mother during infancy, young Frederick lived with his maternal grandmother Betsy Bailey, who was also enslaved, and his maternal grandfather Isaac, who was free.", "Betsy would live until 1849.Frederick's mother remained on the plantation about away, visiting Frederick only a few times before her death when he was 7 years old.Returning much later, about 1883, to purchase land in Talbot County that was meaningful to him, he was invited to address \"a colored school\":===Early learning and experience======= The Auld family ====At the age of 6, Douglass was separated from his grandparents and moved to the Wye House plantation, where Aaron Anthony worked as overseer.", "After Anthony died in 1826, Douglass was given to Lucretia Auld, wife of Thomas Auld, who sent him to serve Thomas' brother Hugh Auld and his wife Sophia Auld in Baltimore.", "From the day he arrived, Sophia saw to it that Douglass was properly fed and clothed, and that he slept in a bed with sheets and a blanket.", "Douglass described her as a kind and tender-hearted woman, who treated him \"as she supposed one human being ought to treat another.\"", "Douglass felt that he was lucky to be in the city, where he said enslaved people were almost freemen, compared to those on plantations.When Douglass was about 12, Sophia Auld began teaching him the alphabet.", "Hugh Auld disapproved of the tutoring, feeling that literacy would encourage enslaved people to desire freedom.", "Douglass later referred to this as the \"first decidedly antislavery lecture\" he had ever heard.", "\"'Very well, thought I,'\" wrote Douglass.", "\"'Knowledge unfits a child to be a slave.'", "I instinctively assented to the proposition, and from that moment I understood the direct pathway from slavery to freedom.", "\"Under her husband's influence, Sophia came to believe that education and slavery were incompatible and one day snatched a newspaper away from Douglass.", "She stopped teaching him altogether and hid all potential reading materials, including her Bible, from him.", "In his autobiography, Douglass related how he learned to read from white children in the neighborhood and by observing the writings of the men with whom he worked.Douglass continued, secretly, to teach himself to read and write.", "He later often said, \"knowledge is the pathway from slavery to freedom.", "\"'Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave' & 'Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl'''.", "New York: Modern Library.", "pp.", "xiii, 4.As Douglass began to read newspapers, pamphlets, political materials, and books of every description, this new realm of thought led him to question and condemn the institution of slavery.", "In later years, Douglass credited ''The Columbian Orator'', an anthology that he discovered at about age 12, with clarifying and defining his views on freedom and human rights.", "First published in 1797, the book is a classroom reader, containing essays, speeches, and dialogues, to assist students in learning reading and grammar.", "He later learned that his mother had also been literate, about which he would later declare:I am quite willing, and even happy, to attribute any love of letters I possess, and for which I have got—despite of prejudices—only too much credit, ''not'' to my admitted Anglo-Saxon paternity, but to the native genius of my sable, unprotected, and uncultivated ''mother''—a woman, who belonged to a race whose mental endowments it is, at present, fashionable to hold in disparagement and contempt.====William Freeland====When Douglass was hired out to William Freeland, he \"gathered eventually more than thirty male slaves on Sundays, and sometimes even on weeknights, in a Sabbath literacy school.", "\"====Edward Covey====In 1833, Thomas Auld took Douglass back from Hugh (\"as a means of punishing Hugh,\" Douglass later wrote).", "Thomas sent Douglass to work for Edward Covey, a poor farmer who had a reputation as a \"slave-breaker\".", "He whipped Douglass so frequently that his wounds had little time to heal.", "Douglass later said the frequent whippings broke his body, soul, and spirit.", "The 16-year-old Douglass finally rebelled against the beatings, however, and fought back.", "After Douglass won a physical confrontation, Covey never tried to beat him again.Recounting his beatings at Covey's farm in ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave'', Douglass described himself as \"a man transformed into a brute!\"", "Still, Douglass came to see his physical fight with Covey as life-transforming, and introduced the story in his autobiography as such: \"You have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.\"" ], [ "Escape from slavery", "Douglass first tried to escape from Freeland, who had hired him from his owner, but was unsuccessful.", "In 1837, Douglass met and fell in love with Anna Murray, a free black woman in Baltimore about five years his senior.", "Her free status strengthened his belief in the possibility of gaining his own freedom.", "Murray encouraged him and supported his efforts by aid and money.Anna Murray Douglass, Douglass's wife for 44 years, portrait c. 1860On September 3, 1838, Douglass successfully escaped by boarding a northbound train of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad in Baltimore.", "The area where he boarded was formerly thought to be a short distance east of the train depot, in a recently developed neighborhood between the modern neighborhoods of Harbor East and Little Italy.", "This depot was at President and Fleet Streets, east of \"The Basin\" of the Baltimore harbor, on the northwest branch of the Patapsco River.", "Research cited in 2021, however, suggests that Douglass in fact boarded the train at the Canton Depot of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad on Boston Street, in the Canton neighborhood of Baltimore, further east.Douglass reached Havre de Grace, Maryland, in Harford County, in the northeast corner of the state, along the southwest shore of the Susquehanna River, which flowed into the Chesapeake Bay.", "Although this placed him only some from the Maryland–Pennsylvania state line, it was easier to continue by rail through Delaware, another slave state.", "Dressed in a sailor's uniform provided to him by Murray, who also gave him part of her savings to cover his travel costs, he carried identification papers and protection papers that he had obtained from a free black seaman.Douglass crossed the wide Susquehanna River by the railroad's steam-ferry at Havre de Grace to Perryville on the opposite shore, in Cecil County, then continued by train across the state line to Wilmington, Delaware, a large port at the head of the Delaware Bay.", "From there, because the rail line was not yet completed, he went by steamboat along the Delaware River farther northeast to the \"Quaker City\" of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, an anti-slavery stronghold.", "He continued to the safe house of abolitionist David Ruggles in New York City.", "His entire journey to freedom took less than 24 hours.", "Douglass later wrote of his arrival in New York City:Once Douglass had arrived, he sent for Murray to follow him north to New York.", "She brought the basic supplies for them to set up a home.", "They were married on September 15, 1838, by a black Presbyterian minister, just eleven days after Douglass had reached New York.", "At first they adopted Johnson as their married name, to divert attention." ], [ "Religious views", "As a child, Douglass was exposed to a number of religious sermons, and in his youth, he sometimes heard Sophia Auld reading the Bible.", "In time, he became interested in literacy; he began reading and copying bible verses, and he eventually converted to Christianity.", "He described this approach in his last biography, ''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass'':I was not more than thirteen years old when, in my loneliness and destitution, I longed for some one to whom I could go, as to a father and protector.", "The preaching of a white Methodist minister, named Hanson, was the means of causing me to feel that in God I had such a friend.", "He thought that all men, great and small, bond and free, were sinners in the sight of God: that they were but natural rebels against his government; and that they must repent of their sins, and be reconciled to God through Christ.", "I cannot say that I had a very distinct notion of what was required of me, but one thing I did know well: I was wretched and had no means of making myself otherwise.", "I consulted a good coloured man named Charles Lawson, and in tones of holy affection he told me to pray, and to \"cast all my care upon God.\"", "This I sought to do; and though for weeks I was a poor, broken-hearted mourner, traveling through doubts and fears, I finally found my burden lightened, and my heart relieved.", "I loved all mankind, slaveholders not excepted, though I abhorred slavery more than ever.", "I saw the world in a new light, and my great concern was to have everybody converted.", "My desire to learn increased, and especially did I want a thorough acquaintance with the contents of the Bible.Douglass was mentored by Rev.", "Charles Lawson, and, early in his activism, he often included biblical allusions and religious metaphors in his speeches.", "Although a believer, he strongly criticized religious hypocrisy and accused slaveholders of \"wickedness\", lack of morality, and failure to follow the Golden Rule.", "In this sense, Douglass distinguished between the \"Christianity of Christ\" and the \"Christianity of America\" and considered religious slaveholders and clergymen who defended slavery as the most brutal, sinful, and cynical of all who represented \"wolves in sheep's clothing\".In ''What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?", "'', an oration Douglass gave in the Corinthian Hall of Rochester, he sharply criticized the attitude of religious people who kept silent about slavery, and he charged that ministers committed a \"blasphemy\" when they taught it as sanctioned by religion.", "He considered that a law passed to support slavery was \"one of the grossest infringements of Christian Liberty\" and said that pro-slavery clergymen within the American Church \"stripped the love of God of its beauty, and leave the throne of religion a huge, horrible, repulsive form\", and \"an abomination in the sight of God\".Of ministers like John Chase Lord, Leonard Elijah Lathrop, Ichabod Spencer, and Orville Dewey, he said that they taught, against the Scriptures, that \"we ought to obey man's law before the law of God\".", "He further asserted, \"in speaking of the American church, however, let it be distinctly understood that I mean the great mass of the religious organizations of our land.", "There are exceptions, and I thank God that there are.", "Noble men may be found, scattered all over these Northern States ... Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn, Samuel J.", "May of Syracuse, and my esteemed friend Robert R. Raymonde\".He maintained that \"upon these men lies the duty to inspire our ranks with high religious faith and zeal, and to cheer us on in the great mission of the slave's redemption from his chains\".", "In addition, he called religious people to embrace abolitionism, stating, \"let the religious press, the pulpit, the Sunday school, the conference meeting, the great ecclesiastical, missionary, Bible and tract associations of the land array their immense powers against slavery and slave-holding; and the whole system of crime and blood would be scattered to the winds.", "\"During his visits to the United Kingdom between 1846 and 1848, Douglass asked British Christians never to support American churches that permitted slavery, and he expressed his happiness to know that a group of ministers in Belfast had refused to admit slaveholders as members of the Church.On his return to the United States, Douglass founded the ''North Star'', a weekly publication with the motto \"Right is of no sex, Truth is of no color, God is the Father of us all, and we are all Brethren.\"", "In his 1848 \"Letter to Thomas Auld\", Douglass denounced his former slaveholder for leaving Douglass's family illiterate:Sometimes considered a precursor of a non-denominational liberation theology, Douglass was a deeply spiritual man, as his home continues to show.", "The fireplace mantle features busts of two of his favorite philosophers, David Friedrich Strauss, author of ''The Life of Jesus'', and Ludwig Feuerbach, author of ''The Essence of Christianity''.", "In addition to several Bibles and books about various religions in the library, images of angels and Jesus are displayed, as well as interior and exterior photographs of Washington's Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church.", "Throughout his life, Douglass had linked that individual experience with social reform, and, according to John Stauffer, he, like other Christian abolitionists, followed practices such as abstaining from tobacco, alcohol and other substances that he believed corrupted body and soul.", "According to David W. Blight, however, \"Douglass loved cigars\" and received them as gifts from Ottilie Assing." ], [ "Family life", "Frederick Douglass after 1884 with his second wife Helen Pitts Douglass (sitting).", "The woman standing is her sister Eva Pitts.Douglass and Anna Murray had five children: Rosetta Douglass, Lewis Henry Douglass, Frederick Douglass Jr., Charles Remond Douglass, and Annie Douglass (died at the age of ten).", "Charles and Rosetta helped produce his newspapers.Anna Douglass remained a loyal supporter of her husband's public work.", "His relationships with Julia Griffiths and Ottilie Assing, two women with whom he was professionally involved, caused recurring speculation and scandals.", "Assing was a journalist recently immigrated from Germany, who first visited Douglass in 1856 seeking permission to translate ''My Bondage and My Freedom'' into German.", "Until 1872, she often stayed at his house \"for several months at a time\" as his \"intellectual and emotional companion.", "\"Assing held Anna Douglass \"in utter contempt\" and was vainly hoping that Douglass would separate from his wife.", "Douglass biographer David W. Blight concludes that Assing and Douglass \"were probably lovers\".", "Though Douglass and Assing are widely believed to have had an intimate relationship, the surviving correspondence contains no proof of such a relationship.After Anna died in 1882, in 1884 Douglass married again, to Helen Pitts, a white suffragist and abolitionist from Honeoye, New York.", "Pitts was the daughter of Gideon Pitts Jr., an abolitionist colleague and friend of Douglass's.", "A graduate of Mount Holyoke College (then called Mount Holyoke Female Seminary), Pitts worked on a radical feminist publication named ''Alpha'' while living in Washington, D.C. She later worked as Douglass's secretary.Assing, who had depression and was diagnosed with incurable breast cancer, committed suicide in France in 1884 after hearing of the marriage.", "Upon her death, Assing bequeathed Douglass a $13,000 trust fund, a \"large album\", and his choice of books from her library.The marriage of Douglass and Pitts provoked a storm of controversy, since Pitts was both white and nearly 20 years younger.", "Many in her family stopped speaking to her; his children considered the marriage a repudiation of their mother.", "But feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton congratulated the couple.", "Douglass responded to the criticisms by saying that his first marriage had been to someone the color of his mother, and his second to someone the color of his father." ], [ "Career", "===Abolitionist and preacher===Frederick Douglass, 1840s, in his 20sThe couple settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts (an abolitionist center, full of former enslaved people), in 1838, moving to Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1841.After meeting and staying with Nathan and Mary Johnson, they adopted Douglass as their married name.", "Douglass had grown up using his mother's surname of Bailey; after escaping slavery he had changed his surname first to Stanley and then to Johnson.", "In New Bedford, the latter was such a common name that he wanted one that was more distinctive, and asked Nathan Johnson to choose a suitable surname.", "Nathan suggested \"Douglass\", after having read the poem ''The Lady of the Lake'' by Walter Scott, in which two of the principal characters have the surname \"Douglas\".home and meetinghouse of the Johnsons, where Douglass and his wife lived in New Bedford, MassachusettsDouglass thought of joining a white Methodist Church, but was disappointed, from the beginning, upon finding that it was segregated.", "Later, he joined the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, an independent black denomination first established in New York City, which counted among its members Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman.", "He became a licensed preacher in 1839, which helped him to hone his oratorical skills.", "He held various positions, including steward, Sunday-school superintendent, and sexton.", "In 1840, Douglass delivered a speech in Elmira, New York, then a station on the Underground Railroad, in which a black congregation would form years later, becoming the region's largest church by 1940.Douglass also joined several organizations in New Bedford and regularly attended abolitionist meetings.", "He subscribed to William Lloyd Garrison's weekly newspaper, ''The Liberator''.", "He later said that \"no face and form ever impressed me with such sentiments of the hatred of slavery as did those of William Lloyd Garrison.\"", "So deep was this influence that in his last autobiography, Douglass said \"his paper took a place in my heart second only to The Bible.", "\"Garrison was likewise impressed with Douglass and had written about his anti-colonization stance in ''The Liberator'' as early as 1839.Douglass first heard Garrison speak in 1841, at a lecture that Garrison gave in Liberty Hall, New Bedford.", "At another meeting, Douglass was unexpectedly invited to speak.", "After telling his story, Douglass was encouraged to become an anti-slavery lecturer.", "A few days later, Douglass spoke at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society's annual convention, in Nantucket.", "Then 23 years old, Douglass conquered his nervousness and gave an eloquent speech about his life as a slave.William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist and one of Douglass's first friends in the NorthWhile living in Lynn, Douglass engaged in an early protest against segregated transportation.", "In September 1841, at Lynn Central Square station, Douglass and his friend James N. Buffum were thrown off an Eastern Railroad train because Douglass refused to sit in the segregated railroad coach.In 1843, Douglass joined other speakers in the American Anti-Slavery Society's \"Hundred Conventions\" project, a six-month tour at meeting halls throughout the eastern and midwestern United States.", "During this tour, slavery supporters frequently accosted Douglass.", "At a lecture in Pendleton, Indiana, an angry mob chased and beat Douglass before a local Quaker family, the Hardys, rescued him.", "His hand was broken in the attack; it healed improperly and bothered him for the rest of his life.", "A stone marker in Falls Park in the Pendleton Historic District commemorates this event.In 1847, Douglass explained to Garrison, \"I have no love for America, as such; I have no patriotism.", "I have no country.", "What country have I?", "The Institutions of this Country do not know me—do not recognize me as a man.", "\"===Autobiography===Douglass's best-known work is his first autobiography, ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave'', written during his time in Lynn, Massachusetts and published in 1845.At the time, some skeptics questioned whether a black man could have produced such an eloquent piece of literature.", "The book received generally positive reviews and became an immediate bestseller.", "Within three years, it had been reprinted nine times, with 11,000 copies circulating in the United States.", "It was also translated into French and Dutch and published in Europe.Douglass published three autobiographies during his lifetime (and revised the third of these), each time expanding on the previous one.", "The 1845 ''Narrative'' was his biggest seller and probably allowed him to raise the funds to gain his legal freedom the following year, as discussed below.", "In 1855, Douglass published ''My Bondage and My Freedom''.", "In 1881, in his sixties, Douglass published ''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass'', which he revised in 1892.===Travels to Ireland and Great Britain===Plaque to Frederick Douglass, West Bell St., Dundee, ScotlandDouglass in 1847, around 29 years of ageDouglass's friends and mentors feared that the publicity would draw the attention of his ex-owner, Hugh Auld, who might try to get his \"property\" back.", "They encouraged Douglass to tour Ireland, as many former slaves had done.", "Douglass set sail on the ''Cambria'' for Liverpool, England, on August 16, 1845.He traveled in Ireland as the Great Famine was beginning.The feeling of freedom from American racial discrimination amazed Douglass:Eleven days and a half gone, and I have crossed three thousand miles of the perilous deep.", "Instead of a democratic government, I am under a monarchical government.", "Instead of the bright, blue sky of America, I am covered with the soft, grey fog of the Emerald Isle Ireland.", "I breathe, and lo!", "the chattel slave becomes a man.", "I gaze around in vain for one who will question my equal humanity, claim me as his slave, or offer me an insult.", "I employ a cab—I am seated beside white people—I reach the hotel—I enter the same door—I am shown into the same parlor—I dine at the same table—and no one is offended....", "I find myself regarded and treated at every turn with the kindness and deference paid to white people.", "When I go to church, I am met by no upturned nose and scornful lip to tell me, ''We don't allow niggers in here!", "''Still, Douglass was astounded by the extreme levels of poverty he encountered in Dublin, much of it reminding him of his experiences in slavery.", "In a letter to William Lloyd Garrison, Douglass wrote \"I see much here to remind me of my former condition, and I confess I should be ashamed to lift up my voice against American slavery, but that I know the cause of humanity is one the world over.", "He who really and truly feels for the American slave, cannot steel his heart to the woes of others; and he who thinks himself an abolitionist, yet cannot enter into the wrongs of others, has yet to find a true foundation for his anti-slavery faith.", "\"He also met and befriended the Irish nationalist and strident abolitionist Daniel O'Connell, who was to be a great inspiration.Douglass spent two years in Ireland and Great Britain, lecturing in churches and chapels.", "His draw was such that some facilities were \"crowded to suffocation\".", "One example was his hugely popular ''London Reception Speech'', which Douglass delivered in May 1846 at Alexander Fletcher's Finsbury Chapel.", "Douglass remarked that in England he was treated not \"as a color, but as a man\".In 1846, Douglass met with Thomas Clarkson, one of the last living British abolitionists, who had persuaded Parliament to abolish slavery in Great Britain's colonies.", "During this trip Douglass became legally free, as British supporters led by Anna Richardson and her sister-in-law Ellen of Newcastle upon Tyne raised funds to buy his freedom from his American owner Thomas Auld.", "Many supporters tried to encourage Douglass to remain in England but, with his wife still in Massachusetts and three million of his black brethren in bondage in the United States, he returned to America in the spring of 1847, soon after the death of Daniel O'Connell.In the 21st century, historical plaques were installed on buildings in Cork and Waterford, Ireland, and London to celebrate Douglass's visit: the first is on the Imperial Hotel in Cork and was unveiled on August 31, 2012; the second is on the façade of Waterford City Hall, unveiled on October 7, 2013.It commemorates his speech there on October 9, 1845.The third plaque adorns Nell Gwynn House, South Kensington in London, at the site of an earlier house where Douglass stayed with the British abolitionist George Thompson.", "On the 31st of July 2023 the first statue of him in Europe was unveiled in High Street in Belfast.Douglass spent time in Scotland and was appointed \"Scotland's Antislavery agent.\"", "He made anti-slavery speeches and wrote letters back to the USA.", "He considered the city of Edinburgh to be elegant, grand and very welcoming.", "Maps of the places in the city that were important to his stay are held by the National Library of Scotland.", "A plaque and a mural on Gilmore Place in Edinburgh mark his stay there in 1846.", "\"A variety of collaborative projects are currently in 2021 underway to commemorate Frederick Douglass's journey and visit to Ireland in the 19th century.", "\"===Return to the United States; the abolitionist movement===Douglass circa 1847–52, around his early 30sAfter returning to the U.S. in 1847, using £500 () given to him by English supporters, Douglass started publishing his first abolitionist newspaper, the ''North Star'', from the basement of the Memorial AME Zion Church in Rochester, New York.", "Originally, Pittsburgh journalist Martin Delany was co-editor but Douglass didn't feel he brought in enough subscriptions, and they parted ways.", "The ''North Star'' motto was \"Right is of no Sex – Truth is of no Color – God is the Father of us all, and we are all brethren.\"", "The AME Church and ''North Star'' joined in the freedmen community's vigorous opposition to the mostly white American Colonization Society and its proposal to send free black people to Africa.", "Douglass also participated in the Underground Railroad.", "He and his wife provided lodging and resources in their home to more than four hundred fugitive slaves.Douglass also soon split with Garrison, whom he found unwilling to support actions against American slavery.", "Earlier Douglass had agreed with Garrison's position that the Constitution was pro-slavery, because of the Three-Fifths Clause, the compromise that provided that 60 percent of the number of enslaved people would be added to \"the whole Number of free Persons\" for the purpose of apportioning congressional seats; and protection of the international slave trade through 1807.Garrison had burned copies of the Constitution to express his opinion.", "However, Lysander Spooner published ''The Unconstitutionality of Slavery'' (1846), which examined the United States Constitution as an antislavery document.", "Douglass's change of opinion about the Constitution and his splitting from Garrison around 1847 became one of the abolitionist movement's most notable divisions.", "Douglass angered Garrison by saying that the Constitution could and should be used as an instrument in the fight against slavery.On July 24, 1851, \"shortly after his announced change of opinion\", Douglass delivered a speech titled, \"Is the United States Constitution For or Against Slavery\".", "He expressed his changed views again in an 1860 speech in Glasgow, Scotland, titled, \"The Constitution of the United States: is it pro-slavery or anti-slavery?\".", "In that speech, he said, \"When I escaped from slavery, and was introduced to the Garrisonians, I adopted very many of their opinions....", "I was young, had read but little, and naturally took some things on trust.", "Subsequent reading and experience\", however, \"brought me to other conclusions\".", "He now believed that \"dissolution of the American Union\", which Garrison advocated, \"would place the slave system more exclusively under the control of the slaveholding States....\" In addition, \"Mr. Garrison and his friends tell us that while in the Union we are responsible for slavery....", "I deny that going out of the Union would free us from that responsibility....", "The American people in the Northern States have helped to enslave the black people.", "Their duty will not be done till they give them back their plundered rights.", "\"===Letter to his former owner===In September 1848, on the tenth anniversary of his escape, Douglass published an open letter addressed to his former master, Thomas Auld, berating him for his conduct, and inquiring after members of his family still held by Auld.", "In the course of the letter, Douglass adeptly transitions from formal and restrained to familiar and then to impassioned.", "At one point he is the proud parent, describing his improved circumstances and the progress of his own four young children.", "But then he dramatically shifts tone:Oh!", "sir, a slaveholder never appears to me so completely an agent of hell, as when I think of and look upon my dear children.", "It is then that my feelings rise above my control.", "...", "The grim horrors of slavery rise in all their ghastly terror before me, the wails of millions pierce my heart, and chill my blood.", "I remember the chain, the gag, the bloody whip, the deathlike gloom overshadowing the broken spirit of the fettered bondman, the appalling liability of his being torn away from wife and children, and sold like a beast in the market.In a graphic passage, Douglass asked Auld how he would feel if Douglass had come to take away his daughter Amanda into slavery, treating her the way he and members of his family had been treated by Auld.", "Yet in his conclusion Douglass shows his focus and benevolence, stating that he has \"no malice towards him personally,\" and asserts that, \"there is no roof under which you would be more safe than mine, and there is nothing in my house which you might need for comfort, which I would not readily grant.", "Indeed, I should esteem it a privilege, to set you an example as to how mankind ought to treat each other.", "\"===Women's rights===In 1848, Douglass was the only black person to attend the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, in upstate New York.", "Elizabeth Cady Stanton asked the assembly to pass a resolution asking for women's suffrage.", "Many of those present opposed the idea, including influential Quakers James and Lucretia Mott.", "Douglass stood and spoke eloquently in favor of women's suffrage; he said that he could not accept the right to vote as a black man if women could also not claim that right.", "He suggested that the world would be a better place if women were involved in the political sphere:After Douglass's powerful words, the attendees passed the resolution.In the wake of the Seneca Falls Convention, Douglass used an editorial in ''The North Star'' to press the case for women's rights.", "He recalled the \"marked ability and dignity\" of the proceedings, and briefly conveyed several arguments of the convention and feminist thought at the time.On the first count, Douglass acknowledged the \"decorum\" of the participants in the face of disagreement.", "In the remainder, he discussed the primary document that emerged from the conference, a Declaration of Sentiments, and the \"infant\" feminist cause.", "Strikingly, he expressed the belief that \"a discussion of the rights of animals would be regarded with far more complacency...than would be a discussion of the rights of women,\" and Douglass noted the link between abolitionism and feminism, the overlap between the communities.His opinion as the editor of a prominent newspaper carried weight, and he stated the position of the ''North Star'' explicitly: \"We hold woman to be justly entitled to all we claim for man.\"", "This letter, written a week after the convention, reaffirmed the first part of the paper's slogan, \"right is of no sex.", "\"Memorial Rock at AME Zion, Newburgh, New YorkAfter the Civil War, when the 15th Amendment giving black men the right to vote was being debated, Douglass split with the Stanton-led faction of the women's rights movement.", "Douglass supported the amendment, which would grant suffrage to black men.", "Stanton opposed the 15th Amendment because it limited the expansion of suffrage to black men; she predicted its passage would delay for decades the cause for women's right to vote.", "Stanton argued that American women and black men should band together to fight for universal suffrage, and opposed any bill that split the issues.", "Douglass and Stanton both knew that there was not yet enough male support for women's right to vote, but that an amendment giving black men the vote could pass in the late 1860s.", "Stanton wanted to attach women's suffrage to that of black men so that her cause would be carried to success.Douglass thought such a strategy was too risky, that there was barely enough support for black men's suffrage.", "He feared that linking the cause of women's suffrage to that of black men would result in failure for both.", "Douglass argued that white women, already empowered by their social connections to fathers, husbands, and brothers, at least vicariously had the vote.", "Black women, he believed, would have the same degree of empowerment as white women once black men had the vote.", "Douglass assured the American women that at no time had he ever argued against women's right to vote.===Ideological refinement===Frederick Douglass in 1856, around 38 years of ageMeanwhile, in 1851, Douglass merged the ''North Star'' with Gerrit Smith's ''Liberty Party Paper'' to form ''Frederick Douglass' Paper'', which was published until 1860.On July 5, 1852, Douglass delivered an address in Corinthian Hall at a meeting organized by the Rochester Ladies' Anti-Slavery Society.", "This speech eventually became known as \"What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?", "\"; one biographer called it \"perhaps the greatest antislavery oration ever given.\"", "In 1853, he was a prominent attendee of the radical abolitionist National African American Convention in Rochester.", "Douglass was one of five people whose names were attached to the address of the convention to the people of the United States published under the title, ''The Claims of Our Common Cause''.", "The other four were Amos Noë Freeman, James Monroe Whitfield, Henry O. Wagoner, and George Boyer Vashon.Like many abolitionists, Douglass believed that education would be crucial for African Americans to improve their lives; he was an early advocate for school desegregation.", "In the 1850s, Douglass observed that New York's facilities and instruction for African American children were vastly inferior to those for European Americans.", "Douglass called for court action to open all schools to all children.", "He said that full inclusion within the educational system was a more pressing need for African Americans than political issues such as suffrage.===John Brown===''Douglass argued against John Brown's plan to attack the arsenal at Harpers Ferry'', painting by Jacob LawrenceOn March 12, 1859, Douglass met with radical abolitionists John Brown, George DeBaptiste, and others at William Webb's house in Detroit to discuss emancipation.", "Douglass met Brown again when Brown visited his home two months before leading the raid on Harpers Ferry.", "Brown penned his Provisional Constitution during his two-week stay with Douglass.", "Also staying with Douglass for over a year was Shields Green, a fugitive slave whom Douglass was helping, as he often did.Shortly before the raid, Douglass, taking Green with him, travelled from Rochester, via New York City, to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, Brown's communications headquarters.", "He was recognized there by black people, who asked him for a lecture.", "Douglass agreed, although he said his only topic was slavery.", "Green joined him on the stage; Brown, incognito, sat in the audience.", "A white reporter, referring to \"Nigger Democracy\", called it a \"flaming address\" by \"the notorious Negro Orator\".There, in an abandoned stone quarry for secrecy, Douglass and Green met with Brown and John Henri Kagi, to discuss the raid.", "After discussions lasting, as Douglass put it, \"a day and a night\", he disappointed Brown by declining to join him, considering the mission suicidal.", "To Douglass's surprise, Green went with Brown instead of returning to Rochester with Douglass.", "Anne Brown said that Green told her that Douglass promised to pay him on his return, but David Blight called this \"much more ex post facto bitterness than reality\".Almost all that is known about this incident comes from Douglass.", "It is clear that it was of immense importance to him, both as a turning point in his life—not accompanying John Brown—and its importance in his public image.", "The meeting was not revealed by Douglass for 20 years.", "He first disclosed it in his speech on John Brown at Storer College in 1881, trying unsuccessfully to raise money to support a John Brown professorship at Storer, to be held by a black man.", "He again referred to it stunningly in his last ''Autobiography''.After the raid, which took place between October 16 and 18, 1859, Douglass was accused both of supporting Brown and of not supporting him enough.", "He was nearly arrested on a Virginia warrant, and fled for a brief time to Canada before proceeding onward to England on a previously planned lecture tour, arriving near the end of November.", "During his lecture tour of Great Britain, on March 26, 1860, Douglass delivered a speech before the Scottish Anti-Slavery Society in Glasgow, \"The Constitution of the United States: is it pro-slavery or anti-slavery?", "\", outlining his views on the American Constitution.", "That month, on the 13th, Douglass's youngest daughter Annie died in Rochester, New York, just days shy of her 11th birthday.", "Douglass sailed back from England the following month, traveling through Canada to avoid detection.Years later, in 1881, Douglass shared a stage at Storer College in Harpers Ferry with Andrew Hunter, the prosecutor who secured Brown's conviction and execution.", "Hunter congratulated Douglass.===Photography===Douglass considered photography very important in ending slavery and racism, and believed that the camera would not lie, even in the hands of a racist white person, as photographs were an excellent counter to many racist caricatures, particularly in blackface minstrelsy.", "He was the most photographed American of the 19th century, consciously using photography to advance his political views.", "He never smiled, specifically so as not to play into the racist caricature of a happy enslaved person.", "He tended to look directly into the camera and confront the viewer with a stern look." ], [ "Civil War years", "===Before the Civil War===By the time of the Civil War, Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race and on other issues such as women's rights.", "His eloquence gathered crowds at every location.", "His reception by leaders in England and Ireland added to his stature.He had been seriously proposed for the congressional seat of his friend and supporter Gerrit Smith, who declined to run again after his term ended in 1854.Smith recommended to him that he not run, because there were \"strenuous objections\" from members of Congress.", "The possibility \"afflicted some with convulsions, others with panic, more with an astonishing flow of exceedingly select and nervous language\", \"giving vent to all sorts of linguistic enormities.\"", "If the House agreed to seat him, which was unlikely, all the Southern members would walk out, so the country would finally be split.", "No black person would serve in Congress until 1870, just after the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment.===Fight for emancipation and suffrage===1863 broadside ''Men of Color to Arms!", "'', written by DouglassDouglass and the abolitionists argued that because the aim of the Civil War was to end slavery, African Americans should be allowed to engage in the fight for their freedom.", "Douglass publicized this view in his newspapers and several speeches.", "After Lincoln had finally allowed black soldiers to serve in the Union army, Douglass helped the recruitment efforts, publishing his famous broadside ''Men of Color to Arms!''", "on March 21, 1863.His eldest son, Charles Douglass, joined the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, but was ill for much of his service.", "Lewis Douglass fought at the Battle of Fort Wagner.", "Another son, Frederick Douglass Jr., also served as a recruiter.With the North no longer obliged to return slaves to their owners in the South, Douglass fought for equality for his people.", "Douglass conferred with President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers and on plans to move liberated slaves out of the South.President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which took effect on January 1, 1863, declared the freedom of all slaves in Confederate-held territory.", "(Slaves in Union-held areas were not covered because the proclamation was permissible under the Constitution only as a war measure; they were freed with the adoption of the 13th Amendment on December 6, 1865.)", "Douglass described the spirit of those awaiting the proclamation: \"We were waiting and listening as for a bolt from the sky ... we were watching ... by the dim light of the stars for the dawn of a new day ... we were longing for the answer to the agonizing prayers of centuries.", "\"During the U.S. Presidential Election of 1864, Douglass supported John C. Frémont, who was the candidate of the abolitionist Radical Democracy Party.", "Douglass was disappointed that President Lincoln did not publicly endorse suffrage for black freedmen.", "Douglass believed that since African American men were fighting for the Union in the American Civil War, they deserved the right to vote.===After Lincoln's death===The postwar ratification of the 13th Amendment, on December 6, 1865, outlawed slavery, \"except as a punishment for crime.\"", "The 14th Amendment provided for birthright citizenship and prohibited the states from abridging the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States or denying any \"person\" due process of law or equal protection of the laws.", "The 15th Amendment protected all citizens from being discriminated against in voting because of race.", "After Lincoln had been assassinated, Douglass conferred with President Andrew Johnson on the subject of black suffrage.The keynote speaker at the unveiling of the Emancipation Memorial, Douglass wrote a critique of the depiction of the black man \"still on his knees\".On April 14, 1876, Douglass delivered the keynote speech at the unveiling of the Emancipation Memorial in Washington's Lincoln Park.", "He spoke frankly about the complex legacy of Lincoln, noting what he perceived as both positive and negative attributes of the late President.", "Calling Lincoln \"the white man's President,\" Douglass criticized Lincoln's tardiness in joining the cause of emancipation, noting that Lincoln initially opposed the expansion of slavery but did not support its elimination: \"He had been ready and willing at any time during the first years of his administration to deny, postpone, and sacrifice the humanity of the colored people to promote the welfare of the white people.", "Lincoln was neither our man or our model\".", "But Douglass also asked, \"Can any colored man, or any white man friendly to the freedom of all men, ever forget the night which followed the first day of January 1863, when the world was to see if Abraham Lincoln would prove to be as good as his word?\"", "He also said: \"Though Mr. Lincoln shared the prejudices of his white fellow-countrymen against the Negro, it is hardly necessary to say that in his heart of hearts he loathed and hated slavery....\" Most famously, he added: \"Viewed from the genuine abolition ground, Mr. Lincoln seemed tardy, cold, dull, and indifferent; but measuring him by the sentiment of his country, a sentiment he was bound as a statesman to consult, he was swift, zealous, radical, and determined.", "\"The crowd, roused by his speech, gave Douglass a standing ovation.", "Lincoln's widow Mary Lincoln supposedly gave Lincoln's favorite walking-stick to Douglass in appreciation.", "That walking stick still rests in his final residence, \"Cedar Hill\" in Washington, D.C., now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site.After delivering the speech, Douglass immediately wrote to the National Republican newspaper in Washington (which published his letter five days later, on April 19), criticizing the statue's design and suggesting the park could be improved by more dignified monuments of free black people.", "\"The negro here, though rising, is still on his knees and nude,\" Douglass wrote.", "\"What I want to see before I die is a monument representing the negro, not couchant on his knees like a four-footed animal, but erect on his feet like a man.\"" ], [ "Reconstruction era", "Frederick Douglass in 1876, around 58 years of ageAfter the Civil War, Douglass continued to work for equality for African Americans and women.", "Due to his prominence and activism during the war, Douglass received several political appointments.", "He served as president of the Reconstruction-era Freedman's Savings Bank.Meanwhile, white insurgents had quickly arisen in the South after the war, organizing first as secret vigilante groups, including the Ku Klux Klan.", "Armed insurgency took different forms.", "Powerful paramilitary groups included the White League and the Red Shirts, both active during the 1870s in the Deep South.", "They operated as \"the military arm of the Democratic Party\", turning out Republican officeholders and disrupting elections.", "Starting 10 years after the war, Democrats regained political power in every state of the former Confederacy and began to reassert white supremacy.", "They enforced this by a combination of violence, late 19th-century laws imposing segregation and a concerted effort to disfranchise African Americans.", "New labor and criminal laws also limited their freedom.To combat these efforts, Douglass supported the presidential campaign of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868.In 1870, Douglass started his last newspaper, the ''New National Era'', attempting to hold his country to its commitment to equality.", "President Grant sent a congressionally sponsored commission, accompanied by Douglass, on a mission to the West Indies to investigate whether the annexation of Santo Domingo would be good for the United States.", "Grant believed annexation would help relieve the violent situation in the South by allowing African Americans their own state.", "Douglass and the commission favored annexation, but Congress remained opposed to annexation.", "Douglass criticized Senator Charles Sumner, who opposed annexation, stating that if Sumner continued to oppose annexation he would \"regard him as the worst foe the colored race has on this continent.", "\"Douglass's former residence in the U Street Corridor of Washington, D.C.", "He built 2000–2004 17th Street, NW, in 1875.After the midterm elections, Grant signed the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act) and the second and third Enforcement Acts.", "Grant used their provisions vigorously, suspending ''habeas corpus'' in South Carolina and sending troops there and into other states.", "Under his leadership over 5,000 arrests were made.", "Grant's vigor in disrupting the Klan made him unpopular among many whites but earned praise from Douglass.", "A Douglass associate wrote that African Americans \"will ever cherish a grateful remembrance of Grant's name, fame and great services.", "\"In 1872, Douglass became the first African American nominated for Vice President of the United States, as Victoria Woodhull's running mate on the Equal Rights Party ticket.", "He was nominated without his knowledge.", "Douglass neither campaigned for the ticket nor acknowledged that he had been nominated.", "In that year, he was presidential elector at large for the State of New York, and took that state's votes to Washington, D.C.However, in early June of that year, Douglass's third Rochester home, on South Avenue, burned down; arson was suspected.", "There was extensive damage to the house, its furnishings, and the grounds; in addition, sixteen volumes of the ''North Star'' and ''Frederick Douglass' Paper'' were lost.", "Douglass then moved to Washington, D.C.Throughout the Reconstruction era, Douglass continued speaking, emphasizing the importance of work, voting rights and actual exercise of suffrage.", "His speeches for the twenty-five years following the war emphasized work to counter the racism that was then prevalent in unions.", "In a November 15, 1867, speech he said: Douglass spoke at many colleges around the country, including Bates College in Lewiston, Maine, in 1873.In 1881, at Storer College in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, Douglass delivered a speech praising John Brown and revealing unknown information about their relationship, including their meeting in an abandoned stone quarry near Chambersburg shortly before the raid." ], [ "Frederick Douglass House", "In 1877 Frederick Douglass bought a house that included a big yard, as well as a studio where he did most of his work; he lived in this house from 1878 until his death in 1895, and it was named the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site." ], [ "Final years in Washington, D.C.", "The Freedman's Savings Bank went bankrupt on June 29, 1874, just a few months after Douglass became its president in late March.", "During that same economic crisis, his final newspaper, ''The New National Era'', failed in September.", "When Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president, he named Douglass United States Marshal for the District of Columbia, making him the first person of color to be so named.", "The United States Senate voted to confirm him on March 17, 1877.Douglass accepted the appointment, which helped assure his family's financial security.", "During his tenure, Douglass was urged by his supporters to resign from his commission, since he was never asked to introduce visiting foreign dignitaries to the President, which is one of the usual duties of that post.", "However, Douglass believed that no covert racism was implied by the omission and stated that he was always warmly welcomed in presidential circles.Cedar Hill'', Douglass's house in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C., is preserved as a National Historic Site.In 1877, Douglass visited his former enslaver Thomas Auld on his deathbed, and the two men reconciled.", "Douglass had met Auld's daughter, Amanda Auld Sears, some years prior.", "She had requested the meeting and had subsequently attended and cheered one of Douglass's speeches.", "Her father complimented her for reaching out to Douglass.", "The visit also appears to have brought closure to Douglass, although some criticized his effort.That same year, Douglass bought the house that was to be the family's final home in Washington, D.C., on a hill above the Anacostia River.", "He and Anna named it ''Cedar Hill'' (also spelled ''CedarHill'').", "They expanded the house from 14 to 21 rooms and included a china closet.", "One year later, Douglass purchased adjoining lots and expanded the property to 15 acres (61,000 m2).", "The home is now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site.In 1881, Douglass published the final edition of his autobiography, ''The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass'', which he updated in 1892.In 1881, he was appointed Recorder of Deeds for the District of Columbia.", "His wife Anna Murray Douglass died in 1882, leaving the widower devastated.", "After a period of mourning, Douglass found new meaning from working with activist Ida B.", "Wells.", "He remarried in 1884, as mentioned above.Douglass also continued his speaking engagements and travel, both in the United States and abroad.", "With new wife Helen, Douglass traveled to England, Ireland, France, Italy, Egypt, and Greece from 1886 to 1887.He became known for advocating Irish Home Rule and supported Charles Stewart Parnell in Ireland.At the 1888 Republican National Convention, Douglass became the first African American to receive a vote for President of the United States in a major party's roll call vote.", "That year, Douglass spoke at Claflin College, a historically black college in Orangeburg, South Carolina, and the state's oldest such institution.Many African Americans, called Exodusters, escaped the Klan and racially discriminatory laws in the South by moving to Kansas, where some formed all-black towns to have a greater level of freedom and autonomy.", "Douglass favored neither this nor the Back-to-Africa movement.", "He thought the latter resembled the American Colonization Society, which he had opposed in his youth.", "In 1892, at an Indianapolis conference convened by Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, Douglass spoke out against the separatist movements, urging African Americans to stick it out.", "He made similar speeches as early as 1879 and was criticized both by fellow leaders and some audiences, who even booed him for this position.", "Speaking in Baltimore in 1894, Douglass said, \"I hope and trust all will come out right in the end, but the immediate future looks dark and troubled.", "I cannot shut my eyes to the ugly facts before me.", "\"President Harrison appointed Douglass as the United States's minister resident and consul-general to the Republic of Haiti and Chargé d'affaires for Santo Domingo in 1889, but Douglass resigned the commission in July 1891 when it became apparent that the American President was intent upon gaining permanent access to Haitian territory regardless of that country's desires.", "In 1892, Haiti made Douglass a co-commissioner of its pavilion at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.In 1892, Douglass constructed rental housing for blacks, now known as Douglass Place, in the Fells Point area of Baltimore.", "The complex still exists, and in 2003 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places." ], [ "Death", "The gravestone of Frederick Douglass, located in Mount Hope Cemetery, RochesterOn February 20, 1895, Douglass attended a meeting of the National Council of Women in Washington, D.C. During that meeting, he was brought to the platform and received a standing ovation.", "Shortly after he returned home, Douglass died of a massive heart attack.", "He was 77.His funeral was held at the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church.", "Although Douglass had attended several churches in the nation's capital, he had a pew here and had donated two standing candelabras when this church had moved to a new building in 1886.He also gave many lectures there, including his last major speech, \"The Lesson of the Hour.", "\"Thousands of people passed by his coffin to show their respect.", "United States Senators and Supreme Court judges were pallbearers.", "Jeremiah Rankin, President of Howard University, delivered \"a masterly address\".", "A letter from Elizabeth Cady Stanton was read.", "The Secretary of the Haitian Legation \"expressed the condolence of his country in melodious French.", "\"Douglass's coffin was transported to Rochester, New York, where he had lived for 25 years, longer than anywhere else in his life.", "His body was received in state at City Hall, flags were flown at half mast, and schools adjourned.", "He was buried next to Anna in the Douglass family plot of Mount Hope Cemetery, Rochester's premier memorial park.", "Helen was also buried there, in 1903.His grave is, with that of Susan B. Anthony, the most visited in the cemetery.", "A marker, erected by the University of Rochester and other friends, describes him as \"escaped slave, abolitionist, suffragist, journalist and statesman, founder of the Civil Rights Movement in America\"." ], [ "Works", "===Writings===* 1845.", "''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself'' (first autobiography).", "* 1853.", "\"The Heroic Slave.\"", "pp.", "174–239 in ''Autographs for Freedom'', edited by Julia Griffiths.", "Boston: Jewett and Company.", "* 1855.", "''My Bondage and My Freedom'' (second autobiography).", "* 1881 (revised 1892).", "''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass'' (third and final autobiography).", "* 1847–1851.", "''The North Star'', an abolitionist newspaper founded and edited by Douglass.", "He merged the paper with another, creating the ''Frederick Douglass' Paper''.", "* 1886.", "''Three Addresses on the Relations Subsisting between the White and Colored People of the United States'', at Gutenberg.org* 2012.''", "In the Words of Frederick Douglass: Quotations from Liberty's Champion'', edited by John R. McKivigan and Heather L. Kaufman.", "Ithaca: Cornell University Press.", ".===Speeches===* 1841.", "\"The Church and Prejudice\"* 1852.", "\"What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?\"", "In 2020, National Public Radio produced a video of descendants of Douglass reading excerpts from the speech.", "* 1859.", "''Self-Made Men''.", "* 1863, July 6.", "\"Speech at National Hall, for the Promotion of Colored Enlistments.", "\"* 1881.===Poetry===* 1847.", "\"Liberty\", an eight-line poem, was written by Frederick Douglass in his notebook on September 13, 1847, in Cleveland, Ohio.", "Since mid-August he and William Lloyd Garrison, on a Western tour for the abolitionist movement, had been traveling through Ohio, where their receptions ranged from hospitable to enthusiastic.", "This raised Douglass's spirits considerably after he had faced an onslaught of \"rotten eggs and all manner of stones and brickbats\" while speaking a few weeks earlier in the courthouse at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.", "As a result of his receptions in Ohio, he was moved to write poetry on at least one other occasion in that state after he had written the poem \"Liberty\".", "The handwritten poem is now held in the Xavier University of Louisiana, Archives & Special Collections." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "A poster from the Office of War Information, Domestic Operations Branch, News Bureau, 1943A 1965 U.S. postage stamp, published during the upsurge of the civil rights movementBiographer David Blight states that Douglass \"played a pivotal role in America's Second Founding out of the apocalypse of the Civil War, and he very much wished to see himself as a founder and a defender of the Second American Republic.", "\"Roy Finkenbine argues:The most influential African American of the nineteenth century, Douglass made a career of agitating the American conscience.", "He spoke and wrote on behalf of a variety of reform causes: women's rights, temperance, peace, land reform, free public education, and the abolition of capital punishment.", "But he devoted the bulk of his time, immense talent, and boundless energy to ending slavery and gaining equal rights for African Americans.", "These were the central concerns of his long reform career.", "Douglass understood that the struggle for emancipation and equality demanded forceful, persistent, and unyielding agitation.", "And he recognized that African Americans must play a conspicuous role in that struggle.", "Less than a month before his death, when a young black man solicited his advice to an African American just starting out in the world, Douglass replied without hesitation: ″Agitate!", "Agitate!", "Agitate!″The Episcopal Church remembers Douglass with a Lesser Feast annually on its liturgical calendar for February 20, the anniversary of his death.", "Many public schools have also been named in his honor.", "Douglass still has living descendants today, such as Ken Morris, who is also a descendant of Booker T. Washington.", "Other honors and remembrances include:* In 1871, a bust of Douglass was unveiled at Sibley Hall, University of Rochester.", "* In 1895, the first hospital for black people in Philadelphia, PA was named the Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital.", "Black medical professionals, excluded from other facilities, were trained and employed there.", "In 1948, it merged to form Mercy-Douglass Hospital.", "* In 1899, a statue of Frederick Douglass was unveiled in Rochester, New York, making Douglass the first African-American to be so memorialized in the country.", "* In 1921, members of the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity (the first African-American intercollegiate fraternity) designated Frederick Douglass as an honorary member.", "Douglass thus became the only man to receive an honorary membership posthumously.", "* The Frederick Douglass Memorial Bridge, sometimes referred to as the South Capitol Street Bridge, just south of the US Capitol in Washington, D.C., was built in 1950 and named in his honor.", "* In 1962, his home in Anacostia (Washington, D.C.) became part of the National Park System and in 1988 was designated the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site.", "* In 1965, the United States Postal Service honored Douglass with a stamp in the Prominent Americans series.", "* In 1999, Yale University established the Frederick Douglass Book Prize for works in the history of slavery and abolition, in his honor.", "The annual $25,000 prize is administered by the Gilder Lehrman Institute for American History and the Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition at Yale.", "* In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante named Frederick Douglass to his list of ''100 Greatest African Americans''.", "* In 2003, Douglass Place, the rental housing units that Douglass built in Baltimore in 1892 for blacks, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "* In 2005, Douglass was inducted into the National Abolition Hall of Fame, in Peterboro, New York.", "* In 2007, the former Troup–Howell Bridge, which carried Interstate 490 over the Genesee River in Rochester, was redesigned and renamed the Frederick Douglass – Susan B. Anthony Memorial Bridge.", "* In 2010, the Frederick Douglass Memorial was unveiled at Frederick Douglass Circle at the northwest corner of Central Park in New York City.", "* In 2010, the New York Writers Hall of Fame inducted Douglass in its inaugural class.", "* On June 12, 2011, Talbot County, Maryland, installed a seven-foot (2-meter) bronze statue of Douglass on the lawn of the county courthouse in Easton, Maryland.", "* On June 19, 2013, a statue of Douglass by Maryland artist Steven Weitzman was unveiled in the United States Capitol Visitor Center as part of the National Statuary Hall Collection, the first statue representing the District of Columbia.", "* On September 15, 2014, under the leadership of Governor Martin O'Malley a portrait of Frederick Douglass was unveiled at his official residence in Annapolis, MD.", "This painting, by artist Simmie Knox, is the first African-American portrait to grace the walls of Government House.", "Commissioned by Eddie C. Brown, founder of Brown Capital Management, LLC, the painting was presented at a reception by the Governor.", "* On January 7, 2015, as a parting gift in honor of Governor Martin O'Malley's last Board of Public Works a portrait of Frederick Douglass was gifted to him by Peter Franchot.", "Two editions of this artwork, by artist Benjamin Jancewicz, were purchased from Galerie Myrtis by Peter Franchot and his wife Ann both as a gift for the Governor as well as to add to their own collection.", "The Governor's edition now hangs in his office.", "* In November 2015, the University of Maryland dedicated Frederick Douglass Plaza, an outdoor space where visitors can read quotes and see a bronze statue of Douglass.", "* On October 18, 2016, the Council of the District of Columbia voted that the city's new name as a State is to be \"Washington, D.C.\", and that \"D.C.\" is to stand for \"Douglass Commonwealth.", "\"* On April 3, 2017, the United States Mint began issuing quarters with an image of Frederick Douglass on the reverse, with the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site in the background.", "The coin is part of the America the Beautiful Quarters series.", "* On May 20, 2018, Douglass was awarded an honorary law degree from the University of Rochester.", "The degree, which was accepted by Douglass's great-great-great-grandson, was the first posthumous honorary degree that the university had granted.", "* Douglass gave his last public lecture on February 1, 1895, at West Chester University, 19 days before his death.", "Today, there is a statue of him on the university campus commemorating this event.", "The Frederick Douglass Institute has a West Chester University program for advancing multicultural studies across the curriculum and for deepening the intellectual heritage of Douglass.", "* In New York State there is the \"Let's Have Tea\" sculpture of Douglass and Susan B.", "Anthony.", "* On September 30, 2019, Newcastle University opened the 'Frederick Douglass Centre', a key teaching component for their School of Computing and Business School.", "Frederick Douglass stayed in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1846 on a street adjacent to the new university campus.", "* A statue of Douglass located in Rochester, New York's Maplewood Park was vandalized and torn down over the weekend of July 4, 2020.", "* In 2020, Douglas Park in Chicago, which was named for U.S.", "Senator Stephen A. Douglas, was renamed Douglass Park, in honor of Frederick and Anna Douglass.", "In the 1850s the senator had promoted \"popular sovereignty\" as a middle position on the slavery issue and made \"blatant assertions of white superiority.\"", "The name change was the result of a multi-year student-led campaign to rename the park.", "* A plaque on Gilmore Place in Edinburgh, Scotland marks his stay there in 1846.In 2020 a mural of his image was added nearby.", "* On June 19, 2021, on Boston Street in the Canton neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland, two panels were unveiled at the spot where, as it had shortly before been discovered, Douglass had boarded the train that took him to his freedom from enslavement.", "* On August 18, 2021, the Frederick Douglass Park in Lynn, Massachusetts was dedicated, directly across the street from the site of the Central Square railroad depot where Douglass was forcibly removed from the train in 1841.The park features a bronze bas-relief sculpture of Douglass.", "* In 2020, the Greater Rochester International Airport was renamed the Frederick Douglass Greater Rochester International Airport.", "* On January 18, 2023, Governor Wes Moore was sworn in as governor of Maryland on a Bible owned by Douglass.", "* In October 2023, it was announced that a plaque commemorating one of Douglass' visits to Liverpool would be placed outside the Everyman Theatre on Hope Street.", "The theater was built on the original site of Hope Hall, a chapel where Douglass spoke on 19 January, 1860." ], [ "In popular culture", "=== Film and television ===* Robert Guillaume portrays Douglass during a speech about the American slave trade in the 1985 miniseries ''North and South'' (Season 1, episode 3).", "* ''Glory'' (1989) features Douglass, played by Raymond St. Jacques, as a friend of Francis George Shaw.", "* In Ken Burns' 1990 documentary ''The Civil War'', Douglass is voiced by actor Morgan Freeman.", "* The 2004 mockumentary film ''C.S.A.", ": The Confederate States of America'' features the figure of Douglass in an alternative history.", "* In ''Akeelah and the Bee'' (2006), characters discuss Douglass near a bronze bust of him by sculptor Tina Allen.", "* The 2008 documentary film ''Frederick Douglass and the White Negro'' tells the story of Douglass in Ireland and the relationship between African and Irish Americans during the American Civil War.", "* Douglass appears in ''Freedom'', where he is portrayed by Byron Utley.", "* In the 2015 documentary film ''The Gettysburg Address'', the role of Frederick Douglass is voiced by actor Laurence Fishburne.", "* A miniseries based on James McBride's 2013 novel, ''The Good Lord Bird'', was released in 2020, with Daveed Diggs as Douglass.", "Douglass is portrayed negatively.", "* On February 23, 2022, HBO released a one-hour documentary titled ''Frederick Douglass: In Five Speeches,'' based on David W. Blight's Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom.=== Literature ===* The 1946 novel ''A Star Pointed North'' by Edmund Fuller presents an account of Douglass's life.", "* Terry Bisson's ''Fire on the Mountain'' (1988) is an alternate-history novel in which John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry succeeded and, instead of the Civil War, the Black slaves emancipated themselves in a massive slave revolt.", "In this history, Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman are the revered founders of a Black state created in the Deep South.", "* Douglass is a major character in the novel ''How Few Remain'' (1997) by Harry Turtledove, depicted in an alternate history in which the Confederacy won the Civil War and Douglass must continue his anti-slavery campaign into the 1880s.", "* Douglass appears in ''Flashman and the Angel of the Lord'' (1994) by George MacDonald Fraser.", "* Douglass, his wife, and his alleged mistress, Ottilie Assing, are the main characters in Jewell Parker Rhodes' ''Douglass' Women'' (New York: Atria Books, 2002).", "* Douglass is the protagonist of Richard Bradbury's novel ''Riversmeet'' (Muswell Press, 2007), a fictionalized account of Douglass's 1845 speaking tour of the British Isles.", "* Douglass's time in Ireland is fictionalized in Colum McCann's ''TransAtlantic'' (2013).", "* A comedic representation of Douglass is made in James McBride's 2013 novel ''The Good Lord Bird''.", "* In 2019, author David W. Blight was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for History for ''Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom''.===Painting===* In 1938–39, African-American artist Jacob Lawrence created ''The Frederick Douglass'' series of narrative paintings.", "They were part of the historical series started by Lawrence in 1937, which included painted panels about prominent Black historical figures such as Toussaint Louverture and Harriet Tubman.", "During his preparatory work, Lawrence conducted research at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, drawing primarily from the autobiographies of Frederick Douglass: ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave'' (1845) and ''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass'' (1881).", "For this series the artist used a multipanel-plus-caption format that allowed him to develop a serial narrative that was not possible to convey by means of traditional portrait or history painting.", "Instead of reproducing Douglass's original narratives verbatim, Lawrence constructed his own visual and textual narrative in the form of 32 panels painted in tempera and accompanied with Lawrence's own captions.", "The structure of the painting series is linear and consists of three parts (the slave, the fugitive, the free man) which offer an epic chronicle of Douglass's transformation from slave to leader in the struggle for the liberation of black people.", "''The Frederick Douglass'' series is currently in the Hampton University Museum.===Other media===* Frederick Douglass appears as a Great Humanitarian in the 2008 strategy video game ''Civilization Revolution''.", "* In 2019, Douglass was the focus of the exhibition ''Lessons of the Hour – Frederick Douglass'' by British artist Isaac Julien, at New York's Metro Pictures Gallery and Memorial Art Gallery.", "* In August 2022, \"American Prophet: Frederick Douglass in His Own Words,\" a musical starring Cornelius Smith Jr. as Douglass, was performed at Arena Stage in Washington, D.C.* His life is retold in the 1948 two-part radio drama \"The Making of a Man\" and \"The Key to Freedom\", presented by ''Destination Freedom'', written by Richard Durham.", "* A drawing of Frederick Douglass appears on the cover of ''Ebony'' magazine, September 1963" ], [ "See also", "* African-American literature* African American founding fathers of the United States* Civil rights movement (1865–1896)* Four boxes of liberty* History of African-American education* List of African-American abolitionists* List of civil rights leaders* Slave narrative" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Primary sources ===* Blight, David W., ed.", "(2022).", "''Frederick Douglass: Speeches & Writings''.", "New York: Library of America.", "Blight speaking about the book* Douglass, Frederick (1845).", "''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave''.", "Boston: Anti-Slavery Office.", "* — (1855).", "''My Bondage and My Freedom: Part I.", "Life as a Slave, Part II.", "Life as a Freeman''.", "New York: Miller, Orton & Mulligan.", "* — (1881).", "''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, Written by Himself''.", "Hartford, Conn.: Park Publishing Co.* — (1892).", "''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, Written by Himself''.", "Boston: De Wolfe & Fiske Co. (updated edition of 1881 version).", "* Foner, Philip Sheldon (1945). ''", "Frederick Douglass: Selections from His Writings''.", "New York: International Publishers.", "* — (1950).", "''The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass''.", "New York: International Publishers.", "* Gates, Henry Louis Jr., ed.", "(1994).", "''Frederick Douglass: Autobiographies''.", "Library of America.", "* Gregory, James Monroe (1893).", "''Frederick Douglass the Orator: Containing an Account of His Life; His Eminent Public Services; His Brilliant Career as Orator; Selections from His Speeches and Writings''.", "Willey Book Company.", "* Stauffer, John, Zoe Trodd, and Celeste-Marie Bernier (2015).", "''Picturing Frederick Douglass: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century's Most Photographed American'' (revised ed.).", "Liveright Publishing Corporation.=== Newspaper and magazine articles ===* === Scholarship === Baker, Houston A. Jr. (1986).", "\"Introduction\".", "''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass''.", "New York: Penguin.", "* Balkin, Jack M. and Levinson, Sanford (2023).", "\"Frederick Douglass as Constitutionalist\".", "''Maryland Law Review'', forthcoming.", "* Barnes, L. Diane.", "''Frederick Douglass: Reformer and Statesman'' (Routledge, 2012).", "* Bennett, Nolan.", "\"To Narrate and Denounce: Frederick Douglass and the Politics of Personal Narrative\" ''Political Theory'' 44.2 (2016): 240–264.", "* Blight, David W. (2018).", "''Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", "* Blight, David W. (1989).", "''Frederick Douglass' Civil War: Keeping Faith in Jubilee''.", "Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press.", "* Bromell, Nick.", "''The Powers of Dignity: The Black Political Philosophy of Frederick Douglass'' (Duke University Press, 2021).", "* Buccola, Nicholas.", "''The Political Thought of Frederick Douglass: In Pursuit of American Liberty'' (NYU Press, 2013).", "online* Chaffin, Tom (2014).", "''Giant's Causeway: Frederick Douglass's Irish Odyssey and the Making of an American Visionary.''", "Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.", "* Chesebrough, David B.", "''Frederick Douglass: Oratory from Slavery'' (Greenwood, 1998).", "* Child, Lydia Maria (1865).", "\"Frederick Douglass\" in Boston: Ticknor and Fields.", "* Colaiaco, James A.", "(2015).", "''Frederick Douglass and the Fourth of July''.", "New York: St Martin's Press.", "* Dilbeck, D. H. ''Frederick Douglass: America's Prophet'' (UNC Press Books, 2018) online* Douglas, Janet.", "\"A Cherished Friendship: Julia Griffiths Crofts and Frederick Douglass.\"", "''Slavery & Abolition'' 33.2 (2012): 265–274.", "* Fee Jr., Frank E. \"To No One More Indebted: Frederick Douglass and Julia Griffiths, 1849–63.\"", "''Journalism History'' 37.1 (2011): 12–26.online* Finkelman, Paul (2016).", "\"Frederick Douglass's Constitution: From Garrisonian Abolitionist to Lincoln Republican\".", "''Missouri Law Review'', vol.", "81, no.", "1, pp. 1–73.", "* Finkenbine, Roy E. (2000).", "\"Douglass, Frederick\".", "''American National Biography''.", ".", "Brief scholarly biography.", "* Foster, A. Kristen.", "\"'We Are Men!'", "Frederick Douglass and the Fault Lines of Gendered Citizenship.\"", "''Journal of the Civil War Era'' 1.2 (2011): 143–175.", "* Golden, Timothy J.", "(2021).", "''Frederick Douglass and the Philosophy of Religion: An Interpretation of Narrative, Art, and the Political''.", "Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.", "* Gougeon, Len (2012).", "\"Militant Abolitionism: Douglass, Emerson, and the Rise of the Anti-Slave\".", "''New England Quarterly'', 85.4: 622–657.", "* Hamilton, Cynthia S. (2005).", "\"Models of Agency: Frederick Douglass and 'The Heroic Slave'\".", "American Antiquarian Society.", "* Hawley, Michael C. (2022).", "\"Light or Fire?", "Frederick Douglass and the Orator's Dilemma\".", "''American Journal of Political Science''.", "* Henderson, Rodger C. (December 1, 2006).", "\"Native Americans and Frederick Douglass\".", "Oxford African American Studies Center.", "* Huggins, Nathan Irvin (1980.", "''Slave and Citizen: The Life of Frederick Douglass'' (''Library of American Biography'').", "Boston: Little, Brown and Company.", "* Kilbride, Daniel.", "\"What did Africa Mean to Frederick Douglass?\".", "''Slavery & Abolition'' 36.1 (2015): 40–62.online* Lampe, Gregory P. (1998).", "''Frederick Douglass: Freedom's Voice''.", "East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.", "* Lee, Maurice S., ed.", "''The Cambridge Companion to Frederick Douglass'' (2009), essays by experts, with emphasis on historiography.", "* Levine, Robert S. (1997).", "''Martin Delany, Frederick Douglass, and the Politics of Representative Identity''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.", "* Levine, Robert S. (2016).", "''The Lives of Frederick Douglass''.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.", "* Levine, Robert S. (2021).", "''The Failed Promise: Reconstruction, Frederick Douglass, and the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson''.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company.", "* McClure, Kevin R. \"Frederick Douglass' use of comparison in his Fourth of July oration: A textual criticism.\"", "''Western Journal of Communication'' 64.4 (2000): 425–444.online* McMillen, Sally Gregory (2008).", "''Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women's Rights Movement''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Mieder, Wolfgang (2001).", "''\"No Struggle, No Progress\": Frederick Douglass and His Proverbial Rhetoric for Civil Rights''.", "Peter Lang Pub Incorporated.", "* Mindich, David T. Z.", "\"Understanding Frederick Douglass: Toward a New Synthesis Approach to the Birth of Modern American Journalism.\"", "''Journalism History'' 26.1 (2000): 15–22.online* Muller, John (2012).", "''Frederick Douglass in Washington, D.C.: The Lion of Anacostia''.", "Charleston, S.C.: The History Press.", ".", "* Oakes, James (2007).", "''The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics''.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company.", "* Quarles, Benjamin (1948).", "''Frederick Douglass''.", "Washington: Associated Publishers.", "* Ramsey, William M. \"Frederick Douglass, Southerner.\"", "''Southern Literary Journal'' 40.1 (2007): 19–38.", "* Ray, Angela G. \"Frederick Douglass on the Lyceum Circuit: Social Assimilation, Social Transformation?\"", "''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 5.4 (2002): 625–647.summary* Rebeiro, Bradley.", "\"Frederick Douglass and the Original Originalists\".", "''Brigham Young University Law Review'', vol.", "48 (2023)* Ritchie, Daniel.", "\"'The stone in the sling': Frederick Douglass and Belfast abolitionism.\"", "''American Nineteenth Century History'' 18.3 (2017): 245–272.online* * * Selby, Gary S. \"The limits of accommodation: Frederick Douglass and the Garrisonian abolitionists.\"", "''Southern Journal of Communication'' 66.1 (2000): 52–66.", "* Stauffer, John (2009).", "''Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln''.", "Twelve, Hachette Book Group.", "* * Stephens, Gregory.", "\"Arguing with a Monument: Frederick Douglass' Resolution of the 'White Man Problem' in his 'Oration in Memory of Lincoln'\" ''Comparative American Studies An International Journal'' 13.3 (2015): 129–145.online* * Sweeney, Fionnghuala.", "''Frederick Douglass and the Atlantic World'' (Liverpool University Press, 2007) online.", "* Vogel, Todd, ed.", "(2001).", "''The Black Press: New Literary and Historical Essays''.", "New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.", "* Washington, Booker T. (1906).", "''Frederick Douglass''.", "London, UK: Hodder & Stoughton.", "Online Historian John Hope Franklin wrote that Washington's biography of Douglass \"has been attributed largely to Washington's friend, S. Laing Williams\".", "Introduction to ''Three Negro Classics'', New York: Avon Books (1965), p. 17.", "* Webber, Thomas L. (1978).", "''Deep Like the Rivers: Education in the Slave Quarter Community, 1831–1865''.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company.", "* Woodson, C. G. (1915).", "''The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861: A History of the Education of the Colored People of the United States from the Beginning of Slavery to the Civil War''.", "New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.===For young readers===* Adler, David A.", "1993.", "''A Picture Book of Frederick Douglass'', illustrated by S. Byrd.", "Holiday House.", "* Bolden, Tonya.", "2017.", "''Facing Frederick: The Life of Frederick Douglass, a Monumental American Man''.", "Abrams Books for Young Readers.", "* Miller, William.", "1995.", "''Frederick Douglass: The Last Day of Slavery'', illustrated by C. Lucas.", "Lee & Low Books.", "* Myers, Walter Dean.", "2017.", "''Frederick Douglass: The Lion Who Wrote History''.", "HarperCollins.", "* Walker, David F.; Smyth, Damon; Louise, Marissa.", "2018.", "''The Life of Frederick Douglass: A graphic narrative of a slave's journey from bondage to freedom''.", "Ten Speed Press.", "* Weidt, Maryann N.", "2001.", "''Voice of Freedom: A Story about Frederick Douglass'', illustrated by J. Reeves.", "Lerner publications.=== Documentary films and videos ===* ''Becoming Fredrick Douglass'' a co-production of Firelight Films and Maryland Public Television (released Oct 2022)* Cornell University Press.", "January 27, 2012.\"", "In the Words of Frederick Douglass\".", "''YouTube''.", "* Doherty, John J., dir.", "2008.", "''Frederick Douglass and the White Negro'', written by J. J. Doherty.", "Ireland: Camel Productions and Irish Film Board.", "* Haffner, Craig and Donna E. Lusitana, exec.", "prod.", "1997.", "''Frederick Douglass''.", "US: Greystone Communications, Inc. (A&E Network).", "* ''Frederick Douglass: When the Lion Wrote History''.", "US: ROJA Productions and WETA-TV.", "* ''Frederick Douglass, Abolitionist Editor''.", "Schlessinger Video Productions.", "* ''Race to Freedom: The Story of the Underground Railroad''* \"Writings of Frederick Douglass.\"", "''American Writers: A Journey Through History''.", "US: C-SPAN.", "May 28, 2001.", "* Descendants of Frederick Douglass read his 4th July 1852 speech" ], [ "External links", "* * * Celebrating Frederick Douglass through Transcription Smithsonian Digital Volunteers: Transcription Center.", "Selected Douglass letters, speeches, and newspaper articles* * * In the Library: Frederick Douglass Family Materials from the Walter O. Evans Collection The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., April 22, 2019—June 14, 2019.", "* One Life: Frederick Douglass Exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C., June 16, 2023 – April 21, 2024.", "* Isaac Julien: Lessons of the Hour—Frederick Douglass \"Moving image installation ... across five screens\" on view at the National Portrait Gallery, December 8, 2023 - November 26, 2026.Review: Video artwork captures the sweep of Frederick Douglass’s oratory ''The Washington Post'', January 17, 2024." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fluid dynamics" ], [ "Introduction", "Typical aerodynamic teardrop shape, assuming a viscous medium passing from left to right, the diagram shows the pressure distribution as the thickness of the black line and shows the velocity in the boundary layer as the violet triangles.", "The green vortex generators prompt the transition to turbulent flow and prevent back-flow also called flow separation from the high-pressure region in the back.", "The surface in front is as smooth as possible or even employs shark-like skin, as any turbulence here increases the energy of the airflow.", "The truncation on the right, known as a Kammback, also prevents backflow from the high-pressure region in the back across the spoilers to the convergent part.In physics, physical chemistry and engineering, '''fluid dynamics''' is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the '''flow''' of fluids—liquids and gases.", "It has several subdisciplines, including ''aerodynamics'' (the study of air and other gases in motion) and '''hydrodynamics''' (the study of liquids in motion).", "Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modelling fission weapon detonation.Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure—which underlies these practical disciplines—that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems.", "The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves the calculation of various properties of the fluid, such as flow velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and time.Before the twentieth century, ''hydrodynamics'' was synonymous with fluid dynamics.", "This is still reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, like magnetohydrodynamics and hydrodynamic stability, both of which can also be applied to gases." ], [ "Equations", "The foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum, and conservation of energy (also known as the First Law of Thermodynamics).", "These are based on classical mechanics and are modified in quantum mechanics and general relativity.", "They are expressed using the Reynolds transport theorem.In addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption.", "Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects.", "However, the continuum assumption assumes that fluids are continuous, rather than discrete.", "Consequently, it is assumed that properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and flow velocity are well-defined at infinitesimally small points in space and vary continuously from one point to another.", "The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is ignored.For fluids that are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ionized species, and have flow velocities that are small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for Newtonian fluids are the Navier–Stokes equations—which is a non-linear set of differential equations that describes the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on flow velocity gradients and pressure.", "The unsimplified equations do not have a general closed-form solution, so they are primarily of use in computational fluid dynamics.", "The equations can be simplified in several ways, all of which make them easier to solve.", "Some of the simplifications allow some simple fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.In addition to the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations, a thermodynamic equation of state that gives the pressure as a function of other thermodynamic variables is required to completely describe the problem.", "An example of this would be the perfect gas equation of state::where is pressure, is density, and is the absolute temperature, while is the gas constant and is molar mass for a particular gas.", "A constitutive relation may also be useful.===Conservation laws===Three conservation laws are used to solve fluid dynamics problems, and may be written in integral or differential form.", "The conservation laws may be applied to a region of the flow called a ''control volume''.", "A control volume is a discrete volume in space through which fluid is assumed to flow.", "The integral formulations of the conservation laws are used to describe the change of mass, momentum, or energy within the control volume.", "Differential formulations of the conservation laws apply Stokes' theorem to yield an expression that may be interpreted as the integral form of the law applied to an infinitesimally small volume (at a point) within the flow." ], [ "Classifications", "===Compressible versus incompressible flow===All fluids are compressible to an extent; that is, changes in pressure or temperature cause changes in density.", "However, in many situations the changes in pressure and temperature are sufficiently small that the changes in density are negligible.", "In this case the flow can be modelled as an incompressible flow.", "Otherwise the more general compressible flow equations must be used.Mathematically, incompressibility is expressed by saying that the density of a fluid parcel does not change as it moves in the flow field, that is,: where is the material derivative, which is the sum of local and convective derivatives.", "This additional constraint simplifies the governing equations, especially in the case when the fluid has a uniform density.For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid dynamics, the Mach number of the flow is evaluated.", "As a rough guide, compressible effects can be ignored at Mach numbers below approximately 0.3.For liquids, whether the incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties (specifically the critical pressure and temperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions (how close to the critical pressure the actual flow pressure becomes).", "Acoustic problems always require allowing compressibility, since sound waves are compression waves involving changes in pressure and density of the medium through which they propagate.===Newtonian versus non-Newtonian fluids===Flow around an airfoilAll fluids, except superfluids, are viscous, meaning that they exert some resistance to deformation: neighbouring parcels of fluid moving at different velocities exert viscous forces on each other.", "The velocity gradient is referred to as a strain rate; it has dimensions .", "Isaac Newton showed that for many familiar fluids such as water and air, the stress due to these viscous forces is linearly related to the strain rate.", "Such fluids are called Newtonian fluids.", "The coefficient of proportionality is called the fluid's viscosity; for Newtonian fluids, it is a fluid property that is independent of the strain rate.Non-Newtonian fluids have a more complicated, non-linear stress-strain behaviour.", "The sub-discipline of rheology describes the stress-strain behaviours of such fluids, which include emulsions and slurries, some viscoelastic materials such as blood and some polymers, and ''sticky liquids'' such as latex, honey and lubricants.===Inviscid versus viscous versus Stokes flow===The dynamic of fluid parcels is described with the help of Newton's second law.", "An accelerating parcel of fluid is subject to inertial effects.The Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity which characterises the magnitude of inertial effects compared to the magnitude of viscous effects.", "A low Reynolds number () indicates that viscous forces are very strong compared to inertial forces.", "In such cases, inertial forces are sometimes neglected; this flow regime is called Stokes or creeping flow.In contrast, high Reynolds numbers () indicate that the inertial effects have more effect on the velocity field than the viscous (friction) effects.", "In high Reynolds number flows, the flow is often modeled as an inviscid flow, an approximation in which viscosity is completely neglected.", "Eliminating viscosity allows the Navier–Stokes equations to be simplified into the Euler equations.", "The integration of the Euler equations along a streamline in an inviscid flow yields Bernoulli's equation.", "When, in addition to being inviscid, the flow is irrotational everywhere, Bernoulli's equation can completely describe the flow everywhere.", "Such flows are called potential flows, because the velocity field may be expressed as the gradient of a potential energy expression.This idea can work fairly well when the Reynolds number is high.", "However, problems such as those involving solid boundaries may require that the viscosity be included.", "Viscosity cannot be neglected near solid boundaries because the no-slip condition generates a thin region of large strain rate, the boundary layer, in which viscosity effects dominate and which thus generates vorticity.", "Therefore, to calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings), viscous flow equations must be used: inviscid flow theory fails to predict drag forces, a limitation known as the d'Alembert's paradox.A commonly used model, especially in computational fluid dynamics, is to use two flow models: the Euler equations away from the body, and boundary layer equations in a region close to the body.", "The two solutions can then be matched with each other, using the method of matched asymptotic expansions.=== Steady versus unsteady flow===Hydrodynamics simulation of the Rayleigh–Taylor instability A flow that is not a function of time is called '''steady flow'''.", "Steady-state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at a point in the system do not change over time.", "Time dependent flow is known as unsteady (also called transient).", "Whether a particular flow is steady or unsteady, can depend on the chosen frame of reference.", "For instance, laminar flow over a sphere is steady in the frame of reference that is stationary with respect to the sphere.", "In a frame of reference that is stationary with respect to a background flow, the flow is unsteady.Turbulent flows are unsteady by definition.", "A turbulent flow can, however, be statistically stationary.", "The random velocity field is statistically stationary if all statistics are invariant under a shift in time.", "This roughly means that all statistical properties are constant in time.", "Often, the mean field is the object of interest, and this is constant too in a statistically stationary flow.Steady flows are often more tractable than otherwise similar unsteady flows.", "The governing equations of a steady problem have one dimension fewer (time) than the governing equations of the same problem without taking advantage of the steadiness of the flow field.===Laminar versus turbulent flow===The transition from laminar to turbulent flowTurbulence is flow characterized by recirculation, eddies, and apparent randomness.", "Flow in which turbulence is not exhibited is called laminar.", "The presence of eddies or recirculation alone does not necessarily indicate turbulent flow—these phenomena may be present in laminar flow as well.", "Mathematically, turbulent flow is often represented via a Reynolds decomposition, in which the flow is broken down into the sum of an average component and a perturbation component.It is believed that turbulent flows can be described well through the use of the Navier–Stokes equations.", "Direct numerical simulation (DNS), based on the Navier–Stokes equations, makes it possible to simulate turbulent flows at moderate Reynolds numbers.", "Restrictions depend on the power of the computer used and the efficiency of the solution algorithm.", "The results of DNS have been found to agree well with experimental data for some flows.Most flows of interest have Reynolds numbers much too high for DNS to be a viable option, given the state of computational power for the next few decades.", "Any flight vehicle large enough to carry a human ( > 3 m), moving faster than is well beyond the limit of DNS simulation ( = 4 million).", "Transport aircraft wings (such as on an Airbus A300 or Boeing 747) have Reynolds numbers of 40 million (based on the wing chord dimension).", "Solving these real-life flow problems requires turbulence models for the foreseeable future.", "Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS) combined with turbulence modelling provides a model of the effects of the turbulent flow.", "Such a modelling mainly provides the additional momentum transfer by the Reynolds stresses, although the turbulence also enhances the heat and mass transfer.", "Another promising methodology is large eddy simulation (LES), especially in the guise of detached eddy simulation (DES)—which is a combination of RANS turbulence modelling and large eddy simulation.===Other approximations===There are a large number of other possible approximations to fluid dynamic problems.", "Some of the more commonly used are listed below.", "* The ''Boussinesq approximation'' neglects variations in density except to calculate buoyancy forces.", "It is often used in free convection problems where density changes are small.", "* ''Lubrication theory'' and ''Hele–Shaw flow'' exploits the large aspect ratio of the domain to show that certain terms in the equations are small and so can be neglected.", "* ''Slender-body theory'' is a methodology used in Stokes flow problems to estimate the force on, or flow field around, a long slender object in a viscous fluid.", "* The ''shallow-water equations'' can be used to describe a layer of relatively inviscid fluid with a free surface, in which surface gradients are small.", "* ''Darcy's law'' is used for flow in porous media, and works with variables averaged over several pore-widths.", "* In rotating systems, the ''quasi-geostrophic equations'' assume an almost perfect balance between pressure gradients and the Coriolis force.", "It is useful in the study of atmospheric dynamics." ], [ "Multidisciplinary types", "===Flows according to Mach regimes===While many flows (such as flow of water through a pipe) occur at low Mach numbers (subsonic flows), many flows of practical interest in aerodynamics or in turbomachines occur at high fractions of (transonic flows) or in excess of it (supersonic or even hypersonic flows).", "New phenomena occur at these regimes such as instabilities in transonic flow, shock waves for supersonic flow, or non-equilibrium chemical behaviour due to ionization in hypersonic flows.", "In practice, each of those flow regimes is treated separately.===Reactive versus non-reactive flows===Reactive flows are flows that are chemically reactive, which finds its applications in many areas, including combustion (IC engine), propulsion devices (rockets, jet engines, and so on), detonations, fire and safety hazards, and astrophysics.", "In addition to conservation of mass, momentum and energy, conservation of individual species (for example, mass fraction of methane in methane combustion) need to be derived, where the production/depletion rate of any species are obtained by simultaneously solving the equations of chemical kinetics.===Magnetohydrodynamics===Magnetohydrodynamics is the multidisciplinary study of the flow of electrically conducting fluids in electromagnetic fields.", "Examples of such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water.", "The fluid flow equations are solved simultaneously with Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism.===Relativistic fluid dynamics===Relativistic fluid dynamics studies the macroscopic and microscopic fluid motion at large velocities comparable to the velocity of light.", "This branch of fluid dynamics accounts for the relativistic effects both from the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity.", "The governing equations are derived in Riemannian geometry for Minkowski spacetime.=== Fluctuating hydrodynamics ===This branch of fluid dynamics augments the standard hydrodynamic equations with stochastic fluxes that model thermal fluctuations.As formulated by Landau and Lifshitz,a white noise contribution obtained from the fluctuation-dissipation theorem of statistical mechanicsis added to the viscous stress tensor and heat flux." ], [ "Terminology", "The concept of pressure is central to the study of both fluid statics and fluid dynamics.", "A pressure can be identified for every point in a body of fluid, regardless of whether the fluid is in motion or not.", "Pressure can be measured using an aneroid, Bourdon tube, mercury column, or various other methods.Some of the terminology that is necessary in the study of fluid dynamics is not found in other similar areas of study.", "In particular, some of the terminology used in fluid dynamics is not used in fluid statics.=== Characteristic numbers ====== Terminology in incompressible fluid dynamics ===The concepts of total pressure and dynamic pressure arise from Bernoulli's equation and are significant in the study of all fluid flows.", "(These two pressures are not pressures in the usual sense—they cannot be measured using an aneroid, Bourdon tube or mercury column.)", "To avoid potential ambiguity when referring to pressure in fluid dynamics, many authors use the term static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure and dynamic pressure.", "Static pressure is identical to pressure and can be identified for every point in a fluid flow field.A point in a fluid flow where the flow has come to rest (that is to say, speed is equal to zero adjacent to some solid body immersed in the fluid flow) is of special significance.", "It is of such importance that it is given a special name—a stagnation point.", "The static pressure at the stagnation point is of special significance and is given its own name—stagnation pressure.", "In incompressible flows, the stagnation pressure at a stagnation point is equal to the total pressure throughout the flow field.=== Terminology in compressible fluid dynamics ===In a compressible fluid, it is convenient to define the total conditions (also called stagnation conditions) for all thermodynamic state properties (such as total temperature, total enthalpy, total speed of sound).", "These total flow conditions are a function of the fluid velocity and have different values in frames of reference with different motion.To avoid potential ambiguity when referring to the properties of the fluid associated with the state of the fluid rather than its motion, the prefix \"static\" is commonly used (such as static temperature and static enthalpy).", "Where there is no prefix, the fluid property is the static condition (so \"density\" and \"static density\" mean the same thing).", "The static conditions are independent of the frame of reference.Because the total flow conditions are defined by isentropically bringing the fluid to rest, there is no need to distinguish between total entropy and static entropy as they are always equal by definition.", "As such, entropy is most commonly referred to as simply \"entropy\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of publications in fluid dynamics* List of fluid dynamicists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Originally published in 1879, the 6th extended edition appeared first in 1932.", "* Originally published in 1938.", "* * * Encyclopedia: Fluid dynamics Scholarpedia" ], [ "External links", "* National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films (NCFMF), containing films on several subjects in fluid dynamics (in RealMedia format)* Gallery of fluid motion, \"a visual record of the aesthetic and science of contemporary fluid mechanics,\" from the American Physical Society* List of Fluid Dynamics books" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fin" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''fin''' is a thin component or appendage attached to a larger body or structure.", "Fins typically function as foils that produce lift or thrust, or provide the ability to steer or stabilize motion while traveling in water, air, or other fluids.", "Fins are also used to increase surface areas for heat transfer purposes, or simply as ornamentation.Fins first evolved on fish as a means of locomotion.", "Fish fins are used to generate thrust and control the subsequent motion.", "Fish and other aquatic animals, such as cetaceans, actively propel and steer themselves with pectoral and tail fins.", "As they swim, they use other fins, such as dorsal and anal fins, to achieve stability and refine their maneuvering.The fins on the tails of cetaceans, ichthyosaurs, metriorhynchids, mosasaurs and plesiosaurs are called '''flukes'''." ], [ "Thrust generation", "Foil shaped fins generate thrust when moved, the lift of the fin sets water or air in motion and pushes the fin in the opposite direction.", "Aquatic animals get significant thrust by moving fins back and forth in water.", "Often the tail fin is used, but some aquatic animals generate thrust from pectoral fins.", "Fins can also generate thrust if they are rotated in air or water.", "Turbines and propellers (and sometimes fans and pumps) use a number of rotating fins, also called foils, wings, arms or blades.", "Propellers use the fins to translate torquing force to lateral thrust, thus propelling an aircraft or ship.", "Turbines work in reverse, using the lift of the blades to generate torque and power from moving gases or water.Cavitation can be a problem with high power applications, resulting in damage to propellers or turbines, as well as noise and loss of power.", "Cavitation occurs when negative pressure causes bubbles (cavities) to form in a liquid, which then promptly and violently collapse.", "It can cause significant damage and wear.", "Cavitation damage can also occur to the tail fins of powerful swimming marine animals, such as dolphins and tuna.", "Cavitation is more likely to occur near the surface of the ocean, where the ambient water pressure is relatively low.", "Even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful.", "Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason.", "Unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings.", "Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins that limits their speed.", "Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage.Scombrid fishes (tuna, mackerel and bonito) are particularly high-performance swimmers.", "Along the margin at the rear of their bodies is a line of small rayless, non-retractable fins, known as finlets.", "There has been much speculation about the function of these finlets.", "Research done in 2000 and 2001 by Nauen and Lauder indicated that \"the finlets have a hydrodynamic effect on local flow during steady swimming\" and that \"the most posterior finlet is oriented to redirect flow into the developing tail vortex, which may increase thrust produced by the tail of swimming mackerel\".Fish use multiple fins, so it is possible that a given fin can have a hydrodynamic interaction with another fin.", "In particular, the fins immediately upstream of the caudal (tail) fin may be proximate fins that can directly affect the flow dynamics at the caudal fin.", "In 2011, researchers using volumetric imaging techniques were able to generate \"the first instantaneous three-dimensional views of wake structures as they are produced by freely swimming fishes\".", "They found that \"continuous tail beats resulted in the formation of a linked chain of vortex rings\" and that \"the dorsal and anal fin wakes are rapidly entrained by the caudal fin wake, approximately within the timeframe of a subsequent tail beat\"." ], [ "Motion control", "Once motion has been established, the motion itself can be controlled with the use of other fins.", "Boats control direction (yaw) with fin-like rudders, and roll with stabilizer and keel fins.", "Airplanes achieve similar results with small specialised fins that change the shape of their wings and tail fins.Caudal fin of a great white sharkStabilising fins are used as fletching on arrows and some darts, and at the rear of some bombs, missiles, rockets and self-propelled torpedoes.", "These are typically planar and shaped like small wings, although grid fins are sometimes used.", "Static fins have also been used for one satellite, GOCE." ], [ "Temperature regulation", "Engineering fins are also used as heat transfer fins to regulate temperature in heat sinks or fin radiators." ], [ "Ornamentation and other uses", "In biology, fins can have an adaptive significance as sexual ornaments.", "During courtship, the female cichlid, ''Pelvicachromis taeniatus'', displays a large and visually arresting purple pelvic fin.", "\"The researchers found that males clearly preferred females with a larger pelvic fin and that pelvic fins grew in a more disproportionate way than other fins on female fish.", "\"Reshaping human feet with swim fins, rather like the tail fin of a fish, add thrust and efficiency to the kicks of a swimmer or underwater diver Surfboard fins provide surfers with means to maneuver and control their boards.", "Contemporary surfboards often have a centre fin and two cambered side fins.The bodies of reef fishes are often shaped differently from open water fishes.", "Open water fishes are usually built for speed, streamlined like torpedoes to minimise friction as they move through the water.", "Reef fish operate in the relatively confined spaces and complex underwater landscapes of coral reefs.", "For this manoeuvrability is more important than straight line speed, so coral reef fish have developed bodies which optimize their ability to dart and change direction.", "They outwit predators by dodging into fissures in the reef or playing hide and seek around coral heads.The pectoral and pelvic fins of many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved so they can act as brakes and allow complex maneuvers.", "Many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved bodies which are deep and laterally compressed like a pancake, and will fit into fissures in rocks.", "Their pelvic and pectoral fins are designed differently, so they act together with the flattened body to optimise maneuverability.", "Some fishes, such as puffer fish, filefish and trunkfish, rely on pectoral fins for swimming and hardly use tail fins at all." ], [ "Evolution", "There is an old theory, proposed by anatomist Carl Gegenbaur, which has been often disregarded in science textbooks, \"that fins and (later) limbs evolved from the gills of an extinct vertebrate\".", "Gaps in the fossil record had not allowed a definitive conclusion.", "In 2009, researchers from the University of Chicago found evidence that the \"genetic architecture of gills, fins and limbs is the same\", and that \"the skeleton of any appendage off the body of an animal is probably patterned by the developmental genetic program that we have traced back to formation of gills in sharks\".", "Recent studies support the idea that gill arches and paired fins are serially homologous and thus that fins may have evolved from gill tissues.Fish are the ancestors of all mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians.", "In particular, terrestrial tetrapods (four-legged animals) evolved from fish and made their first forays onto land 400 million years ago.", "They used paired pectoral and pelvic fins for locomotion.", "The pectoral fins developed into forelegs (arms in the case of humans) and the pelvic fins developed into hind legs.", "Much of the genetic machinery that builds a walking limb in a tetrapod is already present in the swimming fin of a fish.lobe-finned fish and B) the walking leg of a tetrapod.", "Bones considered to correspond with each other have the same color.In a parallel but independent evolution, the ancient reptile ''Ichthyosaurus communis'' developed fins (or flippers) very similar to fish (or dolphins)In 2011, researchers at Monash University in Australia used primitive but still living lungfish \"to trace the evolution of pelvic fin muscles to find out how the load-bearing hind limbs of the tetrapods evolved.\"", "Further research at the University of Chicago found bottom-walking lungfishes had already evolved characteristics of the walking gaits of terrestrial tetrapods.In a classic example of convergent evolution, the pectoral limbs of pterosaurs, birds and bats further evolved along independent paths into flying wings.", "Even with flying wings there are many similarities with walking legs, and core aspects of the genetic blueprint of the pectoral fin have been retained.About 200 million years ago the first mammals appeared.", "A group of these mammals started returning to the sea about 52 million years ago, thus completing a circle.", "These are the cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises).", "Recent DNA analysis suggests that cetaceans evolved from within the even-toed ungulates, and that they share a common ancestor with the hippopotamus.", "About 23 million years ago another group of bearlike land mammals started returning to the sea.", "These were the seals.", "What had become walking limbs in cetaceans and seals evolved further, independently in a reverse form of convergent evolution, back to new forms of swimming fins.", "The forelimbs became flippers and the hind limbs became a tail terminating in two fins, called a fluke in the case of cetaceans.", "Fish tails are usually vertical and move from side to side.", "Cetacean flukes are horizontal and move up and down, because cetacean spines bend the same way as in other mammals.Ichthyosaurs are ancient reptiles that resembled dolphins.", "They first appeared about 245 million years ago and disappeared about 90 million years ago.", "\"This sea-going reptile with terrestrial ancestors converged so strongly on fishes that it actually evolved a dorsal fin and tail in just the right place and with just the right hydrological design.", "These structures are all the more remarkable because they evolved from nothing — the ancestral terrestrial reptile had no hump on its back or blade on its tail to serve as a precursor.", "\"The biologist Stephen Jay Gould said the ichthyosaur was his favorite example of convergent evolution." ], [ "Robotics", "In the 1990s the CIA built a robotic catfish called ''Charlie'' to test the feasibility of unmanned underwater vehiclesThe use of fins for the propulsion of aquatic animals can be remarkably effective.", "It has been calculated that some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%.", "Fish can accelerate and maneuver much more effectively than boats or submarine, and produce less water disturbance and noise.", "This has led to biomimetic studies of underwater robots which attempt to emulate the locomotion of aquatic animals.", "An example is the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion.", "In 2005, the Sea Life London Aquarium displayed three robotic fish created by the computer science department at the University of Essex.", "The fish were designed to be autonomous, swimming around and avoiding obstacles like real fish.", "Their creator claimed that he was trying to combine \"the speed of tuna, acceleration of a pike, and the navigating skills of an eel\".The ''AquaPenguin'', developed by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front flippers of penguins.", "Festo also developed ''AquaRay'', ''AquaJelly'' and ''AiraCuda'', respectively emulating the locomotion of manta rays, jellyfish and barracuda.In 2004, Hugh Herr at MIT prototyped a biomechatronic robotic fish with a living actuator by surgically transplanting muscles from frog legs to the robot and then making the robot swim by pulsing the muscle fibers with electricity.Robotic fish offer some research advantages, such as the ability to examine part of a fish design in isolation from the rest, and variance of a single parameter, such as flexibility or direction.", "Researchers can directly measure forces more easily than in live fish.", "\"Robotic devices also facilitate three-dimensional kinematic studies and correlated hydrodynamic analyses, as the location of the locomotor surface can be known accurately.", "And, individual components of a natural motion (such as outstroke vs. instroke of a flapping appendage) can be programmed separately, which is certainly difficult to achieve when working with a live animal.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Aquatic locomotion* Fin and flipper locomotion* Fish locomotion* Robot locomotion* RoboTuna* Sail (submarine)* Surfboard fin" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Blake, Robert William (1983) ''Fish Locomotion'' CUP Archive.", ".", "* * * * * * * Tangorra JL, CEsposito CJ and Lauder GV (2009) \"Biorobotic fins for investigations of fish locomotion\" In: ''Intelligent Robots and Systems'', pages: 2120–2125.E-.", "* Tu X and Terzopoulos D (1994) \"Artificial fishes: Physics, locomotion, perception, behavior\" In: ''Proceedings of the 21st annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques'', pages 43–50.. " ], [ "External links", " Locomotion in Fish ''Earthlife''.", "* Computational fluid dynamics tutorial Many examples and images, with references to robotic fish.", "* Fish Skin Research University of British Columbia.", "* A fin-tuned design ''The Economist'', 19 November 2008." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Freyr" ], [ "Introduction", "The Rällinge statuette, believed to depict Freyr, Viking Age.", "'''Freyr''' (Old Norse: 'Lord'), sometimes anglicized as '''Frey''', is a widely attested god in Norse mythology, associated with kingship, fertility, peace, prosperity, fair weather, and good harvest.", "Freyr, sometimes referred to as Yngvi-Freyr, was especially associated with Sweden and seen as an ancestor of the Swedish royal house.", "According to Adam of Bremen, Freyr was associated with peace and pleasure, and was represented with a phallic statue in the Temple at Uppsala.", "According to Snorri Sturluson, Freyr was \"the most renowned of the æsir\", and was venerated for good harvest and peace.In the mythological stories in the Icelandic books the ''Poetic Edda'' and the ''Prose Edda'', Freyr is presented as one of the Vanir, the son of the god Njörðr and his sister-wife, as well as the twin brother of the goddess Freyja.", "The gods gave him Álfheimr, the realm of the Elves, as a teething present.", "He rides the shining dwarf-made boar Gullinbursti, and possesses the ship Skíðblaðnir, which always has a favorable breeze and can be folded together and carried in a pouch when it is not being used.", "Freyr is also known to have been associated with the horse cult.", "He also kept sacred horses in his sanctuary at Trondheim in Norway.", "He has the servants Skírnir, Byggvir and Beyla.The most extensive surviving Freyr myth relates Freyr's falling in love with the female jötunn Gerðr.", "Eventually, she becomes his wife but first Freyr has to give away his sword, which fights on its own \"if wise be he who wields it.\"", "Although deprived of this weapon, Freyr defeats the jötunn Beli with an antler.", "However, lacking his sword, Freyr will be killed by the fire jötunn Surtr during the events of Ragnarök.Like other Germanic deities, veneration of Freyr was revived during the modern period through the Heathenry movement." ], [ "Name", "The Old Norse name ''Freyr'' ('lord') is generally thought to descend from a Proto-Norse form reconstructed as , stemming from the Proto-Germanic noun ''frawjaz'' ~ ''fraw(j)ōn'' ('lord'), and cognate with Gothic , Old English , or Old High German , all meaning 'lord, master'.", "The runic form , derived from an earlier , may also be related.", "Recently, however, an etymology deriving the name of the god from a nominalized form of the Proto-Scandinavian adjective ''fraiw(i)a''- ('fruitful, generative') has also been proposed.", "According to linguist Guus Kroonen, \"within Germanic, the attestation of ON ''frjar'', ''frjór'', ''frær'', Icel.", "''frjór'' adj.", "'fertile; prolific' < ''fraiwa''- clearly seems to point to a stem ''frai(w)''- meaning 'fecund'.", "Both in form and meaning, ''fraiwa''- ('seed') is reminiscent of ''Freyr'' 'fertility deity' < ''frauja''-.", "The possibility must be considered, therefore, that ''fraiwa''- was metathesized from ''frawja''-, a collective of some kind.\"", "Freyr is also known by a series of other names which describe his attributes and role in religious practice and associated mythology." ], [ "Adam of Bremen", "Written 1080, one of the oldest written sources on pre-Christian Scandinavian religious practices is Adam of Bremen's .", "Adam claimed to have access to first-hand accounts on pagan practices in Sweden.", "He refers to Freyr with the Latinized name '''Fricco''' and mentions that an image of him at Skara was destroyed by the Christian missionary Bishop Egino.", "Adam's description of the Temple at Uppsala gives some details on the god.In hoc templo, quod totum ex auro paratum est, statuas atrium deorum veneratur populus, ita ut potentissimus eorum Thor in medio solium habeat triclinio; hinc et inde locum possident Wodan et Fricco.", "Quorum significationes eiusmodi sunt: 'Thor', inquiunt, 'praesidet in aere, qui tonitrus et fulmina, ventos ymbresque, serena et fruges gubernat.", "Alter Wodan, id est furor, bella gerit, hominique ministrat virtutem contra inimicos.", "Tertius est Fricco, pacem voluptatem que largiens mortalibus'.", "Cuius etiam simulacrum fingunt cum ingenti priapo.", "::''Gesta Hammaburgensis'' 26, Waitz' editionIn this temple, entirely decked out in gold, the people worship the statues of three gods in such wise that the mightiest of them, Thor, occupies a throne in the middle of the chamber; Woden and Frikko have places on either side.", "The significance of these gods is as follows: Thor, they say, presides over the air, which governs the thunder and lightning, the winds and rains, fair weather and crops.", "The other, Woden—that is, the Furious—carries on war and imparts to man strength against his enemies.", "The third is Frikko, who bestows peace and pleasure on mortals.", "His likeness, too, they fashion with an immense phallus.", "::''Gesta Hammaburgensis'' 26, Tschan's translation 164815Later in the account Adam states that when a marriage is performed a libation is made to the image of Fricco.Historians are divided on the reliability of Adam's account." ], [ "''Prose Edda''", "When Snorri Sturluson was writing in 13th century Iceland, the indigenous Germanic gods were still remembered although they had not been openly worshiped for more than two centuries.===''Gylfaginning''===In the ''Gylfaginning'' section of his ''Prose Edda'', Snorri introduces Freyr as one of the major gods.Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja.", "Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug.", "Freyr er hinn ágætasti af ásum.", "Hann ræðr fyrir regni ok skini sólar, ok þar með ávexti jarðar, ok á hann er gott at heita til árs ok friðar.", "Hann ræðr ok fésælu manna.", "''Gylfaginning'' 24, EB's editionNjördr in Nóatún begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of face and mighty.", "Freyr is the most renowned of the Æsir; he rules over the rain and the shining of the sun, and therewithal the fruit of the earth; and it is good to call on him for fruitful seasons and peace.", "He governs also the prosperity of men.", "''Gylfaginning'' XXIV, Brodeur's translationSeated on Odin's throne Hliðskjálf, the god Freyr sits in contemplation in an illustration (1908) by Frederic LawrenceThis description has similarities to the older account by Adam of Bremen but the differences are interesting.", "Adam assigns control of the weather and produce of the fields to Thor but Snorri says that Freyr rules over those areas.", "Snorri also omits any explicitly sexual references in Freyr's description.", "Those discrepancies can be explained in several ways.", "Adam and Snorri were writing with different goals in mind.", "It is possible that the Norse gods did not have exactly the same roles in Icelandic and Swedish paganism.", "Either Snorri or Adam may also have had distorted information.The only extended myth related to Freyr in the ''Prose Edda'' is the story of his marriage.Þat var einn dag er Freyr hafði gengit í Hliðskjálf ok sá of heima alla.", "En er hann leit í norðrætt, þá sá hann á einum bœ mikit hús ok fagrt, ok til þess húss gekk kona, ok er hon tók upp höndum ok lauk hurð fyrir sér þá lýsti af höndum hennar bæði í lopt ok á lög, ok allir heimar birtusk af henni.", "''Gylfaginning'' 37, EB's editionIt chanced one day that Freyr had gone to Hlidskjálf, and gazed over all the world; but when he looked over into the northern region, he saw on an estate a house great and fair.", "And toward this house went a woman; when she raised her hands and opened the door before her, brightness gleamed from her hands, both over sky and sea, and all the worlds were illumined of her.", "''Gylfaginning'' XXXVII, Brodeur's translationThe woman is Gerðr, a beautiful giantess.", "Freyr immediately falls in love with her and becomes depressed and taciturn.", "After a period of brooding, he consents to talk to Skírnir, his foot-page.", "He tells Skírnir that he has fallen in love with a beautiful woman and thinks he will die if he cannot have her.", "He asks Skírnir to go and woo her for him.Þá svarar Skírnir, sagði svá at hann skal fara sendiferð en Freyr skal fá honum sverð sitt.", "Þat var svá gott sverð at sjálft vásk.", "En Freyr lét eigi þat til skorta ok gaf honum sverðit.", "Þá fór Skírnir ok bað honum konunnar ok fekk heitit hennar, ok níu nóttum síðar skyldi hon þar koma er Barey heitir ok ganga þá at brullaupinu með Frey.", "''Gylfaginning'' 37, EB's editionThen Skírnir answered thus: he would go on his errand, but Freyr should give him his own sword—which is so good that it fights of itself—and Freyr did not refuse, but gave him the sword.", "Then Skírnir went forth and wooed the woman for him, and received her promise; and nine nights later she was to come to the place called Barrey, and then go to the bridal with Freyr.", "''Gylfaginning'' XXXVII, Brodeur's translationThe loss of Freyr's sword has consequences.", "According to the ''Prose Edda'', Freyr had to fight Beli without his sword, and slew him with an antler.", "But the result at Ragnarök, the end of the world, will be much more serious.", "Freyr is fated to fight the fire-giant Surtr, and since he does not have his sword he will be defeated.The final battle between Freyr and Surtr, illustration by Lorenz FrølichEven after the loss of his weapon Freyr still has two magical artifacts, both dwarf-made.", "One is the ship Skíðblaðnir, which will have favoring breeze wherever its owner wants to go and can also be folded together like a napkin and carried in a pouch.", "The other is the boar Gullinbursti whose mane glows to illuminate the way for his owner.", "No myths involving Skíðblaðnir have come down to us but Snorri relates that Freyr rode to Baldr's funeral in a wagon pulled by Gullinbursti.===Skaldic poetry===Freyr is referred to several times in skaldic poetry.", "In ''Húsdrápa'', partially preserved in the Prose Edda, he is said to ride a boar to Baldr's funeral.", ":Ríðr á börg til borgar:böðfróðr sonar Óðins:Freyr ok folkum stýrir:fyrstr enum golli byrsta.", "''Húsdrápa'' 7, FJ's edition:The battle-bold Freyr rideth:First on the golden-bristled:Barrow-boar to the bale-fire:Of Baldr, and leads the people.", "''Húsdrápa'' 7, Brodeur's translationIn a poem by Egill Skalla-Grímsson, Freyr is called upon along with Njörðr to drive Eric Bloodaxe from Norway.", "The same skald mentions in ''Arinbjarnarkviða'' that his friend has been blessed by the two gods.", ":En Grjótbjörn:of gæddan hefr:Freyr ok Njörðr:at féar afli.", "''Arinbjarnarkviða'' 17, FJ's edition:Frey and Njord:have endowed:rock-bear:with wealth's force.", "''Arinbjarnarkviða'' 17, Scudder's translation===''Nafnaþulur''===In ''Nafnaþulur'' Freyr is said to ride the horse Blóðughófi (''Bloody Hoof'')." ], [ "''Poetic Edda''", "A detail from Gotland runestone G 181, in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm.", "The three men are interpreted as Odin, Thor, and Freyr.Freyr is mentioned in several of the poems in the ''Poetic Edda''.", "The information there is largely consistent with that of the ''Prose Edda'' while each collection has some details not found in the other.===''Völuspá''===''Völuspá'', the best known of the Eddic poems, describes the final confrontation between Freyr and Surtr during Ragnarök.", ":Surtr fer sunnan:með sviga lævi,:skínn af sverði:sól valtíva.", ":Grjótbjörg gnata,:en gífr rata,:troða halir helveg,:en himinn klofnar.", ":Þá kømr Hlínar:harmr annarr fram,:er Óðinn ferr:við úlf vega,:en bani Belja:bjartr at Surti,:þá mun Friggjar:falla angan.", "''Völuspá'' 51–52, EB's edition:Surtr moves from the south:with the scathe of branches::there shines from his sword:the sun of Gods of the Slain.", ":Stone peaks clash,:and troll wives take to the road.", ":Warriors tread the path from Hel,:and heaven breaks apart.", ":Then is fulfilled Hlín's:second sorrow,:when Óðinn goes:to fight with the wolf,:and Beli's slayer,:bright, against Surtr.", ":Then shall Frigg's:sweet friend fall.", "''Völuspá'' 50–51, Dronke's translationSome scholars have preferred a slightly different translation, in which the sun shines \"from the sword of the gods\".", "The idea is that the sword which Surtr slays Freyr with is the \"sword of the gods\" which Freyr had earlier bargained away for Gerðr.", "This would add a further layer of tragedy to the myth.", "Sigurður Nordal argued for this view but the possibility represented by Ursula Dronke's translation above is equally possible.===''Grímnismál''===''Grímnismál'', a poem which largely consists of miscellaneous information about the gods, mentions Freyr's abode.", ":Alfheim Frey:gáfu í árdaga:tívar at tannféi.", "''Grímnismál'' 5, GJ's edition:Alfheim the gods to Frey:gave in days of yore:for a tooth-gift.", "''Grímnismál'' 5, Thorpe's translationA tooth-gift was a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth.", "Since ''Alfheimr'' or ''Álfheimr'' means \"World of Álfar (Elves)\" the fact that Freyr should own it is one of the indications of a connection between the Vanir and the obscure Álfar.", "''Grímnismál'' also mentions that the sons of Ívaldi made Skíðblaðnir for Freyr and that it is the best of ships.===''Lokasenna''===In the poem ''Lokasenna'', Loki accuses the gods of various misdeeds.", "He criticizes the Vanir for incest, saying that Njörðr had Freyr with his sister.", "He also states that the gods discovered Freyr and Freyja having sex together.", "The god Týr speaks up in Freyr's defense.", ":Freyr er beztr:allra ballriða:ása görðum í;:mey hann né grætir:né manns konu:ok leysir ór höftum hvern.", "''Lokasenna'' 37, GJ's edition:Frey is best:of all the exalted gods:in the Æsir's courts::no maid he makes to weep,:no wife of man,:and from bonds looses all.", "''Lokasenna'' 37, Thorpe's translation''Lokasenna'' also mentions that Freyr has servants called Byggvir and Beyla.", "They seem to have been associated with the making of bread.===''Skírnismál''===\"The Lovesickness of Frey\" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood.The courtship of Freyr and Gerðr is dealt with extensively in the poem ''Skírnismál''.Freyr is depressed after seeing Gerðr.", "Njörðr and Skaði ask Skírnir to go and talk with him.", "Freyr reveals the cause of his grief and asks Skírnir to go to Jötunheimr to woo Gerðr for him.", "Freyr gives Skírnir a steed and his magical sword for the journey.", ":Mar ek þér þann gef,:er þik um myrkvan berr:vísan vafrloga,:ok þat sverð,:er sjalft mun vegask:ef sá er horskr, er hefr.", "''Skírnismál'' 9, GJ's edition:My steed I lend thee:to lift thee o'er the weird:ring of flickering flame,:the sword also:which swings itself,:if wise be he who wields it.", "''Skírnismál'' 9, Hollander's translationWhen Skírnir finds Gerðr he starts by offering her treasures if she will marry Freyr.", "When she declines he forces her to accept by threatening her with destructive magic." ], [ "''Ynglinga saga''", "Yngvi-Freyr constructs the Temple at Uppsala in this early 19th century artwork by Hugo Hamilton.", "\"In Freyr's Temple near Uppsala\" (1882) by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine.Snorri Sturluson starts his epic history of the kings of Norway with ''Ynglinga saga'', a euhemerized account of the Norse gods.", "Here Odin and the Æsir are men from Asia who gain power through their prowess in war and Odin's skills.", "But when Odin attacks the Vanir he bites off more than he can chew and peace is negotiated after the destructive and indecisive Æsir-Vanir War.", "Hostages are exchanged to seal the peace deal and the Vanir send Freyr and Njörðr to live with the Æsir.", "At this point the saga, like ''Lokasenna'', mentions that incest was practised among the Vanir.Þá er Njörðr var með Vönum, þá hafði hann átta systur sína, því at þat váru þar lög; váru þeirra börn Freyr ok Freyja.", "En þat var bannat með Ásum at byggja svá náit at frændsemi.", "''Ynglinga saga'' 4, Schultz's editionWhile Njord was with the Vanaland people he had taken his own sister in marriage, for that wasallowed by their law; and their children were Frey and Freya.", "But among the Asaland people it was forbidden to intermarry with such near relations.", "''Ynglinga saga'' 4, Laing's translationOdin makes Njörðr and Freyr priests of sacrifices and they become influential leaders.", "Odin goes on to conquer the North and settles in Sweden where he rules as king, collects taxes and maintains sacrifices.", "After Odin's death, Njörðr takes the throne.", "During his rule there is peace and good harvest and the Swedes come to believe that Njörðr controls these things.", "Eventually Njörðr falls ill and dies.Freyr tók þá ríki eptir Njörð; var hann kallaðr dróttinn yfir Svíum ok tók skattgjafir af þeim; hann var vinsæll ok ársæll sem faðir hans.", "Freyr reisti at Uppsölum hof mikit, ok setti þar höfuðstað sinn; lagði þar til allar skyldir sínar, lönd ok lausa aura; þá hófst Uppsala auðr, ok hefir haldizt æ síðan.", "Á hans dögum hófst Fróða friðr, þá var ok ár um öll lönd; kendu Svíar þat Frey.", "Var hann því meir dýrkaðr en önnur goðin, sem á hans dögum varð landsfólkit auðgara en fyrr af friðinum ok ári.", "Gerðr Gýmis dóttir hét kona hans; sonr þeirra hét Fjölnir.", "Freyr hét Yngvi öðru nafni; Yngva nafn var lengi síðan haft í hans ætt fyrir tignarnafn, ok Ynglingar váru síðan kallaðir hans ættmenn.", "Freyr tók sótt; en er at honum leið sóttin, leituðu menn sér ráðs, ok létu fá menn til hans koma, en bjoggu haug mikinn, ok létu dyrr á ok 3 glugga.", "En er Freyr var dauðr, báru þeir hann leyniliga í hauginn, ok sögðu Svíum at hann lifði, ok varðveittu hann þar 3 vetr.", "En skatt öllum heltu þeir í hauginn, í einn glugg gullinu, en í annan silfrinu, í hinn þriðja eirpenningum.", "Þá hélzt ár ok friðr.", "''Ynglinga saga'' 12, Schultz's editionFrey took the kingdom after Njord, and was called ''drot'' by the Swedes, and they paid taxes to him.", "He was, like his father, fortunate in friends and in good seasons.", "Frey built a great temple at Upsal, made it his chief seat, and gave it all his taxes, his land, and goods.", "Then began the Upsal domains, which have remained ever since.", "Then began in his days the Frode-peace; and then there were good seasons, in all the land, which the Swedes ascribed to Frey, so that he was more worshipped than the other gods, as the people became much richer in his days by reason of the peace and good seasons.", "His wife was called Gerd, daughter of Gymir, and their son was called Fjolne.", "Frey was called by another name, Yngve; and this name Yngve was considered long after in his race as a name of honour, so that his descendants have since been called Ynglinger.", "Frey fell into a sickness; and as his illness took the upper hand, his men took the plan of letting few approach him.", "In the meantime they raised a great mound, in which they placed a door with three holes in it.", "Now when Frey died they bore him secretly into the mound, but told the Swedes he was alive; and they kept watch over him for three years.", "They brought all the taxes into the mound, and through the one hole they put in the gold, through the other the silver, and through the third the copper money that was paid.", "Peace and good seasons continued.", "''Ynglinga saga'' 12, Laing's translationÞá er allir Svíar vissu, at Freyr var dauðr, en hélzt ár ok friðr, þá trúðu þeir, at svá mundi vera, meðan Freyr væri á Svíþjóð, ok vildu eigi brenna hann, ok kölluðu hann veraldar goð ok blótuðu mest til árs ok friðar alla ævi síðan.", "''Ynglinga saga'' 13, Schultz's editionWhen it became known to the Swedes that Frey was dead, and yet peace and good seasons continued, they believed that it must be so as long as Frey remained in Sweden; and therefore they would not burn his remains, but called him the god of this world, and afterwards offered continually blood-sacrifices to him, principally for peace and good seasons.", "''Ynglinga saga'' 13, Laing's translationFreyr had a son named Fjölnir, who succeeds him as king and rules during the continuing period of peace and good seasons.", "Fjölnir's descendants are enumerated in ''Ynglingatal'' which describes the mythological kings of Sweden." ], [ "''Ögmundar þáttr dytts''", "The 14th century Icelandic ''Ögmundar þáttr dytts'' contains a tradition of how Freyr was transported in a wagon and administered by a priestess, in Sweden.", "Freyr's role as a fertility god needed a female counterpart in a divine couple (McKinnell's translation 1987):In this short story, a man named Gunnar was suspected of manslaughter and escaped to Sweden, where Gunnar became acquainted with this young priestess.", "He helped her drive Freyr's wagon with the god effigy in it, but the god did not appreciate Gunnar and so attacked him and would have killed Gunnar if he had not promised himself to return to the Christian faith if he would make it back to Norway.", "When Gunnar had promised this, a demon jumped out of the god effigy and so Freyr was nothing but a piece of wood.", "Gunnar destroyed the wooden idol and dressed himself as Freyr, then Gunnar and the priestess travelled across Sweden where people were happy to see the god visiting them.", "After a while he made the priestess pregnant, but this was seen by the Swedes as confirmation that Freyr was truly a fertility god and not a scam.", "Finally, Gunnar had to flee back to Norway with his young bride and had her baptized at the court of Olaf Tryggvason." ], [ "Other Icelandic sources", "Worship of Freyr is alluded to in several Icelanders' sagas.The protagonist of ''Hrafnkels saga'' is a priest of Freyr.", "He dedicates a horse to the god and kills a man for riding it, setting in motion a chain of fateful events.In ''Gísla saga'' a chieftain named ''Þorgrímr Freysgoði'' is an ardent worshipper of Freyr.", "When he dies he is buried in a howe.", "''Varð og sá hlutur einn er nýnæmum þótti gegna að aldrei festi snæ utan og sunnan á haugi Þorgríms og eigi fraus; og gátu menn þess til að hann myndi Frey svo ávarður fyrir blótin að hann myndi eigi vilja að freri á milli þeirra.", "''And now, too, a thing happened which seemed strange and new.", "No snow lodged on the south side of Thorgrim's howe, nor did it freeze there.", "And men guessed it was because Thorgrim had been so dear to Frey for his worship's sake that the god would not suffer the frost to come between them.", "-''Hallfreðar saga'', ''Víga-Glúms saga'' and ''Vatnsdœla saga'' also mention Freyr.Other Icelandic sources referring to Freyr include ''Íslendingabók'', , and ''Hervarar saga''.", "''Íslendingabók'', written 1125, is the oldest Icelandic source that mentions Freyr, including him in a genealogy of Swedish kings.", "includes a heathen oath to be sworn at an assembly where Freyr, Njörðr, and \"the almighty ''áss''\" are invoked.", "''Hervarar saga'' mentions a Yuletide sacrifice of a boar to Freyr." ], [ "''Gesta Danorum''", "The 12th Century Danish ''Gesta Danorum'' describes Freyr, under the name '''Frø''', as the \"viceroy of the gods\".Frø quoque deorum satrapa sedem haud procul Upsala cepit, ubi veterem litationis morem tot gentibus ac saeculis usurpatum tristi infandoque piaculo mutavit.", "Siquidem humani generis hostias mactare aggressus foeda superis libamenta persolvit.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 3, Olrik's editionThere was also a viceroy of the gods, Frø, who took up residence not far from Uppsala and altered the ancient system of sacrifice practised for centuries among many peoples to a morbid and unspeakable form of expiation.", "He delivered abominable offerings to the powers above by instituting the slaughter of human victims.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 3, Fisher's translationThat Freyr had a cult at Uppsala is well confirmed from other sources.", "The reference to the change in sacrificial ritual may also reflect some historical memory.", "There is archaeological evidence for an increase in human sacrifices in the late Viking Age though among the Norse gods human sacrifice is most often linked to Odin.", "Another reference to Frø and sacrifices is found earlier in the work, where the beginning of an annual ''blót'' to him is related.", "King Hadingus is cursed after killing a divine being and atones for his crime with a sacrifice.Siquidem propitiandorum numinum gratia Frø deo rem divinam furvis hostiis fecit.", "Quem litationis morem annuo feriarum circuitu repetitum posteris imitandum reliquit.", "Frøblot Sueones vocant.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 1, Olrik's editionIn order to mollify the divinities he did indeed make a holy sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to the god Frø.", "He repeated this mode of propitiation at an annual festival and left it to be imitated by his descendants.", "The Swedes call it Frøblot.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 1, Fisher's translationThe sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to Freyr has a parallel in Ancient Greek religion where the chthonic fertility deities preferred dark-coloured victims to lighter ones.In book 9, Saxo identifies Frø as the \"king of Sweden\" (''rex Suetiae''):Quo tempore rex Suetiae Frø, interfecto Norvagiensium rege Sywardo, coniuges necessariorum eius prostibulo relegatas publice constuprandas exhibuit.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 9, Olrik's editionAbout this time the Swedish ruler Frø, after killing Sivard, king of the Norwegians, removed the wives of Sivard's relatives to a brothel and exposed them to public prostitution.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 9, Fisher's translationThe reference to public prostitution may be a memory of fertility cult practices.", "Such a memory may also be the source of a description in book 6 of the stay of Starcatherus, a follower of Odin, in Sweden.Mortuo autem Bemono, Starcatherus ab athletis Biarmensibus ob virtutem accitus, cum plurima apud eos memoratu digna edidisset facinora, Sueonum fines ingreditur.", "Ubi cum filiis Frø septennio feriatus ab his tandem ad Haconem Daniae tyrannum se contulit, quod apud Upsalam sacrificiorum tempore constitutus effeminatos corporum motus scaenicosque mimorum plausus ac mollia nolarum crepitacula fastidiret.", "Unde patet, quam remotum a lascivia animum habuerit, qui ne eius quidem spectator esse sustinuit.", "Adeo virtus luxui resistit.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 6, Olrik's editionAfter Bemoni's death Starkather, because of his valour, was summoned by the Biarmian champions and there performed many feats worthy of the tellings.", "Then he entered Swedish territory where he spent seven years in a leisurely stay with the sons of Frø, after which he departed to join Haki, the lord of Denmark, for, living at Uppsala in the period of sacrifices, he had become disgusted with the womanish body movements, the clatter of actors on the stage and the soft tinkling of bells.", "It is obvious how far his heart was removed from frivolity if he could not even bear to watch these occasions.", "A manly individual is resistant to wantonness.", "''Gesta Danorum'' 6, Fisher's translation" ], [ "Yngvi", "A strophe of the Anglo-Saxon rune poem (c. 1100) records that::''Ing was first among the East Danes seen by men''This may refer to the origins of the worship of '''Ingui''' in the tribal areas that Tacitus mentions in his ''Germania'' as being populated by the Inguieonnic tribes.", "A later Danish chronicler lists Ingui was one of three brothers that the Danish tribes descended from.", "The strophe also states that \"then he (Ingui) went back over the waves, his wagon behind him\" which could connect Ingui to earlier conceptions of the wagon processions of Nerthus and the later Scandinavian conceptions of Freyr's wagon journeys.Ingui is mentioned also in some later Anglo-Saxon literature under varying forms of his name, such as \"For what doth Ingeld have to do with Christ\" and the variants used in Beowulf to designate the kings as 'leader of the friends of Ing'.", "The compound Ingui-Frea (OE) and Yngvi-Freyr (ON) likely refer to the connection between the god and the Germanic kings' role as priests during the sacrifices in the pagan period, as ''Frea'' and ''Freyr'' are titles meaning 'Lord'.The Swedish royal dynasty was known as the Ynglings from their descent from Yngvi-Freyr.", "This is supported by Tacitus, who wrote about the Germans: \"In their ancient songs, their only way of remembering or recording the past they celebrate an earth-born god Tuisco, and his son Mannus, as the origin of their race, as their founders.", "To Mannus they assign three sons, from whose names, they say, the coast tribes are called Ingaevones; those of the interior, Herminones; all the rest, Istaevones\"." ], [ "Archaeological record", "===Rällinge statuette===In 1904, a Viking Age statuette identified as a depiction of Freyr was discovered on the farm Rällinge in Lunda, Södermanland parish in the province of Södermanland, Sweden.", "The depiction features a cross-legged seated, bearded male with an erect penis.", "He is wearing a pointed cap or helmet and stroking his triangular beard.", "The seven-centimeter-tall statue is displayed at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.===Skog tapestry===A part of the Swedish Skog tapestry depicts three figures that have been interpreted as allusions to Odin, Thor, and Freyr, but also as the three Scandinavian holy kings Canute, Eric and Olaf.", "The figures coincide with 11th century descriptions of statue arrangements recorded by Adam of Bremen at the Temple at Uppsala and written accounts of the gods during the late Viking Age.", "The tapestry is originally from Hälsingland, Sweden but is now housed at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.===Gullgubber===Small pieces of gold foil featuring engravings dating from the Migration Period into the early Viking Age (known as ''gullgubber'') have been discovered in various locations in Scandinavia, at one site almost 2,500.The foil pieces have been found largely on the sites of buildings, only rarely in graves.", "The figures are sometimes single, occasionally an animal, sometimes a man and a woman with a leafy bough between them, facing or embracing one another.", "The human figures are almost always clothed and are sometimes depicted with their knees bent.", "Scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson says that it has been suggested that the figures are taking part in a dance, and that they may have been connected with weddings, as well as linked to the Vanir group of gods, representing the notion of a divine marriage, such as in the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Skírnismál''; the coming together of Gerðr and Freyr.File:Guldgubbe.jpgImage:Three kings or three gods.jpg\|The Skog Church Tapestry portion possibly depicting Odin, Thor and FreyrFile:Goldgubb.jpg\|An example of the small gold pieces of foil that may depict Gerðr and Freyr" ], [ "Toponyms", "Norway* ''Freysakr'' (\"Freyr's field\") - name of two old farms in Gol and Torpa.", "* ''Freyshof'' (\"Freyr's temple\") - name of two old farms in Hole and Trøgstad.", "* ''Freysland'' (\"Freyr's land/field\") - name of six old farms in Feda, Halse, Førde, Sogndal, Søgne and Torpa.", "* ''Freyslíð'' (\"Freyr's hill\") - name of two old farms in Lunner and Torpa.", "* ''Freysnes'' (\"Freyr's headland\") - name of an old farm in Sandnes.", "* ''Freyssetr'' (\"Freyr's farm\") - name of two old farms in Masfjorden and Soknedal.", "* ''Freyssteinn'' (\"Freyr's stone\") - name of an old farm in Lista.", "* ''Freysteigr'' (\"Freyr's field\") - name of an old farm in Ramnes.", "* ''Freysvík'' (\"Freyr's inlet/bay\") - name of two old farms in Fresvik and Ullensvang.", "* ''Freysvin'' (\"Freyr's meadow\") - name of four old farms in Hole, Lom, Sunnylven and Østre Gausdal.", "* ''Freysvǫllr'' (\"Freyr's field\") - name of an old farm in Sør-Odal.", "* ''Freysþveit'' (\"Freyr's thwaite\") - name of an old farm in Hedrum.Sweden* ''Fröslunda'' (\"Freyr's grove\") - Uppland* ''Frösåker'' (\"Freyr's field\") - Uppland* ''Frösön'' (\"Freyr's island\") - Jämtland* ''Fröseke'' (\"Freyr's oak forest\") - Småland* ''Frösve'' (\"Freyr's sanctuary\") - Västergötland* ''Frösakull'' (\"Freyr's hill\") – Halland Denmark* ''Frøs Herred'' (\"Freyr's Shire\") - Southern Jutland" ], [ "Modern influence", "Freyr appears in numerous works of modern art and literature.", "He appears, for example, alongside numerous othe figures from Norse mythology in the Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger's ''Nordens Guder'' (1819).", "He also appears in Icelandic poet Gerður Kristný's ''Blóðhófnir'' (2010), a feminist retelling of the Eddic poem ''Skírnismál'' that won the 2010 Icelandic Literature Award." ], [ "See also", "* List of Germanic deities" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon (1989).", "''Íslensk orðsifjabók''.", "Reykjavík: Orðabók Háskólans.", "* * Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (tr.)", "(1916).", "''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''.", "New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation.", "Available online** * * * * * Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.)", "(2005).", "''Snorra-Edda: Formáli & Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''.", "Published online: GYLFAGINNING* Finnur Jónsson (1913).", "''Goðafræði Norðmanna og Íslendinga eftir heimildum''.", "Reykjavík: Hið íslenska bókmentafjelag.", "* Finnur Jónsson (1931).", "''Lexicon Poeticum''.", "København: S. L. Møllers Bogtrykkeri.", "* Guðni Jónsson (ed.)", "(1949).", "Eddukvæði : Sæmundar Edda.", "Reykjavík: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan.", "* * * * Leiren, Terje I.", "(1999).", "''From Pagan to Christian: The Story in the 12th-Century Tapestry of the Skog Church''.", "Published online: * * * \"Rällinge-Frö\" ''Historiska museet''.", "Retrieved 6 February 2006, from the World Wide Web.", "Rällinge-Frö* * * Thordeman, Bengt (ed.)", "(1954) ''Erik den helige : historia, kult, reliker''.", "Stockholm: Nordisk rotogravyr.", "* Thorpe, Benjamin (tr.)", "(1866).", "''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda of Sæmund The Learned''.", "(2 vols.)", "London: Trübner & Co.", "Available online===Primary sources===* Adam of Bremen (edited by G. Waitz) (1876).", "''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum''.", "Berlin.", "Available online Translation of the section on the Temple at Uppsala available at The Temple at Old Uppsala: Adam of Bremen* * * Olrik, J. and H. Ræder (1931).", "''Saxo Grammaticus : Gesta Danorum''.", "Available online" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Freyja" ], [ "Introduction", "John Bauer (1882–1918)In Norse mythology, '''Freyja''' (Old Norse \"(the) Lady\") is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic for seeing and influencing the future).", "Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chariot pulled by two cats, is accompanied by the boar Hildisvíni, and possesses a cloak of falcon feathers.", "By her husband Óðr, she is the mother of two daughters, Hnoss and Gersemi.", "Along with her twin brother Freyr, her father Njörðr, and her mother (Njörðr's sister, unnamed in sources), she is a member of the Vanir.", "Stemming from Old Norse ''Freyja'', modern forms of the name include '''Freya''', '''Freyia''', and '''Freja'''.Freyja rules over her heavenly field, Fólkvangr, where she receives half of those who die in battle.", "The other half go to the god Odin's hall, Valhalla.", "Within Fólkvangr lies her hall, Sessrúmnir.", "Freyja assists other deities by allowing them to use her feathered cloak, is invoked in matters of fertility and love, and is frequently sought after by powerful jötnar who wish to make her their wife.", "Freyja's husband, the god Óðr, is frequently absent.", "She cries tears of red gold for him, and searches for him under assumed names.", "Freyja has numerous names, including ''Gefn'', ''Hörn'', ''Mardöll'', ''Sýr'', ''Vanadís'', and ''Valfreyja''.Freyja is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; in the ''Prose Edda'' and ''Heimskringla'', composed by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century; in several Sagas of Icelanders; in the short story \"''Sörla þáttr''; in the poetry of skalds; and into the modern age in Scandinavian folklore.Scholars have debated whether Freyja and the goddess Frigg ultimately stem from a single goddess common among the Germanic peoples.", "They have connected her to the valkyries, female battlefield choosers of the slain, and analyzed her relation to other goddesses and figures in Germanic mythology, including the thrice-burnt and thrice-reborn Gullveig/Heiðr, the goddesses Gefjon, Skaði, Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa, Menglöð, and the 1st century CE \"Isis\" of the Suebi.", "In Scandinavia, Freyja's name frequently appears in the names of plants, especially in southern Sweden.", "Various plants in Scandinavia once bore her name, but it was replaced with the name of the Virgin Mary during the process of Christianization.", "Rural Scandinavians continued to acknowledge Freyja as a supernatural figure into the 19th century, and Freyja has inspired various works of art." ], [ "Name<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Etymology and names\"></span>", "=== Etymology ===The name ''Freyja'' transparently means 'lady, mistress' in Old Norse.", "Stemming from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun ''frawjōn'' ('lady, mistress'), it is cognate with Old Saxon ''frūa'' ('lady, mistress') or Old High German ('lady'; cf.", "modern German ).", "''Freyja'' is also etymologically close to the name of the god ''Freyr'', meaning 'lord' in Old Norse.", "The theonym ''Freyja'' is thus considered to have been an epithet in origin, replacing a personal name that is now unattested.=== Alternative names ===In addition to ''Freyja'', Old Norse sources refer to the goddess by the following names:Name (Old Norse)Name meaningAttestationsNotesGef'the giver'''Gylfaginning'', ''Nafnaþulur''The name ''Gefn'' likely means \"she who gives (prosperity or happiness) and is generally considered connected to the goddess name ''Gefjon'', but the etymology of the name ''Gefjon'' has been a matter of dispute.", "The root ''Gef-'' in ''Gef-jon'' is generally theorized as related to the root ''Gef-'' in the name ''Gef-n''.\"", "The connection between the two names has resulted in etymological results of Gefjun meaning \"the giving one\".", "The names ''Gefjun'' and ''Gefn'' are both related to the Alagabiae or Ollogabiae, Matron groups.Scholar Richard North theorizes that Old English ''geofon'' and Old Norse ''Gefjun'' and Freyja's name ''Gefn'' may all descend from a common origin; ''gabia'' a Germanic goddess connected with the sea, whose name means \"giving\".Hörn'flaxen'(?", ")''Gylfaginning'', ''Nafnaþulur''Appears in the Swedish place names Härnösand, Härnevi and Järnevi, stemming from the reconstructed Old Norse place name ''Hörnar-vé'' (meaning \"Hörn's vé\").", "In addition, the name ''Hörn'' also appears as the name of a troll woman in ''Nafnaþulur''.MardöllPotentially 'sea-brightener' by way of ''mar'' ('sea') combined with a second element that may be related to ''Dellingr'', indicating light.", "The name may otherwise mean 'the one who makes the sea swell'.", "''Gylfaginning'', ''Nafnaþulur''May be connected to the god name ''Heimdallr''.Skjálf'shaker'''Nafnaþulur''Also the name of the daughter of a Finnish king in ''Ynglinga saga''.", "Due to necklace imagery in the Finnish Skjálf's tale (Freyja herself owns Brísingamen) a connection between the two names may exist.Sýr'sow'''Gylfaginning'', ''Skáldskaparmál'', ''Nafnaþulur''The pig was an important symbol of the Vanir and sacrificial practices (blót) associated with the group, particularly in association with Freyja and her brother Freyr.Thröng'throng'''Skáldskaparmál''Thrungva'throng'''Nafnaþulur''Valfreyja'Freyja of the slain', 'lady of the slain'''Njals saga''This form occurs in a kenning in poetry contained in ''Njals saga'' (''Valfreyju stafr'', 'Valfreyja's staff'; 'lady of the slain's staff' and/or 'Freyja of the slain's staff').Vanadís'the dís of the vanir'''Skáldskaparmál''The name \"van-child\" ('child of the Vanir') for \"boar\" may be connected.", "The chemical element vanadium would later be named after this name of Freyja, because of the many beautiful chemical compounds containing vanadium." ], [ "Attestations", "===''Poetic Edda''===In the ''Poetic Edda'', Freyja is mentioned or appears in the poems ''Völuspá'', ''Grímnismál'', ''Lokasenna'', ''Þrymskviða'', ''Oddrúnargrátr'', and ''Hyndluljóð''.", "''Völuspá'' contains a stanza that mentions Freyja, referring to her as \"Óð's girl\"; Freyja being the wife of her husband, Óðr.", "The stanza recounts that Freyja was once promised to an unnamed builder, later revealed to be a jötunn and subsequently killed by Thor (recounted in detail in ''Gylfaginning'' chapter 42; see ''Prose Edda'' section below).", "In the poem ''Grímnismál'', Odin (disguised as ''Grímnir'') tells the young Agnar that every day Freyja allots seats to half of those that are slain in her hall Fólkvangr, while Odin owns the other half.flyte in an illustration (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.In the poem ''Lokasenna'', where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between Loki and Freyja.", "The introduction to the poem notes that among other gods and goddesses, Freyja attends a celebration held by Ægir.", "In verse, after Loki has flyted with the goddess Frigg, Freyja interjects, telling Loki that he is insane for dredging up his terrible deeds, and that Frigg knows the fate of everyone, though she does not tell it.", "Loki tells her to be silent, and says that he knows all about her—that Freyja is not lacking in blame, for each of the gods and elves in the hall have been her lover.", "Freyja objects.", "She says that Loki is lying, that he is just looking to blather about misdeeds, and since the gods and goddesses are furious at him, he can expect to go home defeated.", "Loki tells Freyja to be silent, calls her a malicious witch, and conjures a scenario where Freyja was once astride her brother when all of the gods, laughing, surprised the two.", "Njörðr interjects—he says that a woman having a lover other than her husband is harmless, and he points out that Loki has borne children, and calls Loki a pervert.", "The poem continues in turn.The poem ''Þrymskviða'' features Loki borrowing Freyja's cloak of feathers and Thor dressing up as Freyja to fool the lusty jötunn Þrymr.", "In the poem, Thor wakes up to find that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing.", "Thor tells Loki of his missing hammer, and the two go to the beautiful court of Freyja.", "Thor asks Freyja if she will lend him her cloak of feathers, so that he may try to find his hammer.", "Freyja agrees::Benjamin Thorpe translation::That I would give thee, although of gold it were,:and trust it to thee, though it were of silver.", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::Thine should it be though it of silver bright,:And I would give it though 'twere of gold.While Freyja's cats look on, the god Thor is unhappily dressed as Freyja in ''Ah, what a lovely maid it is!''", "(1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith.Loki flies away in the whirring feather cloak, arriving in the land of Jötunheimr.", "He spies Þrymr sitting on top of a mound.", "Þrymr reveals that he has hidden Thor's hammer deep within the earth and that no one will ever know where the hammer is unless Freyja is brought to him as his wife.", "Loki flies back, the cloak whistling, and returns to the courts of the gods.", "Loki tells Thor of Þrymr's conditions.The two go to see the beautiful Freyja.", "The first thing that Thor says to Freyja is that she should dress herself and put on a bride's head-dress, for they shall drive to Jötunheimr.", "At that, Freyja is furious—the halls of the gods shake, she snorts in anger, and from the goddess the necklace Brísingamen falls.", "Indignant, Freyja responds::Benjamin Thorpe translation::Know of me to be of women the lewdest,:if with thee I drive to Jötunheim.", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::Most lustful indeed should I look to all:If I journeyed with thee to the giants' home.The gods and goddesses assemble at a thing and debate how to solve the problem.", "The god Heimdallr proposes to dress Thor up as a bride, complete with bridal dress, head-dress, jingling keys, jewelry, and the famous Brísingamen.", "Thor objects but is hushed by Loki, reminding him that the new owners of the hammer will soon be settling in the land of the gods if the hammer is not returned.", "Thor is dressed as planned and Loki is dressed as his maid.", "Thor and Loki go to Jötunheimr.In the meantime, Thrym tells his servants to prepare for the arrival of the daughter of Njörðr.", "When \"Freyja\" arrives in the morning, Thrym is taken aback by her behavior; her immense appetite for food and mead is far more than what he expected, and when Thrym goes in for a kiss beneath \"Freyja's\" veil, he finds \"her\" eyes to be terrifying, and he jumps down the hall.", "The disguised Loki makes excuses for the bride's odd behavior, claiming that she simply has not eaten or slept for eight days.", "In the end, the disguises successfully fool the jötnar and, upon sight of it, Thor regains his hammer by force.In the poem ''Oddrúnargrátr'', Oddrún helps Borgny give birth to twins.", "In thanks, Borgny invokes vættir, Frigg, Freyja, and other unspecified deities.Reclining atop her boar Hildisvíni, Freyja visits Hyndla in an illustration (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.Nuzzled by her boar Hildisvíni, Freyja gestures to a jötunn in an illustration (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.Freyja is a main character in the poem ''Hyndluljóð'', where she assists her faithful servant Óttar in finding information about his ancestry so that he may claim his inheritance.", "In doing so, Freyja turns Óttar into her boar, Hildisvíni, and, by means of flattery and threats of death by fire, Freyja successfully pries the information that Óttar needs from the jötunn Hyndla.", "Freyja speaks throughout the poem, and at one point praises Óttar for constructing a hörgr (an altar of stones) and frequently making blót (sacrifices) to her::Benjamin Thorpe translation::An offer-stead to me he raised,:with stones constructed;:now is the stone:as glass become.", ":With the blood of oxen:he newly sprinkled it.", ":Ottar ever trusted the Asyniur.", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::For me a shrine of stones he made,:And now to glass the rock has grown;:Oft with the blood of beasts was it red;:In the goddesses ever did Ottar trust.===''Prose Edda''===Freyja appears in the ''Prose Edda'' books ''Gylfaginning'' and ''Skáldskaparmál''.", "In chapter 24 of ''Gylfaginning'', the enthroned figure of High says that after the god Njörðr split with the goddess Skaði, he had two beautiful and mighty children (no partner is mentioned); a son, Freyr, and a daughter, Freyja.", "Freyr is \"the most glorious\" of the gods, and Freyja \"the most glorious\" of the goddesses.", "Freyja has a dwelling in the heavens, Fólkvangr, and that whenever Freyja \"rides into battle she gets half the slain, and the other half to Odin ...\".", "In support, High quotes the ''Grímnismál'' stanza mentioned in the ''Poetic Edda'' section above.High adds that Freyja has a large, beautiful hall called Sessrúmnir, and that when Freyja travels she sits in a chariot and drives two cats, and that Freyja is \"the most approachable one for people to pray to, and from her name is derived the honorific title whereby noble ladies are called ''fruvor'' noble ladies\".", "High adds that Freyja has a particular fondness for love songs, and that \"it is good to pray to her concerning love affairs\".In chapter 29, High recounts the names and features of various goddesses, including Freyja.", "Regarding Freyja, High says that, next to Frigg, Freyja is highest in rank among them and that she owns the necklace Brísingamen.", "Freyja is married to Óðr, who goes on long travels, and the two have a very fair daughter by the name of Hnoss.", "While Óðr is absent, Freyja stays behind and in her sorrow she weeps tears of red gold.", "High notes that Freyja has many names, and explains that this is because Freyja adopted them when looking for Óðr and traveling \"among strange peoples\".", "These names include ''Gefn'', ''Hörn'', ''Mardöll'', ''Sýr'', and ''Vanadís''.Freyja plays a part in the events leading to the birth of Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse.", "In chapter 42, High recounts that, soon after the gods built the hall Valhalla, a builder (unnamed) came to them and offered to build for them in three seasons a fortification so solid that no jötunn would be able to come in over from Midgard.", "In exchange, the builder wants Freyja for his bride, and the sun and the moon.", "After some debate the gods agree, but with added conditions.", "In time, just as he is about to complete his work, it is revealed that the builder is, in fact, himself a jötunn, and he is killed by Thor.", "In the meantime, Loki, in the form of a mare, has been impregnated by the jötunn's horse, Svaðilfari, and so gives birth to Sleipnir.", "In support, High quotes the ''Völuspá'' stanza that mentions Freyja.", "In chapter 49, High recalls the funeral of Baldr and says that Freyja attended the funeral and there drove her cat-chariot, the final reference to the goddess in ''Gylfaginning''.", "''Heimdallr returns the necklace Brísingamen to Freyja'' (1846) by Nils BlommérAt the beginning of the book ''Skáldskaparmál'', Freyja is mentioned among eight goddesses attending a banquet held for Ægir.", "Chapter 56 details the abduction of the goddess Iðunn by the jötunn Þjazi in the form of an eagle.", "Terrified at the prospect of death and torture due to his involvement in the abduction of Iðunn, Loki asks if he may use Freyja's \"falcon shape\" to fly north to Jötunheimr and retrieve the missing goddess.", "Freyja allows it, and using her \"falcon shape\" and a furious chase by eagle-Þjazi, Loki successfully returns her.In chapter 6, a means of referring to Njörðr is provided that refers to Frejya (\"father of Freyr and Freyja\").", "In chapter 7, a means of referring to Freyr is provided that refers to the goddess (\"brother of Freyja\").", "In chapter 8, ways of referring to the god Heimdallr are provided, including \"Loki's enemy, recoverer of Freyja's necklace\", inferring a myth involving Heimdallr recovering Freyja's necklace from Loki.In chapter 17, the jötunn Hrungnir finds himself in Asgard, the realm of the gods, and becomes very drunk.", "Hrungnir boasts that he will move Valhalla to Jötunheimr, bury Asgard, and kill all of the gods—with the exception of the goddesses Freyja and Sif, who he says he will take home with him.", "Freyja is the only one of them that dares to bring him more to drink.", "Hrungnir says that he will drink all of their ale.", "After a while, the gods grow bored of Hrungnir's antics and invoke the name of Thor.", "Thor immediately enters the hall, hammer raised.", "Thor is furious and demands to know who is responsible for letting a jötunn in to Asgard, who guaranteed Hrungnir safety, and why Freyja \"should be serving him drink as if at the Æsir's banquet\".In chapter 18, verses from the 10th century skald's composition ''Þórsdrápa'' are quoted.", "A kenning used in the poem refers to Freyja.", "In chapter 20, poetic ways to refer to Freyja are provided; \"daughter of Njörðr\", \"sister of Freyr\", \"wife of Óðr\", \"mother of Hnoss\", \"possessor of the fallen slain and of Sessrumnir and tom-cats\", possessor of Brísingamen, \"Van-deity\", Vanadís, and \"fair-tear deity\".", "In chapter 32, poetic ways to refer to gold are provided, including \"Freyja's weeping\" and \"rain or shower ... from Freyja's eyes\".Chapter 33 tells that once the gods journeyed to visit Ægir, one of whom was Freyja.", "In chapter 49, a quote from a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason employs the kenning \"Óðr's bedfellow's eye-rain\", which refers to Freyja and means \"gold\".Chapter 36 explains again that gold can be referring to as Freyja's weeping due to her red gold tears.", "In support, works by the skalds Skúli Þórsteinsson and Einarr Skúlason are cited that use \"Freyja's tears\" or \"Freyja's weepings\" to represent \"gold\".", "The chapter features additional quotes from poetry by Einarr Skúlason that references the goddess and her child Hnoss.", "Freyja receives a final mention in the ''Prose Edda'' in chapter 75, where a list of goddesses is provided that includes Freyja.===''Heimskringla''===''Freya'' (1901) by Anders ZornThe ''Heimskringla'' book ''Ynglinga saga'' provides a euhemerized account of the origin of the gods, including Freyja.", "In chapter 4, Freyja is introduced as a member of the Vanir, the sister of Freyr, and the daughter of Njörðr and his sister (whose name is not provided).", "After the Æsir–Vanir War ends in a stalemate, Odin appoints Freyr and Njörðr as priests over sacrifices.", "Freyja becomes the priestess of sacrificial offerings and it was she who introduced the practice of seiðr to the Æsir, previously only practiced by the Vanir.In chapter 10, Freyja's brother Freyr dies, and Freyja is the last survivor among the Æsir and Vanir.", "Freyja keeps up the sacrifices and becomes famous.", "The saga explains that, due to Freyja's fame, all women of rank become known by her name—''frúvor'' (\"ladies\"), a woman who is the mistress of her property is referred to as ''freyja'', and ''húsfreyja'' (\"lady of the house\") for a woman who owns an estate.The chapter adds that not only was Freyja very clever, but that she and her husband Óðr had two immensely beautiful daughters, Gersemi and Hnoss, \"who gave their names to our most precious possessions\".===Other===Freyja is mentioned in the sagas ''Egils saga'', ''Njáls saga'', ''Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka'', and in ''Sörla þáttr''.", ";''Egils saga''In ''Egils saga'', when Egill Skallagrímsson refuses to eat, his daughter Þorgerðr (here anglicized as \"Thorgerd\") says she will go without food and thus starve to death, and in doing so will meet the goddess Freyja:Thorgerd replied in a loud voice, \"I have had no evening meal, nor will I do so until I join Freyja.", "I know no better course of action than my father's.", "I do not want to live after my father and brother are dead.", "\";''Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka''In the first chapter of the 14th century legendary saga ''Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka'', King Alrek has two wives, Geirhild and Signy, and cannot keep them both.", "He tells the two women that he would keep whichever of them that brews the better ale for him by the time he has returned home in the summer.", "The two compete and during the brewing process Signy prays to Freyja and Geirhild to Hött (\"hood\"), a man she had met earlier (earlier in the saga revealed to be Odin in disguise).", "Hött answers her prayer and spits on her yeast.", "Signy's brew wins the contest.", "''Freyja in the Dwarf's Cave'' (1891) by ;''Sörla þáttr''In ''Sörla þáttr'', a short, late 14th century narrative from a later and extended version of the ''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar'' found in the ''Flateyjarbók'' manuscript, a euhemerized account of the gods is provided.", "In the account, Freyja is described as having been a concubine of Odin, who bartered sex to four dwarfs for a golden necklace.", "In the work, the Æsir once lived in a city called Asgard, located in a region called \"Asialand or Asiahome\".", "Odin was the king of the realm, and made Njörðr and Freyr temple priests.", "Freyja was the daughter of Njörðr, and was Odin's concubine.", "Odin deeply loved Freyja, and she was \"the fairest of woman of that day\".", "Freyja had a beautiful bower, and when the door was shut no one could enter without Freyja's permission.Chapter 1 records that one day Freyja passed by an open stone where dwarfs lived.", "Four dwarfs were smithying a golden necklace, and it was nearly done.", "Looking at the necklace, the dwarfs thought Freyja to be most fair, and she the necklace.", "Freyja offered to buy the collar from them with silver and gold and other items of value.", "The dwarfs said that they had no lack of money, and that for the necklace the only thing she could offer them would be a night with each of them.", "\"Whether she liked it better or worse\", Freyja agreed to the conditions, and so spent a night with each of the four dwarfs.", "The conditions were fulfilled and the necklace was hers.", "Freyja went home to her bower as if nothing happened.As related in chapter 2, Loki, under the service of Odin, found out about Freyja's actions and told Odin.", "Odin told Loki to get the necklace and bring it to him.", "Loki said that since no one could enter Freyja's bower against her will, this would not be an easy task, yet Odin told him not to come back until he had found a way to get the necklace.", "Howling, Loki turned away and went to Freyja's bower but found it locked, and that he could not enter.", "So Loki transformed himself into a fly, and after having trouble finding even the tiniest of entrances, he managed to find a tiny hole at the gable-top, yet even here he had to squeeze through to enter.Having made his way into Freyja's chambers, Loki looked around to be sure that no one was awake, and found that Freyja was asleep.", "He landed on her bed and noticed that she was wearing the necklace, the clasp turned downward.", "Loki turned into a flea and jumped onto Freyja's cheek and there bit her.", "Freyja stirred, turning about, and then fell asleep again.", "Loki removed his flea's shape and undid her collar, opened the bower, and returned to Odin.The next morning Freyja woke and saw that the doors to her bower were open, yet unbroken, and that her precious necklace was gone.", "Freyja had an idea of who was responsible.", "She got dressed and went to Odin.", "She told Odin of the malice he had allowed against her and of the theft of her necklace, and that he should give her back her jewelry.Odin said that, given how she obtained it, she would never get it back.", "That is, with one exception: she could have it back if she could make two kings, themselves ruling twenty kings each, battle one another, and cast a spell so that each time one of their numbers falls in battle, they will again spring up and fight again.", "And that this must go on eternally, unless a Christian man of a particular stature goes into the battle and smites them, only then will they stay dead.", "Freyja agreed." ], [ "Later Scandinavian folklore", "Ripe rye in Northern EuropeAlthough the Christianization of Scandinavia sought to demonize the native gods, belief and reverence in the gods, including Freyja, persisted throughout the modern period and melded into Scandinavian folklore.", "comments that Freyja became a particular target under Christianization:Freyja's erotic qualities became an easy target for the new religion, in which an asexual virgin was the ideal woman ... Freyja is called \"a whore\" and \"a harlot\" by the holy men and missionaries, whereas many of her functions in the everyday lives of men and women, such as protecting the vegetation and supplying assistance in childbirth were transferred to the Virgin Mary.However, Freyja did not disappear.", "In Iceland, Freyja was called upon for assistance by way of Icelandic magical staves as late as the 18th century; and as late as the 19th century, Freyja is recorded as retaining elements of her role as a fertility goddess among rural Swedes.The Old Norse poem ''Þrymskviða'' (or its source) continued into Scandinavian folk song tradition, where it was euhemerized and otherwise transformed over time.", "In Iceland, the poem became known as ''Þrylur'', whereas in Denmark the poem became ''Thor af Havsgaard'' and in Sweden it became ''Torvisan'' or ''Hammarhämtningen''.", "A section of the Swedish ''Torvisan'', in which ''Freyja'' has been transformed into \"the fair\" (''den väna'') ''Frojenborg'', reads as follows::Swedish:Det var den väna Frojenborg:hon tog så illa vid sig:det sprack av vart finger blodet ut:och rann i jorden ner.", ":Britt-Mari Näsström translation:It was the fair Frojenborg:She was so upset over Þórr's demand:her blood burst from each of her fingers:and ran down into the ground.In the province of Småland, Sweden, an account is recorded connecting Freyja with sheet lightning in this respect.", "Writer Johan Alfred Göth recalled a Sunday in 1880 where men were walking in fields and looking at nearly ripened rye, where Måns in Karryd said: \"Now Freyja is out watching if the rye is ripe\".", "Along with this, Göth recalls another mention of Freyja in the countryside:When as a boy I was visiting the old Proud-Katrina, I was afraid of lightning like all boys in those days.", "When the sheet lightning flared at the night, Katrina said: \"Don't be afraid little child, it is only Freyja who is out making fire with steel and flintstone to see if the rye is ripe.", "She is kind to people and she is only doing it to be of service, she is not like Thor, he slays both people and livestock, when he is in the mood\" ...", "I later heard several old folks talk of the same thing in the same way.In Värend, Sweden, Freyja could also arrive at Christmas night and she used to shake the apple trees for the sake of a good harvest and consequently people left some apples in the trees for her sake.", "However, it was dangerous to leave the plough outdoors, because if Freyja sat on it, it would no longer be of any use.Many Asatru practitioners today mostly honor Freyja as a goddess of fertility, abundance and beauty.", "A common rite for modern Freya worshippers is to bake foods that have some connection to love in one way or another, such as chocolate.", "Freyja is also called upon for protection, usually when it comes to a domestic violence situation." ], [ "Eponyms", "Freyja's hair—''Polygala vulgaris''—a species of the genus ''Polygala''Several plants were named after Freyja, such as ''Freyja's tears'' and ''Freyja's hair'' (''Polygala vulgaris''), but during the process of Christianization, the name of the goddess was replaced with that of the Virgin Mary.", "In the pre-Christian period, the Orion constellation was called either Frigg's distaff or Freyja's distaff (Swedish ''Frejerock'').Place names in Norway and Sweden reflect devotion to the goddess, including the Norwegian place name Frøihov (originally ''Freyjuhof'', literally \"Freyja's hof\") and Swedish place names such as Frövi (from ''Freyjuvé'', literally \"Freyja's vé\").", "In a survey of toponyms in Norway, M. Olsen tallies at least 20 to 30 location names compounded with ''Freyja''.", "Three of these place names appear to derive from ''Freyjuhof'' ('Freyja's hof'), whereas the goddess's name is frequently otherwise compounded with words for 'meadow' (such as ''-þveit'', -''land'') and similar land formations.", "These toponyms are attested most commonly on the west coast though a high frequency is found in the southeast.Place names containing ''Freyja'' are yet more numerous and varied in Sweden, where they are widely distributed.", "A particular concentration is recorded in Uppland, among which a number derive from the above-mentioned ''Freyjuvé'' and also ''Freyjulundr'' ('Freyja's sacred grove'), place names that indicate public worship of Freyja.", "A variety of place names (such as ''Frøal'' and ''Fröale'') have been seen as containing an element cognate to Gothic ''alhs'' and Old English ''ealh'' (\"temple\"), although these place names may be otherwise interpreted.", "In addition, ''Frejya'' appears as a compound element with a variety of words for geographic features such as fields, meadows, lakes and natural objects such as rocks.The Freyja name ''Hörn'' appears in the Swedish place names Härnevi and Järnevi, stemming from the reconstructed Old Norse place name ''Hörnar-vé'' (meaning \"Hörn's vé\")." ], [ "Archaeological record and historic depictions", "The pendant found in Hagebyhöga, now on display in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in StockholmThe reconstructed wagon found in the Viking Age Oseberg ship burial, featuring a depiction of nine catsA priestess was buried with considerable splendour in Hagebyhöga in Östergötland.", "In addition to being buried with her wand, she had received great riches which included horses, a wagon and an Arabian bronze pitcher.", "There was also a silver pendant, which represents a woman with a broad necklace around her neck.", "This kind of necklace was only worn by the most prominent women during the Iron Age and some have interpreted it as Freyja's necklace Brísingamen.", "The pendant may represent Freyja herself.A 7th-century phalara found in a \"warrior grave\" in what is now Eschwege in northwestern Germany features a female figure with two large braids flanked by two \"cat-like\" beings and holding a staff-like object.", "This figure has been interpreted as Freyja.", "This image may be connected to various B-type bracteates, referred to as the Fürstenberg-type, that may also depict the goddess; they \"show a female figure, in a short skirt and double-looped hair, holding a stave or sceptre in her right hand and a double-cross feature in the left\".Upon its discovery, the 10th century Oseberg ship burial was found to contain a ceremonial wagon.", "One side of the ornate wagon features a depiction of nine cats.", "Scholars have linked this depiction to Freyja's cat-led chariot and a broader associations between the Vanir and wagons.A 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany.", "Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a distaff.", "Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively." ], [ "Theories", "===Relation to Frigg and other goddesses and figures===Due to numerous similarities, scholars have frequently connected Freyja with the goddess Frigg.", "The connection with Frigg and question of possible earlier identification of Freyja with Frigg in the Proto-Germanic period (Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis) remains a matter of scholarly discourse.", "Regarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy comments, \"the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources.", "The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.", "\"Like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name ''Freyja'' is not attested outside of Scandinavia, as opposed to the name of the goddess ''Frigg'', who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as Proto-Germanic ''Frijjō''.", "Similar proof for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which ''Freyja'' descends does not exist, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to lack of evidence.In the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá'', a figure by the name of Gullveig is burnt three times yet is three times reborn.", "After her third rebirth, she is known as Heiðr.", "This event is generally accepted as precipitating the Æsir–Vanir War.", "Starting with scholar Gabriel Turville-Petre, scholars such as Rudolf Simek, Andy Orchard, and John Lindow have theorized that Gullveig/Heiðr is the same figure as Freyja, and that her involvement with the Æsir somehow led to the events of the Æsir–Vanir War.Outside of theories connecting Freyja with the goddess Frigg, some scholars, such as Hilda Ellis Davidson and , have theorized that other goddesses in Norse mythology, such as Gefjon, Gerðr, and Skaði, may be forms of Freyja in different roles or ages.===Receiver of the slain===Freyja and her afterlife field Fólkvangr, where she receives half of the slain, have been theorized as connected to the valkyries.", "Scholar Britt-Mari Näsström points out the description in ''Gylfaginning'' where it is said of Freyja that \"whenever she rides into battle she takes half of the slain\", and interprets ''Fólkvangr'' as \"the field of the Warriors\".", "Näsström notes that, just like Odin, Freyja receives slain heroes who have died on the battlefield, and that her house is Sessrumnir (which she translates as \"filled with many seats\"), a dwelling that Näsström posits likely fills the same function as Valhalla.", "Näsström comments that \"still, we must ask why there are two heroic paradises in the Old Norse view of afterlife.", "It might possibly be a consequence of different forms of initiation of warriors, where one part seemed to have belonged to Óðinn and the other to Freyja.", "These examples indicate that Freyja was a war-goddess, and she even appears as a valkyrie, literally 'the one who chooses the slain'.", "\"Siegfried Andres Dobat comments that \"in her mythological role as the chooser of half the fallen warriors for her death realm Fólkvangr, the goddess Freyja, however, emerges as the mythological role model for the Valkyrjar and the dísir.", "\"===The Oriental hypothesis===Gustav Neckel, writing in 1920, connects Freyja to the Phrygian goddess Cybele.", "According to Neckel, both goddesses can be interpreted as \"fertility goddesses\" and other potential resemblances have been noted.", "Some scholars have suggested that the image of Cybele subsequently influenced the iconography of Freyja, the lions drawing the former's chariot becoming large cats.", "These observations became an extremely common observation in works regarding Old Norse religion until at least the early 1990s.", "In her book-length study of scholarship on the topic of Freyja, Britt-Mari Näsström (1995) is highly critical of this deduction; Näsström says that \"these 'parallels' are due to sheer ignorance about the characteristics of Cybele; scholars have not troubled to look into the resemblances and differences between the two goddesses, if any, in support for their arguments for a common origin.\"" ], [ "In art and literature", "Freia—a combination of Freyja and the goddess Iðunn—from Richard Wagner's opera ''Der Ring des Nibelungen'' as illustrated (1910) by Arthur RackhamInto the modern period, Freyja was treated as a Scandinavian counterpart to the Roman Venus in, for example, Swedish literature, where the goddess may be associated with romantic love or, conversely, simply as a synonym for \"lust and potency\".", "In the 18th century, Swedish poet Carl Michael Bellman referred to Stockholm prostitutes in his ''Fredman's Epistles'' as \"the children of Fröja\".", "In the 19th century, Britt-Mari Näsström observes, Swedish Romanticism focused less on Freyja's erotic qualities and more on the image of \"the pining goddess, weeping for her husband\".Freyja is mentioned in the first stanza (\"it is called old Denmark and it is Freja's hall\") of the civil national anthem of Denmark, ''Der er et yndigt land'', written by 19th century Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger in 1819.In addition, Oehlenschläger wrote a comedy entitled ''Freyjas alter'' (1818) and a poem ''Freais sal'' featuring the goddess.The 19th century German composer Richard Wagner's ''Der Ring des Nibelungen'' opera cycle features ''Freia'', the goddess Freyja combined with the apple-bearing goddess Iðunn.In late 19th century and early 20th century Northern Europe, Freyja was the subject of numerous works of art, including ''Freyja'' by H. E. Freund (statue, 1821–1822), ''Freja sökande sin make'' (painting, 1852) by Nils Blommér, ''Freyjas Aufnahme uner den Göttern'' (charcoal drawing, 1881), and ''Frigg; Freyja'' (drawing, 1883) by , ''Freyja'' (1901) by Carl Emil Doepler d. J., and ''Freyja and the Brisingamen'' by J. Doyle Penrose (painting, 1862–1932).", "Like other Norse goddesses, her name was applied widely in Scandinavia to, for example, \"sweetmeats or to stout carthorses\".", "''Vanadís'', one of Freyja's names, is the source of the name of the chemical element vanadium, so named because of its many colored compounds." ], [ "In popular culture", "Frigga (sometimes called Freyja) is a fictional character appearing in Marvel Comics starting in 1963.The character in particular is based on goddess Freyja of the Norse mythology.Starting in the early 1990s, derivatives of ''Freyja'' began to appear as a given name for girls.", "According to the Norwegian name database from the Central Statistics Bureau, around 500 women are listed with the first name ''Frøya'' (the modern Norwegian spelling of the goddess's name) in the country.", "There are also several similar names, such as the first element of the dithematic personal name ''Frøydis''.Freyja is featured in several video games including the 2002 Ensemble Studios game ''Age of Mythology'', the 2014 third-person multiplayer online battle arena game ''Smite'', the 2018 Santa Monica Studio game God of War, and in its 2022 sequel ''God of War Ragnarök''.", "\"Freya\" is a song by American heavy metal band The Sword from their 2006 debut album ''Age of Winters''.", "A playable cover version was featured in ''Guitar Hero II'', released the same year." ], [ "See also", " List of Germanic deities* List of people, items and places in Norse mythology* :Category:Norse underworld" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * Ingunn Ásdísardóttir.", "2020.", "\"Freyja\" in \"Written Sources\" in Jens Peter Schjødt, John Lindow, and Anders Andrén, ed.", "''The Pre-Christian Religions of the North.", "History and Structures, Volume III: Social, Geographical, and Historic Contexts, and Communication between Worlds'', pp. 1273–1302.Brepols.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "First-class cricket" ], [ "Introduction", "'''First-class cricket''', along with List A cricket and Twenty20 cricket, is one of the highest-standard forms of cricket.", "A first-class match is one of three or more days' scheduled duration between two sides of eleven players each and is officially adjudged to be worthy of the status by virtue of the standard of the competing teams.", "Matches must allow for the teams to play two innings each, although in practice a team might play only one innings or none at all.The etymology of \"first-class cricket\" is unknown, but it was used loosely before it acquired official status in 1895, following a meeting of leading English clubs.", "At a meeting of the Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) in 1947, it was formally defined on a global basis.", "A significant omission of the ICC ruling was any attempt to define first-class cricket retrospectively.", "That has left historians, and especially statisticians, with the problem of how to categorise earlier matches, especially those played in Great Britain before 1895.The Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians (ACS) has published a list of early matches which are believed to have been of a high standard.Test cricket, the highest standard of cricket, is statistically a form of first-class cricket, though the term \"first-class\" is mainly used to refer to domestic competition.", "A player's first-class statistics include any performances in Test matches." ], [ "Initial usage under MCC ruling, May 1894", "Before 1894 \"first-class\" was a common adjective applied to cricket matches in England, used loosely to suggest that a match had a high standard; adjectives like \"great\", \"important\" and \"major\" were also loosely applied to such matches, but there tended to be differences of opinion.", "In the inaugural issue of ''Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game'' on 10 May 1882, the term is used twice on page 2 in reference to the recently completed tour of Australia and New Zealand by Alfred Shaw's XI.", "The report says it is \"taking\" the first-class matches to be one against Sydney (''sic''), two each against Victoria, the Combined team and the Australian Eleven, and another against South Australia.", "In the fourth issue on 1 June 1882, James Lillywhite refers to first-class matches on the tour but gives a different list.The earliest known match scorecards date from 1744 but few have been found before 1772.The cards for three 1772 matches have survived and scorecards became increasingly common thereafter.", "At the beginning of the 1860s, there were only four formally constituted county clubs.", "Sussex was the oldest, formed in 1839, and it had been followed by Kent, Nottinghamshire and Surrey.", "In the early 1860s, several more county clubs were founded, and questions began to be raised in the sporting press about which should be categorised as first-class, but there was considerable disagreement in the answers.", "In 1880, the Cricket Reporting Agency was founded.", "It acquired influence through the decade especially by association with ''Wisden Cricketers' Almanack'' (''Wisden'') and the press came to generally rely on its information and opinions.The term acquired official status, though limited to matches in Great Britain, following a meeting at Lord's in May 1894 between the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) committee and the secretaries of the clubs involved in the official County Championship, which had begun in 1890.As a result, those clubs became first-class from 1895 along with MCC, Cambridge University, Oxford University, senior cricket touring teams (i.e., Australia and South Africa at that time) and other teams designated as such by MCC (e.g., North v South, Gentlemen v Players and occasional \"elevens\" which consisted of recognised first-class players).", "Officially, therefore, the inaugural first-class match was the opening game of the 1895 season between MCC and Nottinghamshire at Lord's on 1 and 2 May, MCC winning by 37 runs.", "\"Test match\" was another loosely applied term at the time but the first list of matches considered to be \"Tests\" was conceived and published by South Australian journalist Clarence P. Moody in his 1894 book, ''Australian Cricket and Cricketers, 1856 to 1893–94''.", "His proposal was widely accepted after a list of 39 matches was reproduced in the 28 December 1894 issue of ''Cricket'' magazine.", "The list began with the Melbourne Cricket Ground match played 15–17 March 1877 and ended with a recent match at the Association Ground, Sydney played 14–20 December 1894.All of Moody's matches, plus four additional ones, were retrospectively recognised as Test matches and also, thereby, as first-class matches." ], [ "Formal definition under ICC ruling, May 1947", "The term \"first-class cricket\" was formally defined by the then Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) on 19 May 1947.It was made clear that the definition \"will not have retrospective effect\".", "The definition is as follows:A match of three or more days' duration between two sides of eleven players officially adjudged first-class, shall be regarded as a first-class fixture.", "Matches in which either team have more than eleven players or which are scheduled for less than three days shall not be regarded as first-class.", "The Governing body in each country shall decide the status of teams.For example, MCC was authorised to determine the status of matches played in Great Britain.", "To all intents and purposes, the 1947 ICC definition confirmed the 1894 MCC definition, and gave it international recognition and usage.Hence, official judgment of status is the responsibility of the governing body in each country that is a ''full member'' of the International Cricket Council (ICC).", "The governing body grants first-class status to international teams and to domestic teams that are representative of the country's highest playing standard.", "Later ICC rulings make it possible for international teams from ''associate members'' of the ICC to achieve first-class status but it is dependent on the status of their opponents in a given match.===Definition===According to the ICC definition, a match may be adjudged first-class if:* it is of three or more days scheduled duration* each side playing the match has eleven players* each side may have two innings* the match is played on natural, and not artificial, turf* the match is played at a venue which meets certain standard criteria regarding venues* the match conforms to the Laws of Cricket, except for only minor amendments * the sport's governing body in the appropriate nation, or the ICC itself, recognises the match as first-class.A Test match is a first-class match played between two ICC full member countries, subject to their current status at the ICC and the application of ICC conditions when the match is played.===Recognised matches===In 2010, the ICC published its ''Classification of Official Cricket'' which includes the criteria with which a match must comply to achieve a desired categorisation.", "In the section on first-class cricket, there is a list of the types of match that ''should'' qualify.", "It is important to note, given the differences in opinion about what constitutes a first-class match, that the ICC clearly stipulates that its match type list \"is not exhaustive and is merely '''indicative of the matches which would''' fall into the first-class definition\".", "For example, the list includes matches of recognised first-class teams ''versus'' international touring teams; and the leading domestic championships (using their then-current names) such as the County Championship, Sheffield Shield, Ranji Trophy, etc." ], [ "Examples of first-class domestic competitions", "===Current active men's competitions===CountryNameNotesCounty Championship4-Day Domestic SeriesSheffield ShieldPlunket ShieldRanji Trophy Duleep TrophyCompetition between zonal teams selected by BCCI Irani CupPlayed between the winner of Ranji Trophy and a Rest of India team selected by BCCIQuaid-e-Azam TrophyPlayed by zonal associations since 2019.President's TrophyCompetition between teams representing the government and semi-government departmentsWest Indies Championship Headley Weekes Tri-SeriesPlayed between the West Indies Academy team and two teams drawn from the best performers in the West Indies Championship and outside the starting West Indies Test XIMajor League TournamentNational Cricket League Played by 8 division-based teams selected by the BCB.", "Bangladesh Cricket LeaguePlayed between 4 zone teams selected by the BCBLogan CupAhmad Shah Abdali 4-day Tournament Mirwais Nika 3-Day TournamentInter-Provincial Championship Last played in 2019" ], [ "Retrospective classification of matches played before the definitions", "The absence of any ICC ruling about matches played before 1947 (or before 1895 in Great Britain) is problematic for those cricket statisticians who wish to categorise earlier matches in the same way.", "They have responded by compiling their own match lists and allocating a strictly ''unofficial'' first-class status to the matches they consider to have been of a high standard.", "It is therefore a matter of opinion only with no official support.", "Inevitable differences have arisen and there are variations in published cricket statistics.", "In November 2021, the ICC retrospectively applied first-class status to women's cricket, aligning it with the men's game.===Issue for statisticians===A key issue for the statisticians is when first-class cricket for their purpose is deemed to have begun.", "Writing in 1951, Roy Webber argued that the majority of matches prior to 1864 (i.e., the year in which overarm bowling was legalised) \"cannot be regarded as first-class\" and their records are used \"for their historical associations\".", "This drew a line between what was important historically and what should form part of the statistical record.", "Hence, for pre-1895 (i.e., in Great Britain) cricket matches, \"first-class\" is essentially a statistical concept while the historical concept is broader and takes account of historical significance.", "Webber's rationale was that cricket was \"generally weak before 1864\" (there was a greater and increasingly more organised effort to promote county cricket from about that time) and match details were largely incomplete, especially bowling analyses, which hindered compilation of records.", "According to Webber's view, the inaugural first-class match was the opening game of the 1864 season between Cambridge University and MCC at Fenner's on 12 and 13 May, Cambridge winning by 6 wickets.===Important matches list===When the Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians (ACS) published its ''Guide to First-Class Cricket Matches Played in the British Isles'' in 1982, it tentatively agreed with Webber's 1864 start date by saying that \"the line between first-class and other matches becomes more easily discernible about that date\".", "A year earlier, the ACS had published its ''Guide to Important Cricket Matches Played in the British Isles, 1709–1863'' in which it listed all the known matches during that period which it considered to have historical importance.", "The ACS did stipulate that they had taken a more lenient view of importance regarding matches played in the 18th century than they did of matches played in the 19th century.", "As they explained, surviving details of 18th century matches are typically incomplete while there is a fairly comprehensive store of data about 19th century matches, certainly since 1825.===Earlier startpoints suggested===Subsequently, Webber's view was challenged by Bill Frindall who believed that 1815 should be the startpoint to encompass the entire roundarm bowling phase of cricket's history, although roundarm did not begin in earnest until 1827.In Frindall's view, the inaugural first-class match should have been the opening game of the 1815 season between MCC and Middlesex at Lord's on 31 May and 1 June, Middlesex winning by 16 runs.", "Notwithstanding Frindall's reputation, Webber's view has been revived and reinforced in recent times.", "For example, the ACS researchers Derek Carlaw and John Winnifrith begin their 2020 study of Kent cricketers since 1806 by stating: \"Part One is confined to players who appeared for Kent in important matches from 1806 to 1863 and first-class matches from 1864 to 1914\".On the internet, the ''CricketArchive'' (CA) and ''ESPN Cricinfo'' (CI) databases both say the earliest first-class match was Hampshire v England at Broadhalfpenny Down on 24 and 25 June 1772.At that time, cricket matches were played with a two-stump wicket and exclusively underarm bowling, although other features of the modern game had been introduced.", "The opinion of these databases has been repudiated by both ''Wisden'' and ''Playfair Cricket Annual''.", "''Wisden'' agrees with Frindall by commencing its first-class records in 1815.", "''Playfair'' supports Webber and begins its records in 1864.The status of earlier matches, including many in the ACS' ''Important Matches'' guide, which have left no scorecard and for which only a brief announcement or report exists, must be based on other factors.", "Contemporary importance was often measured by the amount of money at stake and the fact that a match was deemed notable enough to be reported in the press.", "The 18th century matches in the ACS list were primarily compiled to assist historians.", "The earliest match known to have been accorded superior status in a contemporary report (i.e., termed \"a great match\" in this case) and to have been played for a large sum of money was one in Sussex between two unnamed eleven-a-side teams contesting \"fifty guineas apiece\" in June 1697, a match of enormous historical significance but with no statistical data recorded." ], [ "See also", "* List of first-class cricket records* Lists of cricket records* Minor Counties Cricket" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ferdinand de Saussure" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ferdinand de Saussure''' (; ; 26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist, semiotician and philosopher.", "His ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in both linguistics and semiotics in the 20th century.", "He is widely considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics and one of two major founders (together with Charles Sanders Peirce) of semiotics, or ''semiology'', as Saussure called it.One of his translators, Roy Harris, summarized Saussure's contribution to linguistics and the study of \"the whole range of human sciences.", "It is particularly marked in linguistics, philosophy, psychoanalysis, psychology, sociology and anthropology.\"", "Although they have undergone extension and critique over time, the dimensions of organization introduced by Saussure continue to inform contemporary approaches to the phenomenon of language.", "As Leonard Bloomfield stated after reviewing the ''Cours'': \"he has given us the theoretical basis for a science of human speech\"." ], [ "Biography", "Saussure was born in Geneva in 1857.His father, Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure, was a mineralogist, entomologist, and taxonomist.", "Saussure showed signs of considerable talent and intellectual ability as early as the age of fourteen.", "In the autumn of 1870, he began attending the Institution Martine (previously the Institution Lecoultre until 1969), in Geneva.", "There he lived with the family of a classmate, Elie David.", "After graduating at the top of class, Saussure expected to continue his studies at the Gymnase de Genève, but his father decided he was not mature enough at fourteen and a half, and sent him to the Collège de Genève instead.", "Saussure was not pleased, as he complained: \"I entered the Collège de Genève, to waste a year there as completely as a year can be wasted.", "\"After a year of studying Latin, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit and taking a variety of courses at the University of Geneva, he commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig in 1876.Two years later, at 21, Saussure published a book entitled ''Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes'' (''Dissertation on the Primitive Vowel System in Indo-European Languages'').", "After this, he studied for a year at the University of Berlin under the ''Privatdozent'' Heinrich Zimmer, with whom he studied Celtic and Hermann Oldenberg with whom he continued his studies of Sanskrit.", "He returned to Leipzig to defend his doctoral dissertation ''De l'emploi du génitif absolu en Sanscrit'', and was awarded his doctorate in February 1880.Soon, he relocated to the University of Paris, where he lectured on Sanskrit, Gothic, Old High German, and occasionally other subjects.Ferdinand de Saussure is one of the world's most quoted linguists, which is remarkable as he hardly published anything during his lifetime.", "Even his few scientific articles are not unproblematic.", "Thus, for example, his publication on Lithuanian phonetics is mostly taken from studies by the Lithuanian researcher Friedrich Kurschat, with whom Saussure traveled through Lithuania in August 1880 for two weeks and whose (German) books Saussure had read.", "Saussure, who had studied some basic grammar of Lithuanian in Leipzig for one semester but was unable to speak the language, was thus dependent on Kurschat.Saussure taught at the École pratique des hautes études for eleven years during which he was named Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur (Knight of the Legion of Honor).", "When offered a professorship in Geneva in 1892, he returned to Switzerland.", "Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life.", "It was not until 1907 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics, which he would offer three times, ending in the summer of 1911.He died in 1913 in Vufflens-le-Château, Vaud, Switzerland.", "His brothers were the linguist and Esperantist René de Saussure, and scholar of ancient Chinese astronomy, Léopold de Saussure.", "His son Raymond de Saussure was a psychiatrist and prolific psychoanalytic theorist, who was trained under Sigmund Freud himself.Saussure attempted, at various times in the 1880s and 1890s, to write a book on general linguistic matters.", "His lectures about important principles of language description in Geneva between 1907 and 1911 were collected and published by his pupils posthumously in the famous ''Cours de linguistique générale'' in 1916.Work published in his lifetime includes two monographs and a few dozen papers and notes, all of them collected in a volume of some 600 pages published in 1922.Saussure did not publish anything of his work on ancient poetics even though he had filled more than a hundred notebooks.", "Jean Starobinski edited and presented material from them in the 1970s and more has been published since then.", "Some of his manuscripts, including an unfinished essay discovered in 1996, were published in ''Writings in General Linguistics'', but most of the material in it had already been published in Engler's critical edition of the ''Course'', in 1967 and 1974.Today it is clear that ''Cours'' owes much to its so-called editors Charles Bally and Albert Sèchehaye and various details are difficult to track to Saussure himself or his manuscripts." ], [ "Work and influence", "Saussure's theoretical reconstructions of the Proto-Indo-European language vocalic system and particularly his theory of laryngeals, otherwise unattested at the time, bore fruit and found confirmation after the decipherment of Hittite in the work of later generations of linguists such as Émile Benveniste and Walter Couvreur, who both drew direct inspiration from their reading of the 1878 ''Mémoire''.Saussure had a major impact on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century with his notions becoming incorporated in the central tenets of structural linguistics.", "His main contribution to structuralism was his theory of a two-tiered reality about language.", "The first is the ''langue'', the abstract and invisible layer, while the second, the ''parole'', refers to the actual speech that we hear in real life.", "This framework was later adopted by Claude Levi-Strauss, who used the two-tiered model to determine the reality of myths.", "His idea was that all myths have an underlying pattern, which forms the structure that makes them myths.In Europe, the most important work after Saussure's death was done by the Prague school.", "Most notably, Nikolay Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson headed the efforts of the Prague School in setting the course of phonological theory in the decades from 1940.Jakobson's universalizing structural-functional theory of phonology, based on a markedness hierarchy of distinctive features, was the first successful solution of a plane of linguistic analysis according to the Saussurean hypotheses.", "Elsewhere, Louis Hjelmslev and the Copenhagen School proposed new interpretations of linguistics from structuralist theoretical frameworks.In America, where the term 'structuralism' became highly ambiguous, Saussure's ideas informed the distributionalism of Leonard Bloomfield, but his influence remained limited.", "Systemic functional linguistics is a theory considered to be based firmly on the Saussurean principles of the sign, albeit with some modifications.", "Ruqaiya Hasan describes systemic functional linguistics as a 'post-Saussurean' linguistic theory.", "Michael Halliday argues:===''Course in General Linguistics''===Saussure's most influential work, ''Course in General Linguistics'' (''Cours de linguistique générale''), was published posthumously in 1916 by former students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, based on notes taken from Saussure's lectures in Geneva.", "The ''Course'' became one of the seminal linguistics works of the 20th century not primarily for the content (many of the ideas had been anticipated in the works of other 20th-century linguists) but for the innovative approach that Saussure applied in discussing linguistic phenomena.Its central notion is that language may be analyzed as a formal system of differential elements, apart from the messy dialectics of real-time production and comprehension.", "Examples of these elements include his notion of the linguistic sign, which is composed of the signifier and the signified.", "Though the sign may also have a referent, Saussure took that to lie beyond the linguist's purview.Throughout the book, he stated that a linguist can develop a diachronic analysis of a text or theory of language but must learn just as much or more about the language/text as it exists at any moment in time (i.e.", "\"synchronically\"): \"Language is a system of signs that expresses ideas\".", "A science that studies the life of signs within society and is a part of social and general psychology.", "Saussure believed that semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign, and he called it semiology.===Laryngeal theory===While a student, Saussure published an important work about Proto-Indo-European, which explained unusual forms of word roots in terms of lost phonemes he called ''sonant coefficients''.", "The Scandinavian scholar Hermann Möller suggested that they might be laryngeal consonants, leading to what is now known as the laryngeal theory.", "After Hittite texts were discovered and deciphered, Polish linguist Jerzy Kuryłowicz recognized that a Hittite consonant stood in the positions where Saussure had theorized a lost phoneme some 48 years earlier, confirming the theory.", "It has been argued that Saussure's work on this problem, systematizing the irregular word forms by hypothesizing then-unknown phonemes, stimulated his development of structuralism.===Influence outside linguistics===The principles and methods employed by structuralism were later adapted in diverse fields by French intellectuals such as Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Claude Lévi-Strauss.", "Such scholars took influence from Saussure's ideas in their areas of study (literary studies/philosophy, psychoanalysis, anthropology, etc.", ")." ], [ "View of language", "Saussure approaches the theory of language from two different perspectives.", "On the one hand, language is a system of signs.", "That is, a semiotic system; or a semiological system as he calls it.", "On the other hand, a language is also a social phenomenon: a product of the language community.===Language as semiology=======The bilateral sign====One of Saussure's key contributions to semiotics lies in what he called ''semiology'', the concept of the bilateral (two-sided) sign which consists of 'the signifier' (a linguistic form, e.g.", "a word) and 'the signified' (the meaning of the form).", "Saussure supported the argument for the arbitrariness of the sign although he did not deny the fact that some words are onomatopoeic, or claim that picture-like symbols are fully arbitrary.", "Saussure also did not consider the linguistic sign as random, but as historically cemented.", "All in all, he did not invent the philosophy of arbitrariness but made a very influential contribution to it.The arbitrariness of words of different languages itself is a fundamental concept in Western thinking of language, dating back to Ancient Greek philosophers.", "The question of whether words are natural or arbitrary (and artificially made by people) returned as a controversial topic during the Age of Enlightenment when the medieval scholastic dogma, that languages were created by God, became opposed by the advocates of humanistic philosophy.", "There were efforts to construct a 'universal language', based on the lost Adamic language, with various attempts to uncover universal words or characters which would be readily understood by all people regardless of their nationality.", "John Locke, on the other hand, was among those who believed that languages were a rational human innovation, and argued for the arbitrariness of words.Saussure took it for granted in his time that \"No one disputes the principle of the arbitrary nature of the sign.\"", "He however disagreed with the common notion that each word corresponds \"to the thing that it names\" or what is called the referent in modern semiotics.", "For example, in Saussure's notion, the word 'tree' does not refer to a tree as a physical object, but to the psychological ''concept'' of a tree.", "The linguistic sign thus arises from the psychological ''association'' between the signifier (a 'sound-image') and the signified (a 'concept').", "There can therefore be no linguistic expression without meaning, but also no meaning without linguistic expression.", "Saussure's structuralism, as it later became called, therefore includes an implication of linguistic relativity.", "However, Saussure's view has been described instead as a form of semantic holism that acknowledged that the interconnection between terms in a language was not fully arbitrary and only methodologically bracketed the relationship between linguistic terms and the physical world.The naming of spectral colours exemplifies how meaning and expression arise simultaneously from their interlinkage.", "Different colour frequencies are per se meaningless, or mere ''substance'' or meaning potential.", "Likewise, phonemic combinations that are not associated with any content are only meaningless expression potential, and therefore not considered as ''signs''.", "It is only when a region of the spectrum is outlined and given an arbitrary name, for example, 'blue', that the sign emerges.", "The sign consists of the ''signifier'' ('blue') and the ''signified'' (the colour region), and of the associative link which connects them.", "Arising from an arbitrary demarcation of meaning potential, the signified is not a property of the physical world.", "In Saussure's concept, language is ultimately not a function of reality, but a self-contained system.", "Thus, Saussure's semiology entails a bilateral (two-sided) perspective of semiotics.The same idea is applied to any concept.", "For example, natural law does not dictate which plants are 'trees' and which are 'shrubs' or a different type of woody plant; or whether these should be divided into further groups.", "Like blue, all signs gain semantic ''value'' in opposition to other signs of the system (e.g.", "red, colourless).", "If more signs emerge (e.g.", "'marine blue'), the semantic field of the original word may narrow down.", "Conversely, words may become antiquated, whereby competition for the semantic field lessens.", "Or, the meaning of a word may change altogether.After his death, structural and functional linguists applied Saussure's concept to the analysis of the linguistic form as motivated by meaning.", "The opposite direction of the linguistic expressions as giving rise to the conceptual system, on the other hand, became the foundation of the post-Second World War structuralists who adopted Saussure's concept of structural linguistics as the model for all human sciences as the study of how language shapes our concepts of the world.", "Thus, Saussure's model became important not only for linguistics but for humanities and social sciences as a whole.====Opposition theory====A second key contribution comes from Saussure's notion of the organisation of language based on the principle of opposition.", "Saussure made a distinction between meaning (significance) and ''value''.", "On the semantic side, concepts gain value by being contrasted with related concepts, creating a conceptual system that could in modern terms be described as a semantic network.", "On the level of the sound-image, phonemes and morphemes gain value by being contrasted with related phonemes and morphemes; and on the level of the grammar, parts of speech gain value by being contrasted with each other.", "Each element within each system is eventually contrasted with all other elements in different types of relations so that no two elements have the same value::\"Within the same language, all words used to express related ideas limit each other reciprocally; synonyms like French ''redouter'' 'dread', ''craindre'' 'fear,' and ''avoir peur'' 'be afraid' have value only through their opposition: if ''redouter'' did not exist, all its content would go to its competitors.", "\"Saussure defined his theory in terms of binary oppositions: ''sign—signified, meaning—value, language—speech, synchronic—diachronic, internal linguistics—external linguistics'', and so on.", "The related term markedness denotes the assessment of value between binary oppositions.", "These were studied extensively by post-war structuralists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss to explain the organisation of social conceptualisation, and later by the post-structuralists to criticise it.", "Cognitive semantics also diverges from Saussure on this point, emphasizing the importance of similarity in defining categories in the mind as well as opposition.Based on markedness theory, the Prague Linguistic Circle made great advances in the study of phonetics reforming it as the systemic study of phonology.", "Although the terms opposition and markedness are rightly associated with Saussure's concept of language as a semiological system, he did not invent the terms and concepts that had been discussed by various 19th-century grammarians before him.===Language as a social phenomenon===In his treatment of language as a 'social fact', Saussure touches on topics that were controversial in his time, and that would continue to split opinions in the post-war structuralist movement.", "Saussure's relationship with 19th-century theories of language was somewhat ambivalent.", "These included social Darwinism and Völkerpsychologie or Volksgeist thinking which were regarded by many intellectuals as nationalist and racist pseudoscience.Saussure, however, considered the ideas useful if treated properly.", "Instead of discarding August Schleicher's organicism or Heymann Steinthal's \"spirit of the nation\", he restricted their sphere in ways that were meant to preclude any chauvinistic interpretations.", "'''Organic analogy'''Saussure exploited the sociobiological concept of language as a living organism.", "He criticises August Schleicher and Max Müller's ideas of languages as organisms struggling for living space but settles with promoting the idea of linguistics as a natural science as long as the study of the 'organism' of language excludes its adaptation to its territory.", "This concept would be modified in post-Saussurean linguistics by the Prague circle linguists Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy, and eventually diminished.====The speech circuit====Perhaps the most famous of Saussure's ideas is the distinction between language and speech (Fr.", "''langue et parole''), with 'speech' referring to the individual occurrences of language usage.", "These constitute two parts of three of Saussure's 'speech circuit' (''circuit de parole'').", "The third part is the brain, that is, the mind of the individual member of the language community.", "This idea is in principle borrowed from Steinthal, so Saussure's concept of a language as a social fact corresponds to \"Volksgeist\", although he was careful to preclude any nationalistic interpretations.", "In Saussure's and Durkheim's thinking, social facts and norms do not elevate the individuals but shackle them.", "Saussure's definition of language is statistical rather than idealised.", "::\"Among all the individuals that are linked together by speech, some sort of average will be set up : all will reproduce — not exactly of course, but approximately — the same signs united with the same concepts.", "\"Saussure argues that language is a 'social fact'; a conventionalised set of rules or norms relating to speech.", "When at least two people are engaged in conversation, there forms a communicative circuit between the minds of the individual speakers.", "Saussure explains that language, as a social system, is neither situated in ''speech'' nor the mind.", "It only properly exists between the two within the loop.", "It is located in – and is the product of – the collective mind of the linguistic group.", "An individual has to learn the normative rules of language and can never control them.The task of the linguist is to study the language by analysing samples of speech.", "For practical reasons, this is ordinarily the analysis of written texts.", "The idea that language is studied through texts is by no means revolutionary as it had been the common practice since the beginning of linguistics.", "Saussure does not advise against introspection and takes up many linguistic examples without reference to a source in a text corpus.", "The idea that linguistics is not the study of the mind, however, contradicts Wilhelm Wundt's Völkerpsychologie in Saussure's contemporary context; and in a later context, generative grammar and cognitive linguistics." ], [ "A legacy of ideological disputes", "===Structuralism versus generative grammar===Saussure's influence was restricted to American linguistics which was dominated by the advocates of Wilhelm Wundt's psychological approach to language, especially Leonard Bloomfield (1887–1949).", "The Bloomfieldian school rejected Saussure's and other structuralists' sociological or even anti-psychological (e.g.", "Louis Hjelmslev, Lucien Tesnière) approaches to the theory of language.", "Problematically, the post-Bloomfieldian school was nicknamed 'American structuralism', confusing.", "Although Bloomfield denounced Wundt's Völkerpsychologie and opted for behavioural psychology in his 1933 textbook ''Language'', he and other American linguists stuck to Wundt's practice of analysing the grammatical object as part of the verb phrase.", "Since this practice is not semantically motivated, they argued for the disconnectedness of syntax from semantics, thus fully rejecting structuralism.The question remained why the object should be in the verb phrase, vexing American linguists for decades.", "The post-Bloomfieldian approach was eventually reformed as a sociobiological framework by Noam Chomsky who argued that linguistics is a cognitive science; and claimed that linguistic structures are the manifestation of a random mutation in the human genome.", "Advocates of the new school, generative grammar, claim that Saussure's structuralism has been reformed and replaced by Chomsky's modern approach to linguistics.", "Jan Koster asserts:::it is certainly the case that Saussure considered the most important linguist of the century in Europe until the 1950s, hardly plays a role in current theoretical thinking about language.", "As a result of the Chomskyan revolution, linguistics has gone through a number of conceptual transformations which have led to all kinds of technical pre-occupations that are far beyond linguistic practice of the days of Saussure.", "For the most it seems Saussure has rightly sunk into near oblivion.French historian and philosopher François Dosse however argues that there have been various misunderstandings.", "He points out that Chomsky's criticism of 'structuralism' is directed at the Bloomfieldian school and not the proper address of the term; and that structural linguistics is not to be reduced to mere sentence analysis.", "It is also argued that::\"'Chomsky the Saussurean' is nothing but \"an academic fable\".", "This fable is a result of misreading – by Chomsky himself (1964) and also by others – of Saussure's ''la langue'' (in the singular form) as generativist concept of 'competence' and, therefore, its grammar as the Universal Grammar (UG).", "\"===Saussure versus the social Darwinists===Saussure's ''Course in General Linguistics'' begins and ends with a criticism of 19th-century linguistics where he is especially critical of Volkgeist thinking and the evolutionary linguistics of August Schleicher and his colleagues.", "Saussure's ideas replaced social Darwinism in Europe as it was banished from humanities at the end of World War II.The publication of Richard Dawkins's memetics in 1976 brought the Darwinian idea of linguistic units as cultural replicators back to vogue.", "It became necessary for adherents of this movement to redefine linguistics in a way that would be simultaneously anti-Saussurean and anti-Chomskyan.", "This led to a redefinition of old humanistic terms such as structuralism, formalism, functionalism, and constructionism along Darwinian lines through debates that were marked by an acrimonious tone.", "In a functionalism–formalism debate of the decades following ''The Selfish Gene'', the 'functionalism' camp attacking Saussure's legacy includes frameworks such as Cognitive Linguistics, Construction Grammar, Usage-based linguistics, and Emergent Linguistics.", "Arguing for 'functional-typological theory', William Croft criticises Saussure's use of the organic analogy:::When comparing functional-typological theory to biological theory, one must take care to avoid a caricature of the latter.", "In particular, in comparing the structure of language to an ecosystem, one must not assume that in contemporary biological theory, it is believed that an organism possesses a perfect adaptation to a stable niche inside an ecosystem in equilibrium.", "The analogy of a language as a perfectly adapted 'organic' system where ''tout se tient'' is a characteristic of the structuralist approach, and was prominent in early structuralist writing.", "The static view of adaptation in biology is not tenable in the face of empirical evidence of nonadaptive variation and competing adaptive motivations of organisms.Structural linguist Henning Andersen disagrees with Croft.", "He criticises memetics and other models of cultural evolution and points out that the concept of 'adaptation' is not to be taken in linguistics in the same meaning as in biology.", "Humanistic and structuralistic notions are likewise defended by Esa Itkonen and Jacques François; the Saussurean standpoint is explained and defended by Tomáš Hoskovec, representing the Prague Linguistic Circle.Conversely, other cognitive linguists claim to continue and expand Saussure's work on the bilateral sign.", "Dutch philologist Elise Elffers, however, argues that their view of the subject is incompatible with Saussure's ideas.The term 'structuralism' continues to be used in structural–functional inguistics which despite the contrary claims defines itself as a humanistic approach to language." ], [ "Works", "* (1878) ''Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes'' = Dissertation on the Primitive System of Vowels in Indo-European Languages.", "Leipzig: Teubner.", "( online version in Gallica Program, Bibliothèque nationale de France).", "* (1881) ''De l'emploi du génitif absolu en Sanscrit: Thèse pour le doctorat présentée à la Faculté de Philosophie de l'Université de Leipzig'' = On the Use of the Genitive Absolute in Sanskrit: Doctoral thesis presented to the Philosophy Department of Leipzig University.", "Geneva: Jules-Guillamaume Fick.", "( online version on the Internet Archive).", "* (1916) ''Cours de linguistique générale'', eds.", "Charles Bally & Albert Sechehaye, with the assistance of Albert Riedlinger.", "Lausanne – Paris: Payot.", " 1st trans.", ": Wade Baskin, trans.", "''Course in General Linguistics''.", "New York: The Philosophical Society, 1959; subsequently edited by Perry Meisel & Haun Saussy, NY: Columbia University Press, 2011.", " 2nd trans.", ": Roy Harris, trans.", "''Course in General Linguistics''.", "La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1983.", "* (1922) ''Recueil des publications scientifiques de F. de Saussure''.", "Eds.", "Charles Bally & Léopold Gautier.", "Lausanne – Geneva: Payot.", "* (1993) ''Saussure's Third Course of Lectures in General Linguistics (1910–1911) from the Notebooks of Emile Constantin''.", "(Language and Communication series, vol.", "12).", "French text edited by Eisuke Komatsu & trans.", "by Roy Harris.", "Oxford: Pergamon Press.", "* (1995) ''Phonétique: Il manoscritto di Harvard Houghton Library bMS Fr 266 (8)''.", "Ed.", "Maria Pia Marchese.", "Padova: Unipress, 1995.", "* (2002) ''Écrits de linguistique générale''.", "Eds.", "Simon Bouquet & Rudolf Engler.", "Paris: Gallimard.", ".", " Trans.", ": Carol Sanders & Matthew Pires, trans.", "''Writings in General Linguistics''.", "NY: Oxford University Press, 2006.", " This volume, which consists mostly of material previously published by Rudolf Engler, includes an attempt at reconstructing a text from a set of Saussure's manuscript pages headed \"The Double Essence of Language\", found in 1996 in Geneva.", "These pages contain ideas already familiar to Saussure scholars, both from Engler's critical edition of the Course and from another unfinished book manuscript of Saussure's, published in 1995 by Maria Pia Marchese.", "* (2013) ''Anagrammes homériques''.", "Ed.", "Pierre-Yves Testenoire.", "Limoges: Lambert Lucas.", "* (2014) ''Une vie en lettres 1866 – 1913''.", "Ed.", "Claudia Mejía Quijano.", "ed.", "Nouvelles Cécile Defaut." ], [ "See also", "* Theory of language* Geneva School* Jan Baudouin de Courtenay" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Culler, J.", "(1976).", "''Saussure''.", "Glasgow: Fontana/Collins.", "* Ducrot, O. and Todorov, T. (1981).", "''Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Sciences of Language'', trans.", "C. Porter.", "Oxford: Blackwell.", "* Harris, R. (1987).", "''Reading Saussure''.", "London: Duckworth.", "* Holdcroft, D. (1991).", "''Saussure: Signs, System, and Arbitrariness''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Веселинов, Д.", "(2008).", "''Българските студенти на Фердинанд дьо Сосюр (The bulgarian students of Ferdinand de Saussure)''.", "Университетско издателство \"Св.", "Климент Охридски\" (Sofia University Press).", "* Joseph, J. E. (2012).", "''Saussure''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* * Wittmann, Henri (1974).", "\"New tools for the study of Saussure's contribution to linguistic thought.\"", "''Historiographia Linguistica'' 1.255-64.", "* Velmezova Е., Fadda E.", "(eds.)", "''Ferdinand de Saussure today: semiotics, history, epistemology'' (Sign Systems Studies, 50 1, Tartu University Press).", "https://ojs.utlib.ee/index.php/sss/issue/view/SSS.2022.50.1" ], [ "External links", "* * ''The poet who could smell vowels'': an article in The Times Literary Supplement by John E. Joseph, 14 November 2007.", "* Original texts and resources, published by ''Texto'', .", "* Hearing Heidegger and Saussure by Elmer G.", "Wines.", "* Cercle Ferdinand de Saussure, Swiss society devoted to Saussurean studies." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fat" ], [ "Introduction", "Idealized representation of a molecule of a typical alt=A space-filling model of an unsaturated triglyceride.Composition of fats from various foods, as percentage of their total fatIn nutrition, biology, and chemistry, '''fat''' usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.The term often refers specifically to triglycerides (triple esters of glycerol), that are the main components of vegetable oils and of fatty tissue in animals; or, even more narrowly, to triglycerides that are solid or semisolid at room temperature, thus excluding oils.", "The term may also be used more broadly as a synonym of lipid—any substance of biological relevance, composed of carbon, hydrogen, or oxygen, that is insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents.", "In this sense, besides the triglycerides, the term would include several other types of compounds like mono- and diglycerides, phospholipids (such as lecithin), sterols (such as cholesterol), waxes (such as beeswax), and free fatty acids, which are usually present in human diet in smaller amounts.Fats are one of the three main macronutrient groups in human diet, along with carbohydrates and proteins, and the main components of common food products like milk, butter, tallow, lard, salt pork, and cooking oils.", "They are a major and dense source of food energy for many animals and play important structural and metabolic functions, in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and thermal insulation.", "The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few essential fatty acids that must be included in the diet.", "Dietary fats are also the carriers of some flavor and aroma ingredients and vitamins that are not water-soluble." ], [ "Biological importance", "In humans and many animals, fats serve both as energy sources and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately.", "Each gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about 9 food calories (37 kJ = 8.8 kcal).Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement.", "Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats.Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function.", "Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases.", "When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue.", "This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.===Adipose tissue===The obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue.", "For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.In animals, adipose tissue, or fatty tissue is the body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time.", "Adipocytes (fat cells) store fat derived from the diet and from liver metabolism.", "Under energy stress these cells may degrade their stored fat to supply fatty acids and also glycerol to the circulation.", "These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon and epinephrine).", "Adipose tissue also secretes the hormone leptin." ], [ "Production and processing", "A variety of chemical and physical techniques are used for the production and processing of fats, both industrially and in cottage or home settings.", "They include:* Pressing to extract liquid fats from fruits, seeds, or algae, e.g.", "olive oil from olives* Solvent extraction using solvents like hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide* Rendering, the melting of fat in adipose tissue, e.g.", "to produce tallow, lard, fish oil, and whale oil* Churning of milk to produce butter* Hydrogenation to increase the degree of saturation of the fatty acids* Interesterification, the rearrangement of fatty acids across different triglycerides* Winterization to remove oil components with higher melting points* Clarification of butter" ], [ "Metabolism", "The pancreatic lipase acts at the ester bond, hydrolyzing the bond and \"releasing\" the fatty acid.", "In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum.", "Fatty acids, monoglycerides (one glycerol, one fatty acid), and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down.In the intestine, following the secretion of lipases and bile, triglycerides are split into monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids in a process called lipolysis.", "They are subsequently moved to absorptive enterocyte cells lining the intestines.", "The triglycerides are rebuilt in the enterocytes from their fragments and packaged together with cholesterol and proteins to form chylomicrons.", "These are excreted from the cells and collected by the lymph system and transported to the large vessels near the heart before being mixed into the blood.", "Various tissues can capture the chylomicrons, releasing the triglycerides to be used as a source of energy.", "Liver cells can synthesize and store triglycerides.", "When the body requires fatty acids as an energy source, the hormone glucagon signals the breakdown of the triglycerides by hormone-sensitive lipase to release free fatty acids.", "As the brain cannot utilize fatty acids as an energy source (unless converted to a ketone), the glycerol component of triglycerides can be converted into glucose, via gluconeogenesis by conversion into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and then into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, for brain fuel when it is broken down.", "Fat cells may also be broken down for that reason if the brain's needs ever outweigh the body's.Triglycerides cannot pass through cell membranes freely.", "Special enzymes on the walls of blood vessels called lipoprotein lipases must break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol.", "Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via fatty acid transport proteins (FATPs).Triglycerides, as major components of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and chylomicrons, play an important role in metabolism as energy sources and transporters of dietary fat.", "They contain more than twice as much energy (approximately 9kcal/g or 38kJ/g) as carbohydrates (approximately 4kcal/g or 17kJ/g)." ], [ "Nutritional and health aspects", "The most common type of fat, in human diet and most living beings, is a triglyceride, an ester of the triple alcohol glycerol and three fatty acids.", "The molecule of a triglyceride can be described as resulting from a condensation reaction (specifically, esterification) between each of glycerol's –OH groups and the HO– part of the carboxyl group of each fatty acid, forming an ester bridge with elimination of a water molecule .Other less common types of fats include diglycerides and monoglycerides, where the esterification is limited to two or just one of glycerol's –OH groups.", "Other alcohols, such as cetyl alcohol (predominant in spermaceti), may replace glycerol.", "In the phospholipids, one of the fatty acids is replaced by phosphoric acid or a monoester thereof.The benefits and risks of various amounts and types of dietary fats have been the object of much study, and are still highly controversial topics.===Essential fatty acids===There are two essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human nutrition: alpha-Linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).", "The adult body can synthesize other lipids that it needs from these two." ], [ "Dietary sources", "===Saturated vs. unsaturated fats===Different foods contain different amounts of fat with different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.", "Some animal products, like beef and dairy products made with whole or reduced fat milk like yogurt, ice cream, cheese and butter have mostly saturated fatty acids (and some have significant contents of dietary cholesterol).", "Other animal products, like pork, poultry, eggs, and seafood have mostly unsaturated fats.", "Industrialized baked goods may use fats with high unsaturated fat contents as well, especially those containing partially hydrogenated oils, and processed foods that are deep-fried in hydrogenated oil are high in saturated fat content.Plants and fish oil generally contain a higher proportion of unsaturated acids, although there are exceptions such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil.", "Foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, olive oils, and vegetable oils such as canola.Many careful studies have found that replacing saturated fats with ''cis'' unsaturated fats in the diet reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), diabetes, or death.", "These studies prompted many medical organizations and public health departments, including the World Health Organization (WHO), to officially issue that advice.", "Some countries with such recommendations include:* United Kingdom* United States* India* Canada* Australia* Singapore* New Zealand* Hong KongA 2004 review concluded that \"no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified\" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.This advice is often oversimplified by labeling the two kinds of fats as ''bad fats'' and ''good fats'', respectively.", "However, since the fats and oils in most natural and traditionally processed foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fatty acids, the complete exclusion of saturated fat is unrealistic and possibly unwise.", "For instance, some foods rich in saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, are an important source of cheap dietary calories for a large fraction of the population in developing countries.Concerns were also expressed at a 2010 conference of the American Dietetic Association that a blanket recommendation to avoid saturated fats could drive people to also reduce the amount of polyunsaturated fats, which may have health benefits, and/or replace fats by refined carbohydrates — which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease.For these reasons, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, for example, recommends to consume at least 10% (7% for high-risk groups) of calories from saturated fat, with an average of 30% (or less) of total calories from all fat.", "A general 7% limit was recommended also by the American Heart Association (AHA) in 2006.The WHO/FAO report also recommended replacing fats so as to reduce the content of myristic and palmitic acids, specifically.The so-called Mediterranean diet, prevalent in many countries in the Mediterranean Sea area, includes more total fat than the diet of Northern European countries, but most of it is in the form of unsaturated fatty acids (specifically, monounsaturated and omega-3) from olive oil and fish, vegetables, and certain meats like lamb, while consumption of saturated fat is minimal in comparison.A 2017 review found evidence that a Mediterranean-style diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, overall cancer incidence, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and mortality rate.", "A 2018 review showed that a Mediterranean-like diet may improve overall health status, such as reduced risk of non-communicable diseases.", "It also may reduce the social and economic costs of diet-related illnesses.A small number of contemporary reviews have challenged this negative view of saturated fats.", "For example, an evaluation of evidence from 1966 to 1973 of the observed health impact of replacing dietary saturated fat with linoleic acid found that it ''increased'' rates of death from all causes, coronary heart disease, and cardiovascular disease.", "These studies have been disputed by many scientists, and the consensus in the medical community is that saturated fat and cardiovascular disease are closely related.", "Still, these discordant studies fueled debate over the merits of substituting polyunsaturated fats for saturated fats.====Cardiovascular disease====The effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease has been extensively studied.", "The general consensus is that there is evidence of moderate-quality of a strong, consistent, and graded relationship between saturated fat intake, blood cholesterol levels, and the incidence of cardiovascular disease.", "The relationships are accepted as causal, including by many government and medical organizations.A 2017 review by the AHA estimated that replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat in the American diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia—abnormal blood lipid levels, including high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, \"bad\" cholesterol) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, \"good\" cholesterol).", "These parameters in turn are believed to be risk indicators for some types of cardiovascular disease.", "These effects were observed in children too.Several meta-analyses (reviews and consolidations of multiple previously published experimental studies) have confirmed a significant relationship between saturated fat and high serum cholesterol levels, which in turn have been claimed to have a causal relation with increased risk of cardiovascular disease (the so-called lipid hypothesis).", "However, high cholesterol may be caused by many factors.", "Other indicators, such as high LDL/HDL ratio, have proved to be more predictive.", "In a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors.", "There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity, endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak atherogenic effect.", "Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.====Cancer====The evidence for a relation between saturated fat intake and cancer is significantly weaker, and there does not seem to be a clear medical consensus about it.", "* A meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship between saturated fat and breast cancer.", "However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant relation, and noted the prevalence of confounding factors.", "* Another review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer.", "* Other meta-analyses found evidence for increased risk of ovarian cancer by high consumption of saturated fat.", "* Some studies have indicated that serum myristic acid and palmitic acid and dietary myristic and palmitic saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with alpha-tocopherol supplementation are associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in a dose-dependent manner.", "These associations may, however, reflect differences in intake or metabolism of these fatty acids between the precancer cases and controls, rather than being an actual cause.====Bones====Various animal studies have indicated that the intake of saturated fat has a negative effect on the mineral density of bones.", "One study suggested that men may be particularly vulnerable.====Disposition and overall health====Studies have shown that substituting monounsaturated fatty acids for saturated ones is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure.", "More physical activity, less anger, and less irritability were associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet.Amounts of fat types in selected foods===Monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated fat===Schematic diagram of a triglyceride with a saturated fatty acid (top), a monounsaturated one (middle) and a polyunsaturated one (bottom).The most common fatty acids in human diet are unsaturated or mono-unsaturated.", "Monounsaturated fats are found in animal flesh such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts, and high fat fruits such as olives and avocados.", "Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat.", "The high oleic variety sunflower oil contains at least 70% monounsaturated fat.", "Canola oil and cashews are both about 58% monounsaturated fat.", "Tallow (beef fat) is about 50% monounsaturated fat, and lard is about 40% monounsaturated fat.", "Other sources include hazelnut, avocado oil, macadamia nut oil, grapeseed oil, groundnut oil (peanut oil), sesame oil, corn oil, popcorn, whole grain wheat, cereal, oatmeal, almond oil, hemp oil, and tea-oil camellia.Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be found mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and oysters.Food sources of polyunsaturated fats include: Food source (100g) Polyunsaturated fat (g) Walnuts 47 Canola oil 34 Sunflower seeds 33 Sesame seeds 26 Chia seeds 23.7 Unsalted peanuts 16 Peanut butter 14.2 Avocado oil 13.5 Olive oil 11Safflower oil12.82 Seaweed 11 Sardines 5 Soybeans 7 Tuna 14 Wild salmon 17.3 Whole grain wheat 9.7==== Insulin resistance and sensitivity ====MUFAs (especially oleic acid) have been found to lower the incidence of insulin resistance; PUFAs (especially large amounts of arachidonic acid) and SFAs (such as arachidic acid) increased it.", "These ratios can be indexed in the phospholipids of human skeletal muscle and in other tissues as well.", "This relationship between dietary fats and insulin resistance is presumed secondary to the relationship between insulin resistance and inflammation, which is partially modulated by dietary fat ratios (omega−3/6/9) with both omega−3 and −9 thought to be anti-inflammatory, and omega−6 pro-inflammatory (as well as by numerous other dietary components, particularly polyphenols and exercise, with both of these anti-inflammatory).", "Although both pro- and anti-inflammatory types of fat are biologically necessary, fat dietary ratios in most US diets are skewed towards omega−6, with subsequent disinhibition of inflammation and potentiation of insulin resistance.", "This is contrary to the suggestion that polyunsaturated fats are shown to be protective against insulin resistance.The large scale KANWU study found that increasing MUFA and decreasing SFA intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low.", "However, some MUFAs may promote insulin resistance (like the SFAs), whereas PUFAs may protect against it.====Cancer====Levels of oleic acid along with other MUFAs in red blood cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk.", "The saturation index (SI) of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk.", "MUFAs and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer.", "Both of these variables depend on the activity of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase (Δ9-d).Results from observational clinical trials on PUFA intake and cancer have been inconsistent and vary by numerous factors of cancer incidence, including gender and genetic risk.", "Some studies have shown associations between higher intakes and/or blood levels of omega-3 PUFAs and a decreased risk of certain cancers, including breast and colorectal cancer, while other studies found no associations with cancer risk.====Pregnancy disorders====Polyunsaturated fat supplementation was found to have no effect on the incidence of pregnancy-related disorders, such as hypertension or preeclampsia, but may increase the length of gestation slightly and decreased the incidence of early premature births.Expert panels in the United States and Europe recommend that pregnant and lactating women consume higher amounts of polyunsaturated fats than the general population to enhance the DHA status of the fetus and newborn.===\"Cis fat\" vs. \"trans fat\"===In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have double bonds in ''cis'' configuration (with the adjacent C–C bonds on the same side) as opposed to ''trans''.", "Nevertheless, ''trans'' fatty acids (TFAs) occur in small amounts in meat and milk of ruminants (such as cattle and sheep), typically 2–5% of total fat.", "Natural TFAs, which include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and vaccenic acid, originate in the rumen of these animals.", "CLA has two double bonds, one in the ''cis'' configuration and one in ''trans'', which makes it simultaneously a ''cis''- and a ''trans''-fatty acid.+ Trans fat contents in various natural and traditionally processed foods, in g per 100 g Food type Trans fat content butter2 to 7 g whole milk0.07 to 0.1 g animal fat 0 to 5 gground beef1 g Margarine, a common product that can contain trans fatty acids Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912.Crisco was made by hydrogenating cottonseed oil.", "The formula was revised in the 2000s and now has only a small amount of trans fat.", "Wilhelm Normann patented the hydrogenation of liquid oils in 1902Concerns about ''trans'' fatty acids in human diet were raised when they were found to be an unintentional byproduct of the partial hydrogenation of vegetable and fish oils.", "While these ''trans'' fatty acids (popularly called \"trans fats\") are edible, they have been implicated in many health problems.", "Conversion of ''cis'' to ''trans'' fatty acids in partial hydrogenationThe hydrogenation process, invented and patented by Wilhelm Normann in 1902, made it possible to turn relatively cheap liquid fats such as whale or fish oil into more solid fats and to extend their shelf-life by preventing rancidification.", "(The source fat and the process were initially kept secret to avoid consumer distaste.)", "This process was widely adopted by the food industry in the early 1900s; first for the production of margarine, a replacement for butter and shortening, and eventually for various other fats used in snack food, packaged baked goods, and deep fried products.Full hydrogenation of a fat or oil produces a fully saturated fat.", "However, hydrogenation generally was interrupted before completion, to yield a fat product with specific melting point, hardness, and other properties.", "Partial hydrogenation turns some of the ''cis'' double bonds into ''trans'' bonds by an isomerization reaction.", "The trans configuration is favored because it is the lower energy form.This side reaction accounts for most of the ''trans'' fatty acids consumed today, by far.", "An analysis of some industrialized foods in 2006 found up to 30% \"trans fats\" in artificial shortening, 10% in breads and cake products, 8% in cookies and crackers, 4% in salty snacks, 7% in cake frostings and sweets, and 26% in margarine and other processed spreads.", "Another 2010 analysis however found only 0.2% of trans fats in margarine and other processed spreads.", "Up to 45% of the total fat in those foods containing man-made ''trans'' fats formed by partially hydrogenating plant fats may be ''trans'' fat.", "Baking shortenings, unless reformulated, contain around 30% ''trans'' fats compared to their total fats.", "High-fat dairy products such as butter contain about 4%.", "Margarines not reformulated to reduce ''trans'' fats may contain up to 15% ''trans'' fat by weight, but some reformulated ones are less than 1% trans fat.High levels of TFAs have been recorded in popular \"fast food\" meals.", "An analysis of samples of McDonald's French fries collected in 2004 and 2005 found that fries served in New York City contained twice as much trans fat as in Hungary, and 28 times as much as in Denmark, where trans fats are restricted.", "For Kentucky Fried Chicken products, the pattern was reversed: the Hungarian product containing twice the trans fat of the New York product.", "Even within the United States, there was variation, with fries in New York containing 30% more trans fat than those from Atlanta.====Cardiovascular disease====Numerous studies have found that consumption of TFAs increases risk of cardiovascular disease.", "The Harvard School of Public Health advises that replacing TFAs and saturated fats with ''cis'' monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats is beneficial for health.Consuming trans fats has been shown to increase the risk of coronary artery disease in part by raising levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, often termed \"bad cholesterol\"), lowering levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, often termed \"good cholesterol\"), increasing triglycerides in the bloodstream and promoting systemic inflammation.The primary health risk identified for trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of coronary artery disease (CAD).", "A 1994 study estimated that over 30,000 cardiac deaths per year in the United States are attributable to the consumption of trans fats.", "By 2006 upper estimates of 100,000 deaths were suggested.", "A comprehensive review of studies of trans fats published in 2006 in the New England Journal of Medicine reports a strong and reliable connection between trans fat consumption and CAD, concluding that \"On a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the risk of CAD more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased risk at low levels of consumption (1 to 3% of total energy intake)\".The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CAD comes from the Nurses' Health Study – a cohort study that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976.In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's population during 14 years of followup.", "He determined that a nurse's CAD risk roughly doubled (relative risk of 1.93, CI: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories).", "By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (relative risk of 1.17, CI: 0.97 to 1.41).", "\"The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates.\"", "Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption.", "Replacing 2% of food energy from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CAD (53%).", "By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CAD by 43%.Another study considered deaths due to CAD, with consumption of trans fats being linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of polyunsaturated fats being linked to a decrease in mortality.Trans fat has been found to act like saturated in raising the blood level of LDL (\"bad cholesterol\"); but, unlike saturated fat, it also decreases levels of HDL (\"good cholesterol\").", "The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio with trans fat, a widely accepted indicator of risk for coronary artery disease, is approximately double that due to saturated fat.", "One randomized crossover study published in 2003 comparing the effect of eating a meal on blood lipids of (relatively) cis and trans-fat-rich meals showed that cholesteryl ester transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in apolipoprotein(a) after the trans meals.The citokyne test is a potentially more reliable indicator of CAD risk, although is still being studied.", "A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the highest quartile of trans fat consumption had blood levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) that were 73% higher than those in the lowest quartile.====Breast feeding====It has been established that ''trans'' fats in human breast milk fluctuate with maternal consumption of trans fat, and that the amount of trans fats in the bloodstream of breastfed infants fluctuates with the amounts found in their milk.", "In 1999, reported percentages of trans fats (compared to total fats) in human milk ranged from 1% in Spain, 2% in France, 4% in Germany, and 7% in Canada and the United States.====Other health risks====There are suggestions that the negative consequences of trans fat consumption go beyond the cardiovascular risk.", "In general, there is much less scientific consensus asserting that eating trans fat specifically increases the risk of other chronic health problems:* Alzheimer's disease: A study published in Archives of Neurology in February 2003 suggested that the intake of both trans fats and saturated fats promotes the development of Alzheimer disease, although not confirmed in an animal model.", "It has been found that trans fats impaired memory and learning in middle-age rats.", "The brains of rats that ate trans-fats had fewer proteins critical to healthy neurological function.", "Inflammation in and around the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for learning and memory.", "These are the exact types of changes normally seen at the onset of Alzheimer's, but seen after six weeks, even though the rats were still young.", "* Cancer: There is no scientific consensus that consuming trans fats significantly increases cancer risks across the board.", "The American Cancer Society states that a relationship between trans fats and cancer \"has not been determined.\"", "One study has found a positive connection between trans fat and prostate cancer.", "However, a larger study found a correlation between trans fats and a significant decrease in high-grade prostate cancer.", "An increased intake of trans fatty acids may raise the risk of breast cancer by 75%, suggest the results from the French part of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.", "* Diabetes: There is a growing concern that the risk of type 2 diabetes increases with trans fat consumption.", "However, consensus has not been reached.", "For example, one study found that risk is higher for those in the highest quartile of trans fat consumption.", "Another study has found no diabetes risk once other factors such as total fat intake and BMI were accounted for.", "* Obesity: Research indicates that trans fat may increase weight gain and abdominal fat, despite a similar caloric intake.", "A 6-year experiment revealed that monkeys fed a trans fat diet gained 7.2% of their body weight, as compared to 1.8% for monkeys on a mono-unsaturated fat diet.", "Although obesity is frequently linked to trans fat in the popular media, this is generally in the context of eating too many calories; there is not a strong scientific consensus connecting trans fat and obesity, although the 6-year experiment did find such a link, concluding that \"under controlled feeding conditions, long-term TFA consumption was an independent factor in weight gain.", "TFAs enhanced intra-abdominal deposition of fat, even in the absence of caloric excess, and were associated with insulin resistance, with evidence that there is impaired post-insulin receptor binding signal transduction.", "\"* Infertility in women: One 2007 study found, \"Each 2% increase in the intake of energy from trans unsaturated fats, as opposed to that from carbohydrates, was associated with a 73% greater risk of ovulatory infertility...\".", "* Major depressive disorder: Spanish researchers analysed the diets of 12,059 people over six years and found that those who ate the most trans fats had a 48 per cent higher risk of depression than those who did not eat trans fats.", "One mechanism may be trans-fats' substitution for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC).", "Very high intake of trans-fatty acids (43% of total fat) in mice from 2 to 16 months of age was associated with lowered DHA levels in the brain (p=0.001).", "When the brains of 15 major depressive subjects who had committed suicide were examined post-mortem and compared against 27 age-matched controls, the suicidal brains were found to have 16% less (male average) to 32% less (female average) DHA in the OFC.", "The OFC controls reward, reward expectation, and empathy (all of which are reduced in depressive mood disorders) and regulates the limbic system.", "* Behavioral irritability and aggression: a 2012 observational analysis of subjects of an earlier study found a strong relation between dietary trans fat acids and self-reported behavioral aggression and irritability, suggesting but not establishing causality.", "* Diminished memory: In a 2015 article, researchers re-analyzing results from the 1999-2005 UCSD Statin Study argue that \"greater dietary trans fatty acid consumption is linked to worse word memory in adults during years of high productivity, adults age Reference ranges for blood tests, showing usual ranges for triglycerides (increasing with age) in orange at right.The National Cholesterol Education Program has set guidelines for triglyceride levels: Level Interpretation (mg/dL) (mmol/L) 5.65 Very high – high riskThese levels are tested after fasting 8 to 12 hours.", "Triglyceride levels remain temporarily higher for a period after eating.The AHA recommends an optimal triglyceride level of 100mg/dL (1.1mmol/L) or lower to improve heart health.=== Reducing triglyceride levels ===Weight loss and dietary modification are effective first-line lifestyle modification treatments for hypertriglyceridemia.", "For people with mildly or moderately high levels of triglycerides, lifestyle changes, including weight loss, moderate exerciseand dietary modification, are recommended.This may include restriction of carbohydrates (specifically fructose) and fat in the diet and the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids from algae, nuts, fish and seeds.Medications are recommended in those with high levels of triglycerides that are not corrected with the aforementioned lifestyle modifications, with fibrates being recommended first.Omega-3-carboxylic acids is another prescription drug used to treat very high levels of blood triglycerides.The decision to treat hypertriglyceridemia with medication depends on the levels and on the presence of other risk factors for cardiovascular disease.", "Very high levels that would increase the risk of pancreatitis are treated with a drug from the fibrate class.", "Niacin and omega-3 fatty acids as well as drugs from the statin class may be used in conjunction, with statins being the main medication for moderate hypertriglyceridemia when reduction of cardiovascular risk is required." ], [ "Fat digestion and metabolism", "Fats are broken down in the healthy body to release their constituents, glycerol and fatty acids.", "Glycerol itself can be converted to glucose by the liver and so become a source of energy.", "Fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas.Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids as a source of energy for metabolism.", "In particular, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids.", "Despite long-standing assertions to the contrary, fatty acids can also be used as a source of fuel for brain cells through mitochondrial oxidation." ], [ "See also", "* Animal fat* Monounsaturated fat* Diet and heart disease* Fatty acid synthesis* Food composition data* Western pattern diet* Oil* Lipid" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Front line" ], [ "Introduction", "Australian soldiers in a front-line trench during World War I.", "Photograph taken by Capt.", "F. Hurley, sometime between August 1917 and August 1918.A '''front line''' (alternatively '''front-line''' or '''frontline''') in military terminology is the position(s) closest to the area of conflict of an armed force's personnel and equipment, usually referring to land forces.", "When a front (an intentional or unintentional boundary) between opposing sides forms, the front line is the area where each side's forces are engaged in conflict.", "Leaders have often fought at the front lines either purposefully or due to a collapse in battle formation.", "While a calculated risk, fighting on the front has in instances reduced communication and heightened morale.", "The front is in direct contrast to the rear, which is the position farthest from conflict.All branches of the United States Armed Forces use the related technical terms, '''Forward Line of Own Troops''' ('''FLOT''') and '''Forward Edge of Battle Area''' ('''FEBA''').", "These terms are used as battlespace control measures that designate the forward-most friendly maritime or land forces on the battlefield at a given point in time during an armed conflict.", "FLOT/FEBA may include covering and screening forces.", "The '''Forward Line of Enemy Troops''' ('''FLET''') is the FEBA from the enemy's perspective." ], [ "Etymology", "Although the term \"front line\" first appeared in the 1520s, it was only in 1842 that it was recorded used in the military sense.", "Its first use as an adjective was from 1915.The word \"front\" gained the military sense of \"foremost part of an army\" in the mid-14th century, which, in turn, led the word to take on the meaning \"field of operations in contact with the enemy\" in the 1660s.", "That sense led to the phrase home front, which first appeared in 1919.In a non-combat situation or when a combat situation is not assumed, front can mean the direction in which the command is faced.The attributive adjective version of the term front line (as in \"our front-line personnel\") describes materiel or personnel intended for or actively in forward use: at sea, on land or in the air: ''at'' the front line." ], [ "Evolution of the concept", "In the land campaigns of World War I, FEBAs, FLOTs and FLETs could often be identified by eye.", "For example, in France and Belgium they were defined by opposing defensive trench systems.Typical modern conflicts are vastly different, characterised by \"war amongst the people\", the concept of a \"Three Block War\", and the presence of an asymmetric threat from irregular or terrorist combatants.", "In those cases, the concepts of front line, FEBA, FLOT and FLET may be of little relevance.", "The term \"front line\" has come to refer more to any place where bullets and bombs are flying or are likely to fly." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Which way to the FEBA?", ", Maj John M. Fawcett Jr., USAF, ''Airpower Journal''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "FIFA" ], [ "Introduction", "The ; abbreviated as '''FIFA''' and pronounced in English as ) is the international governing body of association football, beach soccer, and futsal.", "It was founded in 1904 to oversee international competition among the national associations of Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain (represented by the Madrid Football Club), Sweden, and Switzerland.", "Headquartered in Zürich, Switzerland, its membership now comprises 211 national associations.", "These national associations must also be members of one of the six regional confederations into which the world is divided: CAF (Africa), AFC (Asia and Australia), UEFA (Europe), CONCACAF (North & Central America and the Caribbean), OFC (Oceania), and CONMEBOL (South America).FIFA outlines several objectives in its organizational statutes, including growing association football internationally, providing efforts to ensure it is accessible to everyone, and advocating for integrity and fair play.", "It is responsible for the organization and promotion of association football's major international tournaments, notably the World Cup which commenced in 1930, and the Women's World Cup which began in 1991.Although FIFA does not solely set the laws of the game, that being the responsibility of the International Football Association Board of which FIFA is a member, it applies and enforces the rules across all FIFA competitions.", "All FIFA tournaments generate revenue from sponsorships; in 2022, FIFA had revenues of over US $5.8 billion, ending the 2019–2022 cycle with a net positive of US$1.2 billion, and cash reserves of over US$3.9 billion.Reports by investigative journalists have linked FIFA leadership with corruption, bribery, and vote-rigging related to the election of FIFA president Sepp Blatter and the organization's decision to award the 2018 and 2022 World Cups to Russia and Qatar, respectively.", "These allegations led to the indictments of nine high-ranking FIFA officials and five corporate executives by the U.S. Department of Justice on charges including racketeering, wire fraud, and money laundering.", "On 27 May 2015, several of these officials were arrested by Swiss authorities, who launched a simultaneous but separate criminal investigation into how the organization awarded the 2018 and 2022 World Cups.", "Those among these officials who were also indicted in the U.S. are expected to be extradited to face charges there as well.Many officials were suspended by FIFA's ethics committee including Sepp Blatter and Michel Platini.", "In early 2017, reports became public about FIFA president Gianni Infantino attempting to prevent the re-elections of both chairmen of the ethics committee, Cornel Borbély and Hans-Joachim Eckert, during the FIFA congress in May 2017.On 9 May 2017, following Infantino's proposal, FIFA Council decided not to renew the mandates of Borbély and Eckert.", "Together with the chairmen, 11 of 13 committee members were removed.", "FIFA has been suspected of corruption regarding the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup." ], [ "History", "The need for a single body to oversee association football became increasingly apparent at the beginning of the 20th century with the increasing popularity of international fixtures.", "The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in the rear of the headquarters of the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA) at the Rue Saint Honoré 229 in Paris on 21 May 1904.The French name and acronym are used even outside French-speaking countries.", "The founding members were the national associations of Belgium, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Spain (represented by then-Real Madrid CF; the Royal Spanish Football Federation was not created until 1913), Sweden and Switzerland.Also, that same day, the German Football Association (DFB) declared its intention to affiliate through a telegram.The first president of FIFA was Robert Guérin.", "Guérin was replaced in 1906 by Daniel Burley Woolfall from England, by then a member of the association.", "The first tournament FIFA staged, the association football competition for the 1908 Olympics in London was more successful than its Olympic predecessors, despite the presence of professional footballers, contrary to the founding principles of FIFA.Membership of FIFA expanded beyond Europe with the application of South Africa in 1909, Argentina in 1912, Canada and Chile in 1913, and the United States in 1914.The 1912 Spalding Athletic Library \"Official Guide\" includes information on the 1912 Olympics (scores and stories), AAFA, and FIFA.", "The 1912 FIFA President was Dan B Woolfall.", "Daniel Burley Woolfall was president from 1906 to 1918.During World War I, with many players sent off to war and the possibility of travel for international fixtures severely limited, the organization's survival was in doubt.", "Post-war, following the death of Woolfall, the organization was run by Dutchman Carl Hirschmann.", "It was saved from extinction but at the cost of the withdrawal of the Home Nations (of the United Kingdom), who cited an unwillingness to participate in international competitions with their World War enemies.", "The Home Nations later resumed their membership.", "The FIFA collection is held by the National Football Museum at Urbis in Manchester, England.", "The first World Cup was held in 1930 in Montevideo, Uruguay." ], [ "Identity", "=== Flag ===The FIFA flag is blue, with the organization's wordmark logo in the middle.", "The current FIFA flag was first flown during the 2018 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony in Moscow, Russia.=== Anthem ===Akin to the UEFA Champions League, FIFA has adopted an anthem composed by the German composer Franz Lambert since the 1994 FIFA World Cup.", "It has been re-arranged and produced by Rob May and Simon Hill.", "The FIFA Anthem is played at the beginning of official FIFA sanctioned matches and tournaments such as international friendlies, the FIFA World Cup, FIFA Women's World Cup, FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, Football at the Summer Olympics, FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, FIFA Women's U-17 World Cup, FIFA Futsal World Cup, FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup and FIFA Club World Cup.Since 2007, FIFA has also required most of its broadcast partners to use short sequences including the anthem at the beginning and end of FIFA event coverage and for break bumpers to help promote FIFA's sponsors.", "This emulates practices long used by international football events, such as the UEFA Champions League.", "Exceptions may be made for specific circumstances; for example, an original piece of African music was used for bumpers during the 2010 FIFA World Cup." ], [ "Presidents of FIFA", " No Name Country Took office Left office Note1 '''Robert Guérin''' 23 May 1904 4 June 1906 2 '''Daniel Burley Woolfall''' 4 June 1906 24 October 1918 Died in office— '''Cornelis August Wilhelm Hirschman''' 24 October 1918 1920 Acting3 '''Jules Rimet''' 1 March 1921 21 June 1954 4 '''Rodolphe Seeldrayers''' 21 June 1954 7 October 1955 Died in office5 '''Arthur Drewry''' 9 June 1956 25 March 1961 Died in office— '''Ernst Thommen''' 25 March 1961 28 September 1961 Acting6 '''Stanley Rous''' 28 September 1961 8 May 1974 7 '''João Havelange''' 8 May 1974 8 June 1998 8 '''Sepp Blatter''' 8 June 1998 8 October 2015 Impeached— '''Issa Hayatou''' 8 October 2015 26 February 2016 Acting9 '''Gianni Infantino''' 26 February 2016 ''Incumbent''" ], [ "Structure", "===Six confederations and 211 national associations===Besides its worldwide institutions, there are six confederations recognized by FIFA which oversee the game in the different continents and regions of the world.", "National associations, and not the continental confederations, are members of FIFA.", "The continental confederations are provided for in FIFA's statutes, and membership of a union is a prerequisite to FIFA membership.", "Asian Football Confederation (AFC; 47 members)Confederation of African Football (CAF; 56 members)Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF; 41 members)Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL; 10 members)Oceania Football Confederation (OFC; 13 members)Union of European Football Associations (UEFA; 55 members)In total, FIFA recognizes 211 national associations and their associated men's national teams as well as 129 women's national teams; see the list of national football teams and their respective country codes.", "The number of FIFA member associations is higher than the number of UN member states as FIFA has admitted associations from 23 non-sovereign entities as members in their own right, such as the four Home Nations within the United Kingdom and the two special administrative regions of China: Hong Kong and Macau.On 28 February 2022, FIFA suspended Russia from all competitions because of their violent and forceful invasion of Ukraine.", "FIFA often suspends countries because of governance interference, corruption, or financial irregularities.", "It can also be because of doping or other drugs.The FIFA Men's World Rankings are updated monthly and rank each team based on their performance in international competitions, qualifiers, and friendly matches.", "There is also a world ranking for women's football, updated four times a year.===Laws and governance===FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland FIFA's headquarters is in Zürich, and it is an association established under the law of Switzerland.FIFA's supreme body is the FIFA Congress, an assembly of representatives from each affiliated member association.", "Each national football association has one vote, regardless of size or footballing strength.", "The Congress assembles in ordinary sessions once every year, and extraordinary sessions have been held once a year since 1998.Congress makes decisions relating to FIFA's governing statutes and their method of implementation and application.", "Only Congress can pass changes to FIFA's statutes.", "The congress approves the annual report and decides on the acceptance of new national associations, and holds elections.", "Congress elects the President of FIFA, its general secretary, and the other members of the FIFA Council in the year following the FIFA World Cup.FIFA Council – formerly called the FIFA Executive Committee and chaired by the president – is the organization's main decision-making body in the intervals of Congress.", "The council comprises 37 people: the president; 8 vice-presidents; and 28 members from the confederations, with at least one of them being a woman.", "The executive committee is the body that decides which country will host the World Cup.The president and the general secretary are the main office holders of FIFA and are in charge of its daily administration, carried in by the general secretariat, with its staff of approximately 280 members.", "Gianni Infantino is the current president, elected on 26 February 2016 at an extraordinary FIFA Congress session after former president Sepp Blatter was suspended pending a corruption investigation.FIFA's worldwide organizational structure also consists of several other bodies under the authority of the FIFA Council or created by Congress as standing committees.", "Among those bodies are the FIFA Emergency Committee, the FIFA Ethics Committee, the Finance Committee, the Disciplinary Committee, and the Referees Committee.The FIFA Emergency Committee deals with all matters requiring immediate settlement in the time frame between the regular meetings of the FIFA Council.", "The Emergency Committee consists of the FIFA president as well as one member from each confederation.", "Emergency Committee decisions made are immediately put into legal effect, although they need to be ratified at the next Executive Committee meeting.===Administrative cost===FIFA publishes its results according to International Financial Reporting Standards.", "The total compensation for the management committee in 2011 was 30 million for 35 people.", "Blatter, the only full-time person on the committee, earned approximately two million Swiss francs, 1.2 million in salary, and the rest in bonuses.", "A report in London's ''The Sunday Times'' in June 2014 said the members of the committee had their salaries doubled from $100,000 to $200,000 during the year.", "The report also said leaked documents had indicated $4.4 million in secret bonuses had been paid to the committee members following the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa." ], [ "Governance", "The laws that govern football known officially as the Laws of the Game, are not solely the responsibility of FIFA; they are maintained by a body called the International Football Association Board (IFAB).", "FIFA has members on its board (four representatives); the other four are provided by the football associations of the United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, who jointly established IFAB in 1882 and are recognized for the creation and history of the game.", "Changes to the Laws of the Game must be agreed upon by at least six delegates.The FIFA Statutes form the overarching document guiding FIFA's governing system.", "The governing system is divided into separate bodies with the appropriate powers to create a system of checks and balances.", "It consists of four general bodies: the Congress, the executive committee, the general Secretariat, and standing and ad hoc committees.===Discipline of national associations===FIFA frequently takes active roles in the running of the sport and developing the game around the world.", "One of its sanctions is to suspend teams and associated members from international competition when a government interferes in the running of FIFA's associate member organizations or if the associate is not functioning correctly.A 2007 FIFA ruling that a player can be registered with a maximum of three clubs and appear in official matches for a maximum of two in a year measured from 1 July to 30 June has led to controversy, especially in those countries whose seasons cross that date barrier, as in the case of two former Ireland internationals.", "As a direct result of this controversy, FIFA modified this ruling the following year to accommodate transfers between leagues with out-of-phase seasons.===Video replay and goal-line technology===FIFA now permits the use of video evidence during matches, as well as for subsequent sanctions.", "However, for most of FIFA's history it stood opposed to its use.", "The 1970 meeting of the International Football Association Board \"agreed to request the television authorities to refrain from any slow-motion play-back which reflected, or might reflect, adversely on any decision of the referee\".", "As recently as 2008 FIFA president Sepp Blatter said: \"Let it be as it is and let's leave football with errors.", "The television companies will have the right to say the referee was right or wrong, but still, the referee makes the decision – a man, not a machine.\"", "This stance was finally overturned on 3 March 2018, when the IFAB wrote video assistant referees (also known as VARs) into the Laws of the Game permanently.", "Their use remains optional for competitions.In early July 2012 FIFA sanctioned the use of goal-line technology, subject to rules specified by the International Football Association Board (IFAB), who had officially approved its use by amending the Laws of the Game to permit (but not require) its use.", "This followed a high-profile incident during a second-round game in the 2010 FIFA World Cup between England and Germany, where a shot by Englishman Frank Lampard, which would have levelled the scores at 2–2 in a match that ultimately ended in a 4–1 German victory, crossed the line but was not seen to do so by the match officials, which led FIFA officials to declare that they would re-examine the use of goal-line technology.=== Controversy ===On 28 February 2022, due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and by a recommendation by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), FIFA suspended the participation of Russia.", "The Russian Football Union unsuccessfully appealed the FIFA ban to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, which upheld the ban.", "Some observers, while approving of the boycott of Russia, have pointed out that FIFA did not boycott Saddam Hussein's Iraq as an aggressor during the Iran–Iraq War, Saudi Arabia for its military intervention in Yemen, Qatar for its human rights violations, or the United States for the actions of the U.S. military during the Iraq War.", "However, this full ban was partially lifted in October 2023 when it was decided that their men's and women's U-17 teams were allowed to return to international competitions.", "FIFA previously banned Indonesia due to government intervention within the team.", "FIFA requires members to play “with no influence from third parties.”" ], [ "Recognition and awards", "FIFA holds an annual awards ceremony, The Best FIFA Football Awards since 2016, which recognizes both individual and team achievements in international association football.", "Individually, the top men's player is awarded The Best FIFA Men's Player, and the top women's player is The Best FIFA Women's Player.", "Other prominent awards are The Best FIFA Football Coach and FIFA FIFPro World11.In 2000, FIFA presented two awards, FIFA Club of the Century and FIFA Player of the Century, to decide the greatest football club and player of the 20th century.", "Real Madrid was the club winner, while Diego Maradona and Pelé were the joint player's winners." ], [ "FIFA variants", "# Association football Recognized 1904 Men / 1988 Women# Futsal Recognized 1986 Men / 2023 Women# eSport Recognized 2004# Beach Soccer Recognized 2005 Men / 2019 Women" ], [ "FIFA competitions", "===National teams==='''Men's'''FIFA World CupMen's Olympic Football Tournament (U-23)FIFA U-20 World CupFIFA U-17 World CupFIFA World SeriesFIFA Futsal World CupMen's Youth Olympic Futsal Tournament (U-18)FIFA Beach Soccer World CupFIFA Arab Cup (senior teams of the UAFA (Arab world))'''Women's'''FIFA Women's World CupWomen's Olympic Football TournamentFIFA U-20 Women's World CupFIFA U-17 Women's World CupFIFA Futsal Women's World CupWomen's Youth Olympic Futsal Tournament (U-18)===Clubs==='''Men's'''FIFA Club World CupFIFA Intercontinental CupFIFA Youth Cup'''Women's'''FIFA Women's Club World CupFIFA Youth Cup===Amateur===FIFA Santosh Trophy (competition of state teams in India)===eSports==='''Individual''' FIFAe World Cup'''Team'''* FIFAe Club World Cup (FIFAe Club Series)* FIFAe Nations Cup (FIFAe Nations Series)* FIFAe Continental Cup===Former tournaments===FIFA Confederations CupThe hosts of all Senior Association Football FIFA World Cups, including both men's and women's, as of 2014===Current title holders=== Competition Current Champions Details Runners-up NextNational teamsFIFA World Cup (qualification) Final 2026 (qual.)", "Men's Olympic Football Tournament(U-23) 2020 (qual.", ")Final Spain 2024 (qual.)", "FIFA U-20 World Cup 2023 (qual.", ")Final 2025 (qual.)", "FIFA U-17 World Cup 2023 (qual.", ")Final 2025 (qual.)", "FIFA Futsal World Cup 2021 (qual.", ")Final 2024 (qual.)", "Men's Youth Olympic Futsal Tournament(U-18) 2018Final 2026 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup(see BSWW) 2021 (qual.", ")Final 2024 (qual.)", "FIFA Arab Cup(senior teams of the UAFA (Arab world)) 2021 (qual.", ")Final Women's national teams FIFA Women's World Cup (qualification) 2023 (qual.", ")Final 2027 (qual.)", "Women's Olympic Football Tournament 2021 (qual.", ")Final 2024 (qual.)", "FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup 2022 (qual.", ")Final 2024 (qual.)", "FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup 2022 (qual.", ")Final 2024 (qual.)", "FIFA Women's Futsal World Cup ——— — 2025 Women's Youth Olympic Futsal Tournament(U-18) 2018Final 2026Club teams FIFA Club World Cup 2023 (qual.", ")Manchester City Final Fluminense 2025 (qual.)", "FIFA Intercontinental Cup ——— — 2024 Blue Stars/FIFA Youth Cup 2023Zürich Final Corinthians 2024Women's club teams FIFA Women's Club World Cup ——— — Blue Stars/FIFA Youth Cup 2023Vancouver Whitecaps Final Basel 2024Amateur teamsSantosh Trophy2022–23 Karnataka Final Meghalaya2023–24" ], [ "Esports", " Competition Season Winner(Player/Gamer ID) Details Runner-up(Player/Gamer ID) SeasonEsports FIFAe World Cup 2022/Umut Gültekin UmutFinal Nicolas Villalba/Nicolas99FC 2023 FIFAe Club World Cup(part of the FIFAe Club Series) 2022Riders Final SAF 2023FIFAe Nations Series(part of the FIFAe Nations Cup) 2023Brazil (Paulo Henrique Chaves)(Pedro Henrique Soares)(Paulo Neto)Final Netherlands(Levi de Weerd)(Manuel Bachoore)(Emre Yilmaz) 2024 FIFAe Continental Cup 2022ProGamer Final Crazy Win 2023" ], [ "FIFA World Rankings", "===Men's===The following table has the Top 20 ranked men's football countries worldwide.===Women's===The following table has the Top 20 ranked women's football countries in the world." ], [ "Sponsors of FIFA", "=== FIFA Partner === Adidas* Coca-Cola* Hyundai/Kia Motors* Qatar Airways* QatarEnergy* Visa* Wanda Group" ], [ "FIFA+", "In April 2022 FIFA launched FIFA+, an OTT service providing up to 40,000 live matches per year, including 11,000 women's matches.", "It was also confirmed that FIFA would make available archival content, including every FIFA World Cup and FIFA Women's World Cup match recorded on camera, together with original documentary content.", "Eleven Sports was later reported to be responsible for populating the FIFA+ platform with live matches.FIFA+ showed the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup live in selected regions such as Japan, Brazil, Indonesia, and Thailand.FIFA+ have the rights to competitions in Oceania including the OFC Champions League and the OFC Women's Olympic Qualifying Tournament.", "They also have rights to the New Zealand domestic competitions and national teams." ], [ "FIFA Innovation Programme", "'''2021-23 Members:'''* Playermaker* AiSCOUT* Vivaturf* HUMANOX* Vieww" ], [ "Corruption", "In May 2006, British investigative reporter Andrew Jennings' book ''Foul!", "The Secret World of FIFA: Bribes, Vote-Rigging, and Ticket Scandals'' (HarperCollins) caused controversy within the football world by detailing an alleged international cash-for-contracts scandal following the collapse of FIFA's marketing partner International Sport and Leisure (ISL) and revealed how some football officials had been urged to secretly repay the sweeteners they received.", "The book also alleged that vote-rigging had occurred in the fight for Sepp Blatter's continued control of FIFA as the organization's president.", "Shortly after the release of ''Foul!''", "a BBC ''Panorama'' exposé by Jennings and BBC producer Roger Corke, screened on 11 June 2006, reported that Blatter was being investigated by Swiss police over his role in a secret deal to repay more than £1m worth of bribes pocketed by football officials.", "Lord Triesman, the former chairman of the English Football Association, described FIFA as an organization that \"behaves like a mafia family,\" highlighting the organization's \"decades-long traditions of bribes, bungs, and corruption.", "\"All testimonies offered in the ''Panorama'' exposé were provided through a disguised voice, appearance, or both, save one: Mel Brennan, a former CONCACAF official, became the first high-level football insider to go public with substantial allegations of corruption, nonfeasance, and malfeasance by CONCACAF and FIFA leadership.", "Brennan—the highest-level African-American in the history of world football governance—joined Jennings, Trinidadian journalist Lisana Liburd, and many others in exposing allegedly inappropriate allocations of money by CONCACAF and drew connections between ostensible CONCACAF criminality and similar behaviours at FIFA.", "Since then, and in the light of fresh allegations of corruption by FIFA in late 2010, both Jennings and Brennan remain highly critical of FIFA.", "Brennan has called directly for an alternative to FIFA to be considered by the stakeholders of the sport worldwide.In a further ''Panorama'' exposé broadcast on 29 November 2010, Jennings alleged that three senior FIFA officials, Nicolas Leoz, Issa Hayatou and Ricardo Teixeira, had been paid huge bribes by ISL between 1989 and 1999, which FIFA had failed to investigate.", "Jennings claimed they appeared on a list of 175 bribes paid by ISL, totalling about $100 million.", "A former ISL executive said there were suspicions within the company that they were only awarded the marketing contract for successive World Cups by paying bribes to FIFA officials.", "The program also alleged that another current official, Jack Warner, has been repeatedly involved in reselling World Cup tickets to touts; Blatter said that FIFA had not investigated the allegation because it had not been told about it via 'official channels.", "'''Panorama'' also alleged that FIFA requires nations bidding to host the World Cup to agree to implement special laws, including a blanket tax exemption for FIFA and its corporate sponsors and limitation of workers rights.", "Contrary to FIFA's demands, these conditions were revealed by the Dutch government, resulting in them being told by FIFA that their bid could be adversely affected.", "Following Jennings' earlier investigations, he was banned from all FIFA press conferences for reasons he claimed had not been made clear.", "The accused officials failed to answer questions about his latest allegations verbally or by letter.Prime Minister David Cameron and Andy Anson, head of England's World Cup bid, criticized the timing of the broadcast three days before FIFA decided on the host for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, because it might damage England's bid; the voters included officials accused by the program.In June 2011, it came to light that the International Olympic Committee had started inquiry proceedings against FIFA honorary president João Havelange into claims of bribery.", "''Panorama'' alleged that Havelange accepted a $1 million 'bung' in 1997 from ISL.", "The IOC stated that it \"takes all allegations of corruption very seriously, and we would always ask for any evidence of wrongdoing involving any IOC members to be passed to our ethics commission\".In a 2014 interview, American sportswriter Dave Zirin said that corruption is endemic to FIFA leadership and that the organization should be abolished for the game's good.", "He said that currently, FIFA is in charge of both monitoring corruption in association football matches and marketing and selling the sport, but that two \"separate\" organizational bodies are needed: an organizational body that monitors corruption and match-fixing and the like and an organization that's responsible for marketing and sponsorships and selling the sport.", "Zirin said the idea of having a single organization responsible for both seems highly ineffective and detrimental to the sport.In May 2015, 14 people were arrested, including nine FIFA officials, after being accused of corruption.In the 2022 World Cup bid, Qatar was honoured to host the World Cup.", "Since then it has been discovered that Qatar paid as much as 200 billion dollars to host the World Cup.", "This information was discovered by the Tass news agency in Russia.===Guilty pleas===Between 2013 and 2015 four individuals, and two sports television rights corporations pleaded guilty to United States financial misconduct charges.", "The pleas of Chuck Blazer, José Hawilla, Daryan Warner, Darrell Warner, Traffic Group and Traffic Sports USA were unsealed in May 2015.In another 2015 case, Singapore also imposed a 6-year \"harshest sentence ever received for match-fixing\" on match-fixer Eric Ding who had bribed three Lebanese FIFA football officials with prostitutes as an inducement to fix future matches that they would officiate, as well as perverting the course of justice.===Indictments and arrests===Fourteen FIFA officials and marketing executives were indicted by the United States Department of Justice in May 2015.The officials were arrested in Switzerland and are in the process of extradition to the US.", "Specific charges (brought under the RICO act) include wire fraud, racketeering, and money laundering.", "\"Swiss authorities say they have also opened a separate criminal investigation into FIFA's operations pertaining to the 2018 and 2022 World Cup bids\".FIFA's top officials were arrested at a hotel in Switzerland on suspicion of receiving bribes totalling $100m (£65m).", "The US Department of Justice stated that nine FIFA officials and four executives of sports management companies were arrested and accused of over $150m in bribes.", "The UK Shadow Home Secretary and Labour Member of Parliament, Andy Burnham, stated in May 2015 that England should boycott the 2018 World Cup against corruption in FIFA and military aggression by Russia.===2018 and 2022 World Cup bids===FIFA's choice to award the 2018 World Cup to Russia and the 2022 World Cup to Qatar has been widely criticized by media.", "It has been alleged that some FIFA inside sources insist that the Russian kickbacks of cash and gifts given to FIFA executive members were enough to secure the Russian 2018 bid weeks before the result was announced.", "Sepp Blatter was widely criticized in the media for giving a warning about the \"evils of the media\" in a speech to FIFA executive committee members shortly before they voted on the hosting of the 2018 World Cup, a reference to ''The Sunday Times'' exposés, and the ''Panorama'' investigation.Two members of FIFA's executive committee were banned from all football-related activity in November 2010 for allegedly offering to sell their votes to undercover newspaper reporters.", "In early May 2011, a British parliamentary inquiry into why England failed to secure the 2018 finals was told by a member of parliament, Damian Collins, that there was evidence from ''The Sunday Times'' newspaper that Issa Hayatou of Cameroon and Jacques Anouma of Ivory Coast were paid by Qatar.", "Qatar has categorically denied the allegations, as have Hayatou and Anouma.FIFA president Blatter said, , that the British newspaper ''The Sunday Times'' has agreed to bring its whistle-blowing source to meet senior FIFA officials, who will decide whether to order a new investigation into alleged World Cup bidding corruption.", "\"The ''Sunday Times'' are happy, they agreed that they will bring this whistleblower here to Zürich and then we will have a discussion, an investigation of this\", Blatter said.Specifically, the whistle-blower claims that FIFA executive committee members Issa Hayatou and Jacques Anouma were paid $1.5 million to vote for Qatar.", "The emirate's bid beat the United States in a final round of voting last December.", "Blatter did not rule out reopening the 2022 vote if corruption could be proved, but urged taking the matter \"step by step\".", "The FIFA president said his organization is \"anxiously awaiting\" more evidence before asking its ethics committee to examine allegations made in Britain's Parliament in early May 2011.Hayatou, who is from Cameroon, leads the Confederation of African Football and is a FIFA vice-president.", "Anouma is president of Ivorian Football Federation.", "The whistle-blower said Qatar agreed to pay a third African voter, Amos Adamu, for his support.", "The Nigerian was later suspended from voting after a FIFA ethics court ruled he solicited bribes from undercover Sunday Times reporters posing as lobbyists.", "Blatter said the newspaper and its whistle-blower would meet with FIFA secretary general, Jérôme Valcke, and legal director, Marco Villiger.Allegations against FIFA officials have also been made to the UK Parliament by David Triesman, the former head of England's bid and the English Football Association.", "Triesman told the lawmakers that four long-standing FIFA executive committee members—Jack Warner, Nicolás Leoz, Ricardo Teixeira and Worawi Makudi—engaged in \"improper and unethical\" conduct in the 2018 bidding, which was won by Russia.", "All six FIFA voters have denied wrongdoing.On 28 September 2015, Sepp Blatter suggested that the 2018 World Cup being awarded to Russia was planned before the voting, and that the 2022 World Cup would have then been awarded to the United States.", "However, this plan changed after the election ballot, and the 2022 World Cup was awarded to Qatar instead of the U.S.According to leaked documents seen by ''The Sunday Times'', Qatari state-run television channel Al Jazeera secretly offered $400 million to FIFA, for broadcasting rights, just 21 days before FIFA announced that Qatar would hold the 2022 World Cup.On 17 July 2012, in the wake of announced anti-corruption reforms by Sepp Blatter, the president of the FIFA, the organization appointed U.S. lawyer Michael J. Garcia as the chairman of the investigative chamber of FIFA Ethics Committee, while German judge Hans-Joachim Eckert was appointed as the chairman of the Ethics Committee's adjudication chamber.In August 2012, Garcia declared his intention to investigate the bidding process and decision to respectively award the right to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup to Russia and Qatar by the FIFA Executive Committee.", "Garcia delivered his subsequent 350-page report in September 2014, and Eckert then announced that it would not be made public for legal reasons.On 13 November 2014, Eckert released a 42-page summary of his findings after reviewing Garcia's report.", "The summary cleared both Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing during the bidding for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, leaving Russia and Qatar free to stage their respective World Cups.FIFA welcomed \"the fact that a degree of closure has been reached,\" while the Associated Press wrote that the Eckert summary \"was denounced by critics as a whitewash\".", "Hours after the Eckert summary was released, Garcia himself criticized it for being \"materially incomplete\" with \"erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions,\" while declaring his intention to appeal to FIFA's Appeal Committee.", "On 16 December 2014, FIFA's Appeal Committee dismissed Garcia's appeal against the Eckert summary as \"not admissible.\"", "FIFA also stated that Eckert's summary was \"neither legally binding nor appealable.\"", "A day later, Garcia resigned from his role as FIFA ethics investigator in protest of FIFA's conduct, citing a \"lack of leadership\" and lost confidence in the independence of Eckert from FIFA.", "In June 2015, Swiss authorities claimed the report was of \"little value\".In November 2022, the FIFA officials told players not to get involved in politics but focus on sports when they are in Qatar.", "A few weeks earlier, the football associations and players of Denmark and Australia criticized Qatar for this.===2011 FIFA presidential election===FIFA announced on 25 May 2011 that it had opened the investigation to examine the conduct of four officials—Mohamed Bin Hammam and Jack Warner, along with Caribbean Football Union (CFU) officials Debbie Minguell and Jason Sylvester—in relation to claims made by executive committee member, Chuck Blazer.", "Blazer, who was at the time, the general secretary of the CONCACAF confederation, has alleged that violations were committed under the FIFA code of ethics during a meeting organized by Bin Hammam and Warner on 10 and 11 May—the same time Lord Triesman had accused Warner of demanding money for a World Cup 2018 vote—in relation to the 2011 FIFA presidential election, in which Bin Hammam, who also played a key role in the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup bid, allegedly offered financial incentives for votes cast in his favour during the presidential election.As a result of the investigation both Bin Hammam and Warner were suspended.", "Warner reacted to his suspension by questioning Blatter's conduct and adding that FIFA secretary general, Jérôme Valcke, had told him via e-mail that Qatar had bought the 2022 World Cup.", "Valcke subsequently issued a statement denying he had suggested it was bribery, saying instead that the country had \"used its financial muscle to lobby for support\".", "Qatar officials denied any impropriety.", "Bin Hammam also responded by writing to FIFA, protesting unfair treatment in suspension by the FIFA Ethics Committee and FIFA administration.Further evidence emerged of alleged corruption.", "On 30 May 2011, Fred Lunn, vice-president of the Bahamas Football Association, said that he was given $40,000 in cash as an incitement to vote for FIFA presidential candidate, Mohamed bin Hammam.", "In addition, on 11 June 2011 Louis Giskus, president of the Surinamese Football Association, alleged that he was given $40,000 in cash for \"development projects\" as an incentive to vote for Bin Hammam.===Response to allegations===After being re-elected as president of FIFA, Sepp Blatter responded to the allegations by promising to reform FIFA in wake of the bribery scandal, with Danny Jordaan, CEO of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, saying there is great expectation for reform.", "Former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger is being tipped for a role on the newly proposed 'Solutions Committee', and former Netherlands national football team player Johan Cruyff was also being linked with a role.UEFA secretary-general Gianni Infantino said he hopes for \"concrete\" measures to be taken by the world game's authority.", "Saying that \"the UEFA executive committee has taken note of the will of FIFA to take concrete and effective measures for good governance ... and is following the situation closely.", "\"IOC president Jacques Rogge commented on the situation by saying that he believes FIFA \"can emerge stronger\" from its worst-ever crisis, stating that \"I will not point a finger and lecture ...", "I am sure FIFA can emerge stronger and from within\".Several of FIFA's partners and sponsors have raised concerns about the allegations of corruption, including Coca-Cola, Adidas, Emirates and Visa.", "Coca-Cola raised concerns by saying \"the current allegations being raised are distressing and bad for the sport\"; with Adidas saying \"the negative tenor of the public debate around Fifa at the moment is neither good for football nor for Fifa and its partners\"; moreover Emirates raised its concerns by saying \"we hope that these issues will be resolved as soon as possible\"; and Visa adding \"the current situation is clearly not good for the game and we ask that Fifa take all necessary steps to resolve the concerns that have been raised.", "\"Australian Sports Minister Mark Arbib said it was clear FIFA needed to change, saying \"there is no doubt there needs to be reform of FIFA.", "This is something that we're hearing worldwide\", with Australian Senator Nick Xenophon accusing FIFA of \"scamming\" the country out of the A$46 million (US$35 million) it spent on the Australia 2022 FIFA World Cup bid, saying that \"until the investigation into FIFA has been completed, Australia must hold off spending any more taxpayers' money on any future World Cup bids.", "\"Theo Zwanziger, president of the German Football Association, also called on FIFA to re-examine the awarding of the 2022 World Cup to Qatar.Transparency International, which had called on FIFA to postpone the election pending a full independent investigation, renewed its call on FIFA to change its governance structure.Moreover, former Argentine football player Diego Maradona was critical of FIFA in light of the corruption scandal, comparing members of the board to dinosaurs.", "He said \"Fifa is a big museum.", "They are dinosaurs who do not want to relinquish power.", "It's always going to be the same.\"", "In October 2011, Dick Pound criticized the organization, saying, \"FIFA has fallen far short of a credible demonstration that it recognizes the many problems it faces, that it has the will to solve them, that it is willing to be transparent about what it is doing and what it finds, and that its conduct in the future will be such that the public can be confident in the governance of the sport.", "\"===2018 revision of code of ethics===In 2018, FIFA revised its code of ethics to remove corruption as one of the enumerated bases of ethical violations.", "It retained bribery, misappropriation of funds and manipulation of competitions as offences, but added a statute of limitation clause that those offences could not be pursued after a ten-year period.The revision also made it an offence to make public statements of a defamatory nature against FIFA.", "Alexandra Wrage, a former member of the FIFA governance committee and an expert in anti-bribery compliance, said that of the revision that \"the real value to FIFA is the chilling effect this will have on critics\"." ], [ "See also", "Association football cultureAssociation football tactics and skillsFIFA (video game series)List of association football clubsList of association football competitionsList of association football stadiums by countryList of women's national association football teamsList of top association football goal scorersList of women's association football clubsLists of association football players* FIFA Congress" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Paul Darby, ''Africa, Football and Fifa: Politics, Colonialism and Resistance'' (Sport in the Global Society), Frank Cass Publishers 2002, .", "John Sugden, ''FIFA and the Contest For World Football'', Polity Press 1998, .", "Jim Trecker, Charles Miers, J. Brett Whitesell, ed., ''Women's Soccer: The Game and the Fifa World Cup'', Universe 2000, Revised Edition, ." ], [ "External links", " * \"FIFA's Dirty Secrets\" transcript—An episode of the BBC's ''Panorama''* Document on alleged FIFA corruption" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of presidents of FIFA" ], [ "Introduction", "The following is a '''list of presidents of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association''' (FIFA), the world association football governing body.Presidents Daniel Burley Woolfall, Rodolphe Seeldrayers, and Arthur Drewry died during their term in office.The current president is Swiss-Italian Gianni Infantino, elected on 26 February 2016 during an extraordinary session of the FIFA Congress.", "Prior to his election, Cameroonian Issa Hayatou was acting president after the impeachment of Sepp Blatter on 8 October 2015, who was given an eight-year ban from all football-related activities on 21 December 2015 (reduced to six years on 24 February 2016), which was renewed for six years on 24 March 2021." ], [ "Presidents of FIFA", " Portrait Name Term of office Country of origin Took office Left office Time in office '''1''' 100px Robert Guérin 22 May 1904 4 June 1906 '''2''' 100px Daniel Burley Woolfall 4 June 1906 24 October 1918(''died in office'') '''–''' 100px Cornelis August Wilhelm Hirschman 24 October 1918(''acting'') 28 August 1920 '''–''' 100px Jules Rimet 28 August 1920(''acting'') 1 March 1921 '''3''' 1 March 1921 21 June 1954 '''4''' 100px Rodolphe Seeldrayers 21 June 1954 7 October 1955(''died in office'') '''–''' 100px Arthur Drewry 7 October 1955(''acting'') 9 June 1956 '''5''' 9 June 1956 25 March 1961(''died in office'') '''–''' 100px Ernst Thommen 25 March 1961(''acting'') 28 September 1961 '''6''' 100px Stanley Rous 28 September 1961 8 May 1974(Named Honorary FIFA President over a month after leaving office) '''7''' 100px João Havelange 8 May 1974 8 June 1998(Named Honorary FIFA President on the day he left office) '''8''' 100px Sepp Blatter 8 June 1998 8 October 2015(''impeached'') '''–''' 100px Issa Hayatou 8 October 2015(''acting'') 26 February 2016 '''9''' 100px Gianni Infantino 26 February 2016 Incumbent /'''Notes'''" ], [ "Timeline", "ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:12PlotArea = top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20AlignBars = lateDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyyPeriod = from:22/05/1904 till:30/06/2021TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1905Colors = id:european value:rgb(0.2745,0.5098,0.7059) legend: European id:southamerican value:rgb(0.5608,0.7373,0.5608) legend: South_AmericanLegend = columns:3 left:150 top:24 columnwidth:100TextData = pos:(20,27) textcolor:black fontsize:M text:\"Confederation : \"BarData = barset:PMPlotData= width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till barset:PM from: 22/05/1904 till: 04/06/1906 color:european text:\"Guérin\" fontsize:10 from: 04/06/1906 till: 24/10/1918 color:european text:\"Woolfall\" fontsize:10 from: 01/01/1921 till: 01/07/1954 color:european text:\"Rimet\" fontsize:10 from: 01/07/1954 till: 07/10/1955 color:european text:\"Seeldrayers\" fontsize:10 from: 07/10/1955 till: 25/03/1961 color:european text:\"Drewry\" fontsize:10 from: 25/03/1961 till: 08/05/1974 color:european text:\"Rous\" fontsize:10 from: 08/05/1974 till: 08/06/1998 color:southamerican text:\"Havelange\" fontsize:10 from: 08/06/1998 till: 08/10/2015 color:european text:\"Blatter\" fontsize:10 from: 26/02/2016 till: end color:european text:\"Infantino\" fontsize:10" ], [ "See also", "List of association football competitionsList of presidents of AFCList of presidents of CAFList of presidents of CONCACAFList of presidents of CONMEBOLList of presidents of OFCList of presidents of UEFA" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Fascism" ], [ "Introduction", "Benito Mussolini (left) and Adolf Hitler (right), the leaders of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, respectively'''Fascism''' ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology and movement, characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hierarchy, subordination of individual interests for the perceived good of the nation or race, and strong regimentation of society and the economy.Fascism rose to prominence in early 20th-century Europe.", "The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I before spreading to other European countries, most notably Germany.", "Fascism also had adherents outside of Europe.", "Opposed to anarchism, democracy, pluralism, liberalism, socialism, and Marxism, fascism is placed on the far-right wing within the traditional left–right spectrum.Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes to the nature of war, society, the state, and technology.", "The advent of total war and the mass mobilization of society erased the distinction between civilians and combatants.", "A military citizenship arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner.", "The war resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines and providing logistics to support them, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens.Fascism rejects assertions that violence is inherently negative or pointless, instead viewing imperialism, political violence, and war as means to national rejuvenation.", "Fascists often advocate for the establishment of a totalitarian one-party state, and for a dirigiste economy, with the principal goal of achieving autarky (national economic self-sufficiency) through economic interventionist policies.", "Fascism's extreme authoritarianism and nationalism often manifest as a belief in racial purity or a master race, usually blended with some variant of racism or discrimination against a demonized \"Other\", such as Jews, homosexuals, ethnic minorities or immigrants.", "These ideas have motivated fascist regimes to commit massacres, forced sterilizations, deportations, and genocides.", "During World War II, the actions of the fascist Axis powers, with their genocidal and imperialist ambitions, caused the death of millions of people.Since the end of World War II in 1945, fascism as an ideology has been largely disgraced and few parties have openly described themselves as fascist; the term is more often used pejoratively by political opponents.", "The descriptions of neo-fascist or ''post-fascist'' are sometimes employed to describe contemporary parties with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th-century fascist movements.", "Some opposition groups have adopted the label anti-fascist or antifa to signify their stance." ], [ "Etymology", "The Italian term is derived from , meaning 'bundle of sticks', ultimately from the Latin word .", "This was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates.", "According to Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini's own account, the Fasces of Revolutionary Action were founded in Italy in 1915.In 1919, Mussolini founded the Italian Fasces of Combat in Milan, which became the National Fascist Party two years later.", "The fascists came to associate the term with the ancient Roman fasces or , a bundle of rods tied around an axe, an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrate carried by his lictors, which could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command.The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.", "Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements: for example, the Falange symbol is five arrows joined by a yoke." ], [ "Definitions", "Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism.", "Historian Ian Kershaw once wrote that \"trying to define 'fascism' is like trying to nail jelly to the wall.\"", "Each different group described as fascist has at least some unique elements, and many definitions of fascism have been criticized as either too broad or too narrow.", "According to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism, and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far-right.Frequently cited as a standard definition by notable scholars, such as Roger Griffin, Randall Schweller, Bo Rothstein, Federico Finchelstein, and Stephen D. Shenfield, is that of historian Stanley G. Payne.", "His definition of fascism focuses on three concepts:# \"Fascist negations\" – anti-liberalism, anti-communism, and anti-conservatism.# \"Fascist goals\" – the creation of a nationalist dictatorship to regulate economic structure and to transform social relations within a modern, self-determined culture, and the expansion of the nation into an empire.# \"Fascist style\" – a political aesthetic of romantic symbolism, mass mobilization, a positive view of violence, and promotion of masculinity, youth, and charismatic authoritarian leadership.Umberto Eco lists fourteen \"features that are typical of what I would like to call Ur-Fascism, or Eternal Fascism.", "These features cannot be organized into a system; many of them contradict each other, and are also typical of other kinds of despotism or fanaticism.", "But it is enough that one of them be present to allow fascism to coagulate around it\".In his book ''How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them'' (2018), Jason Stanley defined fascism as \"a cult of the leader who promises national restoration in the face of humiliation brought on by supposed communists, Marxists and minorities and immigrants who are supposedly posing a threat to the character and the history of a nation\" and that \"The leader proposes that only he can solve it and all of his political opponents are enemies or traitors.\"", "Stanley says recent global events , including the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020–2022 United States racial unrest, have substantiated his concern about how fascist rhetoric is showing up in politics and policies around the world.Historian John Lukacs argues that there is no such thing as generic fascism.", "He claims that Nazism and communism are essentially manifestations of populism, and that states such as Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy are more different from each other than they are similar.Roger Griffin describes fascism as \"a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultranationalism.\"", "Without paligenetic ultranationalism, there is no \"genuine fascism\" according to Griffin.", "Griffin further describes fascism as having three core components: \"(i) the rebirth myth, (ii) populist ultra-nationalism, and (iii) the myth of decadence.\"", "In Griffin's view, fascism is \"a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti-conservative nationalism\" built on a complex range of theoretical and cultural influences.", "He distinguishes an inter-war period in which it manifested itself in elite-led but populist \"armed party\" politics opposing socialism and liberalism, and promising radical politics to rescue the nation from decadence.Kershaw argues that the difference between fascism and other forms of right-wing authoritarianism in the Interwar period is that the latter generally aimed \"to conserve the existing social order\", whereas fascism was \"revolutionary\", seeking to change society and obtain \"total commitment\" from the population.In ''Against the Fascist Creep'', Alexander Reid Ross writes regarding Griffin's view: \"Following the Cold War and shifts in fascist organizing techniques, a number of scholars have moved toward the minimalist 'new consensus' refined by Roger Griffin: 'the mythic core' of fascism is 'a populist form of palingenetic ultranationalism.'", "That means that fascism is an ideology that draws on old, ancient, and even arcane myths of racial, cultural, ethnic, and national origins to develop a plan for the 'new man.", "Griffin himself explored this 'mythic' or 'eliminable' core of fascism with his concept of ''post-fascism'' to explore the continuation of Nazism in the modern era.", "Additionally, other historians have applied this minimalist core to explore ''proto-fascist'' movements.Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser argue that although fascism \"flirted with populism ... in an attempt to generate mass support\", it is better seen as an elitist ideology.", "They cite in particular its exaltation of the Leader, the race, and the state, rather than the people.", "They see populism as a \"thin-centered ideology\" with a \"restricted morphology\" that necessarily becomes attached to \"thick-centered\" ideologies such as fascism, liberalism, or socialism.", "Thus populism can be found as an aspect of many specific ideologies, without necessarily being a defining characteristic of those ideologies.", "They refer to the combination of populism, authoritarianism and ultranationalism as \"a marriage of convenience\".Robert Paxton says: \"fascism is a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation, or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.", "\"Roger Eatwell defines fascism as \"an ideology that strives to forge social rebirth based on a holistic-national radical Third Way\", while Walter Laqueur sees the core tenets of fascism as \"self-evident: nationalism; social Darwinism; racialism, the need for leadership, a new aristocracy, and obedience; and the negation of the ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution.", "\"Historian Emilio Gentile has defined fascism as \"a modern political phenomenon, revolutionary, anti-liberal and anti-Marxist, organized in a militia party with a totalitarian conception of politics and the State, an activist and anti-theoretical ideology, with a mythical, virilistic and anti-hedonistic foundation, sacralized as a secular religion, which affirms the absolute primacy of the nation, understood as an ethnically homogeneous organic community, hierarchically organized in a corporate state, with a bellicose vocation to the politics of greatness, power and conquest aimed at creating a new order and a new civilization\".Historian and cultural critic Ruth Ben-Ghiat has described fascism as \"the original phase of authoritarianism, along with early communism, when a population has undergone huge dislocations or they perceive that there's been changes in society that are very rapid, too rapid for their taste.\"", "and added that \"These are moments when demagogues appeal.", "Mussolini was the first to come up after the war, and he promised this enticing mixture of hypernationalism and imperialism, like, 'We're gonna revive the Roman Empire.", "'\"Racism was a key feature of German fascism, for which the Holocaust was a high priority.", "According to ''The Historiography of Genocide'', \"In dealing with the Holocaust, it is the consensus of historians that Nazi Germany targeted Jews as a race, not as a religious group.\"", "Umberto Eco, Kevin Passmore, John Weiss, Ian Adams, and Moyra Grant stress racism as a characteristic component of German fascism.", "Historian Robert Soucy stated that \"Hitler envisioned the ideal German society as a , a racially unified and hierarchically organized body in which the interests of individuals would be strictly subordinate to those of the nation, or Volk.\"", "Kershaw noted that common factors of fascism included \"the 'cleansing' of all those deemed not to belong – foreigners, ethnic minorities, 'undesirables'\" and belief in its own nation's superiority, even if it was not biological racism like in Nazism.", "Fascist philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretical commonality: all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any political spectrum, catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities.=== Position on the political spectrum ===Pro-government demonstration in Salamanca, Francoist Spain, in 1937.Francisco Franco was later labeled by some commentators the \"last surviving fascist dictator\".Scholars place fascism on the far-right of the political spectrum.", "Such scholarship focuses on its social conservatism and its authoritarian means of opposing egalitarianism.", "Roderick Stackelberg places fascism—including Nazism, which he says is \"a radical variant of fascism\"—on the political right by explaining: \"The more a person deems absolute equality among all people to be a desirable condition, the further left he or she will be on the ideological spectrum.", "The more a person considers inequality to be unavoidable or even desirable, the further to the right he or she will be.", "\"Fascism's origins are complex and include many seemingly contradictory viewpoints, ultimately centered on a mythos of national rebirth from decadence.", "Fascism was founded during World War I by Italian national syndicalists who drew upon both left-wing organizational tactics and right-wing political views.", "Italian Fascism gravitated to the right in the early 1920s.", "A major element of fascist ideology that has been deemed to be far right is its stated goal to promote the right of a supposedly superior people to dominate, while purging society of supposedly inferior elements.In the 1920s, Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile described their ideology as right-wing in the political essay ''The Doctrine of Fascism'', stating: \"We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right,' a fascist century.\"", "Mussolini stated that fascism's position on the political spectrum was not a serious issue for fascists: \"fascism, sitting on the right, could also have sat on the mountain of the center.", "...", "These words in any case do not have a fixed and unchanged meaning: they do have a variable subject to location, time and spirit.", "We don't give a damn about these empty terminologies and we despise those who are terrorized by these words.", "\"Major Italian groups politically on the right, especially rich landowners and big business, feared an uprising by groups on the left, such as sharecroppers and labour unions.", "They welcomed fascism and supported its violent suppression of opponents on the left.", "The accommodation of the political right into the Italian Fascist movement in the early 1920s created internal factions within the movement.", "The \"Fascist left\" included Michele Bianchi, Giuseppe Bottai, Angelo Oliviero Olivetti, Sergio Panunzio, and Edmondo Rossoni, who were committed to advancing national syndicalism as a replacement for parliamentary liberalism in order to modernize the economy and advance the interests of workers and the common people.", "The \"fascist right\" included members of the paramilitary Blackshirts and former members of the Italian Nationalist Association (ANI).", "The Blackshirts wanted to establish fascism as a complete dictatorship, while the former ANI members, including Alfredo Rocco, sought to institute an authoritarian corporatist state to replace the liberal state in Italy while retaining the existing elites.", "Upon accommodating the political right, there arose a group of monarchist fascists who sought to use fascism to create an absolute monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.After the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy, when King Victor Emmanuel III forced Mussolini to resign as head of government and placed him under arrest in 1943, Mussolini was rescued by German forces.", "While continuing to rely on Germany for support, Mussolini and the remaining loyal Fascists founded the Italian Social Republic with Mussolini as head of state.", "Mussolini sought to re-radicalize Italian Fascism, declaring that the fascist state had been overthrown because Italian fascism had been subverted by Italian conservatives and the bourgeoisie.", "Then the new fascist government proposed the creation of workers' councils and profit-sharing in industry, although the German authorities, who effectively controlled northern Italy at this point, ignored these measures and did not seek to enforce them.A number of post-World War II fascist movements described themselves as a Third Position outside the traditional political spectrum.", "Falange Española de las JONS leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera said: \"Basically the Right stands for the maintenance of an economic structure, albeit an unjust one, while the Left stands for the attempt to subvert that economic structure, even though the subversion thereof would entail the destruction of much that was worthwhile.", "\"=== ''Fascist'' as a pejorative ===The term ''fascist'' has been used as a pejorative, regarding varying movements across the far right of the political spectrum.", "George Orwell noted in 1944 that the term had been used to denigrate diverse positions \"in internal politics\": while fascism is \"a political and economic system\" that was inconvenient to define, \"''as used'', the word 'Fascism' is almost entirely meaningless.", "... almost any English person would accept 'bully' as a synonym for 'Fascist,, and in 1946 wrote that \"...'Fascism' has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies something not desirable.", "\"Despite fascist movements' history of anti-communism, Communist states have sometimes been referred to as ''fascist'', typically as an insult.", "It has been applied to Marxist–Leninist regimes in Cuba under Fidel Castro and Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh.", "Chinese Marxists used the term to denounce the Soviet Union during the Sino-Soviet split, and the Soviets used the term to denounce Chinese Marxists and social democracy, coining a new term in ''social fascism''.In the United States, Herbert Matthews of ''The New York Times'' asked in 1946: \"Should we now place Stalinist Russia in the same category as Hitlerite Germany?", "Should we say that she is Fascist?\"", "J. Edgar Hoover, longtime FBI director and ardent anti-communist, wrote extensively of red fascism.", "The Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s was sometimes called ''fascist''.", "Historian Peter Amann states that, \"Undeniably, the Klan had some traits in common with European fascism—chauvinism, racism, a mystique of violence, an affirmation of a certain kind of archaic traditionalism—yet their differences were fundamental ... the KKK never envisioned a change of political or economic system.", "\"Richard Griffiths of the University of Wales wrote in 2000 that \"fascism\" is the \"most misused, and over-used word, of our times\".", "\"Fascist\" is sometimes applied to post-World War II organizations and ways of thinking that academics more commonly term ''neo-fascist''." ], [ "History", "=== Background and 19th-century roots ===Depiction of a Greek Hoplite warrior; ancient Sparta has been considered an inspiration for fascist and quasi-fascist movements, such as Nazism and quasi-fascist MetaxismEarly influences that shaped the ideology of fascism have been dated back to Ancient Greece.", "The political culture of ancient Greece and specifically the ancient Greek city state of Sparta under Lycurgus, with its emphasis on militarism and racial purity, were admired by the Nazis.", "Nazi ''Führer'' Adolf Hitler emphasized that Germany should adhere to Hellenic values and culture – particularly that of ancient Sparta.Georges Valois, founder of the first non-Italian fascist party Faisceau, claimed the roots of fascism stemmed from the late 18th century Jacobin movement, seeing in its totalitarian nature a foreshadowing of the fascist state.", "Historian George Mosse similarly analyzed fascism as an inheritor of the mass ideology and civil religion of the French Revolution, as well as a result of the brutalization of societies in 1914–1918.Historians such as Irene Collins and Howard C Payne see Napoleon III, who ran a 'police state' and suppressed the media, as a forerunner of fascism.", "According to David Thomson, the Italian Risorgimento of 1871 led to the 'nemesis of fascism'.", "William L Shirer sees a continuity from the views of Fichte and Hegel, through Bismarck, to Hitler; Robert Gerwarth speaks of a 'direct line' from Bismarck to Hitler.", "Julian Dierkes sees fascism as a 'particularly violent form of imperialism'.Marcus Garvey, founder and leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, insisted that he and his organisation \"were the first fascists\".", "In 1938, C.L.R.", "James wrote \"all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921\".=== era and fusion of Maurrasism with Sorelianism (1880–1914) ===The historian Zeev Sternhell has traced the ideological roots of fascism back to the 1880s and in particular to the theme of that time.", "The theme was based on a revolt against materialism, rationalism, positivism, bourgeois society, and democracy.", "The generation supported emotionalism, irrationalism, subjectivism and vitalism.", "They regarded civilization as being in crisis, requiring a massive and total solution.", "Their intellectual school considered the individual as only one part of the larger collectivity, which should not be viewed as a numerical sum of atomized individuals.", "They condemned the rationalistic, liberal individualism of society and the dissolution of social links in bourgeois society.The outlook was influenced by various intellectual developments, including Darwinian biology, , Arthur de Gobineau's racialism, Gustave Le Bon's psychology, and the philosophies of Friedrich Nietzsche, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Henri Bergson.", "Social Darwinism, which gained widespread acceptance, made no distinction between physical and social life, and viewed the human condition as being an unceasing struggle to achieve the survival of the fittest.", "It challenged positivism's claim of deliberate and rational choice as the determining behaviour of humans, with social Darwinism focusing on heredity, race, and environment.", "Its emphasis on biogroup identity and the role of organic relations within societies fostered the legitimacy and appeal of nationalism.", "New theories of social and political psychology also rejected the notion of human behaviour being governed by rational choice and instead claimed that emotion was more influential in political issues than reason.", "Nietzsche's argument that \"God is dead\" coincided with his attack on the \"herd mentality\" of Christianity, democracy, and modern collectivism, his concept of the , and his advocacy of the will to power as a primordial instinct, were major influences upon many of the generation.", "Bergson's claim of the existence of an , or vital instinct, centred upon free choice and rejected the processes of materialism and determinism; this challenged Marxism.In his work ''The Ruling Class'' (1896), Gaetano Mosca developed the theory that claims that in all societies an \"organized minority\" would dominate and rule over an \"disorganized majority\", stating that there are only two classes in society, \"the governing\" (the organized minority) and \"the governed\" (the disorganized majority).", "He claims that the organized nature of the organized minority makes it irresistible to any individual of the disorganized majority.French nationalist and reactionary monarchist Charles Maurras influenced fascism.", "Maurras promoted what he called integral nationalism, which called for the organic unity of a nation, and insisted that a powerful monarch was an ideal leader of a nation.", "Maurras distrusted what he considered the democratic mystification of the popular will that created an impersonal collective subject.", "He claimed that a powerful monarch was a personified sovereign who could exercise authority to unite a nation's people.", "Maurras' integral nationalism was idealized by fascists, but modified into a modernized revolutionary form that was devoid of Maurras' monarchism.==== Fascist syndicalism ====French revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel promoted the legitimacy of political violence in his work ''Reflections on Violence'' (1908) and other works in which he advocated radical syndicalist action to achieve a revolution to overthrow capitalism and the bourgeoisie through a general strike.", "In ''Reflections on Violence'', Sorel emphasized need for a revolutionary political religion.", "Also in his work ''The Illusions of Progress'', Sorel denounced democracy as reactionary, saying \"nothing is more aristocratic than democracy.\"", "By 1909, after the failure of a syndicalist general strike in France, Sorel and his supporters left the radical left and went to the radical right, where they sought to merge militant Catholicism and French patriotism with their views—advocating anti-republican Christian French patriots as ideal revolutionaries.", "Initially, Sorel had officially been a revisionist of Marxism, but by 1910 announced his abandonment of socialist literature and claimed in 1914, using an aphorism of Benedetto Croce that \"socialism is dead\" because of the \"decomposition of Marxism\".", "Sorel became a supporter of reactionary Maurrassian nationalism beginning in 1909 that influenced his works.", "Maurras held interest in merging his nationalist ideals with Sorelian syndicalism, known as Sorelianism, as a means to confront democracy.", "Maurras stated that \"a socialism liberated from the democratic and cosmopolitan element fits nationalism well as a well made glove fits a beautiful hand.", "\"The fusion of Maurrassian nationalism and Sorelian syndicalism influenced radical Italian nationalist Enrico Corradini.", "Corradini spoke of the need for a nationalist-syndicalist movement, led by elitist aristocrats and anti-democrats who shared a revolutionary syndicalist commitment to direct action and a willingness to fight.", "Corradini spoke of Italy as being a \"proletarian nation\" that needed to pursue imperialism in order to challenge the \"plutocratic\" French and British.", "Corradini's views were part of a wider set of perceptions within the right-wing Italian Nationalist Association (ANI), which claimed that Italy's economic backwardness was caused by corruption in its political class, liberalism, and division caused by \"ignoble socialism\".The ANI held ties and influence among conservatives, Catholics, and the business community.", "Italian national syndicalists held a common set of principles: the rejection of bourgeois values, democracy, liberalism, Marxism, internationalism, and pacifism, and the promotion of heroism, vitalism, and violence.", "The ANI claimed that liberal democracy was no longer compatible with the modern world, and advocated a strong state and imperialism.", "They believed that humans are naturally predatory, and that nations are in a constant struggle in which only the strongest would survive.Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Italian modernist author of the Futurist Manifesto (1909) and later the co-author of the Fascist Manifesto (1919)Futurism was both an artistic-cultural movement and initially a political movement in Italy led by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti who founded the Manifesto of Futurism (1908), that championed the causes of modernism, action, and political violence as necessary elements of politics while denouncing liberalism and parliamentary politics.", "Marinetti rejected conventional democracy based on majority rule and egalitarianism, for a new form of democracy, promoting what he described in his work \"The Futurist Conception of Democracy\" as the following: \"We are therefore able to give the directions to create and to dismantle to numbers, to quantity, to the mass, for with us number, quantity and mass will never be—as they are in Germany and Russia—the number, quantity and mass of mediocre men, incapable and indecisive.", "\"Futurism influenced fascism in its emphasis on recognizing the virile nature of violent action and war as being necessities of modern civilization.", "Marinetti promoted the need of physical training of young men saying that, in male education, gymnastics should take precedence over books.", "He advocated segregation of the genders because womanly sensibility must not enter men's education, which he claimed must be \"lively, bellicose, muscular and violently dynamic.", "\"=== World War I and its aftermath (1914–1929) ===Benito Mussolini (here in 1917 as a soldier in World War I), who in 1914 founded and led the to promote the Italian intervention in the war as a revolutionary nationalist action to liberate Italian-claimed lands from Austria-HungaryAt the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Italian political left became severely split over its position on the war.", "The Italian Socialist Party (PSI) opposed the war but a number of Italian revolutionary syndicalists supported war against Germany and Austria-Hungary on the grounds that their reactionary regimes had to be defeated to ensure the success of socialism.", "Angelo Oliviero Olivetti formed a pro-interventionist ''fascio'' called the Revolutionary Fasces of International Action in October 1914.Benito Mussolini upon being expelled from his position as chief editor of the PSI's newspaper for his anti-German stance, joined the interventionist cause in a separate ''fascio''.", "The term \"fascism\" was first used in 1915 by members of Mussolini's movement, the Fasces of Revolutionary Action.The first meeting of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action was held on 24 January 1915 when Mussolini declared that it was necessary for Europe to resolve its national problems—including national borders—of Italy and elsewhere \"for the ideals of justice and liberty for which oppressed peoples must acquire the right to belong to those national communities from which they descended.\"", "Attempts to hold mass meetings were ineffective and the organization was regularly harassed by government authorities and socialists.German soldiers parading through Lübeck in the days leading up to World War I. Johann Plenge's concept of the \"Spirit of 1914\" identified the outbreak of war as a moment that forged nationalistic German solidarity.Similar political ideas arose in Germany after the outbreak of the war.", "German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a \"National Socialism\" in Germany within what he termed the \"ideas of 1914\" that were a declaration of war against the \"ideas of 1789\" (the French Revolution).", "According to Plenge, the \"ideas of 1789\"—such as the rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism—were being rejected in favor of \"the ideas of 1914\" that included \"German values\" of duty, discipline, law and order.", "Plenge believed that racial solidarity () would replace class division and that \"racial comrades\" would unite to create a socialist society in the struggle of \"proletarian\" Germany against \"capitalist\" Britain.", "He believed that the Spirit of 1914 manifested itself in the concept of the People's League of National Socialism.", "This National Socialism was a form of state socialism that rejected the \"idea of boundless freedom\" and promoted an economy that would serve the whole of Germany under the leadership of the state.", "This National Socialism was opposed to capitalism because of the components that were against \"the national interest\" of Germany but insisted that National Socialism would strive for greater efficiency in the economy.", "Plenge advocated an authoritarian rational ruling elite to develop National Socialism through a hierarchical technocratic state.==== Impact of World War I ====Members of Italy's corps (here in 1918 holding daggers, a symbol of their group), which was formed in 1917 as groups of soldiers trained for dangerous missions, characterized by refusal to surrender and willingness to fight to the death.", "Their black uniforms inspired those of the Italian Fascist movement.Fascists viewed World War I as bringing revolutionary changes in the nature of war, society, the state and technology, as the advent of total war and mass mobilization had broken down the distinction between civilian and combatant, as civilians had become a critical part in economic production for the war effort and thus arose a \"military citizenship\" in which all citizens were involved to the military in some manner during the war.", "World War I had resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines or provide economic production and logistics to support those on the front lines, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens.", "Fascists viewed technological developments of weaponry and the state's total mobilization of its population in the war as symbolizing the beginning of a new era fusing state power with mass politics, technology and particularly the mobilizing myth that they contended had triumphed over the myth of progress and the era of liberalism.==== Impact of the Bolshevik Revolution ====The October Revolution of 1917, in which Bolshevik communists led by Vladimir Lenin seized power in Russia, greatly influenced the development of fascism.", "In 1917, Mussolini, as leader of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action, praised the October Revolution, but later he became unimpressed with Lenin, regarding him as merely a new version of Tsar Nicholas II.", "After World War I, fascists commonly campaigned on anti-Marxist agendas.Liberal opponents of both fascism and the Bolsheviks argue that there are various similarities between the two, including that they believed in the necessity of a vanguard leadership, had disdain for bourgeois values, and it is argued had totalitarian ambitions.", "In practice, both have commonly emphasized revolutionary action, proletarian nation theories, one-party states, and party-armies; however, both draw clear distinctions from each other both in aims and tactics, with the Bolsheviks emphasizing the need for an organized participatory democracy (Soviet democracy) and an egalitarian, internationalist vision for society based on proletarian internationalism, while fascists emphasized hyper-nationalism and open hostility towards democracy, envisioning a hierarchical social structure as essential to their aims.", "With the antagonism between anti-interventionist Marxists and pro-interventionist fascists complete by the end of the war, the two sides became irreconcilable.", "The fascists presented themselves as anti-communists and as especially opposed to the Marxists.In 1919, Mussolini consolidated control over the fascist movement, known as , with the founding of the ''Italian Fasces of Combat''.==== Fascist Manifesto and Charter of Carnaro ====In 1919, Alceste De Ambris and futurist movement leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti created \"The Manifesto of the Italian Fasces of Combat\".", "The Fascist Manifesto was presented on 6 June 1919 in the fascist newspaper and supported the creation of universal suffrage, including women's suffrage (the latter being realized only partly in late 1925, with all opposition parties banned or disbanded); proportional representation on a regional basis; government representation through a corporatist system of \"National Councils\" of experts, selected from professionals and tradespeople, elected to represent and hold legislative power over their respective areas, including labour, industry, transportation, public health, and communications, among others; and abolition of the Senate of the Kingdom of Italy.", "The Fascist Manifesto supported the creation of an eight-hour work day for all workers, a minimum wage, worker representation in industrial management, equal confidence in labour unions as in industrial executives and public servants, reorganization of the transportation sector, revision of the draft law on invalidity insurance, reduction of the retirement age from 65 to 55, a strong progressive tax on capital, confiscation of the property of religious institutions and abolishment of bishoprics, and revision of military contracts to allow the government to seize 85% of profits.", "It also called for the fulfillment of expansionist aims in the Balkans and other parts of the Mediterranean, the creation of a short-service national militia to serve defensive duties, nationalization of the armaments industry, and a foreign policy designed to be peaceful but also competitive.Residents of Fiume cheer the arrival of Gabriele d'Annunzio and his blackshirt-wearing nationalist raiders, as D'Annunzio and fascist Alceste De Ambris developed the quasi-fascist Italian Regency of Carnaro (a city-state in Fiume) from 1919 to 1920 and whose actions inspired the Italian fascist movement.", "In September 1919 Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitantsThe next events that influenced the fascists in Italy were the raid of Fiume by Italian nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio and the founding of the Charter of Carnaro in 1920.D'Annunzio and De Ambris designed the Charter, which advocated national-syndicalist corporatist productionism alongside D'Annunzio's political views.", "Many fascists saw the Charter of Carnaro as an ideal constitution for a fascist Italy.", "This behaviour of aggression towards Yugoslavia and South Slavs was pursued by Italian fascists with their persecution of South Slavs—especially Slovenes and Croats.==== From populism to conservative accommodations ====In 1920, militant strike activity by industrial workers reached its peak in Italy and 1919 and 1920 were known as the \"Red Year\" ().", "Mussolini and the fascists took advantage of the situation by allying with industrial businesses and attacking workers and peasants in the name of preserving order and internal peace in Italy.Fascists identified their primary opponents as the majority of socialists on the left who had opposed intervention in World War I.", "The fascists and the Italian political right held common ground: both held Marxism in contempt, discounted class consciousness and believed in the rule of elites.", "The fascists assisted the anti-socialist campaign by allying with the other parties and the conservative right in a mutual effort to destroy the Italian Socialist Party and labour organizations committed to class identity above national identity.Fascism sought to accommodate Italian conservatives by making major alterations to its political agenda—abandoning its previous populism, republicanism and anticlericalism, adopting policies in support of free enterprise and accepting the Catholic Church and the monarchy as institutions in Italy.", "To appeal to Italian conservatives, fascism adopted policies such as promoting family values, including policies designed to reduce the number of women in the workforce—limiting the woman's role to that of a mother.", "The fascists banned literature on birth control and increased penalties for abortion in 1926, declaring both crimes against the state.Although fascism adopted a number of anti-modern positions designed to appeal to people upset with the new trends in sexuality and women's rights—especially those with a reactionary point of view—the fascists sought to maintain fascism's revolutionary character, with Angelo Oliviero Olivetti saying: \"Fascism would like to be conservative, but it will be by being revolutionary.\"", "The Fascists supported revolutionary action and committed to secure law and order to appeal to both conservatives and syndicalists.Prior to fascism's accommodations to the political right, fascism was a small, urban, northern Italian movement that had about a thousand members.", "After Fascism's accommodation of the political right, the fascist movement's membership soared to approximately 250,000 by 1921.A 2020 article by Daron Acemoğlu, Giuseppe De Feo, Giacomo De Luca, and Gianluca Russo in the Center for Economic and Policy Research, exploring the link between the threat of socialism and Mussolini's rise to power, found \"a strong association between the Red Scare in Italy and the subsequent local support for the Fascist Party in the early 1920s.\"", "According to the authors, it was local elites and large landowners who played an important role in boosting Fascist Party activity and support, which did not come from socialists' core supporters but from centre-right voters, as they viewed traditional centre-right parties as ineffective in stopping socialism and turned to the Fascists.", "In 2003, historian Adrian Lyttelton wrote: \"The expansion of Fascism in the rural areas was stimulated and directed by the reaction of the farmers and landowners against the peasant leagues of both Socialists and Catholics.", "\"==== Fascist violence ====Beginning in 1922, fascist paramilitaries escalated their strategy from one of attacking socialist offices and the homes of socialist leadership figures, to one of violent occupation of cities.", "The fascists met little serious resistance from authorities and proceeded to take over several northern Italian cities.", "The fascists attacked the headquarters of socialist and Catholic labour unions in Cremona and imposed forced Italianization upon the German-speaking population of Bolzano.", "After seizing these cities, the fascists made plans to take Rome.Benito Mussolini with three of the four quadrumvirs during the March on Rome (from left to right: unknown, de Bono, Mussolini, Balbo and de Vecchi)On 24 October 1922, the Fascist Party held its annual congress in Naples, where Mussolini ordered Blackshirts to take control of public buildings and trains and to converge on three points around Rome.", "The Fascists managed to seize control of several post offices and trains in northern Italy while the Italian government, led by a left-wing coalition, was internally divided and unable to respond to the Fascist advances.", "King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy perceived the risk of bloodshed in Rome in response to attempting to disperse the Fascists to be too high.", "Victor Emmanuel III decided to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister of Italy and Mussolini arrived in Rome on 30 October to accept the appointment.", "Fascist propaganda aggrandized this event, known as \"March on Rome\", as a \"seizure\" of power because of Fascists' heroic exploits.=== Fascist Italy ===Historian Stanley G. Payne says: \"Fascism in Italy was a primarily political dictatorship.", "...", "The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself.", "Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years.", "The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy.", "...", "The Fascist militia was placed under military control.", "...", "The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well.", "The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders ... nor was a major new police elite created.", "...", "There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience.", "...", "Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed.", "...", "The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.", "\"==== Mussolini in power ====Upon being appointed Prime Minister of Italy, Mussolini had to form a coalition government because the Fascists did not have control over the Italian parliament.", "Mussolini's coalition government initially pursued economically liberal policies under the direction of liberal finance minister Alberto De Stefani, a member of the Center Party, including balancing the budget through deep cuts to the civil service.", "Initially, little drastic change in government policy had occurred and repressive police actions were limited.The Fascists began their attempt to entrench fascism in Italy with the Acerbo Law, which guaranteed a plurality of the seats in parliament to any party or coalition list in an election that received 25% or more of the vote.", "Through considerable Fascist violence and intimidation, the list won a majority of the vote, allowing many seats to go to the Fascists.", "In the aftermath of the election, a crisis and political scandal erupted after Socialist Party deputy Giacomo Matteotti was kidnapped and murdered by a Fascist.", "The liberals and the leftist minority in parliament walked out in protest in what became known as the Aventine Secession.", "On 3 January 1925, Mussolini addressed the Fascist-dominated Italian parliament and declared that he was personally responsible for what happened, but insisted that he had done nothing wrong.", "Mussolini proclaimed himself dictator of Italy, assuming full responsibility over the government and announcing the dismissal of parliament.", "From 1925 to 1929, fascism steadily became entrenched in power: opposition deputies were denied access to parliament, censorship was introduced and a December 1925 decree made Mussolini solely responsible to the King.==== Catholic Church ====In 1929, the Fascist regime briefly gained what was in effect a blessing of the Catholic Church after the regime signed a concordat with the Church, known as the Lateran Treaty, which gave the papacy state sovereignty and financial compensation for the seizure of Church lands by the liberal state in the 19th century, but within two years the Church had renounced fascism in the Encyclical ''Non Abbiamo Bisogno'' as a \"pagan idolatry of the state\" which teaches \"hatred, violence and irreverence\".", "Not long after signing the agreement, by Mussolini's own confession, the Church had threatened to have him \"excommunicated\", in part because of his intractable nature, but also because he had \"confiscated more issues of Catholic newspapers in the next three months than in the previous seven years.\"", "By the late 1930s, Mussolini became more vocal in his anti-clerical rhetoric, repeatedly denouncing the Catholic Church and discussing ways to depose the pope.", "He took the position that the \"papacy was a malignant tumor in the body of Italy and must 'be rooted out once and for all,' because there was no room in Rome for both the Pope and himself.\"", "In her 1974 book, Mussolini's widow Rachele stated that her husband had always been an atheist until near the end of his life, writing that her husband was \"basically irreligious until the later years of his life.", "\"The Nazis in Germany employed similar anti-clerical policies.", "The Gestapo confiscated hundreds of monasteries in Austria and Germany, evicted clergymen and laymen alike and often replaced crosses with swastikas.", "Referring to the swastika as \"the Devil's Cross\", church leaders found their youth organizations banned, their meetings limited and various Catholic periodicals censored or banned.", "Government officials eventually found it necessary to place \"Nazis into editorial positions in the Catholic press.\"", "Up to 2,720 clerics, mostly Catholics, were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned inside of Germany's Dachau concentration camp, resulting in over 1,000 deaths.==== Corporatist economic system ====The Fascist regime created a corporatist economic system in 1925 with creation of the Palazzo Vidoni Pact, in which the Italian employers' association Confindustria and fascist trade unions agreed to recognize each other as the sole representatives of Italy's employers and employees, excluding non-fascist trade unions.", "The Fascist regime first created a Ministry of Corporations that organized the Italian economy into 22 sectoral corporations, banned workers' strikes and lock-outs and in 1927 created the Charter of Labour, which established workers' rights and duties and created labour tribunals to arbitrate employer-employee disputes.", "In practice, the sectoral corporations exercised little independence and were largely controlled by the regime, and the employee organizations were rarely led by employees themselves, but instead by appointed Fascist party members.==== Aggressive foreign policy ====In the 1920s, Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive foreign policy that included an attack on the Greek island of Corfu, ambitions to expand Italian territory in the Balkans, plans to wage war against Turkey and Yugoslavia, attempts to bring Yugoslavia into civil war by supporting Croat and Macedonian separatists to legitimize Italian intervention and making Albania a ''de facto'' protectorate of Italy, which was achieved through diplomatic means by 1927.In response to revolt in the Italian colony of Libya, Fascist Italy abandoned previous liberal-era colonial policy of cooperation with local leaders.", "Instead, claiming that Italians were a superior race to African races and thereby had the right to colonize the \"inferior\" Africans, it sought to settle 10 to 15 million Italians in Libya.", "This resulted in an aggressive military campaign known as the Pacification of Libya against natives in Libya, including mass killings, the use of concentration camps and the forced starvation of thousands of people.", "Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica in Libya, from their settlements that was slated to be given to Italian settlers.==== Hitler adopts Italian model ====Nazis in Munich during the Beer Hall Putsch The March on Rome brought fascism international attention.", "One early admirer of the Italian Fascists was Adolf Hitler, who less than a month after the March had begun to model himself and the Nazi Party upon Mussolini and the Fascists.", "The Nazis, led by Hitler and the German war hero Erich Ludendorff, attempted a \"March on Berlin\" modeled upon the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich in November 1923.=== International impact of the Great Depression and buildup to World War II ===The conditions of economic hardship caused by the Great Depression brought about an international surge of social unrest.", "According to historian Philip Morgan, \"the onset of the Great Depression ... was the greatest stimulus yet to the diffusion and expansion of fascism outside Italy.\"", "Fascist propaganda blamed the problems of the long depression of the 1930s on minorities and scapegoats: \"Judeo-Masonic-bolshevik\" conspiracies, left-wing internationalism and the presence of immigrants.In Germany, it contributed to the rise of the Nazi Party, which resulted in the demise of the Weimar Republic and the establishment of the fascist regime, Nazi Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.", "With the rise of Hitler and the Nazis to power in 1933, liberal democracy was dissolved in Germany and the Nazis mobilized the country for war, with expansionist territorial aims against several countries.", "In the 1930s, the Nazis implemented racial laws that deliberately discriminated against, disenfranchised and persecuted Jews and other racial and minority groups.Fascist movements grew in strength elsewhere in Europe.", "Hungarian fascist Gyula Gömbös rose to power as Prime Minister of Hungary in 1932 and attempted to entrench his Party of National Unity throughout the country.", "He created an eight-hour work day and a forty-eight-hour work week in industry; sought to entrench a corporatist economy; and pursued irredentist claims on Hungary's neighbors.", "The fascist Iron Guard movement in Romania soared in political support after 1933, gaining representation in the Romanian government, and an Iron Guard member assassinated Romanian prime minister Ion Duca.", "The Iron Guard was the only fascist movement outside Germany and Italy to come to power without foreign assistance.", "During the 6 February 1934 crisis, France faced the greatest domestic political turmoil since the Dreyfus Affair when the fascist Francist Movement and multiple far-right movements rioted ''en masse'' in Paris against the French government resulting in major political violence.", "A variety of para-fascist governments that borrowed elements from fascism were formed during the Great Depression, including those of Greece, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia.In the Netherlands, the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands was at its height in the 1930s due to the Great Depression, especially in 1935 when it won almost eight percent of votes, until the year 1937.Integralists marching in BrazilIn the Americas, the Brazilian Integralists led by Plínio Salgado claimed as many as 200,000 members, although following coup attempts it faced a crackdown from the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas in 1937.In Peru, the fascist Revolutionary Union was a fascist political party which was in power 1931 to 1933.In the 1930s, the National Socialist Movement of Chile gained seats in Chile's parliament and attempted a coup d'état that resulted in the Seguro Obrero massacre of 1938.During the Great Depression, Mussolini promoted active state intervention in the economy.", "He denounced the contemporary \"supercapitalism\" that he claimed began in 1914 as a failure because of its alleged decadence, its support for unlimited consumerism, and its intention to create the \"standardization of humankind.\"", "Fascist Italy created the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI), a giant state-owned firm and holding company that provided state funding to failing private enterprises.", "The IRI was made a permanent institution in Fascist Italy in 1937, pursued fascist policies to create national autarky and had the power to take over private firms to maximize war production.", "While Hitler's regime only nationalized 500 companies in key industries by the early 1940s, Mussolini declared in 1934 that \"three-fourths of Italian economy, industrial and agricultural, is in the hands of the state.\"", "Due to the worldwide depression, Mussolini's government was able to take over most of Italy's largest failing banks, who held controlling interest in many Italian businesses.", "The Institute for Industrial Reconstruction, a state-operated holding company in charge of bankrupt banks and companies, reported in early 1934 that they held assets of \"48.5 percent of the share capital of Italy\", which later included the capital of the banks themselves.", "Political historian Martin Blinkhorn estimated Italy's scope of state intervention and ownership \"greatly surpassed that in Nazi Germany, giving Italy a public sector second only to that of Stalin's Russia.\"", "In the late 1930s, Italy enacted manufacturing cartels, tariff barriers, currency restrictions and massive regulation of the economy to attempt to balance payments.", "Italy's policy of autarky failed to achieve effective economic autonomy.", "Nazi Germany similarly pursued an economic agenda with the aims of autarky and rearmament and imposed protectionist policies, including forcing the German steel industry to use lower-quality German iron ore rather than superior-quality imported iron.=== World War II (1939–1945) ===In Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, both Mussolini and Hitler pursued territorial expansionist and interventionist foreign policy agendas from the 1930s through the 1940s culminating in World War II.", "Mussolini called for irredentist Italian claims to be reclaimed, establishing Italian domination of the Mediterranean Sea and securing Italian access to the Atlantic Ocean and the creation of Italian (\"vital space\") in the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions.", "Hitler called for irredentist German claims to be reclaimed along with the creation of German (\"living space\") in Eastern Europe, including territories held by the Soviet Union, that would be colonized by Germans.Emaciated male inmate at the Italian Rab concentration camp From 1935 to 1939, Germany and Italy escalated their demands for territorial claims and greater influence in world affairs.", "Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 resulting in its condemnation by the League of Nations and its widespread diplomatic isolation.", "In 1936, Germany remilitarized the industrial Rhineland, a region that had been ordered demilitarized by the Treaty of Versailles.", "In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and Italy assisted Germany in resolving the diplomatic crisis between Germany versus Britain and France over claims on Czechoslovakia by arranging the Munich Agreement that gave Germany the Sudetenland and was perceived at the time to have averted a European war.", "These hopes faded when Czechoslovakia was dissolved by the proclamation of the German client state of Slovakia, followed by the next day of the occupation of the remaining Czech Lands and the proclamation of the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.", "At the same time from 1938 to 1939, Italy was demanding territorial and colonial concessions from France and Britain.", "In 1939, Germany prepared for war with Poland, but attempted to gain territorial concessions from Poland through diplomatic means.", "The Polish government did not trust Hitler's promises and refused to accept Germany's demands.The invasion of Poland by Germany was deemed unacceptable by Britain, France and their allies, leading to their mutual declaration of war against Germany and the start of World War II.", "In 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II on the side of the Axis.", "Mussolini was aware that Italy did not have the military capacity to carry out a long war with France or the United Kingdom and waited until France was on the verge of imminent collapse and surrender from the German invasion before declaring war on France and the United Kingdom on 10 June 1940 on the assumption that the war would be short-lived following France's collapse Mussolini believed that following a brief entry of Italy into war with France, followed by the imminent French surrender, Italy could gain some territorial concessions from France and then concentrate its forces on a major offensive in Egypt where British and Commonwealth forces were outnumbered by Italian forces.", "Plans by Germany to invade the United Kingdom in 1940 failed after Germany lost the aerial warfare campaign in the Battle of Britain.", "In 1941, the Axis campaign spread to the Soviet Union after Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa.", "Axis forces at the height of their power controlled almost all of continental Europe.", "The war became prolonged—contrary to Mussolini's plans—resulting in Italy losing battles on multiple fronts and requiring German assistance.mass execution outside the Mizocz Ghetto, 14 October 1942During World War II, the Axis Powers in Europe led by Nazi Germany participated in the extermination of millions of Poles, Jews, Gypsies and others in the genocide known as the Holocaust.After 1942, Axis forces began to falter.", "In 1943, after Italy faced multiple military failures, the complete reliance and subordination of Italy to Germany, the Allied invasion of Italy and the corresponding international humiliation, Mussolini was removed as head of government and arrested on the order of King Victor Emmanuel III, who proceeded to dismantle the Fascist state and declared Italy's switching of allegiance to the Allied side.", "Mussolini was rescued from arrest by German forces and led the German client state, the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to 1945.Nazi Germany faced multiple losses and steady Soviet and Western Allied offensives from 1943 to 1945.On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian communist partisans.", "On 30 April 1945, Hitler committed suicide.", "Shortly afterwards, Germany surrendered and the Nazi regime was systematically dismantled by the occupying Allied powers.", "An International Military Tribunal was subsequently convened in Nuremberg.", "Beginning in November 1945 and lasting through 1949, numerous Nazi political, military and economic leaders were tried and convicted of war crimes, with many of the worst offenders being sentenced to death and executed.=== Post-World War II (1945–2008) ===Juan Perón, President of Argentina from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, admired Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on those pursued by Fascist Italy.The victory of the Allies over the Axis powers in World War II led to the collapse of many fascist regimes in Europe.", "The Nuremberg Trials convicted several Nazi leaders of crimes against humanity involving the Holocaust.", "However, there remained several movements and governments that were ideologically related to fascism.Francisco Franco's Falangist one-party state in Spain was officially neutral during World War II and it survived the collapse of the Axis Powers.", "Franco's rise to power had been directly assisted by the militaries of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany during the Spanish Civil War and Franco had sent volunteers to fight on the side of Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union during World War II.", "The first years were characterized by a repression against the anti-fascist ideologies, deep censorship and the suppression of democratic institutions (elected Parliament, Spanish Constitution of 1931, Regional Statutes of Autonomy).", "After World War II and a period of international isolation, Franco's regime normalized relations with the Western powers during the Cold War, until Franco's death in 1975 and the transformation of Spain into a liberal democracy.Giorgio Almirante, leader of the Italian Social Movement from 1969 to 1987Historian Robert Paxton observes that one of the main problems in defining fascism is that it was widely mimicked.", "Paxton says: \"In fascism's heyday, in the 1930s, many regimes that were not functionally fascist borrowed elements of fascist decor in order to lend themselves an aura of force, vitality, and mass mobilization.\"", "He goes on to observe that Salazar \"crushed Portuguese fascism after he had copied some of its techniques of popular mobilization.\"", "Paxton says: \"Where Franco subjected Spain's fascist party to his personal control, Salazar abolished outright in July 1934 the nearest thing Portugal had to an authentic fascist movement, Rolão Preto's blue-shirted National Syndicalists.", "... Salazar preferred to control his population through such 'organic' institutions traditionally powerful in Portugal as the Church.", "Salazar's regime was not only non-fascist, but 'voluntarily non-totalitarian,' preferring to let those of its citizens who kept out of politics 'live by habit.", "However, historians tend to view the Estado Novo as para-fascist in nature, possessing minimal fascist tendencies.", "Other historians, including Fernando Rosas and Manuel Villaverde Cabral, think that the Estado Novo should be considered fascist.In Argentina, Peronism, associated with the regime of Juan Perón from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.", "Between 1939 and 1941, prior to his rise to power, Perón had developed a deep admiration of Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on Italian fascist policies.", "However, not all historians agree with this identification, which they consider debatable or even false, biased by a pejorative political position.", "Other authors, such as the Israeli Raanan Rein, categorically maintain that Perón was not a fascist and that this characterization was imposed on him because of his defiant stance against US hegemony.The term neo-fascism refers to fascist movements after World War II.", "In Italy, the Italian Social Movement led by Giorgio Almirante was a major neo-fascist movement that transformed itself into a self-described \"post-fascist\" movement called the National Alliance (AN), which has been an ally of Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia for a decade.", "In 2008, AN joined Forza Italia in Berlusconi's new party The People of Freedom, but in 2012 a group of politicians split from The People of Freedom, refounding the party with the name Brothers of Italy.", "In Germany, various neo-Nazi movements have been formed and banned in accordance with Germany's constitutional law which forbids Nazism.", "The National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) is widely considered a neo-Nazi party, although the party does not publicly identify itself as such.=== Contemporary fascism (2008–present) ======= Greece ====Golden Dawn demonstration in Greece in 2012After the onset of the Great Recession and economic crisis in Greece, a movement known as the Golden Dawn, widely considered a neo-Nazi party, soared in support out of obscurity and won seats in Greece's parliament, espousing a staunch hostility towards minorities, illegal immigrants and refugees.", "In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician by a person with links to Golden Dawn, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader Nikolaos Michaloliakos and other members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization.", "On 7 October 2020, Athens Appeals Court announced verdicts for 68 defendants, including the party's political leadership.", "Nikolaos Michaloliakos and six other prominent members and former MPs were found guilty of running a criminal organization.", "Guilty verdicts on charges of murder, attempted murder, and violent attacks on immigrants and left-wing political opponents were delivered.==== Post-Soviet Russia ====Marlene Laruelle, a French political scientist, contends in ''Is Russia Fascist?''", "that the accusation of \"fascist\" has evolved into a strategic narrative of the existing world order.", "Geopolitical rivals might construct their own view of the world and assert the moral high ground by branding ideological rivals as fascists, regardless of their real ideals or deeds.", "Laruelle discusses the basis, significance, and veracity of accusations of fascism in and around Russia through an analysis of the domestic situation in Russia and the Kremlin's foreign policy justifications; she concludes that Russian efforts to brand its opponents as fascist is ultimately an attempt to determine the future of Russia in Europe as an antifascist force, influenced by its role in fighting fascism in World War II.According to Alexander J. Motyl, an American historian and political scientist, Russian fascism has the following characteristics:* An undemocratic political system, different from both traditional authoritarianism and totalitarianism;* Statism and hypernationalism;* A hypermasculine cult of the supreme leader (emphasis on his courage, militancy and physical prowess);* General popular support for the regime and its leader.Yale historian Timothy Snyder has stated that \"Putin's regime is ... the world center of fascism\" and has written an article entitled ''\"We Should Say It: Russia Is Fascist.\"''", "Oxford historian Roger Griffin compared Putin's Russia to the World War II-era Empire of Japan, saying that like Putin's Russia, it \"emulated fascism in many ways, but was not fascist.\"", "Historian Stanley G. Payne says Putin's Russia \"is not equivalent to the fascist regimes of World War II, but it forms the nearest analogue to fascism found in a major country since that time\" and argues that Putin's political system is \"more a revival of the creed of Tsar Nicholas I in the 19th century that emphasized 'Orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationality' than one resembling the revolutionary, modernizing regimes of Hitler and Mussolini.\"", "According to Griffin, fascism is \"a revolutionary form of nationalism\" seeking to destroy the old system and remake society, and that Putin is a reactionary politician who is not trying to create a new order \"but to recreate a modified version of the Soviet Union\".", "German political scientist Andreas Umland said genuine fascists in Russia, like deceased politician Vladimir Zhirinovsky and activist and self-styled philosopher Aleksandr Dugin, \"describe in their writings a completely new Russia\" controlling parts of the world that were never under tsarist or Soviet domination.", "According to Marlene Laurelle writing in ''The Washington Quarterly'', \"applying the \"fascism\" label ... to the entirety of the Russian state or society short-circuits our ability to construct a more complex and differentiated picture.", "\"Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, collecting the opinions of experts on fascism, said that while Russia is repressive and authoritarian, it cannot be classified as a fascist state for various reasons, including Russia's government being more reactionary than revolutionary." ], [ "Tenets", "Robert O. Paxton finds that even though fascism \"maintained the existing regime of property and social hierarchy\", it cannot be considered \"simply a more muscular form of conservatism\" because \"fascism in power did carry out some changes profound enough to be called 'revolutionary.", "These transformations \"often set fascists into conflict with conservatives rooted in families, churches, social rank, and property.\"", "Paxton argues that \"fascism redrew the frontiers between private and public, sharply diminishing what had once been untouchably private.", "It changed the practice of citizenship from the enjoyment of constitutional rights and duties to participation in mass ceremonies of affirmation and conformity.", "It reconfigured relations between the individual and the collectivity, so that an individual had no rights outside community interest.", "It expanded the powers of the executive—party and state—in a bid for total control.", "Finally, it unleashed aggressive emotions hitherto known in Europe only during war or social revolution.", "\"=== Nationalism with or without expansionism ===Ultranationalism, combined with the myth of national rebirth, is a key foundation of fascism.", "Robert Paxton argues that \"a passionate nationalism\" is the basis of fascism, combined with \"a conspiratorial and Manichean view of history\" which holds that \"the chosen people have been weakened by political parties, social classes, unassimilable minorities, spoiled rentiers, and rationalist thinkers.\"", "Roger Griffin identifies the core of fascism as being palingenetic ultranationalism.The fascist view of a nation is of a single organic entity that binds people together by their ancestry and is a natural unifying force of people.", "Fascism seeks to solve economic, political and social problems by achieving a millenarian national rebirth, exalting the nation or race above all else and promoting cults of unity, strength and purity.", "European fascist movements typically espouse a racist conception of non-Europeans being inferior to Europeans.", "Beyond this, fascists in Europe have not held a unified set of racial views.", "Historically, most fascists promoted imperialism, although there have been several fascist movements that were uninterested in the pursuit of new imperial ambitions.", "For example, Nazism and Italian Fascism were expansionist and irredentist.", "Falangism in Spain envisioned the worldwide unification of Spanish-speaking peoples ().", "British Fascism was non-interventionist, though it did embrace the British Empire.=== Totalitarianism ===Fascism promotes the establishment of a totalitarian state.", "It opposes liberal democracy, rejects multi-party systems, and may support a one-party state so that it may synthesize with the nation.", "Mussolini's ''The Doctrine of Fascism'' (1932), partly ghostwritten by philosopher Giovanni Gentile, who Mussolini described as \"the philosopher of Fascism\", states: \"The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value.", "Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people.\"", "In ''The Legal Basis of the Total State'', Nazi political theorist Carl Schmitt described the Nazi intention to form a \"strong state which guarantees a totality of political unity transcending all diversity\" in order to avoid a \"disastrous pluralism tearing the German people apart.", "\"Fascist states pursued policies of social indoctrination through propaganda in education and the media, and regulation of the production of educational and media materials.", "Education was designed to glorify the fascist movement and inform students of its historical and political importance to the nation.", "It attempted to purge ideas that were not consistent with the beliefs of the fascist movement and to teach students to be obedient to the state.=== Economy ===Fascism presented itself as an alternative to both international socialism and free-market capitalism.", "While fascism opposed mainstream socialism, fascists sometimes regarded their movement as a type of nationalist \"socialism\" to highlight their commitment to nationalism, describing it as national solidarity and unity.", "Fascists opposed international free market capitalism, but supported a type of productive capitalism.", "Economic self-sufficiency, known as autarky, was a major goal of most fascist governments.Fascist governments advocated for the resolution of domestic class conflict within a nation in order to guarantee national unity.", "This would be done through the state mediating relations between the classes (contrary to the views of classical liberal-inspired capitalists).", "While fascism was opposed to domestic class conflict, it was held that bourgeois-proletarian conflict existed primarily in national conflict between proletarian nations versus bourgeois nations.", "Fascism condemned what it viewed as widespread character traits that it associated as the typical bourgeois mentality that it opposed, such as: materialism, crassness, cowardice, and the inability to comprehend the heroic ideal of the fascist \"warrior\"; and associations with liberalism, individualism and parliamentarianism.", "In 1918, Mussolini defined what he viewed as the proletarian character, defining proletarian as being one and the same with producers, a productivist perspective that associated all people deemed productive, including entrepreneurs, technicians, workers and soldiers as being proletarian.", "He acknowledged the historical existence of both bourgeois and proletarian producers but declared the need for bourgeois producers to merge with proletarian producers.The need for a ''people's car'' (''Volkswagen'' in German), its concept and its functional objectives were formulated by Adolf Hitler.Because productivism was key to creating a strong nationalist state, it criticized internationalist and Marxist socialism, advocating instead to represent a type of nationalist productivist socialism.", "Nevertheless, while condemning parasitical capitalism, was willing to accommodate productivist capitalism within it so long as it supported the nationalist objective.", "The role of productivism was derived from Henri de Saint Simon, whose ideas inspired the creation of utopian socialism and influenced other ideologies, that stressed solidarity rather than class war and whose conception of productive people in the economy included both productive workers and productive bosses to challenge the influence of the aristocracy and unproductive financial speculators.", "Saint Simon's vision combined the traditionalist right-wing criticisms of the French Revolution with a left-wing belief in the need for association or collaboration of productive people in society.", "Whereas Marxism condemned capitalism as a system of exploitative property relations, fascism saw the nature of the control of credit and money in the contemporary capitalist system as abusive.", "Unlike Marxism, fascism did not see class conflict between the Marxist-defined proletariat and the bourgeoisie as a given or as an engine of historical materialism.", "Instead, it viewed workers and productive capitalists in common as productive people who were in conflict with parasitic elements in society including: corrupt political parties, corrupt financial capital and feeble people.", "Fascist leaders such as Mussolini and Hitler spoke of the need to create a new managerial elite led by engineers and captains of industry—but free from the parasitic leadership of industries.", "Hitler stated that the Nazi Party supported (\"productive capitalism\") that was based upon profit earned from one's own labour, but condemned unproductive capitalism or loan capitalism, which derived profit from speculation.Fascist economics supported a state-controlled economy that accepted a mix of private and public ownership over the means of production.", "Economic planning was applied to both the public and private sector and the prosperity of private enterprise depended on its acceptance of synchronizing itself with the economic goals of the state.", "Fascist economic ideology supported the profit motive, but emphasized that industries must uphold the national interest as superior to private profit.While fascism accepted the importance of material wealth and power, it condemned materialism which identified as being present in both communism and capitalism and criticized materialism for lacking acknowledgement of the role of the spirit.", "In particular, fascists criticized capitalism, not because of its competitive nature nor support of private property, which fascists supported—but due to its materialism, individualism, alleged bourgeois decadence and alleged indifference to the nation.", "Fascism denounced Marxism for its advocacy of materialist internationalist class identity, which fascists regarded as an attack upon the emotional and spiritual bonds of the nation and a threat to the achievement of genuine national solidarity.In discussing the spread of fascism beyond Italy, historian Philip Morgan states: \"Since the Depression was a crisis of laissez-faire capitalism and its political counterpart, parliamentary democracy, fascism could pose as the 'third-way' alternative between capitalism and Bolshevism, the model of a new European 'civilization.'", "As Mussolini typically put it in early 1934, 'from 1929 ... fascism has become a universal phenomenon ...", "The dominant forces of the 19th century, democracy, socialism, and liberalism have been exhausted ... the new political and economic forms of the twentieth-century are fascist' (Mussolini 1935: 32).", "\"Fascists criticized egalitarianism as preserving the weak, and they instead promoted social Darwinist views and policies.", "They were in principle opposed to the idea of social welfare, arguing that it \"encouraged the preservation of the degenerate and the feeble.\"", "The Nazi Party condemned the welfare system of the Weimar Republic, as well as private charity and philanthropy, for supporting people whom they regarded as racially inferior and weak, and who should have been weeded out in the process of natural selection.", "Nevertheless, faced with the mass unemployment and poverty of the Great Depression, the Nazis found it necessary to set up charitable institutions to help racially-pure Germans in order to maintain popular support, while arguing that this represented \"racial self-help\" and not indiscriminate charity or universal social welfare.", "Thus, Nazi programs such as the Winter Relief of the German People and the broader National Socialist People's Welfare (NSV) were organized as quasi-private institutions, officially relying on private donations from Germans to help others of their race—although in practice those who refused to donate could face severe consequences.", "Unlike the social welfare institutions of the Weimar Republic and the Christian charities, the NSV distributed assistance on explicitly racial grounds.", "It provided support only to those who were \"racially sound, capable of and willing to work, politically reliable, and willing and able to reproduce.\"", "Non-Aryans were excluded, as well as the \"work-shy\", \"asocials\" and the \"hereditarily ill\".", "Under these conditions, by 1939, over 17 million Germans had obtained assistance from the NSV, and the agency \"projected a powerful image of caring and support\" for \"those who were judged to have got into difficulties through no fault of their own.\"", "Yet the organization was \"feared and disliked among society's poorest\" because it resorted to intrusive questioning and monitoring to judge who was worthy of support.=== Direct action ===Fascism emphasizes direct action, including supporting the legitimacy of political violence, as a core part of its politics.", "Fascism views violent action as a necessity in politics that fascism identifies as being an \"endless struggle\"; this emphasis on the use of political violence means that most fascist parties have also created their own private militias (e.g.", "the Nazi Party's Brown shirts and Fascist Italy's Blackshirts).The basis of fascism's support of violent action in politics is connected to social Darwinism.", "Fascist movements have commonly held social Darwinist views of nations, races and societies.", "They say that nations and races must purge themselves of socially and biologically weak or degenerate people, while simultaneously promoting the creation of strong people, in order to survive in a world defined by perpetual national and racial conflict.=== Age and gender roles ===Members of the , an organization for girls within the National Fascist Party in ItalyMembers of the League of German Girls, an organization for girls within the Nazi Party in GermanyFascism emphasizes youth both in a physical sense of age and in a spiritual sense as related to virility and commitment to action.", "The Italian Fascists' political anthem was called ''Giovinezza'' (\"The Youth\").", "Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for the moral development of people who will affect society.", "Walter Laqueur argues that \"the corollaries of the cult of war and physical danger were the cult of brutality, strength, and sexuality ... fascism is a true counter-civilization: rejecting the sophisticated rationalist humanism of Old Europe, fascism sets up as its ideal the primitive instincts and primal emotions of the barbarian.", "\"Italian Fascism pursued what it called \"moral hygiene\" of youth, particularly regarding sexuality.", "Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered deviant sexual behaviour.", "It condemned pornography, most forms of birth control and contraceptive devices (with the exception of the condom), homosexuality and prostitution as deviant sexual behaviour, although enforcement of laws opposed to such practices was erratic and authorities often turned a blind eye.", "Fascist Italy regarded the promotion of male sexual excitation before puberty as the cause of criminality amongst male youth, declared homosexuality a social disease and pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women.Mussolini perceived women's primary role as primarily child bearers, while that of men as warriors, once saying: \"War is to man what maternity is to the woman.\"", "In an effort to increase birthrates, the Italian Fascist government gave financial incentives to women who raised large families and initiated policies intended to reduce the number of women employed.", "Italian Fascism called for women to be honoured as \"reproducers of the nation\" and the Italian Fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within the Italian nation.", "In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a \"major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment\" and that for women, working was \"incompatible with childbearing\"; Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the \"exodus of women from the work force.", "\"The German Nazi government strongly encouraged women to stay at home to bear children and keep house.", "This policy was reinforced by bestowing the Cross of Honor of the German Mother on women bearing four or more children.", "The unemployment rate was cut substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could take their jobs.", "Nazi propaganda sometimes promoted premarital and extramarital sexual relations, unwed motherhood and divorce, but at other times the Nazis opposed such behaviour.The Nazis decriminalized abortion in cases where fetuses had hereditary defects or were of a race the government disapproved of, while the abortion of healthy pure German, Aryan fetuses remained strictly forbidden.", "For non-Aryans, abortion was often compulsory.", "Their eugenics program also stemmed from the \"progressive biomedical model\" of Weimar Germany.", "In 1935, Nazi Germany expanded the legality of abortion by amending its eugenics law, to promote abortion for women with hereditary disorders.", "The law allowed abortion if a woman gave her permission and the fetus was not yet viable and for purposes of so-called racial hygiene.The Nazis said that homosexuality was degenerate, effeminate, perverted and undermined masculinity because it did not produce children.", "They considered homosexuality curable through therapy, citing modern scientism and the study of sexology, which said that homosexuality could be felt by \"normal\" people and not just an abnormal minority.", "Open homosexuals were interned in Nazi concentration camps.=== Palingenesis and modernism ===Fascism emphasizes both palingenesis (national rebirth or re-creation) and modernism.", "In particular, fascism's nationalism has been identified as having a palingenetic character.", "Fascism promotes the regeneration of the nation and purging it of decadence.", "Fascism accepts forms of modernism that it deems promotes national regeneration while rejecting forms of modernism that are regarded as antithetical to national regeneration.", "Fascism aestheticized modern technology and its association with speed, power and violence.", "Fascism admired advances in the economy in the early 20th century, particularly Fordism and scientific management.", "Fascist modernism has been recognized as inspired or developed by various figures—such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Ernst Jünger, Gottfried Benn, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Knut Hamsun, Ezra Pound and Wyndham Lewis.In Italy, such modernist influence was exemplified by Marinetti who advocated a palingenetic modernist society that condemned liberal-bourgeois values of tradition and psychology, while promoting a technological-martial religion of national renewal that emphasized militant nationalism.", "In Germany, it was exemplified by Jünger who was influenced by his observation of the technological warfare during World War I and claimed that a new social class had been created that he described as the \"warrior-worker\"; Like Marinetti, Jünger emphasized the revolutionary capacities of technology.", "He emphasized an \"organic construction\" between human and machine as a liberating and regenerative force that challenged liberal democracy, conceptions of individual autonomy, bourgeois nihilism and decadence.", "He conceived of a society based on a totalitarian concept of \"total mobilization\" of such disciplined warrior-workers." ], [ "Culture", "=== Aesthetics ===Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (1876–1944)In ''The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction'' (1935), Walter Benjamin identifies aestheticization of politics as a key ingredient in fascist regimes.", "On this point he quotes Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, founder of the Futurist art movement and co-author of the Fascist Manifesto (1919), who aestheticizes war in his writings and claims that \"war is beautiful.", "\"In ''Simulacra and Simulation'' (1981), Jean Baudrillard interprets fascism as a \"political aesthetic of death\" and a vehement countermovement against the increasing rationalism, secularism, and pacifism of the modern Western world.The standard definition of fascism, given by Stanley G. Payne, focuses on three concepts, one of which is a \"fascist style\" with an aesthetic structure of meetings, symbols, and political liturgy, stressing emotional and mystical aspects.Emilio Gentile argues that fascism expresses itself aesthetically more than theoretically by means of a new political style with myths, rites, and symbols as a lay religion designed to acculturate, socialize, and integrate the faith of the masses with the goal of creating a \"new man\".Cultural critic Susan Sontag writes:Sontag also enumerates some commonalities between fascist art and the official art of communist countries, such as the obeisance of the masses to the hero, and a preference for the monumental and the \"grandiose and rigid\" choreography of mass bodies.", "But whereas official communist art \"aims to expound and reinforce a utopian morality\", the art of fascist countries such as Nazi Germany \"displays a utopian aesthetics – that of physical perfection\", in a way that is \"both prurient and idealizing\".According to Sontag, fascist aesthetics \"is based on the containment of vital forces; movements are confined, held tight, held in.\"", "Its appeal is not necessarily limited to those who share the fascist political ideology because fascism \"stands for an ideal or rather ideals that are persistent today under the other banners: the ideal of life as art, the cult of beauty, the fetishism of courage, the dissolution of alienation in ecstatic feelings of community; the repudiation of the intellect; the family of man (under the parenthood of leaders).", "\"=== Popular culture ===Joseph Goebbels with film director Leni Riefenstahl in 1937In Italy, the Mussolini regime created the to encourage film studios to glorify fascism.", "Italian cinema flourished because the regime stopped the import of Hollywood films in 1938, subsidized domestic production, and kept ticket prices low.", "It encouraged international distribution to glorify its African empire and to belie the charge that Italy was backward.", "The regime censored criticism and used the state-run Luce Institute film company to laud the Duce through newsreels, documentaries, and photographs.", "For four decades after 1945 films of the fascist era were ignored.", "The regime promoted Italian opera and theatre as well, making sure that political enemies did not have a voice on stage.In Nazi Germany the new Reich Chamber of Culture was under the control of Joseph Goebbels, Hitler's powerful Reich Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda.", "Its divisions included press, radio, literature, movies, theater, music, and visual arts.", "The goal was to stimulate the Aryanization of German culture and to prohibit postmodern trends such as surrealism and cubism." ], [ "Criticism", "Fascist parties were closely contested by anti-fascist movements across the political spectrum throughout the Interwar period.", "The defeat of the Axis powers in World War II and subsequent revelation of the crimes against humanity committed during the Holocaust by Germany have lead to an almost universal condemnation of fascism in the modern era.=== Anti-democratic and tyrannical ===Hitler and Spanish dictator Francisco Franco in Meeting at Hendaye, on 23 October 1940One of the most common and strongest criticisms of fascism is that it is a tyranny.", "Fascism is deliberately and entirely non-democratic and anti-democratic.=== Unprincipled opportunism: Italian fascism ===Some critics of Italian fascism have said that much of the ideology was merely a by-product of unprincipled opportunism by Mussolini and that he changed his political stances merely to bolster his personal ambitions while he disguised them as being purposeful to the public.", "Richard Washburn Child, the American ambassador to Italy who worked with Mussolini and became his friend and admirer, defended Mussolini's opportunistic behaviour by writing: \"Opportunist is a term of reproach used to brand men who fit themselves to conditions for the reasons of self-interest.", "Mussolini, as I have learned to know him, is an opportunist in the sense that he believed that mankind itself must be fitted to changing conditions rather than to fixed theories, no matter how many hopes and prayers have been expended on theories and programmes.\"", "Child quoted Mussolini as saying: \"The sanctity of an ism is not in the ism; it has no sanctity beyond its power to do, to work, to succeed in practice.", "It may have succeeded yesterday and fail to-morrow.", "Failed yesterday and succeed to-morrow.", "The machine, first of all, must run!", "\"Some have criticized Mussolini's actions during the outbreak of World War I as opportunistic for seeming to suddenly abandon Marxist egalitarian internationalism for non-egalitarian nationalism and note, to that effect, that upon Mussolini endorsing Italy's intervention in the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary, he and the new fascist movement received financial support from Italian and foreign sources, such as Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies as well as the British Security Service MI5.Some, including Mussolini's socialist opponents at the time, have noted that regardless of the financial support he accepted for his pro-interventionist stance, Mussolini was free to write whatever he wished in his newspaper without prior sanctioning from his financial backers.", "Furthermore, the major source of financial support that Mussolini and the fascist movement received in World War I was from France and is widely believed to have been French socialists who supported the French government's war against Germany and who sent support to Italian socialists who wanted Italian intervention on France's side.Mussolini's transformation away from Marxism into what eventually became fascism began prior to World War I, as Mussolini had grown increasingly pessimistic about Marxism and egalitarianism while becoming increasingly supportive of figures who opposed egalitarianism, such as Friedrich Nietzsche.", "By 1902, Mussolini was studying Georges Sorel, Nietzsche and Vilfredo Pareto.", "Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal democracy and capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, general strikes and neo-Machiavellian appeals to emotion impressed Mussolini deeply.", "Mussolini's use of Nietzsche made him a highly unorthodox socialist, due to Nietzsche's promotion of elitism and anti-egalitarian views.", "Prior to World War I, Mussolini's writings over time indicated that he had abandoned the Marxism and egalitarianism that he had previously supported in favour of Nietzsche's concept and anti-egalitarianism.", "In 1908, Mussolini wrote a short essay called \"Philosophy of Strength\" based on his Nietzschean influence, in which Mussolini openly spoke fondly of the ramifications of an impending war in Europe in challenging both religion and nihilism: \"A new kind of free spirit will come, strengthened by the war, ... a spirit equipped with a kind of sublime perversity, ... a new free spirit will triumph over God and over Nothing.", "\"=== Ideological dishonesty: Italian fascism ===Fascism has been criticized for being ideologically dishonest.", "Major examples of ideological dishonesty have been identified in Italian fascism's changing relationship with German Nazism.", "Fascist Italy's official foreign policy positions commonly used rhetorical ideological hyperbole to justify its actions, although during Dino Grandi's tenure as Italy's foreign minister the country engaged in free of such fascist hyperbole.", "Italian fascism's stance towards German Nazism fluctuated from support from the late 1920s to 1934, when it celebrated Hitler's rise to power and Mussolini's first meeting with Hitler in 1934; to opposition from 1934 to 1936 after the assassination of Italy's allied leader in Austria, Engelbert Dollfuss, by Austrian Nazis; and again back to support after 1936, when Germany was the only significant power that did not denounce Italy's invasion and occupation of Ethiopia.After antagonism exploded between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy over the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss in 1934, Mussolini and Italian fascists denounced and ridiculed Nazism's racial theories, particularly by denouncing its Nordicism, while promoting Mediterraneanism.", "Mussolini himself responded to Nordicists' claims of Italy being divided into Nordic and Mediterranean racial areas due to Germanic invasions of Northern Italy by claiming that while Germanic tribes such as the Lombards took control of Italy after the fall of Ancient Rome, they arrived in small numbers (about 8,000) and quickly assimilated into Roman culture and spoke the Latin language within fifty years.", "Italian fascism was influenced by the tradition of Italian nationalists scornfully looking down upon Nordicists' claims and taking pride in comparing the age and sophistication of ancient Roman civilization as well as the classical revival in the Renaissance to that of Nordic societies that Italian nationalists described as \"newcomers\" to civilization in comparison.", "At the height of antagonism between the Nazis and Italian fascists over race, Mussolini claimed that the Germans themselves were not a pure race and noted with irony that the Nazi theory of German racial superiority was based on the theories of non-German foreigners, such as Frenchman Arthur de Gobineau.", "After the tension in German-Italian relations diminished during the late 1930s, Italian fascism sought to harmonize its ideology with German Nazism and combined Nordicist and Mediterranean racial theories, noting that Italians were members of the Aryan Race, composed of a mixed Nordic-Mediterranean subtype.In 1938, Mussolini declared upon Italy's adoption of antisemitic laws that Italian fascism had always been antisemitic.", "In fact, Italian fascism did not endorse antisemitism until the late 1930s when Mussolini feared alienating antisemitic Nazi Germany, whose power and influence were growing in Europe.", "Prior to that period, there had been notable Jewish Italians who had been senior Italian fascist officials, including Margherita Sarfatti, who had also been Mussolini's mistress.", "Also contrary to Mussolini's claim in 1938, only a small number of Italian fascists were staunchly antisemitic (such as Roberto Farinacci and Giuseppe Preziosi), while others such as Italo Balbo, who came from Ferrara which had one of Italy's largest Jewish communities, were disgusted by the antisemitic laws and opposed them.", "Fascism scholar Mark Neocleous notes that while Italian fascism did not have a clear commitment to antisemitism, there were occasional antisemitic statements issued prior to 1938, such as Mussolini in 1919 declaring that the Jewish bankers in London and New York were connected by race to the Russian Bolsheviks and that eight percent of the Russian Bolsheviks were Jews." ], [ "See also", "* Christian fascism* Clerical fascism* Conservative Revolution* Crypto-fascism* Emergency government* Fascism in South America* Islamofascism* Neo-Nazism* Pact of Pacification* Proto-fascism* Rashism* Right-wing authoritarianism* Reactionary modernism* ''Squadrismo''* Statism in Shōwa Japan* Strongman (politics)" ], [ "References", "'''Notes'''" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Primary sources===* * * ** * * .", "Supplement, Papers and Proceedings of the Forty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association.", "* * * * * * * * * , republished in * ; link via ''The Orwell Foundation''* ===Secondary sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * online review.", "* * * * Originally published by William Morrow in 1974.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * online; also another copy.", "* online.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.", "* * * * * * * * ** * * * ===Tertiary sources===* * * * * * ===Further reading===* Ahmed, Saladdin.", "\"Fascism as an Ideological Form: A Critical Theory.\"", "''Critical Sociology'' 49.4-5 (2023): 669-687.online* * * Berezin, Mabel.", "\"Fascism and populism: Are they useful categories for comparative sociological analysis?.\"", "''Annual Review of Sociology'' 45 (2019): 345-361.online* Churchwell, Sarah.", "\"American fascism: It has happened here.\"", "''The New York Review of Books'' 22 (2020).", "online* * Finchelstein, Federico.", "''From fascism to populism in history'' (U of California Press, 2019) online.", "* García, Hugo, et al.", "(eds.)", "(2016) ''Rethinking Antifascism: History, Memory and Politics, 1922 to the Present'' (Berghahn Books)* online* * Joes, Anthony J.", "''Fascism in the contemporary world: ideology, evolution, resurgence'' (Routledge, 2019) online.", "* Kagan, Robert.", "\"This is how fascism comes to America.\"", "in ''Ideals and Ideologies'' (Routledge, 2019) 369-371.online* Kuklick, Bruce. ''", "Fascism Comes to America: A Century of Obsession in Politics and Culture '' (U Chicago Press 2022) online book review* * " ], [ "External links", " ''The Doctrine of Fascism'' by Benito Mussolini (1932) * Authorized translation of Mussolini's \"The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism\" (1933) (PDF).", "media.wix.com.", "* Readings on Fascism and National Socialism by Various – Project Gutenberg* \"Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt\" – Umberto Eco's list of 14 characteristics of Fascism, originally published 1995." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Forge" ], [ "Introduction", "The inside of a typical smithy in FinlandWooden smithy built in 1726 in Opole, Upper Silesia, PolandA smithy built around 1880 in Mērsrags, Courland, Latvia currently located at The Ethnographic Open-Air Museum of LatviaA '''forge''' is a type of hearth used for heating metals, or the workplace ('''smithy''') where such a hearth is located.", "The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a temperature at which it becomes easier to shape by forging, or to the point at which work hardening no longer occurs.", "The metal (known as the \"workpiece\") is transported to and from the forge using tongs, which are also used to hold the workpiece on the smithy's anvil while the smith works it with a hammer.", "Sometimes, such as when hardening steel or cooling the work so that it may be handled with bare hands, the workpiece is transported to the slack tub, which rapidly cools the workpiece in a large body of water.", "However, depending on the metal type, it may require an oil quench or a salt brine instead; many metals require more than plain water hardening.", "The slack tub also provides water to control the fire in the forge." ], [ "Types", "=== Coal/coke/charcoal forge ===Bottom blast coal forgeA forge typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal.", "The designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same.A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects (hardening, annealing, and tempering as examples).", "The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways: amount of air, the volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/fire.A forge fire for hot working of metalOver thousands of years of forging, these devices have evolved in one form or another as the essential features of this type of forge:* Tuyere—a pipe through which air can be forced into the fire* Bellows or blower—a means for forcing air into the tuyere* Hearth—a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening.", "Traditionally hearths have been constructed of mud-brick (adobe), fired brick, stone, or later, constructed of iron.During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth and ignited.", "A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere.", "With additional air, the fire consumes fuel faster and burns hotter (and cleaner - smoke can be thought of as escaped potential fuel).A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work.", "Often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire.In a typical coal forge, a firepot will be centred in a flat hearth.", "The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom.", "In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot.", "The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke.", "Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire.", "Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it \"cooks\" into coke first.If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart.", "The smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work.The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a 'backdraft' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall.Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire (as with coal), the fire is handled differently.Individual smiths and specialized applications have fostered the development of a variety of forges of this type, from the coal forge described above to simpler constructions amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it.=== Gas forge ===A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel.", "One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body.", "The chamber is typically lined with refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket (ex: Kaowool).", "The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining.", "The air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi effect.Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch.", "A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick.The primary advantage of a gas forge is the ease of use, particularly for a novice.", "A gas forge is simple to operate compared to coal forges, and the fire produced is clean and consistent.", "They are less versatile, as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped pieces.", "It is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece.", "A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge-welding, but a well-designed gas forge is hot enough for any task.=== Finery forge ===A finery forge is a water-powered mill where pig iron is refined into wrought iron." ], [ "Forging equipment", "=== Anvil ===The structure of an anvilThe anvil serves as a workbench to the blacksmith, where the metal to be forged is worked.", "Anvils may seem clunky and heavy, but they are a highly refined tool carefully shaped to suit a blacksmith's needs.", "Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel.", "Some anvils are made of only cast iron and have no tool steel face.", "These are not real anvils, and will not serve a blacksmith as such because they are too soft.", "A common term for a cast iron anvil is \"ASO\" or \"Anvil Shaped Object\".", "The purpose of a tool steel face on an anvil is to provide what some call \"rebound\" as well as being hard and not denting easily from misplaced hammer blows.", "The term rebound means it projects some of the force of the blacksmith's hammer blows back into the metal thus moving more metal at once than if there were no rebound.", "A good anvil can project anywhere from 50 to 99% of the energy back into the workpiece.", "The flat top, called the \"face\" is highly polished and usually has two holes (but can have more or less depending on the design).", "The square hole is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy tool fits.", "There are many different kinds of hardy tools.", "The smaller hole is called the pritchel hole, used as a bolster when punching holes in hot metal, or to hold tools similar to how the hardy tool does, but for tools that require being able to turn a 360-degree angle such as a hold-down tool for when the blacksmith's tongs cannot hold a workpiece as securely as it needs to be.", "On the front of the anvil, there is sometimes a \"horn\" that is used for bending, drawing out steel, and many other tasks.", "Between the horn and the anvil face, there is often a small area called a \"step\" or a \"cutting table\" That is used for cutting hot or cold steel with chisels, and hot cut tools without harming the anvil's face.", "Marks on the face transfer into imperfections in the blacksmith's work.===Hammer===Various traditional blacksmith toolsThere are many types of hammer used in a blacksmith's workshop but this will name just a few common ones.", "Hammers can range in shape and weight from half an ounce to nearly 30 pounds depending on the type of work being done with it.# Hand hammer - used by the smith.#* Ball-peen hammer#* Cross-peen hammer#* Straight-peen hammer#* Rounding hammer# Sledge hammer - used by the striker.=== Chisel ===Chisels are made of high carbon steel.", "They are hardened and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered.", "Chisels are of two types, hot and cold chisels.", "The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals.", "Usually, hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with cold chisels.", "Also, many smiths shape chisels as to have a simple twisted handle as to resemble a hammer, they can be used at a greater distance away from the hot metals.", "They are very useful and found throughout the world.=== Tongs ===Blacksmith using tongsTongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely.", "The mouths are custom made by the smith in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal.", "It is not uncommon for a blacksmith to own twenty or more pairs of tongs; traditionally, a smith would start building their collection during the apprenticeship.There are various types of tongs available in the market.", "(1) flat tong(2) rivet or ring tong(3) straight lip fluted tong(4) gad tong=== Fuller ===Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows.", "They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle.", "The work is placed on the bottom fuller and the top is placed on the work and struck with a hammer.", "The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal.=== Hardy ===The hardy tool is a tool with a square shank that fits in a hardy hole.", "There are many different kinds of hardy tools such as the hot cut hardy, used for cutting hot metal on the anvil; the fuller tool, used for drawing out metal and making grooves; bending jigs - and too many others to list.===Slack tub===A ''slack tub'' is usually a large container full of water used by a blacksmith to quench hot metal.", "The slack tub is principally used to cool parts of the work during forging (to protect them, or keep the metal in one area from \"spreading\" for example, nearby hammer blows); to harden the steel; to tend a coal or charcoal forge; and simply to cool the work quickly for easy inspection.", "In bladesmithing and tool-making the term will usually be changed to a \"quench tank\" because oil or brine is used to cool the metal.", "The term slack is believed to derive from the word \"slake\", as in slaking the heat." ], [ "Types of forging", "=== Drop forging ===Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by dropping a heavy hammer with a die on its face onto the workpiece.==== Process ====The workpiece is placed into the forge.", "Then the impact of a hammer causes the heated material, which is very malleable, to conform to the shape of the die and die cavities.", "Typically only one die is needed to completely form the part.", "Extra space between the die faces causes some of the material to be pressed out of the sides, forming flash.", "This acts as a relief valve for the extreme pressure produced by the closing of the die halves and is later trimmed off of the finished part.==== Equipment ====The equipment used in the drop forming process is commonly known as a power or drop hammer.", "These may be powered by air, hydraulics, or mechanics.", "Depending on how the machine is powered, the mass of the ram, and the drop height, the striking force can be anywhere from 11,000 to 425,000 pounds.The tools that are used, dies and punches, come in many different shapes and sizes, as well as materials.", "Examples of these shapes are flat and v-shaped which are used for open-die forging, and single or multiple-impression dies used for closed die forging.", "The designs for the dies have many aspects to them that must be considered.", "They all must be properly aligned, they must be designed so the metal and the flash will flow properly and fill all the grooves, and special considerations must be made for supporting webs and ribs and the parting line location.", "The materials must also be selected carefully.", "Some factors that go into the material selection are cost, their ability to harden, their ability to withstand high pressures, hot abrasion, heat cracking, and other such things.", "The most common materials used for the tools are carbon steel and, in some cases, nickel-based alloys.==== Workpiece materials ====The materials that are used most commonly in drop forging are aluminium, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless steel, and magnesium.", "Mild steel is the best choice, and magnesium generally performs poorly as a drop forging material." ], [ "Mythology", "Various gods and goddesses are associated with the forge in a number of mythologies, such as the Irish Brigid, West African Ogun, Greek Hephaestus and Roman Vulcan." ], [ "See also", "* Oven* Kiln* Furnace* Clinker (waste)* Blast furnace* Crucible steel* Steel mill* Steel industry" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Five Pillars of Islam" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Five Pillars of Islam''' ('''' ; also '''' \"pillars of the religion\") are fundamental practices in Islam, considered to be obligatory acts of worship for all Muslims.", "They are summarized in the hadith of Gabriel.", "The Sunni and Shia agree on the basic details of the performance and practice of these acts, but the Shia do not refer to them by the same name (see Ancillaries of the Faith, for the Twelvers, and Seven pillars of Ismailism).", "They are: Muslim creed, prayer, charity to the poor, fasting in the month of Ramadan, and the pilgrimage to Mecca for those who are able." ], [ "Overview of the Five Pillars of Islam", "The ritual obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars.", "They are acknowledged and practiced by Muslims throughout the world, notwithstanding their disparities.", "They are viewed as compulsory for individuals who genuinely wish to pursue a life like that which prophet Muhammad led.", "Like other religions, Islam holds certain practices to be standard; however, that does not imply that all individuals who regard themselves as Muslims necessarily observe them.", "Individual participation can vary depending on the individual's faith; for example, not every individual prays every day, keeps the fast, performs the Hajj, or donates extensively to charity.", "There are also Muslim communities such as Alevis who reject the Five Pillars but follows Four Doors system.Shortly after the Muslim Arabs conquered new terrains, they started raising mosques and castles and commissioning different commemorations and artifacts as articulations of their faith and culture.", "The religious practice of Islam, which signifies \"submission to God\", depends on fundamentals that are known as the Five Pillars.", "Each of the five pillars is alluded to in the Quran, though in various chapters (''suwar'').", "Further insights concerning these commitments are given in the Hadith.Though comparable practices were performed in pre-Islamic Arabia and by Jews and Christians at the time of Muhammad, they were changed in the Quran and Hadith, given a carefully monotheistic center, and identified with the life of the Prophet.", "In the Quran, in spite of the fact that the Shahada does not show up in full, Quran urges the individuals who accept to obey God and his Messenger.", "Prayer is alluded to multiple times, with prayer times referenced in Quran , and the demonstrations of bowing and prostrating in 48.29.In a few chapters, Muslims are urged both to pray and give alms (for example Q.", "), however what, when and to whom gifts ought to be made is clarified in more detail in the hadith.", "There is a critical entry on fasting in the Quran (), which alludes to the period of Ramadan and sets out the detail on who ought, and ought not fast, to a certain extent under specific conditions.", "Regarding the matter of the Hajj, the longest Quranic section () recommends the destination location of the pilgrimage, the lead and exercises of the individuals who participate, urging them to have God as a top priority consistently." ], [ "Pillars of Sunni Islam", "The Five Pillars of IslamAn artwork depicting the 5 pillars=== First pillar: Shahada (Declaration of Faith) ===The first pillar of Islam is the ''Shahada'', the assertion of faith.", "There are two shahadas: \"There is no god but God\" and \"Muhammad is the messenger of God\".", "This set statement is normally recited in Arabic: ''lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu muḥammadun rasūlu-llāh'' () \"There is no god but God (and) Muhammad is the messenger of God.\"", "It is essential to utter it to become a Muslim and to convert to Islam.The first shahada promotes the essential unity of the faith, proclaiming that there is no god but God.", "The Tawhid, which is the prayer that states \"no god but God\" is a major component of the Islamic faith, for it asserts the monotheistic aspect of Islam, promoting unity of God as the source of existence.", "The second shahada demonstrates God's essential mercy.", "This prayer proclaims Muhammad as the last prophet, and it uses Muhammad as the prime example of guidance for all Muslims.", "Muhammad received revelation that was distorted by earlier communities, such as Jewish and Christian societies; Muhammad was the recipient of the Quran's guidance himself and now is bearer of this guidance for the rest of the Muslim community throughout history.The Shahada, or profession of faith is said five times a day during prayer.", "It is the first thing said to a newborn, and the last thing to a person on their death-bed, showing how the Muslim prayer and the pillars are instrumental from the day a person is born until the day they die.=== Second Pillar: Salah (Prayer) ===The Second Pillar of Sunni Islam is Salah, or prayer.", "Before a prayer is observed, ablutions are performed including washing one's hands, face and feet.", "A caller (Muezzin in Arabic) chants aloud from a raised place in the mosque.", "Verses from the Quran are recited either loudly or silently.", "These prayers are a very specific type of prayer and a very physical type of prayer called prostrations.", "These prayers are done five times a day, at set strict times, with the individual facing Mecca.", "The prayers are performed at dawn, noon, afternoon, evening, and night: the names are according to the prayer times: ''Fajr'' (dawn), ''Dhuhr'' (noon), ''ʿAṣr'' (afternoon), ''Maghrib'' (evening), and ''ʿIshāʾ'' (night).", "The Fajr prayer is performed before sunrise, Dhuhr is performed in the midday after the sun has surpassed its highest point, Asr is the evening prayer before sunset, Maghrib is the evening prayer after sunset and Isha is the night prayer.", "All of these prayers are recited while facing in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and form an important aspect of the Muslim Ummah.", "Muslims must wash before prayer; this washing is called ''wudu'' (\"purification\").", "The prayer is accompanied by a series of set positions including; bowing with hands on knees, standing, prostrating and sitting in a special position (not on the heels, nor on the buttocks).", "At every change in position, \"God is great\" is said and it is a fixed tradition that has to be recited in each posture.", "A Muslim may perform their prayer anywhere, such as in offices, universities, and fields.", "However, the mosque is the preferable place for prayers because the mosque allows for fellowship.", "These prayers may also be observed individually if one is not able to go.", "The prayers are not required for women during their periods, prepubescent children and those with intellectual and physical disabilities inhibiting prayer.", "Those who are sick and unable to assume the positions of prayer are still required to pray, although they may pray in bed and even lying down.", "When traveling, one may observe the afternoon prayers following one another: also the sunset and late evening prayers can be combined too.=== Third Pillar: Zakat (Almsgiving) ===The Third Pillar of Islam is Zakāt, or alms giving or charity.", "Zakat means purification which indicates that a payment makes the rest of one's wealth legally and religiously pure.", "By following this pillar, Muslims have to deduct certain amount of their wealth to support the Islamic community — usually about 2.5% of their wealth.", "This practice is not found in the Quran but rather in the hadith.", "The tax is used to take good care of the holy places and mosques in the individual's specific Muslim community or to give assistance to those in need or who are impoverished.", "The word zakāt can be defined as purification and growth because it allows an individual to achieve balance and encourages new growth.", "The principle of knowing that all things belong to God is essential to purification and growth.", "Zakāt is obligatory for all Muslims who are able to do so.", "It is the personal responsibility of each Muslim to ease the economic hardship of others and to strive towards eliminating inequality.", "Zakāt consists of spending a portion of one's wealth for the benefit of the poor or needy, such as debtors or travelers.", "A Muslim may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity (''sadaqah''), rather than to achieve additional divine reward.", "Also, Muslims are required to give back to the poor, specifically through financial support, on the streets in addition to the Zakāt.", "Zakāt shows how the Islam faith impacts the financial situation of a believer, drawing into all aspects of life.There are five principles that should be followed when giving the zakāt:# The giver must declare to God his intention to give the zakāt.# The zakāt must be paid on the day that it is due.# After the offering, the payer must not exaggerate on spending his money more than usual means.# Payment must be in kind.", "This means if one is wealthy then he or she needs to pay a portion of their income.", "If a person does not have much money, then they should compensate for it in different ways, such as good deeds and good behavior toward others.# The zakāt must be distributed in the community from which it was taken.", "'''===Fourth Pillar: Sawm (Fasting)===The Fourth Pillar of Islam is Sawm, or fasting.", "Fasting takes place during the daylight hours in Ramadan, which is the holy month in the Islamic calendar.", "Using a lunar calendar means the month of Ramadan shifts 11 days earlier each year.", "Sawm is directly mentioned in the Quran: \"eat and drink until the whiteness of the day becomes distinct from the blackness of the night at dawn, then complete the fast till night…\".", "The fast occurs from dawn to sunset each day, during which time believers are expected to prohibit themselves from any food, drink, sexual intercourse, or smoking.", "However after sunset and before dawn, individuals can participate in any of the actions previously stated as they desire.", "The reason for fasting during Ramadan is to remind Muslims that all individuals are similarly needy upon the assistance of God and that there are less lucky individuals who need their assistance.", "Ramadan is a period of reflection when Muslims are called upon to recharge their faith, increment their charity, and make apology.", "In the Quran, the month of Ramadan was first revealed to Muhammad.", "Ramadan fasting ends with the \"Id-ul-Fitr\" (Festival of the Breaking of the Fast), which lasts for three days; of the first day of this festival, there is a meeting at the mosque for prayer celebration and each family head gives money for alms.Muslims traditionally break their fasts in the month of Ramadan with dates (like those offered by this date seller in Kuwait City), as was the recorded practice (Sunnah) of Muhammad.Three types of fasting (''Siyam'') are recognized by the Quran: ritual fasting, fasting as compensation for repentance (both from Quran 2), and ascetic fasting (from )Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan.", "Muslims must abstain from food and drink from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins.", "Fasting is necessary for every Muslim that has reached puberty (unless he/she suffers from a medical condition which prevents him/her from doing so).The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness and to look for forgiveness from God, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and to remind them of the needy.", "During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, profane language, gossip and to try to get along with fellow Muslims better.", "In addition, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided.Fasting during Ramadan is obligatory, but exceptions are made for several groups for whom it would be very dangerous and excessively problematic.", "These include pre-pubescent children, those with a medical condition such as diabetes, elderly people, and pregnant or breastfeeding women.", "Observing fasts is not permitted for menstruating women.", "Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those who are ill or traveling.", "Missed fasts usually must be made up for soon afterward, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance.=== Fifth Pillar: Hajj (Pilgrimage) ===The final Pillar of Islam is the Hajj, or pilgrimage.", "During one's life, a Muslim is required to make the pilgrimage to Mecca during the 12th month of the lunar calendar.", "This ritual consists of making journey to Mecca wearing only 2 white sheets so all of the pilgrims are identical and there is no class distinction among them.", "Amid the hajj, every single Muslim man dresses alike in a straightforward fabric, again to emphasize their uniformity.", "Ladies wear a less complex type of their ordinary dress.", "Pilgrims put the white sheets on when they enter the sanctuary area of Mecca and enter a state of \"ihram\" or purity.", "After a Muslim makes the trip to Mecca, he/she is known as a hajj/hajja (one who made the pilgrimage to Mecca).", "The main rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba termed ''Tawaf'', touching the Black Stone termed Istilam, traveling seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah termed ''Sa'yee'', and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina termed Ramee.", "When at Mecca, the pilgrims go to the Ka’aba in the mosque and walk around it in a circle.", "They then pray together in official ceremonies, and then they go out to perform the \"standing ceremony\" to remember the Farewell Sermon of Muhammad on the Arafat.", "On the return trip, pilgrims stop in Mina, where they throw 7 stones at stone pillars that represent Satan as to express their hatred for Shaitan (Satan).", "They then return to Mecca for final ceremonies by circumambulating the Ka’aba seven times and then leave Mecca to journey back home.", "Inability to make the Hajj, whether because of physical strength, economic conditions, or other reasons, excuses the duty of Hajj.", "The Quran specifically says that only those capable of making the pilgrimage are required to do so.", "The reason for this journey is to follow in the footsteps of the Prophet Muhammad, hoping to gain enlightenment as Muhammad did when he was in the presence of God.", "The pilgrimage of the Hajj is in the Quran.The pilgrim, or the ''haji'', is honoured in the Muslim community.", "Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing.", "The believer should be self-aware and examine their intentions in performing the pilgrimage.", "This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement.", "A pilgrimage made at any time other than the Hajj season is called an ''Umrah'', and while not mandatory is strongly recommended." ], [ "Pillars of Shia Islam", "=== Twelvers ===Twelver Shia Islam has five Usul al-Din and ten Furu al-Din, i.e., the Shia Islamic beliefs and practices.", "The Twelver Shia Islam Usul al-Din, equivalent to a Shia Five Pillars, are all beliefs considered foundational to Islam, and thus classified a bit differently from those listed above.", "They are:# ''Tawhid'' (monotheism: belief in the oneness of God)# ''Adl'' (divine justice: belief in God's justice)# ''Nubuwwah'' (prophethood)# ''Imamah'' (succession to Muhammad)# ''Mi'ad'' (the day of judgment and the resurrection)In addition to these five pillars, there are ten practices that Shia Muslims must perform, called the ''Ancillaries of the Faith'' (Arabic: '''furūʿ al-dīn''').# Salah: 5 daily prayers# Sawm: Fasting Ramadan# Zakat: Almsgiving, similar to Sunni Islam, it applies to money, cattle, silver, gold, dates, raisins, wheat, and barley.# Khums: An annual taxation of one-fifth (20%) of the gains that a year has been passed on without using.", "Khums is paid to the Imams; indirectly to poor and needy people.# Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca# Jihad: Striving for the cause of God# Enjoining good# Forbidding wrong# Tawalla: Expressing love towards good.# Tabarra: Expressing disassociation and hatred towards evil.=== Ismailis ===Isma'ilis have their own pillars, which are as follows:* Walayah \"Guardianship\" denotes love and devotion to God, the prophets, and the Ismaili Imams and their representatives* Tawhid, \"Oneness of God\".", "* Salah: Unlike Sunni and Twelver Muslims, Nizari Ismailis reason that it is up to the current imām to designate the style and form of prayer.", "* Zakat: with the exception of the Druze, all Ismaili madhhabs have practices resembling that of Sunni and Twelvers, with the addition of the characteristic Shia khums.", "* Sawm: Nizaris and Musta'lis believe in both a metaphorical and literal meaning of fasting.", "* Hajj: For Ismailis, this means visiting the imām or his representative and that this is the greatest and most spiritual of all pilgrimages.", "The Mustaali maintain also the practice of going to Mecca.", "The Druze interpret this completely metaphorically as \"fleeing from devils and oppressors\" and rarely go to Mecca.", "* Jihad \"Struggle\": \"the Greater Struggle\" and \"the Lesser Struggle\"." ], [ "History of the Pillars", "One of the greatest assumptions about Islamic history is that the Five Pillars were already set and in place at the time of the Prophet's death in 632 CE.", "However, most changes to these Islamic rituals came from small differences among minority Muslim groups.", "The major beliefs of the Pillars were already in place, taking the shape of the life and beliefs of the Prophet Muhammad.", "The Five Pillars are alluded to in the Quran, and some are even specifically stated in the Quran, like the Hajj to Mecca.", "However, the difference in practice of these traditions are accepted in Islam of the Five Pillars, but this does not mean they have all existed since the life of Muhammad.", "The evidence of differences shows pillars have not always been consistent to what they are today, so it has taken many years for the Pillars to get to their current and classic form." ], [ "See also", "* Islamic theology* Sixth Pillar of Islam* Jewish principles of faith" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books and journals===* * * * * * * * * * * ===Encyclopedias===* " ], [ "External links", " Tenets of Islam* Pillars of Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online* Pillars of Islam.", "A brief description of the Five Pillars of Islam." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Friction" ], [ "Introduction", "Friction between two objects.", "The blue one has more friction against the sloped surface than the green one.Figure 1: Simulated blocks with fractal rough surfaces, exhibiting static frictional interactions'''Friction''' is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other.", "Types of friction include dry, fluid, lubricated, skin, and internal.Friction can have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire.", "Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred.", "Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation or damage to components.Friction is a non-conservative force – work done against friction is path dependent.", "In the presence of friction, some kinetic energy is always transformed to thermal energy, so mechanical energy is not conserved.", "Friction is not itself a fundamental force.", "Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination.", "The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles difficult and it is often easier to use empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory." ], [ "Types", "There are several types of friction:'''Dry friction''' is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact.", "Dry friction is subdivided into ''static friction'' (\"stiction\") between non-moving surfaces, and ''kinetic friction'' between moving surfaces.", "With the exception of atomic or molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features, known as asperities (see Figure 1).", "'''Fluid friction''' describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.", "'''Lubricated friction''' is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces.", "'''Skin friction''' is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.", "'''Internal friction''' is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation." ], [ "History", "Many ancient authors including Aristotle, Vitruvius, and Pliny the Elder, were interested in the cause and mitigation of friction.", "They were aware of differences between static and kinetic friction with Themistius stating in 350 that \"it is easier to further the motion of a moving body than to move a body at rest\".The classic laws of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci in 1493, a pioneer in tribology, but the laws documented in his notebooks were not published and remained unknown.", "These laws were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons in 1699 and became known as Amonton's three laws of dry friction.", "Amontons presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities and the force required to raise the weight pressing the surfaces together.", "This view was further elaborated by Bernard Forest de Bélidor and Leonhard Euler (1750), who derived the angle of repose of a weight on an inclined plane and first distinguished between static and kinetic friction.John Theophilus Desaguliers (1734) first recognized the role of adhesion in friction.", "Microscopic forces cause surfaces to stick together; he proposed that friction was the force necessary to tear the adhering surfaces apart.", "The understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785).", "Coulomb investigated the influence of four main factors on friction: the nature of the materials in contact and their surface coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load); and the length of time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of repose).", "Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, in order to decide between the different explanations on the nature of friction that had been proposed.", "The distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulomb's friction law (see below), although this distinction was already drawn by Johann Andreas von Segner in 1758.The effect of the time of repose was explained by Pieter van Musschenbroek (1762) by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers meshing together, which takes a finite time in which the friction increases.John Leslie (1766–1832) noted a weakness in the views of Amontons and Coulomb: If friction arises from a weight being drawn up the inclined plane of successive asperities, why then isn't it balanced through descending the opposite slope?", "Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion proposed by Desaguliers, which should on the whole have the same tendency to accelerate as to retard the motion.", "In Leslie's view, friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening, pressing down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before.In the long course of the development of the law of conservation of energy and of the first law of thermodynamics, friction was recognised as a mode of conversion of mechanical work into heat.", "In 1798, Benjamin Thompson reported on cannon boring experiments.Arthur Jules Morin (1833) developed the concept of sliding versus rolling friction.In 1842, Julius Robert Mayer frictionally generated heat in paper pulp and measured the temperature rise.", "In 1845, Joule published a paper entitled ''The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat'', in which he specified a numerical value for the amount of mechanical work required to \"produce a unit of heat\", based on the friction of an electric current passing through a resistor, and on the friction of a paddle wheel rotating in a vat of water.Osborne Reynolds (1866) derived the equation of viscous flow.", "This completed the classic empirical model of friction (static, kinetic, and fluid) commonly used today in engineering.", "In 1877, Fleeming Jenkin and J.", "A. Ewing investigated the continuity between static and kinetic friction.In 1907, G.H.", "Bryan published an investigation of the foundations of thermodynamics, ''Thermodynamics: an Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications''.", "He noted that for a driven hard surface sliding on a body driven by it, the work done by the driver exceeds the work received by the body.", "The difference is accounted for by heat generated by friction.", "Over the years, for example in his 1879 thesis, but particularly in 1926, Planck advocated regarding the generation of heat by rubbing as the most specific way to define heat, and the prime example of an irreversible thermodynamic process.The focus of research during the 20th century has been to understand the physical mechanisms behind friction.", "Frank Philip Bowden and David Tabor (1950) showed that, at a microscopic level, the actual area of contact between surfaces is a very small fraction of the apparent area.", "This actual area of contact, caused by asperities increases with pressure.", "The development of the atomic force microscope (ca.", "1986) enabled scientists to study friction at the atomic scale, showing that, on that scale, dry friction is the product of the inter-surface shear stress and the contact area.", "These two discoveries explain Amonton's first law ''(below)''; the macroscopic proportionality between normal force and static frictional force between dry surfaces." ], [ "Laws of dry friction", "The elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th to 18th centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws:'''Amontons' First Law''': The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.", "'''Amontons' Second Law''': The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.", "'''Coulomb's Law of Friction''': Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity." ], [ "Dry friction", "Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact.", "The two regimes of dry friction are 'static friction' (\"stiction\") between non-moving surfaces, and ''kinetic friction'' (sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to calculate the force of dry friction.", "It is governed by the model:where* is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other.", "It is parallel to the surface, in a direction opposite to the net applied force.", "* is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,* is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular (normal) to the surface.The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to , and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction.", "Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion.", "In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence.", "This maximum force is known as traction.The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces.", "For example, a curling stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down.", "For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement.", "Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.===Normal force===Free-body diagram for a block on a ramp.", "Arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes of forces.", "''N'' is the normal force, ''mg'' is the force of gravity, and ''Ff'' is the force of friction.The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together, and its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces.", "In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where .", "In this case, conditions of equilibrium tell us that the magnitude of the friction force is ''zero'', .", "In fact, the friction force always satisfies , with equality reached only at a critical ramp angle (given by ) that is steep enough to initiate sliding.", "The friction coefficient is an empirical (experimentally measured) structural property that depends only on various aspects of the contacting materials, such as surface roughness.", "The coefficient of friction is not a function of mass or volume.", "For instance, a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block.", "However, the magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the block.", "Depending on the situation, the calculation of the normal force might include forces other than gravity.", "If an object is on a and subjected to an external force tending to cause it to slide, then the normal force between the object and the surface is just , where is the block's weight and is the downward component of the external force.", "Prior to sliding, this friction force is , where is the horizontal component of the external force.", "Thus, in general.", "Sliding commences only after this frictional force reaches the value .", "Until then, friction is whatever it needs to be to provide equilibrium, so it can be treated as simply a reaction.", "If the object is on a such as an inclined plane, the normal force from gravity is smaller than , because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane.", "The normal force and the frictional force are ultimately determined using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram.", "In general, process for solving any statics problem with friction is to treat contacting surfaces ''tentatively'' as immovable so that the corresponding tangential reaction force between them can be calculated.", "If this frictional reaction force satisfies , then the tentative assumption was correct, and it is the actual frictional force.", "Otherwise, the friction force must be set equal to , and then the resulting force imbalance would then determine the acceleration associated with slipping.===Coefficient of friction===The '''coefficient of friction''' (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is a dimensionless scalar value which equals the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together, either during or at the onset of slipping.", "The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction.", "Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one.", "The coefficient of friction between two surfaces of similar metals is greater than that between two surfaces of different metals; for example, brass has a higher coefficient of friction when moved against brass, but less if moved against steel or aluminum.For surfaces at rest relative to each other, , where is the ''coefficient of static friction''.", "This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart.", "The coefficient of static friction exhibited by a pair of contacting surfaces depends upon the combined effects of material deformation characteristics and surface roughness, both of which have their origins in the chemical bonding between atoms in each of the bulk materials and between the material surfaces and any adsorbed material.", "The fractality of surfaces, a parameter describing the scaling behavior of surface asperities, is known to play an important role in determining the magnitude of the static friction.For surfaces in relative motion , where is the ''coefficient of kinetic friction''.", "The Coulomb friction is equal to , and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.Arthur Morin introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of friction.", "The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurementit has to be measured experimentally, and cannot be found through calculations.", "Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values.", "Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is ''usually'' larger than that of kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon.Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6.Values outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04.A value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property.", "Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2.Occasionally it is maintained that ''μ'' is always 14) Titanium boride (TiB2) 0.04–0.05 0.02 Brass Steel 0.35–0.51 0.19 0.44 Cast iron Copper 1.05 0.29 Cast iron Zinc 0.85 0.21 Concrete Rubber 1.0 0.30 (wet) 0.6–0.85 0.45–0.75 (wet) Concrete Wood 0.62 Copper Glass 0.68 0.53 Copper Steel 0.53 0.36 0.18 Glass Glass 0.9–1.0 0.005–0.01 0.4 0.09–0.116 Human synovial fluid Human cartilage 0.01 0.003 Ice Ice 0.02–0.09 Polyethene Steel 0.2 0.2 PTFE (Teflon) PTFE (Teflon) 0.04 0.04 0.04 Steel Ice 0.03 Steel PTFE (Teflon) 0.04−0.2 0.04 0.04 Steel Steel 0.74−0.80 0.005–0.23 0.42–0.62 0.029–0.19 Wood Metal 0.2–0.6 0.2 (wet) 0.49 0.075 Wood Wood 0.25–0.62 0.2 (wet) 0.32–0.48 0.067–0.167Under certain conditions some materials have very low friction coefficients.", "An example is (highly ordered pyrolytic) graphite which can have a friction coefficient below 0.01.This ultralow-friction regime is called superlubricity.===Static friction===When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static friction.", "The friction increases as the applied force increases until the block moves.", "After the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction, which is less than the maximum static friction.Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each other.", "For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface.", "The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as ''μ''s, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction.", "Static friction is considered to arise as the result of surface roughness features across multiple length scales at solid surfaces.", "These features, known as asperities are present down to nano-scale dimensions and result in true solid to solid contact existing only at a limited number of points accounting for only a fraction of the apparent or nominal contact area.", "The linearity between applied load and true contact area, arising from asperity deformation, gives rise to the linearity between static frictional force and normal force, found for typical Amonton–Coulomb type friction.The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move.", "The maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force: .", "When there is no sliding occurring, the friction force can have any value from zero up to .", "Any force smaller than attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force of equal magnitude and opposite direction.", "Any force larger than overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur.", "The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer applicable—the friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction.", "However, an apparent static friction can be observed even in the case when the true static friction is zero.", "An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the ground.", "Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.", "Upon slipping, the wheel friction changes to kinetic friction.", "An anti-lock braking system operates on the principle of allowing a locked wheel to resume rotating so that the car maintains static friction.", "The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as '''limiting friction''',although this term is not used universally.===Kinetic friction==='''Kinetic friction''', also known as '''dynamic friction''' or '''sliding friction''', occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground).", "The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as ''μ''k, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials.", "However, Richard Feynman comments that \"with dry metals it is very hard to show any difference.", "\"The friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force: .", "This is responsible for the Coulomb damping of an oscillating or vibrating system.New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.", "In many other cases roughness effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction.", "Surface roughness and contact area affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces.The origin of kinetic friction at nanoscale can be rationalized by an energy model.", "During sliding, a new surface forms at the back of a sliding true contact, and existing surface disappears at the front of it.", "Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy, work must be spent in creating the new surface, and energy is released as heat in removing the surface.", "Thus, a force is required to move the back of the contact, and frictional heat is released at the front.Angle of friction, ''θ'', when block just starts to slide.===Angle of friction===For certain applications, it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding.", "This is called the ''angle of friction'' or ''friction angle''.", "It is defined as:and thus:where is the angle from horizontal and ''μs'' is the static coefficient of friction between the objects.", "This formula can also be used to calculate ''μs'' from empirical measurements of the friction angle.===Friction at the atomic level===Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing nanomachines.", "In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface, and measure the forces required.", "Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly zero temperature (5 K), a modified atomic force microscope was used to drag a cobalt atom, and a carbon monoxide molecule, across surfaces of copper and platinum.===Limitations of the Coulomb model===The Coulomb approximation follows from the assumptions that: surfaces are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area; that this contact area is proportional to the normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact); and that the frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area.", "The Coulomb approximation is fundamentally an empirical construct.", "It is a rule-of-thumb describing the approximate outcome of an extremely complicated physical interaction.", "The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and versatility.", "Though the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems.When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example, adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force).", "In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact.", "Some drag racing tires are adhesive for this reason.", "However, despite the complexity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications.====\"Negative\" coefficient of friction====, a single study has demonstrated the potential for an ''effectively negative coefficient of friction in the low-load regime'', meaning that a decrease in normal force leads to an increase in friction.", "This contradicts everyday experience in which an increase in normal force leads to an increase in friction.", "This was reported in the journal ''Nature'' in October 2012 and involved the friction encountered by an atomic force microscope stylus when dragged across a graphene sheet in the presence of graphene-adsorbed oxygen.===Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model===Despite being a simplified model of friction, the Coulomb model is useful in many numerical simulation applications such as multibody systems and granular material.", "Even its most simple expression encapsulates the fundamental effects of sticking and sliding which are required in many applied cases, although specific algorithms have to be designed in order to efficiently numerically integrate mechanical systems with Coulomb friction and bilateral or unilateral contact.", "Some quite nonlinear effects, such as the so-called Painlevé paradoxes, may be encountered with Coulomb friction.===Dry friction and instabilities===Dry friction can induce several types of instabilities in mechanical systems which display a stable behaviour in the absence of friction.", "These instabilities may be caused by the decrease of the friction force with an increasing velocity of sliding, by material expansion due to heat generation during friction (the thermo-elastic instabilities), or by pure dynamic effects of sliding of two elastic materials (the Adams–Martins instabilities).", "The latter were originally discovered in 1995 by George G. Adams and João Arménio Correia Martins for smooth surfaces and were later found in periodic rough surfaces.", "In particular, friction-related dynamical instabilities are thought to be responsible for brake squeal and the 'song' of a glass harp, phenomena which involve stick and slip, modelled as a drop of friction coefficient with velocity.A practically important case is the self-oscillation of the strings of bowed instruments such as the violin, cello, hurdy-gurdy, erhu, etc.A connection between dry friction and flutter instability in a simple mechanical system has been discovered, watch the movie for more details.Frictional instabilities can lead to the formation of new self-organized patterns (or \"secondary structures\") at the sliding interface, such as in-situ formed tribofilms which are utilized for the reduction of friction and wear in so-called self-lubricating materials." ], [ "Fluid friction{{anchor\|Fluid}}", "Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other.", "This internal resistance to flow is named ''viscosity''.", "In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as its \"thickness\".", "Thus, water is \"thin\", having a lower viscosity, while honey is \"thick\", having a higher viscosity.", "The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.All real fluids (except superfluids) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous.", "For teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the concept of an inviscid fluid or an ideal fluid which offers no resistance to shearing and so is not viscous." ], [ "Lubricated friction", "Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.", "Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the surfaces.In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces.", "Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings.", "When lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure." ], [ "Skin friction", "Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid.", "Skin friction follows the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity.Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object.", "There are two ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like an airfoil.", "The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the moving object as much as is practicable." ], [ "Internal friction", "Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation.Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object.", "This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature.", "The change of an object's shape is called strain.", "The force causing it is called stress.Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object.", "Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change.", "As deformation occurs, internal forces oppose the applied force.", "If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is removed.", "This is known as elastic deformation or elasticity." ], [ "Radiation friction", "As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of \"radiation friction\" which would oppose the movement of matter.", "He wrote, \"radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate.", "The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest.", "However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface.", "The backward-acting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back.", "Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate.", "We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief.\"" ], [ "Other types of friction", "===Rolling resistance===Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface caused by deformations in the object or surface.", "Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction.", "Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001.One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by-products.===Braking friction===Any wheel equipped with a brake is capable of generating a large retarding force, usually for the purpose of slowing and stopping a vehicle or piece of rotating machinery.", "Braking friction differs from rolling friction because the coefficient of friction for rolling friction is small whereas the coefficient of friction for braking friction is designed to be large by choice of materials for brake pads.===Triboelectric effect===Rubbing two materials against each other can lead to charge transfer, either electrons or ions.", "The energy required for this contributes to the friction.", "In addition, sliding can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge, which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present.", "When the static build-up discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.===Belt friction===Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a pulley, when one end is being pulled.", "The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modeled by the belt friction equation.In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support.", "This helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from slipping.", "Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks." ], [ "Reduction", "===Devices===Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low friction bearings.", "They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed load.", "For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.===Lubricants===A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction.", "The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology.", "Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels.", "A very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated.Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of the parts.", "This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration noise, known as dither." ], [ "Energy of friction", "According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it may be lost to the system of concern.", "Energy is transformed from other forms into thermal energy.", "A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat which raises the thermal energy of the puck and the ice surface.", "Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force.When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is given by a line integral, in accordance with the definition of work :where* is the friction force,* is the vector obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the normal force by a unit vector pointing ''against'' the object's motion,* is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is inside the integral because it may vary from location to location (e.g.", "if the material changes along the path),* is the position of the object.Dissipation of energy by friction in a process is a classic example of thermodynamic irreversibility.===Work of friction===The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces).", "This can be beneficial as in polishing.", "The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of friction welding.", "Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when work due to frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels.", "Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces in relative motion (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces.", "As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.", "For example, bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction.In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does ''no'' work, because there is never displacement between the surfaces.", "In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is always in the direction opposite the motion, and does ''negative'' work.", "However, friction can do ''positive'' work in certain frames of reference.", "One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly.", "In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary.", "Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing ''positive'' work.When sliding takes place between two rough bodies in contact, the algebraic sum of the works done is different from zero, and the algebraic sum of the quantities of heat gained by the two bodies is equal to the quantity of work lost by friction, and the total quantity of heat gained is positive.", "In a natural thermodynamic process, the work done by an agency in the surroundings of a thermodynamic system or working body is greater than the work received by the body, because of friction.", "Thermodynamic work is measured by changes in a body's state variables, sometimes called work-like variables, other than temperature and entropy.", "Examples of work-like variables, which are ordinary macroscopic physical variables and which occur in conjugate pairs, are pressure – volume, and electric field – electric polarization.", "Temperature and entropy are a specifically thermodynamic conjugate pair of state variables.", "They can be affected microscopically at an atomic level, by mechanisms such as friction, thermal conduction, and radiation.", "The part of the work done by an agency in the surroundings that does not change the volume of the working body but is dissipated in friction, is called isochoric work.", "It is received as heat, by the working body and sometimes partly by a body in the surroundings.", "It is not counted as thermodynamic work received by the working body." ], [ "Applications", "Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.===Transportation===Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into heat.", "Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical challenge in designing brake systems.", "Disk brakes rely on friction between a disc and brake pads that are squeezed transversely against the rotating disc.", "In drum brakes, brake shoes or pads are pressed outwards against a rotating cylinder (brake drum) to create friction.", "Since braking discs can be more efficiently cooled than drums, disc brakes have better stopping performance.", "Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails, see Frictional contact mechanics.", "Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobilesSplit friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either side of a car.", "Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.===Measurement===A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface.", "A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness.===Household usage===Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks (friction between the head of a matchstick and the rubbing surface of the match box).", "Sticky pads are used to prevent object from slipping off smooth surfaces by effectively increasing the friction coefficient between the surface and the object." ], [ "See also", "Contact dynamicsContact mechanicsFactor of adhesionFriction AcousticsFrictionless planeGallingLateral adhesionNon-smooth mechanicsNormal contact stiffnessStick-slip phenomenonTransient friction loadingTriboelectric effectUnilateral contactFriction torque" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Coefficients of Friction – tables of coefficients, plus many links* Measurement of friction power* Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips from the University of New South Wales* Values for Coefficient of Friction – ''CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics''* Coefficients of friction of various material pairs in atmosphere and vacuum." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "February 7" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 457 – Leo I becomes the Eastern Roman emperor.", "* 987 – Bardas Phokas the Younger and Bardas Skleros, Byzantine generals of the military elite, begin a wide-scale rebellion against Emperor Basil II.", "1301 – Edward of Caernarvon (later king Edward II of England) becomes the first English Prince of Wales.", "1313 – King Thihathu founds the Pinya Kingdom as the de jure successor state of the Pagan Kingdom.", "1365 – Albert III of Mecklenburg (King Albert of Sweden) grants city rights to Ulvila ().", "1497 – In Florence, Italy, supporters of Girolamo Savonarola burn cosmetics, art, and books, in a \"Bonfire of the vanities\".===1601–1900===1756 – Guaraní War: The leader of the Guaraní rebels, Sepé Tiaraju, is killed in a skirmish with Spanish and Portuguese troops.", "1783 – American Revolutionary War: French and Spanish forces lift the Great Siege of Gibraltar.", "1795 – The 11th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified.", "1807 – Napoleonic Wars: Napoleon finds Bennigsen's Russian forces taking a stand at Eylau.", "After bitter fighting, the French take the town, but the Russians resume the battle the next day.", "1812 – The strongest in a series of earthquakes strikes New Madrid, Missouri.", "1813 – In the action of 7 February 1813 near the Îles de Los, the frigates ''Aréthuse'' and ''Amelia'' batter each other, but neither can gain the upper hand.", "1819 – Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles leaves Singapore after just taking it over, leaving it in the hands of William Farquhar.", "1842 – Battle of Debre Tabor: Ras Ali Alula, Regent of the Emperor of Ethiopia defeats warlord Wube Haile Maryam of Semien.", "1854 – A law is approved to found the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.", "Lectures started October 16, 1855.", "1863 – sinks off the coast of Auckland, New Zealand, killing 189.", "1894 – The Cripple Creek miner's strike, led by the Western Federation of Miners, begins in Cripple Creek, Colorado, United States.", "1898 – Dreyfus affair: Émile Zola is brought to trial for libel for publishing ''J'Accuse...!", "''1900 – Second Boer War: British troops fail in their third attempt to lift the Siege of Ladysmith.", " 1900 – A Chinese immigrant in San Francisco falls ill to bubonic plague in the first plague epidemic in the continental United States.===1901–present===1904 – The Great Baltimore Fire begins in Baltimore, Maryland; it destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours.", "1940 – The second full-length animated Walt Disney film, ''Pinocchio'', premieres.", "1943 – World War II: Imperial Japanese Navy forces complete the evacuation of Imperial Japanese Army troops from Guadalcanal during Operation Ke, ending Japanese attempts to retake the island from Allied forces in the Guadalcanal Campaign.", "1944 – World War II: In Anzio, Italy, German forces launch a counteroffensive during the Allied Operation Shingle.", "1951 – Korean War: More than 700 suspected communist sympathizers are massacred by South Korean forces.", "1962 – The United States bans all Cuban imports and exports.", "1964 – The Beatles land in the United States for the first time, at the newly renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport.", "1966 – The Great Fire of Iloilo breaks out in a lumber yard in Iznart Street and burns for almost half a day destroying nearly three-quarters of the City Proper area and Php 50 million pesos in total properties' damage.", "1974 – Grenada gains independence from the United Kingdom.", "1979 – Pluto moves inside Neptune's orbit for the first time since either was discovered.", "1981 – A plane crash at Pushkin Airport kills 50 people, including 16 members of the Pacific Fleet.", "1984 – Space Shuttle program: STS-41-B Mission: astronauts Bruce McCandless II and Robert L. Stewart make the first untethered space walk using the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU).", "1986 – Twenty-eight years of one-family rule end in Haiti, when President Jean-Claude Duvalier flees the Caribbean nation.", "1990 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party agrees to give up its monopoly on power.", "1991 – Haiti's first democratically elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, is sworn in.", " 1991 – The Troubles: The Provisional IRA launches a mortar attack on 10 Downing Street in London, the headquarters of the British government.", "1992 – The Maastricht Treaty is signed, leading to the creation of the European Union.", "1995 – Ramzi Yousef, the mastermind of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, is arrested in Islamabad, Pakistan.", "1999 – Crown Prince Abdullah becomes the King of Jordan on the death of his father, King Hussein.", "2001 – Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' is launched on mission STS-98, carrying the ''Destiny'' laboratory module to the International Space Station.", "2009 – Bushfires in Victoria leave 173 dead in the worst natural disaster in Australia's history.", "2012 – President Mohamed Nasheed of the Republic of Maldives resigns, after 23 days of anti-governmental protests calling for the release of the Chief Judge unlawfully arrested by the military.", "2013 – The U.S. state of Mississippi officially certifies the Thirteenth Amendment, becoming the last state to approve the abolition of slavery.", "The Thirteenth Amendment was formally ratified by Mississippi in 1995.", "2014 – Scientists announce that the Happisburgh footprints in Norfolk, England, date back to more than 800,000 years ago, making them the oldest known hominid footprints outside Africa.", "2016 – North Korea launches Kwangmyŏngsŏng-4 into outer space violating multiple UN treaties and prompting condemnation from around the world.", "2021 – The 2021 Uttarakhand flood begins.", "2024 - Pakistan election offices hit by twin bombings, killing at least 24 people a day before general elections." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 574 – Prince Shōtoku of Japan (d. 622)1102 – Empress Matilda, Holy Roman Empress and claimant to the English throne (probable; d. 1167)1449 – Adriana of Nassau-Siegen, German countess (d. 1477)1478 – Thomas More, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1535)1487 – Queen Dangyeong, Korean royal consort (d. 1557)1500 – João de Castro, viceroy of Portuguese India (d. 1548)===1601–1900===1612 – Thomas Killigrew, English playwright and manager (d. 1683)1622 – Vittoria della Rovere, Italian noble (d. 1694)1693 – Empress Anna of Russia (d. 1740)1722 – Azar Bigdeli, Iranian anthologist and poet (d. 1781)1726 – Margaret Fownes-Luttrell, English painter (d. 1766)1741 – Henry Fuseli, Swiss-English painter and academic (d. 1825)1758 – Benedikt Schack, Czech tenor and composer (d. 1826)1796 – Thomas Gregson, English-Australian lawyer and politician, 2nd Premier of Tasmania (baptism date; d. 1874)1802 – Louisa Jane Hall, American poet, essayist, and literary critic (d. 1892)1804 – John Deere, American blacksmith and businessman, founded Deere & Company (d. 1886)1812 – Charles Dickens, English novelist and critic (d. 1870)1825 – Karl Möbius, German zoologist and ecologist (d. 1908)1834 – Alfred-Philibert Aldrophe, French architect (d. 1895)1837 – James Murray, Scottish lexicographer and philologist (d. 1915)1864 – Arthur Collins, American baritone singer (d. 1933)1867 – Laura Ingalls Wilder, American author (d. 1957)1870 – Alfred Adler, Austrian-Scottish psychologist and therapist (d. 1937)1871 – Wilhelm Stenhammar, Swedish pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1927)1873 – Thomas Andrews, Irish shipbuilder and businessman, designed the RMS ''Titanic'' (d. 1912)1875 – Erkki Melartin, Finnish composer (d. 1937)1877 – G. H. Hardy, English mathematician and geneticist (d. 1947)1878 – Ossip Gabrilowitsch, Russian-American pianist and conductor (d. 1936)1885 – Sinclair Lewis, American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)* 1885 – Hugo Sperrle, German field marshal (d. 1953)1887 – Eubie Blake, American pianist and composer (d. 1983)1889 – Harry Nyquist, Swedish-American engineer and theorist (d. 1976)1893 – Joseph Algernon Pearce, Canadian astrophysicist and astronomer (d. 1988) 1893 – Nicanor Abelardo, Filipino pianist, composer and teacher (d. 1934)1895 – Anita Stewart, American actress (d. 1961)===1901–present===1901 – Arnold Nordmeyer, New Zealand minister and politician, 30th New Zealand Minister of Finance (d. 1989)1904 – Ernest E. Debs, American politician (d. 2002)1905 – Paul Nizan, French philosopher and author (d. 1940)* 1905 – Ulf von Euler, Swedish physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1983)1906 – Oleg Antonov, Soviet engineer, founded the Antonov Design Bureau (d. 1984) 1906 – Puyi, Chinese emperor (d. 1967)1908 – Buster Crabbe, American swimmer and actor (d. 1983) 1908 – Manmath Nath Gupta, Indian journalist and author (d. 2000)1909 – Hélder Câmara, Brazilian archbishop (d. 1999) 1909 – Amedeo Guillet, Italian soldier (d. 2010)1912 – Russell Drysdale, English-Australian painter (d. 1981) 1912 – Roberta McCain, American socialite and oil heiress (d. 2020)1915 – Teoctist Arăpașu, Romanian patriarch (d. 2007) 1915 – Eddie Bracken, American actor and singer (d. 2002)1916 – Frank Hyde, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2007)1919 – Desmond Doss, American army corporal and combat medic, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2006)* 1919 – Jock Mahoney, American actor and stuntman (d. 1989)1920 – Oscar Brand, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and author (d. 2016) 1920 – An Wang, Chinese-American engineer and businessman, founded Wang Laboratories (d. 1990)1921 – Athol Rowan, South African cricketer (d. 1998)1922 – Hattie Jacques, English actress (d. 1980)1923 – Dora Bryan, English actress and restaurateur (d. 2014)1925 – Hans Schmidt, Canadian wrestler (d. 2012)1926 – Konstantin Feoktistov, Russian engineer and astronaut (d. 2009)1927 – Juliette Gréco, French singer and actress (d. 2020)* 1927 – Vladimir Kuts, Ukrainian-Russian runner and coach (d. 1975)* 1927 – Lalo Ríos, Mexican actor (d. 1973)1928 – Lincoln D. Faurer, American general (d. 2014)1929 – Jim Langley, English international footballer and manager (d. 2007)1932 – Gay Talese, American journalist and memoirist 1932 – Alfred Worden, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2020)1933 – K. N. Choksy, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, Sri Lankan Minister of Finance (d. 2015)1934 – Eddie Fenech Adami, Maltese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Malta* 1934 – King Curtis, American saxophonist and producer (d. 1971)* 1934 – Earl King, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2003)1935 – Cliff Jones, Welsh international footballer 1935 – Herb Kohl, American businessman and politician (d. 2023)* 1935 – Jörg Schneider, Swiss actor and author (d. 2015)1936 – Jas Gawronski, Italian journalist and politician1937 – Peter Jay, English economist, journalist, and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States* 1937 – Juan Pizarro, Puerto Rican baseball player (d. 2021)1940 – Tony Tan, Singaporean academic and politician, 7th President of Singapore1942 – Gareth Hunt, English actor (d. 2007)1943 – Eric Foner, American historian, author, and academic1945 – Gerald Davies, Welsh rugby player and journalist1946 – Héctor Babenco, Argentinian-Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1946 – Gérard Jean-Juste, Haitian priest and activist (d. 2009)* 1946 – Pete Postlethwaite, English actor (d. 2011)1949 – Jacques Duchesneau, Canadian police officer and politician1949 – Alan Lancaster, English Australian bass player singer and songwriter Status Quo (d. 2022)1950 – Karen Joy Fowler, American author1953 – Robert Brazile, American football player1954 – Dieter Bohlen, German singer-songwriter and producer 1955 – Rolf Benirschke, American football player and game show host* 1955 – Miguel Ferrer, American actor and director (d. 2017)1956 – John Nielsen, Danish racing driver 1956 – Mark St. John, American guitarist (d. 2007)1957 – Dámaso García, Dominican baseball player and footballer (d. 2020)1958 – Giuseppe Baresi, Italian footballer and manager* 1958 – Terry Marsh, English boxer and politician* 1958 – Matt Ridley, English journalist, author, and politician1959 – Mick McCarthy, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster1960 – Robert Smigel, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1960 – James Spader, American actor and producer1962 – Garth Brooks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1962 – David Bryan, American keyboard player and songwriter * 1962 – Eddie Izzard, English comedian, actor, and producer1963 – Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper, American Naval officer and astronaut1964 – Ashok Banker, Indian journalist, author, and screenwriter1965 – Chris Rock, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter1966 – Kristin Otto, German swimmer1968 – Peter Bondra, Ukrainian-Slovak ice hockey player and manager 1968 – Sully Erna, American singer-songwriter and musician* 1968 – Mark Tewksbury, Canadian swimmer and sportscaster1969 – Andrew Micallef, Maltese painter and musician1971 – Anita Tsoy, Russian singer-songwriter1972 – Essence Atkins, American actress 1972 – Robyn Lively, American actress1973 – Juwan Howard, American basketball player and coach1974 – J Dilla, American rapper and producer (d. 2006)* 1974 – Steve Nash, South African-Canadian basketball player* 1974 – Nujabes, Japanese record producer, DJ, composer and arranger (d. 2010)1975 – Wes Borland, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Miriam Corowa, Australian journalist, television presenter and producer* 1975 – Alexandre Daigle, Canadian ice hockey player* 1975 – Rémi Gaillard, French comedian and actor1976 – Chito Miranda, Filipino singer-songwriter 1977 – Tsuneyasu Miyamoto, Japanese footballer1978 – David Aebischer, Swiss ice hockey player 1978 – Endy Chávez, Venezuelan baseball player* 1978 – Ashton Kutcher, American model, actor, producer, and entrepreneur* 1978 – Milt Palacio, American-Belizean basketball player and coach* 1978 – Daniel Van Buyten, Belgian footballer1979 – Daniel Bierofka, German footballer and coach 1979 – Tawakkol Karman, Yemeni journalist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate* 1979 – Sam J. Miller, American author1980 – Dalibor Bagarić, Croatian basketball player1981 – Neto, Brazilian footballer* 1981 – Lee Ok-sung, South Korean boxer1982 – Mohammed Bijeh, Iranian serial killer (d. 2006) 1982 – Osamu Mukai, Japanese actor* 1982 – Mickaël Piétrus, French basketball player1983 – Scott Feldman, American baseball player 1983 – Sho Kamogawa, Japanese footballer* 1983 – Federico Marchetti, Italian footballer1984 – Trey Hardee, American decathlete1985 – Josh Hennessy, American ice hockey player* 1985 – Bernard James, American basketball player* 1985 – Tina Majorino, American actress* 1985 – Deborah Ann Woll, American actress1987 – Joel Freeland, English basketball player1988 – Ai Kago, Japanese singer and actress * 1988 – Matthew Stafford, American football player1989 – Nick Calathes, American-Greek basketball player 1989 – Isaiah Thomas, American basketball player* 1989 – Elia Viviani, Italian cyclist1990 – Morris Claiborne, American football player 1990 – Jacksepticeye, Irish YouTuber* 1990 – Gianluca Lapadula, Italian footballer* 1990 – Dalilah Muhammad, American hurdler* 1990 – Steven Stamkos, Canadian ice hockey player1991 – Gabbie Hanna, American Internet personality and singer-songwriter 1991 – Ryan O'Reilly, Canadian ice hockey player* 1991 – Richard Pánik, Slovak ice hockey player1992 – Sergi Roberto, Spanish footballer 1992 – Ksenia Stolbova, Russian figure skater* 1992 – Maimi Yajima, Japanese singer and actress 1993 – Javon Hargrave, American football player 1993 – Chris Mears, English diver1994 – Riley Barber, American ice hockey player 1994 – Nathan Walker, Welsh-Australian ice hockey player1995 – Tom Glynn-Carney, English actor and musician 1995 – Roberto Osuna, Mexican baseball player1996 – Aaron Ekblad, Canadian ice hockey player 1996 – Pierre Gasly, French racing driver1997 – Nicolò Barella, Italian footballer 1997 – Anhelina Kalinina, Ukrainian tennis player1999 – Omar Marmoush, Egyptian footballer2001 – R. J. Hampton, American basketball player2003 – Alessandro Fontanarosa, Italian footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 199 – Lü Bu, Chinese warlord* 318 – Jin Mindi, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b.", "300)999 – Boleslaus II the Pious, Duke of Bohemia (b.", "932)1045 – Emperor Go-Suzaku of Japan (b.", "1009)1065 – Siegfried I, Count of Sponheim (b. c. 1010)1127 – Ava, German poet (b.", "1060)1165 – Marshal Stephen of Armenia1259 – Thomas, Count of Flanders1317 – Robert, Count of Clermont (b.", "1256)1320 – Jan Muskata, Bishop of Kraków (b.", "1250)1333 – Nikko, Japanese priest, founder of Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism (b.", "1246)1520 – Alfonsina de' Medici, Regent of Florence (b.", "1472)1560 – Bartolommeo Bandinelli, Florentine sculptor (b.", "1493)===1601–1900===1603 – Bartholomäus Sastrow, German politician (b.", "1520)1623 – Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northamptonshire (b.", "1546)1626 – William V, Duke of Bavaria (b.", "1548)1642 – William Bedell, English bishop and academic (b.", "1571)1693 – Paul Pellisson, French lawyer and author (b.", "1624)1736 – Stephen Gray, English astronomer and physicist (b.", "1666)1779 – William Boyce, English organist and composer (b.", "1711)1799 – Qianlong Emperor of China (b.", "1711)1801 – Daniel Chodowiecki, Polish-German painter and academic (b.", "1726)1819 – August Wilhelm Hupel, German-Estonian linguist and author (b.", "1737)1823 – Ann Radcliffe, English author (b.", "1764)1837 – Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (b.", "1778)1849 – Mariano Paredes, Mexican general and 16th president (1845-1846) (b.", "1797)1862 – Francisco de Paula Martínez de la Rosa y Berdejo, Spanish playwright and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (b.", "1787)1864 – Vuk Karadžić, Serbian philologist and linguist (b.", "1787)1871 – Henry E. Steinway, German-American businessman, founded Steinway & Sons (b.", "1797)1873 – Sheridan Le Fanu, Irish author (b.", "1814)1878 – Pope Pius IX (b.", "1792)1891 – Marie Louise Andrews, American story writer and journalist (b.", "1849)1897 – Galileo Ferraris, Italian physicist and engineer (b.", "1847)===1901–present===1919 – William Halford, English-American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1841)1920 – Alexander Kolchak, Russian admiral and explorer (b.", "1874) 1920 – Charles Langelier, Canadian journalist, judge, and politician (b.", "1850)1921 – John J. Gardner, American politician (b.", "1845)1937 – Elihu Root, American lawyer and politician, 38th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1845)1938 – Harvey Samuel Firestone, American businessman, founded the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company (b.", "1868)1939 – Boris Grigoriev, Russian painter and illustrator (b.", "1886)1940 – James McCormick (Irish republican), Executed Irish Republican (b.", "1910) 1940 – Peter Barnes (Irish republican), Executed Irish Republican (b.", "1907)1942 – Ivan Bilibin, Russian illustrator and stage designer (b.", "1876)1944 – Lina Cavalieri, Italian soprano and actress (b.", "1874)1959 – Nap Lajoie, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1874) 1959 – Daniel François Malan, South African minister and politician, 5th Prime Minister of South Africa (b.", "1874)* 1959 – Guitar Slim, American singer and guitarist (b.", "1926)1960 – Igor Kurchatov, Russian physicist and academic (b.", "1903)1963 – Learco Guerra, Italian cyclist and manager (b.", "1902)1964 – Sofoklis Venizelos, Greek captain and politician, 133rd Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1894)1968 – Nick Adams, American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1931)1972 – Walter Lang, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1896)1979 – Josef Mengele, German SS officer and physician (b.", "1911)1986 – Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegalese historian, anthropologist, and physicist (b.", "1923)1990 – Alan Perlis, American computer scientist and academic (b.", "1922)* 1990 – Alfredo M. Santos, Filipino general (b.", "1905)1991 – Amos Yarkoni, Israeli colonel (b.", "1920)1994 – Witold Lutosławski, Polish composer and conductor (b.", "1913)1999 – King Hussein of Jordan (b.", "1935) 1999 – Bobby Troup, American actor, pianist, and composer (b.", "1918)2000 – Doug Henning, Canadian magician and politician (b.", "1947)2001 – Anne Morrow Lindbergh, American author and pilot (b.", "1906)2003 – Augusto Monterroso, Guatemalan author (b.", "1921)2005 – Atli Dam, Faroese engineer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (b.", "1932)2006 – Princess Durru Shehvar of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "1914)2009 – Blossom Dearie, American singer and pianist (b.", "1924)2010 – Franco Ballerini, Italian cyclist and coach (b.", "1964)2012 – Harry Keough, American soccer player and coach (b.", "1927)2013 – Krsto Papić, Croatian director and screenwriter (b.", "1933)2014 – Doug Mohns, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b.", "1933)2015 – Billy Casper, American golfer (b.", "1931) 2015 – Marshall Rosenberg, American psychologist and author (b.", "1934)* 2015 – Dean Smith, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1931) * 2015 – John C. Whitehead, American banker and politician, 9th United States Deputy Secretary of State (b.", "1922)2017 – Richard Hatch, American actor (b.", "1945) 2017 – Hans Rosling, Swedish academic (b.", "1948)* 2017 – Tzvetan Todorov, Bulgarian philosopher (b.", "1939)2019 – John Dingell, American politician (b.", "1926) 2019 – Albert Finney, English actor (b.", "1936)* 2019 – Jan Olszewski, Polish politician, 3rd Prime Minister (b.", "1930)* 2019 – Frank Robinson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1935)2020 – Li Wenliang, Chinese ophthalmologist who initially warned about COVID-19 (b.", "1986)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Richard the PilgrimBlessed Eugénie SmetBlessed Pope Pius IXChrysoliusEgidio Maria of Saint JosephFebruary 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*New Martyrs and Confessors of the Russian Orthodox Church Typically observed on the Sunday closest to January 25 (O.S.", ")/February 7 (N.S.", ")Independence Day (Grenada), celebrates the independence of Grenada from the United Kingdom in 1974.", "National Black HIV/AIDS Awareness Day (United States)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 9" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Faith" ], [ "Introduction", "''Faith (Armani)'', by Mino da Fiesole'''Faith''' is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept.", "In the context of religion, faith is \"belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion\".According to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, faith has multiple definitions, including \"something that is believed especially with strong conviction,\" \"complete trust\", \"belief and trust in and loyalty to God\", as well as \"a firm belief in something for which there is no proof\".Religious people often think of faith as confidence based on a perceived degree of warrant, or evidence, while others who are more skeptical of religion tend to think of faith as simply belief without evidence.In the Roman world, 'faith' (Latin: ) was understood without particular association with gods or beliefs.", "Instead, it was understood as a paradoxical set of reciprocal ideas: voluntary will and voluntary restraint in the sense of father over family or host over guest, whereby one party willfully surrenders to a party who could harm but chooses not to, thereby entrusting or confiding in them.Accordingly to Thomas Aquinas, faith is \"an act of the intellect assenting to the truth at the command of the will\".Religion has a long tradition, since the ancient world, of analyzing divine questions using common human experiences such as sensation, reason, science, and history that do not rely on revelation—called Natural theology." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''faith'' is thought to date from 1200 to 1250, from the Middle English , via Anglo-French , Old French , from Latin , accusative of (trust), akin to (to trust)." ], [ "Stages of faith development", "James W. Fowler (1940–2015) proposes a series of stages of faith development (or spiritual development) across the human lifespan.", "His stages relate closely to the work of Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg regarding aspects of psychological development in children and adults.", "Fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing, and relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to others and the world.", "; Stages of faith:# Intuitive-Projective: confusion and of high impressionability through stories and rituals (pre-school period).# Mythic-Literal: provided information is accepted to conform with social norms (school-going period).# Synthetic-Conventional: the faith acquired is concreted in the belief system with the forgoing of personification and replacement with authority in people or groups that represent one's beliefs (early late adolescence).# Individuative-Reflective: the person critically analyzes adopted and accepted faith with existing systems of faith.", "Disillusion or strengthening of faith happens in this stage.", "Based on needs, experiences, and paradoxes (early adulthood).# Conjunctive faith: people realize the limits of logic and, facing the paradoxes or transcendence of life, accept the \"mystery of life\" and often return to the sacred stories and symbols of the pre-acquired or re-adopted faith system.", "This stage is called negotiated settling in life (mid-life).# Universalizing faith: this is the \"enlightenment\" stage where the person comes out of all the existing systems of faith and lives life with universal principles of compassion and love and in service to others for uplift, without worries and doubt (middle-late adulthood, 45–65 years old and beyond).No hard-and-fast rule requires that people pursue faith by going through all six stages.", "There is a high probability for people to be content and fixed in a particular stage for a lifetime; stages 2–5 are such stages.", "Stage 6 is the summit of faith development.", "This state is often considered as \"not fully\" attainable." ], [ "Religious faith", "=== Christianity ===''Triumph of Faith over Idolatry'' by Jean-Baptiste Théodon (1646–1713)The word translated as \"faith\" in English-language editions of the New Testament, the Greek word (), can also be translated as \"belief\", \"faithfulness\", or \"trust\".", "Faith can also be translated from the Greek verb (), meaning \"to trust, to have confidence, faithfulness, to be reliable, to assure\".", "Christianity encompasses various views regarding the nature of faith.", "Some see faith as being persuaded or convinced that something is true.", "In this view, a person believes something when they are presented with adequate evidence that it is true.", "The 13th-century theologian Saint Thomas Aquinas did not hold that faith is mere opinion: on the contrary, he held that it represents a mean (understood in the Aristotelian sense) between excessive reliance on science (i.e.", "demonstration) and excessive reliance on opinion.According to Teresa Morgan, faith was understood by early Christians within the cultural milieu of the period as a relationship that created a community based on trust, instead of a set of mental beliefs or feelings of the heart.Numerous commentators discuss the results of faith.", "Some believe that true faith results in good works, while others believe that while faith in Jesus brings eternal life, it does not necessarily result in good works.Regardless of the approach taken to faith, all Christians agree that the Christian faith (in the sense of Christian practice) is aligned with the ideals and the example of the life of Jesus.", "The Christian contemplates the mystery of God and his grace and seeks to know and become obedient to God.", "To a Christian, the faith is not static, but causes one to learn more of God and to grow in faith; Christian faith has its origin in God.In Christianity, faith causes change as it seeks a greater understanding of God.", "Faith is not fideism or simple obedience to a set of rules or statements.", "Before Christians have faith, but they must also understand in whom and in what they have faith.", "Without understanding, there cannot be true faith, and that understanding is built on the foundation of the community of believers, the scriptures and traditions, and on the personal experiences of the believer.==== Strength of faith ====Christians may recognize different degrees of faith when they encourage each other to, and themselves strive to, develop, grow, and/or deepen their faith.This may imply that one can measure faith.", "Willingness to undergo martyrdom indicates a proxy for depth of faith but does not provide an everyday measurement for the average contemporary Christian.", "Within the Calvinist tradition the degree of prosperity may serve as an analog of the level of faith.Other Christian strands may rely on personal self-evaluation to measure the intensity of an individual's faith, with associated difficulties in calibrating to any scale.", "Solemn affirmations of a creed (a statement of faith) provide Various tribunals of the Inquisition, however, concerned themselves with precisely evaluating the orthodoxy of the faith of those it examined – to acquit or to punish in varying degrees.The classification of different degrees of faith allows that faith and its expression may wax and wane in fervor—during the lifetime of a faithful individual and/or over the various historical centuries of a society with an embedded religious system.", "Thus, one can speak of an \"Age of Faith\"or of the \"decay\" of a society's religiosity into corruption,secularism,or atheism,—interpretable as the ultimate loss of faith.==== Christian apologetic views ====In contrast to Richard Dawkins' view of faith as \"blind trust, in the absence of evidence, even in the teeth of evidence\", Alister McGrath quotes the Oxford Anglican theologian W. H. Griffith Thomas (1861–1924), who states that faith is \"not blind, but intelligent\" and that it \"commences with the conviction of the mind based on adequate evidence...\", which McGrath sees as \"a good and reliable definition, synthesizing the core elements of the characteristic Christian understanding of faith\".American biblical scholar Archibald Thomas Robertson (1863–1934) stated that the Greek word used for \"faith\" in the New Testament (over two hundred forty times), and rendered \"assurance\" in , is \"an old verb meaning 'to furnish', used regularly by Demosthenes for bringing forward evidence.\"", "Tom Price (Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics) affirms that when the New Testament talks about faith positively it only uses words derived from the Greek root which means \"to be persuaded\".British Christian apologist John Lennox argues that \"faith conceived as a belief that lacks warrant is very different from faith conceived as a belief that has warrant\".", "He states that \"the use of the adjective 'blind' to describe 'faith' indicates that faith is not necessarily, or always, or indeed normally, blind\".", "\"The validity, or warrant, of faith or belief depends on the strength of the evidence on which the belief is based.\"", "\"We all know how to distinguish between blind faith and evidence-based faith.", "We are well aware that faith is only justified if there is evidence to back it up.\"", "\"Evidence-based faith is the normal concept on which we base our everyday lives.", "\"Peter S. Williams holds that \"the classic Christian tradition has always valued rationality and does not hold that faith involves the complete abandonment of reason while believing in the teeth of evidence\".", "Quoting Moreland, faith is defined as \"a trust in and commitment to what we have reason to believe is true\".Regarding doubting Thomas in , Williams points out that \"Thomas wasn't asked to believe without evidence\".", "He was asked to believe based on the other disciples' testimony.", "Thomas initially lacked the first-hand experience of the evidence that had convinced them...", "Moreover, the reason John gives for recounting these events is that what he saw is evidence... Jesus did many other miraculous signs in the presence of his disciples...", "But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the son of God, and that believing ye might have life in his name.", ".", "\"Concerning doubting Thomas, Michael R. Allen wrote: \"Thomas's definition of faith implies adherence to conceptual propositions for the sake of personal knowledge, knowledge of and about a person ''qua'' person\".Kenneth Boa and Robert M. Bowman Jr. describe a classic understanding of faith that is referred to as ''evidentialism'', and which is part of a larger epistemological tradition called ''classical foundationalism'', which is accompanied by ''deontologism'', which holds that humans must regulate their beliefs following evidentialist structures.", "They show how this can go too far, and Alvin Plantinga While Plantinga upholds that faith may be the result of evidence testifying to the reliability of the source (of the truth claims), yet he sees having faith as being the result of hearing the truth of the gospel with the internal persuasion by the Holy Spirit moving and enabling him to believe.", "\"Christian belief is produced in the believer by the internal instigation of the Holy Spirit, endorsing the teachings of Scripture, which is itself divinely inspired by the Holy Spirit.", "The result of the work of the Holy Spirit is faith.", "\"==== Catholicism ====The four-part ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (CCC) gives Part One to \"The Profession of Faith\".", "This section describes the content of faith.", "It elaborates and expands, particularly upon the Apostles' Creed.", "CCC 144 initiates a section on the \"Obedience of Faith\".In the theology of Pope John Paul II, faith is understood in personal terms as a trusting commitment of person to person and thus involves Christian commitment to the divine person of Jesus Christ.==== Methodism ====In Methodism, faith plays an important role in justification, which occurs during the New Birth.", "The Emmanuel Association, a Methodist denomination in the conservative holiness movement, teaches:==== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ====The Articles of Faith of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints states that \"faith in the Lord Jesus Christ\" is the first principle of the gospel.Some alternative, yet impactful, ideas regarding the nature of faith were presented by church founder Joseph Smith in a collection of sermons, which are now published as the ''Lectures on Faith''.", "* Lecture 1 explains what faith is; * Lecture 2 describes how mankind comes to know about God; * Lectures 3 and 4 make clear the necessary and unchanging attributes of God; * Lecture 5 deals with the nature of God the Father, his Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost; * Lecture 6 proclaims that the willingness to sacrifice all earthly things is a prerequisite to gaining faith in salvation; * Lecture 7 treats the fruits of faith—perspective, power, and eventually perfection.=== Buddhism ===Faith in Buddhism (, ) refers to a serene commitment to the practice of the Buddha's teaching and trust in enlightened or highly developed beings, such as Buddhas or ''bodhisattvas'' (those aiming to become a Buddha).", "Buddhists usually recognize multiple objects of faith, but many are especially devoted to one particular object of faith, such as one particular Buddha.In early Buddhism, faith was focused on the Three Jewels or Refuges, namely, Gautama Buddha, his teaching (the ''Dhamma''), and the community of spiritually developed followers, or the monastic community seeking enlightenment (the ''Sangha'').", "Although offerings to the monastic community were valued highest, early Buddhism did not morally condemn peaceful offerings to deities.", "A faithful devotee was called ''upāsaka'' or ''upāsika'', for which no formal declaration was required.", "In early Buddhism, personal verification was valued highest in attaining the truth, and sacred scriptures, reason, or faith in a teacher were considered less valuable sources of authority.", "As important as faith was, it was a mere initial step to the path to wisdom and enlightenment, and was obsolete or redefined at the final stage of that path.While faith in Buddhism does not imply \"blind faith\", Buddhist practice nevertheless requires a degree of trust, primarily in the spiritual attainment of Gautama Buddha.", "Faith in Buddhism can still be described as faith in the Three Jewels (the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha).", "It is intended to lead to the goal of enlightenment, or ''bodhi'', and ''Nirvana''.", "Volitionally, faith implies a resolute and courageous act of will.", "It combines the steadfast resolution that one will do a thing with the self-confidence that one can do it.In the later stratum of Buddhist history, especially Mahāyāna Buddhism, faith was given a much more important role.", "The concept of the Buddha Nature was developed, as devotion to Buddhas and ''bodhisattvas'' residing in Pure Lands became commonplace.", "With the arising of the cult of the Lotus Sūtra, faith gained a central role in Buddhist practice, which was further amplified with the development of devotion to the Amitabha Buddha in Pure Land Buddhism.", "In the Japanese form of Pure Land Buddhism, under the teachers Hōnen and Shinran, only entrusting faith toward the Amitabha Buddha was believed to be a fruitful form of practice, as the practice of celibacy, morality, and other Buddhist disciplines were dismissed as no longer effective in this day and age, or as contradicting the virtue of faith.", "Faith was defined as a state similar to enlightenment, with a sense of self-negation and humility.Thus, the role of faith increased throughout Buddhist history.", "However, from the nineteenth century onward, Buddhist modernism in countries like Sri Lanka and Japan, and also in the West, has downplayed and criticized the role of faith in Buddhism.", "Faith in Buddhism still has a role in modern Asia and the West but is understood and defined differently than in traditional interpretations.", "Within the Dalit Buddhist Movement communities, taking refuge is defined not only as a religious, but also a political choice.=== Hinduism ===Bhakti () literally means \"attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity\".", "It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to devotion and love for a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.", "In ancient texts such as the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'', the term simply means participation, devotion, and love for any endeavor, while in the ''Bhagavad Gita'', it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towards moksha, as in .Ahimsa, also referred to as nonviolence, is a fundamental tenet of Hinduism that advocates harmonious and peaceful co-existence and evolutionary growth in grace and wisdom for all humankind unconditionally.In Hinduism, most of the Vedic prayers begins with the chants of Om.", "Om is the Sanskrit symbol that amazingly resonates the peacefulness ensconced within one's higher self.", "Om is considered to have a profound effect on the body and mind of the one who chants and also creates a calmness, serenity, healing, strength of its own to prevail within and also in the surrounding environment.=== Islam ===In Islam, a believer's faith in the metaphysical aspects of Islam is called (), which is complete submission to the will of God, not unquestioning or blind belief.", "A man must build his faith on well-grounded convictions beyond any reasonable doubt and above uncertainty.", "According to the Quran, must be accompanied by righteous deeds and the two together are necessary for entry into Paradise.", "In the Hadith of Gabriel, in addition to ''Islam'' and form the three dimensions of the Islamic religion.Muhammad referred to the six axioms of faith in the Hadith of Gabriel: \" is that you believe in God and His Angels and His Books and His Messengers and the Hereafter and the good and evil fate ordained by your God.\"", "The first five are mentioned together in the Qur'an.", "The Quran states that faith can grow with remembrance of God.", "The Qur'an also states that nothing in this world should be dearer to a true believer than faith.=== Judaism ===Judaism recognizes the positive value of (generally translated as \"faith\", or \"trust in God\") and the negative status of the (heretic), but faith is not as stressed or as central as it is in some other religions, especially Christianity or Islam.", "Faith could be a necessary means for being a practicing religious Jew, but the emphasis is placed on true knowledge, true prophecy, and practice rather than on faith itself.", "Very rarely does it relate to any teaching that must be believed.", "Judaism does not require one to explicitly identify God (a key tenet of Christian faith, which is called Avodah Zarah (foreign worship) in Judaism, a minor form of idol worship, a big sin and strictly forbidden to Jews).", "Rather, in Judaism, one is to honor a (personal) idea of God, supported by the many principles quoted in the Talmud to define Judaism, mostly by what it is not.", "Thus there is no established formulation of Jewish principles of faith which are mandatory for all (observant) Jews.In the Jewish scriptures, trust in God – – refers to how God acts toward his people and how they are to respond to him; it is rooted in the everlasting covenant established in the Torah, notably Deuteronomy 7:9:The specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been disputed throughout Jewish history.", "Today many, but not all, Orthodox Jews have accepted Maimonides's Thirteen Principles of Belief.A traditional example of as seen in the Jewish annals is found in the person of Abraham.", "On several occasions, Abraham both accepts statements from God that seem impossible and offers obedient actions in response to direction from God to do things that seem implausible.The Talmud describes how a thief also believes in G‑d: On the brink of his forced entry, as he is about to risk his life—and the life of his victim—he cries out with all sincerity, \"G‑d help me!\"", "The thief has faith that there is a G‑d who hears his cries, yet it escapes him that this G‑d may be able to provide for him without requiring that he abrogate G‑d's will by stealing from others.", "For to affect him in this way he needs study and contemplation.=== Sikhism ===Faith is not a religious concept in Sikhism.", "However, the five Sikh symbols, known as Kakaars or Five Ks (in Punjabi known as or ), are sometimes referred to as the ''Five articles of Faith''.", "The articles include (uncut hair), (small wooden comb), (circular steel or iron bracelet), (sword/dagger), and (special undergarment).", "Baptised Sikhs are bound to wear those five articles of faith, at all times, to save them from bad company and keep them close to God.=== Baháʼí Faith ===In the Baháʼí Faith, faith is meant, first, as conscious knowledge, second, as the practice of good deeds, and ultimately as the acceptance of the divine authority of the Manifestations of God.", "In the religion's view, faith and knowledge are both required for spiritual growth.", "Faith involves more than outward obedience to this authority, but also must be based on a deep personal understanding of religious teachings." ], [ "Secular faith", "Secular faith refers to a belief or conviction that is not based on religious or supernatural doctrines.", "Secular faith can arise from a wide range of sources and can take many forms, depending on the individual's beliefs and experiences, including:; Philosophy: Many secular beliefs are rooted in philosophical ideas, such as humanism or rationalism.", "These belief systems often emphasize the importance of reason, ethics, and human agency, rather than relying on supernatural or religious explanations.", "; Science: Scientific discoveries and advancements can also inspire secular faith.", "For example, the theory of evolution has led many people to have faith in the power of natural selection and the process of evolution, rather than in a divine creator.", "; Personal values and principles: People may develop secular faith based on their own values and principles, such as a belief in social justice or environmentalism.", "; Community and culture: Secular faith can also be influenced by the values and beliefs of a particular community or culture.", "For example, some people may have faith in the principles of democracy, human rights, or freedom of expression." ], [ "Epistemological analysis", "The epistemological study focuses on epistemic justification, the rationality of belief, and various related issues.", "A justified belief is a belief that is well-supported by evidence and reasons, and that is arrived at through a reliable and trustworthy process of inquiry.Faith is often regarded as a form of belief that may not necessarily rely on empirical evidence.", "However, when religious faith does make empirical claims, these claims need to undergo scientific testing to determine their validity.", "On the other hand, some beliefs may not make empirical claims and instead focus on non-empirical issues such as ethics, morality, and spiritual practices.", "In these cases, it may be necessary to evaluate the validity of these beliefs based on their internal coherence and logical consistency, rather than empirical testing.There is a wide spectrum of opinion concerning the epistemological validity of faith — that is, whether it is a reliable way to acquire true beliefs.=== Fideism ===Fideism is considered to be a philosophical position rather than a comprehensive epistemological theory.", "It maintains that faith is independent of reason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particular truths (see natural theology).", "Fideism is not a synonym for religious belief but describes a particular philosophical proposition concerning the relationship between faith's appropriate jurisdiction at arriving at truths, contrasted against reason.", "It states that faith is needed to determine some philosophical and religious truths, and it questions the ability of reason to arrive at all truth.", "The word and concept had its origin in the mid to late-19th century by way of Catholic thought, in a movement called Traditionalism.", "The Roman Catholic Magisterium has, however, repeatedly condemned fideism.Critics of fideism suggest that it is not a justified or rational position from an epistemological standpoint.", "Fideism holds that religious beliefs cannot be justified or evaluated based on evidence or reason and that faith alone is a sufficient basis for belief.", "This position has been criticized because it leads to dogmatism, irrationality, and a rejection of the importance of reason and evidence in understanding the world.William Alston argues that while faith is an important aspect of religious belief, it must be grounded in reason and evidence to be justified.=== Religious epistemology ===Religious epistemologists formulated and defended reasons for the rationality of accepting belief in God without the support of an argument.", "Some religious epistemologists hold that belief in God is more analogous to belief in a person than belief in a scientific hypothesis.", "Human relations demand trust and commitment.", "If belief in God is more like belief in other persons, then the trust that is appropriate to persons will be appropriate to God.", "American psychologist and philosopher William James offers a similar argument in his lecture ''The Will to Believe''.Foundationalism is a view about the structure of justification or knowledge.", "Foundationalism holds that all knowledge and justified belief are ultimately based upon what are called properly basic beliefs.", "This position is intended to resolve the infinite regress problem in epistemology.", "According to foundationalism, a belief is epistemically justified only if it is justified by properly basic beliefs.", "One of the significant developments in foundationalism is the rise of reformed epistemology.Reformed epistemology is a view about the epistemology of religious belief, which holds that belief in God can be properly basic.", "Analytic philosophers Alvin Plantinga and Nicholas Wolterstorff develop this view.", "Plantinga holds that a person may rationally believe in God even though the person does not possess sufficient evidence to convince an agnostic.", "One difference between reformed epistemology and fideism is that the former requires defense against known objections, whereas the latter might dismiss such objections as irrelevant.", "Plantinga developed reformed epistemology in ''Warranted Christian Belief'' as a form of externalism that holds that the justification-conferring factors for a belief may include external factors.Some theistic philosophers have defended theism by granting evidentialism but supporting theism through deductive arguments whose premises are considered justifiable.", "Some of these arguments are probabilistic, either in the sense of having weight but being inconclusive or in the sense of having a mathematical probability assigned to them.", "Notable in this regard are the cumulative arguments presented by British philosopher Basil Mitchell and analytic philosopher Richard Swinburne, whose arguments are based on Bayesian probability.", "In a notable exposition of his arguments, Swinburne appeals to an inference for the best explanation.Professor of Mathematics and philosopher of science at University of Oxford John Lennox justifies his religious belief in Jesus's resurrection and miracles by believing God's capability of breaking the commonly recognized law of nature.", "John Lennox has stated, \"Faith is not a leap in the dark; it's the exact opposite.", "It's a commitment based on evidence… It is irrational to reduce all faith to blind faith and then subject it to ridicule.", "That provides a very anti-intellectual and convenient way of avoiding intelligent discussion.\"", "He criticises Richard Dawkins as a famous proponent of asserting that faith equates to holding a belief without evidence, thus that it is possible to hold belief without evidence, for failing to provide evidence for this assertion.Critics of reformed epistemology argue that it fails to provide a compelling justification for belief in God and that it is unable to account for the diversity of religious belief and experience.", "They also argue that it can lead to a kind of epistemic relativism, in which all religious beliefs are considered equally valid and justified, regardless of their content or coherence.", "Despite these criticisms, reformed epistemology has been influential in the contemporary philosophy of religion and continues to be an active area of debate and discussion.=== Empirical claims ===Many religious beliefs are intended to be metaphorical or symbolic, but there are also religious beliefs that are taken quite literally by believers.", "For example, some Christians believe that the Earth was created in six literal days, and some Muslims believe that the Quran contains scientific facts that were not known to humans at the time of its revelation.", "Furthermore, even if a religious belief is intended to be metaphorical or symbolic, it can still be subject to empirical testing if it makes claims about the world.", "For example, the claim that the Earth is the center of the universe can be interpreted as a metaphorical representation of humanity's special place in the cosmos, but it also makes an empirical claim that can be tested by scientific observation.=== Morality & Faith ===From a scientific perspective, morality is not dependent on faith.", "While some individuals may claim that their morality is rooted in their faith or religious beliefs, there is evidence to suggest that morality is also influenced by other factors, such as social and cultural norms, empathy, and reason.", "Studies have shown that individuals from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds tend to share many moral values, suggesting that morality is not solely dependent on faith.", "Additionally, research in the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and evolutionary biology has shed light on the biological and cognitive mechanisms underlying moral decision-making, providing further evidence that morality is not exclusively dependent on faith.=== Criticism ===Bertrand Russell wrote:Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins criticizes all faith by generalizing from specific faith in propositions that conflict directly with scientific evidence.", "He describes faith as belief without evidence; a process of active non-thinking.", "He states that it is a practice that only degrades our understanding of the natural world by allowing anyone to make a claim about nature that is based solely on their personal thoughts, and possibly distorted perceptions, that does not require testing against nature, cannot make reliable and consistent predictions, and is not subject to peer review.Philosophy professor Peter Boghossian argues that reason and evidence are the only way to determine which \"claims about the world are likely true\".", "Different religious traditions make different religious claims, and Boghossian asserts that faith alone cannot resolve conflicts between these without evidence.", "He gives an example of the belief held by Muslims that Muhammad (who died in the year 632) was the last prophet, and the contradictory belief held by Mormons that Joseph Smith (born in 1805) was a prophet.", "Boghossian asserts that faith has no \"built-in corrective mechanism\".", "For factual claims, he gives the example of the belief that the Earth is 4,000 years old.", "With only faith and no reason or evidence, he argues, there is no way to correct this claim if it is inaccurate.", "Boghossian advocates thinking of faith either as \"belief without evidence\" or \"pretending to know things you don't know\".Friedrich Nietzsche expressed his criticism of the Christian idea of faith in passage 51 of The Antichrist: The fact that faith, under certain circumstances, may work for blessedness, but that this blessedness produced by an idée fixe by no means makes the idea itself true, and the fact that faith actually moves no mountains, but instead raises them up where there were none before: all this is made sufficiently clear by a walk through a lunatic asylum.", "Not, of course, to a priest: for his instincts prompt him to the lie that sickness is not sickness and lunatic asylums not lunatic asylums.", "Christianity finds sickness necessary, just as the Greek spirit had need of a superabundance of health—the actual ulterior purpose of the whole system of salvation of the church is to make people ill. And the church itself—doesn't it set up a Catholic lunatic asylum as the ultimate ideal?—The whole earth as a madhouse?—The sort of religious man that the church wants is a typical décadent; the moment at which a religious crisis dominates a people is always marked by epidemics of nervous disorder; the \"inner world\" of the religious man is so much like the \"inner world\" of the overstrung and exhausted that it is difficult to distinguish between them; the \"highest\" states of mind, held up before mankind by Christianity as of supreme worth, are actually epileptoid in form—the church has granted the name of holy only to lunatics or to gigantic frauds in majorem dei honorem....Gustave Le Bon emphasizes the irrational nature of faith and suggests that it is often based on emotions rather than reason.", "He argues that faith can be used to manipulate and control people, particularly in the context of religious or political movements.", "In this sense, Le Bon views faith as a tool that can be wielded by those in power to shape the beliefs and behaviors of the masses." ], [ "See also", "Shinto faith* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Gupta, Nijay K. Paul and the Language of Faith.", "Wm.", "B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2020.", "* Sam Harris, ''The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason'', W. W. Norton (2004), 336 pages, * Morgan, Teresa.", "Roman Faith and Christian Faith: Pistis and Fides in the Early Roman Empire and Early Churches.", "Oxford University Press, 2015..* Stephen Palmquist, \"Faith as Kant's Key to the Justification of Transcendental Reflection\", ''The Heythrop Journal'' 25:4 (October 1984), pp.", "442–455.Reprinted as Chapter V in Stephen Palmquist, ''Kant's System of Perspectives'' (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).", "* D. Mark Parks, \"Faith/Faithfulness\" ''Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary''.", "Eds.", "Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England.", "Nashville: Holman Publishers, 2003.", "* '' On Faith and Reason'' by Swami Tripurari* Baba, Meher: ''Discourses'', San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented, 1967.", "* Richard Dawkins' God Delusion (online reading)=== Classic reflections on the nature of faith ===* Martin Buber, ''I and Thou''* Paul Tillich, ''The Dynamics of Faith''=== The Reformation view of faith ===* John Calvin, ''The Institutes of the Christian Religion'', 1536* R.C.", "Sproul, ''Faith Alone'', Baker Books, 1 February 1999, === The Catholic view of faith ===* * " ], [ "External links", " * Elizabeth Jackson.", "* James Swindal.", "* * * Faith in Judaism chabad.org* Pew Research Center Reports on Religion* We'd be better off without religion?", "Panellists: Christopher Hitchens, Nigel Spivey, Richard Dawkins, rabbi Juliet Neuberger, AC Grayling and Roger Scruton.", "* The God Delusion Debate (Dawkins – Lennox) (Dawkins believes the law of nature and denies Jesus resurrection and miracles; Lennox believes Jesus resurrection and miracles with justification by God's capability of breaking the commonly recognized law of nature.", ")* Dialogue with Professor Richard Dawkins, Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and Professor Anthony Kenny (four topics: the nature of individual human beings, the origin of the human species, thirdly the origin of life on Earth, and finally the origin of the universe)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Flavian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flavian''' may refer to:* A member of the Flavian dynasty of Roman emperors, during the late 1st century AD, or their works* Flavian Zeija, a Ugandan lawyer, academic and judge.", "Principal Judge of Uganda, since December 2019.", "* A person named Flavianus" ], [ "Religious leaders", "* Flavian, one of the Martyrs of Carthage under Valerian* Flavian of Ricina (fl.", "c. 3rd century), bishop in Italy* Bishops or patriarchs in Asia: Flavian I of Antioch (c. 320–404) Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople (died 449) Patriarch Fravitta of Constantinople (died 489) Flavian II of Antioch (died 518)" ], [ "Ships", ", an Italian cruise ship" ], [ "See also", " Constantinian dynasty, also called the Neo-Flavian dynasty* Flavian Amphitheater (the Colosseum) * Flavia (gens)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Forest" ], [ "Introduction", "The Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York form the southernmost part of the Eastern forest-boreal transition ecoregion.A '''forest''' is an ecosystem characterized by land dominated by trees.", "Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function.", "The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, \"Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds ''in situ''.", "It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use.\"", "Using this definition, ''Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020'' (FRA 2020) found that forests covered , or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.Forests are the largest terrestrial ecosystem of Earth by area, and are found around the globe.", "45 percent of forest land is in the tropical latitudes.", "The next largest share of forests are found in subarctic climates, followed by temperate, and subtropical zonesForests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.", "Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes of biomass per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests.Forests form distinctly different biomes at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and evapotranspiration rates.", "These biomes include boreal forests in subarctic climates, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes.", "Forests form in areas of the Earth with high rainfall, while drier conditions produce a transition to savanna.", "However, in areas with intermediate rainfall levels, forest transitions to savanna rapidly when the percentage of land that is covered by trees drops below 40 to 45 percent.", "Research conducted in the Amazon rainforest shows that trees can alter rainfall rates across a region, releasing water from their leaves in anticipation of seasonal rains to trigger the wet season early.", "Because of this, seasonal rainfall in the Amazon begins two to three months earlier than the climate would otherwise allow.", "Deforestation in the Amazon and anthropogenic climate change hold the potential to interfere with this process, causing the forest to pass a threshold where it transitions into savanna.Deforestation threatens many forest ecosystems.", "Deforestation occurs when humans remove trees from a forested area by cutting or burning, either to harvest timber or to make way for farming.", "Most deforestation today occurs in tropical forests.", "The vast majority of this deforestation is because of the production of four commodities: wood, beef, soy, and palm oil.", "Over the past 2,000 years, the area of land covered by forest in Europe has been reduced from 80% to 34%.", "Large areas of forest have also been cleared in China and in the eastern United States, in which only 0.1% of land was left undisturbed.", "Almost half of Earth's forest area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity.", "Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented.", "Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than .", "The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than in size.Human society and forests can affect one another positively or negatively.", "Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions.", "Forests can also affect people's health.", "Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems." ], [ "Definitions", "Forest in the Scottish Highlands Although the word ''forest'' is commonly used, there is no universally recognised precise definition, with more than 800 definitions of forest used around the world.", "Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future, or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type.There are three broad categories of definitions of forest in use: administrative, land use, and land cover.", "Administrative definitions are legal designations, and may not reflect the type of vegetation that grows upon the land; an area can be legally designated \"forest\" even if no trees grow on it.", "Land-use definitions are based on the primary purpose the land is used for.", "Under a land-use definition, any area used primarily for harvesting timber, including areas that have been cleared by harvesting, disease, fire, or for the construction of roads and infrastructure, are still defined as forests, even if they contain no trees.", "Land-cover definitions define forests based upon the density of trees, area of tree canopy cover, or area of the land occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks (basal area) meeting a particular threshold.", "This type of definition depends upon the presence of trees sufficient to meet the threshold, or at least of immature trees that are expected to meet the threshold once they mature.Under land-cover definitions, there is considerable variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, woodland, and savanna.", "Under some definitions, to be considered a forest requires very high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%, which excludes woodlands and savannas, which have a lower canopy cover.", "Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, and include all areas with tree canopies over 10%.Some areas covered with trees are legally defined as agricultural areas, for example Norway spruce plantations, under Austrian forest law, when the trees are being grown as Christmas trees and are below a certain height." ], [ "Etymology", "Since the 13th century, the Niepołomice Forest in Poland has had special use and protection.", "In this view from space, different coloration can indicate different functions.The word ''forest'' derives from the Old French ''forest'' (also ''forès''), denoting \"forest, vast expanse covered by trees\"; ''forest'' was first introduced into English as the word denoting wild land set aside for hunting without necessarily having trees on the land.", "Possibly a borrowing, probably via Frankish or Old High German, of the Medieval Latin , denoting \"open wood\", Carolingian scribes first used ''foresta'' in the capitularies of Charlemagne, specifically to denote the royal hunting grounds of the king.", "The word was not endemic to the Romance languages, e.g., native words for ''forest'' in the Romance languages derived from the Latin ''silva'', which denoted \"forest\" and \"wood(land)\" (cf.", "the English ''sylva'' and ''sylvan''; the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ''selva''; the Romanian ''silvă''; the Old French ''selve'').", "Cognates of forest in Romance languages—e.g., the Italian ''foresta'', Spanish and Portuguese ''floresta'', etc.—are all ultimately derivations of the French word.Vinitsa, North Macedonia The precise origin of Medieval Latin is obscure.", "Some authorities claim the word derives from the Late Latin phrase ''forestam silvam'', denoting \"the outer wood\"; others claim the word is a latinisation of the Frankish ''forhist'', denoting \"forest, wooded country\", and was assimilated to ''forestam silvam'', pursuant to the common practice of Frankish scribes.", "The Old High German ''forst'' denoting \"forest\"; Middle Low German ''vorst'' denoting \"forest\"; Old English ''fyrhþ'' denoting \"forest, woodland, game preserve, hunting ground\" (English ''frith''); and Old Norse ''fýri'', denoting \"coniferous forest\"; all of which derive from the Proto-Germanic ''furhísa-'', ''furhíþija-'', denoting \"a fir-wood, ''coniferous'' forest\", from the Proto-Indo-European ''perkwu-'', denoting \"a ''coniferous'' or mountain forest, wooded height\" all attest to the Frankish ''forhist''.Uses of ''forest'' in English to denote any uninhabited and unenclosed area are presently considered archaic.", "The Norman rulers of England introduced the word as a legal term, as seen in Latin texts such as the ''Magna Carta'', to denote uncultivated land that was legally designated for hunting by feudal nobility (see Royal Forest).These hunting forests did not necessarily contain any trees.", "Because that often included significant areas of woodland, \"forest\" eventually came to connote woodland in general, regardless of tree density.", "By the beginning of the fourteenth century, English texts used the word in all three of its senses: common, legal, and archaic.", "Other English words used to denote \"an area with a high density of trees\" are ''firth'', ''frith'', ''holt'', ''weald'', ''wold'', ''wood'', and ''woodland''.", "Unlike ''forest'', these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another language.", "Some present classifications reserve ''woodland'' for denoting a locale with more open space between trees, and distinguish kinds of woodlands as ''open forests'' and ''closed forests'', premised on their crown covers.", "Finally, ''sylva'' (plural ''sylvae'' or, less classically, ''sylvas'') is a peculiar English spelling of the Latin ''silva'', denoting a \"woodland\", and has precedent in English, including its plural forms.", "While its use as a synonym of ''forest'', and as a Latinate word denoting a woodland, may be admitted; in a specific technical sense it is restricted to denoting the ''species'' of trees that comprise the woodlands of a region, as in its sense in the subject of silviculture.", "The resorting to ''sylva'' in English indicates more precisely the denotation that the use of ''forest'' intends." ], [ "Evolutionary history", "The first known forests on Earth arose in the Late Devonian (approximately 380 million years ago), with the evolution of ''Archaeopteris'', which was a plant that was both tree-like and fern-like, growing to in height.", "It quickly spread throughout the world, from the equator to subpolar latitudes; and it formed the first forest by being the first species known to cast shade due to its fronds and by forming soil from its roots.", "''Archaeopteris'' was deciduous, dropping its fronds onto the forest floor, the shade, soil, and forest duff from the dropped fronds creating the first forest.", "The shed organic matter altered the freshwater environment, slowing its flow and providing food.", "This promoted freshwater fish." ], [ "Ecology<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Distribution\"></span>", "Temperate rainforest in Tasmania's Hellyer GorgeForests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.", "biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities.", "Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus.", "The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate.", "The world's forests contain about 606 gigatonnes of living biomass (above- and below-ground) and 59 gigatonnes of dead wood.", "The total biomass has decreased slightly since 1990, but biomass per unit area has increased.Forest ecosystems broadly differ based on climate; latitudes 10° north and south of the equator are mostly covered in tropical rainforest, and the latitudes between 53°N and 67°N have boreal forest.", "As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms (''broadleaf forests'') are more species-rich than those dominated by gymnosperms (''conifer'', ''montane'', or ''needleleaf forests''), although exceptions exist.", "The trees that form the principal structural and defining component of a forest may be of a great variety of species (as in tropical rainforests and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests).", "The biodiversity of forests also encompasses shrubs, herbaceous plants, mosses, ferns, lichens, fungi, and a variety of animals.Trees rising up to in height add a vertical dimension to the area of land that can support plant and animal species, opening up numerous ecological niches for arboreal animal species, epiphytes, and various species that thrive under the regulated microclimate created under the canopy.", "Forests have intricate three-dimensional structures that increase in complexity with lower levels of disturbance and greater variety of tree species.The biodiversity of forests varies considerably according to factors such as forest type, geography, climate, and soils – in addition to human use.", "Most forest habitats in temperate regions support relatively few animal and plant species, and species that tend to have large geographical distributions, while the montane forests of Africa, South America, Southeast Asia, and lowland forests of Australia, coastal Brazil, the Caribbean islands, Central America, and insular Southeast Asia have many species with small geographical distributions.", "Areas with dense human populations and intense agricultural land use, such as Europe, parts of Bangladesh, China, India, and North America, are less intact in terms of their biodiversity.", "Northern Africa, southern Australia, coastal Brazil, Madagascar, and South Africa are also identified as areas with striking losses in biodiversity intactness.=== Components ===old-growth stand of beech trees (''Fagus sylvatica'') prepared to be regenerated by their saplings in the understory, in the Brussels part of the Sonian Forest.A forest consists of many components that can be broadly divided into two categories: biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living).", "The living parts include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and microorganisms living on the plants and animals and in the soil, connected by mycorrhizal networks.===Layers===Spiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar, featuring various ''Adansonia'' (baobab) species, ''Alluaudia procera'' (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetationThe main layers of all forest types are the forest floor, the understory, and the canopy.", "The emergent layer, above the canopy, exists in tropical rainforests.", "Each layer has a different set of plants and animals, depending upon the availability of sunlight, moisture, and food.", " The '''Forest floor''' is covered in dead plant material such as fallen leaves and decomposing logs, which detritivores break down into new soil.", "The layer of decaying leaves that covers the soil is necessary for many insects to overwinter and for amphibians, birds, and other animals to shelter and forage for food.", "Leaf litter also keeps the soil moist, stops erosion, and protects roots against extreme heat and cold.", "The fungal mycelium that helps form the mycorrhizal network transmits nutrients from decaying material to trees and other plants.", "The forest floor supports a variety of plants, ferns, grasses, and tree seedlings, as well as animals such as ants, amphibians, spiders, and millipedes.", "* '''Understory''' is made up of bushes, shrubs, and young trees that are adapted to living in the shade of the canopy.", "* '''Canopy''' is formed by the mass of intertwined branches, twigs, and leaves of mature trees.", "The crowns of the dominant trees receive most of the sunlight.", "This is the most productive part of the trees, where maximum food is produced.", "The canopy forms a shady, protective \"umbrella\" over the rest of the forest.", "* '''Emergent layer''' exists in a tropical rain forest and is composed of a few scattered trees that tower over the canopy.In botany and countries like Germany and Poland, a different classification of forest vegetation is often used: tree, shrub, herb, and moss layers (see stratification (vegetation)).=== Types ===Proportion and distribution of global forest area by climatic domain, 2020Forests are classified differently and to different degrees of specificity.", "One such classification is in terms of the biomes in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous).", "Another distinction is whether the forests are composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.", "* Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous.", "* Temperate zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g., temperate deciduous forest) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g., temperate coniferous forests and temperate rainforests).", "Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel forests.", "* Tropical and subtropical forests include tropical and subtropical moist forests, tropical and subtropical dry forests, and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests.", "* Forests are classified according to physiognomy based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g.", "old growth vs. second growth).", "* Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the climate and the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest types (e.g., Ponderosa pine/Douglas fir forest).The number of trees in the world, according to a 2015 estimate, is 3 trillion, of which 1.4 trillion are in the tropics or sub-tropics, 0.6 trillion in the temperate zones, and 0.7 trillion in the coniferous boreal forests.", "The 2015 estimate is about eight times higher than previous estimates, and is based on tree densities measured on over 400,000 plots.", "It remains subject to a wide margin of error, not least because the samples are mainly from Europe and North America.Forests can also be classified according to the amount of human alteration.", "Old-growth forest contains mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established seral patterns, and they contain mainly species native to the region and habitat.", "In contrast, secondary forest is forest regrowing following timber harvest and may contain species originally from other regions or habitats.Different global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal acceptance.", "UNEP-WCMC's forest category classification system is a simplification of other, more complex systems (e.g.", "UNESCO's forest and woodland 'subformations').", "This system divides the world's forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the principal types of trees.", "These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories: temperate needleleaf, temperate broadleaf and mixed, tropical moist, tropical dry, sparse trees and parkland, and forest plantations.", "Each category is described in a separate section below.==== Temperate needleleaf ====Temperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, as well as some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable soils.", "These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species (Coniferophyta).", "In the Northern Hemisphere, pines ''Pinus'', spruces ''Picea'', larches ''Larix'', firs ''Abies'', Douglas firs ''Pseudotsuga'', and hemlocks ''Tsuga'' make up the canopy; but other taxa are also important.", "In the Southern Hemisphere, most coniferous trees (members of Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae) occur mixed with broadleaf species, and are classed as broadleaf-and-mixed forests.====Temperate broadleaf and mixed====Broadleaf forest in BhutanTemperate broadleaf and mixed forests include a substantial component of trees of the Anthophyta group.", "They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but extend to cool temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere.", "They include such forest types as the mixed deciduous forests of the United States and their counterparts in China and Japan; the broadleaf evergreen rainforests of Japan, Chile, and Tasmania; the sclerophyllous forests of Australia, central Chile, the Mediterranean, and California; and the southern beech Nothofagus forests of Chile and New Zealand.====Tropical moist====There are many different types of tropical moist forests, with lowland evergreen broad-leaf tropical rainforests: for example várzea and igapó forests and the terra firme forests of the Amazon Basin; the peat swamp forests; dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia; and the high forests of the Congo Basin.", "Seasonal tropical forests, perhaps the best description for the colloquial term \"jungle\", typically range from the rainforest zone 10 degrees north or south of the equator, to the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.", "Forests located on mountains are also included in this category, divided largely into upper and lower montane formations, on the basis of the variation of physiognomy corresponding to changes in altitude.====Tropical dry====Tropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought.", "The seasonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most trees being leafless for several months of the year.", "Under some conditions, such as less fertile soils or less predictable drought regimes, the proportion of evergreen species increases and the forests are characterised as \"sclerophyllous\".", "Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially where grazing animals are plentiful.", "On very poor soils, and especially where fire or herbivory are recurrent phenomena, savannas develop.====Sparse trees and savanna====Sparse trees and savanna are forests with sparse tree-canopy cover.", "They occur principally in areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes.", "The two major zones in which these ecosystems occur are in the boreal region and in the seasonally dry tropics.", "At high latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forestland, growing conditions are not adequate to maintain a continuously closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous.", "This vegetation is variously called open taiga, open lichen woodland, and forest tundra.", "A savanna is a mixed woodland–grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.", "The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer that consists primarily of grasses.", "Savannas maintain an open canopy despite a high tree density.====Plantations====Forest plantations are generally intended for the production of timber and pulpwood.", "Commonly mono-specific, planted with even spacing between the trees, and intensively managed, these forests are generally important as habitat for native biodiversity.", "Some are managed in ways that enhance their biodiversity protection functions and can provide ecosystem services such as nutrient capital maintenance, watershed and soil structure protection and carbon storage." ], [ "Area", "330x330pxThe annual net loss of forest area has decreased since 1990, but the world is not on track to meet the target of the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests to increase forest area by 3 percent by 2030.Share of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021)While deforestation is taking place in some areas, new forests are being established through natural expansion or deliberate efforts in other areas.", "As a result, the net loss of forest area is less than the rate of deforestation; and it, too, is decreasing: from per year in the 1990s to per year during 2010–2020.In absolute terms, the global forest area decreased by between 1990 and 2020, which is an area about the size of Libya." ], [ "Societal significance", "redwood trees are managed for preservation and longevity, rather than being harvested for wood productionBurned forest on Thasos===Ecosystem services===Forests provide a diversity of ecosystem services including:* Converting carbon dioxide into oxygen and biomass.", "A full-grown tree produces about of net oxygen per year.", "* Acting as a carbon sink.", "Therefore, they are necessary to mitigate climate change.", "* Aiding in regulating climate.", "For example, research from 2017 shows that forests induce rainfall.", "If the forest is cut, it can lead to drought, and in the tropics to occupational heat stress of outdoor workers.", "* Purifying water.", "* Mitigating natural hazards such as floods.", "* Serving as a genetic reserve.", "* Serving as a source of lumber and as recreational areas.", "* Serving as a source of woodlands and trees for millions of people dependent almost entirely on forests for subsistence for their essential fuelwood, food, and fodder needs.The main ecosystem services can be summarized in the next table:+ Main ecosystem services of the 3 main types of forest Type of forest Carbon stored Biodiversity Other Primary Boreal Forests 1,042 billion tonnes of carbon, more than currently found in the atmosphere, 2 times more than all human caused emissions since the year 1870.Biodiversity services given by Canada forest alone are estimated as 703 billion dollars per year.", "Important for almost half of the birds in North America.", "Contain 60% of world surface freshwater.", "Primary Temperate Forests 119 billion tonnes (like all CO2 emitted by humans in 2005–2017) Old growth forest has very high biodiversity.", "Some species link terrestrial ecosystems to marine.", "Some trees can live 1,000 years providing many services to humans.", "Help to protect people from floods and droughts.", "Primary Tropical Forests 471 billion tonnes (more than all CO2 emissions from fossil fuel industry from the year 1750) Contain about two thirds of all species of terrestrial animals and plants.", "Creates clouds, rainfall.Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can in certain cases also incur costs to humans.", "Forests may impose an economic burden, diminish the enjoyment of natural areas, reduce the food-producing capacity of grazing land and cultivated land, reduce biodiversity, reduce available water for humans and wildlife, harbour dangerous or destructive wildlife, and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.An important consideration regarding carbon sequestration is that forests can turn from a carbon sink to a carbon source if plant diversity, density or forest area decreases, as has been observed in different tropical forests The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.", "An assessment of European forests found early signs of carbon sink saturation, after decades of increasing strength.", "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that a combination of measures aimed at increasing forest carbon stocks, andsustainable timber offtake will generate the largest carbon sequestration benefit.===Forest-dependent people===The term forest-dependent people is used to describe any of a wide variety of livelihoods that are dependent on access to forests, products harvested from forests, or ecosystem services provided by forests, including those of Indigenous peoples dependent on forests.", "In India, approximately 22 percent of the population belongs to forest-dependent communities, which live in close proximity to forests and practice agroforestry as a principal part of their livelihood.", "People of Ghana who rely on timber and bushmeat harvested from forests and Indigenous peoples of the Amazon rainforest are also examples of forest-dependent people.", "Though forest-dependence by more common definitions is statistically associated with poverty and rural livelihoods, elements of forest-dependence exist in communities with a wide range of characteristics.", "Generally, richer households derive more cash value from forest resources, whereas among poorer households, forest resources are more important for home consumption and increase community resilience.===Indigenous peoples===Forests are fundamental to the culture and livelihood of indigenous people groups that live in and depend on forests, many of which have been removed from and denied access to the lands on which they lived as part of global colonialism.", "Indigenous lands contain 36% or more of intact forest worldwide, host more biodiversity, and experience less deforestation.", "Indigenous activists have argued that degradation of forests and indigenous peoples' marginalization and land dispossession are interconnected.", "Other concerns among indigenous peoples include lack of Indigenous involvement in forest management and loss of knowledge related for the forest ecosystem.", "Since 2002, the amount of land that is legally owned by or designated for indigenous peoples has broadly increased, but land acquisition in lower-income countries by multinational corporations, often with little or no consultation of indigenous peoples, has also increased.", "Research in the Amazon rainforest suggests that indigenous methods of agroforestry form reservoirs of biodiversity.", "In the U.S. state of Wisconsin, forests managed by indigenous people have more plant diversity, fewer invasive species, higher tree regeneration rates, and higher volume of trees." ], [ "Management", "World production of selected forest productsThe management of forests is often referred to as forestry.", "Forest management has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onward, culminating in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management.", "Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause-and-effect relationships.", "Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social, and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other stakeholders.Priest River winding through Whitetail Butte with lots of forestry to the east—these lot patterns have existed since the mid-19th century.", "The white patches reflect areas with younger, smaller trees, where winter snow cover shows up brightly to the astronauts.", "Dark green-brown squares are parcelsHumans have generally decreased the amount of forest worldwide.", "Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, urban sprawl, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, invasive species, and the slash and burn practices of swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation.", "The loss and re-growth of forests lead to a distinction between two broad types of forest: primary or old-growth forest and secondary forest.", "There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time, including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc.", "In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest.", "More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries: the boreal forests of Russia and Canada, and the rainforest of Brazil.According to Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) ''Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020'', an estimated of forest have been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially.", "In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at , down from annually in 2010–2015.===The forest transition===The transition of a region from forest loss to net gain in forested land is referred to as the forest transition.", "This change occurs through a few main pathways, including increase in commercial tree plantations, adoption of agroforestry techniques by small farmers, or spontaneous regeneration when former agricultural land is abandoned.", "It can be motivated by the economic benefits of forests, the ecosystem services forests provide, or cultural changes where people increasingly appreciate forests for their spiritual, aesthetic, or otherwise intrinsic value.", "According to the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, to avoid temperature rise by more than 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels, there will need to be an increase in global forest cover equal to the land area of Canada () by 2050.China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the erosion and flooding that it caused.", "In addition, ambitious tree-planting programmes in countries such as China, India, the United States, and Vietnam – combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions – have added more than of new forests annually.", "As a result, the net loss of forest area was reduced to per year between 2000 and 2010, down from annually in the 1990s.", "In 2015, a study for ''Nature Climate Change'' showed that the trend has recently been reversed, leading to an \"overall gain\" in global biomass and forests.", "This gain is due especially to reforestation in China and Russia.", "New forests are not equivalent to old growth forests in terms of species diversity, resilience, and carbon capture.", "On 7 September 2015, the FAO released a new study stating that over the last 25 years the global deforestation rate has decreased by 50% due to improved management of forests and greater government protection.Proportion of forest in protected areas, by region, 2020There is an estimated of forest in protected areas worldwide.", "Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in protected areas, at 31 percent.", "The area of such areas globally has increased by since 1990, but the rate of annual increase slowed in 2010–2020.Smaller areas of woodland in cities may be managed as urban forestry, sometimes within public parks.", "These are often created for human benefits; Attention Restoration Theory argues that spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while forest schools and kindergartens help young people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests.", "These typically need to be close to where the children live.===Canada===Garibaldi Provincial Park, British ColumbiaCanada has about of forest land.", "More than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting.", "These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest management, which include extensive consultation with local stakeholders.", "About eight percent of Canada's forest is legally protected from resource development.", "Much more forest land—about 40 percent of the total forest land base—is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated land use planning or defined management areas, such as certified forests.By December 2006, over of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed.", "Clearcutting, first used in the latter half of the 20th century, is less expensive, but devastating to the environment; and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated.", "Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of new clear-cuts, although some older ones grew to over several years.The Canadian Forest Service is the government department which looks after Forests in Canada.===Latvia===Latvian Pine Forest in Ķegums Municipality Latvia has about of forest land, which equates to about 50.5% of Latvia's total area of of forest land (46% of total forest land) is publicly owned and of forest land (54% of the total) is in private hands.", "Latvia's forests have been steadily increasing over the years, which is in contrast to many other nations, mostly due to the forestation of land not used for agriculture.", "In 1935, there were only of forest; today this has increased by more than 150%.", "Birch is the most common tree at 28.2%, followed by pine (26.9%), spruce (18.3%), grey alder (9.7%), aspen (8.0%), black alder (5.7%), oak/ash (1.2%), with other hardwood trees making up the rest (2.0%).===United States===In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved forestry practices have helped regulate or moderate large-scale impacts.", "The United States Forest Service estimated a net loss of about between 1997 and 2020; this estimate includes conversion of forest land to other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest.", "In many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states.", "The opposite problem from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Sources" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Forests in danger* Intact Forests with maps and reports (archived 8 September 2015)* Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 by the Food and Agriculture Organization* CoolForests.org – Conservation Cools the Planet (archived 24 January 2008)* Forest area is land under natural or planted stands of trees of at least 5 meters ''in situ'', whether productive or not, and excludes tree stands in agricultural production systems* Forest area (sq.", "km) data from the World Bank's World Development Indicators, made available by Google* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Finger Lakes" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Finger Lakes''' are a group of eleven long, narrow, roughly north–south lakes located directly south of Lake Ontario in an area called the ''Finger Lakes region'' in New York, in the United States.", "This region straddles the northern and transitional edge of the Northern Allegheny Plateau, known as the Finger Lakes Uplands and Gorges ecoregion, and the Ontario Lowlands ecoregion of the Great Lakes Lowlands.The geological term ''finger lake'' refers to a long, narrow lake in an overdeepened glacial valley, while the proper name ''Finger Lakes'' goes back to the late 19th century.", "Cayuga and Seneca Lakes are among the deepest in the United States, measuring and , respectively, with bottoms well below sea level.", "Though none of the lakes' widths exceed , Seneca Lake is long, and at is the largest in total area." ], [ "Name", "The origin of the name ''Finger Lakes'' is uncertain.", "Currently, the oldest known published use of ''finger lakes'' for this group of 11 lakes is in a United States Geological Survey paper by Thomas Chamberlin that was published in 1883.This paper was later cited and ''Finger Lakes'' formally used as a proper name by R. S. Tarr in a Geological Society of America paper published in 1893.Older usage of ''Finger Lakes'' in either maps, papers, reports, or any other documents remains to be verified." ], [ "Lakes", "The eleven Finger Lakes, from west to east, are: + Summary Name Elevation Area Length Maximum width Maximum depth Location Settlements Conesus Lake Livingston County: Conesus, Geneseo, Groveland, Livonia Lakeville Hemlock Lake Livingston County: Conesus, Livonia, SpringwaterOntario County: Canadice, Richmond Canadice Lake Ontario County: Canadice Honeoye Lake Ontario County: Canadice, Richmond Honeoye Canandaigua Lake Ontario County: Canandaigua, Gorham, South BristolYates County: Italy, Middlesex Canandaigua, Woodville Keuka Lake Steuben County: Pulteney, Urbana, WayneYates County: Barrington, Jerusalem, Milo Branchport, Hammondsport, Penn Yan Seneca Lake approx Ontario County: GenevaSchuyler County: Dix, Hector, ReadingSeneca County: Fayette, Lodi, Ovid, Romulus, Varick, WaterlooYates County: Benton, Milo, Starkey, Torrey Geneva, Watkins Glen Cayuga Lake Cayuga County: Aurelius, Genoa, Ledyard, SpringportSeneca County: Covert, Fayette, Ovid, Romulus, Seneca Falls, VarickTompkins County: Ithaca, Lansing, Ulysses Ithaca, Lansing Owasco Lake Cayuga County: Fleming, Moravia, Niles, Owasco, Scipio, Venice Auburn Skaneateles Lake Cayuga County: Niles, SemproniusCortland County: ScottOnondaga County: Skaneateles, Spafford Skaneateles Otisco Lake Onondaga County: Marcellus, Spafford Map of the Finger LakesCazenovia Lake to the east, although smaller, is sometimes called \"the 12th Finger Lake\", because it is similar in shape and limnology.", "It is in Appalachian hill terrain, lying mostly in the historic village of Cazenovia, and is linked to other Finger Lakes by US 20 and NY 13.It may have been formed in the same manner as the Finger Lakes, as satellite photos show three valleys similar in character and spacing to the Finger Lakes east of Otisco Lake.", "The first is the Tully Valley, which includes a chain of six small lakes called the Tully Lakes at the south end that could collectively be a \"Finger Lake\" that never formed because of a terminal moraine.", "The moraine caused the Tioughnioga River to flow south instead of north, the opposite of the Finger Lakes' waters.", "The next two valleys to the east contain Butternut Creek, which flows north, and the East Branch of the Tioughnioga River, which flows south.", "The next valley contains Limestone Creek, which flows north.", "Other lakes have also made the claim of being the 12th Finger Lake, including Silver and Onondaga lakes, although Onondaga, as a dimictic lake, has some significant limnological differences.", "DeRuyter Reservoir, sometimes called Tioughnioga Lake or DeRuyter Lake, a man-made Finger Lake southwest of Cazenovia Lake on Limestone Creek, is 8 miles from the northernmost point on the Finger Lakes Trail, but was built as a feeder reservoir for the Erie Canal.", "It is maintained by the New York State Canal Corporation.The Finger Lakes are in the center bottom of this west facing image; Lake Erie (upper left), Lake Huron (upper right), and Lake Ontario (lower right) are three of the Great LakesOneida Lake, to the northeast of Syracuse, is sometimes included as the \"thumb\", although it is shallow and somewhat different in character from the rest.", "As with Onondaga and Cazenovia Lakes, it drains into Lake Ontario via the Oswego River and then into the St. Lawrence River ultimately draining into the Atlantic Ocean.", "Chautauqua Lake, Findley Lake and Kinzua Lake to the west are not considered Finger Lakes; all three drain into the Allegheny River and eventually into the Gulf of Mexico, and in the case of Kinzua and Findley, as with DeRuyter to the east, the lakes are the artificial creation of dams.Conesus, Hemlock, Canadice, Honeoye, and Otisco are considered the minor Finger Lakes.", "Other, smaller lakes, including Silver, Waneta, and Lamoka lakes, dot this region.", "Silver Lake, west of Conesus Lake, would seem to qualify because it is in the Great Lakes watershed, but Waneta and Lamoka lakes, sometimes called the \"fingernail\" lakes, are part of the Susquehanna River watershed, draining into a tributary of the Chemung River.East of Oneida and Cazenovia Lakes are the headwaters of the Susquehanna River and Hudson River watersheds (the former in the foothills of the Catskills, the latter through the Mohawk Valley and southern Adirondack Mountains)." ], [ "Quaternary geology", "Seneca Lake, from South Main Street in Geneva, New York.These glacial finger lakes originated as a series of northward-flowing streams.", "Around two million years ago, the area was glaciated by first of many continental glaciers of the Laurentide Ice Sheet moved southward from the Hudson Bay area.", "During the glacial maximums, subglacial meltwater and glacial ice widened, deepened, and accentuated the existing river valleys to form subglacial tunnel valleys.", "Glacial debris, possibly terminal moraine left behind by the receding ice, acted as dams, allowing lakes to form.", "Despite the deep erosion of the valleys, the surrounding uplands show little evidence of glaciation, suggesting the ice was thin, or at least unable to cause much erosion at higher elevations.", "The deep cutting by glacial erosion left some tributaries hanging high above the lakes—both Seneca and Cayuga have tributaries hanging as much as above the valley floors.", "Based upon sediments cores, seismic stratigraphy, and radiocarbon dates, the finger lakes became ice-free about 14,400 BP calendar.", "At this time scouring by ice and meltwater ceased and these lakes filled initially with proglacial lake rhythmites.", "The deposition of proglacial lake rhythmites occurred between 14,400 and 13,900 BP calendar.", "After the magins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet retreated into the Ontario lowlands after 13,900 BP calendar, The accumulation, at first, of massive gray clays followed by dark gray to black, laminated, organic-rich muds, accumulated without interruption until present within the Finger Lakes.Detailed studies of Marine Isotope Stage 3 and 4 age sediments exposed at a locality called the ''Great Gully'' on the eastern flank of the Cayuga Lake, near Union Springs, New York, record the presence of a paleolake that existed prior to Cayuga Lake.", "This paleolake, which is called '''Glacial Lake Nanette''', was a proglacial lake that filled the bedrock valley currently occupied by Cayuga Lake from about 50,000 BP calibrated until it was overridden by a glacial readvance that occurred prior to 30,000 BP calendar and buried it beneath younger glacial till.", "This research shows that bedrock valleys, in which the Finger lakes lie, existed prior to the Last Glacial Maximum and developed over multiple glaciations.Finally, although sub-glacial scour during the Last Glacial Maximum removed the majority of pre-existing sediment down to the bedrock bottoms of the Finger Lakes, patches of interglacial deposits are likely preserved locally within or near hanging valleys on the margins of their valleys.", "For example, the principle site that has been well-studied is the ''Fembank'' exposure of interglacial deposits on the west margin of Cayuga.", "This deposit provides direct evidence that some version of Cayuga Lake and its bedrock valley existed prior to Last Glacial Maximum." ], [ "Ecological concerns", "Much of the Finger Lakes area lies upon the Marcellus Shale and the Utica Shale, two prominent natural gas reserves.", "Due to the recent increase in fracking technology, the natural gas is now accessible for extraction.", "While some large landowners have leased their lands, and a number of small landowners would like to follow suit, many residents of the Finger Lakes oppose the fracking process due to concerns about groundwater contamination and the industrial impact of the extraction-related activities.", "The first direct actions and local legislative actions against fracking occurred in the Finger Lakes bioregion.", "In December 2014, the government of New York banned all fracking in the state, citing pollution risks.Trash from New York City is also sent to landfills in the area." ], [ "History", "Bluff Point on Keuka LakeCanandaiguaThe Finger Lakes region is a central part of the Iroquois homeland.", "The Iroquois tribes include the Seneca and Cayuga nations, for which the two largest Finger Lakes are named.", "The Tuscarora tribe lived in the Finger Lakes region as well, from ca.", "1720.The Onondaga and Oneida tribes lived at the eastern edge of the region, closer to their namesake lakes, Oneida Lake and Onondaga Lake.", "The easternmost Iroquois tribe was the Mohawk.The Finger Lakes region contains sites of unknown cultural affiliation and age.", "The Bluff Point Stoneworks is one such site as its age and who may have constructed these enigmatic stone structures has not been determined.During colonial times, many other tribes moved to the Finger Lakes region, seeking the protection of the Iroquois.", "For example, in 1753, remnants of several Virginia Siouan tribes, collectively called the Tutelo-Saponi, moved to the town of Coreorgonel at the south end of Cayuga Lake near present-day Ithaca and lived there until 1779, when their village was destroyed by the Sullivan Expedition.Iroquois towns in the Finger Lakes region included the Seneca town of Gen-nis-he-yo (present-day Geneseo), Kanadaseaga (Seneca Castle, near present-day Geneva), Goiogouen (Cayuga Castle, east of Cayuga Lake), Chonodote (Cayuga town, present-day Aurora), Catherine's Town (near present-day Watkins Glen) and Ganondagan State Historic Site in Victor, New York.As one of the most powerful Indian nations during colonial times, the Iroquois were able to prevent European colonization of the Finger Lakes region for nearly two centuries after first contact, often playing the French off against the British interests in savvy demonstrations of political competence.", "The renowned ingenuity and adaptability of the Iroquois people were key tools of resistance against hostile European powers rapidly spreading throughout North America, eager to dominate and increasingly brutal toward native Americans in the Finger Lakes and beyond.By the late 18th century, with the French governmental influence gone from Canada, Iroquois power had weakened relative to the steady growth in European-Americans' populations, and internal strife eroded the political unity of the Iroquois Confederacy as it faced pressures from colonists itching to move west and a desire to keep them out of Amerindian lands.", "During the American Revolutionary War, some Iroquois sided with the British and some with the Americans, resulting in civil war among the Iroquois.", "In the late 1770s, British-allied Iroquois attacked various American frontier settlements, prompting counter-attacks, culminating in the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, which destroyed most of the Iroquois towns and effectively broke Iroquois power.", "After the Revolutionary War, the Iroquois and other Indians of the region were assigned reservations.", "Most of their land, including the Finger Lakes region, was opened up to purchase and settlement.Roughly the western half of the Finger Lakes region comprised the Phelps and Gorham Purchase of 1790.The region was rapidly settled at the turn of the 19th century, largely by a westward migration from New England, and to a lesser degree by northward influx from Pennsylvania.", "The regional architecture reflects these area traditions of the Federal and Greek Revival periods." ], [ "Notable places", "Canadice Lake is surrounded by the Hemlock–Canadice State Forest.The Finger Lakes region, together with the Genesee Country of Western New York, has been referred to as the burned-over district.", "There, in the 19th century, the Second Great Awakening was a revival of Christianity; some new religions were also formed.The region was active in reform and utopian movements.", "Many of its Underground Railroad sites have been documented.", "For example, the Harriet Tubman Home at Auburn recalls the life and work of the African-American \"Moses of her people.", "\"On the northern end of the Finger Lakes are also Seneca Falls, the birthplace of the women's suffrage movement; Waterloo, the birthplace of Memorial Day; and Palmyra, the birthplace of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.", "An annual outdoor drama, The ''Hill Cumorah Pageant'', produced by the church, draws thousands of visitors each year.Hammondsport was the home of aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss, and favorable air currents make the area a popular spot for glider pilots.", "Elmira, just to the south, was the home of Mark Twain in his later life, and the site of an infamous Civil War prison.", "Corning is most noted as the home of Corning Glass Works and the Corning Museum of Glass.", "Hornell, just southwest of the Finger Lakes, was a major railroad center; locomotives were repaired there for many years and rail passenger cars are built there today (2022).Conesus remains the home of the oldest producer of pure grape sacramental wine in the Western hemisphere.Hemlock Lake, one of the western Finger LakesNotable among the historic buildings of the region (most linked below) is the Granger Homestead (1816), a large village house in Federal Style at Canandaigua, New York.", "Another example of the Federal Style is the Prouty-Chew House (1829) at Geneva, portions of which were altered at various times in new fashions.Three Greek Revival mansions are situated near three lakes: The Richard DeZeng House, Skaneateles (1839); Rose Hill, Geneva (1839); and Esperanza, Penn Yan (1838).", "The latter two are open to the public.The Seward House in Auburn, a National Historic Landmark, is a mansion more characteristic of the Civil War era, virtually unchanged from the nineteenth century.", "Belhurst Castle, Geneva, a stone mansion in the Romanesque Revival style, now serves as an inn.", "Sonnenberg mansion at Canandaigua is a later nineteenth-century residence in the Queen Anne style, known for its restored period gardens.", "Geneva on the Lake is a villa (1910–14) that recalls those on Italian lakes.", "Now an inn, it has European-style gardens.", "Many buildings and historic districts of the Finger Lakes region are notable, in addition to these historic houses.Implemented in August, 2010, the Hemlock-Canadice State Forest covers that encompass the two western Finger Lakes, Hemlock and Canadice.", "These lakes have provided drinking water for the City of Rochester for more than 100 years.", "To protect water quality, the city acquired much of the property around the lakes.", "Over the decades, the land reforested, but a few traces of its past, such as stone walls or cottage foundations, remain.", "Today these two lakes, with their steep, forested, largely-undeveloped shorelines and deep, clear water, provide visitors a glimpse of the Finger Lakes of the past.", "The Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) manages this State Forest for compatible public access for recreation, including fishing, hunting, nature study, boating and hiking.", "Activities in Hemlock-Canadice State Forest are subject the DEC's Rules and Regulations for the Use of State Lands, 6 NYCRR Part 190, as well as any other applicable state statutes, rules and regulations.", "These are sensitive areas because they protect public drinking water.The 584-mile (939.9 km) Finger Lakes Trail and its branch trails run through the southern portion of the Finger Lakes region and also constitute a portion of the 4,600 mile North Country National Scenic Trail.Hemlock Lake is home to the state's oldest nesting bald eagle site, dating back to the early 1960s.", "The nesting bald eagles of Hemlock Lake have fostered a resurgence of bald eagles throughout New York State.", "Hemlock Lake, originally known as \"O-Neh-Da\" which is Seneca for \"Lake of Hemlock Trees\", is home to the nation's oldest sacramental winery, founded by Bishop McQuaid in 1872.Today, O-Neh-Da Vineyard continues to make premium natural pure grape wine for churches and foodies alike.=== Wine ===Sunrise overlooking a vineyard on Canandaigua LakeThe Finger Lakes region is New York's largest wine-producing region.", "Over 400 wineries and vineyards surround Seneca, Cayuga, Canandaigua, Keuka, Conesus, and Hemlock Lakes.", "Because of the lakes' great depth, they provide a lake effect to the lush vineyards that flank their shores.", "Due to the size and concentration of these lakes, the region retains residual summer warmth in the winter and winter's cold in the spring; as a result, the grapes are protected from disastrous spring frost during shoot growth, and early frost before the harvest.", "Additionally, due to the long, narrow, north-to-south positioning of the Finger Lakes, the slopes on the east and west side provide for variations in sunlight exposure, temperature, soil, and more; this leads to a great diversity of growing environments within the region and ultimately in the yielded wine.The main grape varieties grown are Chardonnay, Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Pinot noir, Cabernet Franc, Vidal blanc, Seyval blanc and many ''Vitis labrusca'' (American native) varieties or cultivars.With the passage of the Farm Winery Act in 1976, numerous wineries are now open to visitors.", "Wineries are a growth industry of the region, contributing through their production and by attracting visitors.", "The Finger Lakes American Viticulture Area (AVA) includes two of America's oldest wineries, O-Neh-Da Vineyard (1872) on Hemlock Lake and The Pleasant Valley Wine Company (1860) on Keuka Lake.=== Craft beer ===Aside from wine, the Finger Lakes' craft beer industry has grown significantly in recent years.", "In 2018 the region was home to the second-highest number of breweries in New York after the Hudson Valley.=== Educational institutions === Wells College, AuroraThe area is also known for higher-education learning.", "The largest is Ivy League institution Cornell University, in Ithaca.", "Other notable schools are Ithaca College, also in Ithaca; Syracuse University, SUNY Upstate Medical University, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, and Le Moyne College, in Syracuse; SUNY Cortland, in Cortland; Tompkins Cortland Community College in Dryden, Ithaca, and Cortland; Wells College in Aurora; Hobart and William Smith Colleges in Geneva; Keuka College in Keuka Park; Finger Lakes Community College in Canandaigua and Geneva; New York Chiropractic College in Seneca Falls and Cayuga Community College in Auburn.Nearby the Finger Lakes is Binghamton University (SUNY), the University of Rochester, Nazareth College, St. John Fisher College, Roberts Wesleyan College, Monroe Community College, and Rochester Institute of Technology in Rochester; Elmira College in Elmira; Corning Community College in Corning; and the State University of New York at Geneseo.=== Museums ===The Finger Lakes region is home to several museums.", "These include the Corning Museum of Glass, the Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University, the Strong National Museum of Play, the Glenn H. Curtiss Museum, the Finger Lakes Boating Museum, the Wings of Eagles Discovery Center, the Sciencenter, the Museum of the Earth, the National Soaring Museum, the Rockwell Museum, the Seward House Museum, the William H. Seward and the Samuel Warren Homesteads of the New York Historical Society, birthplace of New York State's first successful commercial winery.The Women's Rights National Historic Park is in Seneca Falls.", "The park includes the home of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the Wesleyan Chapel, where she held the first convention on women's rights in 1848." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Thompson, John H., ed.", "''Geography of New York State'' (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1977)* Engeln, O. D., von.", "''The Finger Lakes Region: Its Origin and Nature'' (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1961, 1988)* Finger Lakes Tourism Statistics * Bloomfield, Jay A., ed.", "''Lakes of New York State: Volume I: Ecology of the Finger Lakes'' (New York, NY: Academic Press, 1978)" ], [ "External links", "* * The official Finger Lakes Tourism Alliance website" ] ]	wikipedia

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